Datasets:
C10X
/
testpdfv3

Dataset card Data Studio Files
xet
Community
1
text
string
id
string
dump
string
url
string
date
string
file_path
string
offset
int64
token_count
int64
language
string
page_average_lid
string
page_average_lid_score
float64
full_doc_lid
string
full_doc_lid_score
float64
per_page_languages
list
is_truncated
bool
extractor
string
page_ends
list
fw_edu_scores
list
minhash_cluster_size
int64
duplicate_count
int64
Head of School Pauline Dides in Boston, MA By Pauline Dides, Board Member & Secretary, Association of French Schools in North America From November 8 - 11, the Association of French Schools in North America (AFSA) held its annual US conference in Boston, Massachusetts. At approximately 90 attendees, this conference is the largest gathering for heads of French-American schools in the world. Highlights include an exchange of information and practices, informational sessions by expert speakers, and the opportunity to bring back innovative approaches to our respective schooling systems. Guided by the theme of “Reimagine Schools: Thought and Perspectives for AFSA Schools,” this year’s speakers focused primarily on ways to adapt our approaches to educating. A seminar by Alastair Blyth, on how to use space to enhance the child’s learning experience, stood out to me as something that we have strived to implement here at Ecole Bilingue. Specifically, the ideas of natural light and open space, which Blyth highlighted in his speech, played major roles in the layout for the new Center for Arts & Athletics. This educational conference always benefits the school. EB at the Park COULEURS DU MONDE EB-Tree at Celebration in the Oaks, City Park By Leslie Michel, EB-Parent City Park’s annual Celebration in the Oaks launched on Friday, November 23rd. If you plan to visit the Park sometime between now and January 1st to experience the light displays & holiday cheer, make sure to go see the Ecole Bilingue tree while you are there! The tree looks magnificent and represents EB to the fullest, for which we have the following Room Parents to thank: Holly McDermot, Irene Zhuk, Leslie Michel, and Laura Fruge-Wysocki. The theme of the tree is Couleurs du Monde (or “Colors of the World” in English), which you can see by the hand-made beaded/pipe cleaner snowflakes and colored world flags crafted by the second grade! OFF TO THE RACES Girls on the Run 5K at Audubon Park By Rose Goodman, GOTR Assistant Coach On a beautiful Saturday morning in November, EB joined fellow Girls on the Run teams from schools around the city for an end-of-the-season 5K in Audubon Park. All of our girls completed the race, many of whom had parents running alongside or cheering them on from the sideline. As a coach, it was so rewarding to see how far these girls have come over the course of this season! Running 3.2 miles at any age is an enormous accomplishment, let alone at such a young one. Coach Courtney and I cannot express how proud we are of these amazing girls. Félicitations to our runners: Abby Booker, Cecelia Breaux, Grace Eglin, Julia Klingsberg, Adeleine Kloor, Liina Mayqvist, Norah Murray, Anabel Nagarajan, Cilie Stroup, and Alexia Vilmenay. “I can’t say enough about GOTR. In just her first year, it was great to see Alexia commit to and embrace the training for her first 5K. Equally exciting, were all the valuable lessons she shared about being considerate of others, exuding confidence and being healthy. Race day was fun and seeing her finish the race made us so proud.” - Joel Vilmenay, EB-Parent POTLUCK & ART AT THE PARK Thanksgiving Potluck at Audubon Park By Laure Holmgren, Moyenne Teacher On the Tuesday before Thanksgiving break, the Moyenne classes took a wonderful trip to Audubon Park. Before sitting back, relaxing, and enjoying their Thanksgiving Potluck, the students had some hard work to do! They began with a Land Art Project, which aims to show children that beauty can be found in nature’s simplest objects. To enforce this notion, children are tasked with finding and collecting anything they can find naturally in the park -- including twigs, leaves, stones, flowers, and more -- and creating magnificent pieces of artwork out of these objects. We gave the students several opportunities to search for rare finds and try to construct different kinds of projects. By the end, they had three turns to make, erase, and remodel their designs. After a morning of creativity, students, parent-chaperones, and teachers got to dig into a delicious Thanksgiving potluck! Merci beaucoup to all who contributed to this beautiful day! About Dia de los Muertos We commonly associate Dia de los Muertos (or “Day of the Dead,” as it is known in American culture) with the haunted and macabre nature of Halloween. While the two holidays do overlap in some ways, Dia de los Muertos actually focuses neither on goons and gowls, nor skeletons and pumpkins. Taking root in Aztec communities in Southern Mexico over three-thousand years ago, observers of this holiday today believe that, on midnight on October 31st, the souls of all deceased children come to reunite with their families on Earth for a day. Then, the souls of deceased adults visit on November 1st at midnight. This is a holiday and a celebration of departed souls and loved ones, involving festive face painting, picnics in cemeteries where deceased loved ones rest, and colorful altars and shrines. Celebrating in Spanish Class To prepare for and celebrate Dia de los Muertos in Spanish class, Señora Elena invited Lorena Salazar Vizcarra, Director of the Mexican Cultural Institute in New Orleans, to speak with our sixth and seventh grade students. Ms. Vizcarra’s talk intrigued the students and provided them with fascinating historical accounts of this tradition. To continue the celebration, on October 30 and 31st, these students then had the opportunity to have their faces painted to look like skulls! In alignment with the culture and traditions surrounding this holiday, this face painting activity demonstrated the common belief in Mexican culture that death represents a natural cycle of life, and that this modern day face-painting activity represents the expression of a loved one who has died. Traditional symbols, such as flowers and decorative skulls, painted in bright pint colors compliment the black-and-white painted face. About Lorena Salazar Vizcarra, Guest Speaker We selected Lorena Salazar Vizcarra as our speaker because, as the Director of the Mexican Cultural Institute for the Mexican Consulate in New Orleans, she regularly organizes, promotes and represents the culture, arts and traditions of her country, Mexico. She has a BA in International Affairs from the University of Guadalajara and has studied at the University of Paris East Creteil. She completed her formation in Diplomacy at the Matias Romero Institute in Mexico City and has resided in New Orleans since 2015. Since the beginning of the school year, the fourth graders have been working on a new yearly project. Our goal is to create a vibrant and flourishing garden outside of the 812 building. This project is born from the idea that the best way to teach students about the nature is to let them be part of the process. Seeing as this year marks the beginning of this gardening project, I thought it best to start small with just three medium-sized, rectangular planters. Next year, we hope to have an official garden space and plant directly in the ground - a step that will allow us grow bigger, more ambitious plants. Before beginning the physical gardening process with the students, we first spent some time in the classroom learning about the benefits of green plants in our ecosystem, and more narrowly even in our classroom! A few weeks ago, one student even brought in a huge plant from her house. Now, we have two students responsible for taking care of the plants, watering them just enough, monitoring the amount of daily sunlight they receive, etcetera. The first gardening activity we worked on was to grow some beans. We began by looking carefully at one seed to describe and draw it in detail. Then we cut it opened and observed its insides. We researched each the scientific name of each interior part, and completed a sketch of the plant in full. Next, we talked about different ways to grow seeds without planting them in the soil. We chose to use cotton balls and paper napkins to start the seeds, and continued to nurture them through watering. We then placed half of them closed Ziploc bags, and the rest in jars. We photographed them for three weeks, regularly comparing each one’s growth all the while. We concluded that the ones in the Ziploc bags grew more quickly and larger than did the others, which the students decided mostly likely was attributed to the humidity trapped in the bag. Finally, we transplanted the little plants into small pots where they stayed for two more weeks before moving to their final destination: planters! For the second activity, we planted our first generation of seeds. Before that, we had to prepare the planters, which involved numerous steps: clean them up, remove the existing soil, move them to the right spot, and refill them. This required hard work because we were outside under the hot sun, moving heavy soil bags and buckets. We dug up some clumps of grass and replanted them somewhere else. After two classes of such dedication, the planters were ready to welcome the young plants. For the first round, we planted seasonal vegetables such as cabbages, broccolis, mustard greens, collard greens, basil, and eggplants. Two days later, we already had to fight bugs away from eating our young plants. For now, we are not sure but think that the bugs are ladybug larvae and small aphids. We hope to see our vegetables continue growing until the day can bite into & taste them! “3,2,1 … Silence!” Once the teacher gives the signal, it’s up to the students to call the shots. First, the technicians adjust the volume levels, then the show host maps out the progression of the show and the topics the episode will cover; finally, it’s the commentators who interject and elaborate on their respective topics throughout. Even if the episode that you find online only lasts about a dozen or so minutes, that episode required hours and hours of work to come to fruition. Webradio is a tiring, demanding project, but formative rewarding, when completed. Written language, spoken language, researching information and making sense of what you find, discussions and coordination between guests and speakers on the show; the list of simultaneous and tedious tasks required of this project continues. Our Middle School students have already tested the complex technology and mechanics behind WebRadio. This past month, they completed and published their first two episodes, which you can find on the school’s website. The result of this episode? Indisputable: our students have accomplished something extraordinary. This first success story shows as that we have many more to come in our future of Webradio. The second session is already set for the start of December. While Middle School students will be back for more showtime, you will also have the chance to hear from CMI students (and hopefully Moyenne Section!). It is essential to understand that Webradio does not serve as simply a representation of a few of our students; rather, it is a school-wide endeavor requiring everyone’s time, dedication, and creative minds. Over the course of this project, Webradio will invite each and every class to come contribute its unique perspective to the show. Eventually, even parents of participating students will be asked on to the show! In undertaking this new adventure, Ecole Bilingue has become part of an important network of bilingual, French-American Webradio programs across the world. This program is an initiative begun and supported by Mission Laïque Française to teach students confidence in public speaking, freedom in journalistic endeavors, and technological and mechanical efficiency. We are thrilled to have the opportunity to offer such an advanced program and look forward to sharing more episodes with you. CLICK TO LISTEN HERE online iTunes RSS feed
<urn:uuid:6680ad27-a9b5-4aec-8d86-109426f77424>
CC-MAIN-2019-39
https://ebnola.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/LJ-Nov-English-3.pdf
2019-09-24T08:33:55Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514572896.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20190924083200-20190924105200-00513.warc.gz
434,795,389
2,474
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997511
eng_Latn
0.998271
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1169, 4170, 6508, 9452, 11845 ]
[ 2.28125 ]
1
0
PM IAS ACADEMY CREATIVE THOUGHT & ACTION WORLD HISTORY PREFACE This Book, for World History, covers the complete syllabus prescribed by UPSC – CSE. This book covers each and every topic in simple languages. This book is intended for the students for various other competitive exam in the service sector. Our Vision • To create a better everyday life for the many people. Our Mission • To create the most compelling academy of the 21st century by driving the youths to LBSNAA Our Values • Ethics * Excellence * Diversity * Student Focus Our Strength • We teach, we learn, we interact, we nurture, we grow citizens for tomorrow, and we do the basics and more. REVISED EDITION: 23-04-2021. All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of PM IAS. © PM IAS INITIATIVE – 100% POSTINGS ASSURED POSTINGS PROGRAM | SNO | CONTENTS | PAGE NO | |-----|----------------------------------------------|---------| | 1 | World before 18th century | 4 | | 2 | THE CHURCH | 6 | | 3 | The Changing Times | 7 | | 4 | Modern Era | 9 | | 5 | Seven Year Global War (1754-63) | 13 | | 6 | American Revolution (1765-1783) | 14 | | 7 | French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars | 18 | | 8 | Nationalism - Rise and Impact | 23 | | 9 | Unification of Germany and of Italy | 24 | | 10 | Industrial Revolution | 27 | | 11 | Definition of Colonialism | 32 | | 12 | Colonialism in Africa | 40 | | 13 | Colonialism in Pacific | 45 | | 14 | Colonialism in Central and West Asia | 46 | | 15 | Colonialism in China | 46 | | 16 | Imperialist Japan | 53 | | 17 | Imperialist US | 56 | | 18 | World in 1914 | 57 | | 19 | Causes of Friction within Europe | 58 | | 20 | Major events before WW I | 59 | | 21 | During the World War I | 63 | | 22 | Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points (1918) | 64 | | 23 | Impact of the World War I (1914-19) | 69 | | 24 | League of Nations | 71 | | 25 | The World from 1919-23 | 78 | | 26 | Events after 1929 | 82 | | 27 | France-Germany relations (1919-33) | 82 | | 28 | Britain-USSR Relations (1919-33) | 82 | | 29 | USSR-Germany Relations (1919-33) | 84 | | 30 | USSR-France Relationship (1919-33) | 86 | | 31 | US Foreign Policy (1919-23) | 87 | | 32 | International Relations (1933-39) | 89 | Understanding of the events before 18th century is important to understand the later developments. The dawn of 18th Century was characterized by: 1. End of Feudalism in England (Feudalism ended much later in rest of Europe). 2. Increase in the number of towns and cities. 3. Increase in trade. 4. Transition to a money-based economy from land-based economy of Feudalism. 5. Rise of Merchant classes and Absolute Monarchs (*England had Democracy and after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, there was supremacy of Parliament instead of Monarchy). Decline in power of the Catholic Church. 6. Mercantile Capitalism. 7. British-French rivalry at its zenith. **Feudalism** - The Middle Ages or the Medieval Period in Europe was the period from 600 AD to 1500 AD. During this period many social and economic changes took place, especially in Western Europe. A system of society that was very different from rest of the world developed in Western Europe during the medieval period. It came to be known by the name of ‘Feudalism’. - The word Feudalism comes from the word ‘feud’, which means ‘conditional ownership of land’. - Feudalism was a new social and economic system that came to prevail in Western Europe and later in other parts of Europe in the Medieval period (600-1500 AD). Under this, society was divided into rigid classes, politically there was no central authority and the economy was based in villages, which were self-sufficient and produced little surplus for trade. - Hence, it was marked by a decline in trade as well as towns. - Also, there was lack of a central political authority and it were the numerous Feudal Lords who controlled the affairs of the society. The King was not very powerful. The peasants were exploited by the Feudal Lords and ‘Serfdom’ became an important feature of Feudalism. Moreover, influence of the Church extended beyond religious affairs in Europe. **Why Feudalism developed?** - Feudalism developed due to lack of a single central political authority in Western Europe as it had disintegrated into many small and big kingdoms. - In such a system the local Lords became more powerful than the King and controlled the affairs of the society. **Features of Feudalism** - The economy in the Feudal system was village based and the villages were self sufficient. - There was a decline in towns as well as trade during this period. Land, not money, was the main source of power. **The Manor:** - The peasants worked on the land of the Feudal Lord, which was organized into many Estates or Manors. - Each Manor had a Castle (home of the Lord), farms for peasants to work, houses for peasants to stay, workshops for peasants to produce non-agricultural goods and common woods for lumberjacks to cut. - Whatever was produced on the Manor was consumed by the Lord and the inhabitants, while very little was traded. • The workers on the Manor included the Serfs and the Tenant farmers. • The farm was divided into strips of land. • While some were given to the tenants who paid a share of the produce as tax to the Lord, rest of the land belonged to the Lord. **Peasants** • The Peasants were classified into following: | SNO | NAME | MEANING | |-----|--------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1 | Serfs | They worked on the land of the Lord for free and had to perform all labour for him as he desired. | | | | They were not free and were tied to the land. | | | | This meant that their owners changed with the change in ownership of the land from one Lord to another. | | | | This system came to be known as Serfdom | | 2 | Freeholders | They got their lands from the Lord. They were free and only paid a tax fixed by the Lord. | | 3 | Villeins | They also got their land from the Lord. | | | | For a fixed number of days they worked for the Lord but otherwise they were free and paid tax in form of a part of their agricultural produce. | | 4 | Freemen | They were the Serfs freed by their Lords on their discretion. | **The King and the Noblemen:** • The Feudal Hierarchy consisted of the King at the top. • Noblemen below the King were also arranged in a hierarchy of overlords and subordinate lords. Every nobleman was a vassal, of and only of his overlord. • Being a vassal means owing allegiance or being loyal, in return of which the vassal got some formal rights. This hierarchical system was unbreachable i.e. a lower Lord would only follow commands of his immediate overlord and not of Lords further higher in the hierarchy. • Thus couplets of command developed with a command having legitimacy just between two immediate levels. The King could only order the Dukes and the Earls who would then order their subordinate Lords and so on. The Dukes and Earls got military support from the Barons who were like Military Generals who further depended on the Knights, the actual warriors. • Further, any Lord himself was not the direct owner of the land under him. He held land in the name of his overlord. Thus legally, all territory belonged to the King. • It was the King who only had the authority to grant Knighthood to son of a Nobleman who could then affix ‘Sir’ to his name. Each Lord had his own soldiers and was the sole authority in his estate. • Thus there was no central authority in functional terms and King was a central authority only in legal terms resulting in very little political unity. Gradually, this Hierarchy became Hereditary. • The sons of a Lord would become the next Lords and the next generation of their father’s vassals would become their vassals. **Conclusion:** • It is quite evident that feudal society was divided into rigid classes with no scope for social mobility. • The King had no real authority and the powerful Lords did not think about welfare of the people, majority of whom were peasants. • There was economic stagnation, since most of the produce was wasted by Lords in luxurious living. • There was no freedom of movement for the peasants as they were tied to the land and individual entrepreneurship was absent. THE CHURCH • The Roman Catholic Church was as powerful as the institution of Feudalism. • Once the rulers in Europe accepted Christianity, the Pope, who headed the Church, became the head of the Christian world in western Europe. • By the 6th century, the Pope often wielded more power than the King and could make him follow his orders. Initially, the Monasteries (the places where the Monks lived) were institutes of high learning. • The monks worked to uplift people’s moral life and for welfare of the poor. • But soon, corruption crept into the monasteries. Church’s Evils *Tao Te Ching*, the Chinese manual of Statecraft, preached two thousand four hundred years ago: • “The ancients practiced the way which did not enlighten the people; they used it, rather to stupefy them; the people are hard to rule when they have too much knowledge. • Therefore, ruling a state through knowledge is to rock the state. Ruling a state through ignorance brings stability to the state.” • The Church used the same principle in maintaining its stranglehold. Also as we will see later, this power of enlightenment of people, is exactly why the American and French Revolutions are much more important for being the revolution of ideas than anything else. In the Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) the Church’s evils took the form of: • Money for Church posts. • Money for every ritual. • Money for removing sins. For example, the Church started selling “Letters of Indulgence” which upon their purchase removed the need for doing pilgrimages for removal of sins. • Pope, nuns, bishops etc. became corrupt & lived like princes. • Church owned & amassed huge property. • To correct the state of affairs, Wandering Monks were introduced by some Church leaders. These Monks did not have home and travelled among the masses setting an example of self-sacrifice and chastity. • But soon, they also became corrupt. For example, they authenticated any marriage and would remove all sins for money. • The Church was the only institution for education in the Medieval time but becoming a Monk was the only future prospect this education offered. They taught in Latin which was not understood by the common man. • Church made “once in a year” confession of sins to the Father compulsory and the breach of this rule mandated punishment. • Logic, Reason and Science were discouraged. • There was no education available in the disciplines of Science and History. This is why the developments in Science and Technology that happened later are referred to as the Scientific Revolution. • There was wide belief in witches, superstition and magic. Church became violent. It ordered burning of people who opposed its ideas about God, religion and even the physical phenomena. • This was done on charges of “Heresy”. • Many scientific thinkers became the victims of Church’s punishments when they proposed scientific theories which invalidated the principles (like the Earth is Flat, or, the whole universe revolves around the Earth), which the Church propagated to glorify God. • Many of them were burnt after being classified as witches & as possessed by evil spirits. The Changing Times Emergence of Trade, Towns and Cities • The Crusades in the 7th century brought Europe in contact with the Arabs. This exposed them to the rich Arab civilizations and their luxury goods. • The demand of luxury goods from the East increased among the Lords. • Also the increase in agricultural productivity due to improvement in methods of production, allowed the peasants to become buyers of more non-agricultural goods. These factors led to an increase in trade with the east. • The crafts and the Towns (where crafts were produced) also increased in importance. Especially the period from 11th century onward saw rapid emergence of Towns, Trade and Crafts. • Gradually, the peasants started to work as Artisans (i.e. Craftsmen) and the Merchants started to settle in these new towns. • As the number of Artisans increased in the towns, the latter expanded to become cities. • These cities developed, all across Europe, mainly along the land-based trade routes or around the sea ports. • From the ports, the goods imported from Asia were transported along the overland routes to the mainland Europe. • Italy witnessed the maximum development of cities (e.g. sea-port cities like Venice & Genoa) due to its location and the geographical advantage of having good natural harbours which facilitated trade with the East. • The sea-ports and the inland centers of trade & commerce that developed during this time in Europe, are still its flourishing cities. Change in Method of Production: Guilds • To cope up with the demand due to increased trade and towns as well as specialization in crafts, a change in method of production of goods was felt necessary. • The Merchants and craftsmen in towns started to organize themselves in Guilds, which were specific to the good being produced, e.g. Guilds of Goldsmiths, barbers, leather-workers etc. Under the Guild system, there was a Master Craftsman with three to four workers or apprentice working under him. **Rise in influence of Merchant Class:** - The revival in trade and emergence of Towns resulted in emergence of a new class called the Middle Class, comprising mainly of Merchants. - The towns slowly freed themselves from Feudal control. - They had their own government, militia and courts. - The people were not tied to the land, had freedom of occupation and could move around freely. - The extent of social mobility that these towns offered attracted peasants from villages. - The Serfs were free in Towns and they provided the necessary workforce for the Merchants. - The influx of more peasants provided a domestic market for the goods produced in towns. - In towns, the economy was money based and land was not the main source of power. The payment was now made in cash instead of having to perform labour for the Lord. - The influence of the Merchants increased due to increase in profits from trade. Trade with the East brought goods, which were completely new to the people of Europe. - Moreover, demand for such goods increased as they became popular among the masses. - Gradually, the Merchants started influencing not just the social and economic, but also the political life in towns. **Transition to Capitalist Economy:** - A cash based economic system was introduced in towns. - Here life revolved around money, rather than land. - Land was used for production of cash crops, which acted as raw material for manufacture of non-agricultural goods and the peasants in towns received payment in cash. - Money came to symbolize wealth, instead of gold and silver. - The profits, in form of money, could be reinvested in trade and industry unlike the idle-wealth in form of gold and silver. - Such wealth or money is called ‘capital’. - The towns became a center of production instead of the village. **King Merchant Nexus and the Peasant Revolts:** - A nexus between the King & the Merchants developed as both wanted power - political & economic. - While Kings wanted to get rid of dependence on the Lords and desired less interference of the Church, the Merchants wanted to enjoy freedom of trade and social status, which the monetary profits brought through trade and commerce. - During the Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) in the 14th century there were many peasant revolts against the Feudal institutions as well as the Church. - Many times, the rebelling peasant leaders propagated religious doctrines, which were at variance with the Church. - Thus, due to all these developments, the Feudal system began to decline, though it completely ended only by 18th and 19th century. Modern Era - Thus, by the end of Middle Ages the system of Feudalism was starting to disintegrate. In the Modern era, this process reached its conclusion. - From 14th to 17th century some important developments like Renaissance and Reformation took place, which resulted in an end to Feudal order. Renaissance & Reformation - The term Renaissance means ‘rebirth’. The period of Renaissance began from 14th Century & lasted till 17th century. - It began first in Italy because trade had brought maximum prosperity to Italian cities, which had freedom from feudal control (Italian cities had a virtual monopoly of this trade. It was after voyages of discovery at end of 15th century, that Portugal and Spain and subsequently, Holland, France and Britain started dominating trade). Later, the Renaissance ideas spread from Italy to the rest of Europe. - It began as a movement to revisit the old scriptures and learn about ancient Greece and Rome. - But soon, it turned into a movement of new ideas in art, religion, literature, philosophy, science and politics. - It resulted in decline of Church’s influence in the intellectual & cultural life of Europe. - While the Church talked about peace in life after death, the Renaissance thinkers attacked the Church and talked about happiness on this earth. HUMANISM - Humanism was at the core of Renaissance. It meant focus on Humanity, rather than Divinity. - It manifested in a shift in focus towards study of man and nature, rather than theology. - The concern for the other-worldly matters was rejected and the focus was on the living man, his joys and sorrows. - Renaissance came to imply a new thinking, which was humanistic and rational, rather than superstitious. - The potential of man, his dignity and his rights were stressed. - Gradually, even the theme of Art & Culture became more about man and nature. E.g. Mary & Jesus were depicted as human beings rather than as religious symbols. - Artists like Da Vinci, Michealangelo and Raphael were prominent artists of the Renaissance movement. - The subject/theme of paintings in Churches shifted from heaven and hell to human forms. - Thus, Humanism was against fatalism. - The impact of Renaissance can be gauged by observing the present Individualistic societies of the West where the belief in ability to change one’s life is still an important part of one’s value system. - Renaissance resulted in ascendance of local European languages in literature, instead of Latin. - Thus it helped in linguistic development and thus, in development of national consciousness. - In *The Prince*, Machiavelli gave a new concept of state which was superior to religion and was vested supreme authority in political matters. - Political matters came to be treated as separate from religion. Thus Secularism can also be linked to Renaissance. PRINTING PRESS - The invention of Printing Press in first half of 15th century led to further spread of education & new ideas. Though it had less impact on the poor who were illiterate. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION: - Scientific Revolution was also a product of the transformation and began towards the end of the Renaissance era (i.e. around 17th century) and continued till late 18th century. - The views of the Church regarding physical events were discarded. Only those phenomena were accepted which could be explained and verified through methods of scientific observation. Thus focus came to be upon testing a hypothesis through experiments. - Copernicus found that Earth rotated on its axis and proposed the Heliocentric (Sun-centric) theory, i.e. Earth revolved around the Sun (as against the Church’s idea that the Earth was center of Universe which is also known as Geo-Centric (Earth-centric) theory. - The Church condemned him on charges of Heresy. - Bruno who supported Copernicus view was burnt to death. - Galileo invented Telescope in 1554 and used it to study heavenly bodies. - He confirmed Copernicus’s observation and established that universe was an open system (Church described Universe as a closed system maintained in motion by God) and earth was only a small part of it. - Galileo was also charged of Heresy and not allowed to work on Astronomy anymore. - Kepler from Germany explained with help of Mathematics how planets move around the sun. - Newton continued the work of Kepler & established that all heavenly bodies move as per the Law of Gravity. - Vesalius through study of dissections of human body provided complete description of the anatomy of human body. - Harvey in 1610 explained blood circulation. This helped in medical science. Innovations like use of Astrolabe and Compass and development of better ships which could sail in any direction irrespective of the wind direction helped in discovery of new lands at the end of 15th century. - The Scientific revolution paved the way for a new movement called Enlightenment that began in 1600s and reached its height in mid 1700s. Enlightenment stressed on ideas of self-rule, basic human rights and democracy. - It was the driving force behind movements for establishment of self-rule and democracy in Europe and elsewhere. Thus, we shall see that Enlightenment played a very important role in the American Revolution (1776), the French Revolution (1789) and the Russian Revolution (1905, 1917). REFORMATIONS: - Alongside, the 16th Century also witnessed Reformation which can be classified into Protestant Reformation & Catholic Reformation. - Protestant reformation (early 16th century) was a movement against the practices and authority of the radical Catholic Church. - It resulted in the rise of Protestantism and in their opposition, the Protestant leaders started setting up Protestant Churches in different countries of Europe. - Under Martin Luther, a monk who opposed the Letters of Indulgence and other Church evils, the first Protestant Church was setup in Germany (from 1520-1545) under the King’s support. - The German rulers supported Luther due to political reasons as well. They desired freedom from authority of Pope and control on wealth of Monasteries. - Soon after, the Protestant Reformation spread to rest of Europe. NATIONALISM: - Nationalism also played a role as the people now despised the authority of Catholic Church located in Rome. - In England, King Henry VII declared himself the head of the Church. - Then the Queen Elizabeth I made the Church of England, the official church by declaring its independence from the Church in Rome and adopting some Reformation principles. - Protestant churches adopted the use of language spoken by the people, rather than the elitist Latin. - The Bible was translated into local languages. (This was similar to ascendance of local languages in place of Sanskrit during Indian Renaissance) The use of local languages further increased national consciousness & thus Renaissance and Reformation can said to be a precursor to nationalism in Europe. Reason was popularized as more important than Religion. - By 17th century, half of Europe had setup their own Protestant Churches. - Catholic Reformation or Counter Reformation (late 16th century) - This was a reform process initiated by the Catholic Church in response to the rising popularity of the Protestant Churches. - In Spain, the reformers formed an organization of clergymen to work as “Soldiers of Jesus”. - The members of this organization came to be known as Jesuits and they went to France and Germany to win back followers. They also setup missions in India, China, Africa and America. - After these reformation, religious wars began among the followers of both sects and many followers were killed on both the sides. - The violence against Protestants in England resulted in their migration to North America where their colonies later laid foundation of USA. - In England, due to the pro-Catholic religious policies of King Charles I, religious violence merged into the English Civil War (1642-51) which was fought between the Parliamentarians and the pro-Monarchy Royalists over the form of government. - Beginning of International Trade - Voyages of Discovery (at end of 15th century) also characterized the beginning of the Modern Age in Europe (“They resulted in founding of new lands of Asia and Americas by the Europeans and are discussed in the topic of Colonialism). - Italy was the first to establish virtual monopoly in trade with rest of the world. Later the trade got a boost with discovery of new lands of America, Asia and Africa at the end of 15th century. - This changed the economy of many European nations. Also, with the discovery of these new lands, Colonialism began its march. - The early colonial powers were Portugal and Spain. - They were soon joined by, and in many cases replaced from their colonies by Dutch, Britain and France. Rise of Absolute Monarchies - The King-Merchant nexus and the decline of Feudalism by the end of Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) helped the Kings in consolidating their hold on power. - Strong rulers in form of Absolute Monarchies rose by subjugating the Feudal Lords and defying the Church’s political interference. Denmark was the first to include Absolutism in a written constitution in 1665. Also, there were strong monarchies in Prussia (present day Germany), England, Holland, Austria, France etc. - For example, Louis XIV consolidated the French empire in 17th century and by the first decade of 18th century, France became a force to reckon with. Beginning of International Trade • Voyages of Discovery (at end of 15th century) also characterized the beginning of the Modern Age in Europe • (*They resulted in founding of new lands of Asia and Americas by the Europeans and are discussed in the topic of Colonialism). • Italy was the first to establish virtual monopoly in trade with rest of the world. Later the trade got a boost with discovery of new lands of America, Asia and Africa at the end of 15th century. This changed the economy of many European nations. Also, with the discovery of these new lands, Colonialism began its march. The early colonial powers were Portugal and Spain. They were soon joined by, and in many cases replaced from their colonies by Dutch, Britain and France. **Rise of Absolute Monarchies** • The King-Merchant nexus and the decline of Feudalism by the end of Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) helped the Kings in consolidating their hold on power. • Strong rulers in form of Absolute Monarchies rose by subjugating the Feudal Lords and defying the Church’s political interference. • Denmark was the first to include Absolutism in a written constitution in 1665. Also, there were strong monarchies in Prussia (present day Germany), England, Holland, Austria, France etc. • For example, Louis XIV consolidated the French empire in 17th century and by the first decade of 18th century, France became a force to reckon with. **The English Revolution** • There were struggles for democracy against the rule of Absolute Monarchy in England. The English Civil War (1642-51) was fought between the Parliamentarians and the pro-Monarchy Royalists. • The Parliamentarians were against the absolute rule of King Charles I who believed in the Divine Right of the King to rule. • They opposed the levy of tax by the King without the consent of Parliament. **The result was:** 1. Execution of the King. 2. An end to monopoly of Church of England (which was pro Catholics, had adopted only some reformation 3. Principles like allowing divorce) over Christian worship in England. 4. Establishment of the principle that the King cannot rule without the consent of Parliament. 5. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England legally established the supremacy of Parliament. - It was during this revolution that the Parliament, for the first time, appointed the King. - The King was removed and his son-in-law, the William of Orange from Holland was made the King. - Thus, from a limited constitutional monarchy established by the English Civil War (1642–1651), England transitioned to a Democracy with supremacy of Parliament. Seven Year Global War (1754-63) - The Seven Year Global War was fought from 1754 to 1763, actually a period of nine years, between France and Britain. Other European powers like Spain, Prussia and Austria also got engaged in the war. - It is called the Global War since it was fought on different battlegrounds including North America, Caribbean, India, West Coast of Africa and in Europe. **Reason behind the War:** - The main reason behind the war was the quest for hegemony over colonies between Britain and France. - In North America, the British had 13 colonies on the Eastern coast along the Atlantic Ocean. - They wanted to expand westwards for want of more raw materials and an increased export market in North America. - But the west was under the domination of France. The French were anxious to hold on to Western North America to prevent British hegemony in the world political and economic affairs. - Britain was undergoing the Industrial revolution (1750 onwards) at that time, which was making the British goods much more competitive in the world markets. - Also, Britain was emerging as a dominant sea power and its maritime trade profits were soaring. Thus, France feared that a stronger Britain in North America would soon threaten the French colonies in the Caribbean. - They were right and in Caribbean the British fought against Spain and France who controlled the profiteering sugar plantations in their Caribbean colonies. - The West African Senegal had large natural resources, especially of Gum, and the French trading ports here, came under the British attack. - In India the Battle of Plassey in 1757 was fought between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daula and the East India Company. - The East India Company benefited from the war by getting exclusive trading rights in Bengal and the total trade control by the British reduced the influence of the French in India. - Further, in 1760-61 the Battle of Wandiwash between the French and the British established the British supremacy in South Asia while the French were restricted to Pondicherry. **Result: Treaty of Paris of 1763** The Treaty of Paris of 1763 signed after the 7 Year War had the following clauses: 1. Britain got Canada from France and Florida from Spain. 2. France was allowed to retain its Caribbean sugar islands. 3. Spain’s control over Cuba and Philippines was recognized. - The effect of the Seven Year War on world politics was that it reduced the domination of France, while Britain consolidated its colonial power. - Also, it laid the ground for American Revolution (1765-83) and French Revolution (1789). American Revolution (1765-1783) • In North America, the British had established 13 colonies on the west coast of Atlantic Ocean. • After the Seven Year War, the influence of the French in rest of North America was ended. Reasons for American resentments against the British: • While the British Mercantilism or Mercantile capitalism created an environment of resentment among the White Americans, the Seven Year War created conditions, which became the immediate trigger for the American Revolution. Mercantile Capitalism • Mercantile Capitalism was the British policy in the 18th century. It was based on the idea that the Government should regulate the economy at home and colonies abroad, so as to increase the national power and achieve a positive Balance of Trade. • A positive balance of trade is achieved when a country is a net exporter of goods (in value terms). • This policy manifested in form of placing trade barriers on the colonies and establishing a monopoly of the British companies on trade done by the colonies. • Such restrictions, which were part of the British colonial policy of Mercantile Capitalism, prevented the Americans from developing their indigenous industry. • The colonies were barred by British law from using the non-British ships for trade. The export of certain raw material goods from American colonies could only be made to Britain. • Further, a very heavy duty was levied on import of non-British goods into America. Such trade barriers are the characteristic feature of Mercantile Capitalism. • Further, the Americans were forbidden by law to setup industries like iron works & textiles. The exports of finished iron and textile goods was very profitable to the British businessmen and thus, the Americans were forced to fund the British growth in these sectors of economy. Proclamation of 1763 • The aim of American Revolution was to end the British Colonialism in North America. • As a truce with the American Indians, who had started an armed rebellion at the end of the Seven year War, the British Parliament issued a “Proclamation of 1763” which banned the expansion by the US settlers to the west of the Appalachian Mountains, as this area was now reserved for the native American Indians. • Another reason for issue of such a proclamation was the lobbying by the Aristocrats in Britain, who did not want the westward expansion. • They had bought land in the American colonies and made profits from the rents they extracted from the white settlers. • The American settlers, who had fought in the Seven year War along the British with the purpose of westward expansion, felt cheated and thus ignored this proclamation. • Their local militia forces continued to bring the area in the west under their control. Role of Enlightenment Thinkers • The Enlightenment or the “Age of reason” was a movement that began in 1600s with ideas proposed by thinkers like Hobbe and Locke on the form of government and the rights of the people. It reached its height in mid 1700s. • Hobbe was pro-Absolute Monarchy and gave the concept of Social Contract which means that - because all people behave in self interest, people should give up some of their rights to the government, which in return should provide law and order to the society. • On the other hand, Locke had a positive view of man and believed that man can learn from experience. He favoured the concept of Self-government. • According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights—life, liberty, and property. • The purpose of government, said Locke, is to protect these rights. If a government fails to do so, citizens have a right to overthrow it. (This right to insurrection was also made part of the Jacobin constitution in the French revolution.) • These modern thinkers and philosophers played an important role in American and French Revolution. • Around 1750, many Thinkers were challenging the status-quo and demanding freedom and liberty for the people. They placed before the people, the idea of a democratic form of governance. • They helped in development of ideas of Republicanism and Liberalism that militated against colonialism. English Philosophers like Locke, Harrington and Milton believed that men have fundamental rights, which no government can infringe. • In 1690, Locke had defined the three natural rights of man. Montesquieu had described the principle of Separation of Powers in 1748. • Thomas Paine of France argued that it was absurd that a continent (North America) be governed by an island (Britain). The Enlightenment thinkers in mid-1700s in France gave following ideas, which influenced both, the American Revolution and the French Revolution: | Reason | Enlightenment thinkers believed truth could be discovered through reason or logical thinking. Reason, they said, was the absence of intolerance and prejudice in one’s thinking. | |--------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Nature | To them, what was natural was also good and reasonable. They believed that there were natural laws of economics and politics, just as there were natural laws of motion. | | Happiness | A person who lived by nature’s laws would find happiness. Philosophers were impatient with the medieval notion propagated by the Church that people should accept misery in this world to find joy in the life after death. They wanted well-being on earth, and they believed it was possible. | | Progress | The philosophers were the first Europeans to believe in progress for society. With a scientific approach, they believed, society and humankind could be perfected. | | Liberty | The philosophers envied the liberties that the English people had won in their Glorious Revolution (1688). In France, there were many restrictions on speech, religion, trade, and personal | Recovery of (Seven Year) War Expenditure: - The Seven Year War had cost a lot of money to Britain. When they decided to make up for the costs of war by taxing the people in British colonies in North America, the latter opposed it. No Representation in British Parliament: - The British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act in 1765, which imposed stamp taxes on all business transactions in the British colonies in USA. E.g. revenue stamps of some amount were made mandatory for all legal documents. - The Americans responded by boycotting the British goods and soon many uprisings in the towns followed where the tax collectors were exterminated. - Since the British Parliament had no American representation, the American leaders opposed the right of Britain to levy any taxes on them. Moreover, the Americans felt that the money thus collected was used in interest of the British and not for development of the peoples of America. In the Massachusetts Assembly, the leaders of all 13 colonies gathered and adopted the slogan of No Taxation without Representation. - The threat by the American leaders to stop the import of British goods forced the British into repealing the Stamp Act. - Further, the Americans opposed the tax on consumer goods imported by the colonies by cutting British imports by half, which coerced the British into withdrawing all taxes except on Tea. The tax on Tea was not very high but it was not withdrawn by British because they wanted to retain their right to levy tax in US colonies. - The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was a protest against this Tea tax. A ship carrying tea was anchored in the Boston port. Initially the Americans did not allow the ship to unload and this resulted in a standoff for many days. - Finally, when the pro-Britain Boston Governor ordered unloading, the white settlers dressed as American Indians destroyed all the tea by offloading all the containers into the sea. - The infuriated British responded by closing the Boston Port to all trade and by passing the Intolerable Acts of 1774 (They were called Coercive Acts by the British. - Intolerable Acts was the term used by Americans.) Intolerable Acts of 1774 & the Philadelphia Congress - The 1st Continental Congress in Philadelphia (1774) or simply the Philadelphia Congress, which had representatives from 12 colonies (Georgia did not participate because it wanted British help in dealing with militancy of American Indians) was held in response to the Intolerable Acts/Coercive Acts passed by the British. - Parliament earlier in 1774 to punish the colony of Massachusetts for the incident of Boston Tea Party by taking away its right of self-government. - The Americans also appealed to King George III to remove restrictions on indigenous industry, allow Americans to trade with all the countries at reduced tariffs and not to tax the American colonies without their consent. - Britain interpreted these demands as a Mutiny and attacked the colonies in 1775. This led the American representatives to proclaim the Declaration of Independence in 1776 (drafted by Thomas Jefferson), which had the following points: • That all men are created equal. • That they are endowed by their creation certain inalienable rights like right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness. • Republicanism, i.e. the principle that people are the source of authority and it is people’s right to setup their own government. • Independence, i.e. the American colonies are oppressed by the British government and these United Colonies are and ought to be free and independent states. (*notice here that these colonies declared themselves as “independent states”. The principle of states coming together to form the US Federation can be read between these lines.) • The Declaration of Independence document did two things - it summarized the political philosophy of Enlightenment thinkers like Locke in form of “self evident truths” and it listed the grievances to justify the breaking of ties between the colonies and the mother country. **American Revolutionary War or American War of Independence (1775)** • What was to follow, was the American War of Independence. • The Loyalists were the British settlers who remained loyal to Britain and fought on their side. France, Spain and Dutch Republic helped the Americans secretly. • In 1777, Britain tried to encircle the Americans by invading from Canada. Their failure in this Battle proved to be a turning point in favour of Americans. After this victory of Americans, France entered the war openly in 1778. • Spain and Dutch Republic also fought with Britain in Europe and Asia. Spanish Army expelled the British army from Florida (Florida was with British since Seven Year War’s end. Later US bought Florida from Spain). • In 1783, the British commander Cornwallis surrendered before the army led by George Washington. **Second Treaty of Paris 1783** It ended the American War of Independence. Some of its important clauses were: • Perpetual Peace between USA and Britain • All US Colonies were recognized as free, sovereign and independent states, with Britain giving up all claims on government, property and territory. • US would give back confiscated lands of Loyalists. • Spain signed a separate treaty with Britain and it got back Florida (lost to Britain after the 1st treaty of Paris, 1763) **Constructive Criticism of American Revolution** • In 1789, the United States Constitution came into effect. It was the first written Republic Constitution. The Bill of Rights is the set of first ten amendments to the USA constitution and includes freedom of speech, press, religion and justice under the law. • The American Revolution established the first democratic Republic in the world and the USA soon embarked on Industrial Revolution. • It also expanded its territory within the continent of North America by westward expansion and purchase of territory like Louisiana from France in 1803 and Florida from Spain in 1819. • The new Republic of the USA was not free of biases. The Republic was not truly democratic as the women, the blacks and the Native Americans did not get the Right to Vote. Slavery was a blot on the principle of equality and it could be finally abolished, only after the Civil War of 1861-65 between the Northern and the Southern States of USA. • The Southern States were against Slavery abolition as their economy was farm based and required the cheap black labour. • They also profited from the Slave Trade and even desired that slavery be expanded to the newly acquired territory. • It can be argued that the Men referred to in US constitution were Men of Property, as only those who held property were given all of the promised rights. • Still, the most important contribution of American Revolution was its contribution to ideas of Liberty, Equality, Fundamental Rights, Nationalism and anti-colonialism. • The idea of equality with no special privileges to Nobility was radical at a time when much of the world was under Feudalism, where the Nobles were the prominent class. • The idea of no taxation on property, which flowed from the Right to Property, was also novel in those times. • Thus American Revolution was a revolution in ideas and system of Polity and it impacted the future events, the most prominent of them being the French Revolution of 1789. --- **French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars** The French Revolution was a product of the dysfunctional society characterized by Feudalism. **Reasons behind French Revolution** **Three Estates:** • The society of 18th century France was divided into three classes or estates. The Clergy was the first estate, the Nobles were the second estate and the third estate, which formed the majority of population, included the middle classes, the artisans, the city workers and the peasants. • The Clergy was the largest landowner in per capita terms. The Nobility had a monopoly on all the important official positions in the government service, the army, and other public offices. However, the Clergy and the Nobies did not pay any taxes and did no productive work. • The Peasants formed 80 per cent of the population. Within the peasants, there were further subdivisions in the form of landowner peasants, tenants and landless laborers. • The landowner peasants formed a very minute percentage. The tenants had to pay 2/3rd of their produce in rent. • The landless laborers, on the other hand, lived on paltry wages. Although no one was a serf technically, forced labor still existed as a feudal privilege of the lord, and was put into operation frequently, especially for public works. • The middle classes were the educated people like writers, doctors, civil servants and richer people like merchants. • Though economically middle classes were important, they enjoyed very little social prestige and political rights in the society. • The Artisans and city workers also lived a miserable life of poverty. They enjoyed no rights at workplace and couldn’t shift jobs without certificate of good conduct by the employer. • The Third Estate did not have voting rights. On the other hand, the Clergy and the Nobles did not pay any tax and the tax burden was solely borne by the Third Estate. This was a major source for the grievance of people. Unpopular Monarchy & financial troubles - King Louis XVI was an inefficient ruler with poor intelligence. The people hated his wife Marie Antoinette who interfered in the appointments of officials. The King also showed favoritism in appointing officials (nepotism). - Under King Louis XVI, France was in financial trouble due to costly wars like the Seven Year War. The American Revolution had pushed France to bankruptcy as France had aided the Americans against Britain. - The irony was not missed by the people of France. While France supported the American Revolution (which aimed self-rule, liberty, equality and democracy for the people), the way the Monarchy ruled in France was an anti-thesis to the ideas that formed the foundation of the American Revolution. Role of Enlightenment Thinkers - The revolutionary Enlightenment thinkers made the French Revolution more than just an outbreak of violence. - Grounding their arguments on Rationalism, the thinkers argued that man was born to be happy and not to suffer as stated by the Church. This happiness could be achieved by removing the prejudices prevailing in society. - Further, they focused on Secularism as they either denied God or ignored him in their discussions. The Doctrine of Nature brought the Clergy under attack by the thinkers. - It emphasized that there was a need to study nature’s laws and religion cannot help in this, rather, it is the power of reason that is key to nature’s understanding. - Voltaire believed that all religion was absurd as it was against the logics of reason. Atheists and Materialists gained popularity as it was emphasized that man’s destiny lay in his own hands. - The principles of Laissez Faire and No Taxation without Representation were stressed which brought the Nobility under criticism. - Further, the ideas of democracy were propounded by thinkers like Montesquieu and Jean Rousseau. (*the student should establish the link here between the French Revolution and – the Renaissance of 14th century, the Reformation of 16th century, the Scientific Revolution from 17th century onward that helped undermine the authority of the Church, the Enlightenment that started from 1600s and dwelt upon the form of government & the rights of the people and the American Revolution (1765-83)*) Events in French Revolution of 1789 - In 1789, King Louis XVI called a meeting of Estate’s General, which was the old feudal assembly of the three Estates, to get consent for additional funds. - The Third estate representatives opposed additional funding since they were the ones who were the only taxpayers and would have to bear the tax burden from any such additional funding. - Although they had demanded and secured double representation for the Assembly, they were infuriated when they came to know that all the three estates were to have equalised votes irrespective of the number of representatives. - When the debates reached a dead end, the Third Estate representatives declared themselves the National Assembly, an assembly of the people rather than an assembly of the Estates (like Estates General). - Soon they moved their meeting to the nearby Royal Tennis Court. Their goal was to draw up a constitution for France in which the Third Estate could also have voting rights. - The Second Estate saw this as an attempt to do away with the Old Order, and forced the King to crush the National Assembly. When the King sent in troops to dispel the leaders of third estate, the people got enraged and they went on to break open the Bastille Prison. They freed the inmates and took control of the arms and ammunition stored in the prison. This was a symbolic revolt against the King and marked the de-facto end to his authority. After Bastille event, the National Assembly started legislating and it adopted the now famous document of French Revolution, called the Rights of Man and Citizen. They abolished Feudalism, removed the Roman control on the French Church and curtailed the powers of the Church so as to reduce their influence in polity. Following were the major ideas enlisted in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen: - All men are born free and equal. - Equality before law. - Principle of innocent until proven otherwise. - All people were eligible to the public offices - Freedom of speech and press. - Right to private property unless the public welfare necessitates to infringe this right. The society has a right to demand accountability from each civil servant. - The document gave the term nation its modern meaning i.e. a Nation is sum total of the people residing in a territory and not the territory itself. From the idea of Nation followed the idea of sovereignty of the people. - Thus people were the source of all power and authority, and there cannot be any ruler above the people but only a Republic. - The French revolutionary wars were fought from 1792 to 1802, by France, against the absolute monarchies of Austria, Prussia and Savoy (Italian State) as the latter desired to protect their own hold on power from being eroded by ideas of liberty and equality. - They are known as Revolutionary wars because France was trying to protect the revolution of 1789, which was under threat from neighbouring monarchies who were afraid of the French revolution spreading to their countries. Hence they wanted to reinstate Monarchy in France. - The French forces tried to enlist the support of the people of the territory they gained control of, by offering them assistance and the ideas of fraternity, liberty and equality. - In 1793, the King and the Queen of France were executed and then France declared a pre-emptive war against Britain, Holland, Spain and Hungary. - Jacobins & Napoleon - To qualify as a voter, a person had to have income above a certain threshold. Due to this conditional Right to Vote, majority of the Third Estate could still not become voters. The Aristocracy was now replaced by the Bourgeois and the conditions of the peasants and city workers did not improve as they had expected. - Soon after, in 1793, the radical Jacobins came to power in France. They made the Right to Vote unconditional by removing the income clause. - Under the Jacobins, the revolution entered a radical phase. Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobins was the man behind, what came to be known as, the Reign of Terror, where the regime sought to execute via guillotine all those who opposed the revolution. - The King and the Queen were executed in 1793. It was a naïve idea that by use of guillotine against all critics, a new beginning could be made. Soon the guillotine was used to punish anyone voicing dissent. Under the Jacobins, France descended into anarchy with little scope for the Rule of Law. • Many Jacobins were also executed. • Soon the Jacobins themselves turned against Robespierre and the Reign of Terror came to an end with his execution via guillotine. The Bourgeois again came to power and their government was called Directorate. • In 1795 they rewrote the constitution reinstating the conditional Right to Vote. • At the same time the power and prestige of the French Army were increasing. • In 1799, Napoleon, in a coup, brought France under military rule. He declared himself the Emperor a few years later and the Monarchy was restored in France. • The years between 1803 and 1815 are known for Napoleonic wars, wherein the French fought against rest of Europe and brought the ideas of French Revolution to the conquered territories. • Napoleon’s forces abolished serfdom and modernized the administration of the conquered territories in Europe. • After Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo (United Kingdom of Netherlands-present day Belgium), the monarchies in rest of the Europe helped the old dynasty to come to power in 1815. • But the monarchy could never restore its control to the level witnessed prior to the 1789 revolution and soon France saw four waves of revolutions to finally become a Republic in 1871. **Impact/Constructive Criticism of French Revolution** | Pros: | | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------| | • The French revolution had an important impact not just on France, but rest of the world. The wars with France weakened the European colonial powers like Spain and Portugal and their colonies in South and Central America declared themselves as independent republics. | | | • In Central America, inspired by the French Revolution, Haiti gained freedom from the French itself in 1804 through an armed revolt that began in 1792. | | | • Haiti gave protection to Simon Bolivar when he fled South America during his struggle for independence from France. | | | • Simon Bolivar from 1813 to 1824 liberated many South American countries and later tried to organize them into a US type federation in form of Gran Columbia. | | | • He freed Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia from the Spanish rule through an armed revolt. | | | • The abolition of Slavery after French revolution was the first move against this repressive system and Britain followed suit in 1833 while USA banned it in 1865. | | | • It led to destruction of feudalism in France as all laws of old feudal regime were repealed and lands of the nobles and church were confiscated and redistributed. | | | • The privileged classes i.e. the first and the second estate, were abolished. | | | • The anti-Feudalism wave that hit Europe in 19th century owes its origin to the events in France. | | | • Also, the French revolution ushered in the new economic system of Capitalism as against the prevalent Feudalism. | | | • The Jacobian constitution, which although never came into effect, was the first genuinely democratic constitution. | | | • It gave the right to vote to all, and even the Right to Insurrection, which implies the right to revolt or rise against the government. The Government under the Jacobin constitution had the responsibility to give work to all and ‘Happiness’ of people was to be overarching state policy. | | Pros - Under Napoleon’s rule, the Napoleonic Code as a civil code for France, was introduced and some of its provision like merit based recruitment to government jobs and focus on clearly written law, continue to effect the present legal system in France and other nations. - The French Revolution inspired movements against colonialism in colonies around the world, while movements for democracy and self-rule rose in whole of Europe. In French Revolution, the working class had played an important role. - They had formed secret societies to bring about the revolution. The rise in workers solidarity was later seen all across Europe especially in the industrialized Britain (as reflected in Chartist Movement in 1830s and 1840s). - This helped in workers getting the right to vote and other welfare measures. The French revolution’s ideas of equality and liberty helped make Britain much more democratic in the 19th century. Cons - But the French Revolution had limited success in achieving its objectives. In reality, post-revolution regime failed to resolve the grievances of the workers, who were the main force during the uprising of 1789, and only the peasants benefited (as they became owners of land confiscated from the privileged classes). - The revolution failed to bring in democratic rule and the Reign of Terror under the Jacobians was a mass slaughter characterized by nothing but brute force and breach of rule of law. - Napoleon, due to his continuous warfare resulted in rise of nationalism in the invaded territories and he came to be perceived, not as a liberator, but a conqueror. - This Nationalism was to prove advantageous to the unification of Germany and Italy in 1870s. The rise of Nationalism, especially after the French Revolution, had important impacts on the world including the re-drawing of national boundaries. Britain and France were the first nation-states to emerge. **Concept of Nation** - Until the French Revolution, except for Britain, Europe was under the domination of the feudal system and there was no concept of a Nation. - There were empires with scattered territories ruled by Monarchs, where feudal lords held estates and there were towns and cities, but no Nation as we understand it today. - The French Revolution gave the concept of a Nation, which is the sum total of people and in whom lies the sovereignty. - Thus, Nationalism came to be represented as self-rule due to the French and American Revolutions. **Misuse by Absolute Monarchs** - Further, when Napoleon invaded the rest of Europe, stoked by the monarchs of Europe, nationalism manifested in the form of the desire to protect the territory against foreign invasion. - Thus, the Monarchs used nationalism to consolidate their hold on power, and the 19th century Europe witnessed aggressive Absolute Monarchies with a focus on territorial extension and expansion of colonial empires. - After Napoleonic wars, Europe saw waves of pro-democracy revolutions, but Monarchies were opposed to the democratic ideas of the French Revolution and they used nationalism as a shield to defend and even extend their empires. - War victories (e.g., Bismarck consolidated his hold on Germany via Franco-Prussian War of 1870) and admission of more colonies (e.g., Italy entered the colonial race in Africa for political benefits at home) were used to maintain the hold on power. **Role of Revolutionary Thinkers** - Modern thinkers contributed a lot to the concept of nationalism. Ideas of self-rule and nationalism were also altering the national boundaries. Greece became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1832, while Belgium’s pro-democracy revolution against United Kingdom of Netherlands helped it attain independence in 1839. - The movement for unification of Germany and Italy derived much of their energies from the ideas of these thinkers. For example, Garibaldi and Mazzini played an important role in unification of Italy, while the English poet Byron wrote and fought for Greek independence. - These thinkers brought Romanticism to the literary content of those times, which enthused the people to lend their support to their armies, freedom fighters, and monarchies alike for the sake of the Nation’s glory. - **Industrial Revolution & Nationalism** - The Industrial Revolution in Europe during the 19th century increased the national competition in the economic sphere and brought the nation-states into conflict with each other for the acquisition of colonies. Unification of Germany and of Italy - The major feature of 19th century Europe was struggle for national unification and independence. Greece and Belgium became independent in this century and Germany and Italy rose as united independent states. Social & Economic conditions - The social conditions were similar to those witnessed in any Feudal society. In Germany, the landlords were called Junkers, who dominated the affairs of the state. - Economically, the division of Germany into multiple states resulted in poor economic development because of restrictions these states brought on free movement of goods. - The backward socio-political system also contributed to the poor economic situation. Role of Napoleonic Wars & French Revolution 1. In 18th century, Germany was divided into many states. The Napoleonic wars ended the artificial boundaries of many states and united them, but still 38 states remained. 2. Prussia was the biggest and the most powerful of them. 3. After the French revolution, the German people started demanding democratic form of government and economic reforms. The wave of nationalism enthused the Germans for unification of these states. 4. All these undercurrents resulted in formation of the German Confederation in 1815. It included parts of Austrian & Prussian Empire and some German states. 5. Large parts of Prussia and Austria were not included in the Confederation. 6. Confederation’s purpose was to coordinate economic policies of the constituent members. But it failed because of following: a) Each of the constituent state tried to assert its independence and did little to meet the anti-feudal aspirations of the people. b) The 1848 revolts for establishment of a democracy in a unified Germany. c) Rivalry between Austria and Prussia for dominating the affairs of the German Confederation. Failure to unite under a Democracy - 1848 was a year of revolts in most of Europe for establishment of democracy. These revolts were led by workers. - In 1848, revolts started in all German states for overthrow of the present political system of Monarchy rule and the rulers were forced to grant a democratic form of government. - The Constituent Assembly thus formed, met in Frankfurt with the goals to unite all the German States and to draft a new constitution. The Prussian King refused to the proposal of a constitutional monarchy for united Germany. - In the meantime, the rulers bounced back and started the repression of the nationalists. - Consequently, the rights granted so far to appease the nationalists were withdrawn and the monarchy of Prussia emerged the strongest. Unification under Bismarck: Policy of Blood & Iron - The unification of Germany was still to happen but not under a democratic government but under the iron hand of Bismarck, the military commander of Prussia. - His policy was to preserve the interests of the landed aristocracy and the domination of Army in affairs of the State. - Bismarck followed the policy of Blood and Iron under which he coerced the states into unison. The policy was implemented swiftly and with great strategic expertise. - The aim of the policy was to unite Germany under the Prussian Monarchy and this required bringing down the German Confederation. To implement his policy: - Bismarck’s Prussia first fought a war in 1864 in alliance with Austria against Denmark to annex most of the territory of German Confederation. - Then he allied with Italy in 1866 to defeat Austria and removed it from the German Confederation. - Consequently the Confederation itself was ended. - In 1867, Bismarck formed the North German Confederation. It united 22 German states but excluded the Southern German states like Bavaria, which remained independent. The constitution of this Confederation made the Prussian King the hereditary head of the state. The Southern states followed a pro-Austria policy but were forced to unite after the German victory in Franco-Prussian war of 1870. - The Franco-Prussian war in 1870 led to final unification of Germany. In 1870 the French monarchy was tattering and the conditions were ripe for another revolution for establishment of a democratic republic. - The French King Louis Bonaparte declared war on Germany in 1870. He wanted to use a war victory to divert attention of the public and to use the consequent war gains to lend credibility to his regime. On other hand, Bismarck was also partially responsible for provoking the French for war. - The result was that France was defeated and it declared itself republic in 1871. The war and the consequent German victory allowed Bismarck to absorb rest of the German states into a united Germany (1871). Unification of Italy - Unification of Italy was a two-step process. In the first step, it had to gain independence from Austria and secondly, it had to unite the consequent independent Italian states into a single unit. Mazzini and Garibaldi were revolutionaries who played an important role in this process. - Mazzini had formed an organization named Young Italy in 1831 for unification of Italy. - From 1831 onwards, Young Italy repeatedly attempted revolts against the Monarchy but all of them failed to establish a democratic and united Italy. - Yet, Young Italy enthused the people for a united Italy under a liberal government. Role of 1848 Revolts - The 1848 revolts were led by intellectuals and liberals who were against the reactionary Austrian control and wanted a liberal government. These revolts did usher in democratic reforms, but neither did these result in independence from Austria nor the consolidation of the states into a united Italy. Unification through Bismarck like Policy of Prime Minister Clavour - After the 1848 revolts, attempts at unification of Italy were made by the Prime Minister Clavour of the Italian State of Sardinia. - His policy was similar to that of Bismarck. In 1859, Sardinia allied with France in a war against Austria, which freed many states of Italy from Austrian rule and most of them were united under the Monarch of Sardinia except: - Venetia which still remained under Austrian rule, - The Kingdom of two Sicilies (in Southern Italy), which was the collective name for Kingdom of Sicily and Kingdom of Naples; and finally - Papal States, with their capital in Rome, which were under direct rule of the Pope who was supported by the French troops. - Sicily and Naples were liberated from the despotic rule of Ferdinand II by the revolutionary fighters led by Garibaldi and consequently brought under the Sardinia Monarchy in 1860 and the Kingdom of Italy was established. - Venice was annexed by Italy in 1866 by taking advantage of Austro-Prussian War of 1866. - Now only Rome was left. The Pope had the protection of the French troops. - Weakened by the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French could not support the Pope anymore and in 1871, Rome was annexed and made the capital of Italy, thus completing the process of unification. - After the unification, Italy and Germany started industrializing and Industrial Revolution started in these states as well. History of Methods of Production before Industrial Revolution - The trajectory of the method of production of goods has been like this - from Guild System to Putting-Out System to Factory System. - There was decline of the Guild System, when the volume of trade increased further and the Guilds were unable to cope with the demand as they were unsuited for mass production. Putting-Out System: - This resulted in coming of Putting-Out System. - Under this system, the raw material and the final product were owned by the merchant and the worker was only a wage earner. - The site of work was the home or the backyard of the worker. - The Merchant would have the responsibility of providing raw material and collected the final produce. - The invention of machines changed everything and even this system was replaced by what is called as the Factory System. Factory System: - Under this system, the centre of production shifted from home to the factory. - The workers, for the first time now, travelled from home to work-sites on daily basis. - They for the first time aggregated in such large numbers under a shed working on machines. - The capital was owned by the Capitalist and the worker was just another factor of production and the capitalist was the owner. What is Industrial Revolution? - Industrial Revolution happened first in England in mid-18th century. - Industrial revolution is the revolution in the economic processes of production of goods in the economy, aided by the technological innovations, and their spread, which gave a boost to the pace at which goods could be produced. - Innovations that resulted in mechanized production, development of new sources of powering these machines, technological forays in fields of communication and transport are some processes, which when clubbed together are referred to as Industrial revolution. - It was a revolution because it totally reformed not just the economic realm but also the social and political realms of the society. Why Industrial Revolution first in England? - The events in England before 1750 set such conditions, which were favourable towards Industrial Revolution. - The rise of capitalism after the end of Feudalism was crucial for Industrial Revolution. This was so because with capitalism came the desire to make more monetary profits, which could be achieved by developing new ways to produce more goods at lower costs. There was demand for manufactured goods due to the new ways of life in the growing towns and cities. - The village people were migrating to towns as workers for industrial production. This gave a thrust to the quest for new ideas that could increase industrial efficiency. The Renaissance & Reformation with focus on power of reason had already made a psychological impact on the people to set out in quest for new ideas. Furthermore, the society in England had moved towards democracy (Glorious Revolution 1688), which allowed greater freedom of thoughts. The accumulation of money from trade with the rest of the world ensured that there was money available for reinvestment for capital formation and for funding the activities of innovators. Geography also played a role. Because of being an island, England had a natural barrier to protect it from the invasions. Unlike France and Germany, England had natural frontier, which allowed it to enjoy a degree of peace. This made the rulers more pro-democracy as they felt lesser need to be coercive as they were secure from external security threats. Britain had very good natural harbours which allowed it to develop seaports. Thus it benefited from the profits of sea-trade. England was rich in natural resources like coal and iron. It also had very good natural network of tributaries of rivers. These rivers were easily navigable, which allowed cheaper transport of goods and raw materials. **Components of Industrial Revolution** **Revolution in Textile Sector** - Industrial Revolution started with revolution in the Textile Industry. In 1700s, the East India Company was earning lot of profit, to the envy of British businessmen, by exporting the finished cotton cloth from India into Britain. - This prompted the English businessmen to import raw cotton from India and convert it into finished cotton cloth in Britain so they could earn some profit from the booming cotton demand. - When the old machinery like spinning wheel and handlooms could not meet the demand, a series of innovations occurred. - The new machines in the Textile industry aided faster spinning of raw cotton into thread. Hargreaves was first to develop such a machine. Arkwright adapted Hargreaves machine to run with water power. Soon, Crompton combined the positives of the two machines to develop one of his own. - The impact of faster spinning machines was that they allowed the Textile factories to produce thread that was much finer and cheaper to produce. - The decreased cost of production increased the profits and soon the machines became very popular in England. - Further, in 1785, Cartwright developed the Powerloom, which truly revolutionized the production of cloth from the thread. - The term Horsepower has its origin in the Powerloom of Cartwright as this machine was driven by horses running in a circular motion. - Later, the powerloom was modified to run using water power as the factories were setup near rivers and canals to make use of hydropower. - Cotton Gin was another invention, which made the process of separating the fiber from the seeds 300 times faster than by hand. - This machine was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793 and it solved the problem of shortage of supply of raw cotton fiber due to the hand-based slow process of separating cotton fiber from cotton bales. **Steam Power** - Another, and the most significant invention was development of Steam Engine by James Watt in 1769. Steam Engines gave a big boost to production of goods and consequently led to huge increase in demand for raw materials. They were the real thing which led to mass production because machines based on manpower or hydropower were much less efficient. Soon, the Steam Engines were deployed for running spinning machines and for powerlooms. This resulted in England importing five times more raw cotton by 1840. Steam Engines were also adapted for use in coal mines to pump out water, which in turn led to an increase in coal supply. **Revolution in Iron Production** - Another revolution was in Iron production, which ultimately led to increased and cheaper mechanization of all industrial processes. - The Steam power had led to demand for more machinery and England had huge deposits of iron ore and coal to make steel. - But where England lacked was in the cheaper mode of processing raw iron. This problem was resolved by the development of Blast furnaces, which allowed for use of coke instead of charcoal. - This allowed the British steel industry to produce high-grade cast iron instead of just the pig iron. **Revolution in Transport & Communication** - Economy is as much about Geography as about processes of production. - The development of transport corridors in form of rail-road network across the length and breadth of England and consequently in colonies of British empire allowed the British industry to hasten the supply of raw material and finished goods. - Steam Engine was modified for use in Railways by George Stephenson in 1814. The coal could now be transported from the coal mines to the ports via Railways. In 1830, the first passenger train running on steam power made its journey. - This invention allowed for greater movement of businessmen, of workers from the hinterland to the cities and development of a truly connected economy. - In India, the revolution in railways started in 1853. - McAdamized Roads i.e. Pakka roads were result of the engineering feat of McAdam. Better roads allowed for swifter movement of goods. - The rail-road infrastructure was complemented by the Canal Network building. Water transport using steam powered ships was much cheaper than transport through land. Business transactions could be effected from remote locations with the arrival of Postal services. **Agriculture Revolution** - Another aspect generally missed in the Industrial Revolution is the Agriculture Revolution that started before the former. - It involved the production of more cash crops to meet the demands of the British industry. The new farm machinery like steel plough and harrow for breaking the ground, mechanical seed drills, horse-drawn cultivator that replaced hoe and machines for reaping and threshing reduced the labor requirement in the Agriculture sector. - The Enclosure Movement was led by the big landlords, who in connivance with the legislators in Parliament, increased their farm landholdings by taking over the small landholdings of marginal peasants and the village commons. - Thus a lot of labor was actually available for the Industry in the towns and the labor surplus ensured cheaper labor costs and thus more profits to the businessmen. - The new farm practices like intensive manuring and crop rotation increased the soil fertility and ensured food security of Britain. Impact of Industrial Revolution - The impact of Industrial revolution was significant. Britain’s economy came to be dominated by the Industrial sector, rather than the Agriculture sector whose share in the GDP declined. Higher GDP boosted textile exports and raw material imports by the British businesses. - Britain now produced enough coal and pig iron for self consumption and exports. - Industrial revolution led to emergence of Britain as the top ranking Industrial economy. But the impact on the people was not very positive. - There was increased migration from the villages to the cities in search of employment. More people now lived in cities and worked in factories and this population was not connected to the land. - The urban areas now became the centers of production and were no more limited to being the center for trade and administration. A downside of this process was the crowding in cities, which led to problems of housing and sanitation. - The urban area was now divided into two contrasting components of the slums on one side and the luxurious homes of the businessmen and the manager class on the other side. - Migration caused social stress in form of dissolution of social bonds and the moral restraint that the village life generally places on its inhabitants. Clubbed with poverty this resulted in increase in crimes in the cities. The industrialists saw the workers as cog in the machine and as just another factor of production. - Their aim was to maximize profits and thus the wages of workers were paltry. Little was done for the social security of the workers and the working conditions in the factories where unsafe machines maimed many. - Child labor and participation of women in labor force increased, as they were available at cheaper wages. The working hours were as high as 15 to 18 hours per day. - Environmental pollution was also on an increase. This caused many health problems for the workers. - The industrial lobby for long ensured that the Parliamentarians did nothing for the welfare of the workers, which led to development of resentment and many worker movements like of Luddites and Chartists developed after Industrial revolution in England. - It is pertinent to remember here, that it was the negative side of the Capitalism of post-Industrial revolution era, which hastened the arrival of Socialism. Karl Marx developed his ideas by observing the miserable conditions of workers in England. - There was increase in trade unionism and increased solidarity among the working class. - In a way, Industrial Revolution increased the penetration of democracy in England. - The growing resentment among the workers and their consequent movements made the government conscious that Laissez Faire is not the sine qua non and the State has a responsibility to protect the vulnerable sections, if Capitalism itself is to be protected from workers revolution. - Gradually, with passage of four acts, the right to vote was extended to many sections of the society including the workers and by 1929, Britain adopted Universal Adult Franchise. - Trade Unions were legalized in 1824 and series of factory Acts were passed, like in 1802 and 1819, which brought in age and working hours restrictions and regulated the employment conditions, especially of Women and Children. - Industrial revolution also resulted in increased contact between Industrialized and non-industrialized world. But this contact was not based on equality. The demand for raw materials and export markets made the Colonial powers to look for more territories to colonize. - When in the 19th century, rest of the Europe witnessed Industrial Revolution, there was a race for colonies among European nations. Thus, Industrial Revolution played an important role in emergence of Imperialism whereby the Colonial powers tried to establish much stronger control over the colonies. by use of military power, direct rule and rule by intermediaries. Many colonies were treated as an extension of their own territory by colonial powers. **Spread of Industrial Revolution outside England** - In Europe, the end of Napoleonic wars in 1815 brought an atmosphere in which the nations could focus on Industrial development. - Machines were introduced in many European nations after 1815, but the movements for democracy, independence and unification of territories didn’t allow Industrial Revolution to take root till 1871. - In France, by 1850, the iron industry had started to develop, but the lack of raw material in form of coal and iron ore limited its progress. - Germany was second only to Britain in production of steel but was still far behind Britain. - After German unification under Bismarck, German industry developed in leaps and bounds and soon became a rival to the British in production of pig iron and coal. Italy also witnessed Industrial revolution post-unification in 1871. It was Russia, which was last to industrialize. - Russia was rich in natural resources but due to lack of capital and free labor because of serfdom, the process of its industrialization was slow. Russian industrial production got a boost when Serfdom was abolished in 1861 and it borrowed foreign capital. - But it was only after the 1917 October revolution that Russia underwent true Industrial revolution. - Outside Europe, the USA industry started developing after independence from Britain in 1783. But since the British policy of Mercantilism had prevented development of indigenous industry, and USA was engaged in its own political turmoil of Territorial expansion and the Civil War after President Lincoln banned Slavery, it was only after 1870 that Industrial production got a big boost. - USA then emerged as an industrial power and by the - World War I was the major supplier of finished goods to rest of the world. - Japan was the first Asian country to industrialize. Industrial Revolution took place in Japan in late 19th century. It became a major exporter of steel machinery, metal goods and chemicals from the traditional exporter of silk, toys and porcelain. - Thus it can be said that the system of polity, political independence, security from invasions, the availability of labor and capital along with law and order stability were the major determinants of the Industrial revolution. - Britain was the first to industrialize not because it had better intellectuals but due to existence of favorable conditions as mentioned above. When these conditions became prevalent in other countries, they soon embarked upon Industrial revolution. - These conditions on the other hand never existed at the same time in colonies like India. Colonialism is the establishment, exploitation, maintenance, acquisition, and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony, and often between the colonists and the indigenous population. **Role of Explorations:** - The explorations or the Voyages of Discovery at the end of 15th century, clubbed with the end of Feudalism played an important role in the rise of Colonialism. - As early as the 13th century, Marco Polo of Italy discovered China. - The profits from trade increased the attraction of the European ports and the merchants made the ports their center of activity. - Soon towns developed in coastal areas of the Mediterranean sea and places like Venice & Genoa increased in prosperity. These coastal towns enjoyed freedom from the rural based system of Feudalism. - The serfs were free in these towns and thus migration from the villages to the towns gained pace. The society in these coastal towns was based on money and not land. The Kings, who in the Feudal system were dependent on the subordinate lords for military help and despised the powers of the Feudal Lords and the Church, patronized the merchants by funding their voyages. - The merchants in turn aided the King so as to escape the feudal controls where merchants enjoyed little social status and political rights. - The monetary profit became the most important reason for explorations, which brought goods that could be sold at home at a much higher margin. E.g. Vasco Da Gama (1498) found the price of pepper in India to be 1/20th of the price in Venice. Spice trade was the most lucrative. - By mid 13th century, Venice emerged as the primary trade port for spices. From Venice, the spices were transported to Western and Northern Europe. Venice became extremely prosperous by charging huge tariffs (*recall Renaissance of 14th century began first in Italy*). - Geography played an important role. Without direct access to Middle East, the Europeans were forced to pay high prices charged by Venice. Even the wealthy had trouble paying for spices. The routes to the east were known by the name of Silk Routes. - Along with Venice, it was the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople, which acted as a middle man in this trade with the east. These two lay along the trade routes and had power to choke them if they wanted. In 1453, Ottoman Empire defeated the Byzantine Empire and choked/blockaded the sea routes. - The Europeans had to do something about it and this paved the way for Voyages of Discovery at the end of 15th century. - Thus, before the 16th century it was Italy, which dominated the trade with rest of the world owing to its geographical location and monopoly on the knowledge of sea-routes of commerce. - But soon, due to the envy of the prosperous Italian trading cities and the blockade put up by the Ottoman empire, the sailors began journeys with an aim of finding an alternative route to the East. This quest for finding a North West route led to the discovery of Canada by John Cabot of Britain. With the explorations, gradually the geographical map of the world emerged. **Technical innovations** - Technical innovations played an important role in success of explorers in being able to sail to the new lands. By the end of 15th century, innovations in form of Compass, Astrolabe (it helps in determining the location of ship), the Art of Mapping and development of better ships that could travel longer, improved the explorer’s knowledge of geography of the sea. They were able to develop accurate maps of sea-routes and gain knowledge of weather patterns that enabled them to safely reach the new lands. The period around the end of 15th century thus came to be known as the Age of Discovery. Christopher Columbus, funded by Spain, went out in search of India but landed up in Central America in 1492. He had touched the shores of Haiti but mistook it for India. This is why he called the natives as Indians and the islands as Indies. In 1498, aided by Portugal, Vasco Da Gama discovered India by traveling from Europe to India by circumventing the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa). America was discovered by Amerigo Vespucci (& not Columbus) around 1500 AD. The Portuguese also discovered Philippines in South East Asia. These discoveries marked the start of Colonization. The new found lands were rich in mineral resources and many had very good natural harbors which could be developed into ports that could serve as nodal points of trade. The European merchants sought to establish their setup there i.e. they started to form colonies in these new found lands. Thus came into origin, the word, Colonization. The profits from the goods imported from the new found lands of America, Asia and Africa led to a race for exploration. Spain and Portugal were soon joined by the Dutch, France and Britain. **Colonization** - The colonization of Asia, Africa and America began with three focuses - Gold, Glory and God. - While Gold represented the profits from trade, Glory represented the recognition a European power received as a world hegemon. With the flag of the Kingdom came the Missionaries to promote Christianity. - It is to be noted here that the country which dominated in the realm of sea power was able to benefit the most out of the Colonial era. - A larger fleet of merchant ships was a mark of trade volume and spread across external markets while a strong navy could protect them, attack the vessels of the competitors and block the sea-routes of commerce. - The country which was able to have friendly harbors along the trade route in form of Ports of call where the ships could refuel and the crew could rest, had an advantage in the trade competition. - Thus, Mercantile capitalism went hand in hand with colonialism, with the latter providing a safe zone for the former to prosper. - As mentioned earlier, many new commodities entered the trade basket, and products like potatoes, tobacco, maize and spices, which were hitherto unknown in Europe were traded. The colonies served as sources of raw material to feed the European factories. E.g. Sugar plantations setup in America gave a boost to the sugar industry. - Similarly, rice, coffee and cotton resources were also exploited. - The Europeans established trading posts in the coastal areas of the new found lands. The policy of Mercantile capitalism involved attacking merchant vessels of other kingdoms, blocking trade routes, setting up colonies, placing trade barriers, monopolizing the trade with the colonies and if unable to colonize, then securing special trading rights with the new found lands so as to have a trade monopoly. - The Portuguese had established trade monopoly with Asia after discovery of trade route to India via Cape of Good Hope in 1498 and thus replaced Italian monopoly on trade with the east. Later, the Portuguese were replaced by the Dutch in Indonesia and by the British in India. Afterwards, the military strength and the sea power aided France and Britain to emerge as the major colonial powers. **Impact of Colonialism** - On one hand, the European countries saw very rapid increase in trade volume and diversity, while on the other hand, the colonies were ripped off their resources. - Europe started importing products like spices, which were new to its market and became very popular. Similar was the case with cotton cloth imported from the east. - Spain setup sugar plantations in Central American colonies, while the Portugal put up the plantation system in Brazil. - Countries like Holland, which were barren internally made huge profits out of the colonies by providing ships for commerce to Britain and other European countries. - On the other hand, the impact of colonialism on the colonies was appalling. - South America was colonized by Spain after the Amerigos voyage, which it had funded. - The civilization of Aztecs and the Incas were destroyed and their gold and silver plundered. - The indigenous Americans were forced to work for the colonists in the mines and farms. The mines of Peru, Bolivia and Mexico were exploited with all the wealth exported out to Spain. Later, the Dutch, the British and the French also came to control parts of America. - The objective of Colonialism in Asia was trade profit, while Slave Trade was the main reason in case of Africa. - In Africa, colonization began early but was limited to the coastal region because the hindrances placed by the geography limited the expansion of colonial empire to the mainland Africa. - Slave trade was started by the Portugal as its workers on the plantations were not able to bear the hot and humid climate of Brazil. - It hunted down the Black Africans who were physically strong and were used to living in an equatorial climate and brought them to work on plantations. - While the Africans worked on the plantations as slaves, the native Americans worked like serfs on the estates of the colonists. Soon the Slave trade was introduced in North America, West Indies and other parts of America by European powers after colonization. - Spain introduced the Slave trade first in Haiti in the Caribbean and then in Florida, Mexico, Chile and other parts of Coastal South America. - The Plantation system was mainly put up for production of Sugarcane, tobacco and cotton. - The Slave Trade came to be known as the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade and the Triangular Slave Trade as a tripod of America, Africa and Europe was established and the Africans were shipped across the Atlantic to America. The Slave trade continued for 300 years. Initially at the end of 15th century it were the individual merchants, sailors and pirates who conducted the trade but by the end of 16th century the Slave Trading Companies had taken over. - The Black Africans were initially hunted from coastal Africa as the interiors were out of bound but after the explorations of the mainland in the 19th century, the slave hunting extended to whole of Africa. The conditions of journey across Atlantic were inhumane and many Africans died during these journeys due to lack of hygiene and crowding. The Industrial Revolution, after 1750, increased the demand for raw materials in England. - To increase supply of raw materials from the colonies and with the increasing colonial empire of Britain, the number of Africans traded in the Slave Trade also increased. In the British colony of West • Indies nearly 2 million slaves were imported in 100 years. The present demographic profile of America is symptomatic of the extent of slave trade from the 16th to 19th century. • Slavery was ended by France after the French Revolution in 1789 mainly because the revolution was based on ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. • The British passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833 to end slavery in all of its colonies, while the USA banned it after the civil war (1861-65). • The ban on Slavery faced opposition from many quarters. The Dutch settlers of South Africa opposed the ban. Also, the civil war in US was fought between the USA Federal government and the southern states on the issue of slavery. • The southern states were opposed to a ban on Slavery and rather desired its extension to the new territories being acquired by USA. **Relation between Colonialism and Mercantile Capitalism** • Mercantile Capitalism was the British policy in the 18th century. The idea was that the Government should regulate the economy at home and colonies abroad so as to increase the national power. • This amounted to placing trade barriers and monopoly of trade with colonies to British companies, with the aim of having a positive balance of payment. • The traders wanted Free Trade Agreements and trade monopolies with countries outside Europe. On opposition from the native chiefs and the rulers, these countries were colonized. • In 19th century, there was a new development. Due to thinkers like Adam Smith, the policy of Laissez Faire was begun to be implemented. • It meant less domination of the State in the economic sphere (as during Mercantile Capitalism) and thus a free market economy. • It was a free market economy only in the domestic economy. The whole world was not being converted to a free market (as today, in era of MNCs & Globalization). • The Imperial powers had special rights in areas of trade and investment over most of their colonies. • Companies from other countries did not enjoy equal privileges in these colonies and the contracts of economic projects were secured for companies belonging to the Imperial country. • By end of 19th century Laissez Faire declined. British economist Keynes published *The End of Laissez Faire* in 1926. • It was due to ills of Laissez Faire- like exploitation of workers and non-intervention of government even when there was a famine (1880 famine in India-government did not intervene)- that it was realized that Laissez Faire cannot be followed blindly and the State has to intervene for ensuring the enjoyment of basic human rights. • Difference between Colonialism and Imperialism Colonialism is part of Imperialism and Imperialism is a natural extension of Colonialism in the age of Industrial revolution. • Imperialism has the basic feature of political acquisition of a foreign territory. • Thus according to some authors, Militarism (which implies invasion of a territory for its annexation) is a must for Imperialism or is a form of Imperialism (because political acquisition can happen without vanquishing or invading a territory but by using it as a threat). • In contrast, Colonialism implies domination of people’s life and culture. The main goal of colonialism is extraction of economic benefits from the colony while Imperialism includes political control. • Thus, colonialism may be done by companies who secure special trading privileges and setup trading posts, while Imperialism is done by the state through government diplomacy to acquire territories, protectorates and spheres of influence and to promote industrial trade and investments. • Colonialism results in control over life of natives in political, economic, cultural and social spheres. It is more subtle whereas Imperialism is more formal and aggressive. NCERT uses the term Imperialism as distinct from Colonialism. While the nomenclature followed by other authors treat Colonialism equivalent to Imperialism, what the NCERT refers to as Imperialism is called New Imperialism or Neo-Imperialism. The basic dividing line is the era of Industrial Revolution. The events after the Industrial Revolution in the colonial empire building are termed as New Imperialism. Now what was new? - The New in this New-Imperialism, which started after the Industrial Revolution in Europe was the race component. - There was also an increase in the degree of every aspect of the Colonial actions. Race signified the economic competition between the European powers to get hands on to as many colonies as possible. - It was a race for raw material sources and export markets, both of which would be provided for by the colonies. - It was also a race for securing sea-lanes of commerce by either colonizing the ports of call or signing treaties with other nations to provide safe harbors to the merchant vessels. - The race component also included a race for naval supremacy and build up of land based military forces. But why this race phenomenon did not occur in as explicit a form before? - The answer lies in important factors like Industrial Revolution, which spread to the rest of Europe, USA and Japan in 19th century; the rise of Nationalism which fueled the national rivalries for quest of economic and military supremacy; and also the decreased geographical space. - The last factor is interesting and had important bearing for the world peace. - Earlier there was enough territorial space for the European powers to colonize but in the 19th century, except for the interior lands of Africa, nearly the whole world had come under influence of one powerful nation or the other. - Thus, now the major powers of the world could only grow at expense of one another. - There was brute competition to protect whatever colonies one nation had, and at the same time try to displace the rival colonial power from the other colonies. Here came in the factor of degree. - The colonial powers in the New Imperialism had to use greater force to protect their colonial assets and secure own frontiers. - This made political control in the colonies much more imperative to ensure an economic control. - To secure political control, military was required and thus a peculiar feature of the New Imperialism was the rise of State power. - Trading companies like the East India Company were slowly replaced by the their governments. **Definition of New Imperialism** - Imperialism is the political and economic domination or exploitation of the non-industrialized nations by the industrialized nations. - This can be achieved by military conquer or by colonizing the foreign territory i.e. acquiring the foreign territory and then making them dependent. The foreign rulers are a minority and they impose superiority of their race and culture on natives. - Next is the question of the features that characterize this phenomenon of Imperialism. - The major components of Imperialism can be grouped as - Raw Material and Export Markets - Protective Tariffs - Imposition of Free Trade • Drain Theory • Political control of the colonies • Capturing Ports of Call • The search for raw material and export markets for the surplus produce from factories in the industrialized nations led to a race among the European powers, Japan and USA to have control over colonies. • This led to rise of New Imperialism that had feature of race for colonies and spheres of influence. Great Britain was the first to industrialize, post 1750. • Other European nations could only industrialize in the latter half of 19th century and thus they could not compete with British exports in the external markets. • They introduced protective tariffs to prevent British exports from entering the domestic and foreign markets to protect their own indigenous industry. • Even before Industrial Revolution could spread to the rest of Europe, the British as part of Mercantile Capitalism had placed trade and tariff barriers on American colonies to check influence of France, Spain, Portugal and Holland. • Thus, the trade with colonies was monopolized by the colonial power. • At the same time, the colony was not allowed to implement any protective tariffs for protection of its own indigenous industry and free trade was imposed, whereby no import duties could be levied on the imports from the Colonist nation. • The colonies provided for high rate of return for the foreign investment in various sectors like railways and the colonists promoted foreign investment and dissuaded indigenous investment. Above phenomena was very well explained in the Drain Theory deployed by the Indian nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji. • The British had made India into an exporter of raw material and importer of finished goods. The foreign investment ensured that the profits from these investments went into the pockets of foreign investors. • The colonies were brought under political control either by direct rule, like in India, or by ruling through intermediaries, like in the princely states of India. • Another strategy during Imperialism was of capturing the ports of call i.e. Capture those places where ships could replenish supply of coal and water. • The colonists tried conquering islands that were along the sea routes and near the coasts of trading nations. **History of New Imperialism** • New Imperialism or ‘Neo-Imperialism’ as such can be identified as the second wave of imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as distinct from the earlier wave of European colonization from 15th to early 19th centuries. • This was a result of Industrial Capitalism. • Struggle for independence in some colonies started as the world was moving towards New Imperialism. America had declared independence in 1776, during the American Revolution. • The French Revolution inspired independence movements worldwide. • Napoleonic wars during the initial years of 19th century weakened Spain and Portugal, and consequently, some of their colonies in South and Central America declared independence. • Mexico became independent in 1821 from Spain. Simon Bolivar freed Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela and Bolivia from Spain. Brazil became independent from Portugal by 1824. Thus, there was a temporary period of decline in Imperialism after the French Revolution of 1789, before its rise again in 1870s. It is pertinent here to provide a summary of factors that led to the rise of New Imperialism. a) Role of Political Factors: - There were a plurality of political factors behind the emergence of New Imperialism. - One of these was the rise of Absolute Monarchies in Italy and Germany, post-unification in 1870s. - This absolutism increased the aggression on part of the state. - However, New Imperialism cannot be attributed solely to the Absolute Monarchies. - In fact, Britain which had democracy had the largest colonial empire. - Thus, all industrialized regimes, whether democratic or absolute, engaged in Imperialism. - Industrialization increased their hunger, as well as potential, to build their colonial empire. - The rulers also saw Imperialism as a tool to maintain political control at home. - Military victory over colonies and empire building was not only improving the economy of the colonial power, but raising the prestige of the rulers as well. These two factors, viz. a sound economy and national glory provided legitimacy to their rule. It was due to such reasons, for instance, that Italy and Czarist Russia joined the race for colonies. b) Role of Nationalism: - Nationalism rose after the French Revolution (1789). - In the era of Industrial Revolution, it soon manifested in form of economic rivalry among the nation states. National rivalries were further fueled by nationalist ideas propounded by the nationalist thinkers. - In Britain, France, Germany and Italy, nationalism resulted in demands for expansion of colonial empires during 1868-72. - Also, the Absolute Monarchies relied on both Imperialism and Nationalism to divert attention of the public, which was getting exposed to ideas of democracy. c) Role of Industrial Revolution/Industrial Capitalism: - Industrial Revolution was one of the major factors in the rise of New Imperialism. There was surplus money from trade as well as profits from mass production, after Industrial Revolution. - This money was further reinvested for capital formation. The development of transport and communication infrastructure allowed faster movement of goods and people, and development of steam ships reduced the time taken for trading goods around the world. - The demand for goods in the domestic markets was also increasing due to rapid increase in European population in the 19th century. - The factories’ demand for raw material increased, which led to a search for raw material outside national boundaries. - Population pressure in Europe led to search for more colonies where Europeans could settle. - Soon, the factories were producing much more than the domestic and existing external markets could absorb. - This further increased the attraction of new colonies. Thus, a cycle of more demand for manufactured goods, profits, capital formation, demand for raw material, surplus production and demand for export markets got established and it can be said that the Industrial Capitalism (Capitalism after Industrial d) Increased number of players: - Industrial revolution in rest of Europe, USA and Japan happened after 1870s. - The industrialized nations desperately started looking for sources of raw material and export markets. e) Decreased Geographical space: - The world was relatively more peaceful till 19th century when there was enough unoccupied space to be colonized and the empires could expand easily. But in 19th century, any further expansion could only occur at expense of another colonial power. - Also, the number of players in the ‘race’ had increased. Thus, colonialism changed into Imperialism as now State’s military power and tighter control over colonies was needed to maintain and expand the colonial empire. - In the next four decades (from 1870 onward), there was a race for colonies and the only untouched areas, China and Africa, were scrambled among European nations. f) Religion and Cultural Factors: - Other factors like aspirations of Christian Missionaries to spread Christianity and the notion of White Man’s burden to spread superior civilization in the backward colonies also played a role. - Belgium’s King Leopold II used the latter as a garb for exploiting Congo and so was the case with other Imperial powers. - However, some good samaritans actually tried to uplift the life of the people by working for social reforms. - Theosophical Society even led the anti-Imperial Home Rule movement in India (1916). Other issues that they dealt with included rights of women and spread of modern education. | COUNTRY | Rise of New Imperialist Powers | Beginning of Industrialization proper | Victims of New Imperialism | |---------|--------------------------------|--------------------------------------|---------------------------| | Italy | 1870 onward | 1870 onward | Mainly Africa | | Germany | 1870 onward | 1870 onward | Mainly Africa, Pacific | | Russia | 1850s onward | Begun by 1914, yet on eve of WWI it was predominantly Agricultural economy. | Mainly Central Asia. Also West Asia, China | | USA | By 1890s | 1865 onward | Mainly Pacific (domination of South America) | | Japan | By 1890s | 1868 onward | Mainly China (Far East) and Pacific | Colonialism in Africa - Slave Trade has already been discussed in previous handouts. - African continent was known by the name of Dark Continent till its interior areas were explored in the 19th century. - Difficult terrains, non-navigable rivers and other such geographical features ensured that colonialism had a late entry in mainland Africa and was restricted for a long time to Coastal Africa. - In the 19th century, publications of the expeditions made by individual explorers raised the interest among the Europeans. - These publications included the accounts of the explorers who detailed the wealth of the Central Africa. - They were able to chart the courses of important rivers like Congo. The navigability of rivers and knowledge of their course implied that the European companies and troops could now reach into the interiors and transport out the mineral wealth to the coasts for further export. - King Leopold II of Belgium patronized the explorers and was the first to establish a colony in central Africa. In 1876, he had brought Congo under his control and managed it as his private colony (Congo was renamed as Congo Free State in 1885). - His success raised the interest of other European powers and they entered into a quest for colonies in Africa. After colonization of Congo, the Scramble for Africa began. By 1914 whole of Africa was scrambled among Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and Portugal, except for Abyssinia (where the Italians were defeated by the nationalists in the 1876 Battle of Adowa), and Liberia. - There were many squabbles among the European powers for territory and trading rights in Africa. French and British interests collided in Egypt and Sudan. Belgium opposed an agreement in 1884 signed by Britain and Portugal, demarcating their areas of influence, as it would have resulted in denial of sea access to Congo. - Finally, the overlapping claims of European colonists were resolved through negotiations in different conferences. - Berlin Conference, held in Germany in 1884-85, was called to resolve disputes regarding the West and Central Africa, especially the river valleys of Niger and Congo. It was an important event and resulted in demarcation of spheres of influence of each colonial power in Africa. Following were some of the decisions of the Berlin conference (1884-85): 1. Niger river Valley was divided among the British and the French with the Lower Niger becoming a protectorate of Britain and the Upper Niger a protectorate of France. 2. Niger river was made free for ships of all signatory nations. 3. The British agreed to French colonization of Tunis. Spain was awarded coastal area of present day Western Sahara. 4. Also, the European powers promised to take steps for welfare and development of the Africans. The conference vowed to end Slavery by the Black and Islamist powers and this was to be ensured by each colonial power in their sphere of influence. 5. It was decided that the Congo Free State will be governed by the International Association for Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa. This association was setup by King Leopold II of Belgium and thus Congo was recognized as a private colony of King Leopold II (to be taken away from him by the Belgium government in 1908). 6. Freedom of trade and navigation for all was guaranteed in the Congo River Valley. Also, no individual nation was to claim any special rights in Congo and King Leopold II granted freedom of investment to all signatory nations. An International Commission was also setup for monitoring of compliance with the agreement. France in Scramble for Africa - France established its empire in North-West Africa. After colonizing Algiers (1830), part of Gambia, and Tunis (1881) it longed for control over Morocco. - Initially, the French faced opposition. In the Madrid Conference in 1880, the independence of Morocco was guaranteed and all European nations were given a right to freedom of trade. - But in 1900, France signed an agreement with Italy, whereby Italy agreed to not oppose French influence over Morocco and France, in return, pledged not to oppose Italian control of Libya. - During the Berlin Conference, Britain agreed to French special rights over Tunis. - Further, in 1904 Britain and France signed an agreement, whereby the French recognized the British special rights over Egypt and Sudan, while France got British recognition with respect to its special rights over Morocco. - In the same year, Spanish and French Morocco were demarcated through an agreement. Germany was a late entrant into colonization, and it felt left out in the scramble. - In 1911, when France deployed its troops in Morocco, Germany sent its warship to the nearby island of Agadir. - After the negotiations, Germany was given some territory in French Congo and in return it recognized French control of Morocco. - In 1912, France made Morocco its Protectorate and Morocco ceased to be Independent. Britain in Scramble for Africa - British had colonies in the south, the east and western Africa. - Its colony of Gold Coast (Ghana) in the West was rich in Cocoa, while Nigeria had large oil reserves. - Egypt was of special interest to the British due to the Suez Canal, which provided for a shorter sea-route to its Asian colonies, especially India. Suez Canal was managed by a company with shareholding of France and the Governor of Egypt. - In the 19th century, Egypt was under financial stress and it had to sell its shareholding to the British in 1875. - In 1876, Egypt failed to pay the installments of the loan it had taken from Britain and France. - The two European powers setup a Council for management of budget of the Egyptian government and thus brought Egypt under economic control. - The high taxes and the delay in payment of salaries to the Egyptian Army led to a revolt in 1882. - It was however, crushed by the British troops and Egypt was brought under British control. - In 1904, France recognized British rights over Egypt and Sudan in exchange for recognition of its rights over Morocco. - In 1922, Egypt was given independence but Britain continued to control the Suez Canal. Germany in Scramble for Africa - Germany entered the scramble for Africa after unification of Germany in 1870. From 1882 to 1884, Germany was able to colonize South West Africa, the Cameroons and Togoland in Equatorial Africa and German East Africa. - After World War I, the German colonial empire came to an end and its colonies were distributed among the Allied Powers as Mandates. - Mandates were the former colonies, which were assigned to developed nations by the League of Nations for preparing them for independence at a later date. - For example, German South West Africa was given to South Africa as a mandate. Italy in Scramble for Africa - Italy, like Germany was a late entrant. It failed to colonize Tunis because the French took control of it in 1881. It succeeded in colonizing Eritrea in North Eastern Africa. - Through various treaties Italy acquired Eastern Somaliland in 1880s. Abyssinia (Ethiopia) lay between Eritrea and Eastern Somalia. - Italy failed to colonize it and was defeated by the nationalists in 1896. In 1911, Italy occupied Libya from the weak Ottoman Turkey. - In 1935, Italy attacked Ethiopia and took it under its control. After defeat in World War II, Italy lost all of its colonies. - Even a small country like Belgium was able to get a share in the African pie. It first colonized Congo, and then extended its control to Rwanda and Burundi. - Portugal colonies were Angola, Guinea and Mozambique, while Spain had Spanish Morocco, Spanish Sahara (Rio De Oro was its part) and Spanish Guinea. Impact of Colonialism on Africa a) White settlers became elites and exploited the Black natives b) Slavery c) Mass killings by Colonial powers d) Policy of Divide and Rule created problems after independence e) Extreme neglect of Education and Health f) Economic development hurt White settlers became elites and exploited the Black natives - Colonialism in Africa brought along with it trading merchants, businessmen, missionaries, military and administrative officers. Many of them settled in Africa due to attractions of plentiful arable land and profits from trade. - The missionaries stayed on and established Christian institutions for propagation of their religion. Thus, today we see many African countries divided into Muslim and Christian dominated regions. - The European settlers were elites in Africa and they enjoyed luxuries of living, which they could not afford back home. - The European settlers, like the Boers in South Africa, became wealthy and powerful in Africa. They controlled the government and denied Africans any political right. In almost every colony, the lands of Africans were taken away for cultivation and mining by settlers with Blacks working as slaves. Slavery - Slave Trade made many Africans forcefully leave their homes to never come back. It destroyed many families. - The local Africans traded in the local slave markets. They formed the workforce on the European plantations in Africa. - The psychological impact of slavery was an inferiority complex, that was systematically injected into the society, with even the Church supporting the notions of Master and Slave Race. - The Race thesis was institutionally deployed to deprive Africans of their rights during Apartheid in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Mass killings by Colonial powers - Africans resisted the colonial military with great valor and they could not fight against the technology of Guns with the Europeans. - Many Africans were killed by the European military while resisting the loss of their lands, slavery, unfavorable treaties offered by the Europeans and the imposition of European culture. - Whole villages were destroyed if the inhabitants refused to agree to the demands of the Colonists. Belgium Congo probably witnessed the first Genocide of the modern era. - From 1876 to 1908, nearly 10 million Africans were massacred in Belgian Congo by the administration of Belgian King Leopold II. Policy of Divide and Rule created problems after independence - Africa due to many factors of Geography, is comprised of multiple Tribal cultures. - The scramble for Africa divided Africa into colonies with arbitrary boundaries, which did not follow the logic of geographical continuity, cultural unity or economic viability. - This resulted in colonies having multiple tribes, with very different cultures. - They did not see themselves as part of one nation. Further, the colonists used the policy of divide and rule. They patronized one tribe at expense of the others. - The favored tribesmen were provided with arms and money and were used to coerce the other tribes into submission. - This resulted in mutual hostility among tribal groups. - For example, in Rwanda, Belgium followed this policy and after independence the country witnessed constant tribal violence. - In 1994, this process culminated in the worst genocide in recent history as the Hutu tribesmen massacred millions of Tutsi tribe members. The lack of national unity still haunts many African nations and it has been very difficult to ensure functional democracy. Extreme neglect of Education and Health - The colonists and white settlers ensured that the native blacks did not get educated. Higher education, in particular, was neglected. - Wherever the policy of Apartheid was followed, Africans were given inferior education in separate schools. - Statistically speaking, the gross enrolment ratio at levels of primary, secondary and higher education was very low at time the African nations became independent. - For example, at the time of independence in 1960, there were just 17 graduates in Belgian Congo and no doctors, lawyers, engineers. Also, there were no Africans at officer level posts in the Army. This resulted in inefficient governance after independence, and caused the consequent collapse of democratic regimes. - The elected governments failed to deliver on the huge developmental goals and became dependent on the developed world for aid, which brought Neocolonialism to the African nations. - Today Africa’s population is increasing at rapid pace and much of its population is in the working age group. But it is struggling to convert this bulge in working age group into a demographic dividend due to lack of education, which if present could have ensured a skilled workforce. - Health sector was also subjected to great neglect. The colonies suffered from epidemics regularly given the humid conditions due to an Equatorial climate. HIV-AIDS today is most prevalent in Africa and Africa is the biggest intervention area for World Health Organization and NGOs like Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Economic development hurt - Colonialism impacts the social, psychological, economic, cultural and political aspects of the colony. - Lack of cohesion in the society due to tribal rivalries, presence of prejudices of being a slave race, which were internalized, and the consequent inferiority, lack of education and denial of participation in governance – were the resultant aspects of Colonization. - These factors prevented economic development, and indigenous entrepreneurship, in any significant form, could not develop in Africa. - The policy of Mercantile capitalism followed by the Colonists hurt the economy of Africa. Africans did not get the market price for the mineral resources, which were exported out of Africa. - The Colonists ensured that no indigenous industry develops and Africa remains an exporter of raw material and importer of finished goods manufactured in European factories. - During the Berlin Conference in 1880s, Germany wanted a clause of effective control of a European nation in a territory to claim it as a colony. - This clause would have required Colonists to develop infrastructure and setup government machinery for things like law and order etc. Germany desired to use this clause to replace other European nations from the colonies. But Britain and France defeated this clause. Thus, in many African nations the colonists ruled and reaped the economic benefits, but without any responsibility of governance. - The little infrastructure that was developed was to facilitate colonial interests. For example, the transport infrastructure was aimed at creating linkages between mineral rich interiors with the ports to facilitate easier raw material extraction. - Britain was quick to develop pipelines in Sudan and Nigeria for extraction of hydrocarbons. Further, the colonial rivalry resulted in colonists establishing trade barriers between colonies and thus an integrated market could not develop across Africa. WHAT MADE OUR TEAM TO ACHIEVE THINK BOT Mcq – tests on Instagram & Telegram 08:00 Am BE KNOWN Summary of important topics, shared on Instagram On 08:30 Am BRAIN GAIN Editorial Analysis, LS TV + RS TV summaries. It will be posted on Website on 12:30 Pm THE VISIBLE DIFFERENCE A summary of current events updated in website sharp 9 pm By 1900, all Pacific Islands came under Colonial control. **USA:** - In 1823, Monroe Doctrine was brought out by USA. It emphasized two things: Policy of Isolation and Hegemony of US in North and South America. - It said that US would not interfere in the European affairs or colonies and it would treat any interference in its backyard (all of America) as an act of aggression. - But by 1890s, USA emerged as a new Imperialist power. It started to bring areas outside America under its influence i.e. it extended the notion of its ‘backyard’ to the Pacific and the Far East (China). A. By 1881, US had started claiming Hawaii Islands as part of American system. During the Spanish-US war in 1898 (fought over Cuba, which along with Puerto Rico was the only Spanish Colony in the Americas): - a) Spanish colonies in the Pacific - i. Philippines came under USA attack and consequently annexed. - ii. Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the US. - b) Cuba though made legally independent; its foreign policy came under US control. It was forbidden to make any treaties with any other country. B. Hawaii (Pacific) was officially annexed by USA in 1898. (*Islands of Guam and Hawaii are strategically important even today for the present US policy of Asia pivot*). C. Samoan Islands (Pacific) became victim of rivalry for control between USA, Germany and Britain. - In 1899 Samoan islands were divided between USA and Germany (Britain was compensated elsewhere). - In case of Britain, it were mainly the settlers of New Zealand and Australia who wanted Britain to colonize more territory around them. In the Fiji islands it was on the demand of locals, who resented the autocratic rule, that Britain took over in 1885. - In 1885, Britain and Germany divided the Eastern half of New Guinea among themselves, while Dutch were in control of the Western half. Germany also bought some islands in the Pacific from Spain. Colonialism in Central and West Asia - In Central and West Asia, the main rivalry for colonies was between Russia and Britain. Russia wanted access to the sea for trade and thus desired to control the ports. - It followed an expansionist policy, which threatened Britain with respect to the Indian empire. - The two rivals had strained relations till 1907. Russian expansion in Asia began after the Crimean war (1853-6) in which Russia lost against an alliance of France, Britain, Ottoman Empire and Sardinia Italy). - In the Crimean War, Russia wanted expansion of territory at expense of a weakening Ottoman Empire, while the European powers were against such a Russian expansion as it would threaten Eastern Europe coming under sway of the Russians. - In 1858, Russia forced China to hand over huge territory north of the River Amur establishing much of the modern border between Russian Far East and Manchuria (China). - Today China seeks to get it back from Russia. - Fig: River Amur - This gave Russia a port in the Western Pacific. To check Russian influence in Tibet, Britain sent troops there in 1904 and acquired control over Tibet’s foreign policy. Russia weakened after the defeat in 1904-05 RussoJapanese war, made an agreement in 1907 with Britain and recognized Tibet and Afghanistan as areas of British influence. - Thus, British were able to create a buffer zone between India and Russia. - In Persia (Iran), as per the 1907 agreement, Northern Iran was recognized as sphere of influence of Russia, Southern Iran of Britain and the Central Iran was made a buffer zone with equal freedom for both. - In Asia, Britain had India, Ceylon, Afghanistan and Burma. - Most of the Far East, except China, was scrambled by 1871. Russia had one-third of the area under its control. In the East Asia, China and Japan were independent. - Japan escaped Imperialism and embarked on Industrialization after 1868 Meiji Restoration. - It had become imperialist in 1890s and thus it was China, which became the target of Imperialism in 19th and 20th century. Colonialism in China Following is a bullet point summary of events in China during its colonization (although Neo-colonization is more relevant word to use, as we will see later) 1. China was discovered by the Portuguese in 1514 and they established trade relations with China by setting up a trading center in Canton in 1557. 2. But, China followed a policy of seclusion and only limited trade happened. 3. The Opium Wars of 19th century forced China to open up to rest of the world i.e in trade, inflow of foreigners and in establishing diplomatic relations. 4. Historically, China had national unity and Manchu Dynasty ruled from 1640s to 1911. From 1840s till 1949, when Maoists came to power, it witnessed a period of foreign interference, civil war and disintegration. 5. Taiping rebellion (1850-64) was a religious-political movement, which was crushed by provincial armies of China. 6. Loss of territory north of River Amur to Russia in 1858. 7. Japan invaded China in 1894-5 and brought parts of China under its control, especially Manchuria was brought under Japanese economic influence. 8. Boxer Rising occurred during 1899-1900. It was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian revolt. British deployed Indian soldiers to put it down. 9. Japan emerged victorious from the Russia Japan war of 1904-05 and replaced Russia from areas under its control in China. 10. In 1911, the Manchu Dynasty was overthrown and a Republic was proclaimed. 11. From 1916 to 1928, there was no central authority in China and the Generals with private armies seized control of different provinces. This era is called as Warlord Era. 12. It was Kuomintang or KMT or the Nationalist party, which rose during the Warlord Era and ended it completely in 1928. Sun Yat Sen and later Chiang Kai Shek were its important leaders. 13. KMT fought a civil war with Chinese Communist Party which emerged victorious by 1949, establishing a communist form of government in China while Chiang Kai Shek fled to Taiwan operating a Government in exile. **Details of events in China** - China was discovered by the Portuguese in 1514 and trade relations were established by setting up a trading center in Canton in 1557. - By 1730s, all European nations were trading with China, while USA started trading in 1784. But China followed a policy of seclusion after Europeans started meddling in internal affairs, especially the Christian Missionaries from Rome (Rome was till 1870 supported by French Army). - Thus France was also involved in China). - China allowed only limited trade through selected Chinese traders and only via port of Canton. **Two Opium Wars (1840-42 and 1858)** - In the 19th century, China had a weak government in form of Manchu dynasty. Britain had become a major trade partner but it had a huge trade deficit as China was self sufficient and imported little from the West. - The British were facing the burden of this trade deficit as the Chinese accepted only precious metals like Gold as payment for exports to Britain (especially Tea and Silk). - As a solution to this problem, the British started exchanging Opium as payment. - This was opposed by China and resulted in Opium Wars in 1840-2 and 1858. - After the first Opium war, British took over Hong Kong and extracted trade concessions from China. - They also established British sovereignty over the trading centers. - China was coerced into giving up the opposition to trade with the West. Major ports of China were opened to British trade and residence. Free trade was imposed on China. - This meant that British could trade with any Chinese trader and custom duties were reduced. Also, a British diplomat was permanently stationed in China. - British citizens in China could only be prosecuted under the British law. - Between the two Opium wars, other European nations and USA also signed trade agreements with China but the former desired more favorable treaties, which led to the second Opium war. - After the second Opium War, the trade treaties were revised. Even more Chinese ports were opened for trade. - The European ships got rights of transit in Chinese rivers and Europeans could freely travel across China. • China was made to guarantee security of life of Missionaries and the latter were given right to establish Churches anywhere in China. • Ironically along with all this religiosity import into China, the Opium trade was also legalized. • After the second Opium War, many more European nations, some South American nations and Japan established trade relations with China. Thus, China was opened up with different imperialist powers gradually establishing their Spheres of Influences in China. **Loss of territory north of River Amur to Russia in 1858** • In 1858, China was weak. It was losing in the 2nd Opium War and was fighting the Taiping Rebellion. In 1858, • Russia threatened to attack & thus forced China to hand over huge amount of territory north of the River Amur. **Manchu Dynasty and Warlord Era** • Manchu Dynasty ruled China from 1640s to 1911. As discussed above, till the 1st Opium War in 1840s, Manchu rulers followed a policy of seclusion or isolation. • It was able to sustain isolationist policy because China was pretty much self sufficient in all goods and in fact always had a positive Balance of Trade (BoT) with rest of the world. • Its tea was circulated by the British in their empire and rest of the world. The Boston Tea Party’s tea was actually Chinese Tea. • There were no major upheavals in China and it remained generally peaceful till 1840s. In 1840s, European nations started to force their way into China to take advantage of trade possibilities. • Their aim was to make China an exporter of raw material and importer of finished goods. Britain was the first to interfere. • It fought and won the Opium Wars and forced China to end policy of seclusion. Other EU nations followed suit and divided China into Spheres of Influences i.e. special areas of domination where a particular European nation got rights and concessions at specific ports. • Then USA intervened in late 19th and early 20th century and imposed an Open Door Policy where all nations were free to trade with all of China with no one nation dominating its affairs. • During 1850-64, Taiping Rebellion occurred in Southern China. It was a partly religious and partly political movement, with an aim to setup a Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace through armed rebellion against the Manchu Dynasty. • The Christian Taiping rebels demanded shared “property in common,” equality for women, and the replacement of Confucianism, Buddhism and Chinese folk religion with their form of Christianity. • The Taiping Rebellion was crushed but not by the government at the Centre but by the provincial armies. • The degradation in image and control of the Manchu rulers led to beginning of a process of Provinces asserting independence from the Central government. • This process culminated in the Warlord Era (1916-28) where the real authority lay with the provincial armies led by individual Generals. **Five Major Events** Five major events occurred before beginning of the Warlord Era: i. Sino-Japan War (1894-5): - This war was fought mainly over Korea, which was hitherto under the control of China. After the loss, China recognized Korea as an independent state (*Japan occupied Korea in 1910). - Also, China was forced to give some territory to Japan in the Southern China. Formasa (Taiwan) was occupied by Japan. - The Senkaku islands in South China Sea, which are today a point of contention between China and Japan were annexed by Japan after this war. Also, Manchuria came under economic influence of Japan where it made lot of capital investments after 1890s. - Manchuria was very important due to its high coal and mineral reserves. It also provided access to Pacific Ocean. Japan envied the Russian control of Manchuria after 1858. ii. Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900): - By 1900, China was divided into spheres of influences (thus China was reduced to a status of International colony). It was felt that it would soon be partitioned, with each Imperial power ruling its sphere of influence. - The rebellion was against foreign interference in political, economic and religious affairs and was crushed by a joint Anglo-German-Russian-French-Japanese-American force. - The Empress was forced to pay massive compensation for damage to the foreign property in China. Boxer Protocol, signed thereafter, allowed foreign powers to station their troops for protection of their citizens in China. After the treaty, Russia continued to occupy all of Manchuria. iii. Russo-Japan War (1904-05): - It was fought over Manchuria. Japan won this war and took over Russian possessions in China. Thus, more Chinese territory came under Japan’s control. - It got privileged position in South Manchuria (i.e. converted Southern Manchuria into its sphere of influence) and also got Port Arthur. - Japan converted independent Korea into its Protectorate in 1905 and also acquired control of Liaotung Peninsula. - Russia ceded half of Sakhalin islands to Japan. - The win established Japan as a major world power. US was against Russian domination in China. In Russo-Japan war, US President Roosevelt mediated and persuaded Russia to recognize Japan’s territorial gains. - US entered into a secret agreement with Japan to allow US trade freely in these areas. Thus, US began Policy of Appeasement towards Japan, which boosted Japan’s imperialism and allowed it to become a major power and a US rival in the Pacific. - The Russian defeat at hands of an Asian country, on one hand, psychologically boosted the Asians in their independence struggle and on other hand, it weakened the Russian Czarist regime at home. - The defeat was an important reason for decline of the Czar and it culminated in the Russian revolution of 1905 that brought limited It wanted a united, democratic and modern China. Though it was not communist in its ideology, it was ready to cooperate with the Communists in the initial phase. Dr Sun Yat Sen was opposed to the disintegration of China during the Warlord era. His policy can be analyzed into three principles of Nationalism, Democracy and Land Reforms. By Nationalism, he desired an end to foreign interference in Chinese affairs and building of a great nation, while by Democracy he desired to end the rule of Warlords. Under the principle of Land Reforms, he was not in favor of immediate confiscation of lands from the landlords but promised the peasants that in the long term he would try land redistribution in favor of peasants, their economic development and lower rents. He was only partially successful in his aims. In 1912, he was able to form a military government in Canton in Southern China with help of southern warlords. Thus, the aim of Democracy could not be achieved. Also outside Southern China he had little influence due to lack of proper Army of KMT. His alliance with the Southern Warlords ended in 1921 and thereafter he had to flee Canton and had to seek Soviet Russia’s help for unification of China, which helped modernize and train KMT’s Army. He was successful in rousing the spirit of Nationalism and became famous as an intellectual statesman but unable to end foreign interference or build China into a great nation. He died relatively young at the age of 59 in 1925 after which Chiang Kai Shek became the leader of KMT. **Chiang Kai Shek** After 1925, it was Chiang Kai Shek, a militarily trained man, who was responsible for developing the KMT Army with the Soviet help. Although he studied the working of Communist Party and Red Army of Soviet Russia, he had a right wing ideology and was pro-capitalist class. He removed all the communist members from the KMT in 1925 and thus, was less tolerant than his predecessor Sun Yat Sen. **Chinese Communist Party (1921+)** Even though KMT’s aim was establishing democracy in China, the Soviet Russia after 1921 began supporting the KMT with cash, military training and arms with hope of having a friendly and united China under Kuomintang. On the other hand, the Chinese Communist Party was formed by the leftist intellectuals in 1921. Both KMT and Chinese Communist Party got support from peasants and workers during the warlord era. Northern March (1926) was a military campaign by KMT and Chinese Communist Party against the Warlords. In 1927, after its win against the Warlords, the KMT initiated the Purification Movement, which was KMT’s campaign against the Chinese Communist Party during which worker and peasant leaders as well as Chinese Communist Party members were massacred. In fact, the Chinese Communist Party was to a good extent eliminated. But the consequent KMT government that came to power failed to meet aspirations of the masses. The government was inefficient and corrupt. A nexus developed between the landlords, the industrialists and the government officials, which resulted in exploitation of the poor. The workers suffered from poor conditions of work, while the peasants were disenchanted by lack of land reforms, high taxes and forced labor. • They formed the support base of whatever was left of the Chinese Communist Party. • From 1930 to 1934, KMT initiated the Encirclement Campaigns to destroy Chinese Communist Party. • The strategy was to encircle the Chinese Communist Party base and exterminate them in combat. • The 1934 Communist escape is famous in this context, whereby 1 lakh Chinese Communist Party cadres were able to breach the KMT trapped Chinese Communist Party Headquarter in Southwest China and they set out on the famous 6000 mile Long March from Southwest China to the mountains in the North. • The Chinese Communist Party cadres covered 6000 miles in one year (Indian coastline is of 7517 km while 6000 miles convert to 9600 km approximately) and on their way they crossed mountains & rivers, fought the warlords, which were allies of KMT and won more and more territory. • Only 20,000 of 1 lakh members survived and they setup a new base in Shensi province. • With the support of peasants, the remaining leadership of Chinese Communist Party, especially Mao Zedong reinvigorated the party. • Chinese Communist Party gradually started bringing more area under its control. They provided an honest administration and introduced pro-peasant land reforms in areas under their control, which further tilted the masses in their favor. • Japan had invaded Manchuria in 1931 and established a puppet state (Manchukuo) there. From 1931 onwards, small localized “incidents” of Japanese aggression against China continued. But the KMT continued to attack the • Chinese Communist Party cadres, instead of diverting full energy against the Japanese. • Due to pressure from its own soldiers, KMT had to make truce with Chinese Communist Party in 1936 and after that both of them fought together against Japanese invasions, which took form of full blown war when Japan in 1937 initiated full fledged invasion of China. • This is called as the second Sino-Japan war (1937-45) and it became part of the World War II. • The KMT forces were quickly defeated by Japanese army while the Chinese Communist Party cadres had more success due to its guerrilla warfare strategy. • This increased the support base of Communists who were now seen as patriotic. Also, Mao Zedong (who was chairman of Chinese Communist Party since 1931) did not delay the reform process and resumed it as soon as it was possible, even amidst the war. • For example, it started a Rectification programme in 1942 under which the intellectuals, students and urban youth were sent to remote villages to work on the fields with peasants for understanding and empathizing with the hardships of peasant’s life. • Thus, during the Sino-Japan war the Chinese Communist Party was able to increase its military control in China by their Guerrilla warfare strategy and by enlisting more and more Chinese peasants and workers. • After 1945, the civil war resumed between Chinese Communist Party and Kuomintang. USA and USSR had occupied territory in China after defeating Japan. • As USA was against communism it handed over the territory under its occupation to Kuomintang while Russia handed over Manchuria to Chinese Communist Party. Thus, now the Chinese civil war became part of the Cold War whereby USA supported KMT and USSR supported the Chinese Communist Party. • By 1949, the Chinese Communist Party emerged victorious as its Red Army was by then relatively large and well armed with Soviet weapons. • This forced Chiang Kai Shek to flee to Taiwan where he setup a government in exile for whole of China. • This government was recognized as the legitimate government of China by the USA, while a new Communist State emerged on the world map in territory of mainland China. Before 1868, the following conditions existed in Japan: | a) Political System | Emperor was merely a figurehead. Real power was with the military generals also known as shoguns. | |---------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | b) Social System: | a Europe-like feudal society existed in Japan. | | c) International contact | • for over 200 years, Japan was cut-off from rest of the world. Around 1850s, Japanese independence came under threat. • US sent a naval fleet in 1853 and coerced Japan into opening two ports for US ships and trade was permitted. • Similar treaties were signed with European powers in coming years. | **Meiji Restoration (1868):** - In 1868 the rule of shoguns was ended and a new set of advisers began ruling in the name of Emperor, whose authority was restored at least on paper. - The Emperor took the title of Meiji and these changes are collectively called Meiji Restoration. From 1868 to 1908, Japan emerged as an industrialized nation. - Initially, the government took up the responsibility and invested a lot in heavy industries. Later, the industries were sold to Capitalists who soon emerged as self-sufficient and no more required government support. - An efficient Education programme ensured that Japanese were made literate very rapidly. It provided skilled workforce needed for rapid industrialization. - Extreme nationalism and worship of Emperor were stressed in the education. - This enthused people to work hard for national economic growth and also helped in justification of Imperialism that was to happen later. In 1889, a new constitution was enacted. - The ministers were responsible to the Emperor and not the Diet (Parliament). - Emperor was referred to as divine. The ministers and the Diet had no say in appointment of Army and Navy officers who. The Diet had limited financial powers. The right to vote was given to only 3% of population. Thus, gradually the armed forces came to dominate the political affairs of Japan. - Japan was a small island nation with majority of people living on meager wages. Thus, it lacked domestic market and embarked upon colonization in search of export markets and raw materials to feed its industry. - Manchuria was very important due to its high coal and mineral reserves. It also provided access to Pacific Ocean. - Japan envied the Russian control of Manchuria after 1858. | 1. Sino-Japan War (1894-5): | This war was fought mainly over Korea, which was hitherto under the control of China. After the loss, a) China recognized Korea as an independent state. b) Formasa (Taiwan) was occupied by Japan. c) Senkaku islands in South China Sea, which are today a point of contention between China and Japan, were annexed by Japan after this war. | | 2. Russo-Japan War (1904-05): | It was fought over Manchuria. Japan won this war and acquired more Chinese territory. | | a) Japan converted Southern Manchuria into its sphere of influence and also got Port Arthur. | | b) Japan converted independent Korea into its Protectorate in 1905 and also acquired control of Liaotung Peninsula. | | c) Russia ceded half of Sakhalin islands to Japan. | | 3. Japan annexation | Japan annexed Korea in 1910. During WWI, Japan wanted but failed in converting China into its Protectorate. | | 4. Japan Invasion | • Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and established the puppet state of Manchukuo. | | • From 1931 onward, small localized “incidents” of Japanese aggression against China continued. | | 5. Sino-Japan war (1937-45):| • Japan in 1937 initiated full fledged invasion of China. It became part of the World War II. | | • Japan turned into a military dictatorship in early 1930s, which gave a boost to imperialistic campaigns in China. | | • It were the economic and political problems, which had plunged Japan into control of the Army. Japan had enjoyed economic boom till middle of 1921. | | • It had benefited from the World War I (1914-19) as after the war European powers were weak economically and were involved in quarrels over Treaty of Versailles. | | • Economic weakness of European nations made their exports less competitive. | | • Also, they were militarily exhausted and thus not in a position to check Japanese aggression. | | • The only nation powerful enough to check Japan’s imperialist march was USA but it was itself disgusted with the World War I and followed a policy of isolation, which entailed non interference in world affairs and prevention of military conflict with any other nation at all costs. | | • Thus, Japan took benefit of this whole situation. By 1918, it had profited economically by exporting shipping and other goods to the Allied Powers during WW I. | | • It had replaced European companies in export markets, especially in Asia, and got supply orders which Europeans could not service. During World War I, Japan’s cotton exports had tripled and merchant ships doubled. | | • The social conditions in Japan were also responsible for its Imperialist tendencies. The influential sections of the society like the Army and the conservatives were against Democracy and frequently criticized the government. | | • The Army was against Government’s soft and conciliatory approach to China, as it waned to take advantage of the Civil War in China to expand the colonial empire. | The economic conditions also played a role. The economic boom ended by 1921, because the European nations had recovered economically and now recaptured their lost export markets. In Japan, unemployment increased and the peasants were hit by rapid decrease in prices of rice due to bumper harvests. The protests of workers and peasants were suppressed brutally and thus, they also turned against the government. The World Economic Crisis served as the turning point, as Japanese exports were hurt badly as the importing nations were not in a position to pay for imports. In Manchuria, the Chinese companies were trying to replace the Japanese companies and the Japanese trade and businesses were at risk. This was unbearable in the background of the Economic Crisis of 1929. The Army invaded Manchuria in 1931 without the government’s knowledge and the Prime Minister was killed in 1932 when he opposed the invasion. Till 1945, it was the Army, which ran the country on Fascist lines. The Emperor enjoyed high prestige but he also failed to control the Japanese imperialism because he was afraid of his orders not being followed. Thus in Japan, it was the Army and not the elected government, which was responsible for Imperialism in 1930s. Also, it were the economic problems and the small size of its territory, which increased its Imperialism. Imperialist US - From 1865 to 1895, USA rose as an industrial power. For some time, the US influence in international economy was not felt because it had huge domestic market and thus much of its production was consumed internally. - The reason for huge domestic market was increased population in USA due to huge migration of Europeans and other groups in 19th century and first decade of 20th century. - Another reason was the Policy of Isolation, which implied a general lack of interest in world affairs. - But by 1890s, US emerged as a new Imperialist power. - The major reason was Industrial Revolution induced demand for export markets and raw materials. US also used the concept of White Man’s Burden and export of modern civilization was cited as a reason for US interference. - The domination of the weak by the strong nations was justified as the law of nature. US expansion in the Pacific had started even earlier. (*please go to Colonialism in Pacific*) - In 1890s, when Europeans wanted to partition China, the USA felt left out and thus enforced the ‘Open Door Policy’, which implied that in China all Imperial powers would have equal rights and no Imperial power would discriminate against another power citing any area as its Sphere of Influence. Thus, China became an International Colony. - US contributed troops for suppression of Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900) In 1893, US reiterated its hegemony over North and South America. It declared itself as practically sovereign over whole of America and its orders should be treated as law. - It forced the British to agree to arbitration in a territorial dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana (present Guyana). - US was against Russian domination in China. In Russo-Japan war of 1904-5, US President Roosevelt mediated and persuaded Russia to recognize Japan’s territorial gains. US entered into a secret agreement with Japan to allow US trade freely in these areas. - Thus US began Policy of Appeasement towards Japan, which boosted Japan’s imperialism and allowed it to become a major power and a US rival in the Pacific. - Corollary to Monroe Doctrine: In 1904 Monroe Doctrine (1823) was expanded. Roosevelt argued now that US had the right to not just oppose European interference in Latin American affairs but also had the right to intervene in internal affairs of South American countries. - From 1906-9 US troops intervened in Cuba to restore law and order. - Panama Canal in Columbia: It was completed in 1914. It boosted US trade in a big manner. The canal allowed a link between the two oceans of the Pacific and the Atlantic. - Earlier US bought shares of the French Company, which was constructing the canal. - When the Columbian government opposed the terms of agreement with the US, the latter manufactured a revolution and sent troops to prevent curbing of the revolution. Soon, Panama was recognized as an independent nation and it signed a much more favorable agreement than what the US had offered Columbia. Neo-Colonialism in South America: - The Presidents after Roosevelt, namely, Taft and Woodrow Wilson followed the policy of promoting investments by US companies and bringing Latin American economy under its control with help of these investments. - US intervened in Mexico by helping in a coup against popularly elected leader Madero (elected in 1910, removed & murdered in 1913). Mexicans became hostile to US after this event (Mexico became independent from Spain in 1821). Europe still dominated rest of the World - Though Europe still dominated rest of the world, important powers like US and Japan had arisen outside Europe too. - Moreover, within Europe, not all European countries were powerful. It were Germany, France and Britain, which were the major powers. - The rest of Europe was still in the process of economic modernization. - By 1914, Germany was ahead of Britain in production of pig iron and steel but lagged behind in production of coal. - On other hand, France, Italy, Belgium and Austria-Hungary were well behind Britain and Germany. Russia was last to begin with industrialization. - In 1914, Russian industry was expanding rapidly but still its economy was pre-dominantly agricultural and thus, far behind Germany and Britain. Russia was also witnessing political turmoil. - One Russian Revolution had happened in 1905 and the next took place in 1917. - Outside Europe, US and Japan had begun industrialization around 1870s. In 1914, US produced more pig iron, steel and coal than Germany and Britain. - It had adopted the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 and by 1914 it had ensured its domination of all of the Americas but was relatively detached from the affairs of Europe. - Japan had emerged as a major exporter of textiles. It had defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 and gained recognition as a major world power. - Japanese imperialism was directed towards China. US policy of appeasement towards Japan had made it a strong rival in the Pacific. Thus by 1914, US and Japan both had emerged as Imperialist powers. Political Systems of the world powers varied widely - There was democracy in US, Britain and France. Germany had lower house but the real power lay in office of the Chancellor and the Kaiser (Emperor). - Italy was a constitutional monarchy but the Right to Vote was available only to the wealthy. - Japan after Meiji Restoration (1868) had brought a constitution in 1889, which provided for a lower house (Diet). - But the Diet had limited powers, the Right to Vote was available to only 3% of the population and the real power was in the hands of the army, navy, the Emperor (Meiji) and the privy council. Imperial Expansion after 1880 - After Industrial Revolution in the 1870s, many European nations sought to increase their colonial empire. - European powers had scrambled the whole of Africa by 1914. Although nominally China was a Republic since 1911, after overthrow of Manchu Dynasty, it had been converted into an international colony by US, Japan, France, Britain and Germany. Causes of Friction within Europe Following can be classified as some of the major causes of friction among European powers: - Rivalry for colonies in Africa, Asia and the Pacific. **Naval rivalry:** - It was a result of colonial rivalry and was witnessed the most between Britain and Germany. - Germany was a late entrant in the race for colonies and wanted to use its navy to threaten other colonial powers for expansion of German colonial empire. - Germany sought to increase its naval strength by citing national defense, while the British opposed German naval buildup citing that it was only Britain, which had the right to naval supremacy. - Britain argued that it deserved a supremacy in naval strength to ensure continued protection of its colonial empire, which was the largest and the most spread out by 20th century. - Loss of Alsace Lorraine by France to Germany in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871 was a cause for Germany-France rivalry. - Russia was suspicious of Habsburg empire’s ambition in the Balkans. Balkan is an area in the north east of Mediterranean Sea and is populated by mainly the Slavs. - The Russian Czarist regime/Romanov Dynasty also belonged to the group of Slavs and had its own ambitions in the Balkans. **Serbian nationalism:** - The Serbs wanted to integrate the Balkan areas populated with Slavs into a single Yugoslavia. - Such a Yugoslavia would have required secession of certain areas from the Habsburg empire which had people from different ethnic groups including Slavs. - Once the Slavs had been integrated into Yugoslavia, other groups would have also demanded secession. Thus, the idea of Yugoslavia threatened the integrity of Habsburg empire. Europe had divided itself into two alliances: - The Triple Alliance had Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy while the Triple Entente had Britain, France and Russia. - But these were not very rigid alliances. In fact, Italy fought on the side of Britain and France in the World War I. - The World War I was fought between the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria) and the Allied Powers (Italy, Britain, France, Russia and US). 1. Moroccan Crisis (1905-6): - In 1904-5 Britain and France had signed Entente Cordiale with a clause that - Britain’s control over Sudan and Egypt would be recognized by France and the special rights of France over Morocco would be recognized by Britain. - Germany became anxious of increasing French influence in Morocco. It pledged to maintain independence of Morocco and called a conference. - But Italy, Spain, Russia and Britain supported France in the conference and the latter got control over Moroccan Banks and Police. This was a diplomatic defeat for Germany. 2. Britain-Russia Agreement of 1907: - It ended their disputes in Asia. Afghanistan and Tibet were recognized as British spheres of influence and Iran was divided into three zones with the North recognized as Russian zone, the central area as a buffer and the South as British zone. - Russia hoped to get British investments for its industrial development after this agreement. 3. Bosnia Crisis (1908): - Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia from the weak Ottoman empire. Bosnia had significant population of Slavs and thus Serbia also longed for Bosnia as an integral part of future Yugoslavia. - Serbia called for help from Russia, which tried to organize a conference over the issue. But no conference was held as Britain and France withdrew support to Serbia when it became clear that Germany would support Habsburg Empire in case of a military conflict. - They wanted to avoid a direct military clash with the Germans. Russia was not militarily strong to take any action in favor of Serbia. - After this humiliation, Russia began its militarization so it could help Serbia if the need arise in future. - Russia was now more suspicious of Habsburg empire’s ambitions in the Balkans and Serbia became a bitter rival of Austria-Hungary. 4. Agadir Crisis (1911): - When France deployed troops in Morocco, Germany got anxious of Morocco coming French control. It sent its warships to the island of Agadir near Morocco. It threatened France that if it did not withdraw its troops then Germany will annex Agadir. - Britain was worried that if Germany captured Agadir then it would be in a position to threaten British trade routes. Britain again sided with France. - In a compromise, Germany was given a small strip of land in French Congo and in return Germany was compelled to recognize French control of Morocco. 5. 1st Balkan War (1912): - Here the Balkan League (Montenegro, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria) attacked Turkey and captured most of Ottoman Empire’s territories in Europe. Germany and Britain mediated to bring about a ceasefire. - In the peace settlement, the Ottoman Empire’s territory in Europe was divided among the Balkan States. Serbia was unhappy as it wanted Albania for this would have provided it with access to the sea but Albania was made an independent state. - Obviously, the Austrian hand was working through Germany against Serbia. 6. 2nd Balkan War 1913: - This was fought against Bulgaria by Greece, Romania, Turkey and Serbia. Bulgaria attacked Serbia because it was unhappy with most of Macedonia being given to Serbia at the end of the 1st Balkan war. - After its defeat in the war, Bulgaria lost all territory it had gained from the 1st Balkan war. - Germany had restrained Austria-Hungary from militarily helping Bulgaria. - Britain on the other hand, had not come to the aid of Serbs. Germany took this as a sign of British detachment with the Russians. - The result of the 2nd Balkan War was a stronger Serbia, which was now determined to instigate Croats and Serbs (both are Slavs) of Habsburg Empire for realization of the goal of Yugoslavia. 7. Assassination of Archduke of Austria Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia (June 1914): - Bosnia had been annexed by Habsburg empire and the Bosnians were aligned with Serbia. A secret society had organized the killing and the Bosnian government was aware of the plot but did not do anything to stop it. - This event was definitely an act of terrorism and the anger among the Austrians was justified but Austria-Hungary took this event as an opportunity to try annexing Serbia. - It presented Serbia with a set of demands with a deadline. - Serbia accepted most of the demands but not all because accepting all the demands would have amounted to surrendering the sovereignty of Serbia to Habsburg empire. - Serbia fearing invasion ordered military mobilization. After the deadline, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The assassination served as the immediate cause of the World War I. Who/What was to blame for the Assassination of Archduke steamrolling into World War I? - Definitely the quarrel between Serbia and the Habsburg Empire was responsible for the outbreak of war between Serbia and Austria but not for World War I. Following were the reasons for escalation of Serbia-Austria conflict into a World War: **Web of Alliances:** - It refers to the Alliance System, Europe had organized itself into. This made the allies of each side to enter the war. Once Austria declared war on Serbia after the latter failed to meet all the demands, Russia ordered full mobilization honoring its alliance with Serbia. - Then Germany mobilized troops and declared war on Russia because Russia had rejected the German demand of not mobilizing troops against Austria and Germany had an alliance with Austria. - Then Germany formed an alliance with Ottoman Empire and declared war on France because Germany believed that France would enter the war in favor of Russia, honoring the Franco-Russian alliance of 1894. - The German War Plan was also known as Schlieffen Plan, which aimed at German victory over France in just 6 weeks. This was possible only if Germany would attack France through Belgium, which lay between France and Germany. - Since Britain was an ally of Belgium and had guaranteed its neutrality, it declared war against Germany when Belgium was attacked. - Japan entered war, honoring its alliance with Britain. - Thus, all major powers were at war with each other due to the Alliance System. But this was not the sole reason as the earlier conflicts had not escalated into a world war. **Imperialism:** - Colonial rivalry in Africa and the Far East was also to blame. France, Britain and others had ganged up against Germany in the Moroccan crisis thwarting its colonial ambitions. - Japan wanted German Pacific islands and thus entered the war on the side of Allied Powers. - Italy entered the war on side of Allied Powers in 1915 on promise of more territory. - Naval Race between Germany and Britain increased tensions and both became rivals. - By defeating the other in the war at sea, each power had ambition of establishing naval supremacy once and for all. - Capitalism was blamed by Lenin as he saw economic rivalry with profit motive as the root cause of the war. - Russia made war more likely by backing Serbia. Had Russia allowed Serbia to deal with Austria alone then Germany may not have entered the war. Russia always desired influence in the Eastern Europe. - But it had genuine concerns as well. Ottoman empire was already under the influence of Germany and Austria. - If Serbia had been defeated by Austria then Dardanelles, which provided an outlet from the Black Sea and thus was crucially important for Russian trade, would have come under control of Austria and Germany, who could then have strangled the Russian trade. - German backing of Austria was also crucially important. - This was probably because the Germans felt encircled by Russia, France and Britain. Russia and France had signed an agreement in 1894. - In 1904, Britain and France who were traditional rivals, signed an agreement of friendship also known as Entente Cordiale under which they resolved their disputes regarding colonies in Africa. - In 1907, Russia and Britain signed an agreement that ended their disputes in Asia. - Thus by 1907, Germany was anxious due to the growing proximity between the other major powers in the region, even though technically these agreements were not military agreements and dealt with territorial disputes and trade & investments. - Mobilization plans of the big powers were also responsible. • The mobilization of armies increased the tensions and mutual suspicion. • Europe had many internal disputes other than the Serbia-Austria quarrel and once one power ordered the mobilization of its forces, the rival powers had to mobilize their own forces to be able to deal with any possible military threat to their own frontiers. **A tragedy of Miscalculations:** • Germany believed that due to France-Russia Agreement of 1894, France will surely fight in favor of Russia. • After passive stand of Britain in the 2nd Balkan War, Germany thought that Britain would not come to the aid of Russia or France. • Further, Germans miscalculated that the Schlieffen Plan will bring them a quick victory. • Germans miscalculated that by supporting Austria they would be able to threaten Russia into neutrality. • Austria miscalculated that since it had German support, Russia won’t come to aid of Serbia. • Politicians in Germany and Russia felt that mobilization would not necessarily escalate into a War. • Cultural belief that war was good, necessary, glorious and the notion of superiority of us over them rallied the people in favor of war. During the World War I - The Schlieffen Plan failed as the Germans failed to defeat the French in the planned time of 6 weeks. After this it was clear that it was to be long drawn war. - Trench Warfare and the war at the sea were the two important features of World War I. i. The Trench Warfare occurred mainly in France with both sides armies digging trenches. - The soldiers used to sit in and fire from the trenches. Whenever troops charged out of the Trenches against the enemy, they were exposed in an open field and became easy targets of the enemy. - In this way, both sides suffered huge casualties. Soon a standoff developed with both sides stationed in their respective trenches. - The life in the trenches was miserable with water clogging resulting in diseases and consequent deaths. ii. War at the Sea: a) The Blockade Policy: This was followed mainly by Britain and Germany. It aimed at three things: - Blockade of the rival trade routes so the rival is starved out due to the lack of supply of goods (arms, rations etc.) and is thus forced to surrender. - Provide security to own trade routes so that the country which is blockading doesn't itself starves for movement of troops. Britain was successful in destroying many surface warships of Germany. b) Allied Blockade caused problems to the US as the British stopped and searched all ships to prevent Germany from getting any supplies. - This slowed down movement of US merchant ships. Also, the US wanted to trade with both the sides and thus disapproved of Allied Blockade, c) Germans retaliated with sea mines and submarine attacks. - Once the German surface warships had suffered huge damage at hands of the British navy, the Germans did not have any other option but to resort to submarine attacks and sea mines. - But this infuriated US as some of its ships were sunk and in one incident many US citizens onboard a ship had died. From now on the public opinion in the US was more pro-British. d) Battle of Jutland (1916): - This was a battle on the sea and resulted in further British control of sea surface. - This left Germany with no option but to use underwater submarines and in an attempt to blockade the Allies it started the unrestricted submarine warfare. e) Unrestricted Submarine warfare by Germans in Atlantic Ocean in 1917: - This was the German Blockade with an aim to cut off British supply lines and it started attacking ‘all’ ships in the Atlantic. - This policy did not discriminate between neutral ships and the ships of Allies. - This infuriated US further but Germany thought that it would be able to starve the Allied Powers into surrender before the US decides to enter the war. Unrestricted submarine warfare was a major reason that catapulted US into the war on the side of Allied powers. **Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points (1918)** They more or less served as the war aims of Allied Powers. 1. Abolition of secret diplomacy 2. Free navigation at sea for all nations in war and peace 3. Removal of economic barriers between states 4. All round reduction of armaments 5. Impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the populations concerned 6. Evacuation of Russian territory 7. Restoration of Belgium 8. Liberation of France and restoration of Alsace and Lorraine to France 9. Readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality 10. Self government for people of Austria-Hungary 11. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated and Serbia to be given sea access 12. Self government for the non-Turkish people of Ottoman empire and permanent opening of Dardanelles 13. An independent Poland with secure access to Sea 14. A general association of nations to preserve peace Wilson under pressure from Britain and France added two more points regarding Germany viz disarmament of Germany and war reparations by Germans for civilian losses caused by them in occupied territories. **Attitude of the Allied Powers & the Peace treaties** - The British wanted a lenient treaty with Germany because a prosperous Germany would serve as a market for British exports. - France desired a harsh treaty with Germany so as to ensure that it is not able to threaten French frontiers in the foreseeable future. - The US also wanted a lenient treaty with Germany but was disappointed with the harsh treaty that Germans signed with the Russians and the destruction of civilian infrastructure by the Germans during their retreat from France and Belgium. - Finally a compromise was reached and Germans were not to pay the whole cost of war but just the cost in lieu of damage done to civilians and their property **Treaty of Versailles** It was signed with Germany. Following were its major points: 1) **Germany lost territory in Europe:** - Alsace-Lorraine was given to France. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were made independent nations. Parts of German territory were given to Denmark, Belgium, Poland and Lithuania. - SAAR and DANZIG had german population but they were brought under administration of League of Nations. • Danzig was a major port of West Prussia. Saar was to be under League of Nations for fifteen years and then a vote was to be held to decide if it would go to France or Germany. • France was given the right to use coal mines of Saar for these fifteen years. 2) **Union between Austria and Germany** was forbidden even though Austria had huge German population. 3) **Germany’s African colonies** were taken away and converted into Mandates under the League of Nations. • Members of the League of Nations were to ‘look after’ the colonies assigned to them as mandates and to prepare them for independence in the future. 4) **Germany was disarmed:** • It was barred from introducing conscription (compulsory military service). • Rhineland (Germany) was made a buffer zone between France and Germany by demilitarizing it permanently. • Germany was only allowed to have six battleships and at maximum one lakh soldiers. • It could have no planes, no tanks and no submarines. 5) **War guilt clause:** • It placed the blame for World War I solely on Germany and its allies. 6) **War Reparations:** • Germany was to pay 6600 pounds after a lot of deliberations. But it was decreased to 2000 million pounds later as the earlier amount was disproportionately high and Germans were in no position to pay such a huge amount. • The aim of the reparations was to ensure that Germany continues to grapple with its economy for a long time and thus never be a threat to France and Britain in foreseeable future. **Other Treaties** • Treaty of St Germain (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) • Treaty of St Germain (1919) was signed with Austria and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) was signed with Hungary. **These treaties had following consequences:** a. Austria & Hungary were reduced to a very small size as compared to the expanse of Habsburg empire. b. Territory was distributed among other European nations on the principle of self determination which entailed that now people lived under the government of their own nationality. **Treaty of Sevres (1920)** It was signed with Turkey. Following were important points: 1) Huge loss of territory to Greece e.g. Eastern Thrace and Smyrna. Italy also got some territory. 2) Dardanelles or the Straits (provided outlet from Black Sea) were permanently opened. 3) Ottoman Empire’s colonies were converted to mandates and given to Britain and France. Syria became French Mandate while British Mandates included TransJordan, Iraq and Palestine. b) Greeks: - The Treaty of Sevres was also in violation of the principle of Self Determination as it resulted in areas populated by Turks being given to Greece especially the territory of Smyrna which was on Turkish mainland. - This resulted in the rise of nationalism in Turkey and the nationalists under Mustapha Kemal rejected Treaty of Sevres. - The Greeks were chased out of Smyrna and Mustapha Kemal forced a renegotiation. Smyrna and some other former territories of Ottoman Empire were restored to Turkey through Treaty of Lausanne (1923). c) Arabs: - T.E Lawrence was a British officer who played a major role in inciting Arabs against the Turks. - He led the revolts by the Arabs against the Ottoman empire from 1916-18. After supporting the Allies in the World War I, the Arabs hoped for independence but their hopes remained unfulfilled. - Arabs were also unhappy with the talks regarding creation of a Jewish state within Palestine. d) Indians: - India did not gain any real autonomy even when many Indian soldiers fought on the side of British. The War Aims of Allied powers included self-governance and self-determination. - The Government of India Act 1919 failed to meet the aspirations of the Indian National Congress. - The dismemberment of Turkey was also a major grievance among the Muslims. - The British had promised to Indians a lenient treatment to the Ottoman Empire after the World War I in return for Indian support but they did not keep their promise. - These factors along with colonial oppression in form of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and Rowlatt Act served as a trigger for the Khilafat & NonCooperation Movement in India. 4) Principle of ‘Economic Viability’: - It was ironical that Allied Powers used the principle of ‘Economic Viability’ to justify that the newly created states needed areas having German population but the union between Austria and Germany was ignored even when it made perfect economic sense. 5) Loss of Colonies: - The objection to loss of African colonies by Germany was genuine. - The distribution was not impartial and was for satisfying imperialistic ambitions of the Allied Powers. - The League of Nations handed over these colonies as mandates only to the members of Allied Powers. Mandate System was a virtual annexation of German colonies by Allowed powers. - Britain got German East Africa. | | | |---|---| | 5) | France got most of Cameroon and Togoland while rest of these two colonies was given to Britain. South Africa got German South West Africa | | 6) War Guilt Clause | It is pretty much evident that all the Imperial powers were responsible for the World War I. Thus the War Guilt clause, which fixed responsibility of World War I solely on Germany and its allies was unjustified. It served as a humiliation for the Germans. The Allied Powers insisted on it as it made Germany legally liable to pay war reparations. | | 7) War Reparations: | The huge War Reparations resulted in humiliation to the Germans. The amount of 6600 million pounds was too high and was aimed at keeping Germany weak economically in the foreseeable future. Reduction in Territory: Austria and Hungary were reduced to very small size in terms of territory and population. Most of the industrial wealth of Austria went to Czechoslovakia and Poland. They were soon engulfed by economic crisis and they had to seek loans from League of Nations. | | 9) Free Trade clause neglected: | Free trade among nations was part of Wilson’s 14 points. But trade barriers were introduced by most of the newly created nation states. This made the recovery of Austrian economy very difficult. | | 10) | Russia did not gain much from peace settlement as the communist regime was not invited to the negotiations. | Impact of the World War I (1914-19) 1) The Peace Treaties: - They weakened Germany only temporarily because some of clauses like Disarmament and huge War Reparations were impossible to implement. Germany soon began rearming itself with help of Russians and defaulted on the payments towards reparations. a) The treaties only served to sow seeds of resentment and extreme national rivalries which were to harvest in form of the World War II. b) Treaties divided Europe into two groups of states. While one group wanted to revise the peace settlements, the other group wanted to defend/preserve the peace settlements. c) US did not ratify the peace settlements and never joined the League of Nations as the public soon denounced Wilson and US reverted back to the Policy of Isolation to prevent any military engagement in future. d) Italy felt cheated as it did not get all the territory that was promised to it in lieu of entering the war in 1915. 2) League of Nations was created to ensure world peace and for social work. 3) Russia became Communist: - World War I led to rise of revolting Bolsheviks who were against the Russian participation in the war due to the economic burden it brought upon the Russian population. - There were two phases of Russian Revolution of 1917. In the February Revolution (1917) the Czar was overthrown due to army mutinies and the civil unrest. - A provisional government was setup but it failed to hold the promised elections. Helped by the Germans, Lenin returned from exile to Russia and this paved way for the October Revolution (1917) that led to overthrow of the Provisional Government. - The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, came to power and a separate peace treaty (Treaty of Brest Litovsk) was signed with Germany in 1917. - This treaty was very harsh upon the Russians and was used against the Germans when they complained about the Treaty of Versailles being immoral and excessively harsh. 4) Rise of US as a hegemonic power: - US entered the war in 1917 when the German blockade of ships (1917) started targeting all the merchant vessels in Atlantic, including of the US. The Zimmerman Plan was another factor which changed the public opinion in US in favor of entering the war. - This plan was a product of German diplomat Zimmerman and entailed persuading Mexico to attack US. Also, earlier US did not want to enter the war on side of the autocratic Czar. - The spirit of American Revolution was behind the US reluctance. - But the fall of the Czarist regime in Russia removed this barrier as well. The following factors helped US emerge as the true winner from the World War I: a) The war was not fought on the US soil. Thus US escaped the usual damage to infrastructure and the consequent economic costs of reconstruction a war brings. b) US intervened militarily only during the last phase of the World War I and thus it lost minimal soldiers in the warfare unlike the Europeans who had to deal with the shelling and the trench warfare. c) US gave loans to the Allied Powers during the war and to the Germans after the end of the war to meet the reparation costs imposed on them under the Treaty of Versailles. Thus, US made a lot of money through World War I. Its war machine i.e. the military industries gained the most by selling weapons during and after the war. The decade after the war, till 1929 when the economic crisis hit US, was one of the most prosperous for US. d) The leading role played by President Woodrow Wilson in the negotiations in Versailles is a symbolic proof of the stature of US during and after the World War I. Thus, although even on the eve of World War I, US was the leading industrial economy, the World War I catalyzed its arrival on the world stage as a truly global power. 5) European economy suffered due to the war and European nations became dependent on loans from US for reconstruction. 6) Dismemberment of Ottoman Empire: - The Ottoman empire disintegrated after its loss in the World War I and the new nation state of Turkey came into being. 7) Disintegration of Habsburg Empire: - Austria-Hungary separated on their own just before the end of the World War I and the Habsburg empire came to an end. 8) Rise of new nations states: - Turkey, Austria and Hungary were created as mentioned above. - Further, Czechoslovakia and Poland were created. Serbia fulfilled its dream of uniting the Slav people under Yugoslavia which was formed by merging Serbia and Montenegro. - Also Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were made independent nations. - Germany had ceased them from Russia after the Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1917). 9) Imperialism continued: - The German colonies were converted into Mandates. Mandates were handed over to the victors for preparing them for independence at a suitable future date. - The British got the German colonies in Africa. Ottoman Empire’s territories of Iraq, Syria, Transjordan and Palestine were distributed as Mandates among France and Britain. 10) Introduction of new Weapons: - Many new weapons were used for the first time in World War I. - Barbed Wires, Machine Guns, Tanks, Poison Gas and Shelling were put to great use. This pushed the world away from peace and ensured that the future wars were more dangerous. 11) World War I did change the people’s outlook towards war: - War was now condemned by many thinkers due to the high civilian casualties. - Before the World War I, war was cited as glorious and there was a dominating flavor of romanticism in the literature being published. - This changed after the World War I and writers like Hemingway began denouncing the war as inhuman. Most viewed the World War I as a tragedy because it didn’t need to happen, it didn’t accomplish much and it only created socio-economic conditions that made World War II more likely. League of Nations - League of Nations had its origin in the war aims of Allied Powers. Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points had envisaged creation of an international agency that would work for maintenance of world peace. - Similarly, Britain had also listed creation of such an organization as one of its war aims during World War I. - This clause took the form of League of Nations, which was formed in January 1920, with its headquarters in Geneva, on the same day as the Treaty of Versailles came into effect. Aims of the League of Nation Following were the aims of the League of Nation: 1. Settle international disputes to prevent war in future. This was to be achieved through the principle of collective security. All the member nations were to collectively act against a nation who tried to wage a war. This action against the aggressor nation would take form of economic sanctions and military action, if required. Thus, maintenance of international peace and security was the primary goal of the League. 2. Economic and Social work: - The League of Nations was to seek international cooperation for socio-economic development across the world. - For this purpose various organizations within the League of Nations were created. League Covenant - It was the list of rules through which the League was to operate. These rules were drawn up by an International Committee that comprised of the leaders of important world powers. Organizational Structure of the League of Nations | 1) Membership: | There were 42 member nations to begin with. By 1926, when Germany was granted membership, the total number of member nations had reached the tally of 55. | |----------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 2) Security Council: | • The League of Nations had a United Nations Security Council, like Security Council with eight members to begin with, four permanent members and four non-permanent members. • The non permanent members were elected by the General Assembly for a term of three years. By 1926, the council had thirteen members with the seats for non permanent members now increasing to nine. • The four permanent members were France, Italy, Japan and Britain. The decisions in the council had to be unanimous. • The mandate of the League of Nations Security Council was to deal with political issues. | 3) Peacekeeping Function: - All disputes that could boil down to a war were to be referred to the League and any member that resorted to war was to face collective action by the rest of the members. - The Security Council would have the authority to recommend the amount of resources - naval, air, military - that each member of the League should contribute for collective action against the aggressor. 4) General Assembly: - Members of the League of Nations constituted the General Assembly. The Assembly met annually and the decisions were to be taken unanimously. All members of the Assembly had one vote. - The Assemble was a policy making body of the League and thus its mandate was to decide on the general policy issues. - It also controlled the finances of the League of Nations and had powers to change a peace treaty. - The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the Council, the election with the Council of the Judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the budget. In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities. 5) Permanent Court of International Justice: - It was setup in Hague (Netherlands). Its mandate was to deal only with the legal disputes between states and not the political disputes. - It had fifteen judges from different nationalities. - It continues to function today as part of the United Nations and is known as the International Court of Justice. 6) Secretariat - It was setup as a support unit and handled the paperwork, formulation of reports and preparing the agenda. 7) Commissions & Committees: - Commission were setup, with each commission dealing with specific problems. - Examples of important commissions included commission for handling issues regarding 'Mandates', Disarmament, Military Affairs etc. - On the other hand, important committees were those dealing with areas of Health, Labor, Women Rights, Drugs, Child Welfare etc. **Evaluation of Performance of League of Nations** - To determine the success or failure of the League of Nations, we can analyze its performance with respect to two major aims of the League as mentioned earlier. - If the performance of the League of Nations is to be summarized, then it can be said that it failed with respect to its aim of being a leading forum for resolution of international disputes and ensuring a peaceful world. But, it did important work for the socio-economic development across the world, specially, the work by International Labor Organization towards welfare of the workers and the contribution of League of Nations for rehabilitation of the refugees of the World War I was commendable. **Success of the League of Nations** The League was successful in two areas: 1) **Economic and Social work through its Commissions and Committees:** a) **ILO:** - The International labor Organization was the most successful. The goals of ILO included – fixing maximum working days and minimum wages, ensuring that member nations provided for unemployment benefits and old age pensions. - Its work included information dissemination with respect to performance of different member nations and to push the governments for actions in the area of welfare of the workers. b) **The Refugee Organization:** - It helped the Prisoners of War in Russia to their homes outside Russia. - In 1933, it helped the Jews, who were fleeing to escape Nazi persecution, to resettle in different countries where they would be safe. c) **Health Organization:** - It did good work in finding causes of different epidemics. It was especially successful in combating Typhus epidemic in Russia which had the potential to spread to the rest of Europe. d) **Mandates Commission:** - It had the responsibility of monitoring the governance of territories given to member nations as Mandates (former colonies of Ottoman Empire and Germany). - A separate commission, which was setup for supervising the governance in SAAR, was very efficient and successfully held a plebiscite there in 1935. After the plebiscite, SAAR was returned to Germany. - Although the Mandates Commission functioned well, it can be argued that it did not do much against colonialism in former African colonies that were converted to Mandates. - The Mandates were to be prepared for independence but the commission failed to ensure that the colonial powers provide for participation of the locals in the governance of Mandates. 2) **Resolution of minor International disputes:** - Here the League had partial success. It forced Greece to pay compensation to Bulgaria, when the former invaded the latter. - The League decided in favour of Britain when Turkey started claiming the Mosul province, which was a mandate of Britain. - The League solved a territorial dispute between Peru and Columbia. - Also in 1921, when there was a dispute regarding Upper Silesia (an industrial region) between Germany and Poland, the League successfully made both the parties reach a settlement and Upper Silesia was partitioned between the two. **Conclusion:** None of these disputes threatened the world peace. Also whenever a major power was involved, the decision of the League was always in favour of the major power. **Failures / Causes of Ineffectiveness of the League of Nations** 1) **An Allies Organization:** League of Nations came to be viewed as an organization of the Allied Powers especially of France and Britain, setup for implementation of unjust peace treaties, which failed to satisfy all nations. a) Turkey and Italy were both dissatisfied with the peace treaties. While Turkey was aggrieved at territories it considered as inalienable being handed over to Greece, Italy was dissatisfied for not getting the territorial gains it was promised in 1915 in lieu of entering the war in favor of the Allies. b) The Peace treaties signed were against principle of Self Determination. For instance, millions of Germans, after the peace treaties, resided outside Germany in Czechoslovakia and Poland. Similarly, many Turks were now residents of Greece. 2) **Conference of Ambassadors:** - This body was setup as a temporary body to resolve disputes regarding peace treaties until the League of Nations was setup and made fully functional. - But, it continued to exist even after the formation of the League. This hurt the legitimacy and the authority of the League of Nations. - At times, the Conference of Ambassadors overruled the League’s decisions, for example, in case of the Corfu incident (1923) involving Mussolini’s Italy and Greece. 3) **Failure of Disarmament:** - It was only Germany, which was made to disarm under the Treaty of Versailles. - The League failed to convince other major powers to disarm. Britain and France did not want self disarmament. - When the World Disarmament Conference was held in 1932-33, Hitler demanded equality of armament with France. - But, France refused as it feared that Germany would become an equal military power and soon emerge as a threat to its frontiers. Hitler used this as an excuse to quit the World Disarmament Conference. Soon, he would denounce the League of Nations and make Germany quit it as well. 4) **Mockery of Collective Security:** The League of Nations failed to check any violations of the frontiers established after the WWI through the peace treaties. | a) 1923 resolution: | - It allowed each member the freedom to decide if it wanted to contribute any military resources during activation of the collective security clause. | |---------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | - This literally nullified the responsibility that all the member nations had in their duty of checking any act of war by another member nation. | | b) Failure of Geneva Protocol (1924): | - The British and French governments had proposed a Geneva Protocol. | |--------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------| c) Economic Crisis - In 1929 led to poverty and unemployment and consequently, right wing governments came to power across the world. These governments were more aggressive and violated the League Covenant. - For example, Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, Abyssinia was invaded by Italy in 1935, the Spanish Civil War of 1936 saw military intervention by Mussolini and Hitler in favor of France, Japan invaded China in 1937 and Hitler annexed Austria in 1938. - In all these cases, the League proved powerless and failed to check the military aggression. - In case of Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the decision of the League was that the Japanese should evacuate Manchuria. - Japan rejected this decision and consequently withdrew from the League in 1933. - Military or economic sanctions against Japan were not even discussed as Britain and France were under economic stress due to the Great Depression. Three things are clear from the above discussion and following was the impact of the Economic Crisis of 1929 on world politics: i. The right wing governments, especially the Fascist regimes in Japan, Italy and Germany took benefit of the World Economic Crisis as they knew that due to economic concerns the important League members like Britain and France would not act. ii. Britain, France and USA were following a policy of appeasement towards the Fascist regimes to prevent war. This was to prove disastrous and was the major reason for Fascist regimes becoming gradually powerful enough to challenge the world peace. iii. Also, it is clear that every nation, including the proponents of the League, were concerned with their own economic interests. Be it the US Policy of Isolation or the British abandonment of the Geneva Protocol, the major powers did not want a responsibility that would not bring any direct territorial or economic gains. Even Britain and France, who were at the helm of the affairs of the League, did not act when they did not find support of other important economic and military powers like USA, USSR etc. The national economic concerns and political benefits became more important than the world peace. 5) The League of Nations was not a truly representative organization: • It had limited membership. This also resulted in lack of funds for the League’s work. The three main world powers, namely, USA, USSR and Germany were not its members when the League was formed in 1920. • Thus, it became an organization of the French and the British and lacked the legitimacy of being called a truly representative world body. • Germany was admitted only by 1926, while USSR gained membership in 1934. USA never joined the League of Nations and neither did it ratify the peace treaties. • After the World War I, the US public rejected Woodrow Wilson and his fourteen points and US reverted back to its Policy of Isolation. • The Republicans viewed LoN as a world government, which would threaten US national sovereignty and freedom. • It did not want to be involved in any future military conflict or to be involved in the European affairs. By 1933, Japan had quit the League of Nations and soon after that the Hitler’s Germany also left the League. • Thus, on the eve of the World War II, the League of Nations was in ruins and a failure. Summary: • The League failed to implement its decisions in disputes, where the verdict of the League was against a major power. • Aggressive regimes like Japan, Italy and Germany defied the League. • Britain and France did not do much to give teeth to the League. The Economic Crisis of 1929 was also responsible in its own way. • The Conference of Ambassadors undermined League’s authority. Important powers like Germany, US, USSR were not its members. • The League Covenant was weak and it failed to provide a real collective security. **Impact of the failure of the League of Nations** i. Gradually, small states lost all faith in the League of Nation due to its inaction against aggression in Manchuria and Abyssinia ii. Fascist regimes got encouraged. Hitler became confident of violating the Treaty of Versailles. iii. World War II could not be prevented. **Comparison of UN with the League of Nations** | United Nations | League of Nations | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Setup in 1945 after WW II | Setup in 1920 after WW I | | UN Charter | League Covenant | | Active US and USSR participation. | US did not join. USSR was admitted very late (1934) | | Dominated by US and Russia | Dominated by Britain and France | | UN Charter based on proposals by US, USSR, China and Britain | League Covenant drawn up by US, Britain and France as Russia was not invited to the Treaty of Versailles | | UN aims were world peace, protection of all individual human rights and socioeconomic development. | League of Nations did not include protection to rights of an individual. | | UN General Assembly decision making not based on unanimity principle. | LoN’s General Assembly took decisions based on unanimity principle. This resulted in frequent stalemate. | | In UN, developing countries have much more voice. | In LoN, the colonies had no say. | | UN is more representative body with nearly all nations being its members. It has become more representative of the Third World after former colonies gained independence. The membership also increased after emergence of new states post USSR disintegration. | LoN was less representative due to lack of membership to all nations. | | --- | --- | | Voting in UNSC need not be unanimous for a decision to take effect. | Voting in League’s Security Council had to be unanimous. | | Permanent members of UNSC are USA, France, Britain, Russia and China. Number of non-permanent members are 10 elected for 2 years. | Permanent Members of League’s Council were France, Britain, Japan and Italy. Number of Non permanent members were 9 by 1926 from four in 1920 when the League was formed. They were elected for 3 years. | - UN has been more successful because of more time and money being devoted to Economic and Social development work. - Also, the scope of UN is much wider in the domain of socio-economic development than LoN. All specialized agencies of UN, except ILO, were setup after 1945. - UN is more focused on Good Governance. For example, it has formulated and works with the member-nations for achievement of developmental targets like Millennium Development Goals. - UN has been able to take decisive action due to change in procedures as UNGA does not need unanimous vote. - Also, UNSC veto can be overruled by UNGA as per the Uniting for Peace Resolution of 1950 (during Korean War (1950) - USSR was boycotting the UNSC due to non-admission of Communist China. Some analysts argued that abstention meant vetoing the resolution. - Thus, UNGA was consulted and it passed this clause that allowed veto to be overruled and thus UN could intervene in the Korean war). - The resolution stated that “in any cases where the Security Council, because of a lack of unanimity amongst its five permanent members, fails to act as required to maintain international peace and security, the General Assembly shall consider the matter immediately and may issue any recommendations it deems necessary in order to restore international peace and security.” - Also there is much greater prestige of the UN Secretary General as compared to its LoN counterpart. - Kofi Annan (1997-2006) became very famous for his conflict resolution ability. - Even if UN has not been able to prevent wars, it has been able to bring them to a quick end by mediating a ceasefire on different occasions. - UN is more important in the era of Global Governance and as the world has become more integrated due to Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization and issues of global concern like environment and safety of other Global Commons. **Similarities between UN and LoN** - Common aim of World peace and Socio-Economic development. - Veto powers of a member in Security Council - Lack of permanent army of their own and thus dependence on members for contribution of troops **Common weaknesses:** i. Criticism of being a tool of super powers ii. Pro-West iii. Being subservient to powerful individual nations iv. Financial dependency on US and Europe: UN is mainly dependent on US funding while LoN was dependent on Britain and France The World from 1919-23 1) Turkish nationalism: - Turkey was unhappy with the Treaty of Sevres (1920), as it had lost a lot of territory to the Greece. - Many Turks found themselves under the occupation of the Greeks. This led to rise of nationalism and Mustapha Kemal forced Greece out of occupied territories. 2) Italian unhappiness with peace treaties: - Italy was unhappy with the territorial gains it had made after the World War I. - It was promised much more when it was persuaded to join the Allied Powers in 1915. - When Mussolini came to power in 1922, Italy seized Fiume from Yugoslavia. The Corfu Incident happened in 1923. - Corfu was an island of Greece. Some Italian workers working under the Boundary Commission setup for resolution of a territorial dispute between Albania and Greece were killed. - In response, Italy bombed Greece and occupied Corfu and left it only after Greece paid compensation as demanded by Italy. 3) US war debt to Europe: - US had benefited a lot from the World War I. It had sold lots of arms and extended loans to the Allied powers. - Britain, France and other Allied nations expected that US would provide them some concession on the loans. But US continued to demand full repayment of the war debt. 4) Question of German Reparations: - Britain and France were under economic stress. They had to repay the US war debt and also invest money for infrastructure reconstruction after the war. - The Germans were themselves devastated by the war and were finding it very difficult to pay the war damages. - They expected a lenient treatment and a reconsideration on the amount to be paid. - Britain was in favor of easing the terms of payment as it would make German economy recover faster making it actually capable of paying the war reparations. - Also, a prosperous Germany would serve as an export market for British goods. - On the other hand, France was rigid and wanted Germany to pay full reparations. This was due to two reasons. - One, it was French tactics to keep Germany economically weak for foreseeable future so it does not threaten French frontiers. - Two, France actually depended on German reparations to payback the loans taken from US. 5) Russian Civil War (1918-20): After the Bolsheviks came to power, they tried to export the communist revolution to the rest of the world by sending their agents to support communists in other countries. This earned Russia, the hostility of most countries having democratic regimes. In Russia, Lenin had dissolved the assembly formed through the democratic elections after the revolution and usurped power by establishing a Communist regime. This became the major cause of resentment among other groups who wanted a democracy. The Western nations and Japan sent forces to fight Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War which was being fought between Bolsheviks and other groups (known as Whites). The communist revolution failed in rest of the Europe but it was successful in Russia as the Bolsheviks won the Civil War (1918-20) **Attempts after the World War I to improve International relations** 1) **League of Nations:** - It was setup in 1920 to preserve world peace via resolution of disputes through negotiations. - The principle of Collective Security entailed use of military and economic sanctions against an aggressor nation. - It was only successful in disputes which were minor in nature and failed to check aggression by major powers. 2) **Anglo-Russian Trade treaty (1921):** - After the Russian Civil War (1918-20), there was an atmosphere of reconciliation between Britain and Russia. - The communist revolution had failed in rest of Europe, the Western powers had failed to defeat Bolsheviks in Russian civil war and Russia was exhausted from the civil war. - It now desired investment and reconciliation with British. 3) **Washington Conference (1921-2):** - The Washington Conference was held by US to check increasing Japanese influence in the Far East. - During the World War I, Japan fought on the side of Allied Powers and it had seized Kiaochow island and Shantung Province of China. - It had also occupied all the German Pacific islands. - Thus, after World War I Japan had emerged as a rival of US in the Pacific and it had developed a strong navy which could have threatened the US interests. - Through Washington Conference the US wanted to prevent a war and a naval race with Japan. - After this conference it was agreed that Japan would withdraw from the Kiaochow island and the Shantung province of China. - In return, Japan was allowed to retain the German Pacific islands. - Also Britain, France and US agreed not to build a naval base within the striking range of Japan. - Neutrality of China was guaranteed by US, Japan, Britain and France. - Also these powers agreed to respect each other’s possessions in the Far East. The agreement place limits on the naval fleet of US, Britain and Japan whose navy was to be in the ratio of 5:5:3 i.e. Japanese navy would be three-fifth the size of Britain and US. **Impact of the Washington Conference:** Japan emerged as the supreme power in the Pacific because although the size of its navy was to 3/5th of Britain and US, the Japanese navy was concentrated in Pacific while the navies of Britain and US were spread out across all oceans. When US refused to intervene against Japan when the latter invaded China in the 1930s, the Britain and France also did not act as they realized that without US they would suffer huge losses by getting involved in a war with Japan. 4) Genoa Conference (1922): It was called by Britain to solve the following problems: a) France-Germany hostility: - Germany was threatening to stop payment of war reparations to France. b) War debt to US: - US had doled out loans to the allied powers during the World War I and due to weakened economy after the war, Britain and France were finding it difficult to pay back. c) Diplomatic ties - Britain wanted establishment of diplomatic ties Russia. Result of Genoa Conference: - The Genoa Conference failed to resolve the above problems as the - French demanded full reparations from Germany. - Also, US refused to attend the conference and demanded full payment of all the loans. - Germany withdrew from the conference due to lack of flexibility shown by France on the question of war reparations. - Russians left the conference because Britain demanded that Bolsheviks pay the war debt incurred by the Czarist regime during World War I. Impact of the Genoa Conference: a) Germany and Russia signed a separate agreement (Rapallo Agreement 1922) through which they cancelled any war reparations they had to pay each other. b) France occupied Ruhr in 1923 and seized goods worth 40 million pounds. Through the occupation of Ruhr, an important industrial area, France further wanted to force Germany to pay war reparations. The Germans in the Ruhr, responded with passive resistance by stopping all work in the industries. This not only made the French occupation a failure but also impacted German economy. Due to lack of supply of goods there was huge inflation in Germany and the German Frank depreciated, literally becoming valueless. 5) Dawes Plan (1924): - This plan was aimed at solving the problems of French occupation of the Ruhr and the consequent galloping inflation & huge depreciation of German Frank. - US took lead here and under the Dawes Plan it was agreed that Germany pay annually whatever she could afford until she became prosperous enough. - But there was no decrease in total amount Germany was required to pay. Germany also got US loan to rebuild its economy. Also, France agreed to withdraw from the Ruhr. • The Dawes Plan was successful and the German economy started recovering because of the US loans. • International relations improved after the Dawes Plan and this laid the ground for Locarno treaties of 1925. 6) Locarno Treaties (1925): • The main players involved were Britain, France, Germany and Italy. • The minor players were Poland, Belgium and Czechoslovakia. • These treaties were seen as a dawn of a new era of peace and friendship in Europe. Under the Locarno treaties the signatory nations agreed to recognize the frontiers set by the peace treaties after World War I. • This meant that the nations promised to not attack each other and if one of the nation attacked then the other nations would come to rescue of the victim against the aggressor. • Germany reaffirmed that it would continue to keep Rhineland demilitarized as per the Treaty of Versailles. Impact of Locarno treaties: • The treaties were celebrated in Europe as Locarno Spirit or Locarno honeymoon between France and Germany. • Germany was allowed to enter the League of Nations in 1926. • There was economic prosperity in Europe and an environment of friendship. Stresemann (Germany), Briand (France) and Chamberlain (Britain) met frequently till 1929. Weaknesses: • Britain and Germany did not guarantee the German frontiers with Poland and Czechoslovakia, • the area which was prone to maximum trouble. By ignoring this problem, Britain gave an impression that it may not intervene if Germany attacked Poland or Czechoslovakia. Locarno Spirit was an illusion because so much depended on economic prosperity which when evaporated in 1929, the old hostilities resurfaced. 7) Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): • It was a US-France led initiative and was joined by 65 nations who signed an agreement denouncing war as an instrument of national policy. Impact: • It did not mean much because there was no mention of sanctions against an aggressor. • Japan had signed the pact but soon attacked Manchuria in 1931. 8) Young Plan (1929): • It was aimed to settle the question of German reparations. • As per the plan, the total amount to be paid was decreased to 2000 million pounds from earlier figure of 6600 million pounds. • Also this newly agreed amount was to be paid over 59 years. • The reason for the Young Plan piloted by US was that the Dawes Plan had left the total amount to be paid by Germany unchanged and Germany wanted a decrease in the amount. • Also France was more ready to negotiate due to the Locarno Spirit. Events after 1929 - The year 1929 was a turning point in the history of world and after 1929, Europe started to drift towards the second World War. - The Locarno Spirit was ended due to events during and after 1929 viz death of Stresemann (1929), Wall Street Crash (1929) and rise of Hitler to power in 1933 (he became Chancellor). Economic Crisis of 1929 - The Economic crisis of 1929 resulted in high unemployment in Germany. - By 1932, there were 6 million unemployed men in Germany. - This resulted in boost to the growth of Nazis and fall of Weimar Republic. With the rise of Nazis, the French attitude towards Germany hardened as the Nazis thrived on an extreme nationalist propaganda. - They wanted to bring all German areas into the Reich. Lausanne Conference (1932) - Here, Britain and France freed Germany from paying most of the remaining reparations. - This was done so because due to the Great Depression, there were six million people unemployed Germans by 1932. World Disarmament Conference - The World Disarmament Conference was held in 1932-3. - Under League Covenant all members had agreed to decrease armament, but it was only Germany which had to disarm following the Treaty of Versailles. - Germany demanded that either all should disarm or it should be allowed to at least have parity with France in terms of armament. - Britain and Italy sympathized with Germany. - Finally, when the French did not budge, Hitler withdrew Germany out of the conference and also from the League of Nations (both in 1933). France-Germany relations (1919-33) - France insisted on a harsh treaty during the Treaty of Versailles negotiations. - France followed three strategies to prevent a German attack in future | I. Keep Germany economically and militarily weak. | This included following elements: | |--------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | | a) France stressed that Germany pay full reparations. | | | b) Occupation of Ruhr (1923) to force Germany to pay reparations: | | | - The occupation of Ruhr was strongly opposed by Britain because the British favored a lenient way of dealing with Britain. | | | - Britain felt that a prosperous Germany would be better for stability of Europe and its exports. | | | c) Use of SAAR’s coal for 15 years. | | | d) Disarmament of Germany and demilitarization of Rhineland were stressed by France during drafting of Treaty of Versailles. France was | disappointed by Britain when it withdrew from Geneva Protocol and the USA which had reverted to Policy of Isolation and thus refused to promise in advance any support to France in case of war. ii. Signing alliances: - France signed treaties with Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Romania from 1921 to 1927, to check any future German aggression. - These treaties collectively are known as Little Entente. But the Little Entente did not amount to much because of weak partners. France desperately needed an ally like Russia because it allowed to engage Germany on two frontiers simultaneously. - But, Russia was now under the Communists who were seen by many in France as greater threat than Germany. - USSR had tried to export its communist revolution after 1917 by sending secret agents to help communists in France. iii. Reconciliation/Friendship: - Via Dawes Plan (1924), Locarno Treaties (1925), Young Plan (1929) and Lausanne Conference (1932). Stresemann was the German foreign minister from 1923 to 1929. He was a very important leader and steered the German foreign policy during the difficult decade after the World War I. - The relationship between France and Germany remained bitter until the Dawes Plan (1924). - After the Dawes Plan there was economic recovery of Germany under Weimar Republic and consequently, the tensions between the two decreased. - The problem with the reconciliation approach was that even the man behind Locarno Spirit, Stresemann wanted fulfillment of the German desires and redressal of German grievances after the World War I. Under Stresemann, Germany still desired, though it did not take an aggressive stand: a) Polish Corridor and Danzig port. b) Union with Austria c) Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia d) Revision of Treaty of Versailles i.e. a decrease in German reparations, annulling of disarmament clause and Rhineland’s rearmament. After the 1929 crisis, the Nazis influence increased and so did the extreme nationalism in Germany. The French attitude hardened against Germany and it began approaching possible future allies like USSR: Austria Germany Custom Union (1931): - It was proposed by Germany and made economic sense. - France appealed to the Permanent Court of International Justice in the Hague which ruled against the custom union. World Disarmament Conference (1932-33): - At the conference Germany wanted equality of arms with Britain-USSR Relations (1919-33) The relationship can be summarized in following points: 1) 1907 Britain-Russia agreement led to reduction in bilateral tensions and greater trade and investments. 2) **Left-Right divide**: It can be said that the relationship was good whenever the Labor party was in power and sour when the Conservatives came to power. This was so because of the difference in the ideology of the Leftist Russia and Right wing conservatives in Britain. 3) British involvement in Russian Civil War (1918-20) 4) **Trade Agreement (1921)**: Lenin wanted trade and investment to boost Russian economy. Also this agreement the communist government got recognition in a way from Britain. 5) **Genoa Conference (1922)**: Here the rift between the Russians and the British widened on question of war debt incurred by Czarist regime. 6) **On-off Diplomatic ties**: 1927- British Conservative government broke off diplomatic ties with Russia when it came to know about Comintern activity in Indian and Britain. 1929- Labor Government resumed diplomatic ties with USSR. 7) **Rise of Hitler**: After Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, there was increase in positivity among the two nations. Hitler’s Germany threatened the Russian frontiers and also the Nazi propaganda was very radical in its criticism of the communists. This was so because the communists in Germany were a major opposition group of the Nazis and after 1917, Bolsheviks had tried to incite a communist revolution in Germany. USSR-Germany Relations (1919-33) The relations between the Russia and Germany were generally good till 1930, thanks to the leadership of Stresemann. On the other hand, USSR wanted good relationship with at least one capitalist country. Following were important landmarks in the relationship: 1) **Trade Treaty (1921)**: A trade treaty was signed between USSR and Germany in 1921 and subsequently the German industrialists got trade concessions in Russia. 2) **(Rapallo Agreement 1922)** - Full diplomatic relations were resumed between Russia and Germany - Special relationship between Russia and Germany. - canceled any war reparations they had to pay each other - German armament began: - Germany was allowed to build factories in Russia for manufacturing of airplanes and ammunitions. This allowed Germany to circumvent the Treaty of Versailles clause dealing with disarmament. German officers began training in Russia with learning to use weapons which were forbidden in Germany due to Treaty of Versailles. The reason for this bonhomie between Russia and Germany were manifold. Russia and Germany both wanted to keep Poland weak. Russia | | | |---|---| | 2) Rapallo Agreement (1922): | Russia wanted Germany to act as a buffer state against any attack in the future from the West. This was because the Western powers were antagonistic to a communist Russia. Also, Russia wanted to have good relations with at least one capitalist country. | | 3) Treaty of Berlin (1926): | - It renewed the Rapallo Agreement till 1931. Germany promised to remain neutral if USSR attacked by any other power. - Also both agreed that neither of them would use economic sanctions against one another. | | 4) After 1930s: | - a) There was negativity in the relationship because the Russians were against the increasing influence of the Nazis in Germany who were radically opposed to communists. - b) Russia opposed the idea of the Austria-Germany Custom Union (1931) as it saw it as a sign of increasing German nationalism which could threaten Russian frontiers in the future. - c) Stalin gradually drifted towards Poland, Britain and France. - d) After 1934, Hitler tried to better the relationship with Russia. He signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Russia in 1939. | | 5) Non Aggression Pact (1939): | - This was signed by Russia and Germany and both of them promised not to attack each other. - This agreement included a clause to divide Poland in half between USSR and Germany, if USSR remained neutral when Germany attacks Poland. - This was a strategic victory for Hitler as this prevented Britain from signing an alliance with USSR. - Such an alliance would have allowed Britain to better protect Poland whose safety Britain had guaranteed. | The relations were sour till 1930 due to following: | Treaty of Versailles | Russia was not invited in Treaty of Versailles negotiations due to French opposition. This was so because after 1917, Bolsheviks had tried to incite communists for revolution in France. | |---------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Russian Civil War (1918-20) | France sent troops in favor of Whites who were fighting Bolsheviks | | Russia-Poland War (1920) | France sent troops in aid of Poland which then was able to push back the Russians from Warsaw (Polish capital). | | Little Entente (1921-27) | France-Poland Alliance (signed in 1921) under the Little Entente was as much directed against Russia as against Germany. After 1930, there was increase in positivity in Franco-Russian relationship due to the rise of the Nazis in Germany. | After 1930, there was increase in positivity in Franco-Russian relationship due to the rise of the Nazis in Germany. **KEY THEME 1:** **The Treaty of Versailles** - The Treaty of Versailles hurts German pride and spurs the growth of Nazism. - The Treaty seemed to satisfy the "Big Three" viz. US, Britain and France, since in their eyes it was a just peace, as it kept Germany weak, yet strong enough to stop the spread of communism; kept the French border with Germany safe from another German attack and created the organization, the League of Nations, that would end warfare throughout the world. - However, it left a mood of anger throughout Germany as it was felt that as a nation Germany had been unfairly treated. - Above all else, Germany hated the clause blaming her for the cause of the war and the resultant financial penalties the treaty was bound to impose on Germany. - Ordinary German citizens felt that they were being punished for the mistakes of the German government in August 1914 as it was the government that had declared war, not the people. - The humiliating conditions of the treaty rankled Germans for years and in many ways led to the rise of Nazism in Germany. **KEY THEME 2:** - The US adopts a policy of isolation, turning a blind eye to European political affairs. - The Great Depression in the US goes on to become a world economic crisis, which engulfs Europe and influences European political decision-making for years to come. US Foreign Policy (1919-23) Washington Conference (1921-22): - The Washington Conference was held by US to check increasing Japanese influence in the Far East. Through Washington Conference the US wanted to prevent a war and a naval race with Japan. - After this conference it was agreed that Japan would withdraw from the Kiaochow Island and the Shantung province of China. - In return, Japan was allowed to retain the German Pacific islands. Also, Britain, France and US agreed not to build a naval base within the striking range of Japan. Neutrality of China was guaranteed by US, Japan, Britain and France. Also these powers agreed to respect each other’s possessions in the Far East. The agreement place limits on the naval fleet of US, Britain and Japan whose navy was to be in the ratio of 5:5:3. This resulted in tensions between US and Britain because the British were not pleased at the limits placed on the British navy. In 1930, Japan reaffirmed commitment to Washington agreement but it soon breached the limits placed on its navy. Policy of Isolation: - US was deeply involved in World War I. After the war, the Republicans came to power and adopted the Policy of Isolation. US under Republicans decided not to join the League of Nations. - It also did not ratify any of the peace treaties and also refused to guarantee the French frontiers. - The reasons for the Policy of Isolation were that the people of US were tired of war and were suspicious of the European nations remaining peaceful. They did not want US to be involved in a military conflict and rejected the idea of League of Nations as they viewed it as a supra-national government to which they refused to submit a part of their sovereignty. - It was on these lines that it had opposed the Geneva Protocol devised by France and Britain which would have provided for collective security as it entailed the member nations to “consent to important limitations of their sovereignty in favor of the League of Nations”. - The Policy of Isolation resulted in inaction by US against various acts of aggression in the 1930s by the Fascist regimes. - In case of Manchurian invasion (1931) by Japan, when US showed lack of resolve to act against Japan, even Britain and France did not take any action. The League of Nations could not do anything when Japan refused to pull out from Manchuria. Reasons behind Wall Street Crash becoming the World Economic Crisis: EU war debt: - European nations were finding it difficult to payback the war debt. Britain and France expected a loan waiver from US as US had gained a lot from the World War I. It had taken over former European export markets. But US insisted on full payment. Until the French occupation of the Ruhr, US rejected the connection between ability of Allies to payback US loans and the German reparations to Allies. - Also US kept high tariffs in external trade. These factors hurt recovery of European economy. - Although US sought to revert back to Policy of Isolation after the WWI, it soon realized that it could no more shy away from the events taking place outside its borders as these events had consequences for its economy. • The second decade of 20th century was a prosperous one for the European economy and thus US tried to increase trade and investment in Europe. • The economic health and the political stability of Europe was crucial to US interests of trade, investments and for recovery of loans given to Allied powers and US could not ignore events affecting the European nations. • The French occupation of Ruhr industrial region in 1923 resulted in galloping inflation in Germany as the German workers stopped work as part of their passive resistance. • This consequent demand supply imbalance in the German economy caused rapid depreciation in the value of Frank and the German economy was in turmoil. • The French found it difficult to pay back US loans. It was after this event that US realized the connection between German reparations and Allies ability to pay back US loans. • Thus US came to aid of Germany through the Dawes Plan (1924) which allowed Germans to pay reparations and the French agreed to withdraw from Ruhr. • In Mexico, a crisis situation arose when due to a dispute Mexico threatened to takeover oil wells owned by US companies. • US government intervened and a compromise was reached. Thus, due to increasing economic interests outside its borders, US had to deviate from its Policy of Isolation. **Web of Loans:** • As discussed earlier, US had loaned out money to the Allies during the World War I. • The Allied Powers themselves depended on the war reparations from Germany for paying back the loans taken from US. Thus when Germany started to default on the payment of war reparations, the US had to bailout Germany by extending loans in form of Dawes Plan(1924) and Young Plan (1929). • Thus a web of loans was created where US gave loans to Germany, which paid war reparations to Britain and France, who then paid back US loans. This web of loans was a major reason for the crisis in the USA steamrolling into the Great Economic Depression. • Once the US was no more capable of extending loans to Germany and demanded immediate repayment of its loans to European nations, the whole European Economy started to crumble. Thus US was responsible for the Great Economic Depression of 1929. **KEY THEME 3:** • The 1930s witnesses a rise in acts of aggression by fascist regimes of the would-be axis powers of Germany, Italy and Japan. • Through a clever mixture of blatant aggression and clever diplomacy, the axis powers expand by chipping away at the territories of neighbouring countries, while increasing their military strength at the same time. International Relations (1933-39) - The period of 1933-9 was a period of aggression by Fascist regimes viz Italy, Germany and Japan. - It was a period when Germany started to violate the Treaty of Versailles. - The Locarno Spirit, which was a mark of positivity in relations between Britain, France and Germany, had faded away after the Great Depression and death of Stresemann (German foreign minister who brought about reconciliation between Germany and France) in 1929. - The third decade of 20th century saw rise in extreme nationalism in Japan, Italy and Germany. Following can be a summary of events: 1. Japan invaded Manchuria (1931) and the League of Nations failed to force Japan to withdraw. 2. In 1933, Germany withdrew from the World Disarmament Conference. It was in 1933 that Japan and Germany withdrew from the League of Nations. Gradually the authority of the League of Nations declined and by 1939 it had become a defunct body. 3. Germany introduced Conscription in 1935 4. Stresa Front (1935) between Italy, Britain and France against introduction of Conscription by Germany. 5. Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935 which allowed Germany to build submarines and brought an end to Stresa Front. 6. Mussolini invaded Abyssinia (1935) 7. Remilitarization of Rhineland in 1936 8. Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) 9. Hitler signed Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan in 1936. 10. Spanish Civil War (1936) 11. Japan began full invasion of China in 1937 12. Anschluss- Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 13. Munich Conference (1938) - Hitler got Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia on promise of not laying claim to anymore territory of Czechoslovakia. 14. Hitler breaks Munich Pact and annexed Czechoslovakia 15. Hitler demanded the Free city of Danzig. Poland was against it. Britain and France agreed to support Poland in case of German attack. 16. Hitler signs Non-Aggression Pact with USSR in 1939 and attacks Poland 17. Britain declares war on Germany and World War II began. Japanese Aggression: - There were three important acts of Japanese Aggression in this period. It invaded Manchuria in 1931, attacked the North Eastern part of China in 1933 and ordered full invasion of China in 1937 which led to Second Sino-Japan war (1937-45) that merged into the World War II that lasted till 1945. | Invasion of Manchuria (1931): | • It is important to understand why Japan attacked Manchuria (1931). • Japan was under economic stress due to the Great Depression. Its exports had declined dramatically and there was decline in price of rice due to bumper harvest. The Japanese population was under great economic hardships. • Also Chiang Kai Shek’s influence was increasing in Manchuria. This threatened the Japanese interests in Manchuria. | | **Result of invasion of Manchuria:** | • Japan declared Manchuria as an independent state of Manchukuo and installed its puppet government. • The League of Nations had opined that the territory of Manchuria should be brought under its administration but Japan ignored the League. • The League could not act because US did not want a war with Japan and without US backing, Britain and France also refused to act. • Thus it became an act of appeasement of Japan by the Western powers. | |---|---| | **Invasion of the North East China (1933):** | • Japanese advanced into the North Eastern regions of China in 1933. • This act had no justification and was purely an act of aggression. Japan was able to occupy a large area by 1935 by taking benefit of the civil war between the Kuomintang Government (KMT) of Chiang Kai Shek and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) of Mao Zedong. | | **Full scale invasion of China (1937):** | • After signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany in 1936, Japan planned the full invasion of China. Japan took a minor incident between Chinese and Japanese troops in Peking as an alibi to begin the invasion. • By 1938, Shanghai and Nanking (Chiang Kai Shek’s capital) was under Japanese control but it had not achieved full victory. • This was so because by 1936, there was a truce between CCP and KMT to jointly resist the Japanese aggression. • Earlier, Chiang Kai Shek had concentrated more on defeating the Mao instead of tackling the Japanese which explains greater success of Japan till 1936. • Also Russia helped the Chinese but it did not get fully engaged because it itself did not want a full scale war with Japan. | **Conclusion:** • On the eve of World War II, Japan controlled most of East China while Chiang Kai Shek and Mao controlled the central and the western parts. • It can be argued that although the League of Nations condemned Japan but it was not strong enough to take a firm action because of 1. US Policy of Isolation 2. USSR did not want full scale war with Japan 3. Britain and France were too busy coping with Hitler **Mussolini’s Foreign Policy:** **1919-24:** • Mussolini came to power in 1922 and soon after he started to implement an aggressive foreign policy. under economic control of Italy due to the economic and defence pacts signed between the two. - Albania was against Yugoslavia. This was so because Serbia, which was now part of Yugoslavia, had desired the territory of Albania after the first Balkan war (1912) but Albania was made an independent state during the peace settlement. The influence over Albania provided Italy with control in the area around Adriatic Sea. **Italy and Britain** - Italy also tried to develop good relations with Britain especially on the question of colonies. It supported Britain’s claim over Mosul province of Iraq which Turkey also desired. - The League of Nation favoured Britain in the dispute and Turkey agreed to the decision in 1926. In return, Britain gave a part of Somaliland to Italy. - Further, Italy signed a Non-Aggression Pact with USSR in 1933. With this development Italy recognized the government of USSR. Thus during this decade, Italy engaged more in diplomacy than in aggressive foreign policy. **After 1934:** - Mussolini after initial opposition to Hitler gradually drifted towards Germany and Italy committed many acts of aggression. **Austria, Germany and Italy:** - Mussolini tried to strengthen Austria against Nazi Germany by supporting the anti-Nazi government of Austria by signing trade agreements. In 1934, the Austrian Chancellor was murdered by the Nazi protesters. Thereafter, Mussolini sent troops to Italy-Austria frontier to pre-empt any German attack to annex Austria. - With this, the first attempt of Hitler to take control of Austria failed and the France-Italy relations improved. **Stresa Front (1935):** - Its aim was to reaffirm the Locarno Treaties and to declare that the independence of Austria "would continue to inspire their common policy". The signatories also agreed to resist any future attempt by the Germans to change the Treaty of Versailles. Italy joined with France and Britain to condemn Hitler’s decision to introduce conscription (compulsory military service) in 1935, which was a violation of the Treaty of Versailles. - Also, Britain, France and Italy guaranteed Italian frontiers. This was a great relief to Mussolini, who was wary of German ambitions in Austria. - Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935) allowed Hitler to build submarines. After this event, Mussolini lost trust in Britain. France was also disappointed with Britain and the Anglo-German Naval agreement broke the Stresa Front. - It was a diplomatic victory for Hitler. After this, impressed by Hitler’s successes Mussolini gradually became pro-Hitler. Invasion of Abyssinia (1935): Soon after, Mussolini invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Following were the major reasons for the invasion: 1. Mussolini wanted to avenge the loss of Italy in the 1896 war with Abyssinia. The victory would increase his prestige at home. 2. Mussolini wanted to divert public attention from the local problems and bring him popularity. 3. It is to be remembered that Italy was still facing the impact of the Great Depression. Italy would get an export market and help it tide over the economic problems. - In an attempt to revive the Stresa Front, Britain and France did not condemn Italy for the Abyssinian crisis in the media. - Also, only half-hearted measures were taken against Italy as the economic sanctions did not bar export of coal, steel and oil to Italy. - These goods formed the major imports of Italy and without banning the trade in these goods, the sanctions failed to make Italy weak enough to force its exit from Abyssinia. - Both Britain and France were economically and militarily unprepared for a war that may result from sanctions banning oil and coal export to Italy. - Thus a Policy of Appeasement was followed by Britain and France. - The League of Nations failed to ensure independence of Abyssinia. - The League and its notion of Collective Security were discredited. - Despite the fact that the sanctions were not too harsh, they angered Mussolini. - The Stresa Front became a dead letter and Mussolini drifted more towards Hitler who had seized upon the opportunity to find an ally in Mussolini by not condemning the Italian aggression. - In return, Mussolini did not object to annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938. Italian role in Spanish Civil War (1936): - The Spanish Civil war was fought between the right-wing and the left-wing factions. The leader of the Right-wing faction was Franco. Mussolini sent troops to Spain to fight on the side of Franco. - The excuse used by Mussolini was that he wanted to limit the spread of communism in Europe. But the real motive behind supporting Franco were: 1. Mussolini wanted naval bases in Spain to threaten France. 2. Mussolini desired another Fascist state in Europe which would act as an ally and shift the balance of power in favour of Italy. Rome-Berlin Axis: - In 1936, Mussolini joined hands with Hitler to declare the notion of a Rome-Berlin Axis. - This implied that all the peace-loving nations in Europe would revolve around the axis formed by the imaginary line between Italy and Germany. - Thus Italy and Germany intended to form an Alliance system by bringing as many states as possible under their influence. Anti-Comintern Pact: - In 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact which now comprised of Japan, Italy and Germany. By signing the Pact the popularity of Mussolini among the Italians decreased as the public viewed it as a sign of aggressive posturing in international affairs. The masses in Italy feared that Mussolini would push Italy towards another war. **Munich Conference (1938):** - It resulted in Germany getting the German populated territory of Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia). The participation in the Conference resulted in temporary increase in Mussolini’s popularity at home as the conference symbolized avoidance of war. **Invasion of Albania (1939):** - Mussolini invaded Albania in 1939. This was an unnecessary act of aggression as Albania was already under economic domination of Italy, the two countries had friendly relations and the annexation would not bring any more tangible profits. The motive here was to match the successes of Hitler who had recently annexed Austria (1938). Mussolini did not want to be left behind in the race for popularity with Hitler and wanted to be seen as an equal. **Pact of Steel (1939):** - This was signed between Italy and Germany. - By this pact, Italy entered into full alliance with Germany and promised full military support in case of war. --- **Adolf Hitler & The Nazis** Some of the important events that characterized Hitler’s conduct in International affairs from 1933-9 have already been highlighted in the text above. Before detailing those events further, it is pertinent to answer the question that “What were the aims of Hitler?” **Hitler’s Aims:** - Hitler became the Chancellor in 1933. - Before that he had articulated the aims of the Nazi Party if it were to come to power. - Hitler desired to make Germany a great power and to restore its glory. Following can be described as the first set of his aims: 1) Destroying the Treaty of Versailles. 2) Building up a strong Army 3) Bring all Germans inside the Third Reich by annexing Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia & Poland, both of which had significant German minority population. 4) Recovery of Saar, Danzig and the Polish Corridor Now most of these aims were achieved by 1938 without war and therefore the question arises that why World War II could not yet be avoided. This leads us to the second set of aims on which there is some disagreement among the scholars. These aims were: 1) **Lebensraum (Living Space):** - Some scholars argue that Hitler’s aim of annexation of Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia and Poland was just a beginning and he intended to follow it up with seizure of the whole of Czechoslovakia and Poland. - He also aimed to occupy Russia as far as the Ural Mountains. Russia fearing German intentions had shifted many factories to the east of Ural Mountains. - Annexation of these areas would give Germans the Living Space or Lebensraum. - It would ensure the food security for the Germans and would serve as an area where the excess German population in the future could settle in and colonize. - An additional advantage of such a plan would be the destruction of Communism. 2) **Conquest of other areas** - Next stage will be the conquest of the African colonies of other European powers and setting up of bases in the Atlantic Ocean. - Some scholars argue that Hitler did not want a World War but only a limited war with Poland. Hitler did not know that Britain was serious with regards to its promise of protecting Poland. - Poland was militarily weaker than Czechoslovakia and Britain had followed the Policy of Appeasement when Hitler annexed Czechoslovakia. - Earlier at the Munich Conference (1938) Britain had literally gifted Sudetenland to Hitler. - If Britain wanted to check German expansion then Czechoslovakia would have formed a better ally than Poland, so why would Britain risk going to war with a weaker ally. **Hitler’s successes:** 1) **World Disarmament Conference (1932-33):** - Hitler withdrew Germany from World Disarmament Conference (1932-3) when France did not agree to German condition of parity in armament. - Britain was sympathetic to the German stand as it saw it as a just demand. - The diplomatic victory was that Hitler got an alibi for rearmament of Germany. 2) **Ten year Non-Aggression Pact with Poland (1934):** Poland was always anxious of the German designs. It feared that Germany would try to take back the Polish Corridor which included the following areas: As it can be seen from the map, the Polish Corridor separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany and this served as a grievance for Germany. Polish Corridor provided Poland with access to the Baltic Sea, as promised by the war aims of the Allies, under the Treaty of Versailles. After getting the Polish Corridor there was an exodus of the Germans, who were a minority, from the area due to Polish oppression. The majority of the population in the area was Polish. Polish Corridor, since it provided with access to Baltic Sea, was very crucial for economic independence of Poland. The Free city of Danzig was separate from both Poland and Germany. **The Non-Aggression Pact had the following impact:** a) Britain took it as an evidence of peaceful intent of Hitler. b) The pact ruined the Little Entente which was a group of alliances signed between France and Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Poland. Little Entente depended very much on Poland for being a significant deterrent to German aggression. c) The Pact guaranteed Polish neutrality if and when Germany decided to move against Czechoslovakia and Austria. Thus it was a strategic victory by Germany. He intended to first annex Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia and then Austria. By keeping Poland out of the conflict, it strengthened its position for accomplishing these aims. d) The Pact improved France-Russia relationship because both were threatened by German ambitions. 3) **SAAR (1935):** - The Plebiscite in Saar was promised to be held after 15 years (from 1920) under the Treaty of Versailles. Till then its coal mines were to be used by France. The League’s Mandate Commission held the plebiscite successfully and the territory was handed over to Germany after 90% of the people voted in its favour. Hitler, in an attempt to pacify France after the Non-Aggression Pact with Poland (1934), said that the transfer of Saar has removed all grievances between France and Germany. 4) **Conscription (1935):** - Conscription is the compulsory military service. The Treaty of Versailles had barred Germany from introducing it. Hitler introduced conscription in 1935. - His excuse was that Britain had just increased the strength of its Air Force and France had increased the tenure of conscription from 12 to 18 months. - Thus it is evident that France and Britain were also preparing militarily to deal with possible future aggression from Germany. - With the introduction of Conscription, Hitler announced that he would raise an army of 6 lakh men. This was again a violation of Treaty of Versailles which had put a limit of 1 lakh men. Britain, France and Italy now wary of Hitler’s intentions organized themselves into Stresa Front (1935) that condemned Hitler’s move to introduce conscription and guaranteed Austrian Frontiers to pre-empt any German plan to annex Austria. 5) **Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935):** - This was again a strategic victory for Hitler as it resulted in breaking of the Stresa Front (1935). Britain went ahead with the agreement without consulting the Stresa Front allies. Under the agreement Hitler offered to limit German navy to 35% of British Navy. • The reason for the British action was that it felt that it would be able to control the German armament after it had already introduced conscription. As Britain did not want a war, it felt this was the best way to ensure a non-threatening Germany. • The impact of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement was that it led to a great increase in German rearmament. • By 1938, Germany had 8 lakh men and the reserves, 5000 airplanes, 47 U-Boats (submarines) and 21 large vessels that included Battleships, Cruisers and Destroyers. 6) Rhineland Remilitarized (1936): • Hitler took advantage of preoccupation of Britain and France in the Abyssinian crisis to send troops to Rhineland. • This was a violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the commitment given by Stresseman at Locarno Treaties (1925). 7) Rome Berlin Axis (1936): • It was an alliance between Italy and Germany. • This implied that all the peace loving nations in Europe would revolve around the axis formed by the imaginary line between Italy and Germany. 8) Anti-Comintern Pact (1936): • This was an act of alliance formation. Germany and Japan were the original signatories. In 1937, Italy also joined the Anti-Comintern Pact. • The alliance was targeted against the spread of Communism in respective countries. • This was also a signal to the France and Britain that the aggressive stance of the members was more targeted towards Russia rather than them. 9) Spanish Civil War (1936): • Germany participated in favour of Franco. Hitler order bombing of Spain which resulted in huge casualties for innocent civilians. • This terrified the Britain and France and they were inclined to appease Hitler in order to prevent such a devastating war that would exact a huge toll on the civilians. 10) Anschluss with Austria (1938): • Anschluss means union. Austria had millions of ethnic Germans. The Treaty of Versailles had barred the union between Germany and Austria. • In 1931, Germany made its first move towards the union by suggesting Austria-Germany Custom Union. • France appealed at the Permanent Court of International which decided against the custom union even though the idea made an economic sense. • Russia and Italy were also against the custom union as it symbolized growing German nationalism. Hitler made the first attempt at annexing Austria in 1934. • This attempt was foiled by Italy as it sent troops to the border with Austria at the Brenner Pass when the German attack seemed imminent after the Austrian Nazis had killed the Austrian Chancellor. • Hitler did not make any move fearing a war with Italy. • But soon he made attempts at neutralizing the Italian opposition. When Mussolini invaded Abyssinia (1935), Hitler did not object. • Also in 1936, he made an ally out of Italy by forming the Rome Berlin Axis in 1936. Italy withdrew its objections to annexation of Austria in return for Hitler not putting sanctions against Italy for annexation of Abyssinia. In 1938, the Anschluss finally happened. • The Austrian Nazis held huge demonstration in Austria against the government. Germany gave 10 demands to Austria of which one was to put a Nazi in the post of Interior Minister. The Chancellor soon called for a Plebiscite on the question of Austria uniting with Germany. • The Chancellor was somewhat confident of getting a negative verdict. Hitler unsure of the results threatened to invade Austria. • He said that he would “make Vienna, the Spain of Austria”. The Chancellor resigned and the consequent Nazi government invited Hitler to annex Austria. • Britain and France only verbally protested. • They feared war with Germany and wanted to prevent the possible huge civilian casualties as Hitler had bombed innocent civilians in the Spanish Civil War (1936). The impact of the Anschluss was that: 1. It was a severe blow to Czechoslovakia which could now be attacked from three sides viz. from the south (Austria), west and north (Germany). 2. Germany soon demanded and got Sudetenland at Munich Conference (1938) and thus Czechoslovakia lost much of its industries to Germany. 11) Munich Conference (1938): • It resulted in Germany getting the German populated territory of Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia). Hitler hated Czechoslovakia for their democracy and because it was created by the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler desired Czechoslovakia to fulfill his dream of a Lebensraum for the Germans. • He specifically wanted Sudetenland because it was industrially rich and had huge German population. • Hitler began to argue that the Germans in Sudetenland are being discriminated by the government. • This was based on the argument that the Germans had more unemployment than other groups. • Nazis began to organize huge protests in Sudetenland. It was felt that Hitler might attack Czechoslovakia to annex Sudetenland and thus a conference in Munich was organized. • In the Munich Conference, Italy, France, Britain and Germany participated. USSR and Czechoslovakia were not even invited. • The decision of the conference was that Germany can annex Sudetenland but he would not lay claim to any more of Czechoslovakia. • The Czechs were told by Britain and France that if they do not accept the Munich pact then Britain and France would not come to its aid in event of a German attack. • This was against the Locarno Treaties where even though Germany had not guaranteed its frontiers with Czechoslovakia, the French did commit to aid Poland and Czechoslovakia if Germany attacks them. • Czechoslovakia agreed to the Munich Pact. With the loss of Sudetenland, it lost 70% of its Heavy Industry and most of her fortifications against Germany. Soon due to the decreased authority of the government and the economic problems, Slovakia started demanding secession. • Law and Order problems soon emerged on the ground. 12) Annexation of Rest of Czechoslovakia (1939): • Under the circumstances that prevailed after Munich Conference, Hitler forced the President of Czechoslovakia to request German troops for restoring order. • Soon the German troops marched in and Czechoslovakia was annexed. Britain and France protested only verbally. • Britain said that the guarantee to the rest of Czechoslovakia does not apply since the latter itself had requested the German troops and thus technically it was not an invasion. 13) Invasion of Poland (1939): • After the annexation of Czechoslovakia, Britain decided that there would not be any more appeasement of Germany. • The annexation of Poland was unjustifiable. Till now Hitler had justified his claims of territorial expansion on the argument of Ethnicity and on the Treaty of Versailles. • The annexation was the first act of taking over non-German populated territory. Britain and France reiterated their commitment to protection of Poland when Hitler announced that he wanted Danzig. • Hitler also desired access to the Rail-Road Connectivity through Polish Corridor so the rest of Germany could connect to East Prussia. Although these demands were not unreasonable since Danzig had 95% German population and economic connectivity to East Prussia made sense, but they came so soon after the Czechoslovakia debacle that the Poles feared full invasion soon after. • Britain tried to pressure Poles but they did not agree to German demands. Hitler signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Russia in 1939 to keep it neutral and moved ahead with full invasion of Poland. With this act the World War II began. KEY THEME 4: - Britain, and to a lesser extent France, adopt a policy of appeasement towards a resurgent Germany. Italy and Japan also get away with aggressive acts as the League of Nations proves to be a resounding failure in addressing the threat of expansionist tendencies. - Policy of Appeasement was one of the most important reasons for German success in violating the Treaty of Versailles and Japan and Italy being able to escape sanctions for their aggressive acts. Why was such a policy followed? There are multiple reasons: | Avoid War: | • The other powers wanted to avoid war because they could not win such a war as they were not economically and militarily strong. Such a war would in all probability result in a stalemate. Britain and France feared bombing of cities and the civilians as demonstrated by the bombing of Spanish cities by Germany in the Spanish Civil War (1936). | | Economic Crisis (1929): | • Other European powers could not afford rearmament or bear huge war expenses. They had not fully recovered from the economic crisis. | | Public Opinion: | • The people in Britain were against war. After the World War I the public opinion towards war had changed dramatically. The businessmen were also against a war as it would hurt their economic | | **Sympathy** | • Many groups felt that Germany and Italy had genuine grievances. This prevented formation of a firm public opinion in favour of militarily tackling Germany and Italy. Especially in Britain, many leaders favoured a sympathetic attitude and called for revision of the harshest clauses of the Treaty of Versailles to remove the reason for war itself. Thus, British viewed the Treaty of Versailles as the real cause of a possible war and thus agreed to the German demands which were targeted towards nullifying the harshest of the clauses in the treaty. Thus they followed a policy of appeasement | | **Failure of League of Nations** | • League of Nation had proved to be ineffective and thus the British Prime Minister Chamberlain who was elected in 1937 believed that a personal contact among the leaders of different countries was important to make them respect international law through negotiations. He favoured the path of diplomacy rather than of war to resolve conflicts with Germany | | **Economic Cooperation** | • Germany was an export market to Britain and thus the British felt that the economic cooperation would be good for both the countries. Britain believed that if it helps in German economic recovery then Germany would be friendly to Britain. Fear of Communist Russia was greater than the fear of the Nazis. This was especially true among the conservative groups in Britain and France. They viewed the Nazi Germany as a buffer against the Communist expansion westward. Thus they favoured or allowed for the German rearmament. | | **To buy time** | • Some scholars argue that British followed the policy of appeasement to buy time of selfrearmament. Because of economic problems due to the economic crisis and the earlier toll taken by the World War I, some leaders in Britain and France felt that the longer the appeasement process, the more time they would get for self-rearmament. Chamberlain increased rearmament alongside the Policy of Appeasement. He felt that the dual sword of Rearmament and Appeasement would act as a deterrent | **KEY THEME 5:** • The policy of appeasement helps the fascist powers but also leads to miscalculation by them, which ultimately leads to World War II. The attempt of
cb618b5e-641c-401e-be93-2a371e163215
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://www.pmias.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/WORLD-HISTORY.pdf
2024-07-12T12:15:34+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763514387.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20240712094214-20240712124214-00877.warc.gz
606,531,230
54,451
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997987
eng_Latn
0.998294
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 56, 1006, 3191, 6049, 9608, 12283, 14974, 17686, 20527, 23854, 27193, 29770, 32386, 35406, 38368, 41496, 44695, 47673, 51083, 54420, 58659, 60362, 63151, 65780, 68801, 70272, 72870, 76274, 79491, 83400, 86158, 89495, 93093, 96656, 100479, 103687, 106726, 109989, 112391, 115989, 119180, 121846, 125206, 127497, 129441, 132394, 135684, 138668, 141425, 144686, 148413, 151463, 154458, 155812, 159287, 161856, 164012, 166437, 168854, 172259, 173410, 176102, 178469, 180980, 183340, 184736, 187747, 190570, 193001, 195437, 198183, 201149, 203377, 207074, 210166, 212531, 215434, 218084, 220596, 223342, 225747, 228418, 230028, 232495, 235662, 238242, 240987, 243239, 245813, 248570, 250625, 252818, 256144, 258880, 262306, 264899, 267142 ]
[ 2.84375, 3.140625 ]
1
0
Observations on English Education in Elementary Schools in China Donald Kaduhr Yoshiyuki Fujisawa Abstract This paper examines English-language teaching in the People’s Republic of China through visitations to some elementary school grades in two large urban centres, Beijing and Dalian, in March 2008. Observations of English classes in China for students in grades 1 to 6, provide the basis of what we feel needs to be addressed for the implementation of English-language teaching in lower levels of Japanese elementary schools (grade 5 and above) from 2011. After giving a brief overview of the development of English education as outlined by the Chinese Ministry of Education, this paper reports on the present situation in Chinese urban elementary schools with regards to teacher qualifications, teacher methodology, class sizes and facilities, textbooks, private school English classes and parents’ expectations. Also discussed, are the main differences between the approaches Chinese and Japanese primary schools have toward English education and what Japan should learn from the Chinese English syllabus and teacher qualification policies. I. Introduction Prior to 2001 English had not been a compulsory course in elementary schools in China except for certain key schools in major urban areas of over 27 provinces (Qiang, 2001). The teaching of English had not been standardized because of the limited number of qualified teachers and the lack of appropriate teaching materials. The emphasis was on grammar and pronunciation, characterised by situational dialogues taking up the main form of the textbooks along with learning the International Phonetic Alphabet to ensure correct pronunciation and intonation. There were no standardized textbooks either as each district was left to choose between using locally produced materials or the few licensed foreign textbooks that were available, some of which were designed for use in secondary school English classes. Since 2001, however, the Chinese Ministry of Education (MoE) has been increasingly concerned with improving the development of English education for all its citizens. It decided in 2001 to make English compulsory from the primary level starting in cities and then gradually advancing to rural areas (Ministry of Education Document, 2007). In recent years, English has been introduced into the primary school curriculum in an increasing number of cities all across China. The basic design issued by the MoE makes it clear that elementary school English classes begin in grade 3 (age 8), the recommended frequency of classes is 4 times a week, and the minimum is 80 minutes per week. However, more and more urban areas are starting English lessons in Grade 1. Qiang (2001) outlines the primary school English curriculum’s main aims: - to develop pupils’ interests, self confidence and positive attitude towards learning English; - to cultivate the pupils’ language sense and enable good pronunciation and intonation; - to develop the pupils’ preliminary ability to use English in daily exchanges and lay a good basis for further study. The syllabus is divided into two levels. Level 1 is for grades 3/4 and Level 2 is for grades 5/6. The instruction involves an activity-based approach encouraging teaching and learning through listening, speaking, singing (Level 1), playing and acting, doing, reading, and writing to provide the children opportunities to experience the language. Children are allowed to do things in English, and the learning process is expected to be a playful, happy experience. In this paper, we first report on our observations of three visitations we made to urban elementary schools in Beijing and Dalian which include teacher education, teaching style, class sizes and facilities, students’ responses and materials and textbooks. Next we will discuss the popularity of “juku”, or cram school, after-class English activities and people’s expectations for their children to acquire a suitable level of English. Finally, we compare the differences between Japanese and Chinese approaches to teaching English in elementary school and what Japan should learn from what China does. II. Observations of Elementary School English Classes Teacher Education Teacher education in China receives a considerable amount of attention. The MoE, teacher training institutions, teachers’ universities and English language teaching publishers have all been involved in organizing training programmes (Wu, 2001). Universities offer a degree for training primary school English teachers and each province is required to work out their own plans to implement primary school English teaching. Sometimes, colleges in the district or city conduct workshops to explain certain teaching methods or invite teachers from schools with a high rate of achievement to share experiences with other teachers. In our interviews with the primary English teachers in Beijing and Dalian, we learned in each school, teachers hold in-house group conferences (as often as twice a month all through the school year) to discuss teaching methodology, the teaching material and student assessment. Some schools invited teachers from other primary schools in the district to their conferences twice a month to discuss the planning of lessons, exams, curriculum matters, and arrange workshops to use technology (Power Point software), etc. The teachers we observed were all female, as is usually the case in China, and taught only their specialty subject—English (Ashmore, 1997). The teachers were all university graduates who have degrees/certificates, according to the grades they teach, i.e., in the “teaching of English for primary school”. There was usually one teacher for each grade, but in the largest school in Dalian, because of its large student body size in relation to its low number of English teachers, some teachers were teaching English to other grades as well. **Teaching Style** In the 4 classrooms—3 classes ranging from Grades 3-6 and a Grade 1 class—(at the 3 schools visited) we observed that each teacher used the **oral method**, sometimes also referred to as the **direct method**, which Japanese teachers are very familiar with. This methodology is based on the well-known EFL teaching style called **PPP**—presentation, practice, and production. The oral, or direct, method is primarily characterised by the teacher teaching English ‘in English’. We observed all 4 English classroom teachers using only English in their lessons. They never once reverted to Chinese language support with the whole class while conducting the lesson. Whenever Chinese was used, in the two or three times we noticed it, it was always spoken to individual students to explain specific vocabulary, and always while the other students were writing in workbooks. The teachers stood in front of the class, introduced words or expressions orally, with flashcards, via CD or cassette tape or by software projected onto a large screen, and asked for volunteers to repeat it. Most of the children raised their hands, and the child who was chosen stood to respond. Students repeat exactly what the teacher says, and how she says it, i.e., parroting her intonation and pronunciation patterns. The teachers provide feedback in the form of yes, good, or try again, and then the student is told to be seated. The teacher would continue like this asking 4 or 5 more students to volunteer. Then the teacher would ask pairs or groups of students to speak, and finally, she would call on individuals to speak. Finally, the teachers directed their students to a page in their textbooks. She then asked again for volunteers who when called upon read confidently and loudly. Lots of vocabulary was repeated with students mimicking the teacher’s pronunciation and intonation patterns. It was both interesting and enjoyable to note that the learners were excellent imitators of the speakers on the cassette tape. The classes usually ended with the teacher assigning homework in the form of memorizing more vocabulary and phrases from the students’ workbook or doing listening tasks from their textbooks’ CD’s. ![Image](image1.png) 1/2 Classes are teacher-fronted and teachers make use of large screens and software to introduce vocabulary and expressions that children repeat orally. One of our observations was a large Grade 1 class of about 55 students. As they were very young learners (although some had experience taking English lessons in kindergarten) the teaching method used involved a lot of TPR (Total Physical Response), whereby the teacher showed coloured objects to the students (colours were the unit topic) that they could see or use or touch. Along with oral repetition initiated by the teacher the children were singing and chanting. In summary, paying attention, whole class instruction (presentation), repetition (practice), and drills (production) characterise classroom instruction. Zuo (2008) verifies the ideal teacher’s role is to create a student-centered classroom where interaction is required for assessment of teaching work. Students are expected to be active participants in classroom interaction. Details and facts are expected to be memorized by the students. Class sizes and Facilities The schools we visited offered students 2-3 English classes per week. Depending on the school and grade each class was 30-40 minutes and there were anywhere from 30-60 students in each class. One teacher informed us she taught 3 classes/day for a total of 15 classes per week. Two schools had lessons with a native English speaker—Australians or Canadians mostly—who was assisted by the regular Chinese elementary school teacher. These special English classes were only for Grades 4 and above. The students remain in their own classrooms and the English teachers change rooms. On average, the 40 or 50 students occupied four or five rows of two-person wooden desks, six or seven deep. In some schools the children wore casual clothes while in others they were dressed in uniforms. Each classrooms’ cement walls were decorated with either posters bearing slogans or the school motto such as—“Your first step to success” or “Success starts here”; and, “Being a good man is more important than being a talented man”—or photos of famous communist leaders, e.g., Xiao Deng and Karl Marx. Large windows on one side of the room provided natural light and sometimes ventilation for large classes of warm bodies; florescent lights hung from the ceiling. Furthermore, in all the classes we observed, teachers were supplied with blackboards, CD players, cassette tape recorders (usually as a backup if the CD player or software malfunctioned) and the latest in hardware technology that projected compatible textbook material onto a large screen at the front of the classroom. The classrooms all had large screens for Power Point software instruction and the teachers made use of flash cards as well. Students’ Responses In order to answer a question from the teacher or volunteer, students always raised their hands. Never did they voluntarily call out answers. Also, their hand-raising was restrained and systematic. Their arm was outstretched and stationary. If not raising their hands, the students positioned their elbows on their desktops or folded their arms behind their backs. During our visits the students were always volunteering enthusiastically, paying attention, were respectful, and very well-behaved. Obviously though, not everyone was confident in their ability to speak in English or had the personality to seek attention by volunteering so often. This was where the teachers’ expertise came through and they would call upon the more reluctant students by name. Therefore the students knew very quickly that they could be called upon at any time to participate in the lesson. 3 Students raise their hands whenever they want to interact with the teacher. 4 Students get further language support through oral practice in their textbooks. **Textbooks and Materials** In cities like Beijing and Dalian textbooks are published locally to suit the standards of their students. Each school district assigns the same textbooks to each of its elementary schools and their respective grade levels. As is done in Japan. There are 4 or 5 companies producing 32 types of English textbooks in Beijing—the most of any subject. The publishers follow the guidelines laid down by the Ministry of Education and then the publishers promote their own books for sales. The MoE feels if different sets of textbooks compete against each other, the development of school textbooks will be greatly enhanced (Ministry of Education Document, 2007). The publishing group in Beijing supplies the textbooks free to primary schools, but the cassette tapes, CD’s and software are charged to the teachers for their personal use after they are ordered. This publisher also provides teacher training for the books. In Dalian, the students had to buy the books. In both the cities we visited the publishing companies produce textbooks with the same recurring themes. The textbooks adopt a functional and situational approach. They focus on communication—by talking about China—whereby characters in the dialogues meet foreigners or talk about foreign cultures. The series are similar in that they follow a set of characters growing up all through the different grade levels. New characters are added in each grade (book level). The layout of the texts was similar in the three schools we observed too—cartoon characters introduced as a friend—a new character and cultural topic introduced in each unit. Furthermore, each lesson includes a theme and a function, which are relevant to the students’ daily life. Word levels for the 6th grade: 500-800w (in Japan this would be 200w). The format of each lesson consists of listening and speaking practice, a writing section and a homework component done in an accompanying workbook. There is a high premium placed on communicative competence and listening and speaking get a lot of attention. In addition to the workbooks, teacher’s books, cassette-tapes, CD’s, videotapes, and wall charts also accompany the textbooks. In regards to pronunciation they follow the IEPS sound system. For the lower level grade 1 we observed, the publisher included bilingual text support for mostly the exercises students were singing and chanting. It should be noted though, that the Chinese language support was only for the instructions of how to do the exercises and not for any explicit translation of vocabulary. Exams are made from the textbook content by the respective grade level teachers and evaluate students’ speaking or conversation skills, listening skills, and, writing skills. All the English expressions are found in the students’ textbooks and are presented through the use of flash cards, CD’s, cassette tapes, and Power Point presentations. Hence all of the software is compatible with the textbooks. With the development of such textbooks, the emphasis of the teaching items remains on vocabulary, speaking and listening, and sentence patterns and therefore the methodology reflects the current trend of communicative language teaching. 5 Lessons are followed up with reading, writing and listening homework assignments from the student workbooks. III. The “Juku”, Cram School, After-School English Classes and Parents’ Expectations According to Britannica Online Encyclopedia, *cram schools* (juku in Japanese) “are privately run, after-hours tutoring schools geared to help elementary and secondary students perform better in their regular daytime schoolwork and to offer cram courses in preparation for university entry examinations. *Cram schools* range from individual home-based tutorials to countrywide chains of schools and are staffed largely by retired teachers, moonlighting teachers, and university students.” They are specialized schools that train their students to meet particular goals, most commonly to pass the entrance examinations of high schools or universities. Cram schools are usually privately owned. They are prevalent in East Asia, where rote-memorization education plays a greater part in adolescent education. In fact, there are so many cram schools in Japan, mainland China, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong, that they have become a de facto parallel educational system, and high school students may need to attend cram schools after regular school to master certain important courses, like English, mathematics or natural sciences. In China, English is rapidly growing in importance and popularity and is frequently being introduced at younger and younger ages. Many parents who can afford it, send their children to cram school-like English classes at privately run businesses during the afternoons, after regular public school has ended. In some cities students are enrolled in these additional private English classes at night or on weekends (Smith, 2007). These private English schools are increasingly tailoring their programmes to “this large and profitable market of young Chinese students” (2007, p. 4). Smith further reports that over a quarter of primary parents thought private English schools are necessary to supplement the failures of large size public school classrooms (2007, p.5). Therefore, what makes these schools so attractive to parents is that they offer reduced class sizes. Some even employ native English speakers as instructors (Yu, 2006). The popularity of English cram schools is a direct reflection of Chinese parents’ attitudes toward their children’s future. Many parents think much of their child’s future and by having them master English outside of the public school system, they feel their children will achieve the first step of climbing the ladder of a severe career-oriented society in China. Generally, the object for parents to have their children go to a cram school is to give them more time to study English in a smaller class size setting. If they have more time to study and achieve a higher level of English proficiency, the parents feel the children will achieve a higher English assessment at public school, which in turn, will enable them to go on to university and enhance their future career prospects. Since the Chinese government established the “one-child per couple policy” wealthy parents have a lot of expectations for their children and spend more and more money raising them. This is why Chinese society is sometimes called a “child-centered” one. The child is treated like an emperor of sorts in the family. This tendency is another cause of the rise of cram schools in the urban areas of China. In China, there are a lot of cram schools, especially in urban areas. There are 600-700 types of these schools in Dalian, specializing in many subjects – with 60-70 focusing on English (second only to mathematics and science). Most only offer classes for primary-aged children to junior high-aged children, and they have become an important source of revenue for the owners of these schools. In the Dalian school system, Wednesdays and Saturdays are only half-days. Public schools end around noon, so cram schools start in the afternoon on those days as an after-school supplement of the students’ regular studies. Some students are eager to study due to their high interest in English, but other juku students are not very motivated to study. The latter are forced to go to cram schools because of their parents’ too high expectations of their own children or their self-satisfaction in the fact they can afford to send them to a cram school. We had a chance to visit one English cram school while in Dalian. We were fortunate enough to observe one class and talk with the principal and some teachers (thanks to the arrangements by our local tour guide whose child attended this school). The cram school is situated on the 2\textsuperscript{nd} floor of a building in the city and had 3 or 4 classrooms. The children are driven to the school by their parents and spend 120 minutes in one English lesson. None of the teachers had a teaching license to teach primary school English yet, and some were in training to get their license. There were 20-30 students in the class we observed. The teaching style was in the same oral approach format that we observed in the public schools we visited previously and again the teacher was a young woman. However, it was very difficult for the students to maintain their attention for the full 120 minutes, so she sometimes tried playing English games in order to motivate the students. In summary, again teachers follow the exact same approach to teaching English, as do the public school teachers. However, as the classes have much more mixed levels of English learners, the 20 or so students are required to go to these classes by their parents, and they tend to employ less experienced teachers (at a lower salary scale). In addition, discipline and motivation of the students are often lacking. Hence, classroom management problems tend to occur frequently. 6 “Juku”, cram schools, are popular with parents who hope their children will receive a higher level of English proficiency. IV. The Differences Between Japanese and Chinese Approaches to Teaching English in Elementary School It is difficult to judge the general situation for primary English education in China from only a week’s observation. China is a huge country and it is impossible for us to give a general opinion on the matter as to whether they are successful in teaching English to elementary school students or not. Even in the urban areas, there remains a difference between higher-class schools and lower-class schools. It is like a blind person touching an elephant—we cannot grasp the whole general situation of English education in China. We happened to visit the schools that might well attain very high goals in English education. So, we have to refrain from giving a simple generalization due to our limited experience and time in China. However, there are some points that remain on what we should or should not learn from the practice in China on English teaching in elementary schools. Starting Age At present, there is an on-going debate about at what age Japanese children should begin learning a foreign language such as English. Many academics criticize beginning English studies in elementary school because they feel it will interfere with Japanese children’s first language development. Chinese English teachers do not believe this whatsoever, that elementary school English studies have any effect on the students’ Chinese language development. In summary then, we have observed in China, that the situation is in sharp contrast to the corresponding future primary school English curriculum plans for Japan. As it is well known to us these days, English is taught as a compulsory subject in Korea, Taiwan, and China (city areas) usually starting as early as grade 1, and much more class time is spent on English per week. So, as for the situation in Japan, teaching English should start earlier than Grade 5 due to outside social pressures and parents’ expectations in the future as well. **Japanese English Teachers** In 2011, Japanese classroom teachers will be expected to teach English to their students, even if they do not have a license to teach English. In some schools, they will share the class with an assistant English teacher, but they will be the main suppliers of teaching English in the elementary schools. In summary, according to the interviews with the teachers we met during our trip, China faces the same situation in regards to the shortage of qualified teachers of English. However, once the plan for primary English education was established, universities and special licensed schools started producing licensed teachers to cover the demands for qualified English teachers for public schools. These days, in almost every school in the large urban areas, these licensed teachers teach English. Furthermore, we would like to point out that in all subjects in Chinese elementary schools, teachers only teach the subjects they have a special license for. In other words, licensed English teachers only teach English; licensed math teachers only teach math; licensed computer science teachers only teach computer science, and so on. Similarly, judging from the situation in China, it would be better to create special licensed courses for teaching primary school English at universities throughout Japan. It would be a much more desirable situation whereby every elementary school should have some teachers who specialize in teaching English. It is clear Japanese educators and researchers are trying to do something about changing the EFL situation in Japan. Besides the issues regarding licensing and starting age there are other challenges to be faced. How will Japanese teachers deal with large classes? How can an assessment system characterised by intense exams be perfected more for social functions than for memory work (Zuo, 2008)? From our observations we feel there is a need for upgrading the professional competence of elementary school teachers (Hu, 2002). Then, the course of action for expanding English into the lower levels of primary school would be made on an informed and principled basis. **A Comprehensive English Education Curriculum in Japan** In Japan, the school curriculum has been changed and it has been announced by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (文部科学省 Monbu-kagakushō), or MEXT, that the commencement of the teaching of English in elementary schools will start from 2011. In particular, elementary school children in Japan will start studying English from Grade 5 and above; one class per week (in total, 35 hours in a year). However, apart from other subjects, English will be introduced as an activity, not as a core subject (except in special districts where they will study English as a core subject). Getting used to the target language—English—and cultivating an attitude towards another culture (other than Japanese) have been set as the main goals. Furthermore, we feel there has to be an emphasis on the establishment of a whole consistent and comprehensive curriculum for English education in Japan extending from the fifth grade (or in some cases, from grade 1) to the university level. In China, they have already set the entire compulsory English curriculum from grade 1 to grade 9, and when students finish their university education, they have to take the English proficiency test as a requirement of their graduation (Ministry of Education Document, 2007). The situation in Korea is the same; they have a comprehensive English curriculum from elementary school to university. On the other hand, the curriculum on English education in Japan is emphasized mainly from secondary education and higher, but English education at the university level depends on each university’s own developed curriculum and does not set clear goals for itself. In addition to that, MEXT has declared that the start of teaching English lessons will be at the level of grade 5. In 2011, continuity from the elementary level to the secondary level should be taken into account thoroughly, and a smooth transition all the way to university is needed for the success of English education in Japan in the future. References Ashmore, Rhea Ann. (1997). Inside an Urban Elementary School in the People’s Republic of China. Retrieved on August 8, 2008, from ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED406465. http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/16/77/bc.pdf. Hu, Guangwei. (2002). Recent Important Developments in Secondary English-language Teaching in the People’s Republic of China. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 15(1): 30-49. Juku. (2008). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved September 16, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/307739/juku. Ministry of Education, The People’s Republic of China. (2007). Basic Education in China (Ministry of Education Document). In: Education in China. Beijing: Ministry of Education. Qiang, Wang. (2002). Primary School English Teaching in China—New Developments. English Language Teacher Education and Development (ELTED), 7: 99-108. Smith, Jennifer L. (2007). The Contribution of EFL Programs to Community Development in China. Asian EFL Journal, 9(1): 1-13. Wu, Yi’an. (2001). English Language Teaching in China: Trends and Challenges. TESOL Quarterly, 35(1): 191-194. Yu, Yang. (2006). EFL Teachers in Chinese Public Schools: Reflections and Suggestions on Their Needs. TESOL NNEST Newsletter, 8(2): 1-3. Zuo, Lianjun. (2008). A Recent History of Teaching EFL in China. TESOL Essential Teacher: Compleat Links, 5(2): 1-4.
bf917021-2395-4eca-817f-70ff567bc8ef
CC-MAIN-2023-23
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/229392358.pdf
2023-06-08T19:12:18+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224655092.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20230608172023-20230608202023-00271.warc.gz
207,535,970
5,615
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.995942
eng_Latn
0.998624
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2692, 5808, 8333, 11609, 14131, 16594, 20236, 22432, 25828, 28892 ]
[ 2.359375, 1.875 ]
1
0
SAFE TEEN DRIVER GUIDE 16 Steps to Your Teen Driver’s Safety Behind the Wheel Compliments of Spencer Insurance Agency, Inc. Charlie Spencer, CLU Speaker, Family and Teen Driver Protection Expert Spencer Insurance Agency, Inc. 115 West Ave, Suite 204 PO Box 54 Jenkintown, PA 19046 215-885-2200 COPYRIGHT © 2008 Spencer Insurance Agency, Inc. Information in this documentation is the property of the Spencer Insurance Agency, Inc. No part of this documentation can be stored in a retrieval system, reproduced, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, photographic, or mechanical), recorded, translated, or used to produce derivative works, without written permission from Spencer Insurance Agency, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by: Spencer Insurance Agency, Inc. PO Box 54 Jenkintown, PA 19046 215-885-2200 Legal Disclaimer: While all attempts have been made to verify information provided in this publication, neither the Author nor the Publisher assume any responsibility for errors, omissions, or contrary interpretation of the subject matter herein. This publication is not intended to replace professional driving instruction. The Author and Publisher want to stress that the information contained herein may be subject to varying state and/or local laws or regulations. The reader of this publication assumes responsibility for the use of these materials and information. Adherence to all applicable laws and regulations, federal, state, and local, is the sole responsibility of the purchaser or reader. The Author and Publisher assume no responsibility or liability whatsoever on the behalf of any purchaser or reader of these materials. # Table of Contents | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Introduction | 3 | | Obtaining an Pennsylvania Learner Permit | 4 | | Top 5 Mistakes Teen Drivers Make | 6 | | Vehicle Orientation and Maintenance | 7 | | Lesson 1: Getting Started (Letting go is hard to do) | 10 | | Lesson 2: Parking Lot (No shopping cart races) | 13 | | Lesson 3: Parking (We don’t mean at the drive-in) | 15 | | Lesson 4: Leaving the garage (Sometimes you have to go backward to go forward) | 17 | | Lesson 5: Neighborhood driving (80% of accidents are 7 miles or less from home) | 19 | | Lesson 6: City Driving (Cruisin for a Bruisin) | 21 | | Lesson 7: Traffic Lights (Ready – Set- Go) | 23 | | Lesson 8: Country Roads (Wind in your hair, out on the open road) | 26 | | Lesson 9: Open Roads (Going straight, does not mean going fast) | 28 | | Lesson 10: Highway Driving (I can’t drive 55!) | 30 | | Lesson 11: Night driving (Blinded by the light) | 33 | | Lesson 12: Bad Weather (Wind, Ice, Snow, Rain – Just like the Mailman) | 36 | | Lesson 13: Accidents Happen (Oops I made a mistake) | 38 | | Lesson 14: The High Price of Driving (Scared Straight) | 40 | | Lesson 15: Map reading (In search of B3? You sank my battleship) | 42 | | Lesson 16: Your Teen is now licensed (This is the beginning of a beautiful relationship) | 43 | | 11 Safety Tips Every Parent Should Enforce: | 44 | | Resources: | 45 | | Websites | 45 | | Driving Schools | 45 | Introduction This guide is intended to be used as a supplement to an accredited driving course. It is not intended to replace in part or in full the instructional materials from any accredited driving school. The lessons outlined in the following guide should not be attempted until the student driver has obtained his/her lawful learners permit. Successful completion of this course does not constitute an implied, stated, or otherwise any warranty that the student is a qualified driver. According to the NHTSA, the number one cause of accidents among teen drivers is operator error. Many errors are the result of inexperience. Consequently, many experts recommend teen drivers should complete at least 100 hours of driving experience behind the wheel before obtaining their drivers’ license. In many states parents may teach their teen to drive. However, we strongly recommend that your teen complete a professional driving instruction course. Courses may be offered through: - Your local High School; - A community college or university; - Professional Driving School - Professional Race School Obtaining an PA Driver Learner Permit Obtaining Your Original Learner’s Permit An initial Learner's Permit is issued to any individual, 16 years of age or older, who has never been licensed to operate a vehicle, a new resident who has never been licensed, or a new resident who has been licensed in another state but whose driver's license has been expired longer than 6 months. If you are a new resident to PA, please visit the PA New Resident information page at http://www.dmv.state.pa.us/new_residents/driver_license.shtml Process: Step 1: Acquire a Pa Driver’s Manual from a local Driver’s License Center, or on this Web site http://www.dmv.state.pa.us/drivers_manual/index.shtml Step 2: Have a physician, physician assistant, certified registered nurse practitioner or chiropractor conduct a physical examination and complete Form DL-180 “Medical Qualification Certificate”. DL-180 at http://www.dmv.state.pa.us/pdotforms/dl_forms/dl-180.pdf Step 3: Visit a Driver License Center with: - The completed DL-180 - The completed DL-180TD (if under the age 18). This form must be completed by a parent, guardian, or spouse who is 18 years of age or older. Form available at http://www.dmv.state.pa.us/pdotforms/dl_forms/dl-180td.pdf - Proof of identity, which is listed on reverse side of DL-180. Note: If you are changing your name, you must present original documents supporting name changes such as a marriage certificate, divorce decree or court order. - Two acceptable proofs of residency, listed on reverse side of DL-180, if you are 18 years of age or older. Proof of residency is not required if you are age 16 or 17. - Your Social Security card. - A check or money order payable to PennDOT for the appropriate fee. (Cash is not accepted.) Step 4: An eye screening and Knowledge Test will be given. Once passed, a Learner’s Permit will be issued. The Learner's Permit will be valid for one year. If you are under age 18, a six-month waiting period and 50 hours behind the wheel driving experience is required prior to taking the skills test. **Step 5:** Schedule a road test either online at: https://www.dot33.state.pa.us/exam_scheduling/eslogin.jsp#top?20080611175234991=20080611175234991 or by calling 1-800-423-5542. Extent of Driving Privileges: At the Driver License Center, your vision will be tested. If you wear glasses or contact lenses, please bring them with you. You will then take the Knowledge Test on signs, laws, driving rules and safe practices described later in this manual. After passing the Knowledge Test, the examiner will give you a learner’s permit, which is valid for one (1) year. When you receive your learner’s permit, you may begin to practice driving. If you fail the Knowledge Test, the examiner will return the Non-Commercial Learner’s Permit Application (DL-180) and your Parent or Guardian Consent Form (DL-180TD) to you. You may take the Knowledge Test only one time on any day regardless of test location. Keep your forms in a safe place since you must bring them with you when you are tested again. The Non-Commercial Learner’s Permit Application (DL-180) is valid for one (1) year from the date of your physical examination; however, the physical examination date may not be more than 6 months prior to your 18th birthday. If you are under the age of 18, you are required to complete at least 50 hours of behind-the-wheel skill-building before taking your road test. This training will help teach you the skills necessary to become a good, safe driver. REMEMBER: A licensed driver who is at least 21 years of age or a spouse, guardian or parent who is at least 18 years of age and holds a driver’s license must ride with you in the front seat of your vehicle at all times. In addition, drivers under the age of 18 cannot have more passengers in the vehicle than the number of seat belts. After you have waited the mandatory six (6) months from your permit issue date and have a signed certificate of completion for the 50 hours of skill-building, you may take your road test. If your learner’s permit expires or if you do not pass your road test after three (3) tries, you may obtain an Application to Add/Extend/Replace/Change/Correct Non-Commercial Learner’s Permit (DL-31). If you are using your learner’s permit for driving outside the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, please check with your insurance company and the other state’s Department of Transportation to make sure your learner’s permit is valid. If any information on your learner’s permit is not correct, bring proof of the correct information to the examiner when you come to the Driver License Center for testing. SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER INFORMATION The Department is required by law to obtain your Social Security number, height and eye color under the provisions of Section 1510(a) and/or 1609(a)(4) of the Pennsylvania Vehicle Code. The information will be used as identifying information in an attempt to minimize driver license fraud. Your Social Security number is not part of your public driver’s record. Federal law permits the use of the Social Security number by state licensing officials for purposes of identification. Your Social Security number will not be printed on your learner’s permit or driver’s license. PENNSYLVANIA VISION STANDARDS You may have poor vision in either eye and still be able to obtain a driver’s license; however, you may be required to wear glasses or contact lenses, be restricted to daylight driving or be allowed to operate only vehicles equipped with side mirrors. If your vision fails to meet the vision standards, the examiner will give you a Report of Eye Examination Form (DL-102). You should have an optometrist, ophthalmologist or family physician test your vision and complete this form. When the form is completed, you may return to the Driver License Center to continue testing. A driver learner permit does not legally allow you to drive alone under any circumstances. Top 5 Mistakes Teen Drivers Make 1. **Speeding.** The faster a vehicle is traveling the longer it will take to bring the vehicle to a stop. Most teens understand this concept, however, the distance needed to stop increases exponentially as speed increases. 2. **Distractions.** Their biggest problem is they do not pay attention to their driving! Teens are constantly changing radio stations and C.D.’s. An increasingly popular and time consuming activity is talking on their cell phone or text messaging from their cell phone. Safety Tip: Don’t call your teen when you know that they are driving. It is amazing how often parents do this! 3. **Overcorrecting.** Many teen will take turns at too high of speeds, will then overcorrect and lose control of their vehicle. 4. **Following too close.** This is the one thing that could prevent the largest number of accidents! If teens would just increase their following distance, then many times they could avoid an accident because they will have time to take evasive action. The correct following distance is two car lengths for every 10 miles per hour. 5. **Failure to Yield.** Many teens simply do not understand which vehicle has the right of way. Vehicle Orientation and Maintenance Before starting to drive perform a quick safety check of the vehicle. Now is a good time to have a brief discussion about vehicle maintenance. Explain basic maintenance items such as when oil changes are due and proper tire inflation. Verify that all lights and turn signals are functioning properly and free of snow. Safety Tip: For emergency purposes, teach your teen to keep at least ¼ tank of gas in the car at all times. You do not want them running out of gas in an unsafe area. Additionally, you will avoid the frustration of having to unexpectedly stop for gas when your teen has been driving your car. Familiarize your teen with the location and operation of the vehicle controls. It is important that your teen is comfortable in the driver’s seat. Today’s newer cars are capable of adjusting the seat, mirrors, steering wheel, brake pedal and accelerator. Review proper operation of the heater, air conditioning, cruise control and wiper blades. Safety Tip: Hazard lights. Make sure your teen knows how to locate and turn on the hazard lights in each of your cars! Explain the dashboard gauges and their purpose. Taking the time to explain the gauges will help maintain the vehicle in proper working condition. Furthermore, it may save you a large repair bill. After all, the time for your teen to understand the temperature gauge is not after the car has overheated! A good habit to form is maintaining a mileage log. The log should detail the date, miles on the vehicle, the number of gallons of gas added and the miles per gallon obtained on the prior tank. of gas. When the gas mileage decreases it is an early warning signal that the engine needs maintenance. I strongly recommend that you have your teen change a tire before he/she obtains their license. With the prevalence of cell phones, many parents assume their teen can call them or AAA for assistance. Depending on the location and time of day, it may take 2-3 hours before assistance can arrive. **Safety Tip:** Tire jacks can **KILL!** Practice with them the proper use and ‘placement of the jack’. People die from this every year. Don’t forget to show them how to chock the tires. **Safety Tip:** It is very dangerous to change a tire on the highway. Call the state police to assure drivers move over and the safety of your teen. **Safety Tip:** Maintain an Emergency kit in the trunk complete with: flares, a flashlight and batteries. Practice lighting flares. **Insurance Tip:** Maintain Roadside Service as part of your insurance coverage. Help will be dispatched to help change tires or even deliver gas! | Vehicle Safety Check | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Check Tire Pressure/Change Tire | | | | Belts | | | | Windshield Wipers (Front & Rear) | | | | Headlights | | | | Emergency Brake | | | | Fuel Gauge | | | | Oil Gauge | | | | Temperature Gauge | | | | RPM Gauge | | | | Mirrors | | | | Seats | | | | Turn Signals | | | | Radio | | | | Heat/Air Conditioning | | | | Accelerator | | | | Brake/Parking Brake | | | | Hood Release | | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Lesson #1 (Letting Go is hard to do!) Start slowly by taking your teen to a deserted school or church parking lot. The first day should be conducted under ideal driving conditions. Find a place with wide open space and no traffic. Limit their speed to no more than 15 mph. Safety Tip: MAP or visually locate the POLES and other FIXED obstacles in the parking lot. Locate pedestrians, bikers and boarders. DO not forget, you might be sharing the parking lot. Make sure your teen is comfortable accelerating, braking and turning. The object of this lesson is for them to become comfortable behind the wheel and feel in control of the vehicle before driving on a public road. It is imperative that you correct any improper use of technique before a habit can be formed. This is a learning experience for your teen as well as for you, as an instructor. Determine your teens’ skill level and observe how your teen learns. One of the most common mistakes you can make as an instructor is to assume your teen is familiar with driving or the operation of the vehicle. Safety Tip: Driving instruction is NOT just while the teen drives. YOU should be engaging the teen driver while you drive (even the pre-teen). Start the lesson with you acting as the instructor and end the lesson with your teen acting as the instructor. One of the best ways to learn a subject is to teach the subject. By reversing roles, your teen will be demonstrating their full comprehension of the lesson. This lesson may need to be repeated several times before both of you are comfortable venturing onto a public road. There is no need to rush this phase of the process. Make sure your teen is comfortable behind the wheel before moving on to the next set of skills. Safety Tip: Use games to teach your teen about driving. For example: 1. Spot the loser – Identify the worst driver on the road. Have your teen explain the errors the driver is making. 2. Count the errors – See how many errors you can see other drivers make. 3. Predict the move – try to predict the next move of the other vehicles on the road. Your teen is and HAS BEEN thinking driving is easy. They do NOT know all the decisions you make as you drive down the road. Don’t just tell them; tell them WHILE you are processing the decisions. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Vehicle Safety Check | | | | Adjust Seat & Mirrors | | | | Review Vehicle Controls & Gauges | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Starting the Engine | | | | Engaging the Transmission | | | | Use of Mirrors | | | | Moving Forward | | | | Acceleration | | | | Braking | | | | Stopping Distance | | | | Turning | | | | Orientation on the Road | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|------------------------------------------| | Stopping Distances | | | Orientation on the Road | | | Scanning the Road (Anticipating Problems) | | | Good Points | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Lesson 2 (No shopping cart races) Start this lesson with a review of Lesson 1 and summarizing the skills you will be teaching today. The emphasis of this lesson should be on vehicle control and stopping the vehicle. While driving it is important to be aware of where all the vehicles are on the road. In order to monitor the other vehicles on the road, a driver must effectively utilize his/her mirrors. This would be a good time to demonstrate the blind spot. While the auto is parked, stand in the blind spot to help your teen adjust the side mirrors. They will not realize until you physically show them this spot is real! Note: the side mirrors need to be adjusted out, you should only see a TRACE of the side of the auto. The KEY is what is next to the auto and outwards. The teen needs to KNOW all autos are different; some vehicles have larger blind spots than others. Safety Tip: Apply the small convex mirrors to both side mirrors. These mirrors increase the view TREMENDOUSLY! One of the top 5 mistakes teens make is following too closely. They do not realize the distance it takes to stop a vehicle. Once your teen is feeling a little more comfortable behind the wheel, have them simulate an emergency stop. Safety Tip: Walk off the distance it takes to stop the vehicle from various speeds. Try using the marked white lines or bring a few cones to mark the distance. This process will help your teen realize just how long it takes to stop the car. Stress how the distance will increase at highway speeds. Most vehicles on the road today are equipped with the ABS (Anti-Locking Brake Systems) safety feature. Try to engage this safety feature today. Depending on the size of the parking lot you are using, this may be difficult to do. However, it is important for your teen to experience this safety feature in a controlled environment for the first time. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Starting | | | | Review Stopping | | | | Review Turning | | | | Introduce New Skill: Scanning the Road | | | | Scan Forward | | | | Scan Side to Side | | | | Blind Spot | | | | Use of Mirrors | | | | Introduce New Skill: Backing | | | | Backing Straight | | | | Turning While Backing | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|------------------------------------------| | Scanning the Road (Anticipating Problems) | | | Backing | | | Good Points | | **Additional Comments:** **Skills to review for next lesson:** Lesson #3 (Parking... and we don’t mean at the drive-in!) Most new drivers are afraid to park the car because they are not comfortable judging the distance from their bumper to the other car. If the braking exercises were effective in Lesson 2, your teen may be doubly apprehensive. However, before they can venture onto the road, they must be comfortable with all the dimensions of the vehicle. For this exercise practice all types of parking. Safety Tip: Begin your parking exercises by using empty plastic trash cans to designate the other vehicles. Don’t forget to show your teen how to set (and take off) the parking brake when parking on a hill. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Introduce New Skill: Parking| | | | Straight In Parking | | | | Angled Parking | | | | Parallel Parking (Use Trash Cans as Cars) | | | | Parking on a Hill | | | | Practice Backing | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Parking | | | | Scanning the Road | | | | Blind Spot | | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Lesson 4 (Sometimes you have to go backward to go forward.) Your teen feels comfortable behind the wheel and with the basic operation of the motor vehicle. In order to demonstrate this skill, have your teen back the car out of the garage. Many teens fear they will scrape the side of the garage while backing the car out because they are not truly comfortable with the vehicle dimensions. Safety Tip: Make sure the garage door is all the way up! You are now ready to take your teen on the road and put to use some of the skills they have learned. This lesson should be performed in a small neighborhood where there is minimal vehicle and foot traffic. For the first time they may encounter another moving vehicle or a vehicle parked at the side of the road. Try to remember the anxiety you felt the first time you approached an oncoming vehicle. It is imperative the teen have a “feel” for the dimensions of their car. Practice defensive driving. Teach your teen to anticipate probable problem situations. For example, scan the sides of the road for small children that may dart onto the road. Anticipate that a parked car may suddenly pull out in front of you from the side of the road. Turning is much different on the road from an empty parking lot. Practice making turns at an intersection both from a stop and while moving. Many teens struggle with gauging when to start turning, applying brake pressure and accelerating out of a turn. Again, finish the lesson with your teen acting as the instructor. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today’s Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Introduce New Skill: Garage Parking | | | | Backing Out of Garage | | | | Parking in Garage | | | | Backing Down Driveway | | | | Introduce New Skill: Driving in Neighborhood | | | | Approaching an Intersection | | | | Passing a Parked Car | | | | Oncoming Car | | | | Turning a Corner | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|------------------------------------------| | Garage Parking | | | Neighborhood Driving| | | Parking | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Lesson 5 (80% of Accidents occur 7 miles or less from home) For this lesson, you should continue driving in a small neighborhood with little traffic. By now, your teens’ confidence should be building. Throughout this lesson stress the defensive driving techniques you have been discussing. Emphasize the need to scan the road and anticipate other drivers’ actions. Anticipation can prevent many accidents before they happen. Safety Tip: Teach your teen to look through turns, look past the auto ahead and watch for pedestrians. What will your teen do if a ball suddenly rolls into the street? Part of the conversation should be discussing the perfect storm. Where and who are the bad drivers? Where do bad drivers congregate? Where is traffic congestion a problem? Where drivers are likely to be on cell phones and distracted? Where are pedestrians and people in a rush? Examples of where the perfect storm may exist are: mall parking lots, the grocery store and movie theaters. Safety Tip: The perfect storm exists in the school parking lot every day when students are dismissed. Have your teen wait 10 minutes after dismissal before driving home. Lesson #5 (Neighborhood with minimal traffic) | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today’s Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Practice Neighborhood Driving | | | | Approaching an Intersection | | | | Review Road Positioning | | | | Review Passing a Parked Car | | | | Review Oncoming Cars | | | | Review Turning | | | | Introduce New Skill: Driving with Distractions | | | | Turn Radio Up | | | | Talking While Driving | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Parking | | | | Distractions | | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Lesson 6 (Cruisin' for a Bruisin') It is now time to venture out of the neighborhood and onto the road with traffic. Try making the short trip to the nearest grocery store. Be careful, try to practice when there is minimal traffic. Most teens are nervous when they face their first oncoming car and tend to drift too far to the right. Have them use their mirrors to see where they are on the road. This type of driving will require many more decisions. This driving is much more dangerous than any driving you have done to this point. Emphasize this point to your teen driver. You will also need to be much more alert at this time. As is the case with all the prior lessons, you may need to repeat this lesson several times before proceeding. It is now time to use the defensive driving techniques you have been discussing. Techniques such as: scanning the road ahead, anticipating what other drivers and pedestrians are about to do, etc. Safety Tip: Now would be a good time to play the games we recommended earlier: 1. Spot the loser – Identify the worst driver on the road. Have your teen explain the errors the driver is making. 2. Count the errors – See how many errors you can see other drivers make. 3. Predict the move – try to predict the next move of the other vehicles on the road. This is probably where your teen will have their first experience with stop signs. You will want to avoid intersection with poor visibility in any direction. Safety Tip: The last direction you should look before proceeding is the direction with the worst visibility. If there is an obstruction in either direction, look that way last. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Introduce New Skill: City Street Driving | | | | Accelerating to Speed Limit | | | | Road Positioning | | | | Turning (Right & Left) | | | | Signaling (Hand Signals) | | | | Oncoming Traffic | | | | Approaching Intersection | | | | Approaching Traffic Light | | | | Yielding Right of Way | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|------------------------------------------| | Parallel Parking | | | Turning | | | Driving Through Intersections | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Most of the driving we do is on city streets. Therefore, complete mastery of this lesson is essential. During this lesson pay particular attention to intersections and turning. Repeat this lesson until you are completely sure your teen has mastered these skills. Gradually increase the difficulty of the driving lesson. After this lesson your teen should be completing turns in all directions while remaining in their lane. They should know when they have the right of way and when to yield. Safety Tip: One of the most common causes of teen accidents is failing to yield the right of way. Practice approaching traffic lights. At this point they should be able to stop at a light without causing whiplash. Practice the timing of making a left turn IN FRONT of on-coming traffic. In fact, this is a major cause of accidents. Many teens have difficulty learning to be a GOOD Judge of the other drivers speed. It is common for teens to initially be too cautious before turning left in front of oncoming traffic. However, once they have gained confidence behind the wheel, this is an area where teens tend to take unnecessary risks. Remember, driver error is the number one cause of teen accidents. Turning left at intersections is one of the most common situations where drivers make mistakes. Safety tip: At all intersections, teach your teen to look in the shortest direction last. Safety tip: Watch the pedestrian walkway sign, when the “Don’t Walk” sign flashes the light is about to turn yellow. Practice driving on congested roads and in congested areas. Again, emphasize who has the right of way. Safety Tip: It is not uncommon for a friendly driver to “wave” you across a congested lane of traffic. WARNING! This action results in an accident as often as not. If you are in an accident, you will be judged at fault. In order to cut costs and regulate the flow of traffic, many cities are using Round-a-Bouts or Circle Turns in place of traffic lights. Round-a-bouts are one of the most confusing traffic obstacles to navigate for the new driver. Truth be told, any driver that is unfamiliar with these intersections have difficulty. Safety Tip: While navigating the round-a-bout many teen drivers have a tendency to stop and allow another driver to enter. NEVER STOP! In most instances the driver behind you is not watching you and the result is a rear end collision. The number one cause of teen accidents is driver error. Sometimes in an effort to protect their young drivers, parents place their teens in a position to fail. Because your teen is just learning to drive you may avoid highly congested driving situations such as: rush hour traffic, driving to and from major sporting events, or concerts. However, sooner or later they will be driving in these types of situations. If you live in a major metropolitan area, have your teen drive you downtown. Don’t you think it would be better if the first time they experienced this stressful driving was with you in the car? Many teens experience their first fender bender while driving under these conditions. Safety Tip: In Pennsylvania it is legal to make a left hand turn on a red light onto a one way street. However, this is not the law in all states. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review: City Street Driving | | | | Accelerating to Speed Limit | | | | Road Positioning | | | | Turning (Right & Left) | | | | Oncoming Traffic | | | | Approaching an Intersection | | | | Navigating a Round-a-Bout (Circle Turn) | | | | Approaching a Traffic Light | | | | Yielding Right of Way | | | | Parallel Parking | | | | Driving Through Intersections | | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Lesson 8 (Wind in your hair) You have navigated city streets at speeds up to 40 miles per hour and are now ready to venture onto the open road. It is time to drive the car at the higher speeds allowed on county roads. Pay careful attention to the positioning on the road. Remind your teen to use their side mirrors to maintain proper lane positioning. Safety Tip: One of the top 5 causes of accidents among teen drivers is driver error such as overcorrecting when 2 wheels go off the roadway. First demonstrate for your teen how to bring the car back on the road without panicking. Then, have them practice this multiple times until you are comfortable with their skill level. Now is a good time to reemphasize stopping distances. At higher speeds, a greater stopping distance is required. Your teen is now confident behind the wheel but will probably underestimate the distance required to come to a stop from 55 mph. As discussed earlier, following too closely is one of the top 5 mistakes teen drivers make. Safety Tip: Use telephone poles to estimate your following distance. Rural areas present additional hazards. What should you do when approaching a farm vehicle? When approaching farm equipment the slower rate of speed at which they travel, as well as the debris the equipment throws off, pose completely different hazards than other vehicles. Complicating the situation is the fact that the operator of farm equipment cannot hear your horn because of the noise of the equipment and their sheer size makes them difficult to pass. Additionally, they may not have turn signals. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | **Driving Experience (1 Hour)** | Activity | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------------|-----------------|------------------------------------------| | Introduce New Skill: Open Road Driving | | | | Accelerating to Speed Limit | | | | Roadway Positioning | | | | Oncoming Traffic | | | | Following Distance | | | | Passing | | | | Approaching a Stop Sign | | | | Introduce New Skill: 2 Wheels off the Road | | | | Slowing to turn | | | **Review (15 Minutes)** | Activity | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------------|-----------------|------------------------------------------| | 2 Wheels off the Road | | | | Following Distance | | | | Slowing to Stop or Turn | | | **Additional Comments:** **Skills to review for next lesson:** Lesson 9 (Going straight does not mean going fast.) Reemphasize the points on stopping and following distances from Lesson 8. Review the skill of recovering from dropping two wheels off the road. You have now had the vehicle up to speeds of 55 miles per hour. Introduce the new skill of passing on a two lane road. Safety Tip: It is dangerous and illegal to exceed the posted speed limit while passing another vehicle. From lack of experience, teen drivers will commonly misjudge the speed, time and distance necessary to pass another vehicle. Depth perception and judgment are crucial during this type of driving. This type of driving lends itself to driver error all too frequently. Most one vehicle accidents occur during this type of driving. Be sure to practice slowing safely in order to navigate sudden curves. It is quite common for 45 mph to be the safe speed required to navigate such turns. Additionally, rural roads of this nature frequently have bumps which are more severe than they appear upon approach. Or, the roadway may hide a stop sign. Teens are very likely to speed on these types of roads due to a lack of traffic and that the road is straight for long distances. However, the sudden curves and unavoidable bumps are very hazardous. Now is a good time to discuss the dangers of speeding. Once you are comfortable, move to Lesson 10 where we will begin highway driving. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Open Road Driving | | | | Accelerating to Speed Limit | | | | Roadway Positioning | | | | Oncoming Traffic | | | | Following Distance | | | | Passing | | | | Approaching a Stop Sign | | | | 2 Wheels off the Road | | | | Slowing to Stop and Turn | | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Proceed slowly with highway driving. Have your teen merge onto the highway, remaining in the right lane and exiting at the next ramp. Repeat this procedure multiple times. Merging is a critical skill to remaining safe on the highway and one that too many people are deficient. As experience is gained, your teen will gradually be ready to remain on the highway long enough to pass ramps and other vehicles. Pay particular attention to lane positioning. Anticipate the other drivers’ actions while they are merging, passing you or when you are passing them. Safety Tip: Teach your teen to always have an out. They need to keep space in a lane to either side or a following distance long enough to allow them to avoid the driver that makes a sudden move. Review the lesson on blind spots. Work with your teen to be aware of where all the cars are around him/her. The blind spot is not a problem if they know when a vehicle is moving into their blind spot. Work on scanning the road ahead as well as using the mirrors to scan the road behind. Teach your teen proper driving etiquette as vehicles merge onto the highway. Have your teen move to the center lane safely, allowing the other vehicle to merge easily. Safety Tip: The center lane of the highway is full of POOR drivers. These drivers are drivers who can NOT merge well, and are afraid of merging themselves. Safety Tip: Fog line drivers. Many inexperienced highway drivers think they are merging just by following the white fog line into the right line. CAUTION they do NOT have a clue that you are there in the right lane! Learning all the nuances of entering and exiting the freeway is difficult because all drivers merge and exit a little differently. Safety Tip: Some people do NOT want to let you back over into the exiting lane. When you slow up to let them move ahead, watch out they ALSO might be exiting and will hit their brakes. Repeat this lesson multiple times in order for your teen to experience the various traffic patterns of highway driving. Gradually drive in increasingly heavy traffic. Safety Tip: Have your teen drive during rush hour. Many parents avoid having their teen drive in rush hour traffic. Remember, following too closely is one of the most frequent mistakes teens make. Driving habits vary from city to city. This is most evident when navigating the freeways around our cities. While driving on vacation, teach your teen to be observant when driving in a strange city and to be prepared to adapt to the local tendencies. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Merging onto Highway | | | | Using Your Mirrors | | | | Changing Lanes | | | | Passing | | | | Anticipating the Other Drivers | | | | Checking Your Blind Spots | | | | Following Distance | | | | Roadway Position | | | | Exiting the Freeway | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Merging | | | | Checking Your Blind Spots | | | | Following Distance | | | **Additional Comments:** **Skills to review for next lesson:** Lesson 11 (Blinded by the light.) Your teen has now experienced all the different types of driving, on city streets, the open road and the highway. It is now time to experience each of these types of driving at night. As you know, your depth perception and vision are impaired at night which reduces reaction time. Scanning the road is harder to do and road hazards are more difficult to see. Many states require a minimum of ten hours of night driving experience before a teen is allowed to receive their license. Do not cut these lessons short. Additionally, night driving introduces a whole new set of dangers. Most animals in the roadway are encountered at dusk or during night driving. If you live in an area where deer are present you must scan off the side of the road. Safety Tip: Deer are particularly active during harvest time as their cover is being taken away. Most deer accidents occur during this time. Also, when there is one deer, there are surely more to follow. According to the NHTSA, most fatal accidents for teens occur between the hours of 8:00 and 12:00 pm. One reason is because this is when teens are most likely on the road. However, a major contributing factor is commonly driver fatigue. Teach your teen to spot the warning signs of fatigue. Not just their own, but of the other drivers on the road such as: erratic speed, weaving and crossing the center line or fog line. Safety tip: It takes less than 4 seconds to fall completely asleep. Teach your child to never try to force their way through drowsiness. It is always better to pull off the road, get some fresh air or walk around the car to wake up. In rural driving, many drivers do not use their high beams correctly. Review proper use of high beams and the distance between cars when the headlights should be dimmed. Properly adjusted headlights will typically illuminate the road up to 350 feet. If you are traveling faster than 55 mph it will be difficult to have the proper amount of reaction time when encountering a dangerous situation. Safety Tip: When the oncoming car forgets to dim their lights what should you do? Focus on the white fog line for the split second that the vehicle with the high beams is passing. This will protect your night vision. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | **Driving Experience (1 Hour)** | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |----------------|------------------------------------------| | Use of Bright Lights | | | Following Distance | | | Signaling | | | Changing Lanes | | | Oncoming Traffic | | | Turning | | **Review (15 Minutes)** | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |----------------|------------------------------------------| | Following Distance | | | Turning | | | Use of Bright Lights | | **Additional Comments:** **Skills to review for next lesson:** Lesson 12 (Wind, Ice, Snow, Rain – just like the mailman!) This is probably the most difficult driving lesson to administer. It almost has to be performed on command because you never know when bad weather will occur. Learning to drive on snow and ice can be particularly difficult. Depending on when your teen obtains his/her permit, there may not even see snow for almost a year! Driver inexperience and poor decisions are only magnified when driving in less than ideal conditions. Review how stopping distances need to increase exponentially in poor weather. Do not avoid practicing with your teen on snow covered roads. Eventually they will be driving on them. Experience can only make them better. Take your teen back to the empty parking lot where your lessons began. Show them how their stopping distance increases in the rain as well as snow and ice. Have your teen practice fish tailing their car on the ice and snow. Safety Tip: In order to regain traction, remove your foot from the gas pedal and turn into the skid. | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | **Driving Experience (1 Hour)** | Activity | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------------|-----------------|------------------------------------------| | Steering While Skidding | | | | Following Distance | | | | Braking on Ice | | | | Braking in Rain | | | | Braking on Snow | | | | Turning on Ice | | | | Turning on Snow | | | | Black Ice | | | **Review (15 Minutes)** | Activity | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------------|-----------------|------------------------------------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | **Additional Comments:** **Skills to review for next lesson:** For this lesson, simulate that your teen has been involved in an accident. Walk your teen through the steps they will need to take if this unfortunate event takes place. First, think SAFETY. Can you exit the vehicle? Watch out for the other cars going around you. Check on the safety of the other driver and passengers. Once you are certain everyone is ok, start gathering information. Record the information on the claim pamphlet I provided. It is also a good idea to take pictures of the accident scene before you move the cars if possible (most people have a camera on their cell phone). **Insurance Tip:** Do NOT admit fault to any degree. Merely state the sequence of events to your best recollection. Collect the names, addresses, phone numbers and driver’s license numbers of the other operator as well as any witnesses. **Insurance Tip:** Make a note of the license plate numbers of all vehicles involved. It is amazing the number of times a driver will give false personal information to a police officer. The registered owner of the vehicle can always be traced with a plate number. Write down the sequence of events as you recall them. Have the other driver and any witnesses do the same. Make sure they sign, date and note the time of day on their summary of the accident. Call me, your Family Insurance Counselor, FIRST. If I am not available and bodily injury is involved, call the insurance company immediately. It is a proven fact that the quicker accident victims are contacted, the less likely they are to sue and/or change their story. Additionally, insurance payments are lower. If there is no bodily injury, speak to me before you speak to a representative of any insurance company. Lesson #13 (What to do when you have an accident) | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |--------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today’s Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|------------------------------------------| | | | | | | | | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Lesson 14 (Scared Straight!) For this lesson arrange an appointment with your Family Insurance Counselor. He will be happy to provide a brief explanation on the following subjects: 1. How a speeding ticket and/or an accident affects your insurance rate. 2. The Good Student Discount. Many teens are surprised at how much money this discount saves. 3. How the type of vehicle you drive affects your insurance rate. Insurance Tip: Unfortunately all drivers speed from time to time. However, did you know that being cited for driving in excess of 20 miles per hour above the speed limit is considered a serious violation (the same as a DUI!) by most insurance companies and will most assuredly result in the cancellation of your insurance! I will be happy to dispel any myths or questions your teen may have. The most common question asked by teens that pay their own insurance is, “My friend pays so much less for his insurance and he/she has a worse driving record. Why is my rate so high?” As I mentioned at the beginning of this guide, one of the top 5 mistakes teens make when driving is speeding. Speeding is almost always involved in teen accidents. If we could prevent teens from speeding, we could prevent many senseless injuries and/or deaths each year. A simple math problem will help stimulate the conversation. Example Problem: You and a few friends went to the movies and the movie lasted longer than you anticipated. You are 20 miles from home but only have 10 minutes to get home. You hesitate to call your parents because you just violated your curfew last night. Assume the speed limit is 35 mph, how long will it take you to get home if you drive the speed limit? How much time do you save if you average 45 mph? 55mph? | Orientation (15 Minutes) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | Review Previous Lesson | | | | Safety Check | | | | Discuss Today's Lesson | | | | Driving Experience (1 Hour) | Grade (A, B, C) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |-----------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Review (15 Minutes) | Comments, Praise and Areas of Improvement | |---------------------|------------------------------------------| | | | | | | | | | Additional Comments: Skills to review for next lesson: Lesson 15 (In search of B3? You sank my battleship!) An important lesson and with the advent of in car navigation systems, quickly becoming a lost art, is the ability to read a map. This valuable skill is needed while driving to locations that your teen does not frequent. The ability to read a map, whether State or City, is important for finding new places to visit. In addition to maps, the ability to receive and give directions is also important. Work with your teen and their ability to take notes for directions. This is the time to dispel the rumor that men never ask for directions. Teach your teen where to look to get directions when they are lost. Lesson 16 (This is the beginning of a beautiful relationship.) Your teen has obtained their drivers license and your job is done. WRONG! Unfortunately, this is the thought process most parents undergo. Remember, your teen has been driving for slightly more than one year. They are still inexperienced! Worse, they are now over confident and have no doubt picked up some bad driving habits. We all know they drive differently when they are not with us! This is where your driving example is most crucial. Watch your speed; stay off the cell phone while driving and for heaven’s sake – DO NOT CALL YOUR TEEN WHEN YOU KNOW HE/SHE IS DRIVING. You cannot emphasize the no phone while driving rule enough. However, you must practice as you preach. Think back to the times you were teaching your teen to drive. There are areas you know that need additional training. Maybe your teen has not driven on the highway since he/she obtained his/her license. If not, make sure they drive the next time the family is on the highway. It is a good general rule to continue having your teen drive each time you are in the car together. The more they drive with you, the more comfortable they will become and their true driving habits will emerge. Teaching opportunities will almost surely arise. Many parents restrict certain types of driving until their teen gains more experience. As an example, it is quite common in the Midwest for parents to restrict their teens driving on icy roads. However, sooner or later they are going to have to drive on icy roads. If you have this restriction, make sure you take your teen out each time the roads become icy. Help them get that experience. Your job of training is not done just because your teen obtained his/her license. In fact, this may be the most crucial training you do. Driver inexperience is the number one cause of teen accidents. Make sure your teen has as much driving experience under your watchful eye, both before they are licensed and after, as is humanly possible. 11 Safety Tips EVERY Parent Should Enforce 1. Practice makes Perfect. Your teen should have a minimum of 100 hours behind the wheel experience before obtaining their drivers license. 2. Pay for your teen to attend a professional driving school. 3. Always wear your seat belt. 4. Limit the number of passengers. Driver distraction and peer pressure increases as the number of passenger’s increases. 5. Install a GPS System. If your teen knows you are watching, they WILL drive differently! They WILL drive safer! 6. Obey the Speed Limit. Speed KILLS. Allow yourself plenty of time to reach your destination. If you are late, speeding WILL NOT get you there on time! 7. Ban cell phones while driving. 8. Maintain your vehicle. Make sure the windshield is clean and the tires are properly inflated. Many teens drive older cars; make sure they have newer tires and wiper blades. 9. Use turn signals to let other drivers know your intentions. 10. Don’t get caught asleep at the wheel. Today’s teens are more active than any previous generation. Consequently, they are out later and are more tired. Don’t get behind the wheel if you are tired. 11. Don’t Drink and Drive, and don’t ride with anyone that has been drinking or is otherwise impaired. Resources For more safety tips, to learn about Teensurance and GPS systems to help keep your teen safe, insurance rates and teen driving statistics visit the following websites: ADD NEW WEBSITE HERE www.nhtsa.gov http://www.dmv.state.pa.us/home/index.shtml PA DMV Driving Schools Google Driving schools and your city to obtain a list.
7167d2fd-f48c-4705-ad28-3c38ccc4a86c
CC-MAIN-2020-40
https://spencerinsurance.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Safe-Teen-Driver-Course-Spencer-Revised-09-26-12.pdf
2020-09-20T17:30:21+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400198287.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200920161009-20200920191009-00438.warc.gz
634,957,644
12,631
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.964661
eng_Latn
0.998872
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 298, 1675, 3865, 4969, 6953, 7216, 10933, 12137, 13750, 14770, 16750, 18384, 19037, 20959, 22834, 24819, 25476, 27142, 28657, 30527, 31682, 33554, 35191, 37052, 38880, 40278, 41935, 43528, 45705, 47104, 48620, 50206, 51142, 53090, 55128, 55346, 56768, 57801, 59737, 61448, 63264, 65008, 66769, 67432, 69448, 70701, 71044 ]
[ 1.671875, 3.359375 ]
3
0
**JUMPING WORM LIFECYCLE AND IDENTIFICATION** **COCOON** - All year round in soil - Spherical, dark brown, 2 to 5 mm (1/12 to 1/5") - Require soil sieve washing to extract them **JUVENILE** - Impossible to identify to species by morphology - Start to hatch early April - Already thrashes when young - High abundance in end of June/early July - Inhabit the top 2–3 inches of soil **ADULT** - First adults emerge end of July - Highest adult abundance is at the end of August/early September - Adults could be identified by their thrashing movement - Clitellum; the ring around their body closer to their head, milky color - Inhabit the top 2–3 inches of soil **PREVENTING AND LIMITING THE SPREAD OF JW's** Early detection allows for possible eradication of earthworms and protection of native ecosystems. Challenges: Fully removing invasive earthworms post-introduction is difficult due to enforcement and resource demands for regulations and public involvement. - Avoid transport of soil and horticultural media from infested places. - Avoid importing compost, wood chips, etc. without assessing potential for infestation. - If you live in an un-infested area, select worm free purchases, bare root plant, start them from seeds. - Inspect plant materials for adults and juveniles before planting on your farm and property. Cocoons are extremely difficult to detect. - Establish cleaning station with water and boot brushes before entering un-infested areas to reduce spread from contaminated footwear. - Once worms are present, power-wash equipment before moving to un-infested areas. - Once worms are present at your nursery, provide customers with choices, bare root plants, plants grown in "clean" potting soil, and information about JW's. - Dispose of your horticultural waste responsibly. For example, do not dump it in the woods. Contact your commercial composting companies for advice. **Adaptation** If your property is infested, it may not be practicable to eradicate JW's, but you can manage the ecosystem to reduce negative impacts. Measures you can take include: reducing the worm population (see below), investigate plants that are less susceptible to JW's soil disturbance, and planting species with varying root depths. Some pesticides are being evaluated on JW's, but not legal to use. Adaptation **does not address the root problem** of invasion and may not be sufficient to prevent long-term ecological changes. **JUMPING WORM PEST STATUS IN THE US** -Jumping worms are recognized as prohibited or restricted species in: New York, Wisconsin, Maine, California, and Minnesota | Impact | Reported | Pest status | |---------------------------------------------|----------|------------------------------| | Garden | | | | Changing soil physical properties | ✓ | Not recognized as garden pests| | Nursery | | | | Changing soil physical properties; induce drought symptoms in potted plants | ✓ | Not recognized as nursery pests| | Farm | | | | Changing soil physical properties | ✓ | Not recognized as farm pests | | Forest | | | | Changing soil physical properties, increase soil erosion, fast consumption of leaf litter, negative impact on forest regeneration, micro/macro fauna | ✓ | Recognized as forest pests | THE MOST EFFECTIVE AND PRACTICAL TREATMENTS Using clear plastic for soil solarization can raise soil temperatures above 104°F, effectively killing JW cocoons in the top few inches of soil. However, adult worms that burrow deeper may survive due to cooler temperatures below. The best time for soil solarization is June, as April often has many viable cocoons but temperatures in Vermont may not reliably reach the necessary 104°F. Collect leaf litter and the top 1 to 2 inches of soil from heavily infested areas, spread it evenly, and solarize it to ensure the temperature reaches at least 100°F for a minimum of 2 hours at every depth of the pile, effectively killing both cocoons and worms. Enhance the effectiveness of solarization by placing an insulating material underneath to prevent worms from escaping and to help maintain the necessary temperature throughout the material's depth. This method is a practical approach for heavily infested vegetable beds or gardens. This method is more effective when there is the highest abundance of juveniles (see below) since high proportions of them live in the leaf litter. Shallow tilling may be effective against juvenile and adult jumping worms, particularly when targeting them during peak abundance in late June/early July and late August/early September. However, this method is not effective against worm cocoons. Tillage might reduce earthworm abundance by disturbing their habitat. Avoid adding mulch, organic residue, and organic fertilizers like seed meals and peanut shells. While this may help keep their numbers lower, complete eradication may not be achievable, and results may not be immediately noticeable. Use inorganic fertilizers (mineral-based) versus carbon-containing fertilizers (seed meals, animal by-products) to avoid feeding worms. One effective way to manage jumping worms in gardens is to manually remove them during weeding or other gardening activities. Collect them along with the weeds in a bin with drainage holes the size of mustard seeds (2 mm). Allow the worms to help decompose the weeds, and later in the season, transfer them to a composting facility or place them in a plastic bag for solarization when temperatures are sufficiently high. The solarized material can then be used as fertilizer or processed to be compost tea, as the decomposed worm bodies are rich in nutrients and beneficial microbes for plants. Another option is to just collect them in water; they die within less than 24 hours in water. Mustard flush is being used to bring earthworm to the soil surface. However, it does not expel all worms and it does not kill them. It requires handpicking. Also, it is not effective on cocoons. CAUTION: be aware that some people suffer from severe mustard allergies. Effective control requires close attention to the life cycle and abundance. For example, the best time to control juveniles is between end of May and mid-June when they are in their highest abundance. CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICABILITY - **Unsuitable for Vermicomposting:** JW species, being annual, are inactive for significant parts of the year, making them inappropriate for vermicomposting. They potentially could outcompete the efficient red wiggler worms and spread beyond compost piles. - **Species-Specific Efficacy of Control Measures:** Many control strategies are designed for general earthworm management, particularly in sports fields and may not be effective on JWs. However, direct research on JWs is scarce; there is uncertainty about how these methods affect different species and their effectiveness. - **Holistic Management:** Like many other invasives and pest species, there is not a "magic bullet" for JWs infestations. Employing a variety of management techniques, customized for the specific local environment and JW behaviors, appears to be the most effective approach for controlling JW populations. - **Continuous Evaluation:** Regularly evaluate the success of control methods to adjust and enhance JW management tactics over time. - **Life Stage Sensitivity:** Be mindful that some control methods may only target specific life stages of JWs. Consequently, there might be a delay before you notice a reduction in their presence in treated areas. - **Safety Reminder:** Always read the label of any product to ensure that it is appropriate for your specific situation and to use it safely and effectively.
ae4b21c7-6971-4e38-ab30-d092d23fb833
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://www.uvm.edu/sites/default/files/Extension-Community-Horticulture/JW_factsheet.pdf
2024-11-15T00:12:48+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477397531.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20241114225955-20241115015955-00081.warc.gz
943,240,621
1,584
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.995793
eng_Latn
0.995853
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3646, 8060 ]
[ 3.125 ]
1
0
World trade success stories The following success stories show how trade and trade-related assistance can bring benefits to people across the globe, helping entrepreneurs improve their standard of living and creating new opportunities for local communities. MADAGASCAR New technology makes trade in plant products quicker and more efficient Since July 2022, Nomenjanahary Saholy Ramiarilirajona, Head of Plant Protection at Madagascar’s Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, has been overseeing the country’s use of ePhytoS, electronic phytosanitary certificates that allow plant products to be traded more easily and efficiently across borders. Initially, traders were a little worried because it was a new system and they had security concerns, she said. Through awareness raising and training, however, they gained confidence in the system, with more and more asking to be trained. The state-of-the-art system, initiated by the Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF) and used in more than 100 economies, leads to a lower likelihood of loss, damage and fraud compared with traditional paper certificates. It also saves time. “The most obvious change is the speed with which certificates are issued. Using ePhytoS reduces processing time,” Ms Nomenjanahary said. “At the international level, compliance with international standards gives importing countries much more confidence in what we do. Using computers and other equipment enables our inspectors to work more efficiently. All in all, we’ve seen a real revolution in how we work.” The World Economic Forum, through the Global Alliance for Trade Facilitation, is financing the project, with the active participation of Madagascar’s National Trade Facilitation Committee. Source Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF). THE GAMBIA Young women use technology and tourism to transform their communities Fatou Juka Darboe is the co-founder and director of Make3D Company Limited, the first and only 3D printing company in The Gambia. Isatou Foon is a young tour guide from Janjanbureh, renowned for its historical and cultural heritage. What unites them is their passion to use trade to transform their communities. Both young women have benefited from the “Youth Empowerment Project”, an initiative of the International Trade Centre (ITC) funded by the European Union, which aims to unlock the potential of young people in The Gambia to support economic growth. Make3D helps companies obtain customized items unavailable in The Gambia, ranging from branded antibacterial combs to bespoke lip balm containers. Juka’s work also provides health solutions. At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, Make3D partnered with ITC and the UK’s Medical Research Council to print face shields. It also produces medical and safety equipment, such as customized prosthetics. Isatou describes her job as “helping visitors make awesome memories” while visiting her community. She aims to provide her guests with insights into the local culture through a range of sight-seeing activities. She also shares her knowledge with other communities to help create tourism products that improve the region’s standard of living while preserving the local culture and environment. Source International Trade Centre (ITC). TIMOR LESTE Coffee farmer fulfils dream of creating her own export business Madalena Da Costa farms coffee, Timor-Leste’s largest non-oil export, in Leolima, a remote village in the country’s south west. With ambition and a dream of starting her own business, Madalena enrolled in the Women’s School of Leadership, set up by Fairtrade Australia New Zealand, where she built key skills around business and leadership. Since graduating in September 2022, she has opened a small retail shop in her community and become a leader in a new community diversification project. Due to her success at the school, she was sponsored to travel to the Melbourne International Coffee Expo, where she spoke about her experiences as a Fairtrade coffee farmer and the role of the Women’s School of Leadership in empowering women. “The Women’s School of Leadership has helped me understand how to run my business,” she said. Investments through Fairtrade have contributed towards the export of 16 containers of coffee and helped improve the supply of clean water, enabling more effective coffee production techniques in addition to clear health benefits. The project is part of the Enhanced Integrated Framework’s (EIF) Empower-Women Power-Trade initiative. Source Enhanced Integrated Framework (EIF). UGANDA Helping fruit and vegetable traders reach global markets In Uganda, the fresh fruit and vegetable sector is an important source of export earnings. Some 60 per cent of all fresh fruit and vegetable exports go to the European Union. However, in 2014 and 2015, over 80 per cent of consignments were intercepted on phytosanitary grounds. At the request of the Uganda Government, the STDF introduced a project to tackle the problem. Led by the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International, a non-profit organization, and with support from the Government and the Uganda Agribusiness Alliance, the project improved inspection and certification procedures, using a public-private partnership approach, to achieve better controls and traceability. As a result, interceptions of products due to SPS concerns have declined. Interceptions relating to false codling moth on chillies, for example, have dropped by over 90 per cent since 2018, improving agricultural traders’ access to foreign markets. Over 1,400 public and private sector stakeholders have improved their awareness of phytosanitary measures. The project has also encouraged private sector development, contributing to a rise in the number of horticultural exporting companies. It has also catalysed additional EU assistance of US$ 8 million to help regulators and farmers tackle other challenges related to pesticide residues. Source Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF).
955478d6-d1e5-4b0c-91f2-36a8108167c6
CC-MAIN-2023-40
https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/ar23_spotlight_success-stories_e.pdf
2023-09-22T00:37:10+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506320.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20230922002008-20230922032008-00833.warc.gz
1,214,991,356
1,196
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.995734
eng_Latn
0.996141
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1800, 3277, 4565, 6023 ]
[ 2.109375 ]
1
0
REGREENING COMMUNITIES PROJECT MODEL VERSION 1 # TABLE OF CONTENTS ## OVERVIEW 1. **SNAPSHOT OF MODEL AND ITS STRATEGIC RELEVANCE** 1.1 Provide a brief statement about what the project model is and the global sector approaches it contributes to. 1.2 Indicate the Child Well-being (CWB) Aspirations, Objectives and Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Targets that this model contributes to 1.3 List the primary owner as well as contributing sectors that map to this model. 2. **PROGRAMME LOGIC** 2.1 Theory of Change 2.2 Sustainability of a model 2.3 Standard Logical Model 2.4 Methodology of the model 2.5 Level of evidence for the model 2.6 Contexts the model has worked in 3. **PROJECT MODEL DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION QUALITY** 3.1 Essential elements 3.2 Staffing requirement and competencies 3.3 Budget 3.4 Partnering 3.5 Accountability 3.6 Adaptation to fragile contexts and transitioning economies 3.7 Integration and enabling project models 3.8 Design and Implementation Quality Assurance (DIQA) tool 4. **LINKAGES AND INTEGRATION** 4.1 Child focus 4.2 Development Programme Approach 4.3 Faith 4.4 Gender equality 4.5 Local to national advocacy Regreening Communities An evidence-based evolution of the successful FMNR project model Thriving environments for thriving communities and future generations Climate change, unsustainable farming practices and exploitation of natural resources are rapidly degrading the landscapes of the communities World Vision works with – especially rural ones. When landscapes are decimated, communities cannot sufficiently grow food, gather water or access firewood. These communities are also more vulnerable to climate-related disasters and natural resource-based conflict. This negatively impacts the community’s ability to develop sustainable livelihoods, resulting in more fragile communities and more vulnerable children. The Regreening Communities project model addresses all of these issues by guiding communities through a participatory environmental restoration process. A tailored set of solutions is selected by each community, including scaling-up indigenous restoration practices, strengthening government partnerships for restoration and introducing proven practices like Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR). The outcomes of this approach are greater community cohesion, a thriving and climate-resilient landscape, and greater quantity and quality of crops, livestock, forest products and natural resources for households to consume and sell – thus contributing to the food security, economic resilience and hope for future generations of children. 1. Snapshot of model and its strategic relevance 1.1 Provide a brief statement about what the project model is and the global sector approaches it contributes to. Regreening Communities (RGC) is a community-led landscape restoration project model, which sits within the Environmental Sustainability and Climate Action (ESCA) team with a strong linkage with the Livelihoods sector. It is an evolution of the existing Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) project model that has been successfully implemented in more than 25 countries. The FMNR project model takes communities through a planning process, with the end goal being the introduction of the technical practice of FMNR to restore tree density and environmental health. The Regreening Communities model builds upon this by introducing a broader suite of restoration techniques to address a wider range of environmental concerns – beyond just deforestation. A thriving environment is foundational to the livelihoods of many communities, especially in rural, farming and pastoral areas. However, due to climate change, land degradation and unsustainable farming practices, the environments of these communities are depleted. This project model supports communities to map their environment, prioritise solutions to the issues they are facing and collectively restore and protect their environment. A tailored set of environmental restoration solutions is selected by each community, including scaling-up local and indigenous restoration practices, working with governments, and introducing proven technical practices like FMNR. In many countries around the world, women and girls are natural custodians of the environment, given that they interact with it when gathering firewood, traditional medicines and water. RGC values and elevates women by relying on their expertise in these areas. RGC also calls for communities to monitor local government commitments to address ecological restoration and to engage in constructive dialogue and collective actions to ensure the accountable delivery of these commitments. This participatory approach has been proven to be more effective in transforming beliefs, values and attitudes than other technology transfer approaches. The outcomes of this model are: • target environments are more resilient to climate-related shocks and disasters through improved condition of soil, water, vegetation and biodiversity • individual, household and community social resilience is strengthened • sustainable improvements are made in production of local crop, livestock, forest, aquatic or marine products for consumption and sale. 1.2 Indicate the Child Well-being (CWB) Aspirations, Objectives and Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Targets that this model contributes to 1.2.1 CWB Aspirations Global Impact Framework By ensuring ecosystems are thriving and that communities have healthy soils to grow food and animal fodder, reliable water sources, and a flourishing natural-resource base, Regreening Communities will contribute to the following WV’s Global Impact Framework Outcomes: | Outcomes | |--------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Child | | • By 2030, all children and their families have access to safe and nutritious food all year around. | | • By 2030, all forms of child malnutrition are eliminated. | | Community | | • The resilience of people is built and their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters is reduced. | ## Child Well-being Aspirations | Goal | Sustained well-being of children within families and communities, especially the most vulnerable | |------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | **Girls and Boys:** | | | **Aspirations** | | | Enjoy good health | Are educated for life | Experience love of God and their neighbors | Are care for, protected and participating | | | **Outcomes** | | | Children are well nourished | Children read, write, and use numeracy skills | Children grow in their awareness and experience of God’s love in an environment that recognizes their freedom | Children cared for in a loving, safe, family, and community environment with safe places to play | | | Children protected from infection, disease, and injury | Children make good judgments, can protect themselves, manage emotions, and communication ideas | Children enjoy positive relationships with peers, family, and community members | Parents or caregivers provide well for their children | | | Children and their caregivers access essential health services | Adolescents ready for economic opportunity | Children value and care for others and their environment | Children celebrated and registered at birth | | | | Children access complete basic education | Children have hope and vision for the future | Children are respected participants in decisions that affect their lives | ### Foundational Principles - **Children are citizens and their rights and dignity are upheld.** - (including girls and boys of all religions and ethnicities, any HIV status, and those with disabilities) This model relates to several of the outcomes related to child well-being. The key ones are: - **Children value and care for others and their environment** – The community workshops around creating linkages between environmental health, climate resilience and community/child well-being will be highly inclusive of children and young people, and they will be agents of positive change in the restoration of their environment through restoration activities in school settings and home. This participation also relates to children being cared for in a safe environment and children being decision makers. - **Children have hope and vision for their future** – A [recent study](https://ssrn.com/abstract=3918955) by the University of Bath of 10,000 children across 10 countries from Nigeria to the Philippines found that nearly 60 per cent of young people approached said they felt very worried or extremely worried about climate change and three-quarters of them said they thought that the future was frightening due to climate change.\(^1\) Through regreening, communities will be supported to make changes that will ensure a more climate-resilient and thriving environment that will be able to support communities into the future. It is anticipated that this will increase hope for the future among all community members, and this will be measured as a one of the project indicators. --- \(^1\) Marks, E., and Hickman, C. et al., (7 Sep 2021). ‘Young People’s Voices on Climate Anxiety, Government Betrayal and Moral Injury: A Global Phenomenon’. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3918955. • **Children are well nourished** – Restoration of soils for improved crops and animal fodder will ensure greater nourishment of children. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture may be selected by communities as something they want to programme as part of this model, and this directly impacts the nutrition of children and their families. • **Parents and caregivers are able to provide well for their children** – More resilient and productive soils, vegetation, waterways, and coastal and marine areas directly benefits families and communities that rely on the land or sea for incomes, food, medicine and risk mitigation. Parents and caregivers who are able to access sufficient and diverse food from primary production and profitable livelihood opportunities from the environment are able to provide well for the children in their care. ### 1.2.2 SDG Targets This model relates to 12 of the SDG Targets listed below. As well as these, it also aligns with several other United Nations and International Agreements such as the AFR100 (country-led effort to bring 100 million hectares of land in Africa into restoration by 2030), The Bonn Challenge (global goal to bring 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes into restoration by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030), the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration Goal to see 1 billion hectares of land under restoration by 2030, and the Glasgow Leaders declaration on Forest and Land Use, which saw 141 countries sign on to protect and restore forests and degraded landscapes. 1. **No Poverty** - **1.4** – By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance - **1.5** – By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters 2. **Zero Hunger** - **2.1** – By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round - **2.3** – By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment - **2.4** – By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality 3. **Gender Equality** applicable to some communities – particularly those doing a twin track approach - **5a** – Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance, and natural resources, in accordance with national laws 4. **Water and Sanitation** - **6.6** – By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes 5. **Decent Work and Economic Growth** - 8.4 – Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production, with developed countries taking the lead 6. **Reduced Inequalities** - 10.2 – By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status 7. **Sustainable Cities and Communities** - 11.4 – Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage 8. **Responsible Consumption and Production** - 12.2 – By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources - 12.8 – By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature 9. **Climate Action** - 13.3 – Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning 10. **Life below Water** - 14.2 – By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans 11. **Life on Land** - 15.1 – By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements - 15.2 – By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally - 15.3 – By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world - 15.4 – By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development 16. **Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions** - 16.7 – Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels ### 1.3 List the primary owner as well as contributing sectors that map to this model. The project model sits within the Environmental Sustainability and Climate Action (ESCA) thematic area with a strong linkage with the Livelihoods sector. Additionally, Regreening Communities also contributes to the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) sector – given its focus on working with communities to ensure adequate quantity and quality of natural sources of water. It also contributes to the Health sector given the strong focus on improving soil quality for the improved production of crops and animal fodder – which contributes to the health and nutrition of children and their families. 2.1 Theory of Change **GOAL** Individual and collective action restores and protects the environment; Improving household and child food security and strengthening livelihoods and community resilience to climate related and other shocks and disasters. **Outcomes** 1. Individual, household and community social resilience is strengthened - Community members and stakeholders are able to work together in an inclusive way, ensuring shared benefits and reduced conflict - Community members and stakeholders celebrate and enhance their cultural connection to the environment 2. Target environments are more resilient to climate related shocks and disasters through improved condition of soil, water, vegetation and biodiversity - Individuals and groups apply improved practices to enhance environmental conditions and reduce threatening processes 3. Sustainable improvements in production of local crop, livestock, forest, aquatic or marine products for consumption and sale - Producers apply improved practices on farmland to sustainably increase production **Intermediate Outcomes** - Landscape Restoration Plan developed, owned and implemented by individuals, groups, community, with support from key partners - Natural resource governance structures and partnerships with local government, faith and cultural leaders strengthened - Community members and stakeholders celebrate and enhance their cultural connection to the environment - Target individuals and groups have the knowledge, awareness and resources required to implement promoted landscape restoration practices - Capacity building of target groups in appropriate environmental restoration and natural resource management practices (including FMNR) - Target individuals and groups have the knowledge, awareness and resources required to invest in improved production practices - Capacity building of farmer individuals and groups in sustainable and climate smart agriculture practices - Facilitation of an inclusive Community Based Participatory Landscape Restoration Planning Process - Indigenous practices and local champions identified and engaged in technical capacity building activities Figure 3. Regreening Communities Theory of Change Diagram 2.1.1 Give a description of how and why a desired change is expected to happen in a particular context. Land degradation, climate change and unsustainable land and sea management practices have left communities with a depleted natural resource base, no longer able to support food security or stable livelihoods, and increasing risk in the face of future disasters. By mobilising and empowering communities to value, understand and work together with their local environment, this project model will reduce feelings of hopelessness and vulnerability to harsh environmental conditions. Through the development of participatory landscape restoration plans and their implementation with key partners and community members (including marginalised groups), individual and household resilience and community cohesion and capacity to manage conflict will increase. Through the scaling up of indigenous practices that successfully restore environmental conditions as well as new proven, low cost and accessible practices such as FMNR, the drivers of ecological degradation will be reduced while also enhancing ecosystem function. As a result of the restoration of land and seascape functions: • the risk posed to communities from disasters such as drought and floods is reduced • the capacity for sustainable production for a wide range of agricultural and pastoral commodities is increased • access to food security and diversity is increased • livelihood opportunities from other nature-based products are increased This project model is designed to target rural communities, suffering the results of land or seascape degradation or those who want to pre-emptively prevent further degradation from happening. These communities – and their children – often face severe food insecurity and high poverty levels, and are vulnerable to climate-related shocks, stressors and disasters. Social instability in the form of conflict, migration and social inequality is common due in-part to the ever-decreasing natural resource base, with the negative impacts felt most intensely by marginalised groups including women, people with disabilities, vulnerable children and adolescents, and youth and those without access or rights to land, including many indigenous communities. Regreening Communities works directly with representatives within a community as well as key stakeholders such as local government and community leaders, faith organisations, and ministries or departments of agriculture, environment and/or forestry. Through the landscape restoration committee, community champions, land managers and the key stakeholder groups mentioned previously, the entire community and its children, as well as those ‘downstream’ in the catchment or landscape will benefit from the resulting improved environmental resilience and function. Regreening Communities not only addresses ecological degradation, but also the closely related degradation of hope and capacity to overcome the challenges of a depleted environment. A thriving environment allows communities to access opportunities and resources again. When the community works together to identify their goals, pinpoint the root causes of environmental degradation, creatively develop potential solutions and actions they can take or mobilise others to support, their sense of agency, power and capacity to change their future and that of their children’s is enhanced. Regreening Communities prioritises the use of indigenous knowledge, local champions, experiential learning (through exchange visits), demonstration sites, and ongoing support and mentoring to build knowledge, skills and capacities in the community. This participatory approach is proven to be more effective in transforming beliefs, values and attitudes than other technology transfer approaches. Engaging faith leaders and holding the traditional, cultural and/or spiritual connection to land, sea and ‘country’ close is also a critical principle in the model’s approach. 2.2 Sustainability of a model 2.2.1 Give a description of how the model addresses 5 sustainability drivers: • **Local Ownership** – By supporting the community to develop their own landscape restoration plan, including their own priorities and preferred practices, this creates a strong sense of local ownership. Community members are supported to own and lead the plan and to consider how they will continue to follow the plan after World Vision has left. • **Partnering** – Part of the landscape restoration plan includes identifying the local stakeholders who will need to be included to restore the environment. This includes extensions agents, faith leaders, other non-governmental organisations (NGOs) or community-based organisations (CBOs) working in the area and potentially even private sector partners. This model is strength-based and seeks to find locals and extension agents who can provide training first, and only when there is a gap would World Vision step in to provide training and support. • **Transformed Relationships** – The restoration of the environment creates a unique common ground for communities, given that it provides the foundation for everyone’s livelihoods and health. It is anticipated that the landscape restoration plan will allow community members to see each other as collaborators through this process and that this relationship will lead to greater success in other development projects or community initiatives. The highly inclusive nature of this model will also allow for marginalised community members to be active participants within this process, thus shifting the way they may previously have been seen and treated by their community. The advocacy components of this approach also mean that it has the potential for communities to transform their relationships with governments or private sectors who have been enablers or disablers for landscape restoration at the onset of the project. - **Local and National Advocacy** – Where appropriate, this model will support communities with a customised toolbox of advocacy techniques to demand better services from their local government – such as agricultural extension agents to provide training and support in environmental restoration and climate change adaptation practices. Communities also may wish to engage with national governments by looking for enabling factors such as national reforestation targets that communities can contribute to or by advocating for better policies in countries where there is inadequate national government support for environmental restoration. - **Household and Family Resilience** – The restoration of the environment will mean landscapes and communities are more resilient to climate change. The restoration of farming and pastoral lands means households have more food to eat and sell which also contributes to their economic resilience. The improved relationships and social cohesion that is fostered through the landscape restoration plan will contribute to the community’s ability to work collectively to address future challenges – acting as a form of social resilience. **Environmental Sustainability** Furthermore, the model itself is fostering environmental sustainability at its core by supporting communities to regenerate, protect and live more harmoniously with their natural environment – ensuring it will be there for future generations. ## 2.3 Standard Logical Model | Hierarchy | Description | Code | Indicator Name | Indicator Type (Essential, recommended or optional) | Means of Verification | |----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|-----------------------| | GOAL | Individual and collective action restores and protects the environment, improving household and child food security, and strengthening livelihoods and community resilience to climate-related and other shocks and disasters | C4B.0044 | Proportion of parents or caregivers able to provide well for their children (disaggregated by sex) | Essential | HH Survey | | | | C2D.0298 | % households (HHs) able to pay for children’s basic education costs | Optional | | | | | C1C.0154 | % HHs able to pay for children’s health costs | Optional | | | | | C4B.25456 | Proportion HHs in multidimensional poverty | Essential | | | | | C4B.25258 | Proportion HHs facing moderate or severe food insecurity according to the Food Insecurity Experience Scale – Global Standard Scale | Essential | | | | | C4B.0060 | % HHs with sufficient diet diversity | Essential | | | | | C1A.0022 | % children receiving minimum dietary diversity | Recommended | | | | | C4B.21261 | % HHs with year round access to sufficient food | Recommended | | | | | C4B.25369 | % HHs that are food secure as measured by the Household Hunger Scale | Optional | | | | | C1D.034455 | # of hectares protected, and/or under restoration | Essential | Proj. Rec. Review | | OUTCOME 1 | Individual, household and community social resilience is strengthened | New | #/% of respondents reporting feeling hopeful about the future | Essential | HH Survey | | | | C4D.034400 | % HHs able to raise a large sum of money within 30 days | Essential | | | | | C4D.034422 | % HHs scoring equal to or above the cut-off on Subjectively Evaluated Resilience Score | Recommended | | | | | C4B.0074 | % HHs who faced a disaster and were able to employ an effective disaster-risk reduction or positive coping strategy | Recommended | | | | | C5A.25855 | # and % of HHs reporting good self-efficacy | Recommended | | | | | C2B.22845 | % adolescents report increased self-efficacy | Optional | | | | | C4A.21420 | % HHs reporting that they have good community leadership | Recommended | | | | | C4A.21416 | # and % of HHs reporting good community cohesion | Recommended | | | | | C4A.21418 | % HHs reporting good conflict management in the community | Recommended | | | | | C5A.19086 | # of marginalised and vulnerable community members report feeling valued and respected from community groups and leaders | Optional | | | Intermediate outcome 1.1 | Community members lead Re-greening planning processes | New | % respondents/community members aware of the environmental restoration plan and committee | Essential | HH Survey | | | | New | % respondents/community members with a positive opinion of the environmental restoration/Re-greening plan and committee | Recommended | HH Survey | | | | New | % respondents who participated at least in one environment restoration activity | Recommended | HH Survey | | | | C4D.03443 | % leadership roles in mixed-gender project supported groups held by women and men | Recommended | Proj. Rec. Review | | | | New | % women, men and people with disabilities reporting they were able to meaningfully participate in community-level meetings, groups and/or collective action | Recommended | HH Survey | | Output | Contextual analyses completed | New | # of studies | Essential | Proj. Rec. Review, Reports | | Activities | Contextual analysis including biophysical; governance; gender equality, disability, and social inclusion (GEDSI); conflict; livelihoods; and disaster risk | |------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Output 1.1.2 | Community-based natural resource management (NRM)/ environmental restoration committees established/strengthened | | | New | # of community-based environmental restoration committees (Regreening Committees) formed and/or strengthened and functioning | Essential | Assessment of committees | | | New | # of members of community-based environmental restoration committees/Regreening Committee (disaggregated by sex and categories of community members) | Recommended | | | | New | # of leadership roles in mixed gender project supported groups held by women | Recommended | Review of Project and committee Records | | | C4B.19234 | # of people exposed to awareness-raising campaigns/activities highlighting climate change and environment issues | Recommended | | | Activities | Identify and strengthen community-based NRM organisations, and institutional arrangements are strengthened to enhance social cohesion in the implementation of the landscape restoration plan/regreening plan | |------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Output | Community Regreening Plans completed | | | New | # of environmental restoration plans developed | Essential | Review of Project and Committee Records | | | New | # of environmental restoration plans updated according to their agreed frequency | Essential | | | Activities | Community awareness-raising on the linkages between landscape degradation, climate change, livelihoods, food security and child nutrition | |------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | Participatory planning processes used to develop common vision for the future; identify areas to be protected and restored, and identify recommended actions | | | Regreening Index baseline and ongoing participatory monitoring plans established | | | Consider linking to Empowered Worldview (ENV) activities that relate to social cohesion and trust if programming these models in tandem and add related outputs and indicators | | Intermediate outcome 1.2 | Improved governance systems (agreements/bylaws, policies, etc.) support environmental restoration, ensure shared benefits and reduce natural resource conflict | |--------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | C4B.25451 | # and % of ‘healthy partnerships’ | Essential | Project Record Review | | | New | # of bylaws, policies and/or agreements supporting environmental restoration adopted | Recommended | | | | C4D.20985 | # and % of partners with appropriate capacity to make sustained contributions to child well-being | Optional | | | | SDG 1.4.2 | % total adult population with secure tenure rights to land, (a) with legally recognised documentation and (b) who perceive their rights to land as secure (disaggregated by sex, disability and type of tenure) | Optional | HH Survey | | | NEW ref WRI | Proportion of forestland (or key biodiversity areas) that is legally titled and customarily held by indigenous peoples and other forest-dependent local communities | Optional | Community Workshop/ FGDs | | | New | % respondents who agree local natural resource governance is fair | Recommended | | | | New | % respondents who believe conflicts about the environment are able to be resolved successfully | Recommended | HH Survey | | | New | % respondents who agree everyone who uses the environment is committed to restoring it | Recommended | | | | New | % respondents who agree that leaders (formal and informal) are committed to restoring the environment | Recommended | | | | New | % increase in Landscape Governance Assessment score | Optional | Community Workshop | | | CSA.25826 | Proportion of HH respondents satisfied with their last experience of public services | Recommended | HH Survey | | | C4D.0094 | % adolescents who report that their views are sought and incorporated into the decision-making of local government | Optional | Adolescents Survey | | Output 1.2.1 | Capacity of community members to advocate for support and make agreements for environmental restoration plan implementation strengthened | |--------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | New | # individuals trained/support to advocate for support | | C4D.22804 | # of partnering MOU/agreements in place between stakeholders | | | Essential | | | Recommended | | | Project Records Review | **Activities** - Community champions for land/seascape restoration objectives identified and actively engaged in partnerships to address enabling (local restoration groups) and disabling (e.g., absentee landlords, extractive industries, polluting industries components of landscape restoration plan (including tenure and access related issues) - Community advocacy for better services supported where appropriate (potential links to Citizen Voice and Action (CVA)) | Output 1.2.2 | Constructive dialogue and collective action with formal and informal duty bearers | |--------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | New | # relevant stakeholders engaged | | New | # local leaders engaged | | New | # of CBOs engaging with policy implementation agencies | | C5A.25552 | # of community members participating in CVA community gathering | | C2C.26096 | # of sub-national and national dialogues | | | Essential | | | Recommended | | | Optional | | | Optional | | | Optional | | | Project Records Review | **Activities** - Faith and cultural leaders support enacting the landscape restoration plan (through building awareness, encouraging support, etc.) - Stakeholders work together to identify enabling and disabling factors (policies, practices) and threats to the environment - Relevant stakeholders engaged to support implementation of the environmental restoration plan - Relevant agreements and by-laws made to support implementation of environmental restoration plan **Intermediate Outcome 1.** - Community members and stakeholders celebrate and enhance cultural and spiritual connection to the environment - % community members reporting a feeling of enhanced cultural and spiritual connection to the environment - Essential - HH Survey | Output | Faith and cultural leaders contribute to behaviour change in support of the environmental restoration plan | |--------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | New | # of faith/cultural leaders engaged | | C4B.25427 | # of individuals participating in behaviour change training (disaggregated by sex and disability) | | C1B.026316 | # of faith leaders trained in improved environmental conservation and NRM | | | Essential | | | Optional | | | Optional | | | Project Records Review | **Activities** - Faith and cultural leaders mobilised to support landscape restoration plan under Outcome 1.1 (through building awareness, encouraging support, etc.) - Current and historic culturally significant land/seascapes and indigenous communities and practices are included in restoration planning process - Activities that enhance community cultural connection to environment are included in landscape restoration plan - Recognise and value the contributions of indigenous communities, traditional knowledge and management practices to land and sea management | Output 1.3.2 | Celebration and acknowledgment events held to recognise environment and champions/acknowledgment events held to recognise environment and champions | |--------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | New | # of events | | New | # of participants at events (disaggregated by sex and disability) | | | Essential | | | Essential | | | Project Records Review | | Activities | Celebrate and amplify the impact of land and seascapes restoration successes and champions to inspire and motivate further action | |------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | Regular review of participatory monitoring of changes in the environment by community members | ### Output 1.3.3 | Activities | Children, adolescents and/or young people engaged as supporters of Regreening | |------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | New # of children, adolescents and young people (CAYP) supporting Regreening their environment | Essential | | | SDG 14.2 # of schools engaged in supporting land and seascapes restoration | Recommended | | | New % students who demonstrate knowledge of climate change and their environment (e.g., ecological cycles, how to identify risks, importance of natural resources) | Recommended | #### Project Records Review #### Student Survey ### Activities | Youth and schools engaged through IMPACT+ Environmental Stewardship Model or other localised environmental education tools | |---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Children, adolescents and/or young people made aware of environmental restoration and climate change related to their local environment | | Children, adolescents and young people participate in and/or support implementation of the Regreening Plan | ### OUTCOME 2 | Target environments are more resilient to climate-related shocks and disasters through improved condition of soil, water, vegetation and biodiversity | |--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | New Regreening Index score for target landscape | Essential | | C4B.25211 Average tree density in target area | Recommended | | C4B.25212 (adapted) % change in average tree density in target area | Recommended | | C4A.0042 % respondents that observe that tree cover is maintained or increasing | Recommended | | C4D.034424 % respondents who observe an increase in soil fertility | | | C4D.034425 % HHs who observe soil erosion has reduced | | | New % respondents who observe an increase in water quality/availability | | | New % respondents who observe health of coastal and marine resources in their community is improving | | #### Environ. Observations #### HH Survey ### Intermediate | Individuals and groups apply environmental conservation and improved NRM practices | |-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | New (based on C4B.25537) # and % of target area (% total hectares) with a project defined minimum number of recommended environmental conservation or improved NRM practices (disaggregated by practice) | Essential | | C4B.25210 Area of land managed with FMNR in the target area (ha) | Essential | | C4D.034423 % HHs using improved NRM (environmental conservation) or sustainable agriculture practices | Essential | | New #/% HHs contributing to restoration/conservation activities on communal land | Recommended | | C4B.25209 #/% HHs adopting FMNR in target area (disaggregated by sex and disability) | Essential | | C4B.22761 % trained individuals who adopt improved environmental conservation and NRM techniques (disaggregated by sex and disability) | Recommended | | New # of groups using improved environmental conservation and improved NRM | Optional | | New # of individuals participating in groups using improved environmental conservation and improved NRM practices (disaggregated by sex and disability) | Optional | | C4B.22760 % trained individuals with knowledge of improved environmental conservation and NRM techniques (disaggregated by sex and disability) | Optional | #### Project Records Review #### Proj.Rec.Review #### HH Survey #### Project and Group Records Review | Output 2.1.1 | Trainers trained in improved environmental conservation and NRM practices | |--------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | New | # of trainers trained on environmental conservation and improved NRM | | C4B.19053 | # of lead farmers guiding others in local community | | New | # of trainers trained on FMNR (disaggregated by community member, government, NGO or other) | | New | # of trainers assisted with necessary materials and training kits | **Activities** Trainers (community, government, NGO and other) are trained in the selected environmental conservation and improved NRM practices Support (in the form of assets, capacity, partnerships or mentoring) provided to trainers and local champions and restoration actors to enhance and accelerate their work towards the landscape restoration plan | Output 2.1.2 | Communities’ capacities in environmental conservation and improved NRM practices strengthened | |--------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | C4B.22759 | # of people trained on environmental conservation and NRM techniques (disaggregated by practice sex and disability) | | New | # of practitioners trained on FMNR | | New | # of individuals assisted with materials or equipment for environmental conservation or NRM (disaggregated by sex and disability) | **Activities** Capacity building and training of target groups in NRM using indigenous practices and proven practices such as FMNR, Integrated Pest Management practices, etc. Final list of intervention is to be decided in each context as per the community action plan | Intermediate | Individuals and groups reduce impact of threatening processes on land and seascapes | |--------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | C3A.026300 | # and % of HHs refraining from unsustainable environmental management practices | | SDS.7.1.2 | % HHs with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology | **Activities** Support individuals and/or groups to take up energy alternatives to reduce threatening processes (such as unsustainable firewood harvesting, etc.) | Output 2.2.1 | Community supported to adopt clean fuel technologies | |--------------|------------------------------------------------------| | New | # of participants who attended awareness-raising sessions of clean fuels and technologies | | New | # of HHs supported with clean fuels and technology (disaggregated by HH head and technology) | **Activities** Support individuals and/or groups to take up energy alternatives to reduce threatening processes (such as unsustainable firewood harvesting, etc.) | Output 2.2.2 | Community supported to reduce reliance on unsustainable or threatening practices | |--------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | New | # of participants who attended awareness-raising sessions on threatening practices and sustainable alternatives | | New | # of individuals supported with sustainable alternative income generation opportunities (disaggregated by sex and disability) | **Activities** Support individuals and/or groups to take up alternative income-generation opportunities or energy alternatives to reduce threatening processes (such as unsustainable timber or firewood harvesting, over grazing, overfishing, etc.) Provide training, access to ongoing technical support/mentoring, facilitate partnerships or access to assets or financial support as required | Outcome 3 | Sustainable improvements in production of local crop, livestock, forest, aquatic or marine products for consumption and sale | |-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | C4B.25213 | % HHs with improved access to firewood, building poles, timber and non-timber forest products (disaggregated by sex and disability) | | C4B.14228 | % HHs with increased income (disaggregated by sex) | | C4D.034427 | % HHs who observe that livestock production is improving | | C4D.034426 | % HHs who observe that their main staple crop production is increasing | | New | % HHs who observe that fisheries (or other aquatic or marine) production is improving | | C4D.034443 | Average # of hours per day spent on firewood collection (gender disaggregated) | **Activities** HH Survey ### Intermediate Outcome 3.1 Producers apply improved practices to sustainably increase their production of target products | Indicator | Description | Type | Source | |-----------|-------------|------|--------| | C4D.034423 | % HHs using improved NRM or sustainable agriculture practices | Essential | HH Survey | | C4B.25537 | # and % of target area (% total hectares) with a project defined minimum number of recommended sustainable agriculture and NRM practices | Essential | HH Survey, AP/Project Records | | C4B.22749 | # of community or local trainers who have trained others on improved and sustainable agricultural techniques (disaggregated by sex and disability) | Recommended | AP/Project Records Review | ### Output 3.1.1 Trainers trained in sustainable and climate-smart agriculture techniques | Indicator | Description | Type | Source | |-----------|-------------|------|--------| | C4B.22749 | # of project trained individuals who have trained others on improved sustainable and climate-smart agriculture techniques (sex disaggregated) | Essential | Monitoring/Project Records review | | New | # of trainers trained on FMNR (disaggregated by community member, government, NGO or other) | Recommended | | | New | # of trainers assisted with necessary materials and training kits | Recommended | | ### Activities Trainers (community, government, NGO and other) are trained in the selected sustainable and climate-smart agriculture technologies Support (in the form of assets, capacity, partnerships or mentoring) provided to trainers and local champions to enhance and accelerate their work towards the environmental restoration plan ### Output 3.1.2 Individuals and groups’ capacity to adopt sustainable and climate-smart agriculture techniques strengthened | Indicator | Description | Type | Source | |-----------|-------------|------|--------| | C4B.22746 | # of individuals trained in improved sustainable and climate-smart agriculture techniques (disaggregated by type of training) | Essential | Monitoring/Project Records/Reports Review | | C4B.22751 | # of farmers (or individuals) receiving agricultural inputs and assets (disaggregated by sex) | Recommended | | | C4B.22753 | # of Farmer Field Schools | Optional | Proj. Rec. review | | C4B.22752 | # of farm demonstration sites established | Optional | | ### Activities Identify suitable, contextually appropriate practices with communities (both for men and women) to increase production of targeted products Capacity building of farmer individuals and groups in sustainable food production to support household food security Assisting women with assistive devices and/or material support to increase production and help in regeneration process ### 2.4 Methodology of the model #### 2.4.1 Give a description of the methodology and explain what makes this model unique from similar models (Part 5 will require references to more field guidance). Regreening Communities allows the community to choose their priorities, the preferred restoration techniques, and the way they want to implement their landscape restoration plan. Regreening Communities is a highly adaptable model, which follows this basic methodology: 1. **Community consultation and landscape mapping** – Identify where the environmental degradation is happening and how it is impacting the community. This includes issues like low crop production due to soil infertility. Additionally, this step identifies enablers (such as existing community environmental groups) or disablers (such as illegal logging). 2. **Support or set-up community landscape restoration groups, including champions** – This step could include supporting the formation of a new community landscape restoration group, or it could include supporting and bolstering existing groups that are trying to do this work. This step should include identifying champions and ensuring that all community members are represented – particularly women, youth and people with disabilities. 3. **Create landscape restoration plan and priorities** – The target group should develop their restoration plan and priorities based on which areas of degradation are impacting the community the most. This should be shared back with the wider community for sign-off. 4. **Implement the landscape restoration plan** a. **Scale up indigenous practices that work and amplify the work of local champions** – This includes supporting community groups and individuals to provide training and restoration initiatives within the community. b. **Advocate for better services from government** – Using a customised toolbox of advocacy techniques, the community demands services such as climate change adaptation training from agricultural extension agents. This includes advocating for enabling factors such as land and natural resources access for indigenous communities, people with disabilities, adolescents, youth, children, and women. This step could be done at a local, county, or national level. c. **World Vision and partners provide capacity building in a customised toolbox of approaches** – This includes FMNR and other techniques that are as low-cost and simple as possible. 5. **Monitor changes, refine plan, share successes and celebrate champions** – Continue to modify the plan based on community needs and learnings as well as provide space to celebrate and share practices with the current community and surrounding communities (where relevant). 2.4.2 Explain if aspects of this model can be implemented independently or whether the project model should only be implemented as a whole package. If a modular implementation is possible, please explain how. These five basic steps of this approach must always be done, but the selected advocacy techniques and restoration techniques will be different in each community depending on their needs and the budget and capacity of the staff. For example, in an Area Programme with a small budget, they may only wish to provide capacity building in a small selection of low-cost restoration techniques such as FMNR and zai pits. Conversely, in an Area Programme with a large budget they may wish to implement CVA instead of the lower-cost advocacy techniques. 2.5 Level of evidence for the model 2.5.1 Provide a brief description of the analysis of the key pieces of evidence used to build this model. The Regreening Communities model is strongly based on the experiences and outcomes of more than 40 past projects, promoting FMNR along with a wide range of complimentary natural resource management and sustainable production practices in various ways. The Regreening Communities model is a more holistic model combining the community mobilisation approach of FMNR with broader scope and range of natural resource and sustainable production practices. This model also includes the FMNR tree management practices, as applied in these projects. An Evidence Gap Analysis on the FMNR project approach was completed in 2016 by World Vision Australia. This analysis reviewed 21 internal evaluations and analyses and more than 30 external sources (academic articles and grey literature), including 12 journal articles specific to FMNR. Since this review, more research on FMNR projects and their ongoing impacts have been done by numerous research institutions as well as World Vision staff. The FMNR Hub continues to collate, review and share this evidence to inform FMNR practice, and subsequently has also informed the development of this model. 2.5.2 What does the available evidence say about effectiveness of the model and sustainability of achieved outcomes (in terms of time, funding, etc.)? Strong evidence of the following impacts of FMNR has been found in both published literature as well as through our own statistically valid impact evaluations: - high reach and uptake - improved tree cover and tree density - increased availability of wood and forest products - improved land and soil quality - increased income and decreased poverty - improved food security - improved child well-being, and more so for poorer households - improved gender equality and social cohesion - increased crop yields - empowered communities Since this 2016 Evidence Gap Analysis and 2019 Meta Review, more research on FMNR continues to strengthen the evidence for FMNR as a low cost, rapid and easily replicated, community-led approach to restoring and improving agricultural, forested and pasture lands. 2.5.3 What are the identified gaps in the analysis of evidence and how do they likely affect the chance of success of the model? Evidence gaps remain for contexts where the FMNR approach specifically has not yet been implemented and/or researched in the same level of depth. This includes coastal and wetland contexts, for example. The current FMNR evidence is focussed strongly on the African continent – in West Africa where it was first developed in the 1980s and more recently in Eastern and Southern Africa, where it has now been in implementation for over 10 years. While there is some evidence from FMNR project evaluation activities in the Asia Pacific region (Timor-Leste, Indonesia, Myanmar), external evidence specific to FMNR is not yet available. Evidence of community-based natural resource management and natural regeneration practices and the contribution of improved environmental conditions for development outcomes,\textsuperscript{2,3} is well established in Africa, Latin America, Middle East, and Asian contexts, where the specific tree management technique of FMNR has not yet been widely applied. ### 18.104.22.168 Primary evidence of the Regreening Communities model The following three pieces of evidence were selected to demonstrate the strong empirical foundation underpinning the Regreening Communities model: 1. Binam, J.N., Place, F., Kalinganire, A. et al. (2015). \textit{Effects of farmer managed natural regeneration on livelihoods in semi-arid West Africa}. Environ Econ Policy Stud 17, 543–575. 2. Cornwell, K. (2019). \textit{FMNR Evidence of Impact Report}. World Vision Australia, FMNR Hub. 3. Westerberg, V., Doku, A., Damnyag, L., Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G., Owusu, S., Jasaw, G., Di Falco, S. (2019). \textit{Reversing Land Degradation in Drylands: The Case for Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) in the Upper West Region of Ghana}. Report for the Economics of Land Degradation Initiative in the framework of the “Reversing Land Degradation in Africa by Scaling-up Evergreen Agriculture” project. The Project Model Technical Review panel assessed the strength of this evidence and has provided the following evidence ratings: | 1. Effects of farmer managed natural regeneration on livelihoods in semi-arid West Africa | 2. FMNR Evidence of Impact Report | 3. Reversing Land Degradation in Drylands: The Case for Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) in the Upper West Region of Ghana | |---|---|---| | NEW TO BE ASSESSED | 78% | 75% | ### 22.214.171.124 Secondary evidence of the Regreening Communities model Additional evidence of the benefits of FMNR in increasing household income, crop production and tree cover in Niger have been published by Haglund et al (2011).\textsuperscript{4} A social return on investment analysis of FMNR programming in Talensi district of Ghana also provides evidence of a 16:1 return on investment when the social, economic and environmental benefits of FMNR were quantified.\textsuperscript{5} A more recent study (2019) in the same area identified that the combination of FMNR with other associated sustainable land management practices resulted in farmers being significantly better off than conventional farmers, increasing their return on investment by up to four times.\textsuperscript{6} A similar approach to the Regreening Communities approach has also been used across several projects, most notably the \textit{DryDev project} in Ethiopia and Kenya. Through this approach, over 58,000 farmers (40 per cent female) restored 50,000 ha throughout 29 sub-catchments, including 8,000 ha through FMNR. Over 2 million trees were planted, and 3,500 ha of pasture and 2,600 ha of irrigation were brought into production. This resulted in the following impact: --- \textsuperscript{2} IRP (2019). \textit{Land Restoration for Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals: An International Resource Panel Think Piece}. Herrick, J.E., Abrahamse, T., Abhilash, P.C., Ali, S.H., Alvarez-Torres, P., Barau, A.S., Branquinho, C., Chhatre, A., Chotte, J.L., Cowie, A.L., Davis, K.F., Edriss, S.A., Fennessy, M.S., Fletcher, S., Flores-Diaz, A.C., Franco, I.B., Ganguli, A.C., Sperranza, C.I., Kamar, M.J., Kaudia, A.A., Kimiti, D.W., Luz, A.C., Matos, P., Metternicht, G., Neff, J., Nunes, A., Olaniyi, O., Pinho, P., Primmer, E., Quandt, R., Sarkar, P., Schier, S.J., Singh, A., Sudo, V., von Mahtiz, G.P., Wertz, L., Zeleke, G. A think piece of the International Resource Panel. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya. \textit{Land-Restoration-for-Achieving-the-Sustainable-Development-Goals-An-International-Resource-Pan-Think-Piece.pdf} (\textit{researchgate.net}). \textsuperscript{3} Heger, M., Zens, G., & Bangalore, M. (2020). Land and poverty: The role of soil fertility and vegetation quality in poverty reduction. Environment and Development Economics, 25(4), 315–333. Doi:10.1017/S1355790319000066. \textsuperscript{4} Haglund, E., Ndjeunga, J., Snook, L., and Pasternak, D. (2011). Dry land tree management for improved household livelihoods: Farmer managed natural regeneration in Niger. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(7). \url{https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.01.027}. \textsuperscript{5} Weston, P., Hong, R., Kabod, C. et al. (2015). Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration Enhances Rural Livelihoods in Dryland West Africa. Environmental Management 55, 1402–1417. \url{https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-015-0466-1}. \textsuperscript{6} Westerberg, V., Doku, A., Damnyag, L., Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G., Owusu, S., Jasaw, G., Di Falco, S. (2019). Reversing Land Degradation in Drylands: The Case for Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) in the Upper West Region of Ghana. Report for the Economics of Land Degradation Initiative in the framework of the “Reversing Land Degradation in Africa by Scaling-up Evergreen Agriculture” project. \url{ELO-Ghana-Report-final-240120.pdf} (\url{eld-initiative.org}). • Minimum dietary diversity has increased from 1.89 in 2015 to 5.07 in 2018, indicating an increase in access to diverse food categories. • The number of hungry months reduced from 3.41 in 2014 to 1.6 in 2018, indicating increased household food security. • According to the household hunger scale, 93 per cent of households reported no household hunger and only 6 per cent and 1 per cent of households reported moderate and severe food insecurity respectively. • Average household income and expenditure has nearly doubled from US$716 to US$1,286, and from US$470 to US$1,080 respectively. The premise of the Regreening Communities model is, at its simplest, that a thriving environment is critical to the achievement of the community development outcomes necessary for child well-being. A comprehensive summary of the evidence for the link between land restoration and the Sustainable Development Goals has been detailed by the International Resource Panel (IRP) (2019). Heger, Zens and Bangalore (2020) provide empirical evidence of significant poverty reduction in response to improvements in vegetation and soil health as a result of environmental restoration activities. Furthermore, they identified that it was the most vulnerable rural communities that disproportionately benefited from the greatest poverty reductions as a result of environmental improvements – more so than as a result of receiving income. This suggests that improving environmental conditions is potentially a more effective approach for improving well-being of the most vulnerable than simply focusing on income. Participatory community-based natural resource management approaches have been widely proven to be the most successful way to ensure inclusive and equitable outcomes for both people and the environment together. In addition to participatory planning approaches that build trust and community cohesion, Regreening Communities seeks to build on indigenous knowledge, from a diverse range of groups in the community, to co-create locally owned land and sea restoration solutions. Local champions and farmer-to-farmer extension (F2FE) approaches are also a key part of ensuring effective capacity building in restoration and sustainable agricultural practices, as demonstrated by Kiptot and Franzel. 2.6 Contexts the model has worked in 2.6.1 In what countries was the model, or parts of it, tested and validated? Indicate if rural, urban, fragile, or transition economies. The FMNR project model, which mirrors a similar community planning process and introduces FMNR and other complimentary approaches, has been successfully implemented in 27 countries (Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda, Malawi, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Kingdom of Eswatini, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan, Chad, Niger, Mali, Burundi, Ghana, Senegal, India, Myanmar, Indonesia, Timor-Leste, Haiti and Sri Lanka) through World Vision Area Programmes and/or grants. These communities have been primarily rural settings whereby most community members rely directly on the environment for their livelihoods, such as for farming or pastoralism. Please see project examples in the evidence section for details. The full Regreening Communities approach is currently being piloted in Uganda, with partners Catholic Relief Services and CARE International. --- 8 IRP (2019). 9 Heger, M., Zens, G., & Bangalore, M. (2020). 10 Buono & Rao (2016). 11 Elias, M. (2018). ‘Mobilizing indigenous and local knowledge for successful restoration’, Lessons for gender-responsive landscape restoration, GLF Brief 4, (Bioversity International, CIFOR, Global Landscapes Forum, CGIAR), GLF-Brief-4.pdf (globallandscapesforum.org). 12 Kiptot, E. & Franzel, S. (2019). Developing sustainable farmer-to-farmer extension: experiences from the volunteer farmer–trainer approach in Kenya, International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 17,6, 401-412, DOI: 10.1080/14735903.2019.1679576 (PDF) Developing sustainable farmer-to-farmer extension: experiences from the volunteer farmer–trainer approach in Kenya. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337043149_Developing_sustainable_farmer-to-farmer_extension_experiences_from_the_volunteer_farmer-trainer_approach_in_Kenya [accessed Nov 25 2021]. 2.6.2 What contextual factors (e.g., cultural, political, religious, local and/or national) were found in the evidence to affect the likelihood of success or failure of the model and why? (e.g., strength of civil society, partner capacity, physical environment, community engagement, etc.) This model is widely applicable in most rural settings. In peri-urban settings, there must be enough parts of the community that rely on the natural environment, otherwise there will not be enough buy-in. This model is unlikely to work in urban settings; however, in these settings, approaches such as kitchen gardens or similar could still be introduced. For communities that are more geographically dispersed or contain nomadic communities the project team must decide whether to create multiple sub-landscape plans to capture the disparate areas and sub-communities. These plans can then be collated to form a broader landscape plan for the whole area. The model will likely be easier to implement in areas where there is already a high degree of trust, social cohesion or social capital. If there are extremely high levels of conflict within a community it may impede the likelihood that the community can unite over a landscape restoration plan. However, if the conflict is natural resource based (e.g., farmers and pastoralists clashing over land usage) then this model can be introduced as a peacebuilding initiative to rectify this issue. This model is easily adapted if there is low or high capacity of partners, governments or local institutions. If there is high capacity in any of these areas, World Vision is simply supporting the existing structures and acting as a facilitator between the community and these institutions to unite around a landscape restoration plan. However, if any of these areas are weak, then the toolbox of advocacy techniques is used to strengthen things such as agricultural extension agents’ capacity to provide training or the ability of indigenous people to access forest products. 3. Project model design and implementation quality 3.1 Essential elements 3.1.1 What are the essential interventions of the model that should always be central to design and implementation in all contexts? What are the essential indicators that (where relevant) should be included in the M&E plan of Technical Programmes and projects? Steps one through four of the methodology (consultation, landscape mapping, landscape restoration planning and plan implementation) are the essential interventions of the model. Furthermore, these must always be done in a way that is inclusive of the wider community, including women, people with disabilities, children, adolescents and youth. The essential indicators for this project model have been identified in the Standard Logical Model table in Section 2.3 above. 3.1.2 What are the negotiable features that can be adapted for different contexts? (provide details in Section 3.7) The specific advocacy and restoration techniques that are selected by the community to restore their environment will be different in every context. Therefore, they are designed as a ‘toolbox’ that community members select from. 3.2 Staffing requirement and competencies 3.2.1 To successfully implement this project, what staff will be required? - **At the national office level:** Ensure the presence and services of a technical lead with an inter-disciplinary team of specialists on faith and development, natural resource management, agriculture and GEDSI. They should be familiar with the Regreening Communities project model to be able to facilitate design and implementation. - **At the Area Programme (AP) level:** - A champion of regreening approaches, and a natural resource management and resilience point person – both of whom have more than 70 per cent of their time to give to the project - A champion on Empowered Worldview and Citizen Voice and Action (if any of these project models are included in the design) - Support from the AP manager, as well as key finance staff will be required; a project can have a designated staff - Design, monitoring and evaluation (DM&E) technical support for participatory M&E, mapping and reporting; a project must have a designated M&E staff - GEDSI technical support or designated focal point - **At the field level:** Development facilitators (DF) will be the key staff who will facilitate the development and oversee the implementation of Regreening plans. The DF should at least have a diploma in environment, natural resource management, forestry/agroforestry or other related fields. The number of DFs should be considered carefully as the workloads may vary depending on the number and type of interventions a project/programme intends to implement, spread of the target population, and support available through the extension system of the country. Wherever possible, gender balance should be maintained within the DFs. 3.3 Budget 3.3.1 Based on evidence, what are the typical cost items of implementing this model? Give an overview of resource requirements and provide examples. Financial planning and budgeting Typical costs involved in this model will include: 1. Staff costs for the above-mentioned staff. 2. Cost of context analysis studies. 3. Events and meetings at the community level. These may include workshops and meetings with key community members to scope the appropriateness of the model, Regreening Committee meetings to plan and prioritise areas to be restored and to develop action plans, regular review and reflection meetings of the Regreening Committee (quarterly or bi-yearly as planned), and annual celebration and re-forecasting for Regreening plan and community-level monitoring. 4. Events and meetings at the project/AP level – for example, meetings with stakeholders and holding learning and sharing events. 5. Compensation/incentives for the government experts/local extension staff and local leaders/trainers, as well as travel allowance and support if required. 6. Capacity building activities – including existing local and indigenous practices, the Regreening Communities toolbox of techniques (including FMNR), and advocacy and/or conflict mediation techniques selected by community members. This will also include capacity building activities for staff. 7. Direct funding for partner implementers to run capacity building or support for existing restoration groups. 8. Provision of tools or resources for certain restoration techniques – for example, water harvesting or nursery equipment. The assistance for restoration options provided to a community can be tailored based on the budget of the AP/project. 9. Education and/or engagement activities with children, adolescents and young people. 10. Gender equality, disability and social inclusion budget line for affirmative actions, such as budget for accommodation of people with disabilities, engagement with women’s rights organisations and organisations of people with disabilities (OPDs), or training on gender-based violence. 3.3.2 Are there any economies of scale that should be considered? (provide details in Section 3.7) Because this model is so adapted and contextualised to each community, there aren’t many economies of scale to consider. However, the project should always aim itself at the entire community, instead of sub-groups, because this is the more efficient and effective way to run the model. 3.4 Partnering 3.4.1 Briefly describe the evidence of what partnerships have been successful and which haven’t. Provide links to more detailed documentation such as case studies where available. As any landscape or seascape to be restored involves many stakeholders, partnering in the planning and implementation of this project model is essential. FMNR projects have deliberately included the widest stakeholder group possible to achieve maximum impact. In the FMNR East Africa project, this included engaging with local government to have FMNR included and budgeted for in the county plans of and partner NGOs providing training. However, as with all World Vision programming, the partnering is context dependant. In a study titled ‘Effects of local institutions on the adoption of agroforestry innovations: evidence of farmer managed natural regeneration and its implications for rural livelihoods in the Sahel,\textsuperscript{12} it was found that, ‘In areas with well-structured formal and informal institutions, populations seem to have adopted a better collaboration attitude with the local government by developing plans for a good management and protection of natural resource including FMNR practices. However, in areas where these commissions are being assimilated to governmental institutions, the willingness to raise incentives towards a better management of natural resources is less perceived.’ As such, the involvement of governments and other partners will depend on their respective strength, reliability and formality in each community. Key partners are likely to include a wide and diverse range of community organisations and groups, local leaders, schools, faith leaders and organisations, local government, and ministries or departments of agriculture, environment, water, forests and/or fisheries. Additional partnerships may also include private sector and research. It is important that partnerships are developed for meaningful collaboration, with the values and prioritised goals for landscape restoration by the community understood and supported by all. This table highlights what a typical project with partners might look like. | Partner | Scoping and consultation | Environmental mapping and restoration | Regreening | Other | Type of involvement | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------|---------------------------------------|------------|-------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Community-based organisations (CBOs) | X | X | X | | CBOs that are already working on environmental restoration should be empowered to continue and lead this work as part of Regreening Communities. CBOs that are focused on other areas such as health, or education may just be consulted at the scoping stage. | | Environmental, climate adaptation or conservation organisations | X | X | X | | These may be NGOs or linked to the government or private sector and focus more on biophysical components of the environment and/or production systems. They will likely be able to support many elements of the project, such as contextual analyses, training in natural resource management or sustainable production practices, monitoring and evaluation, or research; and be important for evidence building, thought leadership and advocacy. | | Organisations of people with disabilities (OPDs) and women’s rights organisations (WROs), youth groups, indigenous groups, and women’s groups | X | X | X | | These groups will likely be representative of the GEDSI populations that the project model is trying to reach and thus should be deeply involved to understand the needs of these population groups regarding their landscape/seascape. It should be ensured that there are restoration practices selected that are accessible to the diverse people in this group and that their voices are heard in determining priorities. Funded partnerships should be sought with organisations such as OPDs and WROs to leverage their expertise for design, implementation and monitoring, evaluation, and learning. | | Faith communities and faith leaders | X | X | X | | As with schools, faith communities often have access to a physical location within the environment that can become a demonstration site for a restoration activity or be able to provide volunteer groups for community actions. Faith leaders can be influential in reaching community members with messaging and should therefore be involved at all stages. | \textsuperscript{12} Binam, J.N., Place, F., Djalal, A.A. et al. (2017). Effects of local institutions on the adoption of agroforestry innovations: evidence of farmer managed natural regeneration and its implications for rural livelihoods in the Sahel. Agric Econ 5, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-017-0072-2. | Actors | FMNR | RGC | GEDSI | |--------------------------------------------|------|-----|-------| | Local leaders and chiefs | X | X | X | | In some contexts, traditional/customary leaders like chiefs have ‘de facto’ or even ‘de jure’ authority to resolve natural resource disputes, allocate land ownership and use rights, and marshal communities for collective labour. As such, it is essential to understand their role, to deeply consult and work with local leaders throughout the Regreening Communities process to develop buy-in and legitimacy, and to support the activities and ultimately the sustainability of the outcomes. | | Local government | X | X | X | | Local government involvement will be dependent on government capacity. When working with high-capacity governments, it will be crucial to understand current government budget and priorities regarding landscape restoration and to advocate for changes within these government priorities that will support the ongoing protection and restoration of the environment. Also, it is critical to understand and work with the most local governmental institutions, such as village land management commissions or building partnerships, where appropriate. | | Government extension agents | X | X | X | | Extension agents have been critical partners in almost all FMNR projects. These agents provide training in forestry, agricultural and fisheries practices, and therefore have the potential to be powerful agents of change in the project. RGC projects should seek to work with these agents in a co-learning process wherever possible. | | National government ministries – for example, agriculture, fisheries and forests | X | X | | | National government may not be involved directly in the project, but national policies should be scanned for any complementary policies such as reforestation targets or budgets. If appropriate, the project may seek to report against these targets or access funding accordingly. This may be important for donors, for scaling and for sustainability. Some national government ministries may also have key framework agreements that can support how extension staff and other actors work together. | | Schools and children, adolescents and youth (CAY) groups | X | X | X | | Schools and children’s and adolescents’ groups can become groups where restoration activities take place and a location for consulting with children and adolescents on how they want to be involved with their landscape restoration. Regreening Communities can also engage with children and adolescents through other approaches, such as child-led research, intergenerational dialogue, linking locally developed life skills curricula with RGC projects, disaster risk reduction or environmental clubs in schools, and child participation in decision-making. | | Research organisations | | | X | | Research organisations can help in selecting the most appropriate restoration practices for the community, in measuring more complex impacts such as soil fertility or carbon capture, in advising on challenges arising, or in responding to questions raised by the community. Research organisations that have a strong commitment to incorporating GEDSI actions within restoration practice should be selected. | | Local universities (for example, those offering forestry, agriculture, agroforestry or climate adaptation courses) | | | X | Local universities may have high-capacity students willing to assist with data collection or biophysical measurements, or other local information or support that can help in planning, implementation and measurement. Effort should be made to ensure gender balance in the selection of students to assist. | |---|---|---|---|---| | Private sector | X | | X | Private sector organisations should be considered at the scoping stage. They may be an agent of environmental degradation (a logging company) or an agent of positive change (a carbon credits programme). Their role within the landscape must be considered and planned for – especially if there are activities that could prove to be mutually beneficial to the environment, the community and the private sector partners. They may bring helpful practical resources. They are also key in related livelihoods programming. | | Market actors | | | X | Market actors/partners play a role in marketing process. This can also include smaller market actors like micro-entrepreneurs or retailers of agricultural inputs that contribute to the identified solution (for example, direct seeding equipment or tree seedlings) or agricultural services. They will become very important stakeholders and partners in cases where the RGC project is implemented with a Local Value Chain Development (LVCD) component. | ### 3.5 Accountability The monitoring and evaluation activities and strong partnership approach of this programme model will provide accountability to community, internal decision-making, learning, improvement and knowledge management and a mechanism for generating and sharing evidence with donors, key external stakeholders, and decision makers. The monitoring and evaluation for this project will take a participatory approach, whereby the communities themselves are heavily involved in the evaluation of processes and outcomes according to their desired objectives as defined in their landscape restoration plans. Indicators will be informed by community assessments of landscape and seascape conditions through the Regreening Index, or ‘citizen science’ community-led monitoring of observable non-technical indicators such as tree numbers, biodiversity, etc. Evidence of changes in social, economic and environmental indicators will be informed through evaluation surveys, community assessments and external data. Participatory review and evaluation throughout the project processes through the community landscape restoration committees, on farm technology adaptation and sharing of results, and landscape restoration planning review processes, will ensure that the project is meeting household and community expectations, and evidence is being generated that can be shared with others. Mapping of the restoration areas in a Geographic Information System (using World Vision’s organisational ArcGIS account or simple and freely available tools such as Google Earth, Restor among others) is strongly encouraged in the project model. This will facilitate sharing of restoration activities with others in the sector (both within and beyond World Vision), collaboration locally, and tracking of changes in indicators such as tree cover or land degradation by external datasets. Tracking of indicators such as hectares of land or sea under restoration and changes in key indicators such as tree density will enable the project’s contribution to national and global targets for land restoration, carbon sequestration and environmental conservation to be quantified. 3.6 Adaptation to fragile contexts and transitioning economies 3.6.1 Describe which aspects of the model and process should be adapted in fragile contexts and list any adaptation to tools and materials available (provide links in Part 5). Regreening Communities is a crucial intervention for many fragile contexts. A report by IISD and UNEP found that in the 60-year period prior to 2009 at least 40 per cent of all intrastate conflicts have a link to natural resources availability.\(^{15}\) The FMNR model has successfully been implemented in several fragile contexts including Somalia, South Sudan, Chad, Zimbabwe, Haiti and Ethiopia. It is anticipated that the Regreening Communities model will also be applicable in these contexts but may need modifications such as: - integrating the World Vision Integrating Peace and Conflict Sensitivity tool within the contextual analysis stage - utilising the Fragile Context Programme Approach where appropriate - only promoting advocacy techniques that are appropriate for fragile contexts, and in some contexts reducing the engagement with government officials and focusing only on community-based structures until there is a more stable local government system - only promoting restoration techniques that are affordable and accessible for these communities – such as FMNR - prioritising restoration techniques that may have ‘quicker’ returns (such as small-scale water harvesting techniques) if the community may be considering migration or if displacement is a risk - looking to integrate restoration activities into cash-for-work programmes – as seen with FMNR in the SomRep project in Somalia - integrating additional peacebuilding interventions or specific conflict-sensitive approaches. 3.6.2 Describe which aspects of the model and process should be adapted in transitioning economies or whether different approaches can be integrated (i.e., Cash Based Programming). List any adaptation to tools and materials available (provide links in Part 5). The key adaptation Regreening Communities will need to consider in transitioning economies is whether this community will be moving from farming/pastoral economies to drastically different value-chains or businesses. If the community profile is relatively unchanged, then minimal adaptations will be needed. However, if there is a strong shift in the economic profile of the community then this should be integrated into the way the community maps what they need from the environment now – and into the future – to support these needs. This could include new businesses or value chains. \(^{15}\) Matthew, R., Brown, O., & Jensen, D. (2009). From Conflict to Peacebuilding: The role of natural resources and the environment. UNEP. 3.7 Integration and enabling project models 3.7.1 Give examples on how this model can be effectively combined with other models to improve child well-being. This model, and the restoration of the natural environment, is foundational to all World Vision project models. It can be integrated within a Building Secure Livelihoods programme as a way of providing more robust options to the community beyond just Climate-Smart Agriculture and FMNR. It could also be considered in the later stages of Ultra Poor Graduation, when community members have achieved a more stable income and livelihood. It is highly recommended that this model is integrated with economic development approaches and models such as LVCD or Savings for Transformation (S4T) to ensure the community fully experience the economic benefits that can be unleashed from a thriving environment. The model can also be done in conjunction with WASH programming – particularly around natural water source availability and cleanliness. For communities already undertaking Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture or Climate-Smart Agriculture, the Regreening Communities model would be a natural graduation for them to begin thinking about off-farm factors for growing food (water availability, soil fertility, erosion, etc). The model can also be programmed in conjunction with Empowered Worldview – particularly with the overlaps around Regreening Communities supporting individuals to have more hope and a sense of agency over the restoration of their environment and their sense of hope for the future. Additionally, the ‘Strengthening a Community Reporting and Referral mechanism’ tool (under CA) can be effectively combined with this model to ensure there is a functional and accessible reporting and referral mechanism in place for children with different vulnerabilities who can be referred to proper services during crises caused by climate change. Figure 4. Regreening Communities Model 3.7.2 If applicable, briefly describe how the model can work with Citizen Voice and Action (CVA), Celebrating Families (CF) or Channels of Hope (CoH) or Empowered Worldview enabling model. (Provide details in Section 3.7) CVA will be provided as one option that can be selected as part of the toolbox of advocacy techniques. This model is highly complementary to Empowered Worldview (EWV) given its focus on ‘regreening mindsets’ and fostering a sense of hope in conjunction with the restoration of the environment. If applicable, it is recommended that EWV be done in conjunction with Regreening Communities. The EWV methodology focuses on identifying and training faith leaders and other community influencers, including women and youth. Their involvement is essential for community acceptance of EWV’s focus on encouraging personal initiative, rather than waiting for support from government or aid agencies. These leaders then mentor other community members as they start Regreening Communities activities such as diversifying crop and livestock production or building reservoirs to conserve rainwater for irrigation during drought. EWV has been implemented in 26 countries. As EWV spreads to more areas, the methodology is beginning to move beyond a focus on livelihoods to also encourage peacebuilding efforts and inspire communities to develop their own solutions to community issues such as child neglect and education, which are often influenced by traditional views. 3.8 Design and Implementation Quality Assurance (DIQA) tool 3.8.1 Use the DQA and IQA tools to outline the essential elements and minimum quality standards to apply when assessing design and implementation of the model as part of Technical Programmes/Projects. Make sure LEAP 3 Programme Quality Guidance and Tools are taken into consideration.\(^{14}\) \(^{14}\) [https://www.wvcentral.org/community/EI/Pages/Programme-Quality-and-LEAP-3.aspx](https://www.wvcentral.org/community/EI/Pages/Programme-Quality-and-LEAP-3.aspx) 4. Linkages and integration 4.1 Child focus 4.1.1 Child participation Describe the ways in which the model establishes the meaningful participation in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the project, and any intended impact on children’s participation in other aspects of their lives. World Vision conducted a research study in 2020 to capture children and young people’s ideas on how they wanted to engage in climate action. We spoke to 121 children and young people (74 girls and 47 boys) between the ages of 10 and 17 from 12 countries: Albania, Bangladesh, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Chile, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ghana, Kenya, Mongolia, Nicaragua, and Romania. Ninety-four per cent of these participants wished to take personal action to address climate change, and a common theme among their responses was to keep them at the heart of climate programming. Considering this, children, adolescents and youth must be meaningfully involved in the land restoration planning process, where their vision and wishes for the future of the landscape that they will inherit should be considered. Children, adolescents and youth are powerful advocates and agents of change in the implementation of the restoration activities through their schools, groups, families or even on land they have access to manage. Participation through school environment clubs, education, and awareness-raising activities is an extremely important part of the project activities. This activity should abide by the following principles: - establishing child-friendly mechanisms and platforms on- and off-line to facilitate children’s safe and effective formal engagement in climate policymaking - ensuring that children have access to justice, including effective remedies and reparation of violations due to environmental harm and climate-related child rights violations, through child-friendly and gender-responsive complaints mechanisms at all levels, including by ratifying the Optional Protocol to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child on a communications procedure - ensuring that children have access to age-, gender- and ability-appropriate information and education on the climate and environmental crisis through formal and informal education to ensure that children have the necessary skills and knowledge to build resilience and adaptive capacity, and to empower children to influence, promote and create a more sustainable future. 4.1.2 Safeguarding Describe how the intervention will meet the relevant Child and Adult Safeguarding Standards. All relevant safeguarding processes and procedures will be included in the operation of the interventions in the field according to World Vision Partnership and national office policies and procedures governing site visits, interactions between staff and communities, and collection and use of data and information (including photographs). All staff will be screened appropriately, and relevant training will be provided for all staff. A risk assessment will be done to assess context specific risks around physical or emotional violence – including injury or discrimination by programme staff, partners, community members and other affiliates – and appropriate mitigation measures will be determined. Partner safeguarding risk assessment will be conducted to make sure partners are safe before engaging them in work with community members and children. Before engaging children in any activity, risk assessment will be conducted not to harm any child. Complaint and feedback mechanisms described in the accountability section will have behaviour protocols as part of information sharing and safeguarding incidents. 4.2 Development Programme Approach 4.2.1 What relevant information is being collected from the LEAP programme assessment and from relevant tools in the critical path (including the root cause analysis tools in Step 5) to help inform the selection of this model? The Regreening Communities model is well suited to enhancing an existing Area Programme, as part of a new Area Programme or even as part of a national office Technical Programme with its strong emphasis on community empowerment, local ownership and long-term sustained effort to ensure effective outcomes are achieved. Figure 5. Regreening Communities processes aligned to the Development Programme Approach Critical Path 4.3 Faith 4.3.1 Briefly describe and give examples of how faith has been successfully integrated into the implementation of this model. FMNR has been championed around the world by faith leaders, including this FMNR conference of 170 faith leaders in Malawi. Working with faith leaders and organisations is therefore a key part of Regreening Communities. In the Christian faith, creation care is a central tenant for many individuals and communities to contextualise why they must protect and restore the environment that God has entrusted them with. In Muslim contexts there is a similar concept to creation care, ‘And do no mischief on the earth after it has been set in order: that will be best for you, if ye have Faith’ (Surat Al A’raf, ‘the Heights’, verse 85). Similar concepts can be found in Buddhist and Hindu faiths also. Faith leaders can foster this message in their respective services and ceremonies and can become ‘leaders’ within the community restoration plan – particularly around the change in mindsets that may be part of this Regreening Communities process. The area around their places of worship also holds potential to become a demonstration site for restoration practices. The latest version of Empowered Worldview contains a module on creation care which will be highly complementary to this programme. 4.3.2 Outline how this model partners with the church or faith actors to achieve its outcomes. If available, give examples of where partnering with the church and/or other faith groups has been successfully included into the implementation of this model. As above, faith leaders will be included from day one of this model to understand how their faith and their congregation understands the linkages between their faith and the environment. These linkages will be used as a foundation for all messaging and community-based discussion going forwards so that the model is adapted to this context. Additionally, church, mosque or temple grounds can become demonstration sites for some regreening techniques as has been seen in past FMNR projects. Gender Equality, Disability and Social Inclusion 4.4 Gender equality 4.4.1 Describe briefly how changes in participation, access and control, and increased gender equality will influence the quality of life for women and girls within communities. The handbook for this model will include guidance for how to make this model either Gender Mainstream or Gender Transformative. The Gender Mainstreaming model will include: - **Gender analysis**: A gender analysis is conducted at the design stage. - **Gender mainstreaming action plan**: A gender mainstreaming road map and an accountability tool will be developed to assist projects to ensure gender considerations are mainstreamed throughout the project cycle. - **Design**: Activities ought to respond to gender-specific needs, barriers, biases and disadvantages (e.g., training, incentives, differential targeted services). Data and indicators are disaggregated by sex where applicable. - **Partnerships**: The design will include a partnership with local women-led, women’s organisations/networks that address gender inequality. - **Budget**: A gender and inclusion budget line will exist. - **Monitoring and reporting**: We commit to monitoring and reporting on the gender equality results. The Gender Transformative approach will be for Area Programmes which have high capacity in gender programming and will include a ‘twin track’ approach. This means that all existing Regreening Communities activities will be gender inclusive, while a second ‘track’ will address the specific barriers and norms that are impeding women’s equality within this community. Supplementary guidance will be available on the RGC wvcentral page when developed. Both approaches will aim to see women taking up at least 40 per cent of leadership positions within the programme, as this has been shown in FMNR programming to shift the attitudes within the community that women can be decision makers. In the community consultation phase, there will be some women-only meetings whereby women can express the barriers and enablers to their participation. If violence is an issue, more targeted interventions will be needed to address the prevention of male violence against women. This should be done at a systemic level (addressing norms) and at a local laws level to ensure that there are ramifications for perpetrators. If the problem is endemic, then a Channels of Hope for gender programme should be considered to directly address the violence. The increased availability of natural resources has positive gender consequences in and of itself. As women and girls are often the collectors of firewood and water, this increased availability reduces their travel time and improves their safety. Furthermore, men and boys are often the herders in pastoralist communities and the increased availability of animal fodder decreases their travel time too. This results in girls and boys having more time for school. **Disability** *Explain how disability inclusion will be integrated into programme design and throughout the project cycle.* The handbook for this model will include guidance for reaching minimum standards of disability integration: 1) conducting a formative Disability Assessment, 2) developing a Disability Inclusion Action Plan, 3) partnering with Organisations of People with Disabilities (OPDs) and other relevant stakeholders, 4) ensure disability inclusion is a shared responsibility, 5) ensuring disability inclusion in outputs, 6) allocating budget accordingly, 7) monitoring, evaluating and reporting on disability inclusion (including adequate and appropriate collection of disability disaggregated data), and 8) taking a disability-inclusive ‘do no harm’ approach. *Briefly describe the ways in which the model will lead to changes in policies and social norms affecting people with disabilities.* Issues of disability, poverty and environmental sustainability are inextricably linked. People with disability are particularly at risk from the effects of climate change, such as natural disasters, food insecurity and displacement. In order for the Regreening project model to be effective in relation to sustainable development and climate change adaptation, it must incorporate disability-inclusive development principles. Taking a rights-based approach to advocating for improved policy and standards promotes inclusion by increasing accessibility and awareness of barriers, and empowering the voice, capacity and socio-economic security of people with disability. *Describe the specific ways in which the model will enhance the degree of empowerment and decision-making authority for people with disability.* People with disability have little access and control over resources within a community, primarily due to poor education, lack of income, social exclusion and limited roles in leadership and decision-making. Active participation of persons with disability, their families, and their representative organisations in the planning, decision-making, designing and implementing of all relevant initiatives will ensure inclusion of voices, ideas and needs. Ensuring people with disability are not just beneficiaries but also active partners and stakeholders in livelihood opportunities will enhance access to resources, financial independence, and benefit families and the broader society. *Describe briefly how increased disability inclusion will enhance the goal of greater community cohesion.* Disability inclusion is a cross-cutting issue, and if barriers and needs of the most vulnerable, particularly children with disabilities, go unaddressed, the aims of having thriving communities will not be reached. Projects will, where possible, use a ‘twin track’ approach, ensuring disability perspectives are included and initiatives are fully accessible to all people with disability, alongside disability-specific actions being taken to increase the empowerment and participation of people with disabilities. 4.5 Local to national advocacy 4.5.1 Improve the national policy environment relating to the CWB Objectives and Sustainable Development Goals The Regreening Communities model includes the building of a grassroots, bottom-up movement through the mobilisation of members of the community to support land restoration in their community. These community champions are also encouraged and supported to share this message beyond their own community as well and may use radio, media, exchange visits, demonstration sites, among other approaches to do this. Where additional support or better provision of services is required from local government, advocacy approaches such as CVA are well suited to be combined with Regreening Communities. Calls for better extension services, access, or tenure arrangements for land or natural resources can be successfully addressed in this way. Where multiple communities are implementing Regreening Communities across multiple separate landscapes, there is the opportunity to combine outcomes, lessons, messages or demands to engage higher levels of government or to link to national and subnational/top-down movement building. While it may be beyond the scope of the Regreening Communities model, it is important to consider if engagement with non-World Vision stakeholders (such as private sector) at the national and/or sub-national levels can strengthen the broader enabling environment and increase land restoration outcomes and broader cumulative contribution to CWB and SDGs. We promote the utilisation of social accountability approaches, primarily Citizen Voice and Action (CVA), to bring local communities alongside service providers for evidence-based constructive dialogue and collective action towards significantly improved service delivery and service quality, and to influence public policies. The CVA approach is designed to empower communities – including women, children, and young people – to hold their governments accountable for services promised, such as health care, waste management, education, child protection, access to clean water, and other areas that impact the well-being of children and their families. For the Regreening Communities, CVA can address; better extension services, access or tenure arrangements for land and natural resources among others. Find additional Guidance for CVA adaptation for Environment Management and Climate Action. World Vision is a Christian relief, development and advocacy organisation dedicated to working with children, families, and their communities to reach their full potential by tackling the root causes of poverty and injustice. World Vision serves all people, regardless of religion, race, ethnicity, or gender.
cafcfca4-ab29-4d40-98d5-c10f622ac04a
CC-MAIN-2023-40
https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/Regreening%20Communities%20Project%20Model.pdf
2023-09-26T02:55:05+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510130.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20230926011608-20230926041608-00678.warc.gz
1,186,336,104
20,513
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.964572
eng_Latn
0.992296
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 47, 1222, 2688, 5316, 6455, 10051, 13667, 16894, 20316, 24455, 26511, 34933, 39834, 46398, 50522, 55498, 59503, 61729, 64883, 69901, 74210, 76228, 79155, 82506, 87056, 90487, 94144, 96884, 98834, 100842, 104542, 106292, 109011, 113298, 115714, 116025 ]
[ 2.59375, 1.140625 ]
1
0
John Davis, J. Davis, Davis Derby, John Davis & Son, and Davis Instrument Manufacturing Co. are all names that frequently appear on mining artifacts such as safety lamps, miners’ dials, and anemometers. What follows is a brief history of this firm best known as Davis Derby. What would become Davis Derby was a family business established in Leeds, England, in 1779, by Gabriel Davis, a manufacturer of optical, surveying and mathematical instruments. The business was founded during the reign of King George III, when William Pitt, the Younger, was the Prime Minister of England. Capital tax had not been thought of and for the few people who paid income tax, the rate was one shilling per pound sterling. Gabriel Davis’ nephew John was born in the village of Thame in Oxfordshire in 1810. He became apprenticed to J. Abrahams, who styled himself as Mathematical Instrument Maker to the Duke of Wellington. On completion of his apprenticeship in his late teens John Davis moved to Leeds to join his uncle’s family business. Prior to 1830, it was common practice for tradesmen to open a shop in a town and then move on to another, covering perhaps ten towns in a circuit. John followed this trend, visiting Liverpool, Cheltenham and making his first visit to Derby in April of 1830, opening a temporary shop in Rotten Row to sell the Company’s products where he remained for six weeks. At that time the population of Derby was 23,000 people and there was only one other optician in town, Mr. J. Steer, who was both an optician and toy maker with a shop also in Rotten Row. In 1800 it would still have been appropriate to describe Derby as, in the words of Daniel Defoe of a century earlier, – a town of gentry rather than trade. Derby had seen some influence of the industrial revolution, the Derby Silk Mill was founded in 1717 by two brothers, John and Thomas Lombe using technology highjacked in dramatic style from Italy, an early case of industrial espionage. In 1736 John Whitehurst moved to the town and established his business as a high-class clock maker. Jedidiah Strutt founded two mills in the town center not far from the silk mill around 1750. However it was the arrival of the railways in 1839 and 1840 which invigorated the town. Andrew Handyside arrived in Derby from Glasgow in 1848, his factory was to be the largest in Derby for more than 50 years. In the early 1830’s John Davis traveled regularly between Liverpool, Cheltenham and Derby to sell his products. For the next few years John visited Derby at regular intervals, staying for a few months at a time, he advertising his visits in the Derby Mercury. By 1833 it was clear that John had broken away from the Leeds business of Gabriel Davis and was working for himself. John’s brother Edward continued to work for Gabriel Davis in Leeds and was destined to take over from him when he died. John continued to visit Derby for the next decade, typical of his visits were those in 1835 and 1836, arriving in October and leaving to go to Cheltenham in February of the following year. In 1843 perhaps attracted by the railways and the rapid transition taking place in Derby and the desire to settle down with his wife Amelia and their two young sons, he took up residence with his family. John bought the free-hold of the sixteenth century Meynell town house, which is now the oldest surviving premises in Iron Gate, and which in recent times has been an art gallery and a restaurant. At the rear of the premises he built a workshop to produce his products, the house was to be the family residence for close to 20 years. *Davis’ first shop location at 14 Iron Gate Derby, England, 1850.* The company was by now manufacturing a variety of surveying instruments such as theodolites, surveying dials and miner’s dials, some very similar in design to the products of Gabriel Davis’ business in Leeds. Interestingly, spider webs were being used to replace the wires used for sites on these instruments, the task of collecting spider’s webs was one of the tasks given to apprentices and continued well into the twentieth century. *Right: Davis All Saints Works Amen Alley Derby - 1860.* At this time coal production in the UK had risen to 55 million tons and 250,000 men, women and children were employed underground and there were an average of 1000 deaths in the mines each year. Around 1840 John Davis began to manufacture mining equipment such as mine safety lamps based on the designs developed by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1815. Production of miners lamps continued for more than a 100 years, reaching 10,000 a year by the turn of the 20th century. Left: Davis Derby Fireboss unbonneted Clanny. Right: Davis Instrument Mfg. Co. Anemometer. The company soon attracted interest from a number of mining experts, and in 1844 Davis was visited by Benjamin Biram, house steward to the Earl Fitzwilliam of Wentworth Woodhouse who owned a number of collieries in South Yorkshire. Biram explained that he had invented an instrument to measure the amount of air or force of wind entering a mine, the instrument was called an Anemometer. In an advertisement placed in the Derby Mercury in February of 1845 John announced that manufacture and sale of Benjamin Biram’s first vane Anemometer would commence in a few weeks. Right: Davis’ first shop location at 14 Iron Gate, Derby, England, 1850. John quickly became famous in mining circles as a pioneer in the use of electricity in mines and for his mining products. In 1850 John Hedley, HM Inspector of Mines the Midland District approached John with a new type of Miner’s dial with a swinging limb, modified versions this instrument were widely used by mining surveyors and for the next century, the company continued to manufacture the Hedley dial until around 1960. At this time, John was hoping the bulk of his business would come from steam engine manufacturers and as a result he advertised a range of vacuum and pressure gauges. Derby Guild Hall was destroyed by fire in 1841 only 13 years after it was built, this event inspired John to write in the Derby Mercury about how buildings could be protected from the effects of lightning by the use of a copper tube of about 7” in diameter coming from the roof and continuing into the moist earth below the foundations. Lightning conductors were by now a feature of the company’s catalogue! Left: J. Davis bonnetted Clanny safety lamp. John was very active in the community, around 1860 he began to press for the widening of Iron Gate. He was chairman of a committee of Iron Gate tradesmen and personally contributed the sum of £100, a sum exceeded by private individuals only by the Duke of Devonshire who contributed £250 to the fund which eventually provided £2350 to enable the work to be carried out. The widening of Iron Gate commenced in 1865 and took five years to complete. Right: John Davis & Co. - Baltimore, MD and Derby, England. John moved from his Iron Gate address to live at 99 Friar Gate probably to escape the dust and noise created by the widening of Iron Gate. He made a further gesture to improving the streets of Derby by contributing the first trees on Friar Gate and London Road. **John Davis & Son Kirby Lamp - All Saints Works.** John became the father of ten children, including seven sons who were educated at the town’s grammar school in St Peters Churchyard. Headmaster of the school at the time was the Rev James Bligh, an idle and incompetent kinsman of the infamous Captain Bligh who captained the Bounty. John Davis died in 1873 at the age of 63, his brother Edward, his elder son Frederick and his second son Alfred were appointed executors to run the business. Frederick and Alfred were both trained as civil engineers and Edward was very much involved in running his own business in Leeds, consequently Henry Davis was soon appointed by his brothers to run the business. When Henry took over the business the workshop was fitted out with four large lathes and four small lathes, fourteen pairs of vices, a new vice bench and eight sets of working men’s tools, suggesting that eight instrument makers were employed. At this time Henry’s business must have included selling equipment to local medical practitioners since stethoscopes, enema bottles, water pillows, air cushions and chest expenders were all recorded in the company’s sales ledger, listed under the heading of optical instruments! *Right: John Davis and Son - London and Derby.* Under the leadership of Henry Davis the business continued to expand, moving to new premises in November 1875 at All Saints Works Amen Alley in Derby close to the Cathedral. The earliest surviving Davis Derby catalogue is dated in 1877 and shows that products included turret clocks, surveying instruments, a wide range of miners lamps, anemometers, electric bells for both mining and domestic use, pressure gauges, opera glasses, spectacles, medical devices and weather vanes. This catalogue also shows that the firm was actively involved in the generation of electricity for lighting. The record of Queen Victoria’s visit to Derby in 1891 states “Messrs John Davis and Son, of All Saints Works, had the opportunity for the first time in Derby of showing how pretty illuminations can be made to look with the use of electric light. They were responsible for the letters ‘V R’ very prettily outlined in small lamps, over Messrs. Pountain, Girardot and Forman’s premises and also for the 500 candle power lamp which brilliantly illuminated Messrs Bakewell and Wilson’s premises in the Market Place. The company soon began to supply local shops and offices with electric power from generators in the Amen Alley Works. This continued for four years until 1893 when Derby Corporation built its new power station on Full Street as close as possible to the Davis lighting station, on the site of what is now the Industrial Museum. Interestingly, electric lighting underground in mines was in use prior to acts of Parliament in 1882 and 1888 which permitted local authorities to authorize the use of electric street lighting. One of the earliest lighting installations installed by Davis of Derby was in 1886 in the Star Mills Co. flour mill in Newport, by 1893, John Davis & Son (Derby) Ltd had installed electric installations for lighting and other purposes such as pumping, at several mines including the Mill Close lead mine at Darley Dale which was lit by incandescent lamps of 16-250 candlepower. Other installations were at Clydach Vale Colliery in South Wales and two pits owned by the Clay Cross Company, which were equipped with lighting and pumping installations. The Riddings Colliery of Messrs J Oakes and Co had its surface works and underground roadways lit by Davis Derby. The company also supplied and installed lighting systems at the nearby Swanwick and Bolsover collieries. A complete installation for electric lighting plant at Bestwood Colliery and Ironworks was also installed which was powered by twin steam engines and dynamos. It is interesting to note that in February 1893 the Federated Institution of Mining Engineers visited Davis Derby and reported the visit as ‘An Hour At All Saints Works’. This report describes a pioneer installation for the generation and supply of electrical power for supplying neighboring hotels, shops and offices. Institution members also reported on an improved Naval signaling system, and in particular noted that an order had been executed for the German Navy. Mr Henry Davis commented that “the firm had received the gratifying intelligence that it is the intention of Prince Henry of Prussia to adopt the same throughout the whole German Navy”. At the time of the visit the company was reportedly capable of manufacturing 500 miners lamps each week, and these were dispatched all round the world. It is worthy of mention that in 1886 the final report of the Royal Commission On Accidents in Mines was presented and under the heading ‘Safety Lamps’ three out of four of the lamps selected as the safest were made by Davis Derby. These were the Bonnetted Clanny, the Marsaut and the Bonnetted Muesler. Members also reported that a new type of ringing key and signaling bell were demonstrated. Various instruments were on show during the visit including Davis’s improved Hedley Dial, a self-timing anemometer and a safety lamp cleaning machine invented by a Mr Wolstenholme of the Bestwood Coal and Iron Company. Davis Derby manufactured many products which had been invented by prominent mining engineers and other inventors of the time, such as Biram’s anemometers, John Hedley’s Miner’s dial and Hoffmans patented tripod head from the USA. The Company also had a close relationship with Mr A. H. Stokes, His Majesty’s Inspector of Mines, and patented a miners lamp shut off device originally invented by Mr. Stokes. During the visit, members of the Federation were given a demonstration of the patented Davis and Stokes electric safety motor. This motor had an enclosed commutator and brush set which could not be opened when the motor was running and which reduced the space available around the sparking brushes that could be filled with gas. Previous attempts at designing motors for use in fiery mines were based on the principle of completely enclosing the motor, resulting in them being blown apart when an explosion occurred within the motor enclosure. The Davis family avoided publicity and advertising, sales promotion in this period was achieved mainly by attendance at exhibitions in Cardiff South Africa and in London. In 1890 Davis took on the UK agency for coal cutters manufactured by the Jeffrey Company of Columbus, Ohio. The firm of Davis Derby was held in high esteem, for in 1902 a committee was set up to report to His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department on questions related to the use of electricity in coal mines. Notably, Henry Davis was one of 56 witnesses called to give evidence. Electricity was first introduced into UK coal mines in 1881 by David Graham at Earnock Colliery in Hamilton, Scotland. This installation was for a lighting system of 30 Swan Lamps. In the following year electricity was used for a pumping installation at Trafalgar Colliery in the Forest of Dean; four years later Davis Derby was asked to install its first underground lighting system, in Mill Close Lead Mine in Darley Dale. It was concern about the increasing use of electrical equipment in coal mines that led to the formation of the Institution of Mining Engineers. Records show that the company was very active in overseas markets with agents in Australia, Canada, China, Japan and South Africa. The company was also selling equipment to sugar refineries in Barbados probably as a result of initial sales through Fletchers of Derby. In 1900 Henry’s brother Herbert was given a four year contract to sell the company’s products in the USA, subsequently he opened an office in Baltimore which was adopted as a branch office of John Davis and son. Herbert achieved considerable success in America so much so that in 1912 he resigned and formed his own company Davis Instruments of Baltimore manufacturing many Davis Derby products including anemometers which are still manufactured by that company today. Between 1945 and 1955, Davis Derby phased out the manufacture of miner’s instruments and other long-time products to concentrate on electrical equipment for mines. In 1962 Davis Derby was sold to Standard Industrial Group based in the UK. In 1987 Davis Derby was sold to Senior Engineering Group and in 1992 Davis Derby Limited was acquired by Communication and Control Engineering. Today Davis Derby Limited is a leader in the design and manufacture of electronic control & monitoring equipment & data logging systems for harsh, hazardous & difficult environments for global markets. They specialize in the design and manufacture of intrinsically safe electronics equipment and vehicle access control & fleet management information systems, having successfully made the transition from the Industrial Age to the Electronic Age. Shown along with this article are several Davis Derby safety lamps and anemometers. The most interesting of these is a very early Davis Derby prototype anemometer that I recently purchased from a dealer in the UK. This all brass anemometer is 6.3” (16cm) in diameter. Hand engraved are: BIRAM’S PATENT ANEMOMETER DAVIS OPTICIANS DERBY 35. There are two hand engraved dials, under the left dial appears CS and under the right dial appears XS, both dials share the numbers 7 and 8. This design is much more fragile than later models, there being little protection from damage for the vanes. This design is unusual in that it does not have the dials in the center of the vanes as we see in all the later versions of the Biram-style anemometer. This a truly a rare mining artifact. Davis Biram anemometer and closeup of dials, ca. 1845. According to David Hind with Davis Derby “I think that the number 35 probably is the serial number. I think that your Anemometer is an early version, it is more like our prototype than the production versions produced just a few years later”. Davis Derby has a similar early prototype anemometer with the number 28 in their collection. John Davis first started to produce the Biram anemometer in Derby, in 1845, the year after it was invented by Benjamin Biram. David Hind reports that: “We receive an average of one enquiry a month from the general public requesting information on nineteenth century and early twentieth century Davis Derby instruments which they have acquired. Many of these early instruments manufactured by John Davis and Son having outlived their original purpose are now highly collectable items a tribute indeed to the ingenuity of those who invented them and the craftsmanship that went into their manufacture.”
bfe3e1bf-5ad7-49cb-8fa9-05964a76a769
CC-MAIN-2023-06
https://cdn.mineralogicalrecord.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/ANEMOMETERS-Johnson-The-Davis-Derby-Story-JAN-2008.pdf
2023-02-06T22:06:49+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500365.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20230206212647-20230207002647-00145.warc.gz
178,770,385
3,716
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998383
eng_Latn
0.998891
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1796, 4161, 5361, 6918, 8709, 11953, 15021, 16945, 17883 ]
[ 2.28125 ]
3
0
Tier II Data, Systems & Practices Heather Hatton & Trisha Guffey, University of Missouri This Practice Brief was developed as result of the roundtable dialogue that occurred at the 2019 PBIS Leadership Forum in Chicago, IL and provides an overview of the process of designing and implementing Tier 2 systems and practices within a Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) framework. Approaching Tier 2 design from the district-level is encouraged; however, considerations and suggestions for schools implementing Tier 2 independent of a district-level initiative are included. Operational Definition In the PBIS framework, Tier 2 consists of the data tools and sources, systems, and practices needed to support students for whom Tier 1 behavior supports are necessary, but not sufficient. Researchers and practitioners broadly describe Tier 2 interventions as a systematic intensification of universal effective behavior supports. The behavior interventions include, but are not limited to, Check-In Check-Out, Self-monitoring, Social Skills Instruction, and Academic Remediation. Practitioners designing and implementing Tier 2 engage in ongoing data collection, data analysis, and data-based decision making used to: a) identify students in need of intensified behavior interventions, b) match identified students to appropriate interventions, and c) monitor student progress and response to intervention. Rationale When the United States Congress revised the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) to become the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015, federal law required enhancements of social, emotional, and behavioral learning and supports in public education. The rationale for such improvements came from a plethora of studies, spanning over 40 years, documenting the critical need for social and behavioral competence and the direct impact it has on society. Batsche et al., 2015 (as cited by OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports, 2017) defined Multi-tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) as “the practice of providing high-quality instruction and interventions matched to student need, monitoring progress frequently to make decisions about changes in instruction or goals, and applying child response data to important educational decisions.” PBIS aligns to the foundations and practices of MTSS. Districts and schools implementing PBIS utilize a problem-solving model to “prevent inappropriate behavior through teaching and reinforcing appropriate behaviors (OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports, 2017).” Implementing the essential features of Tier 1 in the PBIS framework with fidelity decreases the number of students needing additional interventions and increases the efficacy of interventions implemented. Teaching all students the necessary social, emotional, and behavioral skills for success in school while encouraging the expected behavior helps students learn appropriate behaviors and replace inappropriate behaviors. Additionally, Tier 1 implementation ensures teachers develop the knowledge and skills necessary to support Tier 2 interventions. A primary concern of districts and schools beginning PBIS implementation is how to address the needs of students who do not respond to Tier 1 supports. Once Tier 1 systems and practices are in place, Tier 2 data, systems, and practices become the next focus of PBIS implementation. Utilizing data to identify which students need additional support, the function of the inappropriate behavior, and what intervention and supports address the function of the behavior, significantly impacts the success of the intervention. **Procedures** The FSCA created a conceptual framework outlining six essential features of family-school collaboration identified in research. The features and research-based rationale for their importance in family-school collaboration within PBIS are described below followed by a summary of guiding principles shared across the six essential features. **Step 1: Readiness** Prior to Tier 2 systems being created, it is vital to assess building readiness for implementation. Assessing readiness includes a data review to determine implementation fidelity of Tier 1 supports, student response to the supports, and the building’s fluency with data-based decision making (Missouri Schoolwide Positive Behavior Supports, 2018). Schools with a Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI) score of 70% or higher in Tier 1, and a School-wide Assessment Survey (SAS) score of 80% or higher in the areas of School-wide, Non-Classroom, and Classroom meet the criteria for Tier 1 implementation fidelity. Additionally, determining 80% or more students received 0-1 Office Discipline Referrals (ODRs) demonstrates the Tier 1 supports are sufficient for the building population. A review of Tier 1 team activities showing Big 5 data collected monthly with active action planning around said data, a system to collect classroom minor referrals, and access to district level support, indicate fluency with data-based decision making. Further, a school (or district) will need to consider the base rate of students who may be expected to need Tier 2 supports (10-15% of the population) and the serviceable base rate (i.e., how many students can feasibly receive services). Freeman, et al. (2016) note, “Implementation of Tier 2 is likely to be more effective and efficient if foundational Tier 1 systems are implemented with high fidelity to improve the accuracy with which teams identify and deliver appropriate levels of support to the more appropriate students (p. 1).” **Step 2: Teaming** Members of the Tier 2 team often include a school administrator, behavior specialist, classroom teacher, coordinator for each Tier 2 intervention, and a cross-over member from the Tier 1 team. The Tier 2 team is responsible for creating and monitoring the Tier 2 system; reviewing data for those students referred for additional support; and providing training and support to families, staff, and students regarding the Tier 2 interventions (OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, 2019). As the Tier 2 system is more complex than Tier 1, the team itself becomes vital in building capacity and balancing workload, and assists in alignment. School teams would be wise to reach out to district level leadership to identify if the district has a Tier 2 system in place or is in the process of developing one; if so, the District Leadership Team may have already completed a resource alignment, allocation, and funding process. If a Tier 2 system at the district level has not been created, then it is recommended that the school Tier 2 team complete an alignment process to identify resources and ensure efficient use of resources. **Step 3: Identification System** Tier 2 teams need a clearly defined systematic process to determine which students may need additional support. The most common strategies to identify students for Tier 2 supports include review of existing behavioral and academic data sources; universal screener(s) including social-emotional competencies, and behavioral skills and academic skills; and teacher nomination forms. Additional items might include parent and support providers (e.g., counselor, school psychologist) recommendations (OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, 2019). **Step 4: Data Decision Rules** Data decision rules provide clear guidelines to assist the team in reviewing student data to identify students needing Tier 2 supports. Once the team creates a system for collecting and collating data, they can develop data decision rules to determine which students need Tier 2 interventions. Data decision rules might include a range of office discipline referrals, a range of scores on a universal screener, etc. **Step 5: Student Identification** When students meet the data decision rules indicating a potential need for Tier 2 supports or a teacher nominates a student, the Tier 2 team should review the data to determine next steps. The team may decide to enroll the student in an intervention, immediately; however, in some cases, the team may decide Tier 2 supports are inappropriate (e.g., student needs Tier 3 supports, classroom environment needs stronger Tier 1 supports). Once the team identifies students in need of additional interventions the team will need to identify the function of behavior (e.g., to obtain/get something or avoid/escape something). The function of the behavior will guide the team in identifying appropriate interventions for the student. Step 6: Intervention Tier 2 teams should ensure interventions selected are research-based and include a component in which student data is collected and reviewed on a regular basis. Part of the Tier 2 team’s responsibilities include developing a handbook for each intervention. The Intervention Development Checklist and the Intervention Essential Features tool can guide teams when developing an Intervention Handbook (e.g., in identifying the information and processes needing development and clarification) and intervention training for school personnel. Many Tier 2 teams begin with Check-in Check-out, adding additional interventions after establishing Check-in Check-out. Researchers and technical assistance providers recommend piloting each intervention with a small group of students so the team can ensure staff and parents/guardians can implement with fidelity, and that students, staff, and parents/guardians find the intervention user-friendly. Step 7: Progress Monitoring In order to identify the effect of an intervention on student behavior, data needs to be collected on a daily basis. This information is often collected through the Daily Progress Report (DPR). The Tier 2 team develops the DPR and standardizes it for each intervention. It often uses a three point scale and reflects the 3-5 school-wide expectations. The Tier 2 Team will outline how students receive the DPR each day, how data will be collected from the DPR, how often the data from the DPR will be reviewed by the team, data decision rules to determine next steps (e.g., continue, fade or modify the intervention), and a feedback loop to the student and staff member(s) involved in the process. Additionally, the Tier 2 Team will need to identify a data management system for the DPR data to allow the team to progress monitor and make data-based decisions in addition to identifying a process to ensure implementation fidelity of each intervention. The DPR also serves as a prompt to encourage teachers to implement the selected intervention with fidelity. Step 8: Fading/Graduation Once a student’s data meets the data decision rules for fading by meeting program goals, the intervention will be gradually removed. This process will vary by intervention; however, the process for fading and graduation needs to be clear and outlined in the Intervention Handbook(s). Step 9: Professional Development and Staff Updates Professional Development can be broken down by intervention and the role each person has in implementing and/or supporting the intervention. For example, roles identified within Check-in Check-out might include student, parent/guardian, classroom teacher, and intervention facilitator. In addition to training individuals on how to implement the intervention, it is also important to provide regular/monthly updates to staff on overall implementation of the interventions. For instance, “25 students have, or are currently receiving support through Check-in Check-out. To date, 3 students have graduated, 5 students are currently fading from the intervention, 13 students are making progress within the intervention, 3 students have needed intensified support, and 1 student has been referred for Tier 3 support.” Providing updates and professional development regarding Tier 2 is needed for implementation with fidelity to occur; however, it is critical that a focus remain on Tier 1 and implementing PBIS in the classroom (e.g., expectations and rules, procedures and routines, system for encouraging expected behavior, system for discouraging inappropriate behavior, active supervision). Keeping these practices at the forefront of implementation supports implementing Tier 1 with fidelity which then aids in the Serviceable Base Rate being one that is realistic and manageable. **Specific Implementation Examples** **Center School District, Kansas City, MO** While the District Leadership Team from Center School District began building their Tier 2 system, they came to the conclusion that a universal screener, utilized twice a year, would assist teams in efficiently identifying students that are at-risk of academic and behavioral challenges. The District Leadership Team elected to utilize the Social, Academic, & Emotional Behavior Risk-Screener (SAEBRS) and developed data decision rules to guide school teams in responding to the data collected. As school Tier 2 teams review building and classroom level reports, data decision rules are enacted based on the percentage of students in each classroom that have been identified as being at-risk. The Center SAEBRS Screening Manual (2018) states: In general, schools with risk identified in more than 20-25% of students are encouraged to continue to develop effective universal practices and explore additional Tier 1/universal intervention supports. Classrooms/Grade levels with risk identified in more than 20-25% of the population are encouraged to refine effective classroom practices and explore whole-group interventions, such as Class-wide Function-related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) or class-wide social skills/social emotional learning curriculum. When evidence shows that Tier 1 is being implemented with fidelity and that universal supports are effectively supporting 75-80% of the school and class, the Data Consult Team will determine interventions to support individual students (p. 4). Center School District found that the number of students originally identified for possibly needing Tier 2 support decreased once CW-FIT was implemented with fidelity. **Des Moines Public Schools, Des Moines, IA** As Des Moines Public Schools began implementing Tier 2 within select buildings, they quickly realized there was a lack of infrastructure in that school teams did not have the tools necessary to help them make decisions regarding which students might need additional support. It was decided that a dashboard be utilized to pull information by: school year, school, grade, gender, race/ethnicity, special education status, 504 status, English language learners, gifted, age, and name of student. Teams were then able to drill down further on behavior by looking at total referrals, referral level, OSS days, and OSS events, in addition to a number of other filter items regarding attendance and academics. This information combined allowed for school teams to identify students based upon the total number of at-risk indicators. As the district began expanding Tier 2 across multiple sites, school teams found the identification of students became seamless due to the data decision rules developed, and the dashboard allowed for multiple data points to be viewed collectively. The district also saw the need to identify if the interventions being implemented were resulting in positive student outcomes. Using the same dashboard, district leaders were able to view Tier 2 intervention data as a district average while also being able to drill down to individual students. District leaders kept a pulse on attendance and behavioral changes while also identifying the success rate of each intervention. Using a dashboard to pull multiple data points from a variety of sources has helped Des Moines Public School make data-based decisions to support students, teachers, and families. **Omaha Public Schools, Omaha, NE** Omaha Public Schools (OPS) approached implementation of Multi-tiered Systems of Support for Behavior (MTSS-B) as a district-wide initiative. Beginning in the Spring semester of 2016, all schools created MTSS-B teams and those teams received training in the critical features of Tier 1 implementation. Since the start of the 2018-2019 school year, all school buildings in OPS are implementing Tier 1. Additionally, in the 2018-2019 school year 6 schools began implementation of Tier 2. Another 23 schools began implementation of Tier 2 in the 2019-2020 school year. While the practices and systems associated with Tier 1 were developed by schools to meet their unique needs, the District Leadership Team (DLT) provided district-level systems to support Tier 2 implementation across all schools. These systems include: a) development of a data management system to support Tier 2 identification and progress monitoring, b) selection of standard data sources for extant data reviews, and c) selection of standardized interventions. By providing these system supports, the DLT reduced the start-up workload for all schools. Additionally, the standardized data, systems, and practices allows the DLT to efficiently monitor implementation fidelity and student outcomes. Based on reviews of the common data sources, the DLT is able to develop relevant professional development across all schools and provide targeted technical assistance to school teams. Frequently Asked Questions Q: How do leadership teams assess readiness and initiate the exploration phase of Tier 2 implementation? A: Beyond the data-based decision making criteria for Tier 2 readiness in buildings, the district leadership team needs to consider the district-level systems and practices necessary to support Tier 2 implementation within and between buildings. In particular, the district leadership team will need to identify personnel at the district- and building-level with behavior expertise necessary for Tier 2 implementation. Additionally, they may need to provide training to staff members and consider how to allocate resources (e.g., FTE, materials) within and between buildings. After the initial implementation of Tier 2 systems, it will be important for the district to identify model demonstration sites so schools considering Tier 2 implementation can observe the data, systems, and practices associated with Tier 2 implementation. In schools considering Tier 2 implementation independently, the building leadership team will need to assume these tasks. Q: How do effective Tier 1 classroom supports affect implementation of Tier 2 practices? A: Classroom teachers need to understand the foundational principles of function-based logic (i.e., antecedent-behavior-consequence chains) in order to implement Tier 2 interventions effectively. Understanding and implementing effective classroom management practices allows teachers to practice using the behavior supports included in Tier 2 interventions (e.g., teaching behavior, prompting, monitoring, providing feedback). When effective behavior supports are used as part of the ongoing classroom management system it is easier for the teacher to reduce, intensify, or modify the practice for students who need more support to be successful. Q: Which evidence-based practices are recommended for Tier 2? A: The menu of Tier 2 interventions available should include interventions designed to address the common functions of behavior (e.g., gain attention, escape attention, access privileges or tangibles, escape work). Commonly used evidence-based practices include: - Check-in Check-out - Social Skills Instruction - Self-monitoring - Academic Remediation Q: When should Tier 2 support be removed? A: Tier 2 interventions help students acquire appropriate behaviors to replace challenging behaviors and develop fluency with the appropriate behaviors. Progress monitoring is a critical component of implementing Tier 2 interventions. When progress monitoring data indicate a student has achieved the goal of the intervention (e.g., increased appropriate behavior, reduced challenging behavior), the intervention may be faded. Fading the intervention, rather than stopping it suddenly, provides an opportunity for the student to maintain the new behavior patterns and generalize the behaviors to multiple settings. **Q:** What can leadership teams do to keep Tier 1 strong while building and implementing Tier 2? **A:** In order to sustain Tier 1 implementation, the leadership team will need to provide the resources and systems necessary to keep the Tier 1 team engaged in data-based decision making to monitor and adjust school-wide implementation, as needed. The leadership team will also need to provide dedicated time for ongoing staff development as well as training for any new staff members. **Q:** How can school and district teams be effective and efficient in their Tier 2 systems? **A:** Adding Tier 2 systems and practices to ongoing PBIS implementation requires a significant investment of resources. In order to effectively and efficiently implement Tier 2, we recommend district leadership teams (DLT) provide support to buildings in the form of creating data management systems, selecting standardized interventions, and providing professional development and technical assistance to ensure fidelity of implementation. However, if a school is implementing Tier 2 without district support, the building leadership team can take on the roles and responsibilities associated with developing and launching Tier 2. In order to effectively develop, launch, and maintain Tier 2 implementation, we recommend the leadership team conduct a resource audit ([https://nirm.fpg.unc.edu/resources/initiative-inventory](https://nirm.fpg.unc.edu/resources/initiative-inventory)) and an alignment of initiatives ([https://drive.google.com/file/d/1cJ_OIH5YxwUZqK-gxfz3lHmM9eMSpFM4/view](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1cJ_OIH5YxwUZqK-gxfz3lHmM9eMSpFM4/view)). By engaging in these two activities, the leadership team can determine how to streamline the implementation of Tier 2 and integrate it with existing initiatives. **Q:** What steps do schools and districts need to take to ensure Tier 2 systems and practices are culturally relevant and equitable? **A:** As with all practices implemented in schools, it is critical to ensure Tier 2 systems and practices are culturally relevant and equitable. Initially schools and districts need to ensure Tier 1 PBIS systems and practices are culturally relevant and implemented equitably. To do this, school and district teams need to involve stakeholders in the development and review of Tier 1 systems and practices. Part of the ongoing review should include an examination of disaggregated implementation fidelity and student outcome data. The same practices will help school and district teams develop and implement culturally relevant Tier 2 practices equitably. Resources - CW-FIT - Hexagon Tool - Intervention Development Checklist: - Check-in Check-out - Social Skills - Self-Monitoring - Intervention Essential Features and Rubric - Using Discipline Data within SWPBIS to Identify and Address Disproportionality: A Guide for School Teams - Tier 2 PBIS.org - Tiered Fidelity Inventory - Self-Assessment Survey Additional Reading Bruhn, A. L., Lane, K. L., & Hirsch, S. E. (2014). A review of tier 2 interventions conducted within multitiered models of behavioral prevention. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 22(3), 171-189. Bruhn, A. L., McDaniel, S. C., Rila, A., & Estrapala, S. (2018). A step-by-step guide to tier 2 behavioral progress monitoring. Beyond Behavior, 27(1), 15-27. Kern, L., & Wehby, J. H. (2014). Using data to intensify behavioral interventions for individual students. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 46(4), 45-53. McIntosh, K., & Goodman, S. (2016). Integrated multi-tiered systems of supporting: Blending RTI and PBIS. The Guilford Press, New York, NY. McDaniel, S. C., Bruhn, A. L., & Mitchell, B. S. (2017). A responsive tier 2 process for a middle school student with behavior problems. Preventing School Failure, 61(4), 280-288. Newcomer, L. L., Freeman, R., & Barrett, S. (2013). Essential systems for sustainable implementation of tier 2 supports. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 29(2), 126-147. Pool, J. L., Carter, D. R., & Johnson, E. S. (2013). Tier 2 team processes and decision-making in a comprehensive three-tiered model. Intervention in School and Clinic, 48(4), 232-239. Reinke, W. M., Stormont, M., Clare, A., Latimore, T., & Herman, K. C. (2013). Differentiating tier 2 social behavioral interventions according to function of behavior. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 29(2), 148-166. References Anderson, K. J., & Minke, K. M. (2007). Parent involvement in education: Toward an understanding of parents’ decision making. *Journal of Educational Research, 100*(5), 311-323. American Psychological Association (APA) Zero Tolerance Task Force. (2008). Are zero tolerance policies effective in the schools?: An evidentiary review and recommendations. *American Psychologist, 63*(9), 852-862. Stern, A., King, S., Guffey, T. (2018). *PBIS Tier 2 Structured Intervention Protocol*. Center School District, Kansas City, MO. Freeman, J., Sugai, G., Horner, R., Simonsen, B., McIntosh, K., Eber, L., Everett, S., George, H., Swain-Bradway, J., Sprague, J. (2016). Tier 2 systems readiness guide. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (2019). Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports [Website]. Retrieved from www.pbis.org. This document was supported from funds provided by the Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports cooperative grant supported by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) of the U.S. Department of Education (H326S180001). Dr. Renee Bradley served as the project officer. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the positions or policies of the U.S. Department of Education. No official endorsement by the U.S. Department of Education of any product, commodity, or enterprise mentioned in this document is intended or should be inferred. **Suggested Citation for this Publication** Hatton, H., & Guffey, T. (April 2020). Tier II Data, Systems & Practices. Eugene, OR: Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. Retrieved from www.pbis.org.
93182e8e-7df1-4a66-8004-a50cf0cf9f04
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://vtss-ric.vcu.edu/media/vtss-ric/documents/advanced-tiers/2022-23/Tier2Data,Systems,Practices2019RDQBrief-Accessible.pdf
2024-11-12T12:02:23+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477028273.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20241112113320-20241112143320-00030.warc.gz
560,343,443
5,224
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.916955
eng_Latn
0.988355
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2111, 5400, 8672, 11901, 14613, 17439, 19929, 22950, 24758, 26416 ]
[ 2.015625, 1.1953125 ]
2
0
Uncovering the Freedom Trail in Auburn and Cayuga County, New York A Cultural Resources Survey Sponsored by the City of Auburn Historic Resources Review Board and the Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York 2004-05 Judith Wellman, Project Coordinator Historical New York Research Associates Images on Cover: “Eastern part of Genesee-street, Auburn.” John W. Barber and Henry Howe, *Historical Collections of the State of New York* (New York: S. Tuttle, 1842), 75. Selection from Oslek, “Twenty-eight fugitives escaping from the eastern shore of Maryland,” in William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia: Porter & Coates, 1872), 68, reprinted (Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing, Inc., 2005). Harriet Tubman. Courtesy of Cayuga Museum. William Henry Stewart, Sr. c. 1860s. Courtesy of Stewart Family Archives. Slocum Howland. Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County* (Martha Wright. Courtesy of Smith College. Key to photos, clockwise, beginning at top: 1. Harriet Tubman, freedom seeker who made about thirteen trips back into Maryland, bringing about 70 people into freedom. Bought land on South Street in Auburn in 1857 and brought many of her family and friends from Maryland here. *Courtesy of Cayuga Museum, Auburn, New York.* 2. Martha Wright, of Quaker background, sister of Lucretia Mott, one of the organizers of the woman's rights convention in Seneca Falls. Friend of Frances Seward, Lazette Worden (Seward's sister), and Harriet Tubman. Strong abolitionist. Used her home on Genesee Street as a stop on the Underground Railroad. John Becker, *History of the Village of Waterloo* (Waterloo, 1949). 3. Slocum Howland. Quaker who made his home and store in Sherwood, New York, one of the most important stops on the Underground Railroad in central New York. His daughter, Emily Howland, taught in Freedmen's Schools and became an important supporter of African American and woman's rights. *Courtesy of Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College.* 4. Abijah Fitch. Abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter who sold much land on Chapman Avenue and Garrow, Finch, and Parker Streets to freedom seekers. *Courtesy of Cayuga County Historian’s Office.* 5. Harriet Bogart, who (with her husband Nicholas Bogart) worked for the Seward family all of their adult lives. Lived on Miller Street. *Courtesy of the Seward House, Auburn, New York.* 6. William Henry Seward. He and his wife, Frances Seward, used their house as an Underground Railroad station, while Seward was U.S. Senator from New York. Became Secretary of State under Lincoln. *Courtesy of the Seward House, Auburn, New York.* 7. William Henry Stewart, Sr. Center photo. Freedom seeker who escaped from Maryland on Christmas Eve, 1854. Came to Auburn after the war with his son, William Henry Stewart, Jr., whose house still stands at Garrow and Chapman Avenue. *Courtesy of the Stewart Family Archives.* Uncovering the Freedom Trail in Auburn and Cayuga County, New York A Cultural Resources Survey of Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn and Cayuga County, New York Sponsored by City of Auburn Historic Resources Review Board and Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York A Program of the Preservation League of New York State and the New York State Council on the Arts Judith Wellman, Project Coordinator Historical New York Research Associates 2004-2005 This report prepared by Judith Wellman, Director Historical New York Research Associates September 2005 Dedicated to all those who sought freedom, who assisted freedom seekers, or who now tell their stories or preserve their buildings. “THE Lake District in Central New York deserves to be better known by American tourists and scholars, and especially by the citizens of the Empire State.” Rev. R.B. Welch, “The Lake District in Central New York,” *Ladies Repository* (October 1864), 601. \footnote{Thanks to Bill Hecht for finding this.} Table of Contents Preface I. The Project Results--1 Recommendations--4 II. Context: *The Friends of Freedom in Auburn and Cayuga County*--13 III. Sites and Stories *Auburn: East Side* Mechanic Street Historic District: “New Guinea” --32 Bogart House--37 Cromwell House--44 Worden House--47 *Auburn: North Side* AME Zion Church, site of original--54 Auburn Prison--59 Cayuga County Courthouse--68 Fitch House--72 Freeman House barbershop, sites of--80 Hornbeck-Murray Houses: Jefferson Street Historic District--89 Hosmer House--100 Huntington House-Auburn Theological Seminary--102 Mansfield House--107 North Street Cemetery--111 *Northern Christian Advocate* Publishing House--112 *Northern Independent* and African American Barbershop, site of--114 Seward House--119 Swarts House--126 Underwood/Kiah-Williams House, site of--127 Wall Street Methodist Church--128 Westminster Presbyterian Church--129 Wright House, site of—131j Auburn: South Side South Street Tubman Sites--143 William Henry Stewart, Sr., Home, site of--150 John Stewart Home, site of--154 Farmer House--158 Farmer Family Cemetery--159 Chapman (Cornell) Avenue Thomas and Sarah Stoop House (Site')--162 Swart House--166 Parker-Stewart House--167 Stewart-Lucas House, site of--170 Richardson (Union) Avenue Elijah and Georgia Stewart House--173 Elliott-Stewart House--176 Waire House--179 Gaskin House--183 Chapman (Cornell) Avenue-Garrow (Thornton) Street Belt-Gaskin House--187 William Henry Stewart, Jr., House--191 Clarence (Dye) Stewart House--196 Griffen/White Houses--197 Mary and Charles Griffen House--201 John Purnell House--207 Fitch Street Diggs House--213 Diggs House-Apostolic Church--214 Cannon House, site of.--215 Fort Hill Cemetery--216 Parker Street John Ross Stewart and Eliza Stewart Home--217 AME Zion Church--219 AME Zion Parsonage--220 Copes-Johnson Home--221 Hornbeck-Ray Home--223 37 Parker St.--224 Dale-Waire House--225 Williams House--226 Carter House--227 Aspen Street Gaskin House--229 Cooper House--230 Cayuga County: North Aurelius Shorter House--232 Cato Hickock Home, Meridian--235 Ingham House, Meridian--237 Conquest Jarrod House--239 Mentz Duvall House and Tenant House, Port Byron--241 Port Byron Hotel--255 Sennett Sennett Federated Church and Parsonage--258 Sterling Kirk House, Sterling Center--271 Sterling Center Churches--275 Weedsport Bell House--278 Cayuga County: Central Fleming Van Nest House--282 Genoa Hutchinson House, Northville--285 Northville Presbyterian Church--288 Ledyard Cromwell-Cooper House, Aurora--293 Hart House, Aurora, site of--298 Hutchinson House (See Genoa)--285 King-Gaskin House--305 Levanna Square (and Griger House site)--316 Marriott Houses (two), Aurora and Town of Ledyard--327 North Street Friends Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse)--341 Taber House, Barber’s Corners--360 Tate House, Site of, Aurora --362 Youngs House, Aurora--363 Niles Fillmore Boyhood Home, Site of--365 New Hope Mills (Rounds Mills), New Hope--367 New Hope Mills Methodist Church, New Hope--370 Scipio Howland House, Emily, Sherwood--373 Howland House, Slocum and Hannah, Sherwood--376 Howland House, William, Hannah, Isabel (Opendore), Sherwood--384 Howland Stone Store, Sherwood--386 Howland Tenant Houses, Sherwood--388 Letchworth House, Sherwood--390 Phillips House, Sherwood--393 School House, Sherwood--403 Springport Hart House, Union Springs (Hart House, Aurora.)--327 Cayuga County: South Locke Fillmore Birthplace--406 Moravia Cady House--408 Dubois House, Site of--410 Congregational (Methodist) Church--414 Stoyell House--416 Sempronius Glen Haven--419 In 1860, Harriet Tubman made her last trip to Dorchester County, Maryland. She wanted desperately to bring out her sister Rachel and Rachel’s two children, Ben and Angerine. Although she waited for them in a wood, in a “blinding snow storm and a raging wind,” they did not come. Rachel had died. Instead, Tubman brought out the Ennals family--Stephen and Maria and their three small children, six-year-old Harriet, four-year-old Amanda, and the three-month-old baby, along with a poor woman “in a delicate state,” and a man named John.\(^1\) The trip was one of the most harrowing journeys that Harriet had ever undertaken. She went first to the home of Thomas Garrett, a Quaker in Wilmington, Delaware, who felt that Harriet had “a special angel to guard her on her journey of mercy.” Slave catchers, “wretches,” were everywhere. Garrett gave Harriet ten dollars to hire a carriage to take Maria Ennals and the children to Chester County, perhaps to the home of Dr. Bartholomew Fussell or his niece Graceanna Lewis, a common destination.\(^2\) When they reached Philadelphia, William Still, keeper of the main safe house there, reported that Harriet brought her party “out of the prison-house of bondage,” “through great tribulation.”\(^3\) Their trials were not over, however. It took them almost four weeks to reach Auburn from Thomas Garrett’s house. Harriet suffered frostbite, and they were all physically exhausted. Arriving at one home where she had previously received aid, Harriet Tubman rapped to give her usual signal, only to find that a white man now occupied the building. She and her party hurried to a small island in the middle of a swamp, wading through the water with the baby in a basket, drugged with paregoric to keep it quiet, and hiding in the damp grass. Kate Clifford Larson, following Sarah Bradford’s account, as told by Tubman herself, told what happened next: Eventually a Quaker man appeared, “slowly walking along the solid pathway on the edge of the swamp.” Tubman and the others, thinking he was “talking to himself,” finally realized he was giving them instructions to get to his nearby barn, where a horse and wagon filled with provisions awaited them. A seemingly miraculous answer to Tubman’s prayer, Bradford later wrote, “never seemed to strike her as at all strange or mysterious; her prayer was the prayer of faith, and she expected an answer.”\(^4\) Hiding in the woods by day, they waited for Tubman to return with food. She would whistle or sing hymns to let them know she was there. They finally reached Auburn in late December. On December 30, 1860, Martha Wright wrote to her daughter Ellen that people “had been expending our sympathies, as well as congratulations, --- \(^1\) Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, An American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books, 2004), 185; William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872), 531. \(^2\) Thomas Garrett to William Still, 12\(^{th}\) month, 1\(^{st}\) day, 1860, quoted in William Still, *The Underground Railroad*, 531. \(^3\) Kate Clifford Larson, email October 19, 2004; William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872), 530-31, [http://www.quinnipiac.edu/other/abl/ctext/ugrr/ugrr.html](http://www.quinnipiac.edu/other/abl/ctext/ugrr/ugrr.html). \(^4\) Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, tells the story of the Ennals family, 185-89; email October 19, 2004. on seven newly arrived slaves that Harriet Tubman has just pioneered safely from the Southern part of Maryland.” They had “walked all night, carrying the little ones, and spread the comfort on the frozen ground, in some dense thicket, where they all hid.” This story illustrates in detail all the major components of a classic Underground Railroad story: secrecy, fear of slave catchers, hiding in swamps, hunger, help from Quakers, Tubman’s reliance on prayer, use of songs as signals, and finally safety in a northern white person’s home. So compelling were stories such as this one that, in the popular imagination, much of the Underground Railroad became associated with them and with Harriet Tubman herself. Mention the Underground Railroad today, and people think immediately of Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass. Nowhere is this truer than in Auburn, New York, where Harriet Tubman purchased a home in 1857 and lived from the early 1860s until the end of her long life in 1913. Yet the name “Harriet Tubman” is not a synonym for the Underground Railroad. Tubman arrived in Auburn toward the end of a long period of Underground Railroad activism in Auburn and Cayuga County, upstate New York, and in the north in general. She came to Auburn because she found a well-organized network of both African Americans and European Americans who had supported the Underground Railroad since at least the mid-1830s. This survey, entitled “Historic Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn and Cayuga County,” uncovered the beginnings of this much longer story. Sponsored by the City of Auburn Historic Resources Review Board, in conjunction with the Cayuga County Historian’s Office, the survey was funded by Preserve New York, a grant program of the Preservation League of New York State and the New York State Council on the Arts. It was carried out from September 2004 to September 2005 under the direction of Judith Wellman, Director, Historical New York Research Associates. With research support from people throughout Cayuga County and guidance from Cayuga County citizens, the project identified one hundred sites relating to these themes throughout Cayuga County, sixty of them in the City of Auburn. The project focused on standing buildings, but we did include descriptions of particularly important places for which no buildings exist, include sites relating to Tubman’s own family. Many more sites could be included as probable Underground Railroad sites, including farms of families whose names appeared as housing African Americans in at least two census records. Names and sites of people possibly affiliated with the Underground Railroad are listed on our project database, available on the web, even if sites related to them are no longer standing. Focusing on extant buildings, the project nominated seven sites to the National Park Service’s Network to Freedom program (all of them accepted), seven sites to the National Register of Historic Places (of which four were accepted as of September 2005), and one more site to New York State’s Underground Railroad Heritage Trail. Through the efforts of the Howland Stone Store Museum, the entire village of Sherwood was also nominated as one of the Preservation League’s Seven to Save sites for 2006. Results of this survey, including this report, all databases (more than 2500 names of all African Americans from every census between 1820 and 1870; a project database of more than 600 names of people directly associated with abolitionism and the Underground Railroad; and a list of --- 5 Martha Wright to Ellen Wright Garrison, December 30, 1860, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College, quoted in Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 189, 187, and Jean M. Humez, *Harriet Tubman*, 45-46. sites related to abolitionists, freedom seekers, and the Underground Railroad in Auburn, as identified from city directories) will be available on the web through the Cayuga County GebWeb site and the Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Copies of primary sources are available through local libraries and historical societies. Harriet Tubman came to Auburn for a very good reason: People in Auburn and Cayuga County—both African Americans and European Americans—had been active on the Underground Railroad for twenty-five years before she settled there. The presence of William Henry Seward (and of Harriet and Nicholas Bogart, African Americans who worked for the Seward’s for fifty years) linked Auburn’s abolitionist community to events of national importance. The presence of Quakers in the central part of the county connected Cayuga County abolitionists to the Underground Railroad network in southeast Pennsylvania and Delaware associated with William Still, Bartholomew Fussell, and Thomas Garrett. These buildings in Auburn and Cayuga County are extremely well documented. Some of them are associated with some of the most dramatic stories of the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, and African American life anywhere. Others document the lives of ordinary people who made it out of slavery to raise their families in relative safety and freedom. Still others tell the stories of European Americans who dedicated their lives to helping these freedom seekers and abolishing slavery throughout the nation. Many of these sites, and the stories that go with them, have turned out to be of national significance, so the rewards will be, we hope, truly magnificent, worth all the energy that everyone has given, bringing attention not only to the Underground Railroad story in Auburn and Cayuga County and throughout New York State and the nation. In some cases, further work may identify more sites relating to the Underground Railroad, especially in Union Springs (where Daniel Anthony and George Howland, who hired Frederick Douglass at his wharf in New Bedford, Massachusetts, in 1840, might have been involved), Weedsport, Genoa, and Sterling. Research on local people listed in the project database who had African Americans living in their households for two or more census years might also prove useful. As you drive through Cayuga County today, time folds back upon itself, in accordion-style pleats. You can’t forget the past. You are tesserred in a time warp. You hear yourself talking in a normal voice, but people around you speak of Harriet Tubman and Emily Howland as “Aunt Harriet” and “Miss Emily” as if these women might at any moment appear among us. And, indeed, houses and their landscapes enhance that feeling. Walking down Chapman Avenue to the corner of Garrow Street, you see a streetscape created by freedom seekers and their Irish neighbors in the late 1860s, with small story-and-half or two story frame houses, most with gable ends to the street and small yards, many still inhabited by descendants of those families. Near Port Byron, William O. Duvall’s home and tenant house still stand on a point of land, surrounded by the Seneca River and marshy lowlands, with a road sign pointing toward “Hayti,” the name given to the area by local people because Duvall hired so many African Americans to work on his farm. Farther south, on roads that freedom seekers would surely have traveled, the landscape is stark and spare. Broad fields drop down in sweeping vistas to Cayuga Lake. You ride close to the sky. New York State markers remind you that you travel through old Cayuga Indian lands, along old Haudenosaunee pathways. Using this report and the people of Cayuga County as guides, we invite you take both a virtual journey and a physical journey through this landscape, seeking out the buildings that still tell the stories of freedom seekers and those who helped them. * * * * This project is the work of a whole team of people. If it takes a village to raise a child, it takes a whole county to conduct a survey of this magnitude, and the results are a tribute to the hard work of people throughout Auburn and Cayuga County. Their work and spirit shines on every page. Chief among them are Michael Long, Capital Improvement Program Manger for the City of Auburn, vision inspired this project and all of us from beginning to end, and Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian, who enthusiastically supported this work, generously sharing her time and resources, coordinating local historians throughout the county and surveying local histories for every reference to the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, and African American life. We especially appreciate the support of the City of Auburn Historic Resources Review Board (including Michael Deming, Chairman, and members Ellen Clark, Betty Mae Lewis, David “Sam” Swan, James E. Hutchinson, Christina J. Selvek and Judith Bryant), who sponsored this project; Timothy Lattimore, Mayor of Auburn; the City Council of Auburn (including members Robert E. Hunter, Thomas D. McNabb, William F. Jacobs, and David J. Dempsey), and City Manager John L. Salomone, who gave an additional grant to this project for the summer of 2005. Researchers for this project included Tanya Warren, whose work in property records was nothing less than astounding and whose database management formed the backbone for all our work; Judith Bryant, whose work in local oral histories and city directories connected Auburn’s nineteenth century African American history to the families who carry it on in the twentieth century; Rev. Paul Carter and Christine Carter, Curators of the Tubman Home, who graciously opened their facilities for our first two meetings of the Advisory Board and who cheered us onward through the whole year; Peter Wisbey, Director of the Seward House, who gave us a warm welcome at the Seward Home and shared his extensive research on African Americans and the Seward family; and members of the Board of the Howland Stone Store Museum in Sherwood (especially Bradley Mitchell, Brian Chappell, Trudy Buxenbaum, and Patricia White), who generously shared their time, research, and space to increase our understanding of the important role of the Howlands and Cayuga County Quakers. Many local historians provided inspiration to all of us, as they shared their knowledge and detailed research about events, buildings, and families, both African American and European American. Sheila Edmunds, Aurora Village Historian; Judy Furness, Ledyard Town Historian; Penny Helzer, Port Byron Village Historian; Mike Riley, Mentz Town Historian; Anthony Gero, Owasco historian, and Hallie Sweeting, Sterling Town Historian have been especially helpful. Jane Simkins provided amazingly detailed information about Quaker families and meetings in Cayuga County. Joni Lincoln produced an extensive report on Methodist minister William Hosmer. Audrey and Ken Moehel, pastors at the Auburn Unitarian Church, have generously shared their findings from the diary of John Austin, Unitarian minister in Auburn in the mid-nineteenth century. Five consultants—Beth Crawford, of Crawford and Stearns, Architects and Preservation Planners; Kate Clifford Larson, author of *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, An American Hero*; Milton Sernett, Professor, African American Studies Department, Syracuse University; Mary Loe, of the State University of New York at Oswego; and Christopher Densmore, Curator of the Friends Historical Library at Swarthmore College--shared their extensive knowledge and made this project a true joy. Doug Armstrong shared the work of his archeology students at the Tubman Home. Carrie Barrett, an intern from the State University of New York at Oswego, helped write nominations to the National Register and the Network to Freedom. Thanks to Bonnie Ryan for finding the drawing of freedom seekers from Maryland in William Still’s *Underground Railroad* (1872) that we used on our cover. And then there is Bernie Corcoran, in a class by himself, who has (with the help of many people, including Bill Hecht and his superb scanned images) made the Cayuga County GenWeb site into the gold standard for all GenWeb sites, He has generously shared his skills both as a webmaster and as map maker. No historical research project could ever succeed without keepers of the records, and Cayuga County has been blessed both with good records and cheerful and efficient keepers, including Sue Dwyer, Cayuga County Clerk; William Hulick, Director of Cayuga Records Retention Office; Bonnie Boughton, whose cheerful assistance with retrieving records made working in that office a pleasure; Alan Kozlowski, Director of the Real Property Tax Office; Sally Otis, Librarian and Hazard Library, Poplar Ridge; and Mary Gilmore, librarian at the Local History section of Seymour Library. Each of these has been so knowledgeable and so willing to take extra time to find just what we needed. Eileen McHugh, Director of the Cayuga Museum, supplied photos and the detailed manuscript biography of freedom seeker Jane Clark. Martha Lollis, of Cayuga Community College’s local history room, has provided special assistance through census microfilms and access to local history materials, including newspapers. Meg Vanek and Jesse Kline, of the Cayuga County Department of Tourism, have faithfully given their support to this project throughout a whole year’s worth of Advisory Board meetings. Many, many thanks to owners who allowed us to nominate their houses to the National Register or the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, including Thomas and Jimmy Bianconi, Judith Bryant, Stephen and Judy Colman, Richard and Luella Horseler, Edna Nagy, Frances M. Park, Fay and Louie Rood, Alison Van Dyke and William Downing, the Board of the Howland Stone Store Museum, the Board of the Seward Home, and the Trustees of the Sennett Federated Church. None of these nominations could go forward without their support. Nancy Todd and Mark Peckham, of the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation, gave extensive and most welcome advice and support, as did Sheri Jackson, Diane Miller, and Barbara Tagger of the National Park Service’s Network to Freedom Program. Their work and their input adds incalculable value to these local projects. The local Advisory Board for this project made each meeting a pleasure, truly an energizing experience. It has been a special pleasure to have the support of descendents of both freedom seekers and those who kept safe houses, including Helene Belt, Judith Bryant, Naomi Post Fletcher, Laberta Gaskins Greenlea, Pauline Copes Johnson, Donna Jones, James Livingston, and Erik Osborne. Finally, the Preservation League of New York State and the New York State Council on the Arts, through their Preserve New York grant program, have been a catalyst for so much of the Underground Railroad research, preservation, and tourism work in New York State. Without their vision and willingness to fund these initial and very basic cultural resource surveys, all the rest of the projects based on them—the National Register nominations, Network to Freedom nominations, Environmental Protection Fund grants, tourism brochures, signage programs, curriculum units, conferences, and all the programs that bring life to these stories in so many local communities—would not have been possible. Thank you. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Author Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 The Project Results This survey uncovered more than one hundred sites relating to the Underground Railroad Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn and Cayuga County. These are all listed here, with photographs, locations, and descriptions. These descriptions are thoroughly documented and are immediately ready for planning documents, tour brochures, exhibit captions, curriculum units, websites, or a variety of other uses. Much of the research for these site descriptions was generated by Sheila Tucker, Tanya Warren, Peter Wisbey, Jane Simkin, Michael Riley, Sheila Edmunds, Bradley Mitchell, Carrie Barrett, Kate Clifford Larson, Christopher Densmore, and other researchers throughout the city, county, and nation. We have also included a historic context statement, “Friends of Freedom in Auburn and Cayuga County,” to give a sense of how these sites fit into the larger story. Unless otherwise noted, Judith Wellman, Project Coordinator, took all photographs did all the writing for this report. All of this work has relied on a wide variety of sources, including census records (especially names of African Americans listed in the census); printed local histories; William Still’s *Underground Railroad*, online through Quinnipiac University; manuscripts (especially the Gerrit Smith Papers at Syracuse University, Seward Papers at the Seward House and the University of Rochester; Talcott Papers at the University of Rochester; *Liberator* subscription lists at the Boston Public Library; antislavery petitions from the National Archives; Martha Wright Papers at Smith College; Quaker meeting records at Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College; African American newspapers online through *Accessible Archives*; and extensive secondary materials. More work in the voluminous Howland Family Papers at Cornell and Swarthmore would be richly rewarding, but we simply did not have time to do this for this survey. To identify accurately specific buildings with their owners and/or residents, we undertook extensive research in property records, including deeds, mortgages, assessment records, city directories, maps, and wills. This proved especially important in Auburn, where changes in house numbers occurred several times over many decades. The Image-mate property database from the Cayuga County Real Property Office was invaluable, as were the property files in the Cayuga County Clerk’s Office, Historian’s Office, and Records Retention Office. To help continue this research process, research material from this project will be available on the web, with the help of Bernard Corcoran, through GenWeb and the Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Hard copies of much of this material are also available in the Cayuga County Historian’s Office, the Tubman Home, the Seward Home, Seymour Library, the Cayuga Museum, the Howland Stone Store, and Hazard Library. Results of the survey included reports on the Abijah Fitch house (by Tanya Warren), William Hosmer (by Joni Lincoln), and several databases compiled by Tanya Warren from research done by many people across the county: 1) “African Americans in Cayuga County Census Records, 1820-1840,” which includes the names of 109 African Americans listed in the 1820, 1830, and 1840 censuses; 2) “African Americans in Cayuga County Census Records, 1850, 1855, 1860, 1865, 1870,” which includes the names of 2459 African American listed in federal and state census records in those years; 3) “Freedom Seekers, Abolitionists, and Underground Railroad Facilitators, Cayuga Co., New York,” which includes the names of 692 people most likely to have been involved in the Underground Railroad movements, as identified from a variety of sources; 4) “African Americans in Auburn, 1880,” with names of 393 African Americans who lived in Auburn in 1880; and 5) “Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn, New York, from City Directories, 1929 Census by Gladys Bryant, and Cayuga County Image-Mate Real Property Data.” Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian, has also put much material relating especially to the Quakers of Cayuga County on the web. With the help of many, many people throughout the county, this project has also produced several nominations to the National Park Service’s Network to Freedom, including the Hannah and Herman Phillips house in Sherwood, New York, built in 1856 by freedom seekers who came from Maryland in 1843; the Cayuga County Historian’s Office, as a research site; Seymour Library as a research site; the Cayuga County Courthouse as the site of the first trials for those who helped rescue William “Jerry” Henry in October 1851; Howland Stone Store Museum, Sherwood; and the site of the Martha and David Wright house, a documented Underground Railroad site. In addition, Peter Wisbey nominated the Seward Home to the Network to Freedom as a documented Underground Railroad site. We also nominated seven sites to the National Register of Historic Places: 1) the Belt-Gaskin House, 77 Chapman Avenue, Auburn, built in 1868, home of freedom seekers from Maryland; 2) Sennett Federated Church and parsonage, Sennett, documented Underground Railroad site; 3) Howland House, Sherwood, extraordinarily well-documented Underground Railroad site; 4) North Street Friends Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse), Sherwood, “a storm center of reform”; 5) Hosmer House, Auburn, home of Methodist abolitionist editor, author, and UGRR supporter William Hosmer; 6) Huntington House, Auburn, representing the importance of Auburn Theological Seminary as an abolitionist and UGRR center; 7) Bogart House, Auburn, home of Harriet and Nicholas Bogart, African Americans who worked for the Swards for 50 years. Nicholas Bogart was “one of the most important men in the state during slavery times,” according to his obituary. Four of these (Belt-Gaskin House, Sennett Church, Howland House, North Street Friends Meetinghouse) have already been accepted by the State Board. We nominated these sites under the draft Multiple Property Document written by Milton Sennett and Judith Wellman, “Historic Sites Related to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African Life in Central New York, 1820-1870.” A copy of this document is available on the web at the Oswego County Underground Railroad site. We also nominated the Sennett Federated Church to New York State’s Underground Railroad Heritage Trail. We have also held eight public meetings for this project (seven in Auburn--Tubman Home (2), City Hall (3), Seward House, Willard Chapel) and one in Sherwood, with about twenty-five people at each meeting—and delicious refreshments, reports from volunteers, lots of handouts, and Powerpoint presentations at each one. We have two more scheduled for September and October (including one at the national Association for African American Association for History and Life in Buffalo) and one in early February at Cayuga Community College. We are also Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 keeping in touch with the Maryland Council on Business and Economic Development, which is working Tubman exhibits and trails there, so that they can loop Tubman sites in Auburn into their planning. These buildings speak to us. As we learn to listen, we can begin our own conversations with people they represent—with Harriet Tubman and her brothers and nieces and nephews and friends, with William and Frances Seward and Lizette Worden, with Morgan Freeman and Nicholas and Harriet Bogart, with William O. Duvall and Slocum Howland and Emily Howland, with William Hosmer and Martha Wright and William Henry Stewart, with Charles and Mary Griffen and Hannah and Herman Phillips, and with all those hundreds of others who devoted their lives to the fight against slavery, who worked for freedom and equal rights for all citizens. And so we can begin a discussion about the way we see ourselves and our relationship to each other, to the land and buildings that sustain us, and to the future. A few of the buildings we have discovered are architecturally significant as well as historically important. The Abijah Fitch house at 197 Genesee Street in Auburn and the North Street Friends Meetinghouse, often called the Brick Meetinghouse, on the Sherwood-Aurora Road in the Town of Ledyard are two examples. Most of the structures we have discovered, however, are modest, from the Charles and Sally Shorter house in Cayuga Village (home of an African American couple born in slavery in Maryland and the West Indies who survived to live in freedom as property owners along the Seneca Turnpike) to the Slocum and Hannah Howland house in Sherwood (center of Underground Railroad activity in central Cayuga County). These buildings are architecturally simple, but they are extremely significant historically for their connection to the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, or African American life. We found so many sites in Auburn and Cayuga County in part because these themes were extremely important here. These sites also survived in large numbers in this area because most of the county escaped major rebuilding, such as urban renewal. Except for tenant houses, which are often lost, much of the built environment continues to be economically useful. We also experienced major disappointments at what had been lost. Among these were the Martha and David Wright house at 192 Genesee Street, torn down about 1880; the first AME Zion Church on Washington Street; the Underwood House, where Mary and William Kiah-Williams found refuge and where the Cayuga County Courthouse currently stands; the houses where Jane Clark and her brother Henry Lemons lived and worked (Jane Clark’s autobiography recounting her life in slavery and freedom, held at the Cayuga Museum, remains one of the most detailed stories of freedom seekers in Auburn); Abijah Fitch’s last house, at 216 Genesee Street; the Jarrod house on North Street; the Methodist Church where Frederick Douglass spoke in Port Byron; so many churches and public sites in downtown Auburn; and any site remaining for Nathan Marble, Archibald Green, or Cassandra Hamlin in Port Byron. This survey turned out to be far, far larger than any of us realized when we first began. We expect, if we had more time, we would find several more sites, so we hope that people will consider this survey a very substantial beginning, but not an end. Recommendations Buildings do not stand in isolation. Always, they need human assistance. What can be done to maintain these sites and to promote further research, interpretation, and interest in these sites? People might want to consider several options: General 1. Website. One result of this survey will be a website with information produced by this work. This can be expanded, as new information emerges. 2. Exhibit. The Cayuga Museum has indicated an interest in such an exhibit. 3. Tour brochures. These might be driving tours of city or county sites, with maps. 4. Signs. To put signs in front of every building identified in this survey would be to litter the landscape with markers, but it might be feasible to mark particularly important sites (such as the site of the original AME Zion church on Washington Street or the site of Morgan and Catherine Freeman’s home, a key UGRR site in Auburn for 29 years, behind the County Building on Genesee Street) or to put one major marker with a map to identify important sites throughout the city. 5. Curriculum units. These will be particularly important, as a way to introduce children (and thus their parents) to their local stories. 6. Oral histories. Because this project focused on the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life from 1820-1870, it touched only peripherally on the equally important history of the African American community in Auburn from 1870 to the present. Many descendents of those who came to Auburn before 1870 still live in this community. Their stories are just as important as those we emphasized here. 7. Plays/talks/dances/movies/etc.! Historic Preservation 1. National Register of Historic Places. Sites can be nominated based on their historic importance, their association with an important person, their architectural significance, or their usefulness in generating evidence. Sites can be nominated individually or as historic districts. We have nominated seven sites as a result of this survey, all for their historic importance: the Sennett Federated Church, Belt-Gaskin House, Howland House, North Street Friends Meetinghouse, Bogart House, Hosmer House, and Huntington House. Several more could be nominated, including: a. Elliot-Stewart House—31 Richardson Avenue; b. William Henry Stewart, Jr., House—64 Garrow Street; c. Charles and Mary Griffen House—58 Garrow Street—if this can be identified as the original house and not a replacement in the 19-teens; d. Hornbeck houses—38 and 40 Jefferson Street; e. Hart House, Union Springs (if it can be positively identified); f. Cooper-Cromwell House, Aurora (unless it is already listed on the Register as part of the Aurora Village Historic District) g. William O. Duvall house and tenant house, Port Byron; h. Port Byron Hotel, both for its association with African American life and for its architectural merit; Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 i. Abijah Fitch House, as a home associated with an abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter; j. Susannah Marriott houses, town of Ledyard, associated with abolitionist and educator, especially important in women’s education; k. Emily Howland house, Sherwood, associated with abolitionist and woman’s rights advocate; l. William and Hannah Howland and Isabel Howland House (Opendore), Sherwood associated with abolitionists and woman’s right advocate. m. Tenant houses, Sherwood. One of these was the temporary home of the Phillips family when they came from Maryland in 1843. Extant tenant houses are increasingly rare. n. Schoolhouse No. 2, Sherwood. Probably the school attended by Herman Phillips after he came from Maryland in 1843. o. Thomas and Sarah Jane Hart House, home of freedom seeker, Union Springs (if it can be positively identified). Possibly the William and Martha Kirk house in Sterling, the Matthias and Hannah Hutchinson houses in Northville and the Town of Ledyard, and several other houses throughout the county, with a little more work, could also be nominated. Several areas might also be nominated as historic districts, including the village of Sherwood. See further discussion below. 2. National Park Service’s Network to Freedom. This program takes documented Underground Railroad sites, programs, or facilities. Sometimes, matching grants are available. We have nominated seven sites to the Network to Freedom through this survey: Phillips House, Seward House (with Peter Wisbey), Cayuga County Historian’s Office, Cayuga County Courthouse, Seymour Library, Site of Martha and David Wright House, and Howland Stone Store. Several more sites uncovered as a result of this survey might be eligible for the Network to Freedom, including the Sennett Federated Church, Slocum Howland House, Elliott-Stewart House, William Henry Stewart, Jr. House, Abijah Fitch House, William O. Duval House, North Street Meetinghouse, and others. 3. New York State’s Underground Railroad Heritage Trail. This program accepts only buildings that are in not-for-profit hands and open to the public. Currently, the Tubman Home, Seward Home, and Howland Stone Store in Cayuga County are listed with this program. As a result of this survey, we nominated the Sennett Federated Church to this program. 4. Local Historic Districts. These generally have well-defined and substantive enforcement powers, relating to historic restoration. Since so many of these buildings are not nominated for their architectural qualities, and since they are generally scattered, this would probably not be the most appropriate route to follow at this time. 5. Conservation districts. These can be defined in many ways, according to wishes of local residents, offering as much or as little specific protection as local people desire. This might be one avenue to explore further, especially for an area such as Sherwood. 6. Seven to Save program of the Preservation League of New York State. This program highlights seven important historic sites across New York State each year. This year, the Village of Sherwood has been nominated in its entirety. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 National Register Historic Districts. After consultation with Nancy Todd, Field Representative with the Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation, the following areas have emerged as possible districts relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life, 1820-1870. Further work may be needed to decide whether or not to move forward with possible districts or whether to treat particular buildings as individual sites. In Auburn, if no historic districts are nominated, individual nominations should definitely be considered for: 1. Elliot-Stewart House—31 Richardson Avenue 2. William Henry Stewart, Jr., House—64 Garrow Street 3. Charles and Mary Griffen House—58 Garrow Street—if this can be identified as the original house and not a replacement in the 19-teens. 4. Hornbeck houses—38 and 40 Jefferson Street Other buildings could be considered, as well. Buildings in Sherwood, New York, form a cohesive district that could well be nominated, some of them for their importance as abolitionist and Underground Railroad sites and some for their architectural significance. Possible Auburn districts: I. Auburn. Richardson (Union) Avenue. A. Current state of research. This area consists of four possible standing structures and a vacant lot. (See descriptions of individuals houses for more details.) 1. Stewart House. 29 Richardson (Union) Avenue. Home of Elijah Stewart, born in St. Catherine’s, Ontario, son of Ben Ross (James Stewart, Harriet Tubman’s brother) and Jane Ross (Catherine Stewart), both freedom seekers from Maryland, 1880 (not known how much before and after.) 2. Elliott-Stewart House. 31 Richardson (Union) Avenue. Home of Thomas Elliott and Ann Marie Stewart Elliott, both freedom seekers, from 1868-1881. Thomas Elliott was one of the famous Dover Eight, documented in William Still, and Ann Marie Stewart Elliott was one of Harriet Tubman’s nieces. 3. 33 Richardson Avenue. Vacant lot. May (or may not) have once been site of home of Catherine Stewart (before 1880). 4. Waire House. 35 Richardson (Union) Avenue. Home of John and Mary Duboise Waire. John Waire was born in Virginia about 1836 and came to Auburn in the late 1860s. He was a barber in the firm of Hornbeck and Waire. The family built this house about 1890 and their descendents still own it. 5. Gaskin House. Home of Philip and Mary Gaskin. Philip Gaskin was born in Virginia, ca. 1856, and came with his parents to Ledyard about 1864, where they purchased a home in 1869. Philip Gaskin married Mary Elliott, daughter of Thomas and Anne Marie Stewart Elliott (who lived at 31 Richardson). They lived at 34 Richardson (Union) Avenue in the 1890s (and it is not known for how much longer). B. Advantages of Richardson (Union) Avenue Historic District: 1. Elliott—Stewart House has one of the great escape stories of the whole Underground Railroad, the house forms an anchor for this district. Also connected to Harriet Tubman through Ann Marie Stewart. 2. Elijah Stewart House connected to Tubman through Catherine Stewart, who also has a great escape story. 3. Waire family (of whom John Waire was a possible freedom seeker) was one of the leaders of Auburn’s African American community, and house remains in family to the present. 4. Gaskin family (of whom Philip was also a possible freedom seeker) also connected to Tubman through Mary Elliott Gaskin, and Gaskin family members remain in Auburn to the present. C. Disadvantages of Richardson (Union) Avenue Historic District: Elliott family left the area by 1881, and Stewart family may have left about the same time. Catherine Stewart died before 1880, and house she lived in is probably no longer standing. Waire and Gaskin houses probably built late 1880s or early 1890s, so their houses were not there at the same time as the Elliott and Stewart families lived there (although the Waire family lived on the same street when the Elliott and Stewart families lived there, and Mary Elliott Gaskin grew up in the Elliott house.) D. Research still needed: 1. How long did Gaskin family live at 34 Richardson? (Check city directories). 2. How long did Stewart family live at 34 Richardson? (city directories) 3. Which part of Elliott house was original, and when was second part added? (Look at physical structure of house.) 4. When was Gaskin house built? (Check assessments.) II. Auburn: Cornell (Chapman) Avenue/Garrow Street A. Current state of research. This area consists of six (or possibly seven) standing contributing structures, built by people who were either identified freedom seekers or most likely freedom seekers, and two (or possibly three) non-contributing structures. For more details, see descriptions of individual houses. 1. Belt-Gaskin House. 77 Chapman (Cornell) Avenue. Originally built between 1869 and 1874 by Thomas and Rachel Belt, born in Maryland. Belts lived in this house through the 1920s until it was occupied by Philip and Mary Elliott Gaskin and their son, Philip. Gaskin, Jr., his wife, Myrtle Gaskin, and their children, beginning in 1927. Nominated to National Register, 2005. 2. Stewart House. 64 Garrow Street. Built 1899 to replace a home originally built c. 1880 by William Henry Stewart, Jr., nephew of Harriet Tubman, for his bride Emma Moseby Stewart. Continuously inhabited by this family to the present. 3. Stewart House. 66 Garrow Street. Occupied in early twentieth century by Clarence “Dye” Stewart, great-nephew of Harriet Tubman, who was with Tubman when she died. 4. White House. 62 Garrow Street. Built c. 1869 by Isaac White, probable freedom seeker, b. Alabama. 5. Griffen House. 60 Garrow Street. Probably built late 1860s-early 1870s. Rebuilt or added on 1880s by Robert Griffen, son of freedom seekers Charles and Mary Griffen, born Maryland, who built the house next door at 58 Garrow. 6. Griffen House, 58 Garrow Street. Original lot purchased 1868 by Charles and Mary Griffen, probable freedom seekers, born Maryland. The original house may have been torn down c. 1912 and rebuilt. If so, this would be a non-contributing structure. 7. Non-contributing house, built c. 2003-04. 8. Non-contributing house, built c. 2003-04. 9. Purnell House. 54 Garrow Street. Original lot purchases 1868 by John Purnell, freedom seeker from Maryland. House built shortly thereafter. B. Advantages of Chapman (Cornell) Avenue/Garrow Street District: 1. Row of houses owned by freedom seekers (or probable freedom seekers) sold in post-Civil War years by Abijah Fitch, real estate developer, abolitionist, and Underground Railroad supporter, continuously identified since that time with African American community. 2. Three houses directly identified with Harriet Tubman. Anchor house on corner—64 Garrow—was built and owned by William Henry Stewart, son of Tubman’s brother, William Stewart. 77 Chapman was lived in by Mary Elliott Gaskin, great-niece of Tubman. 66 Garrow was occupied by Clarence “Dye” Stewart, Tubman’s great-nephew. C. Disadvantages of Chapman (Cornell) Avenue/Garrow Street District: Assessment records are unclear about whether 58 Garrow Street is original home of Charles and Mary Griffen. Ditto for 60 Garrow (although 1904 map helps resolve some of the difficulties with this one. See description for this site.) If 58 Garrow is NOT original house (and the two houses just north of it are recent—2003-04) structures, this cuts this district in two, with the Purnell house left hanging at the north end. The Belt-Gaskin, Stewart, Stewart, and White houses (with possibly the Robert Griffen house) might still make a small district at the south end. D. Research still needed: 1. Clarence “Dye” Stewart house—66 Garrow. We have done no research in deeds or assessments on this at all, nor have we done city directory work to know when Clarence Stewart lived in this house. 2. Griffen house. 58 Garrow. We would need to get inside this house to look at moldings, framing structure, nails, etc., to see if we could determine whether or not any part of the original house remains. III. Parker Street District A. Current state of research. This area has one house (51 Parker Street) that was important before the Civil War as the home of freedom seekers). The other houses became more important as the center of an African American neighborhood after the Civil War, anchored by the construction of the AME Zion Church in 1893. Because this neighborhood was most important beginning in the late nineteenth century, our research did not focus on it. Contemporary African American families continue to live here, however, and local oral tradition carries on memories of the history of this neighborhood back to the turn-of-the century. It should be captured on tape or video, and further archival documentation of these houses should also be done. Eight houses on Parker Street (51, 47, 45, 41-43, 37, 35, 31, and 22), plus the AME Zion Church (a National Historic Landmark) represent African American settlement, including freedom seekers and their descendents, in Auburn from the 1880s to the present day. Six of these houses have been continuously owned and occupied by African American families from the late nineteenth century to the present. 1. Carter House-22? Parker 2. Dale-Stewart House. 37 Parker. 3. Hornbeck-Ray House. 41-43 Parker. 4. Copes-Johnson House. 45 Parker. 5. AME Zion Church parsonage. 47 Parker. 6. AME Zion Church. 7. Smith-Stewart House. 51 Parker Street. Home of freedom seekers and Harriet Tubman’s nephew, John Isaac Stewart. Birthplace of Clarence “Dye” Stewart. A. Advantages of the Parker Street District This centers around the AME Zion Church and includes houses that relate to families historically identified with Auburn’s African American community, who still live in the community. This was a major center of African American life from the later nineteenth century to the present. It also includes the home of John Stewart, one of Harriet Tubman’s nephews, in 1880. B. Disadvantages of Parker Street district Under the terms of this grant, we have been focusing more on the earlier period, before 1870, and this area became more important as a center of African American life later in the century. C. Research still needed We have focused research under the terms of this grant on other African American sites in Auburn, because they related more explicitly to the earlier period. With the exception of 51 Parker Street, which relates to the story of John Stewart, we have not developed detailed descriptions of the rest of these homes. IV. Fitch Street Historic District Three homes (and one site of former home) sold to African American families by Abijah Fitch, abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter, after the Civil War. (Cale House, 74 Fitch Avenue; Roosevelt Memorial Church, 79 Fitch Avenue, site of Plymouth and Alive Cannon’s House; Diggs House-Apostolic Church, 101 Fitch Avenue; Diggs House, 105 Fitch Avenue). V. Aspen Street Historic District. Three houses (14, 18, 22 Aspen Street) represent successful home ownership of freedom seekers (including the Richard and Mary Gaskin family) who arrived in Cayuga County in the 1850s and 1860s and settled here when this street opened in the late 1880s. Because of changes in street numbers over time, these properties need to be checked with deeds. VI. Jefferson Street Historic District—North Side Centered around the two houses of Sebeo and John Hornbeck at 38 and 40 Jefferson Street were three or four other homes of African Americans. These have not been well-documented here, but together, they would form a small historic district, representing freedom seekers who intermarried with children of people born into slavery in New York State, whose families continued to live in Auburn into the twentieth century. For more details, see descriptions for Hornbeck houses. VII. Mechanic Street District—East side This was the earliest identifiable African American neighborhood, noted on the 1837 map of Auburn as “Negro Settlement,” “New Guinea.” While there are several nineteenth century houses in this vicinity, and we did discover through city directories that African Americans inhabited some of them into the 1850s, the core of this settlement disappeared as African Americans moved into the north side in the 1840s and 1850s and then into the south side in the 1860s and later. Further research would be useful here, but in general would probably not yield a coherent district that could be labeled “New Guinea.” VIII. Sherwood Village District A. Current state of research. As the home of Slocum Howland, Emily Howland, Josiah Letchworth, William Howland, and Herman and Hannah Phillips, Sherwood was a major center of abolitionist and Underground Railroad activity. Several buildings—including Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 the Howland Stone Store, the Slocum (and Emily) Howland house (pre-1857), the Howland house (post-1857), the William (and Isabel) Howland house (Opendore), the Josiah Letchworth house, the Herman and Hannah Phillips house, the schoolhouse, the North Street Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse) directly west of the village on the Sherwood-Aurora Road, and at least one Howland tenant house--are directly connected to this story. The Stone Store is currently on the National Register. The Phillips House is currently on the Network to Freedom. For more details, see descriptions for individual sites. B. Advantages of a Sherwood District. The entire village reflects the character of the historic period and is one of the most important hotspots for Underground Railroad in Cayuga County outside Auburn. The Howland Stone Store is already on the National Register. As a result of this project, the Phillips House has been listed on the National Park Service’s Network to Freedom; both the Howland House and the North Street Meetinghouse have been listed on the National Register; and the Howland Stone Store has been nominated to the Network to Freedom. The State Historic Preservation Office has suggested that the whole village of Sherwood would be an appropriate historic district, and the Howland Stone Store Museum has nominated the entire village as one of the Preservation League’s Seven to Save sites for 2006. C. Disadvantages of a historic district. None. D. Research still needed. We have done extensive research on the Howland house, the Phillips house, and the Howland Stone Store. We have researched Josiah Letchworth and Emily Howland in printed materials. ORVALL DUVAL A staunch Abolitionist Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Hotspots Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn and Cayuga County Base Map from 1867-68 Auburn City Directory, Cayuga County GenWebsite Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 The Friends of Freedom in Auburn and Cayuga County Context: The Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn and Cayuga County Slavery ended in New York State in 1827. From that point forward, free people of color and a few European American allies—in Auburn, Cayuga County, and throughout New York State and the North—worked both for the abolition of slavery and equal rights for African Americans. They sent antislavery petitions to Congress, organized antislavery societies, supported antislavery newspapers (such as the *Friend of Man*, the *Liberator*, the *Anti-Slavery Standard*, and the *Northern Independent*, edited by Auburn’s own William Hosmer), voted for antislavery politicians, and collected money for antislavery lecturers. A small number of them actively supported the Underground Railroad. By the time Harriet Tubman arrived in Auburn, Cayuga County was already a hotbed of Underground Railroad activity. This work was not distributed evenly throughout the county, like salt sprinkled on the table, but was concentrated in particular hotspots. Chief among them was the City of Auburn, which has almost two-thirds of Cayuga County’s one hundred sites relating to the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, and African American life. Measured in terms of numbers of identifiable sites, the Ledyard-Scipio area (including the villages of Sherwood, Aurora, and Levanna) was second in importance. Port Byron and Moravia were third. Several other areas—including Sennett, Cato, Northville, Weedsport, Sterling, Conquest, Cayuga Village, New Hope Mills, and Ira—also had activity relating to these themes. In Auburn itself, African Americans lived throughout the city, on the North, South, and East sides, with the earliest settlement located along the Owasco outlet at a spot identified on an 1837 map as “New Guinea,” or “Negro Settlement.” Note “New Guinea” or “Negro Settlement” on the lower right hand corner of this Hagaman and Markham, *Map of the Village of Auburn* (1837), between Mechanic Street and the Owasco Outlet. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Note houses in the former “Negro Settlement” area on this P.A. Cunningham, *Map of Auburn* (Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871). By the 1840s, African Americans began to move to the north and west side of the Auburn, working in businesses along Genesee Street. This is also where most European American abolitionists settled in the 1840s and 1850s. Auburn, north and west of Genesee Street, from P.A. Cunningham, *Map of Auburn* (Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871). In the 1850s, many working class people, both black and white, also began to settle on the east side of Owasco Outlet, buying land from William Henry Seward. Lizette Miller Worden, Seward’s sister-in-law, also built a house in this area in 1856. In 1857, William Henry Seward sold a seven-acre farm to Harriet Tubman on the south edge of Auburn, and, beginning in the 1860s, Tubman brought her family and many of her Maryland neighbors to Auburn, where they purchased property in newly-opened suburbs along Union (now Richardson) Avenue, Chapman Avenue, Garrow Street, Fitch Avenue, and Parker Street. Other freedom seekers, along with many Irish and American-born families, also bought homes in this area, and many of their descendants live here today. These have been remarkably stable neighborhoods for 150 years. Clark, John S., “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” A.C. Taber, Surveyor, September 1868. Cayuga County Clerk’s Office, Auburn, New York. Cornell and Thornton (Chapman and Garrow), P.A. Cunningham, *Map of Auburn* (Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871). Union (Richardson), from P.A. Cunningham, *Map of the City of Auburn, New York* (Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871) Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn Base Map: *City Atlas of Auburn, New York* (Philadelphia: G.M. Hopkins, 1882) Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resource Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 These buildings, and the people who built them and lived in them, carry their own stories. But to understand their context, let us look at some basic background about the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, and African American life in Auburn, and Cayuga County. *What was the Underground Railroad?* The term “Underground Railroad” became common in the 1830s, referring to a secret and effective system of moving people from slavery to freedom. Although many people associated the Underground Railroad with tunnels, no documented use of a tunnel has yet been found. “Underground” refers the hidden character of much of this work, not to any physical underground space. In the past, many people emphasized the importance of safe houses as links on the Underground Railroad. Today, the focus is often on freedom seekers themselves, and the Underground Railroad is most often defined as the National Park Service’s National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program defines it, as “the effort of enslaved African Americans to gain their freedom by escaping bondage.” This allows us to focus on individuals and their life stories, including where they escaped from, the routes they took, the people who helped them, the places they stayed on their journeys, and the homes, churches, and workplaces they formed in their ultimate destinations. In this project, we have surveyed sites related to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life, because we think that all three of these themes are intimately intertwined. In upstate New York, it is often impossible to sort out one from the others, and it would certainly be impossible to understand how the Underground Railroad operated, without the context of the abolitionist movement and African American community life. *Auburn and Cayuga County as crossroads of the Underground Railroad.* Cayuga County played such an important role in the Underground Railroad primarily because of the county’s geography. Like a wedge driven into the heart of New York State, Cayuga County funneled freedom seekers from Ithaca and points south (including Owego, New York, Montrose, Pennsylvania, and Friendsville, Pennsylvania) up through Cayuga Lake or overland (usually along what is now 34B through Sherwood) to Auburn. At Auburn, freedom seekers had three choices. They could go: 1. west along the Seneca Turnpike, Auburn-Rochester railroad, or other roads, often to Farmington and then to Rochester; 2. north to meet the Erie Canal at Weedsport or Port Byron or to connect with the spider’s web of roads leading into Wayne County (especially Pultneyville) or northern Cayuga County through Cato, Ira, and Sterling to Fairhaven and the shores of Lake Ontario and then east to Oswego or west to Charlotte; 3. east to Skaneateles, Elbridge, Jordan and Baldwinsville to Fulton and Oswego. The crossing of these main routes at Auburn, combined with the complexity of trails leading out of the city, made Auburn an ideal Underground Railroad node. --- 1 Network to Freedom, “What Was the Underground Railroad? http://220.127.116.11/TEMPLATE/FrontEnd/learn.CFM. 2 See interview with James R. Cox, Document No. 5, Elbert Wixom, “The Under Ground Railway of the Lake Country of Western New York,” B.A. Thesis, Cornell, 1903, 30; Pass from John Mann to Slocum Howland, April 9, 1840, Howland Stone Store Museum; S.C. Cuyler to Emily Howland, October 31, 1851, Howland Papers, Cornell University. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Before the Revolution, Cayugas had many settlements in the rich lands east of Cayuga Lake. Ironically, given later Quaker support for Indian land rights, all Cayuga villages were destroyed during the Revolutionary War in 1779 by a contingent of five hundred men led Colonel William Butler as part of the Sullivan-Clinton campaign. European Americans and African Americans came to Cayuga County after 1789, when New York State purchased this land from the Cayugas. In what is now Auburn, John Hardenburgh and his family, which included people in slavery, built a house and mill along the Owasco outlet. In central Cayuga County, Aurora attracted some of the earliest settlers, who intended to make this village the county seat and the center of learning and government. Some of these central Cayuga County families—the Cuylers and the Woods, for example--brought people in slavery with them when they settled here. Many families in Cayuga County were Quakers from eastern New York or from seacoast villages of New England. Some of them made their money from whaling voyages, sent out from New Bedford, Massachusetts. In central Cayuga County, they settled on former Cayuga lands, and they built their first meetinghouse for Scipio Monthly Meeting in 1810, which eventually had several preparative meetings. Two of these—North Street Friends Meeting (Orthodox), which met in the brick meetinghouse on the Sherwood-Aurora Road, and Skaneateles Preparative Meeting (Orthodox)--became particularly important supporters of abolitionism and the Underground Railroad. After 1800, European American and a few African American settlers filtered into the northern part of the county, creating farms and mill villages in the rolling hills among the drumlins and along the Ontario lakeshore. Except for the Cayuga Reservation lands, all other lands in Cayuga County were part of the Military Tract, set aside after the Revolution by the new federal government to give to those who had served in the Revolutionary War. Most town names still reflect the classical names given to these military tract towns. Cayuga County had 53 people living in slavery in 1800, 75 in 1810, 54 in 1814, and 48 in 1820. Many of these were manumitted in the 1820s or earlier. When freedom came for all of them in 1827, they formed the core of free black communities in Auburn, Aurora, Port Byron, and elsewhere. After 1830, these communities would be a key component of the network that provided a haven for people on their way from southern slavery to independence in the northern U.S. or Canada.\(^3\) The county’s population grew rapidly in the early nineteenth century, expanding more than five-fold, from 10,817 people in 1800 to 38,897 people in 1820 to 47,948 in 1830 to 55,458 in 1850. By 1855, Cayuga County had 53,571 people, of whom 400 were African American. --- \(^3\) The 1855 census summarized the number of people living in slavery in each of these years. When did the Underground Railroad start in Auburn and Cayuga County? It was certainly in operation by the mid-1830s. In Auburn, Morgan “Luke” Freeman, a barber, was born in slavery in 1803 to Harry and Kate Freeman. His obituary in 1863 noted that he had kept an Underground Railroad station for twenty-nine years, presumably since 1834. In Cayuga County, Jerome Griger was the earliest known freedom seeker to purchase land. He bought land in Levanna, Town of Ledyard, in 1837. This was consistent with its beginnings elsewhere in central New York. African Americans from Esopus, near Kingston, were living among the Onondaga in the late 1770s, and several well-known African Americans escaped slavery in New York State in the early nineteenth century (including Austin Steward and Thomas James), but freedom seekers began to move northward in large numbers in the early 1830s. James R. Cox, one of Seward’s law associates, dated beginnings of the Underground Railroad in Auburn to 1832. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 What kinds of people supported the Underground Railroad in Auburn and Cayuga County? Four distinctly different types of people supported the Underground Railroad in Auburn and Cayuga. To some extent, they lived in different parts of the county, but they were interlinked: 1. **African Americans.** Both the City of Auburn, the Town of Ledyard (including the Village of Aurora), and the Town of Mentz (including the village of Port Byron) had relatively large African American communities, made up of people who had been born in slavery in New York State and also those who chose to settle in Cayuga County from the South. In 1855, 183 African Americans lived in Auburn, almost half the total of 400 in the county. Fifty-one lived in Ledyard, 48 lived in Mentz/Port Byron, and 28 lived in Brutus/Weedsport. Small numbers of African Americans also lived in Owasco (24), Springport (18), Aurelius (15), Sennett (9), Venice (8), Ira (6), Genoa (4), Moravia (3), Scipio (2), and Conquest (1). In case, these African American communities received support from local European Americans, included a group of lawyers and professionals in Auburn, Quakers and the Cuyler family in Ledyard/Aurora, and Nathan Marble, Ardchibald Green, Cassandra Hamlin, and William O. Duvall in Port Byron. This became particularly important when freedom seekers bought land, beginning in 1837, when Jerome Griger bought a homesite in Levanna, and continuing when freedom seekers bought more than twenty pieces of land on the south side of Auburn, near Harriet Tubman’s home, from Abijah Fitch and others in the 1860s. Several descendants of these families still live in Auburn. This relationship extended into the second generation, when the children of Martha and David Wright, particularly David Osborne (who owned a large agricultural implement factory in Auburn) and Eliza Wright Osborne continued to look out for the welfare of Harriet Tubman and others. 2. **Quakers.** In central Cayuga County, abolitionist sentiment centered in the North Street Friends Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse), and Underground Railroad work was anchored in the home of Slocum and Hannah Howland in Sherwood, New York. This group had ties to Underground Railroad network of Friends and free African Americans in Philadelphia and Delaware, including William Still, Dr. Bartholomew Fusell and his niece Graceanna Lewis, and Thomas Garrett in Wilmington, Delaware). The Howland Stone Store Museum owns an extremely rare pass, written by Quaker John Mann in Friendsville, Pennsylvania, to Quaker Slocum Howland in Sherwood, New York, carried by two freedom seekers from Maryland, brothers Thomas and James Hart, dated April 9, 1840, documenting their travel from Owego through Ithaca to Sherwood. 3. **Auburn-based lawyers and professionals.** These Quakers were linked to a small group of influential Whig-Republican lawyers, politicians, and professionals in Auburn associated with William Henry Seward, Frances Seward, and Frances Seward’s sister Lizette Miller Worden. They included Abijah Fitch, real estate developer; Theodore Pomeroy, David Wright, and George Underwood, Auburn Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 lawyers who worked with Seward in his law practice; John Austin, Unitarian minister; and William Hosmer, Methodist newspaper editor. All of the lawyers owned large homes along South Street or Genesee Street. Both Frances Seward and Lizette Worden had ties to Martha Wright, sister of noted Quaker minister, Lucretia Mott. Both Frances Seward and Lizette Worden had been educated at a Quaker school in Aurora, where Martha Wright later taught. All three women maintained a strong friendship during their years in Auburn, a friendship that extended to Harriet Tubman and her family after Tubman arrived in Auburn. In the county, Seward’s associates included two men from Port Byron, William O. Duvall, a radical abolitionist, and Archibald Green, a merchant and local politician, sister of Cassandra Hamlin, who organized the most important public women’s antislavery work in Cayuga County. As Seward rose first to statewide and then national prominence, first as Governor of New York State and then as Senator and Secretary of State under both Lincoln and Johnson, the influence of this group helped Seward maintain his abolitionist commitment. 4. **Religiously-motivated abolitionists.** Several churches throughout Cayuga County became hotspots of abolitionism. Congregationalists and Presbyterians, who often joined in one group in this period (in Sennett, Northville, Sterling, and Moravia), Baptists (in Sennett and Sterling), Unitarians (in Auburn), and Methodists and African Methodist Episcopal Zion (in Auburn), as well as students at Auburn Theological Seminary in Auburn, were most active in this organized religious commitment to the Underground Railroad. Other church congregations, as yet unidentified, may also have participated. *How many freedom seekers came through Auburn and Cayuga County?* Without better data, we have no accurate estimates of the number of freedom seekers who actually came through Auburn and Cayuga County. In 1903, James R. Cox, a law associate of William Henry Seward, and himself an Underground Railroad activist in Auburn, in an interview to Elbert Wixom, a Cornell student, estimated that five hundred freedom seekers came through Auburn between 1832 and 1861. This is probably a conservative estimate. This survey allows us several other ways of counting the number of freedom seekers who actually came through Auburn and Cayuga County. One way is to count the number of African Americans listed in census records who recorded their birthplaces as a southern state, unknown, or Canada. Some of these, of course, may have been legally manumitted, either in the South or after they were brought to New York State in slavery. We know from other sources that this was the case with Whittington Armwood. Thanks to the work of Donna Green of Texas, who saw the Armwood name on the database of African Americans in Cayuga County on the Cayuga County GenWeb site, we know that Whittington Armwood, born in Somerset Maryland in 1795, came to Cayuga County in slavery. Whittington Armwood almost certainly came to Barber’s Corners, Ledyard, with Donna Reed’s third great-grandparents, the Woods, from Maryland between 1806 and 1808. Armwood remained there for the rest of his life. His children, including his son, Timothy Armwood, continued to live and own property in the area. Limiting our count to African Americans listed in the census between 1850 and 1870 (including state census years for 1855 and 1865), 487 African Americans in Cayuga County listed their birthplaces as a southern state, Canada, or unknown. Of these, twenty-three are known from other sources (either Kate Larson’s work with Harriet Tubman, Emily Howland’s letters, Martha Wright letters, or William Still, *Underground Railroad*, 1872) to have been freedom seekers. These included: 1. Listed in three or four census records: Herman and Hannah Phillips and their four children—Scipio, 1850-1870 (Howland) Thomas Hart-Ledyard, 1850-1860 (Howland) 2. Listed in two census records: John and Milla Stewart, 1865-1870 Thornton Newton—1865-1870 Benjamin and Ritta Stewart (Harriet Tubman’s parents)—1865-1870 Henry Lemmons (Lemon)—1860-1865? Thomas Elliott and Anna Stewart Elliott, 1865-1870 3. Listed in one census record: Harriet Tubman Davis, 1870 Plymouth, Alice, John, William Cannon—1870 (identified in Still) Thomas Stoop, 1865 (Larson) Richard Eastup, 1860 (identified in Martha Wright letter) Catharine Stewart, 1865 (Larson) We also know of several others not found in the census records, including Nat Ambie and family—Auburn (Still); Harriet Eglin, Charlotte Gildes-Sennet (Still); James Harris and wife, Auburn (Still); Unnamed man in 1843, Auburn (Wright), and Jane Clark (biography in Cayuga Museum). We also know that at least two African Americans born in NYS—Morgan “Luke” Freeman and P.R. Freeman—were active as helpers on the Underground Railroad. Luke Freeman was born in 1803 of parents who were enslaved by Hardenburgh. According to his 1863 obituary, Luke Freeman kept a station on the UGRR at his home at 3 Court Street in Auburn for 29 years. Nat Ambie noted, in a letter printed in Wm. Still that he was staying with P.R. Freeman in Auburn. Of the 464 African Americans listed in the census who were born in a southern state, Canada, or an unknown place and who have not been definitely identified from other sources as freedom seekers, only 63 (14 percent) were listed in more than one census (compared to fifteen of the twenty-three known freedom seekers listed in the census, or 65 percent). This suggests that the other 401 were here for only a short time. The most logical assumption would be that they were traveling through on their way to Canada. This number is not inconsistent with James Cox’s estimate of 500 people who came through Auburn. Recognizing, however, that these census records take snapshots at five-year intervals, we also must assume that many freedom seekers stayed here only a few days, weeks, or months. So that it would reasonable to suggest that this figure of 401 people who were in the county only during census years must be multiplied many times over. If someone were here in 1851, 1852, 1853, or 1854 (or in any year that was not a census year), they would not have been counted at all. By this reasoning, a figure of several thousand would not be an unrealistic estimate for the number of freedom seekers who came through Auburn and Cayuga County. Ultimately, however, we will probably never know the true number. This project is part of a dialogue among all of us, past, present, and future. If you do not see here a person or site that you think may be associated with the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, or African American life, check the larger project database on the Cayuga County GenWeb site, which contains more than 600 names of people who had some relationship to these movements, or the materials on the Cayuga County Historian’s Website, which will contain updates. We invite everyone to join this research network and to share the results of your work. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 III. Sites and Stories Auburn: East Side Mechanic Street Historic District: “New Guinea” Bogart House Cromwell House Worden House Wise House Mechanic Street (Osborne Street) Historic District Earliest African American Settlement in Auburn ("New Guinea") North of former Mill Street Bridge, west bank of Owasco Outlet Auburn, New York Significance: Earliest area of African American community development Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 House just north of former Mill Street bridge East side of Osborne Street, looking east June 2005 Looking north from west end of former Mill Street bridge along Osborne Street June 2005 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Looking north along Osborne Street June 2005 House on west side of Osborne Street, across from Mill Street bridge Occupied by African American in 1850s Looking west, June 2005 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 The first clue to the existence of this settlement is its location, clearly indicated on the *Map of the Village of Auburn*, drawn by Hagaman & Markham and published by M.M. Peabody in 1837. Toward the east side of the village, between Mechanic Street (now Osborne) and the bank of the Owasco Outlet, Hagaman and Markham clearly labeled “New Guinea,” Negro Settlement, and indicated seven houses. Sean Conner researched this settlement, using local histories and census records. He noted the possibility that Cate and Harry Freeman, parents of Morgan “Luke” Freeman, were among the first settlers of New Guinea. The 1820 census listed several African American families living in close proximity in Auburn, including the Freemans, Fields, Browns, Williams, and Smiths. By 1830, the Freemans lived near the families of Solomon and Aaron Demun and Prentice Brown. Nearby lived the families of Mary Ann Counter, Adam Gray, Samuel Kunard, Elijah Rose, John Swarts, Thomas Venoe, Livingston Williams, Nathan Williams. Some of these families occupied the same household. The 1840 census listed sixteen African American families living in Auburn, including those of George Allen, David Bloomfield, Francis DeBoice, John M. DePuy, William Dunkenson, Lewis Freeman (Morgan “Luke” Freeman), Adam Gray, Sebio Horbeck, Catherine Johnson, Mary A. Newark, Betsy Smith, Thomas Tenoy (?), William Turner, George Williams, and Isaac Williams. Many of these probably lived in New Guinea.\(^1\) By 1850, the New Guinea settlement was clearly beginning to lose its distinct identity, as European Americans began to move into the area and as African Americans began to move into newer residential areas on Auburn’s north side. In 1839, the new African American school had just opened on Washington Street, and in 1847, the AME Zion Church would occupy the same building. People such as Sebco Hornbeck and Thomas Stoop would buy property on the north side in the 1850s, while many working class white families moved into houses along the outlet. --- \(^1\) From database produced by Survey of Historic Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African Life, Tanya Warren, Database Coordinator. Today, houses that appear to date from the second quarter of the nineteenth century occupy the area once called New Guinea. Across the street and also farther north on Osborne Street, about four houses have been identified through city directories and census records as belonging to or having been occupied by African Americans. Further work (especially in census records, deeds, and assessment records) on the specific houses just north of what used to be the Mill Street bridge might help identify dates of construction and possible connection with African American residence for these buildings.\(^2\) \(^2\) For an excellent overview of the New Guinea settlement and of the importance of the Freeman family, see Sean Connery, [“New Guinea Settlement: Auburn,” Unpublished student paper, 2004. Copy at Seward House, Auburn.](#) Nicholas and Harriet Bogart House 20 Miller Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of African American community leaders February 2005 Looking East Nicholas and Harriet Bogart represent those African American community leaders born in slavery in the North, who acted as a bridge between the local African American and European American communities, facilitating the work of abolitionists and Underground Railroad sympathizers. From the 1830s until the 1890s, they acted as leaders not only of this community but of the organized African American network in New York State. They also acted as a key link between African Americans and the Seward-Worden family network in Auburn and Washington, D.C., facilitating the work of these families as they assisted African Americans in both freedom and slavery, including those who escaped on the Underground Railroad. According to an obituary, Nicholas Bogart was “one of the oldest and best known colored men in this State and a man of almost national reputation during the slavery agitation, from his connection as coachman with the family of the late Secretary of State William H. Seward.” Bogart born in slavery in New York State on December 24, 1801. In 1826, he went to live with David Titus in Dutchess County, and three years later, he came with the Titus family to Cayuga County. In 1838, his name appeared on the first incorporation papers for the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church on Washington Street. In 1839, he was a trustee of the “African School” in the village of Auburn, and he signed a “card of thanks” published in the *Friend of Man* for money raised for the school. --- 3 Special thanks to Peter Wisbey for sharing the photograph of Harriet Bogart and quotations relating to the Bogarts from collections of the Seward House, Auburn. *Friend of Man*, April 24, 1839; Religious Corporations of Cayuga County, NY, Vol. 1, 154, Cayuga County Records Retention Office. David Titus was a close friend of William Henry Seward, and when Seward was elected Governor of New York State in 1839, Nicholas Bogart went with him to Albany as his coachman. There, in 1840 and 1841, Bogart was also appointed a delegate from Albany to black state conventions held in Albany and Troy. Bogart, whom the family called Nick, remained in Seward’s employ in both Auburn and Washington, D.C., as a coachman and then as a gardener, until Seward’s death in 1872, and the Seward family continued to provide for him until his death.\(^4\) By 1855, Nicholas Bogart was also working as sexton for the First Baptist Church, where he was a member. He was, according to his obituary, “very religious.” Harriet C. Bogart was also a mainstay in the Seward household. She worked either for the Sewards or for Lazette Worden, Frances Seward’s sister, from the 1830s on. She was born about 1810, somewhere in Cayuga County and moved to Auburn about 1830. She married a man named Hays and had two children with him, Willis and Lewis. Her marriage to Hays dissolved shortly after the birth of her second child. According to Lazette Worden’s daughter, Frances Worden Chesebro, “Harriet was my mother’s servitor, her main dependence when she commenced housekeeping and the one who received me from Doctor Little when I made my first appearance into this world. An unfortunate marriage had taken her from our family to which she returned in a few years with two piccaninni [?] boys and remained our Harriet until persuaded into a second marriage by Nicholas Bogart.” The Bogarts had one daughter, Harriet E., born about 1838.\(^5\) In 1855, Harriet and Nicholas Bogart lived with their daughter, Harriet E., then age 17. When Harriet married in 1857, Frances Seward wrote to her husband, William Henry Seward, that “Hattie Bogart vis Simpson had a beautiful wedding and party. I wish you could have been there.”\(^6\) In 1857, the Auburn city directory listed the Bogarts as living at 3 Exchange Street, still near the Baptist Church, but Seward’s land records suggest that they purchased a small house at 16 Miller Street (now 20 Miller Street) from William Henry Seward in that year. [Is this correct?] The deed for this house, recorded in 1868, was in Harriet Bogart’s name, not Nicholas Bogart’s. In 1860, the census recorded them in a house worth $300, living with one-year-old Mary Simpson of Ohio, next door to William Cromwell, pastor of Zion Church. City directories in 1865-66 noted their continued residence at 16 Miller Street, although the 1865 census suggested they were “with Silas Bradley, Merchant,” and that Nicholas Bogart’s occupation was “none.” --- \(^4\) Obituary, Nicholas Bogart, n.d. and February 20, 1893, from Seward House, Obituary Scrapbook, in Peter Wisbey and Jennifer Haines, “Selected references to African-Americans, Slavery or the Underground Railroad in the William Henry Seward Papers and other Sources,” February 2004. \(^5\) [Frances Worden Chesebro], [Manuscript on the Underground Railroad], Seward Papers, University of Rochester, 5. Thanks to Kate Clifford Larson for discovering this. 1850, 1855, 1860, 1865, 1870 census; Obituary, Nicholas Bogart, n.d. and February 20, 1893, from Seward House, Obituary Scrapbook, in Peter Wisbey and Jennifer Haines, “Selected references to African-Americans, Slavery or the Underground Railroad in the William Henry Seward Papers and other Sources,” February 2004. \(^6\) 1855 Census; Frances Seward to William Henry Seward, May 28, 1857, Seward Papers, in Peter Wisbey and Jennifer Haines, “Selected references to African-Americans, Slavery or the Underground Railroad,” February 2004. Throughout the 1850s, the Sewardss were regular supporters of the Underground Railroad. As William Seward wrote to his wife, Frances, in 1855, “The ‘underground railroad’ works wonderfully. Two passengers came here last night. Watch (family dog) attacked one of them. I am against extending suffrage to dogs. They are just like other classes of parvenus.” In 1859, William Henry Seward helped eighteen people escape from slavery on a steamer from Washington, D.C. He also sold seven acres of land to Harriet Tubman, a known freedom seeker, and about 1861, Tubman brought her niece (perhaps actually her daughter), Margaret Stewart, to Auburn, to live with Lazette Worden and the Sewardss. --- 7 Cited in Frederick Seward, *Seward in Washington*, Vol. II, p. 256, in Wisbey and Haines, “Selected references to African-Americans, Slavery or the Underground Railroad in the William Henry Seward Papers and other Sources,” February 2004. 8 July 1870, Francis B. Carpenter, “A Day with Governor Seward at Auburn”: “Among the visitors in the evening was Mr. Wormley, the well known colored landlord of Washington. Greeting him cordially and introducing him to his other guests, Mr. Seward said: ‘Wormley and I went into the emancipation business a year and a half before Mr. Lincoln did, down on the James River. How was it Wormley – how many slaves did we take off on our steamer?’ ‘Eighteen,’ replied Mr. Wormley. ‘Among them was Harriet Freeman, who has never ceased to pray for you, sir, since night and morning!’ A lady guest from Washington said: ‘Mr. Seward, black Harriet wished me to say to you that she thanked God every day that she had a son old enough and strong enough to go with you accompany him on his journey.’” [handwritten mss., Seward Papers, University of Local tradition associated the old kitchen with the Underground Railroad. The *Auburn Daily Herald* reported in 1891 that “it is said that the old kitchen was one of the most popular stations of the Underground Railroad, and that many a poor slave who fled by this route to Canada carried to his grave the remembrance of its warmth and cheer.” The Bogarts would have been key players in this Underground Railroad network, acting as a bridge between the Seward family, the local African American community, and freedom seekers in need of help. Quite likely, Harriet Bogart also took care of Margaret Stewart, Harriet Tubman’s Maryland-born niece, when she stayed with the family. During the Civil War, Harriet’s son, Willis A. Bogart, joined the U.S. Army. In Chicago on December 31, 1863, he mustered into Company B, 29th Regiment, U.S. Colored Infantry, as a Private. From Camp Casey, Virginia on May 8, 1864, he wrote a cheerful letter to William Henry Seward, then Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln: Sir, Will you Please tell or let me know at your earliest opportunity If my father is in Washington with you. Or not As I have written home to Auburn & can get no answer from Home. I would like to know Whereabouts of Lt. Colonel Wm. H. Seward is and the No. of his Regt. I am well and in fine spirits in the 29 USC Troops at this Camp. No more at present, I remain your Humble Serv’t Willis A. Bogart Willis Bogart was discharged October 21, 1864. Two years later, an exchange of letters between Harriet Bogart and William Henry Seward revealed something of what happened to Willis. The letters also suggest the mutual respect and love that existed between Harriet Bogart, family servant, and William Henry Seward, Secretary of State. Seward’s reference to Harriet Bogart’s “assiduous” attentions to his family during the past year certainly refer to Harriet’s help during the attack on his own life at the time of Lincoln’s assassination, as well as Frances Seward’s death shortly thereafter. As Peter Wisbey, Director of the Seward House, has noted, Seward’s request for a pardon for Willis went to the Governor of the late President Lincoln’s own state, Illinois, in the difficult national context of Reconstruction politics. March 6, 1866 Harriet Bogart in Auburn to WHS in Washington: Mr. Seward, Kind sur I have neaver yet replied to your kind leter but will now try to do so. I am very glad to hear that your helth is better and I hope that it will continue to improve and that your whole family may be restored to perfect health with the blessing of god upon you. Mr. Seward did you receive a letter from Mr. Senter a short time ago which he wrote for me[.] If you did you may think it strange that I shold of gotten him to wright to you in sted of wrighting my self. I will tel you why that was. I went to China and take care of you!’ (This referred to Mr. Seward’s body servant who was to Rochester, “A Day with Governor Seward” folder, cited in Wisbey and Haines, “Selected references to African-Americans, Slavery or the Underground Railroad in the William Henry Seward Papers and other Sources,” February 2004. *Auburn Daily Herald*, February 20, 1891, Seward House scrapbook, cited in Wisbey and Haines, “Selected references to African-Americans, Slavery or the Underground Railroad in the William Henry Seward Papers and other Sources,” February 2004. Cited in Wisbey and Haines, “Selected references to African-Americans, Slavery or the Underground Railroad in the William Henry Seward Papers and other Sources,” February 2004. to him to make inquire of a society which I wisht to get some information and he thought that I had better wright to you. I asked him if he wold wright for me. He told me that he wold which was very kind in him. I have not sene him since. I felt then as if I cold not wright or do anything its ever again and I have not hardly been able to do much since for I some times think that I shall half to be cent to the asylum. I do not no what Mr. Senter wrote to you therefore I will wright you[.] I had a letter from mr. Isaac R. Hitt of Chicago, Ill. Real estate war claim and pension agency stating that Willis my son had taken money from his safe which he was tride and sentence to the penitentiary for 2 years and 6 monts and I also had a letter from Willises attorney saying that if I wold send him one hundred dollars that he wold go to Springfield and procure a pardon for him that I have not got[.] Mr. Hitt ses that he given him information relation to his claim against the government for a pension for he was certainly disabled in the service. Mr. Seward you certainly have done a great deal for Willis which I can never re pay you for and now may I ask you if you will wright to the governor of that state for a pardon for him. I no he is un worthe but he is my son however un worthy. Ever your unworthy, Harriet C. Bogart P.S. he gose by the name of Willis A. bogart” March 12, 1866 WHS in Washington to Mrs. Harriet Bogart of Auburn: My Dear Harriet, I have received your letter of the 6th instant. I am glad to hear that you are well. We all here are improving. I will write to the Governor of Illinois of the case of Willis. Do not send One Hundred dollars, or any money whatever to any lawyer. Very truly, your friend, William H. Seward March 12, 1866 WHS in Washington to Gov. Richard J. Oglesby of Illinois: Sir, Willis A. Bogart, is a colored man who, I think, has been in some capacity in the military service; perhaps only a servant in the Quarter-masters or some other department. He certainly was disabled in the war. In former times he was a servant of mine. His mother, Harriet C. Bogart, is an exemplary and inestimable woman and has for more than thirty years been connected with my family by very affectionate relations. Her attentions in my family during the last year were assiduous, and attended with much personal sacrifice. She writes me that her son, Willis, has been convicted of a larceny and sentenced to the penitentiary for two years and six months. I understand the conviction to have occurred at Chicago, but the information in this respect is imperfect. She writes, also, that her son’s attorney applies to her to send him One Hundred dollars, upon receiving which he will go to Springfield and procure a pardon. I beg leave of your Excellency to ask that you will give to the subject upon this application of mine the same consideration that would be procured if this poor, laboring colored woman had been able, and had sent One Hundred dollars to the attorney for the purpose of procuring an enquiry into the case. I beg leave to extenuate the boldness of this request by saying that only in one other instance have I ever asked, or recommended to the Governor of any State an exercise of clemency. That other case concerned William Freeman, a demented Negro, wrongfully convicted of murder, whom I had defended on his trial at my own cost. I beg leave to enclose to you Mrs. Bogart’s letter, the original together with a copy. The original is precious to me, and I will thank you, therefore, to return it. I have the honor to be, sir, Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 March 16, 1866 Gov. Richard Oglesby of Illinois to WHS: Your letter and two enclosures received today. I have made examination of the record of applications for pardon but have been unable to find that Willis A. Bogart has made such an application. I suppose he or his friends will [very] soon move in the matter or if not I will cause an examination to be made into the facts of his case and will be disposed to grant the pardon. There will be no necessity for sending one hundred dollars to any attorney for this purpose and his mother need not do so – your letter is all that will be necessary in the case as soon as I shall learn what there is of it when and where he was convicted &c. I return herewith the letter addressed to you by Mrs. Bogart as requested. September 23, 1867 Willis A. Bogart in Chicago, Ill., to WHS in Washington, DC: To His Excellency the Hon Wm. H. Seward Respectful Sir. Will you take upon yourself in your leisure moments to solve this mistery[sic] which to me is yet unexplained in the year ’66 I received a bundle of Doe. From Messrs. Johnson, Brown & Co. No. 4 Intelligence Block of your City and after procuring them for my Atty’s. And after having my papers signed by the County Clerks at this City & forwarded to them & after a lapse of time I can hear nothing from them. I think it hard that after having fought, bled & got crippled for life in defense of my Country that I have not got my just dues & I am extremely glad as I have before written to you for your service in procuring my release from solitary confinement in which I am completely cured of all my former [merits?] & look to him who is Higher than all this World. I wish to know if they are trustworthy & have an Honorable reputation of such. As I need my Back Bounty to sustain me in my pilgrimage through this Wide Wide World that I take this step. If you deems it worthy in the name of Hiram the Widow, my God is there no Hope for the Widow’s sons. Or a member of this [___ft.] An Ans. Is fully requested. Please direct to my address in rear 242 East Madison Street, Chicago, Ills. I have written to day & before to them here. Hoping that I may & this may find in your eye a favorable opinion of such that my request may be granted, I will in the name of the Most High god remain your most unworthy servant. Willis A. Bogart Give my love to Mr. Frederick Seward & all the family therein. [In pencil, Seward’s notation: “Is there any bounty due him. He is a colored man. Is there any bounty due him.”] In 1869-70, the city directory noted the Bogarts were living at 40 Main Street, but by 1879-80, they were back at 16 Miller Street. In 1876 they mortgaged their house for $300, with Augustus Seward, William Henry Seward’s son, holding the mortgage. This seems to reflect Augustus Seward’s general reorganization of accounts, for he remortgaged more than one property that year. Perhaps it was also Seward’s attempt to give the Bogarts an annuity, much like a reverse mortgage would work for retirees today. --- 11 Cited in Wisbey and Haines, “Selected references to African-Americans, Slavery or the Underground Railroad in the William Henry Seward Papers and other Sources,” February 2004. 12 Deed recorded 1868, Cayuga County Clerk’s Office Book 124, 493; Mortgage, Harriet C. & Nicholas Bogart to Augustus H. Seward, 27 June 1876, City of Auburn, Cayuga County, NY, Mortgage Book 93, 448-449. See attached abstract by Tanya Warren. [Is this deed dated 1868 or recorded 1868?] Harriet Bogart, that “inestimable and exemplary women,” died in 1888. Nicholas Bogart, “one of the oldest and best known colored men in this State and a man of almost national reputation during the slavery agitation,” lived alone at 16 Miller Street, cared for by neighbor Betsey Shaver and her daughter, with support from the Sewards. Nicholas Bogart died February 15, 1893, age 91. Funeral services were held at his home, and he was buried at Fort Hill Cemetery.\(^{13}\) Written with the assistance of Peter Wisbey, Jennifer Haines, and Tanya Warren. **Mortgage Deed Abstract** **Harriet C. & Nicholas Bogart to Augustus H. Seward** 27 June 1876 City of Auburn, Cayuga County, NY Mortgage Book 93, page 448-449 This indenture made this 27\(^{th}\) day of June 1876 between Harriet C. Bogart & Nicholas Bogart, her husband of the City of Auburn, etc., and Augustus H. Seward of the same place, in consideration for the sum of $300, do grant and convey to (Seward) all that tract or parcel of land situate in the City of Auburn known and distinguished as lot # 16 on Plot 1 of lands in the City of Auburn on map of William H. Seward, executor of Elijah Miller, deceased, made by James Bostwick and filed in the office of the Cayuga County Clerk 26 January 1864. Being the same premises conveyed to the said Harriet Bogart by deed dated 28 March 1868 and recorded in Cayuga County Clerk’s Office Book 124, page 493. This grant is intended as a security for the payment of the sum of $300 ongoing on this date with interest according to the condition of a bond this day executed and delivered by the said Harriet Bogart to the party of the second part…(payment details illegible)...also agreed by and between the parties that (Harriet Bogart) shall and will keep the building erected and to be erected upon the lands above conveyed covered against loss and damage by fire by insurance in an amount agreed to by (Seward) (additional insurance details illegible). Signed by the hand of Harriet Bogart and the mark of Nicholas Bogart Witness: F. G. Day. Research and transcription by Tanya Warren --- \(^{13}\) 1880 Census; Obituary, February 15, 1893, Seward House scrapbook. Rev. William Cromwell and Melinda and Julia Cromwell House 8 Francis Street (Historic 6 Frances Street) Auburn, New York 13021 Significance: Home of freedom seeker and early AME Zion minister February 2005 Looking South Set back from the road farther than its neighbors, this small house gives us that one tantalizing clue about its early origins. Its modest size, however, belies its importance to the nineteenth century African American community in Auburn. Rev. William Cromwell was pastor of the AME Zion Church at 9 Washington Street from about 1852-c. 1875. He purchased this land in 1855, and he (or his congregation) built the house itself before 1865. This small dwelling represents the organized African American community in Auburn as it integrated freedom seekers from the southern U.S. and Canada—including Rev. Cromwell himself—into the existing community of free people of color. This community included those who had been, although enslaved, among the first settlers of Auburn. Cromwell had himself been born in either Maryland or Virginia, probably in slavery. According to the 1855 census, he had arrived in Auburn about 1852. In 1855, he was 34 years old, an AME Zion minister, married to Malinda, age 39, who had been born in Pennsylvania. Their four children were Catharine E., age 14, born in Pennsylvania; Harriet, age 10, born in Chemung County; Elijah A., age 7, born in Oswego; and Mathilda, age 5, born in Oswego County. We can follow their migration pattern through their children’s birthplaces, from Pennsylvania in the early 1840s to Chemung County (perhaps Elmira) about 1845 to Oswego about 1848 to Auburn about 1852. In addition to his duties as AME Zion minister locally, Rev. Cromwell participated in local and state-wide black conventions. In 1853, he was one of those who issued a call to “a convention of the colored people in the counties of Ontario, Yates, Seneca, Cayuga and Wayne” to be held in Geneva to organize “a Society auxiliary to the state council of colored people; and to further consider the proceedings of the National Convention held in Rochester in July last.” “Come ye fathers and mothers, young men and maidens, and let us take Council together,” read the call.\(^{14}\) On October 1, 1855, William A. Cromwell purchased Lot No. 47 on plot 3 at 6 Frances Street, with a mortgage from William H. Seward, Executor of Elijah Miller, Seward’s father-in-law. Cromwell did not immediately move there, however. The 1857 Auburn city directory listed his address as 206 Genesee. In 1859-60, he was at “Miller St. n Dam.” In the 1860 census, William H. [?] Cromwell listed his age as 47. He still listed his birthplace as Maryland, and his occupation was “E. Zion Church.” He was the owner of $600 worth of land. His wife Melinda listed her age as 45, and three children lived at home, Mathilda (10), Lucy A. 1(12), and Marietta (16). By 1863-64, the family had moved to 79 Owasco. In 1865-66, however, the directory listed him at 6 Francis Street, so we know that the Cromwells had almost certainly constructed a dwelling there by that date. A house appeared on that lot on the map by W.W. Richie in 1871. The 1865 New York State census listed William A. Cromwell as age 45, now a cook, born in Virginia, owning a frame house and land worth $600. Melinda was 46, born in Pennsylvania. Children at home included only Lela, 16, born in Oswego County, and Eliza, 18, born in Chemung County. In 1870, the only William Cromwell listed in the census was a cook in a hotel, age 55, born in New York State. This was probably the same William A. Cromwell who was the AME Zion minister. Melinda Cromwell seems to have died, for by 1875, William A. Cromwell, still living on Francis Street, was listed with an occupation as “Clergyman ME,” and his wife’s name was Julia. In 1876, Rev. William Cromwell recorded a mortgage for property at 6 Frances with Frederick Seward, William Henry Seward’s son, for $300. On April 9, 1900, William Cromwell’s heirs lost this house through foreclosure. In a suit brought by Frederick W. Seward against Julia E. Cromwell [William A. Cromwell’s second wife], Effa Jackson, Alexander C. Davinger, F. Maude Wilson, Mary Melinda Cromwell, Laura Lewis, and Samuel Andrews, the judge ruled that the house was to be sold at sheriff’s auction. Burt L. Rich purchased it for $475.16 and subsequently sold it to Thomas Hoyle. In 1880, William Cromwell, cook, aged 58, born in Maryland, was living on Frances Street, with his wife, Julia, born in New York, aged 51. \(^{14}\) *Frederick Douglass Paper*, December 2, 1853. The house remained in the care of stable, long-term, single-family owners through most of its existence. After 45 years in the hands of the Cromwells, Thomas Hoyle kept the property only three years before selling it to the Clements family, who owned it for nineteen years. The next owners, Charles and Martha Harvey kept the house in the family for thirty-eight years. The Steigerwalds owned it for twenty-four years. Since 1984, the house has had only two owners. **Cromwell House: Deed Chronology** | Date | Event | |---------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | October 1, 1855 | Seward to Cromwell. Mortgage C Book 94, p. 45. | | 1876 | Mortgage, Frederick Seward to William Cromwell, Liber 9, page 45. | | April 9, 1900 | George S. Wood as Sheriff to Thomas Hoyle. Deed Book 30, p. 354. | | 1903 | Thomas Hoyle to Clements. Deed Book 33, p. 87. | | 1922 | Clements? Catharine to Charles Harvey. Deed Book 56, p. 17. | | 1960 | Charles and Martha Harvey to Steigerwalds. Book 314, p. 72 | | 1984 | Henry White (executor of Ruth Steigerwald) to Dr. R.M. Tucker. Book 674, p. 194 | | 1991 | David and Rose Mary Tucker to Helen Gamba. Book 832, p. 42. | | 1996 | Helen Rose Gamba to ? Book 939, p. 323. | Research by Tanya Warren. Lazette Miller Worden House, 1856 2 Frederick Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of Abolitionist and Underground Railroad Activist Looking southeast, July 2005 Looking northwest Photo by Tanya Warren, March 23, 2005 Worden House, c. 1860s Frances Seward, Lazette Worden, and Mrs. Perry Courtesy of Seward House, Auburn, New York Lazette Miller Worden Courtesy Seward House **Descriptions:** The Worden House is a classic Gothic Revival house. Its original bargeboards with gingerbread trim have been lost, but vestiges of its nineteenth century character remain in the stuccoed siding and the tracery in the Gothic window in the west gable. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Significance: The Lazette Worden House, known as Pisgah, after the biblical reference to the mountain ascended by Moses before the Israelites entered the Promised Land (Deut. 3: 17, 27) illustrates the importance of a women’s Underground Railroad network in Auburn. This network incorporated two daughters of Elijah Miller—Lazette Miller Worden and France Miller Seward (whose grandmother was a Quaker), Quaker-born Martha Wright, Harriet Tubman, and perhaps several other women, as well. Lazette Worden, Frances Seward, and Martha Wright were close friends, and all three had all been influenced by Quaker ideals. While they were in Auburn, they formed a mutually supportive friendship that strengthened their radical abolitionist and woman’s rights views. It may have been this group, connected to Philadelphia abolitionists through Martha Wright’s sister, Lucretia Mott, that encouraged Harriet Tubman to come to Auburn in the late 1850s. Certainly, all three of them used their homes as safe houses on the Underground Railroad. Lazette Maria Miller (November 1, 1803-October 3, 1875) was a daughter of Elijah P. Miller, judge in Auburn. With her sister, Frances, she grew up in the family home on South Street. Both Frances and Lazette attended a Quaker school in Aurora in 1817. Lazette Miller married Alvah Worden, and for much of her married life, she lived in Canandaigua. She spent many weeks of every year, however, visiting her sister and brother-in-law, William Henry Seward, in Auburn. In 1856, she returned to Auburn and built this house at 2 Frederick Street, on land inherited from her father. In Auburn, her closest friends were Frances Seward and Martha Wright. The Wrights lived on Genesee Street, around the corner from the Sewards. Martha’s husband, David, was a lawyer who had worked in 1846 as a partner with William Henry Seward on one of his most famous cases, defending William Freeman, an African American accused of murder, on a plea of insanity. Beginning in 1827, Martha Wright, raised a Quaker, taught at the Aurora school attended earlier by Frances Seward and Lazette Worden, and the three women shared a strong commitment to abolitionism and women’s rights. Lazette Worden’s abolitionist and Underground Railroad sympathies extended throughout her life. Clearly, she was the radical abolitionist in her household, although he husband supported her efforts. As their daughter, Frances Worden Chesbro, remembered, Alvah Worden was “law abiding citizen and not an Abolitionist” but he was “‘a just man and one that favored God.’” When he served in the New York State legislature in 1841, he supported two bills that his brother-in-law, William Henry Seward, then Governor, also supported, one giving African American me the right to vote and a second giving freedom to anyone brought in slavery from another state into New York State.\(^1\) After her death, Lazette Worden’s daughter, Frances Worden Chesbro, wrote a 27-page handwritten reminiscence about her mother’s Underground Railroad activity. This included reminiscences of several specific freedom seekers affiliated in some way with the Worden household. In Auburn, “The first passenger by ‘The Underground Railroad’ with whom I made acquaintance was a middle aged Negro named Jacob,” she recalled, “a most respectable appearing individual and as subsequent events proved a very woeful one.” --- \(^1\) [Frances Worden Chesbro], untitled manuscript, 12-13, Seward Collection, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester. Thanks to Kate Clifford Larson for finding this. He drifted into my mother’s kitchen when we lived on East Genesee Street in Auburn as a “Fugitive Slave” and at an opportune time when my mother’s household was undergoing a succession of changes incident to the marriage of Harriet6 Hays to Nicholas Bogart [c. 1838]. . . . “Fugitive Slave” had an uncanny sound in my childish ears, and I remained in great awe of Jacob until his gentle ways and excellent cooking convinced me he was not dangerous. I do not know as he ever told our family his history or his claim he “had run away from slavery.” My after experience with Southern Negroes inclines [?] me to think he must have been a favorite house servant for he had good manners, was neat and orderly, and I thought [?] could read for he would always sit when his work was done with a book in his hand. He left us after a few months “to go on still further,” he said and I do not remember we ever heard of him after. The second person she wrote about was Richard Valentine, whom she knew in Canandaigua. Valentine married a Seneca Indian woman, Mrs. Valentine David, as she was called, who worked in the Worden household. Richard Valentine had been enslaved in New York State, so he escaped before 1827, and he worked in the Canandaigua hotel. Lazette Worden’s daughter thought that he was one of the worse specimens of his race but a man of more than ordinary intelligence and faithful to those he liked. Richard had been a slave to Mr deZeng of Geneva [New York] but so utterly lawless as to cause his master great trouble. By the connivance of Mrs. deZeng he was made a passenger on the “Underground Railroad” one night and eventually drifted into Canandaigua where he became useful [?] man to Colonel Blossom landlord of the hotel. In his latter days he became a politician and made public speeches on divers [sic] subjects taking “Squire Worden” as his model, all to the great annoyance and mortification of his wife and daughters. Both Richard and his wife are now at rest in my cemetery lot near those she served so faithfully and the one he studied as a model. In 1842, her father cooperated with her mother in helping a woman and her two children, escaping from slavery, who were staying with the Valentine family. It was a bitter cold morning. [she remembered], when Richard Valentine appeared in our kitchen looking for everything he considered necessary to the comfort of a fugitive and her two children, my Father, Mother, our faithful Elsie and I eagerly listening. Elsie from the kitchen stoves soon supplied sufficient to satisfy the hunger of a trio that seemed to have dropped from the clouds in the night and during the day my mother shaped out innumerable garments and though I was but a child I was kept sewing far into the night to furnish warm clothing for this family. Before Spring I heard Richard tell my Father the woman had heard her Master was in pursuit and the order given to procure conveyance and take the family to Farmington, a Quaker settlement north of us in the direct road of --- 2 [Frances Worden Chesbro], untitled manuscript, 4-6, Seward Collection, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester. 3 [Frances Worden Chesbro], untitled manuscript, 7-8, Seward Collection, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester. “The Underground Railroad” leading into Canada. By the time the Master reached Canandaigua the good Quakers had his prey safe over “the line.” After the death of Alvah Worden, Frances Worden returned to Auburn from Canandaigua and built a new house at 2 Frederick Street, a brick (probably stuccoed) Gothic Revival cottage that faced a large farm, on land inherited from her father, Elijah Miller. Her house was not far from one purchased the next year on Miller Street, along the Owasco outlet, by Harriet Day Bogart, Lizette Worden’s former household servant, and her husband, Nicholas Bogart, who were still employed by William and Frances Seward. The impact of Lazette Worden and Frances Seward extended beyond Auburn to Washington, D.C., where they continued to espouse their antislavery sympathies, becoming friends with Charles Sumner, abolitionist senator from Massachusetts. Frances Chesbro herself hired a freedom seeker, Jane Thompson, whom she had first met in Washington, D.C., and who later escaped from the employ of Mr. Meredith, Secretary of the Treasury under Zachary Taylor. Frances Chesbro also helped at least one other person escape on the Underground Railroad. During the Civil War, an Army officer named Captain George Williams (111th Regiment) brought a young boy to her from the South called Sam, who remained part of her circle throughout her life. In Auburn after 1856, Lazette Worden continued to spend a great deal of time with her sister and brother-in-law, Frances and William Henry Seward. She also met regularly for tea and social occasions with Martha Wright. It was this group who offered sustenance to Harriet Tubman, after she purchased land from William Henry Seward in 1857 and began gradually to move her family to Auburn, beginning in 1859. In 1861, Tubman brought Margaret Stewart, most likely a niece but possibly her own daughter, to Auburn, to live with Lazette Worden. As Martha Wright reported in May, “Mrs. Worden was just here—she has taken a contraband 10 yrs. old to live with her, a niece of Harriet Tubman.” Lazette Worden stayed for long periods at the Seward home, and she brought Margaret Stewart with her there to live, where Frances Seward helped raise her. Emily Howland, who wrote a history of Friends in Cayuga County, recalled that those whose privilege, it was to know these noble sisters, in their life at the Capital, can realize how unique and powerful a force they were; interested in the reforms proposed and agitated by the advanced minds of the time, they moved on the troubled sea of Washington life, during eighteen years of the darkest and most eventful period of the Nation's history. Mrs. Worden, with a wit keen as a Damascus blade, would pierce the sophistries of the enemies of human freedom, charming while she demolished. Severely plain in their dress, one delighted by her brilliant conversational power, the other refreshed by a beautiful and --- 4 [Frances Worden Chesbro], untitled manuscript, 14-15. 5 [Frances Worden Chesbro], untitled manuscript, 16-21. 6 Martha Wright to Francis Wright, May 28, 1862, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College, quoted in Kate Clifford Larson, Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero (New York: Ballantine, 2004), 196, and Jean M. Humez, Harriet Tubman The Life and the Life Stories (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), 367. saintly presence, and an ever ready sympathy. Thoroughly conversant with the politics of the day, they cheered a wearied Sumner, whose principles closed other homes to him, or discussed the cause of Woman with a distinguished foreign guest,—welcomed and gladdened a lonely teacher, or listened to the appeal of some poor Rachel grieving for children enslaved. Even animals basked in the glow of their kindness and love.\footnote{Emily Howland, “Early History of Friends in Cayuga County, N.Y., Read before the Cayuga County Historical Society, April 8, 1880,” \textit{Collections of Cayuga County Historical Society} 2 (1882), 49-90; Emails from Sheila Edmunds, Aurora Village Historian, January 17 and 31, 2005.} After the death of her sister, Frances, in 1865, Lazette Worden often acted as hostess for her brother-in-law, William Henry Seward, both in Auburn and Washington. The census of 1870 listed her as living alone in Auburn, aged 65 years old, with real estate valued at $6000 and a personal estate valued at $10,000. In 1872, she was at William Henry Seward’s side when he died after a brief illness.\footnote{Sherry Penney and James Livingston, \textit{A Very Dangerous Woman: Martha Wright and Women’s Rights} (Amherst, Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004).} Lazette Worden died October 3, 1875 and was buried in Fort Hill Cemetery, Auburn.\footnote{Fort Hill Cemetery Internment Roster, \url{http://www.cayuganet.org/forthill/roster/w.html}. Lazette Worden’s will is on file in the Cayuga County Surrogate’s Office, NY-6-Y-272.} III. Sites and Stories Auburn: North Side AME Zion Church, site of original Auburn Prison Cayuga County Courthouse Fitch House Freeman House, site of Freeman barbershop (Cumpston Lane and South Street), site of Hornbeck Houses: Jefferson Street Historic District? Hosmer House Huntington House-Auburn Theological Seminary Mansfield House North Street Cemetery Northern Christian Advocate Publishing House Seward House Swarts House Underwood/Kiah-Williams House, site of Wall Street Methodist Church Westminister Presbyterian Church Wright House, site of Northern Independent and African American Barbershop, site of Site of First AME Zion Church 9-11 Washington Street (originally 5-7 Washington Street) Auburn, New York Significance: Site of first African American School (c.1839) and African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (c. 1847) Description: The original school/church on this site was a long narrow, gable-end-to-the street building, with the door on the east end, altar on the east, and one aisle down the middle. A house belonging to Deborah Depuy was located at the back of this lot. Both were taken down shortly after 1905 and replaced with the current house. Significance: In the nineteenth century, churches, schools, and clubs formed important identifying structures of community life. For African Americans in Auburn, the organization of the African American Methodist Episcopal Church was a major step toward a stable community presence. The church, like the school and local African American businesses (such as boarding houses and barbershops) gave aid to people on the Underground Railroad. They supported freedom seekers who wanted to travel to Canada, and they helped find jobs and homes for those who chose to stay in Auburn. Incorporated in 1838, the church held its first meeting on July 16, 1838, and elected Nicholas Bogart, Adam Gray, Robert Freeman, George Williams, and William Johnson (almost certainly a freedom seeker himself) as trustees. William Terdell/Tudell and Charles Smith signed the incorporation papers with their marks. On August 24, 1847, trustees held a meeting at the home of Betsy Smith and elected Joseph P. Thompson, Chair, and Robert Freeman and Jacob Jordan, Secretaries and Sebeo Hornbeck, Adam Gray, and Jacob Jordan as trustees. J. P. Thompson and Robert Freeman signed the minutes. On May 3, 1847, they noted that the name of the church was now "The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church of Auburn." On October 26, 1847, they had two ministers, John S. Dallas and Pleasant Bouler and elected Charles Griffin, Sebeo Hornbeck, Adam Gray, George Williams and Robert Freeman as trustees. Reverends Dallas and Bouler signed the minutes. About this time, with the help of Rev. Mr. Johnson, a few families began worshipping in “an abandoned wooden schoolhouse” on Washington Street that the Village of Auburn had built “for a separate school for colored children, and later turned over by the new city authorities to the colored people for church uses.” This was undoubtedly the same building constructed about 1839, when Nicholas Bogart (sexton of the Baptist Church and employee of William Henry Seward), Adam Gray, and Josiah Churchill printed a card of thanks in the *Friend of Man* for contributions toward building a school for African American children in Auburn. Rev. Mr. Johnson may be the same man that Frances Seward referred to in 1852, when she wrote her husband, William Henry Seward, that “a man by the name of William Johnson will apply to you for assistance to purchase the freedom of his daughter. You will see that I have given him something by his book. I told him I thought you would give him more. He is very desirous that I should employ his daughter when he gets her which I have agreed to do conditionally if you approve.”¹ Of these named trustees and ministers, Sebeo Hornbeck, Charles Griffen, and William Johnson were probably freedom seekers. On July 6, 1870, a second African American church, St. Mark’s, was organized in Auburn. The church held a meeting in Markham Hall in Auburn and elected as trustees Nelson Davis [Harriet Tubman’s husband], John Purnell, Isaac White, John H. Waire and John Sanford. Zadoc Bell and John Waire were added for the record. Signed by the mark of Zadoc Bell and the hand of John Waire. Of these people, at least Davis, Purnell, White, Bell, and Waire were freedom seekers.² Rev. James E. Mason, speaking at the dedication of the Harriet Tubman monument at the Cayuga County Courthouse in 1914, remembered the day he first met Harriet Tubman at this church on Washington Street about 1880: It was on a beautiful September Sunday morning. The monarch of the day had risen in Oriental splendor. The rich and varied hues of the autumnal woods added their attractions to our environment. The eloquent Bishop J.J. Clinton was conducting the Genesee Annual Conference in your city. The early morning exercises were held in the long one-aisled frame Zion A.M.E. Church, on Washington Street. The lovely feast was practically ended but the rapturous songs of Zion were borne outward through the windows, across the avenue and the passerby’s listened with rapture and rejoiced. I entered and seated near the altar, facing the audience. Singing, soul-stirring and reviving, continued. Seated four pews from the front, on my right, was a woman with shoulders somewhat stooped, and head bent forward. She had a broad forehead, piercing eyes, think lips and strong, masculine features. At the close of a thrilling selection she arose and commenced to speak in a hesitating voice. I understood her impediment resulted from a violent blow, which broke her skull, --- ¹ “History of Cayuga County,” Cayuga County Historical Society, 1908, 220; *Friend of Man*, April 24, 1839; Frances Seward to William Henry Seward, July 1, 1852, Seward Papers, University of Rochester. Found by Peter Wisbey. ² “Religious Incorporation,” Vol. I, 152, 195, 196, 198, 241, Cayuga County Records Retentions Office. Research by Tanya Warren. when a child. In a shrill voice, she commenced to give testimony to God’s goodness and long suffering. Soon she was shouting, and so were others also. She possessed such endurance, vitality, and magnetism, that I inquired and was informed it was Harriet Tubman—the “Underground Railroad Moses.” Here was a modern Priscilla, a prophetess, telling out of the fullness of her heart God’s revelation to her in the secret of His presence. Service ended, I greeted her. She said, “Are you save?” I gave an affirmative reply. She remarked: “Glory to God,” and shouted again. We have met on many important occasions during the intervening years. In the cottages of the lowly and the palatial homes of the wealthy; in private and in public place of responsibility. Everywhere she was the same determined, generous, enthusiastic, race-loving, cheerful heroic soul. A many chorded harp was her broadly sympathetic nature, sensitive to every touch of her race’s sorest travail. Her wit, humor and originality were striking compelling characteristics. She was directing a band of fugitives over Mason and Dixon’s line, when something unexplainable occurred and they hesitated. She is reported as saying: “Come along, come along, Don’t be a fool, Uncle Sam is rich enough To send us all to school.”3 The church property itself was intimately connected with the family of Deborah Depuy, who lived at the rear of the church all her life and who may have acted as caretaker. Deborah Depuy was an important member of the local African American community, related to the Freemans. She had testified in the trial of William Freeman in 1846. Deborah Depuy was 29 years old in 1850, wife of Hiram S. Depuy, a 39-year-old laborer. Both were born in New York State. They had four children, Mercent (Morris or Morrison, age 9), John (age 8), Ruth (2), and Jane (2 months). In 1848, John Bland and William Cropp/Cross came into possession of the Washington St. property via John Bartlett and Horace Knight of Auburn and Charles Merrill of Waterloo. Beginning in 1854, Deborah Depuy paid taxes on part of this property, “at the rear of the African Church.” In 1857, John and Charlotte Bland from Charlotte, Ontario, Canada, and William Cropp/Cross, “of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,” formally sold part of this land to Deborah Depuy, who lived here for the rest of her life. Wm. Cropp/Cross was not found in the Pennsylvania census of 1860, but John H. Bland and Charlotte Bland appeared in the Ontario census for 1880. Both were listed as African, born in the USA. They lived in Hamilton, Ontario. John was a barber, age 60. Charlotte was a dressmaker, --- 3 Rev. James E. Mason, “Pays Tribute to Harriet Tubman,” *Auburn Advertiser-Journal*, June 6, 1914, quoted in Jean M. Humez, *Harriet Tubman: The Life and the Stories* (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), 333–34. age 37. They had two children (age 19 and 15) both born in Ontario, and a 70-year-old woman named Mary Young also lived with them. John Bland was Baptist.\(^4\) By 1865, Deborah Depuy was a widow. Her son Morrison had become a barber, and she owned property worth $1000. The 1870 census listed her occupation as laundress. She died in 1879. Deborah Depuy was assessed $100 for her land at the rear of the church from 1854 until 1859. From 1860 until her death in 1879, she was assessed between $350 and $475 for a house and lot. After her death, the property at 3-11 Washington Street remained off the tax rolls from 1879 until 1905. The church was most likely torn down shortly after 1905 and the current house erected.\(^5\) \(^4\) Ontario Census, C-13257, Ward 6, Hamilton, Ontario. \(^5\) Assessment Records, Cayuga County Records Retention Office. Auburn Prison Front Gates, c. 1825 Auburn, New York Significance: Site of release and rescue of freedom seeker George Washington, 1854 February 2005 Looking SW Auburn Prison, from Hagaman and Markham, Village of Auburn (1837) State Prison at Auburn. Prisoners at the State Prison at Auburn. John Barber and Henry W. Howe, *Historical Collections of the State of New York* (New York, 1842). Site Description: In continuous since its original construction as a reform prison in 1825, Auburn Prison retains its original limestone front gates, built in octagonal form with crenellated battlements. Significance for the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life: Auburn Prison represents the complex nature of freedom and slavery and the widespread abolitionist sympathy of people in upstate New York, where even government officials did not always support the Fugitive Slave Act. George Washington escaped from slavery in South Carolina, only to find himself in prison in Auburn, New York. But, in 1854, when slave catchers tried to return him to slavery under the terms of the Fugitive Slave Act, William Titus and Col. Lewis, wardens of Auburn Prison, delivered him instead to Underground Railroad activists, who took him to safety in St. Catherine’s, Ontario.¹ This story involved hundreds of characters: 1. Most important was George Washington. Born in South Carolina, George Washington was arrested in Wayne County for burglary and sent to Auburn Prison in 1844. He had been sentenced, according the *Auburn Daily Advertiser* in 1854, to ten years and one month in prison. He was listed as mulatto, 24 years old, in the 1850 census. George Washington was to be released from prison in late March 1854. He had been in jail since he was eighteen years old. 2. William Ashley, keeper of the jail in Lyons, Wayne County had come to Auburn with the man who claimed to be Washington’s owner. They had interviewed Washington in prison, and Washington had acknowledged that he had been a slave. Ashley went to Rochester with the owner, filled out the appropriate affidavits, and obtained a warrant for Washington’s arrest under the terms of the Fugitive Slave Law.² 3. William Titus, born in Sempronius (now Moravia), New York, in 1803, warden of Auburn prison from 1852-54, Barnburner Democrat (abolitionist), successful businessman and officeholder in Ira, Hannibal and Moravia; postmaster at Locke and Hannibal Centre, Oswego County; later owner of mills at Hannibal Center and Moravia; New York State Assemblyman from Cayuga County; unsuccessful candidate for Congress; officer in the Southern Central Railroad. He had business dealings in Moravia with Isaac Cady and Grover Stoyell, whose families were also associated with the Underground Railroad.³ --- ¹Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County, New York* (Syracuse). Primary research for this site was done by Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian, with assistance from Christopher Densmore, Curator, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore; Tanya Warren, Database Coordinator for this project, Sean Connery, intern for the Seward House; and Kate Clifford Larson, author of *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, An American Hero*. ²*Auburn Daily Advertiser*, March 27, 1854. Found by Sheila Tucker. ³*Auburn Daily Advertiser*, March 27, 1854. Found by Sheila Tucker. 4. Col. Lewis, Warden of the Prison after William Titus, who “did much to allay the excitement by the straight forward, frank and manly course he pursued during the progress of the affair.” 5. Mr. Kirkpatrick, Inspector in charge of the prison at the time of George Washington’s release, who assured people that “the colored man would be discharged from the Prison in the usual way and at the usual hour in the morning, and that no [?] process, arresting him as a fugitive slave would be allowed to be served on him while he was inside the Prison walls.” 6. W. Smith Ingham, primary businessman in Cato Four Corners (now Meridian), owner of hotel and what was probably the largest store in Cayuga County north of Auburn, who helped organize the rescue of George Washington from the prison gates. 7. James Hickock, store-owner in Meridian. Lived as a stage driver with William and Clarissa Titus according to census of 1850. Part of the rescue effort. 8. H.R. Perry, lived in Auburn, part of the Underground Railroad network and probably a clerk for W. Smith Ingham. Otherwise unidentified. 9. “Colored people” who sought legal aid on Washington’s behalf. 10. Two “sable brethren” who grasped George Washington as he emerged from prison and “with the crowd at their heels” “ran ‘like mad’ up the street with him to a place of safety.” --- 4 *Auburn Daily Advertiser*, March 27, 1854. 5 *Auburn Daily Advertiser*, March 27, 1854. 11. Two hundred “friends of freedom” from Auburn and central New York, especially the “Free city of Syracuse,” both black and white, who were ready to rescue George Washington by force, if necessary. On March 20, 1854, W. Smith Ingham and H.R. Perry, wrote to William Titus, warden of Auburn Prison, from “Cato 4 Corners” that Matters here are exceedingly quiet, Just now know of a throw bill passed through the county writing the friends of ‘Law and Order’ to rally at Auburn for the release of one George Washington who is to be discharged from prison and is to be claimed as a fugitive by his master on his release this evening or tomorrow morning (Tuesday). You know this gentleman, I have no doubt . . . An article in the *Auburn Daily Advertiser* on March 27, 1854, revealed what happened next. Washington had been sentenced to prison for ten years and one month for burglary. Two weeks ago, “some legal gentlemen here were consulted by the colored people in reference to his case.” The lawyers concluded that, since George Washington was scheduled to be released on Sunday, a warrant could not legally be served, since this was not a criminal process, and the friends of freedom were advised accordingly. It followed of course, that resistance, in such case would be strictly lawful and the officer should he make the attempt would be answerable for the consequences. The rumor that such an attempt was contemplated soon became general, and our citizens, as also those of the Country round about, and of other cities in the vicinity, particularly those of the Free city of Syracuse, became a good deal excited upon the subject, and it became evident that should an attempt be made to arrest Geo. Washington on Sunday, as he should be discharged from prison, the officers would be resisted at all hazards. The *Auburn Daily Advertiser* continued the story in detail: The case was in this state until Saturday last, when the same William Ashley again appeared in the city, claiming to have in his possession a bench warrant, issued by the District Attorney of Wayne County (Mr. Welling) for the arrest of George upon an old indictment against him in that county for burglary, committed more than ten years ago. Several of our citizens called upon Mr. Ashley, in the course of the day, to ascertain what he was after, and from his own admission came to the conclusion that he was not an officer of Wayne County at all, and of course not authorized to serve any such process as he claimed to have; that the process itself was not strictly regular, and of doubtful authority. They said that he was rather in the area to get possession of the person of George, to deliver him to the Marshal to be taken to the South. Rumors were flying that the Governor would pardon George so that he could be discharged on Saturday evening and that the Marshal would then be ready and arrest him before it should be known by his friends that he was at liberty. This rumor derived plausibility from --- 6 W. Smith Ingham and H.R. Perry to William Titus, March 20, 1854, from *Sterling-Fair Haven: Where the Trails, Sails, and Rails, Met on the Shores of Lake Ontario in the Nineteenth Century* (K-Mar Press, 1973).. Research by Sheila Tucker. the fact that Marshal Matt of Utica, and several of his Deputies were known to have been in the city during the week, and that one or more of them were here on Saturday... Marshall had appeared with a similar bench warrant issued from Wayne County. About the same time the Sheriff of Wayne county appeared with papers he had borrowed from Ashley. At the same time there appeared strangers in town who were devising ways of protecting the man. Many of these were from our sister cit of Syracuse; others from various localities—all appeared to have but one determination—that George Washington should not be carried out of Auburn on the morrow under the fugitive slave act, by any claimant, or by any man, neither by the U.S. Marshal under any warrant to him directed, nor by any other official, claiming to be a state officer, but ?ting in collusion with the claimant and his Marshals. In the mean time, some of our legal gentlemen had examined the process which was in the hands of the Sheriff of Wanye as also the one that had been delivered by the U.S. Marshal to the Sheriff of Cayuga, and both were at least of doubtful validity. The night passed off quietly, disturbed only by the quiet foot fall of the sentinels of Freedom, many of whom patrolled the live long night, in front and in the vicinity of the Prison, notwithstanding there was at the time one of the severest snow storms of the winter, in progress. In the morning there appeared in the vicinity of the prison several hundred quiet, orderly, but determined looking men. But little was said amongst them, and that in whispers, but an observer could easily detect in their countenances, manner and bearing, a determination that should the crisis come, they had counted the cost and were ready for the occasion. At this time nothing could be heard or seen of any U.S. official, nor could any of those present be distinguished as the aiders or abettors of any kidnapper, with or without the sanction of the lower [?] law. As the time for George’s liberation drew nigh, much interest began to be felt in regard to the intentions of the Sheriffs, by virtue of their warrants from the District Attorney, and some of our citizens called upon them to advise with them in regard to the matter. It had become evident that the people in attendance, and particularly the colored people, could not be made to believe that any officer could be acting in good faith, and with a view to take George to Wayne County upon any such warrant. They had become suspicious of any process that had come through Mr. Ashley, or the U.S. Marshal. The Sheriffs soon found that if they undertook to execute the warrants and to arrest George, they would need more assistance than could be procured in Auburn at that time. . . .While they were debating the matter, . . . George was discharged from the prison and emerged to the street at 8 1-2 o’clock in the forenoon, and our citizens may rest assured the crowd were neither slow nor silent in receiving him. Two of his sable brethren had hold of him, one on each side, as nearly upon the instant as an active man can well imagine, and with the crowd at their heels, they ran “like mad” up the street with him to a place of safety. After all the excitement leading up to George’s release, “the people began to wonder at the quietness of the whole operation. They expected at least to have the face of an official. But no one had made his appearance.” The crowd then looked for “that Ashley,” who was reportedly stayed at the American Hotel, but someone had already warned him of the rescue, and he had left for “parts unknown.” “And thus ended,” reported the *Daily Advertiser*, “the first Fugitive Slave case in Auburn.” Raymond Sant, who had in his possession several letters (whose location is now unknown) from W. Smith Ingham and H.R. Perry to William Titus, reported that a letter from Mr. Ingham stated that seven men on horseback from Cato-4 Corners met the fugitive shortly after midnight (he had been released early) and brought him north of the Seneca River. Here an elaborate system was in effect. At Jakeways Corner (Cato) the John T. Knapp cobblestone house at Blind Sodus the home of W. G. Brown, near Fair Haven the Overrocker farm home, and at Sterling Centre the home of William Kirk were later known to have been stations on the underground. The leaders were in contact with the Harriet Tubman forces at Auburn through one H.R. Perry. Also involved were the Garrett Smith land office at Oswego and probably the Frederick Douglas group at Rochester. On April 8, 1854, W. Smith Ingham wrote to William Titus that The cow is all right and commands annual praise. I am afraid she will not calve at 8 o’clock and 10 minutes first of October. She has been acting a little suspicious. What say Fowler, Shepherd, and Cochrane? This may be well be a coded reference to others in the “Law and Order” group who were involved in the Underground Railroad in Cayuga County. Finally, on April 10, H.R. Perry wrote to William Titus from Cato 4 Corners that You can say to your Custom house folks that fugitive slaves cannot be taken from Auburn Prison. Not even that devil George Washington whose master came here after him a few days since when he was discharged. But G. W. went to Canada and his master went back disappointed. Perry’s reference to “that devil George Washington” may have had something to do with Washington’s reputation as a ladies’ man. In April, shortly after Washington’s escape, one of the Auburn papers reprinted an article from the *Lansingburgh* (New York, near Troy) *Democrat*, reporting that the fugitive negro George Washington, about whom such a rumpus was recently kicked up at Auburn on his discharge from State Prison, and who was run off to Canada, in fear that he would be arrested as a fugitive slave, formerly lived in Lansingburgh. He was --- 7 *Auburn Daily Advertiser*, March 27, 1854. Found by Sheila Tucker. 8 Raymond Sant, *Sterling-Fair Haven: Where the Trails, Sails, and Rails, Met on the Shores of Lake Ontario in the Nineteenth Century* (K-Mar Press, 1973), 114. Research by Sheila Tucker. 9 Raymond Sant, *Trails, Sails., and Rails*, 114. Research by Sheila Tucker. 10 H.R. Perry to William Titus, April 10, 1854. Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Transcribed from original by Kate Clifford Larson. brought before Esquire Ransom, and charged with theft, and afterwards claimed by two white women as their husband, having as they said been married to each of them, the full particulars of which we published at the time. It turned out, however, that the negro was married to neither of them.\footnote{Email from Sheila Tucker, Mary 6, 2005.} George Washington did make it to Canada. Kate Clifford Larson found a George Washington in St. Catherine’s, Ontario, living near Harriet Tubman’s brother, William Henry Stewart, Sr., in 1861, age 48. He was still there in 1871, age fifty, and in 1881, age 60. (His age in 1861 may have been misidentified.) The rescue of George Washington from Auburn Prison in 1854 made national news. On April 8, 1854, the \textit{National Anti-Slavery Standard} reprinted an article from the \textit{Cayuga Chief}, noting that there were armed people, both locally and from Syracuse, ready to free George Washington by force if necessary. They titled the article, “A Jerry Rescue Almost,” referring to the earlier rescue from Syracuse of William “Jerry” Henry in October 1851. The first trials for these rescuers had occurred in the Cayuga County Courthouse in Auburn. On July 24, 1854, the \textit{Anti-Slavery Bugle} in Salem, Ohio, carried the same article.\footnote{Thanks to Christopher Densmore for finding these articles.} The attempt to take George Washington back to slavery under the terms of the Fugitive Slave Law was only the second known attempt in central New York. The first had been been William “Jerry” Henry in Syracuse in October 1851. Both resulted in successful rescues by a combination of African American and European efforts. Thanks to Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian, for first uncovering voluminous details about this story. Thanks also to Christopher Densmore; Kate Clifford Larson; Tanya Warren; Shawn Connery; Justin White; and Lowell Newvine, Town Historian of Hannibal for research for this site. See also Sheila Tucker, “Historic Tale: Historian digs up details of 1854 rescue of slave in Auburn,” \textit{Post-Standard, Neighbors, Cayuga}, December 2, 2004. Cayuga County Courthouse, 1836, 1922 152 Genesee Street Auburn, New York Significance: Site of trial of William Freeman, 1846. Site of first hearings for trial in rescue of William “Jerry” Henry, 1851, in challenge to Fugitive Slave Law. February 2005 Looking SW The Cayuga County Courthouse (CCC) played an active role in two significant trials of the nineteenth-century which left lasting impressions on the Underground Railroad and Abolitionism within New York State. The first trial, held in 1846, involved the defense of William Freeman, a free black arrested for murdering four members of the Van Nest family who resided in Fleming, NY. Hon. William Seward, one of Freeman’s defense attorneys and a major figure in the anti-slavery movement, took a radical stance in Freeman’s case. Earlier that year Seward had defended a convict in the state prison named Henry Wyatt who had murdered fellow inmate James Gordon. Seward and his colleagues, Christopher Morgan and Samuel Blatchford, maintained that Wyatt’s crime was an act of insanity rather than criminal motive. Not only was Seward’s defense a bold step in the field of social justice but also a reflection of increasing awareness of mental illness in the nineteenth century. In the case of Freeman, Seward was able to argue the case for insanity upon similar grounds with Wyatt. Freeman, a former convict at the State Prison in Auburn, NY, had reputedly suffered pernicious abuse at the hands of his care-takers. Upon his release, it was argued that Freeman suffered from “an insane delusion”, that he was somehow the victim of a conspiracy against him. Freeman’s delusional behavior clouded sound judgment and was thus the stronger agent in Freeman’s violent acts than any premeditated intent. The success of such a defense did not shine fortuitously after the June 23rd, 1846 verdict of Wyatt, sentenced to hang August 17th, 1846. Two days later, Freeman’s trial commenced. On July 5th, the jury issued the following statement, “We find the prisoner sufficiently sane in mind and memory to distinguish between right and wrong”.2 Freeman’s trial could therefore proceed without deference to the plea of insanity. Convincing the jury that insanity fell under the category of legal irresponsibility consumed Freeman’s defense. Compelling a local jury to maintain impartiality proved an even fiercer challenge. Seward gathered testimony from a number of reputable physicians, including Dr. Amariah Brigham, superintendent of the State Lunatic Asylum at Utica, NY, and made several correlations to similar insanity cases throughout the state, including the murder trial of Andrew Kleim.3 Finally, Seward and his colleagues made the strongest and most controversial statement yet. They argued that Freeman had been driven insane not merely by a family predisposition to mental illness but by a fiercely segregated society which ignored the plight of African Americans. An uneducated black man alienated from a predominately white community, Freeman was the offspring of deep-rooted racial prejudice. However noble their efforts, Seward and members of his defense could not sway the opinion of the jury which handed in a verdict on July 23rd, 1846 of guilty. Seward made last minute provisions for an appeal to sway the September execution and was granted a new trial by the New York State Supreme Court. Such a coup on the part of Seward and his supporters would not come to fruition. In declining health by June of 1847, Freeman died on August 21st, 1847. The William Freeman trial, beyond its large implications for the future of the U.S. Justice System, attracted the interests of several noted abolitionists including Gerrit Smith, Wendell Phillips, and James McCune Smith.4 The William Freeman trial is a landmark case in African American history. It is not a simple argument for sanity vs. insanity, but a call for social responsibility across racial lines. The fervor with which the case stirred the emotions of local citizens had varied results. Some would claim Seward’s paternal attitude toward Freeman and his language inspiring “inferiority of race” reinforced negative stereotypes of African Americans.5 Antagonism of local citizens toward what they deemed an insult to vigilante justice only alienated blacks further from the community. In many instances, abolitionists found themselves more distanced from their neighbors than ever. The effect the trial lent to Underground Railroad activities in Auburn, NY and across Cayuga County is an increasingly important subject for further exploration. The degree of national attention this case attracted cannot be over-emphasized. A free black man accused of violently murdering four members of a white family in the evening hours of March 12th, 1846 was cause for terror and anger among local citizens. A potential verdict of not guilty under reason of insanity was a concept highly suspect in the minds of many citizens reeling in the wake of wanton brutality. The William Freeman trial was successful in drawing attention to the disparities in social advantage among whites and blacks, --- 1 Arpey, Andrew W., *The William Freeman Murder Trial*, (Syracuse (NY): Syracuse University Press, 2003), 74. 2 Arpey, 65. 3 Arpey, 163 n40. 4 Arpey, 136-137. 5 Arpey, 137. but also succeeded in inciting paranoia, suspicion, and further prejudice within similar communities across the region.\textsuperscript{6} The Fugitive Slave Act passed under the mantle of the Great Compromise of 1850 presented new challenges to the African-American community throughout central New York. The Cayuga County Courthouse became a dramatic setting for questioning the moral justice of such legislation in the fall of 1851. On October 1\textsuperscript{st}, a delegation of the Liberty Party gathered in Syracuse, New York for their annual convention. At the same time, four federal marshals from Rochester, Auburn, Canandaigua, and Syracuse gathered to arrest fugitive slave William ‘Jerry’ Henry at his work in Syracuse. The response of citizens sympathetic to the plight of ‘Jerry’ was explosive from his seizure until his eventual escape. Initially taken to the office of U.S. commissioner Joseph F. Sabine, Jerry was forcibly seized by abolitionists making his first attempt at freedom in the streets of Syracuse. Jerry was quickly recaptured and sent to the Police Station for trial later that afternoon. Meanwhile, citizen protest was growing to such a visible tenor that Commissioner Sabine was compelled to move the time of trial to the following morning. Before this could transpire, Syracuse citizens mounted an armed attack against the police station. Marshal Fitch who stood guard over Jerry was injured in the fray and escaped from the insurgents by jumping out of a second-story window. Jerry was spirited away over the next several days by local abolitionists who were able to eventually secure his passage to Kingston, Ontario. Seemingly an appropriate place to end this success story, the Jerry Rescue narrative expands to include tales of presidential indignation, accusations of treason, and growing resentment among northern and southern constituents. There is some confusion as to the number of individuals charged in connection with the Jerry Rescue. The \textit{Auburn Daily Advertiser} from October 15\textsuperscript{th}, 1851, mentions the arrival of twenty Syracuse citizens brought to Auburn for examination under the charge of treason. A month later, according to the Thirteenth Annual Report of the American & Foreign Anti-Slavery Society published in May 1853, the number had increased to between twenty and thirty individuals. David Yacovone’s work, \textit{Samuel Joseph May and the Dilemmas of the Liberal Persuasion}, accounts for four white and approximately 20 black men.\textsuperscript{7} The Jerry Rescue trial began its preliminary proceedings at the Cayuga County Courthouse in Auburn, New York, on the 15th of October, 1851. United States District Judge Alfred Conkling presided. The trial was intended to address the charge of aiding a fugitive slave to freedom by force against the orders of a warrant issued by his Missouri owner. The implications of treason weighted against the defense carried more serious considerations. On Saturday, October 18, court was adjourned until the following Monday when a decision was expected. The final verdict dismissed the charge of treason as Conkling concluded there was “no evidence of previous combination and arming for the purpose of “levying war against the United States””. Twelve defendants were charged with having “aided, abetted and assisted” the fugitive Jerry from the custody of Deputy Marshal Allen, a violation of section seven of the Fugitive Slave Law.\textsuperscript{8} The defendants had the choice to post bail or go to jail until further trial. A second session was scheduled at Buffalo’s District Court where formal indictment would be carried out by a Grand Jury. Bail was set at two thousand dollars for the white men and five hundred for the \textsuperscript{6} Arpey, 12. \textsuperscript{7} Yacovone, Donald, \textit{Samuel Joseph May and the Dilemmas of the Liberal Persuasion, 1797-1871}. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991), 148. \textsuperscript{8} Ed. Thomas, John, “Judge Conkling’s Decision in the Case of the Rescue of Jerry”, \textit{The North Star}, (Rochester: Thursday, Oct. 30, 1851). \textsuperscript{9} Ibid. black. William Seward took a proactive stance in opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law by paying the bail for the black defendants. The Jerry Rescue Trial continued over the next two years with only one man, Enoch Reed, finally convicted. Before the case could be appealed, the convict died. Abolitionists responded by suing Marshal William Allen for kidnapping. The Jerry Rescue trial, severely extenuated over a period of three years, conducted hearings in no less than five courts including Albany, Canandaigua, Buffalo, Syracuse, and Auburn. Of the five court structures only two remain: the Cayuga County Courthouse and the Canandaigua Courthouse. Cayuga County was established in 1799 as it split from Onondaga County to the east. The first Cayuga County Courthouse was located in Aurora, New York, south of Auburn along Lake Cayuga. Auburn became the county seat in 1809. The Cayuga County Courthouse located at 158 Genesee Street, Auburn, New York was built in 1836 for $30,000 by John I. Hagaman to replace an earlier wooden structure built in 1809.\(^{10}\) The structure is typical of Greek Revival Architecture prevalent in America during the 1830s and 40s. The characteristic features of this style include facing-columns, simple moldings, and heavy cornice-work inspired by Grecian models. The courthouse is a fitting example of democratic ideals emulated within the built environment. A 1922 fire wrought significant damage to the Courthouse requiring many original elements of the structure to be reproduced including the 1836 Doric columns and the entablature. The original entablature was constructed of wood and included a traditional architrave and frieze with triglyph, metopes, and cornice. The architrave, now constructed of Onondaga Litholite, or cast stone, contains the inscribed words, “Cayuga County Courthouse”, which are framed by bronze medallions.\(^{11}\) During this period, a third floor was added to the structure and many decorative elements were changed to accommodate the Neo-Classical Revival Style of the early twentieth-century. The front entrance was moved from its facing-left position to a central position on the structure’s north side. The roof which underwent severe damage during the 1922 fire has undergone the most serious renovation. Originally surmounted by a raised dome with a cupola structure, the current roof has eliminated this feature in exchange for a more fireproof alternative. The gable roof is composed of wood planking below ¾-inch asphalt covering steel girders.\(^{12}\) The entire interior of the courthouse was also replaced as the fire caused irreparable damage. In 1979 the Courthouse undertook a major renovation project intended to connect the structure to the adjacent Old County Clerk’s Office built in 1882. At this time, handicap accessibility was made available to visitors. Today, the site continues to function as both a county and federal courthouse. The structure maintains a high degree of architectural integrity, as recognized by the National Register, regardless of various renovations undertaken during the twentieth-century. The site stands along a major city artery, opposite the Historic Old Post Office Building built from 1888-1890 and alongside the County Office Building (1967). Written by Carrie Barrett Text submitted as part of nomination of the Cayuga County Courthouse to National Park Service’s National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom Program \(^{10}\) Auwaerter, John, “National Register Nomination Draft”, Cayuga County Historian’s Office, (No date given), 8. \(^{11}\) Auwaerter, 2. \(^{12}\) Ibid, 4 Fitch House 197 Genesee Street Significance: Site of Home of Abijah Fitch, abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter Looking north November 2004 Abijah Fitch Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County*, 1879 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Abijah Fitch is one of the most important European American abolitionists and Underground Railroad supporters in Auburn, part of a small, cohesive, and longstanding network that included the Seward, Wright, Austin, and Underwood families. As a real estate agent, Fitch was also important in selling land on Fitch, Parker, and Garrow Streets and Chapman Avenue to many freedom seekers, some of whose descendents still retain this property today. Abijah Fitch was born about 1799 in Cooperstown, Otsego County, New York, to Stephen and Hannah Betts Fitch, natives of Connecticut. Fitch married Lanah, daughter of Thomas and Sarah Martin Nelson about 1823 in NY. They had 10 children. Sarah S., Nelson, b. 1826 in Auburn, NY, Helen Eliza, b. 1827, Charles P., b. 1830, Henry B., b. 1832, Frances, b. 1834, Edward M., b. 1836, Cornelia, b. 1838, Horace B. b. 1839 and Emma, b. 1842.\(^{13}\) Fitch may have come to Auburn sometime before 1819, when he first bought land here, although his name did not appear in the 1820 census for Auburn. He became a prominent real estate agent and businessman in Auburn, affiliated especially with the Auburn and Syracuse Railroad. He also became an extremely active abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter. A member of the First Presbyterian Church, where he sang in the choir, he helped organize the Cayuga County Anti-Slavery Society in 1838. He supported *Frederick Douglass’s* Paper, and, in 1847, he received 10,091 votes for prison inspector on the Liberty Party ticket. In 1851, he collected funds to defend a fugitive named Long, challenging the constitutionality of the Fugitive Slave Law. In 1852, he went as delegate from Cayuga County to a convention for “friends of freedom” at Pittsburgh, 1852, along with William R. Smith of Wayne County and James R. Cox of Cayuga. Friend of abolitionist and woman’s right activist Martha Wright, Fitch was also a confidant of William Seward. He accompanied Seward on his trip around the world at the time of Seward’s purchase of Alaska. When Fitch died in 1883, his obituary noted that “at the beginning of the anti-slavery excitement and all through the contest to the triumph of the principle of natural right, Mr. Fitch was one of the most ardent and enthusiastic advocates and promoters of the new idea, his house being one of the stations on the ‘underground railroad’ for the aid and assistance of escaped slaves.”\(^{14}\) Fitch also sold many lots to freedom seekers who settled in Auburn, particularly after the Civil War on property her purchased in 1868 on the former Garrow and Richardson farm. These became Fitch, Parker, and Garrow Streets and Chapman Avenue. In all, we know of about twenty lots that Fitch sold to African Americans in this neighborhood.\(^{15}\) --- \(^{13}\) All genealogical research and land research for this report done by Tanya Warren. Maps created by Bernard Corcoran. \(^{14}\) *The Biographical Review*, 734; Joel M. Monroe, *Historical Records of a Hundred and Twenty Years* (Geneve, New York, 1913), 136; *Case and Allied Family Histories, A Documented Compilation of Genealogy and Biography* (New York: National Americana Society, 1937), 16; Elliot Storke, *History of Cayuga County* (Syracuse: D. Mason, 1879), 541 and 200; “Death of Abijah Fitch,” February 1, 1883, *Weekly News and Democrat*, found by Beth Crawford; Eliza Wright Osborne, “A Recollection of Martha Coffin Wright by her daughter,” typescript, 15, Osborne Papers, Syracuse University; *Auburn Daily Advertiser*, January 8, 1851; *National Era*, December 23, 1847; *Frederick Douglass Paper*, June 10, 1852, August 13, 1852. \(^{15}\) “Abijah Fitch, Grantor Deeds, 1823-36” and “Sales to Blacks,” Cayuga County Historian’s Office; Clark, John S., “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” A.C. Taber, Surveyor, September 1868; Deeds. These sources show that Fitch sold at least twenty properties to African American families, including eight on Chapman Avenue and Garrow Street to the Stoop, Lucas, Belt, Stewart, White, Griffen, Griffen, Purnell and families, six on the west side of Parker Street north of the AME Zion Church (47, 45, 43, 41, 39, and 37); four on Fitch (to the Diggs, Dail, Cannon, and Cale families), and at least two in the downtown area to Morgan Freeman. The location of Fitch’s own house poses a mystery. The following discussion is a very brief summary of a detailed report based on extensive research by Tanya Warren in genealogies, deeds, assessment records, local histories, and maps, assisted by Bernard Corcoran. This entire report with maps and supporting material, is in file in eight local libraries, historical societies and museums. Between 1830 and 1836, Abijah and Lanah Fitch lived on the northeast corner of Washington and Genesee Street, in a building known as The Mount, or Mount Pleasant, the grand house of the village, according to one account. This house appeared on the 1837 Hagaman and Markham map of Auburn. In 1837, however, the house became the Auburn Female Seminary, and in 1849, it burned, to be replaced the following year by a house built by Fitch’s son, Nelson. When The Mount became the Auburn Female Seminary, Fitch created others lots just east of the Seminary. He created a survey map of his property, showing these divisions. Of particular interest are two, identified currently as 195 (Lot 4) and 197 (Lot 5) Genesee Street. Survey map of Abijah Fitch’s land, corner Genesee and Washington Streets, dated May 5, 1836 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Map prepared from deed descriptions of Abijah Fitch lands, corner Washington and Genesee Streets, Bernard Corcoran, May 2005 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 195 Genesee Street The house currently at 195 Genesee Street was built between 1842 and 1844 by Spencer Parsons and Daniel Hewson, as Tanya Warren has suggested, based on the following evidence: In 1842, A. Fitch sells 195 Genesee St. (Deed Book 66, p. 120) to Spencer Parsons and Daniel Hewson (Mayor of Auburn) with express instructions that “when a dwelling house is put on said lot that the front…shall not be placed within 50 feet of the north side of Genesee St. and the house shall have a value of no less than $1500.00”. In 1844, Spencer Parsons and Daniel Hewson then sell 195 Genesee St. to Jesse Ives Parsons, (Deed Book 68, p. 207). There is a big jump in value from the sale of this house from A. Fitch to Parsons and Hewson – for $1200.00, to when Parsons and Hewson sell to Jesse Ives Parsons- for $3800.00 and minus the comment about building restrictions. This is evidence that 195 Genesee St. was built between 1842 and 1844 and that it was NOT the home of Abijah Fitch (Warren report, May 2005). 197 Genesee Street Evidence suggests that Abijah Fitch built the house currently at 197 Genesee Street between 1837 and 1841. In 1840, the census listed Fitch as living next door to Benjamin Ashby, to whom Fitch had sold lot 3, just east of this lot, in 1839. In 1841, Fitch sold lot 3, just east of the current 195 Genesee Street, to Israel F. Terril for $1200. He measured the lot “Beginning at a point on Genesee St. on the north side (2) chains and 38 ½ links east of the east side of the east wall of said Fitch’s dwelling house” (Deed Book 63, p. 49, recorded April 22, 1841). If Fitch did not have a house standing at 197 Genesee Street, the Auburn Female Seminary, Fitch’s former home, was only other building this deed could have referred to. Although Fitch was a Seminary trustee, would the deed have called the Seminary in 1841 “Abijah Fitch’s house”? It seems unlikely. We know that Fitch still owned the property at 197 Genesee Street in 1846, and there was probably a house on it, since Abijah Fitch sold it that year to Spencer Parsons for $9300.00. (Deed Book 72, p. 514). To summarize the evidence: • Abijah Fitch owned all the land on the northwest corner of Genesee and Washington Street in 1837. • In March 1837, Fitch sold his house and land on the corner of Genesee and Washington to the Trustees of the Auburn Female Academy (of which he was one), and they began to use his former home, The Mount, for the Female Seminary. • In 1839, Fitch began to sell off lots east of the Female Academy. • In 1840, Fitch was living next door to Benjamin Ashby, to whom he had sold land just east of this lot in 1839. • An 1841 deed for lot 3 (Fitch to Terril), east of the current 195 Genesee Street, mentioned “Abijah Fitch’s house” in approximately the location of the current 197 Genesee Street. • In 1846, Fitch sold the lot at 197 Genesee Street for $9300, a sum large enough to suggest that the lot contained a house on it. • Architectural form and details are consistent with construction in the late 1830s or early 1840s. The house is Federal in form, five-bay, with its broad side to street. Greek Revival details surround the front door, including columns and a lintel. It is reasonable to conclude that Abijah Fitch built the house currently at 197 Genesee Street between 1837 and 1841 and that the Fitch family lived in it between 1837 and 1846. The Auburn Female Seminary burned in 1849, and shortly thereafter, Abijah Fitch’s son, Nelson, built a new house on the site. By 1857, according to the first city directory, Lanah and Abijah Fitch were living at 216 Genesee Street, a house that no longer stands. Fitch House, 216 Genesee Street, Courtesy of Cayuga Museum Many thanks to Tanya Warren for her extraordinary research work, to Bernard Corcoran for his professional maps, to Sheila Tucker and Mary Gilmore for locating biographical material about Fitch, and to Beth Crawford for finding Fitch’s obituary. This report written by Judith Wellman and Tanya Warren. Site of Morgan and Catharine Freeman House and Barbershop 3 Court Street (Lumber Court) and northeast corner of South Street and Cumpston Lane (now Lt. Dwyer Lane) Auburn, New York Significance: Site of one of Auburn’s most important Underground Railroad stations and home of one of Auburn’s most important African American families Born enslaved of John Hardenburgh, European American founder of Auburn, in 1803, of Kate and Harry Freeman, Morgan Lewis (“Luke”) Freeman grew up to become an anchor of the African American community in Auburn. At his barbershop on the southeast corner of Cumpston Lane and South Street (and then, after 1857) on the northeast corner of State and Genesee Streets, and at his home at 3 Court Street, Morgan Freeman, with his wife, Catharine Freeman, kept an Underground Railroad Station for twenty-nine years. Luke Freeman’s father, Harry Freeman, was a childhood friend (as well as a slave) of John Hardenburgh, white founder of Auburn. In 1889, Michael S. Myers remembered Harry Freeman as “a darkie of the deepest dye, who lived amongst us to a good old age, (said to be 100) and was always foremost in wild adventures, or rather in relating them. He will be remembered by our old citizens as an original character, whose ruling passion was to tell big stories, and great devotion to the Hardenbergh family.” Given land by Hardenbergh along the Owasco outlet, he and his family Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 formed the core of what became known as the Negro Settlement or New Guinea, shown on the 1837 Hagaman map of Auburn. His land ownership did not spare him from poverty, however, and he spent some time in the poorhouse, where his health was “good” and his habits “temperant.” He was released on April 19, 1845. He died December 20, 1845, age 92.\footnote{Michael S. Myers, “Recollections of Auburn,” \textit{Collections of the Cayuga County Historical Society}, 7 (1889), 117. Thanks to Peter Wisby for finding this. Poorhouse records, transcribed by Tanya Warren.} John Hardenbergh recorded Morgan Freeman’s birth in Town of Aurelius records. “This may certify that on the 27\textsuperscript{th} day of May in the year 1803 was born a male child whom I call Lewis being a son of my servants [sic] Harry & Cate. Entered 3\textsuperscript{rd} may 1804. John L. Hardenbergh. I. Haring T. Clk.”\footnote{Town of Aurelius Records, 441a, Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Online at Cayuga County GenWeb site, http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~springport/pictures/77/aureliusminutes/page441a.jpg.} Luke Freeman probably grew up with his parents and other family members in New Guinea. He became, said his obituary, first a gunsmith, a trade that he followed with “considerable success,” and then a barber.\footnote{Obituary, \textit{Auburn Advertiser and Union}, April 10, 1863.} He did well enough to purchase two pieces of property from Abijah Fitch on June 5, 1847, and July 1, 1848, the first for $250 on Lot 51 Cumpston Street (now Lincoln Street) and the second for $250 on the northeast corner of Cumpston Lane and South Street, next to the Presbyterian Church and just north and across from the Seward House.\footnote{Deed book 75, page 93, and book 77, page 470, Cayuga County Clerk’s Office.} Morgan Freeman bought Lot XXXI in 1847 and Lot at northeast corner of Cumpston Lane (“Lanes”) and South Street in 1848 A.W. Hackley, “Map of Part of Auburn Village,” 1837.\textsuperscript{20} Cumpston Lane Looking east, November 2004 Lot purchased by Morgan Freeman in 1848 was on the south (right) side of this lane Hagaman and Markham, \textit{Map of the Village of Auburn} (Auburn: Peabody, 1837) In 1837, Morgan Freeman’s property at the northeast corner of Cumpston Lane and South Street (just north of Second Presbyterian Church) had a building on it. \textsuperscript{20} Cayuga County Clerk’s Office, Map 1-11. Thanks to Bernie Corcoran for finding this. Second Presbyterian Church, 1837 Hagaman and Markham, *Map of the Village of Auburn*, 1837 This stood just south of Morgan Freeman’s lot at the corner of Cumpston Lane and South Street, when he purchased it in 1848. Whether Freeman kept his barbershop here, or whether he used these lots for some other purpose is not known. An advertisement in the *Auburn Daily Advertiser* on January 9, 1851, noted that Luke Freeman’s barbershop was located in the American Hotel on Genesee Street. By 1857, the city directory noted that Freeman had moved his barbershop to a new site, 113 Genesee Street, at the northeast corner of Genesee and State Street. The following year, on January 26, 1858, he signed his mark on a mortgage for much of what he owned (including two sofas, three shaving chairs, six office chairs, two lounges, one cup rack, five looking glasses, razors and shaving apparatus, and three shaving stands) to Frances E. Fuller, along with $83.33, which was one-sixth of the purchase price for a house and lot at 3 Court Street. Burgett Freeman, were involved in 1858. Nat and Lizzie Amby escaped from Cambridge, Maryland, to Auburn and wrote a letter back to inform their family. Their story is best told in the words of William Still and in Nat Amby’s own letter. As Still reported, Nat is no ordinary man. Like a certain other Nat known to history, his honest and independent bearing in every respect was that of a natural hero. He was full black, and about six feet high; of powerful physical proportions, and of more than ordinary intellectual capacities. With the strongest desire to make the Port of Canada safely he had resolved to be “carried back,” if attacked by the slave hunters, “only as a dead man.” He was held to service by John Muir, a wealthy farmer, and the owner of 40 or 50 slaves. “Muir would drink and was generally devilish.” Two of Nat’s sisters and one of his brothers had been “sold away to Georgia by him.” Therefore, admonished by threats and fears of having to pass through the same fiery furnace, Nat was led to consider the U. G. R. R. scheme. It was through the marriage of Nat’s mistress to his present owner that he came into Muir’s hands. “Up to the time of her death,” he had been encouraged to “hope” that he would be “free;” indeed, he was assured by her “dying testimony that the slaves were not to be sold.” But regardless of the promises and will of his departed wife, Muir soon extinguished all hopes of freedom from that quarter. But not believing that God had put one man here to “be the servant of another--to work,” and get none of the benefit of his labor, Nat armed himself with a good pistol and a big knife, and taking his wife with him, bade adieu forever to bondage. Observing that Lizzie (Nat’s wife) looked pretty decided and resolute, a member of the committee remarked, “Would your wife fight for freedom?” “I have heard her say she would wade through blood and tears for her freedom,” said Nat, in the most serious mood. The following advertisement from *The Cambridge Democrat* of Nov. 4, speaks for itself- $300 REWAKD.--Ran away from the subscriber, on Saturday night last, 17th inst., my negro woman Lizzie, about 28 years old. She is medium sized, dark complexion, good-looking, with rather a down look. When spoken to, replies quickly. She was well dressed, wearing a red and green blanket shawl, and carried with her a variety of clothing. She ran off in company with her husband, Nat Amby (belonging to John Muir, Esq.), who is about 6 feet in height, with slight impediment in his speech, dark chestnut color, and a large scar on the side of his neck. I will give the above reward if taken in this County, or one-half of what she sells for if taken out of the County or State. In either case to be lodged in Cambridge Jail Cambridge, Oct. 21, 1857. ALEXANDER H. BAYLY. P. S.-For the apprehension of the above-named negro man Nat, and delivery in Cam-bridge Jail, I will give $500 reward. JOHN MUIR. Now since Nat’s master has been introduced in the above order it seems but appropriate that Nat should be heard too; consequently the following letter is inserted for what it is worth: AUBUBN, June 10th, 1858. MR. WILLIAM STILL:-Sir, will you be so Kind as to write a letter to affey White in strawberry alley in Baltimore city on the point Say to her at nat Ambey that I wish to Know from her the Last Letar that Joseph Ambie and Henry Ambie two Brothers and Ann Warfield a cousin of them two boys I state above I would like to hear from my mother sichy Ambie you will Please write to my mother and tell her that I am well and doing well and state to her that I perform my Relissius dutys and I would like to hear from her and want to know if she is performing her Relissius dutys yet and send me word from all her children I left behind say to affey White that I wish her to write me a Letter in Hast my wife is well and doing well and my nephew is doing well Please tell affey White when she writes to me to Let me know where Joseph and Henry Ambie is Mr. Still Please Look on your Book and you will find my name on your Book They was eleven of us children and all when we came through and I feal interrested about my Brothers I have never heard from them since I Left home you will Please Be Kind annough to attend to this Letter When you send the answer to this Letter you will Please send it to P. R. Freeman Auburn City Cayuga County New York Yours Truly NAT AMBIE\textsuperscript{22} In 1859, Luke Freeman appears to have had a stroke. He remained paralyzed until his death on April 9, 1863. His obituary noted that Luke had become almost ‘an institution’ in Auburn, not only on account of his general cleverness and usefulness, but as the leading sympathizer with his race yet in bondage. For more than 29 years his house was a refuge of the fleeing fugitive, derisively called ‘The Underground Railroad Depot.’ His practical sympathy for those unfortunates won him the esteem of all those who were cognizant of his labors.\textsuperscript{23} [Auburn Advertiser and Union] His funeral, held at his house, attracted hundreds of Auburn citizens, both black and white. As the Auburn Daily Advertiser noted: The funeral of Luke Freeman took place yesterday from his residence in Court Street, and was one of the most solemn and imposing scenes of the times. Luke was the ‘Uncle Tom’ of his people here—clever, kind, generous, good. He had been the benefactor, indeed, of hundreds and perhaps thousands of his race. He had been so good in so many ways that white folks had forgotten that he was black. He had most emphatically conquered the prejudices existing against his race. To the everlasting credit of the white people of our city they turned out in large numbers to Luke’s funeral, just as they usually do to the funerals of our most respectable white citizens. Five of our most distinguished clergymen officiated. Rev. Dr. Hawley read the Scriptures, Rev. Mr. Ives offered the prayer, Rev. Mr. Fowler and Rev. Mr. Hosmer delivered short discourses, Rev. Dr. Huntington pronounced the benediction. And all the services were deeply impressive and solemn. \textsuperscript{22} William Still, The Underground Railroad (Philadelphia, 1872), 103-104. \textsuperscript{23} Obituary, Auburn Advertiser and Union, April 10, 1863. Fourteen carriages full of people, white and black, followed his remains to the grave in the old North street cemetery, where he was buried with his ancestors. Rev. Dr. Hawley addressed the people and invoked benediction there. It seemed to be a tribute to remarkable goodness on the part of an old colored Patriarch, in which all our people (?) to join. There was interest in the fact that he had been a slave. There was interest, also, in the fact that the surviving mother of his wife was born in Africa over a hundred years ago, and remembers the evacuation of New York by the British and the entry there of Geo. Washington, whose person and deportment she minutely describes. She remembers the time when Sinclair Smith, of this county, was U.S. Marshal, and when he arrested certain parties for the complicity in the treasonable projects of Aaron Burr. There was more of interest, however, in the fact that he had risen above the clouds which hung over his race, and conquered the prejudices of the people against those of his color. As he himself had said in his life time, ‘Nobody in Auburn regarded him as a Negro—they respected him as Luke.’ Well, death reduces all distinctions created by wealth or color: and none of our most courtly aristocrats went to their graves with any higher honors then were borne by good old Luke. He was a good man. Peace to his ashes.\footnote{Auburn Daily Advertiser, April 11, 1863. From Seward House scrapbooks. Transcribed by Seward House.} After Freeman’s death, his wife, Catherine Freeman, continued to live there. When she died in 1866, she left an estate worth about $1400 to her six children.\footnote{Will of Catherine Freeman, Book Z, 635.} Primary research by Tanya Warren, with assistance from Scott Anderson, Bernie Corcoran, Sheila Tucker, Peter Wisbey. Will of Catherine Freeman, wife of Morgan Luke Freeman Cayuga County Records Retention, Book Z, p. 635. Found and transcribed by Tanya Warren Dated 28 November 1866 Petitioner, Matilda Haines Executor, Charles Burris Heirs: 1. Lewis H. Freeman of Phil., PA 2. Burgett Freeman of Cleveland, OH 3. Harriet A. Dubois of St. Catherine’s, Canada 4. Helen Elizabeth Freeman of Auburn, NY 5. George E. Freeman of New Orleans 6. Matilda Freeman Haines of Auburn Her children, all of full age, no surviving husband. Value of Estate not to exceed $1400 Will proved, 5 July 1878 Signed: Matilda Alice Haines and written in by Matilda, “Hellin Elisabeth Freeman”, her mark X. Witnesses to will: Charles P. Williams of Auburn, Royal P. Stow, Edward Groot and Charles H. Stow for Royal Stow, deceased 1878. Will: I, Catherine, of sound mind, etc., age 60 years give the following: 1. Charles Edward Freeman, $1.00 2. Burgett Freeman, $1.00 3. Lewis Henry Freeman, 1 undivided half of all the barber’s tools and fixtures now in my possession. 4. George and Edgar Freeman, the other undivided half of the above. 5. To Matilda Alice Haines, my gold watch and chain. 6. All residue of personal and all realestate to my three daughters, Harriet Augusta Butler, Helen Eliz. Freeman and Matilda Haines. Hornbeck Family Houses 38 and 40 Jefferson Street Auburn, New York Significance: Homes of freedom seeker (Sebeo Hornbeck) and African American community leaders (including John Hornbeck, barber, and Stephen Murray, postal worker) Sebeo and Mary Hornbeck House, 40 Jefferson Street (gray house on left) John and Cornelia Hornbeck House, 38 Jefferson Street (pink house in middle) Looking southeast, April 2005 Photo by Tanya Warren Sebeo and Mary Hornbeck House, 40 Jefferson Street Looking east, April 2005 Photo by Tanya Warren Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 These Hornbeck-Murray houses represent four important themes: 1. the settlement of African Americans in Auburn on the north side of Genesee Street, as they expanded beyond the original “New Guinea” settlement located between the Owasco Outlet and Osborne Street (once called Mechanic Street). 2. the earliest settlement in Auburn of freedom seekers from the South. Sebeo Hornbeck, who listed his birthplace in the 1860 census as Maryland, may have been a freedom seeker. He arrived in Auburn about 1840, near the beginning of Underground Railroad activity in Auburn. 3. the continuity of African American families in Auburn. Several generations of Hornbecks and Murrays resided in Auburn, from the 1830s until at least the early twentieth century. 4. The economic success of many African Americans in Auburn. Sebeo Hornbeck worked as a laborer. Their sons John and Alfred became barbers. Between 1865 and 1870, their daughter, Cornelia, married Stephen Murray, who became the first African American clerk in the post office in Auburn. These Hornbeck houses were very difficult to locate, because Auburn addresses in this area changed three times. As houses continued to be built on the large blocks between here and Genesee Street, more addresses were added on Jefferson Street. A deed search, however, revealed a clear title to the property going back directly to the Hornbecks, who first acquired these lots in 1854. In 1854, Thomas Howe sold lot 26, as identified on the Lewis Clark map of 1835, to Sebeo Hornbeck and his son John Hornbeck. (See attached deeds.) Tracing deed ownership from the Hornbecks to current owners, and following street number changes through city directories and Auburn’s 9/11 conversion directory, we can identify Sebeo Hornbeck’s house as 40 Jefferson Street and John Hornbeck’s house as 38 Jefferson Street. As reported by Tanya Warren, who did the research on these houses, “lot measurements still reflect the division in lot 26 [from the original Hornbeck deeds] down to the present day and match the original map exactly. The ‘Laneway’ in the map is now seen as a wider gap between Sebeo’s house and the next house to the north.” Later in the century, John Hornbeck’s son owned the house north of Sebeo Hornbeck’s home. Other African American families owned several more houses in this block, on the same side of the street as the Hornbeck homes. The first African Americans in Auburn came as some of the first settlers. They were counted as slaves of John Hardenburgh, who later gave them land along the west side of the Owasco outlet, between the outlet and Mechanic (now Osborne) Street, just north of the bridge. By the 1830s, however, Auburn was expanding west along the Seneca Turnpike and north toward the prison. Here, most of Auburn’s people—whether black or white, rich or poor—settled. Among them was Sebeo Hornbeck, who appeared as a free person of color in the 1840 Auburn Census. He probably arrived shortly before the census was taken, since the 1855 census reported that he had lived in Auburn for 15 years. Sebeo Hornbeck was probably born about 1785 in Maryland. (He reported his birthplace to the census taker in 1850 as New York, but this was just before passage of the Fugitive Slave Act, when reporting accurately your place of birth to a --- 1 Many thanks to Tanya Warren for such careful detective work. federal official, if you were born in slavery, might jeopardize your freedom. In 1855, Sebeo Hornbeck left his birthplace blank. In 1860, he reported that he had been born in Maryland.) If he was born in Maryland, he was one of the earliest documented African Americans born in the South to settle in Cayuga County. Quite likely, he arrived on the Underground Railroad. By 1850, Sebeo Hornbeck was 65 years old. He and his wife, Mary, age 51 (who reported her birthplace as Rhode Island), had four children at home: John, 22, a barber; Sarah, 19; Alfred, 15, a barber; and Cornelia, 8. Several children may have died or moved away, for the 1865 census reported that Mary had been the mother of eleven children. Sebeo and Mary Hornbeck also had two boarders in 1850: George Swartz, age 32, a barber, and Dean Blufield, age 30, a laborer. On April 2, 1850, Sebeo Hornbeck made a contract with Thomas Howe. When it was “fully performed,” in return for $62.50, he received the north half of lot 26, at what is now 40 Jefferson Street, in a deed recorded March 31, 1854 (Book 87, p. 471-472). At the same time, recorded in the same deed, John Hornbeck “of Skaneateles,” then 26 years old, received the south half of the same lot, now 38 Jefferson Street. (The 1855 and 1860 census listed John and Cornelia Hornbeck and their children in Springport.) 1835 Lewis Clark Map of Jefferson St. (going SE to NW) Lot 26 on this 1835 was divided into two sections. The north half was Sebeo Horbeck’s. The south half went to John Hornbeck. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 In 1855, Sebeo Hornbeck was 69 years old. Mary was 55. The only child left at home was their youngest, Cornelia, age 14. By 1860, Sebeo (now 76, born in Maryland), Mary (62, who listed her birthplace as New Jersey), and Cornelia (18, born in New Jersey) still lived in the same house. By 1865, Sebeo Hornbeck had died. Mary, age 65, was now listed as “owner of land.” John, age 35 and still a barber, and Cornelia, age 30, had returned from Springport. They lived in the same house with his mother, Mary, and his sister, Cornelia, age 22. John and Cornelia had two children: Frank, age 12, and Alfred, 6. A niece, Jane Buck, age 14, also lived in their household, as did Stephen Murray, a laborer, age 27. In 1865, John was listed as an owner of land worth $1000. Perhaps this included both these houses, and they rented out one of them. John’s brother, Alfred, age 29, and also a barber, lived with his wife, Susan, age 28, in a boarding house that included John Stewart, one of Harriet Tubman’s brothers, and his new wife, Milla. By 1870, John and Cornelia Hornbeck had three children: Frank, 17, now a barber; Alfred, 12; and a new son, Frederick, 4. Mary Hornbeck, age 67, still lived with them, but Cornelia Hornbeck had married Stephen Murray. The Murray family moved into the former Sebeo Hornbeck house on the north half of lot 26 at 40 Jefferson Street. Stephen, age 35, worked as a laborer. Cornelia, kept house for their new son, Louis, four months old, and her father-in-law, Isaac Murray, age 60. In March 1877, Stephen Murray was appointed a clerk in the U.S. Post Office in Auburn. He worked there into the early twentieth century and became the oldest employed clerk in the office.\(^2\) By 1880, the census taker listed Stephen Murray as 39 years old and a clerk in the post office. Cornelia Murray, 34 was keeping house for her husband, five children (Louie, age 10; Archie, 8; William H, 6; and Mary, 5), and her father-in-law, Stephen Murray (born, like his son, in Massachusetts) and her mother, Mary Hornbeck, age 81. Next door, her brother John, age 48 was a barber, living with his wife Cornelia, and their son, Frederick. They shared the house with John’s brother, Frank, also a barber, age 27, and Frank’s wife, also named Cornelia, and their children, Maud M., 3; John, 2; and George J., six months. --- \(^2\) *Auburn Souvenir: New York State Association of Letter Carriers: Fifth Annual Convention 1904* (Auburn: Knapp, Peck & Thomson, 1904). Thanks to Mary Gilmore and Anthony Gero for finding this information. S.B. Murray *Auburn Souvenir: New York State Association of Letter Carriers: Fifth Annual Convention 1904* (Auburn: Knapp, Peck & Thomson, 1904). Courtesy of Seymour Library Research by Mary Gilmore and Anthony Gero. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 | LAST | FIRST | Town | YEAR | Property/Lot # | ACRES | REAL-$ | PERS-$ | TOTAL-$ | MISC. | |------------|-----------|--------|------|----------------|-------|--------|--------|---------|----------------| | Hornbeck | Sebeo | Auburn | 1850 | Shanty | Jefferson | 0.50 | | 0.50 | | | Hornbeck | Sebeo | Auburn | 1851 | H/L | Jefferson | 150.00 | | 150.00 | | | Hornbeck | Sebeo | Auburn | 1852 | H/L | Jefferson | 150.00 | | 150.00 | | | Hornbeck | Sebeo | Auburn | 1853 | H/L | Jefferson | 150.00 | | 150.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1853 | | | | | | no other data | | Hornbeck | Sebeo | Auburn | 1854 | H/L | Jefferson | 150.00 | | 150.00 | | | Hornbeck | Sebeo | Auburn | 1857 | H/L | Jefferson | 150.00 | | 150.00 | | | Hornbeck | Sibbie | Auburn | 1860 | H/L | Jefferson | 0.50 | | 0.50 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1860 | H/L | Jefferson | 100.00 | | 100.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1861 | H/L | 3rd ward | 100.00 | | 100.00 | Paid by John H. | | Hornbeck | Estate (Sebeo) | Auburn | 1861 | | 3rd ward | 250.00 | 100.00 | 350.00 | Paid by John H. | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1864 | Jefferson | H/L | 200.00 | | 200.00 | | | Hornbeck | Sebeo | Auburn | 1864 | Jefferson | H/L | 25.00 | | 25.00 | | | Hornbeck | Estate (Sebeo) | Auburn | 1866 | H/L | 3rd ward | 50.00 | | 50.00 | Paid by John H. | | Hornbeck | Estate (Sebeo) | Auburn | 1868 | Jefferson | H/L | 100.00 | | 100.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1873 | 18 Jefferson | H/L | 250.00 | | 250.00 | | | Hornbeck | Mary (wife Sebeo) | Auburn | 1873 | 14 Jefferson | H/L | 75.00 | | 75.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1874 | H/L | 18 Jeff.| 575.00 | | 575.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1874 | 18 Jefferson | H/L | 575.00 | | 575.00 | | | Hornbeck | Mary (wife Sebeo) | Auburn | 1874 | 14 Jefferson | H/L | 150.00 | | 150.00 | | | Hornbeck | Mary (wife Sebeo) | Auburn | 1878 | H/L | 14 Jeff.| 200.00 | | 200.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1878 | H/L | 16 Jeff.| 300.00 | | 300.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1882 | 28 Jefferson | H/L | 300.00 | | 300.00 | | | Hornbeck | Mary (wife Sebeo) | Auburn | 1882 | 30 Jefferson | H/L | 400.00 | | 400.00 | | | Hornbeck | Mary (wife Sebeo) | Auburn | 1883 | 30 Jefferson | H/L | 300.00 | | 300.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1884 | 28 Jefferson | H/L | 300.00 | | 300.00 | | | Hornbeck | Mary (wife Sebeo) | Auburn | 1884 | 30 Jefferson | H/L & residence | 400.00 | | 400.00 | | | Hornbeck | John | Auburn | 1891 | 28 Jefferson | H/L | 400.00 | | 400.00 | | | Hornbeck | Mary (wife Sebeo) | Auburn | 1891 | 30 Jefferson | H/L | 400.00 | | 400.00 | | Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 38 Jefferson St., Auburn, NY (previously 36) **Current Owner:** Thomas Redmond & Charlene A. Angotti Tax Map # 115-59-1-38 Book 747, p. 94 Date purchased: 29 Sept 1987 Grantor: Cuddeback **DiMora to Cuddeback** Book 501, p. 121 Date purchased: 11 Aug 1976 **Tutino to DiMora** City Book 65, p. 563 Date: 28 Sept 1929 Description excerpts: All that parcel on Lot 26 of Lewis Clark map being 33.66 feet wide on the east side, 135 feet deep and 16.5 feet wide in rear, bounded south by John Holliday’s lot (1865), west by Jefferson St., north by the north half of Lot 26 conveyed to Sebeo Hornbeck 31 Mar 1854. Being the same as conveyed by Tutino by Parrino 14 Sept 1921 in City Book 54, p. 484. **Maude Flanagan to Tutino** City Book 50, p. 356 Date: 20 Nov 1918 Description Excerpts: All that parcel on Lot 26 of Lewis Clark map being 33.66 feet wide on the east side, 135 feet deep and 16.5 feet wide in rear, bounded south by John Holliday’s lot (1865), west by Jefferson St., north by the north half of Lot 26 conveyed to Sebeo Hornbeck 31 Mar 1854, east by Lot 25, being the same premises conveyed to Cornelia Hornbeck by Catherine Freeman 13 Nov 1865 and recorded in Book 111, p. 201 and being the same as conveyed to Maude Flanagan by Augustus Hornbeck and wife by deed dated 21 Oct 1918 with John Hornbeck, Willard Hornbeck, Alfred Hornbeck and Jennie Hornbeck. **Catherine Freeman of Auburn to Cornelia Hornbeck of Springport** Book 111, p. 201 Date: 13 Nov 1865 Description Excerpts: For $500 all that certain ½ of Lot 26 on a map of Lewis Clark, said lot on the east side of Jefferson St in Auburn and is about 33.66 feet wide on Jefferson and about 135 deep and 16.5 feet wide in rear being bounded south by John Holliday’s lot, west by Jefferson, north by the north ½ of said lot deeded to Sebeo Hornbeck on 31 March 1854 and east by lot 25. Note: On the same day, in Book 111, p. 200, John and Cornelia Hornbeck of Springport sell to Catherine Freeman of Auburn for $500, same property as described above. **Thomas and Sarah Howe of Auburn to John Hornbeck of Skaneateles** Book 87, p. 471-472 Date: 31 March 1854 For $62.50, all that certain ½ of lot 26 on the east side of Jefferson St. (south ½), etc. This deed is made pursuant to a contract made between Thomas Howe and Sebeo Hornbeck on April 2, 1850 which has been fully performed on the part of said Sebeo Hornbeck. 40 Jefferson St (previously 38) Current Owner: Pamela A. Tinti Tax Map # 115.59-1-37 Book 783, p. 267 Date purchased: April 26, 1989 Grantor: Julia Stefaniw Carmello Signorelli to John and Julia Stefaniw City Book 91, p. 267 Date purchased: April 5, 1951 Luciano Signorelli to Carmello Signorelli City Book 90, p. 7 Date purchased: 30 Jan 1950 Matteo Carnicelli to Luciano Cignorelli City Book 64, p. 279 Date purchased: Aug 1 1928 Description extracts: North ½ of lot 26 bounded on the south by the south ½ of lot 26, etc. being the same as conveyed to Sebeo Hornbeck by Thomas Howe in 1854. Also being the same premises as conveyed to Matteo Carnicelli by Stephen B. and Cornelia (Hornbeck) Murray by deed dated Jan 24, 1920. Stephen B. and Cornelia Murray of Rochester, NY to Matteo and Margaret Carnicelli City Book 52, p. 86 Date: 4 Jan 1920 Description extracts: North ½ of lot 26 bounded on the south by the south ½ of lot 26, etc. being the same as conveyed to Sebeo Hornbeck by Thomas Howe in 1854, for $1.00 to the Carnicelli’s, tenants in kind. Also being the same as conveyed to Cornelia Murray by John Hornbeck and wife by deed dated Mar 31, 1890 in City Book 23, p. 380. John and Cornelia Hornbeck of Auburn to Cornelia Murray of Auburn City Book 23, p. 380-81 (see note below) Date: March 31, 1890 Description extracts: For $75, all that certain north ½ of Lot # 26 on a map, etc., being 33.66 feet wide on Jefferson St., about 135 feet deep and 16.5 feet wide in the rear, being bounded south by the south ½ of said lot deeded to John Hornbeck on March 31, 1854; west by by Jefferson St. and east by lot 25 and are the same premises conveyed to Sebeo Hornbeck by Thomas How, Jr. March 31, 1854 in Deed Book 87, p. 471. The interest of the party of the first part hereby inteded to be conveyed, is such as he owns as heir at law of said Sebeo Hornbeck and heir at law of deceased children of said Sebeo Hornbeck, deceased. Signed by the mark of John Hornbeck and the hand of Cornelia Hornbeck. Thomas and Sarah Howe of Auburn to Sebeo Hornbeck of Auburn Book 87, p. 471-472 Date: 31 March 1854 For $62.50, all that north half of lot 26 on the east side of Jefferson, etc. This deed is made pursuant to a contract made between Thomas Howe and Sebeo Hornbeck on April 2, 1850 which has been fully performed on the part of said Sebeo Hornbeck. **Note:** Dec 21, 1886, deed of Georgette Minns of Syracuse and Ruth Jackson, heirs and next of kin of Deborah Depuy, deceased and Sarah Morris, a daughter of Sebeo Hornbeck, deceased to Cornelia Murray in City Book 23, p. 380, for $1, all that certain north ½ of Lot # 26 on a map, etc., being 33.66 feet wide on Jefferson St., about 135 feet deep and 16.5 feet wide in the rear, being bounded south by the south ½ of said lot deeded to John Hornbeck on March 31, 1854; west by by Jefferson St. and east by lot 25 and are the same premises conveyed to Sebeo Hornbeck by Thomas How, Jr. March 31, 1854 in Deed Book 87, p. 471, and being the same premises of which Sebeo Hornbeck, deceased, died seized, and which were conveyed to him by Thomas How, etc. **Note: County Tax Sale** City Book 21, p. 649-650 Date: Oct 3, 1888 Description: County of Cayuga to Cornelia Murray, occupant: You are hereby notified that at the annual sale of lands by the treasurer for delinquent taxes thereon, the following described land, viz., Auburn City, 8th Ward, Jefferson Street, East side, Lot 30 Mary Hornbeck-bounded north 140.7 feet by a lane; east 16.6 by Hardwick; south 135 feet by John Hornbeck and west 33.8 feet by the east line of Jefferson St. was sold for such delinquency to Stephen B. Murray, highest bidder, for the sum of $6.65 being the amount of tax, expenses and interest upon said land to the day of said sale. Stephen B. Murray, upon being duly sworn, says that on the 23rd day of July, 1889, he served the foregoing notice upon Cornelia Murray, the occupant of said premises and that such service was made by delivering personally, etc. This indenture made this 4th day of October 1889 between Horace Cook, county treasurer and Stephen B. Murray of Auburn…whereas such taxes of $3.51 were in arrears and not paid and against Mary Hornbeck on the land hereafter described…do now convey to the party of the 2nd part all that parcel in Auburn City, 8th Ward, Jefferson Street, East side, Lot 30 of Mary Hornbeck-bounded north 140.7 feet by a lane; east 16.6 by Hardwick; south 135 feet by John Hornbeck and west 33.8 feet by the east line of Jefferson St. excepting and reserving thereout the undivided 1/5 part thereof, heretofore redeemed from such sale by John Hornbeck for himself as heir at law of Sebeo Hornbeck, Alfred Hornbeck and Catherine Owens, to have & to hold, etc. William Hosmer House 29 Washington Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of Abolitionist Editor, Author, and Underground Railroad Supporter Influenced by ideals of Christian perfectionism and believing that it was both possible and necessary to implement God’s laws on earth, William Hosmer was a nationally important figure, both as editor and author. Hosmer was also part of the tightly-knit abolitionist and Underground Railroad network in Auburn, centered around the Seward-Wright-Underwood-Fitch families. As editor of the *Northern Christian Advocate*, published at 16 Clark Street, Auburn, Hosmer believed that “holiness or moral purity is one of the most essential principles of the gospel, but slavery is a violation of that right.” His radical abolitionist views alienated leaders of the Methodist General Conference and led him to establish, with the help of a sympathetic Methodist publication committee, a new abolitionist newspaper, the *Northern Independent*, published at 113 Genesee Street from 1856–65. Its motto was “No compromise with sin, no silent submission to wrong in church or state, a bold advocacy of all the moral issues of the age and especially of an uncompromising Christianity.” In 1859, it had a circulation of 10,000. Copies of both of these papers are located in the Cayuga County Historian’s Office.\(^3\) Hosmer’s book, *The Higher Law in Its Relations of Civil Government, with Particular References to Slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law* (Auburn: Derby and Miller, 1852), was dedicated to William Henry Seward. Hosmer was not alone in advocating adherence to a higher law. (William Lloyd Garrison, in Boston, burned the U.S. Constitution because he thought it was a proslavery document, “an agreement with death and a covenant with hell.”) As an Auburn resident, however, Hosmer may have had a particular influence on his neighbor, William Henry Seward, who gave a famous speech on the “higher law” in 1850, in opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act. In a second book, *Slavery and the Church* (Freeport, New York, 1853), Hosmer explored the connection between slavery and religion. He also edited the *Autobiography of* --- \(^3\) *Newspapers of Cayuga County*. [Check] Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Rev. Alvin Torry, *First Missionary to the Six Nations and the Northwestern Tribes of British North America* (Auburn, 1864). Both William Hosmer and his wife were interested in temperance and women’s education, as well as antislavery. Mrs. Hosmer helped form a Martha Washington Society in Auburn in the 1840s, promoting the teetotal principle of temperance, i.e. abstinence from all forms of alcoholic consumption. William Hosmer was involved in trying to form a female college in Auburn.\(^4\) In February 1861, Martha Wright, who lived on Genesee Street not far from the Hosmers, wrote a letter to her sister, Lucretia Mott, clearly indicating that William Hosmer was part of the local abolitionist-Underground Railroad network that included the Wright, Seward, and Tubman families: I called at Mrs. Seward’s on my way home, [wrote Martha Wright]. D. [David Wright, her husband]…lent me a letter to shew them, enquiring after Harriet Tubman written by Chas. Mills of Syracuse, saying that she left Canistota en route to Auburn, & that a slaveholder was there the day before enquiring as to the possibility of retaking slaves here—Mr. Mills sd. they cd. learn nothing about Harriet & wished to know if she was here—He also sent a word of caution to fugitives here. D. sent the letter to Mr. Hosmer, & he read it [to] Harriets folks—She has not been heard from, but I told one of her slaves that I tho’t most likely Mr. Smith had sent her to Canada.\(^5\) In 1877, Elliott Storke summed up William Hosmer’s career in an article for the Cayuga County Historical Society. “His convictions were earnest and sincere,” wrote Storke, “and at all times plainly expressed. He was an ‘agitator and reformer’ of no mean ability and as such always stood in the front ranks—boldly confronting the opponents of his opinions, and challenging their admiration by the firmness and consistency of his course. Slavery and intemperance were especially obnoxious to him, and no one ever contended against them with greater zeal and energy.”\(^6\) Hosmer’s unwavering commitment to equality and a higher spiritual law strengthened abolitionist sentiment not only among Methodists but also for his fellow townsman, William Henry Seward. Through Seward, this doctrine of a higher law became a powerful influence in national politics in the years immediately before the Civil War.\(^7\) --- \(^4\) Hall, 158, 287. \(^5\)Chas. Mills was Charles C.D.B. Mills, a Syracuse abolitionist. Martha Wright to Lucretia Mott, [February 1861], Garrison Papers, Smith College. From Seward and African Americans. \(^6\) Elliott G. Storke, “History of the Press of Cayuga County from 1798 to 1877,” *Collections of Cayuga County Historical Society* Vol. 6-7: 269-70. \(^7\) Research by Joni Lincoln, Sheila Tucker, and Tanya Warren. Ezra A. Huntington House, c. 1861 11 Seminary Street Auburn, New York Significance: Represents abolitionist and Underground Railroad activity of Auburn Theological Seminary November 2004, Looking NE Built in 1861 as a residence for Rev. Dr. E.A. Huntington, Professor of Biblical criticism at Auburn Theological Seminary, this building is the only remaining pre-Civil War structure of the Auburn Theological Seminary that once occupied this entire block. This house represents the national and international importance of this biracial Presbyterian seminary, as well as the impact of its students and teachers on abolitionism and the Underground Railroad. A hidden attic room may have been built as an Underground Railroad safe place, although no written documentation substantiates this. From John W. Barber and Henry Howe, *Historical Collections of the State of New York* (New York: S. Tuttle, 1842). Founded in 1819 under the direction of President D.C. Lansing, Auburn Theological Seminary became, along with Union Seminary in New York City, one of the main centers for training Presbyterian ministers in the nineteenth century. In the debates over slavery, revivalism, and theology that divided many Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Protestant denominations in the pre-Civil War years. Auburn was in the eye of the hurricane. The early commitment of many of its students and faculty to abolitionism, as well as its willingness to accept African American students, placed it clearly in the camp of reformers and contributed to the division in 1837 of Presbyterians into separate northern and southern churches. African American students included Andrew Harris, from the Cayuga Presbyterian parish, a graduate of Middlebury College, who preached in Philadelphia until his death in 1836., and Rev. Brother Holmes, who preached in Brooklyn in the 1860s.\(^8\) In March 1834, students at Auburn Theological Seminary started one of the first antislavery societies in New York State. By 1836, forty-two of the seventy-five students enrolled at Auburn (or 56 percent of the student body) belonged to the society. They held monthly prayer meetings, and “no discussions,” they assured the public, “have been held, . . . without the consent, either expressed or tacit, of the Faculty.” On July 30, 1836, the adopted the following resolutions, which they published in the *Friend of Man*, the newspaper of the New York State Anti-Slavery Society: Resolved, That the existence of Slavery in this country, being hostile to the genius of our government and the spirit of the gospel—interfering vitally with the cause of human rights, and crippling the energies of the American Church, calls for the immediate, united and decisive action of every friend of God and man. Resolved, That as prospective ministers of the cross, we feel ourselves imperatively called upon, while in a course of preparation for the vast responsibility of the holy office to which we aspire, “to remember those who are in bonds as bound with them”—to extend the sympathies and charities of our souls to every being created in God’s image, especially to those whose rights are wantonly outraged—to act on the firm ground of enlightened, Christian principle, and to take a deep and lively interest in all the moral questions which are agitating the religious community, and stand intimately connected with the salvation of men. Resolved, That we regard the free and untrammeled discussion of the subject of Slavery as by no means “foreign” to the purpose for which we are here assembled,” but on the contrary, as perfectly accordant with that purpose and a solemn duty which we owe ourselves, the millions of suffering colored brethren, and the church of God, in which we expect soon to become public teachers. Resolved, That while we are unwilling to endorse all the language employed by the friends of immediate emancipation as *faultless*, we are prompt to say, as far as we are acquainted, that it exhibits in the main that spirit of love and adherence to moral principle which accords with the Gospel. Resolved, That the measures of the Abolitionists instead of having a *tendency* to increase the severities of the masters towards the slaves, are designed and calculated to melt the oppressor’s heart, and restore the oppressed to the possession of their divinely chartered rights. Was Moses chargeable with the increase severity inflicted upon his brethren by their oppressors, when he demanded their immediate emancipation from Egyptian bondage? --- \(^8\)Florence Pharis McIntosh, *History of Cayuga Village* (1927), 62; John Hope Franklin, *From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans* (New York: Vintage Books, 1969), 251–52. Thanks to Anthony Gerow for finding these references to Andrew Harris. Reference to “Rev. Mr. Holmes’ is from Junius, “Brooklyn Correspondence,” *The Christian Recorder*, September 12, 1863. *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, July 30, 1852. Resolved, That while we firmly adhere to our principles, relying on divine aid for success, we will study to cultivate a spirit of forbearance and kindness towards those who do not agree with us in sentiment, on this important and vital question. T.T. Bradford, president. H.S. Redfield, Secretary. Auburn, July 30th, 1836 Because of Auburn Theological Seminary’s importance, its ideas influenced debate throughout the Presbyterian General Conference. These abolitionist sentiments undoubtedly contributed to the split in the national body at its national meeting in Philadelphia the following year. There, issues of slavery combined with theological disputes led the General Conference to excise almost every presbytery in upstate New York from the national body. In 1838, the student antislavery society was undoubtedly responsible for generating signatures on two antislavery petitions sent to Congress. The first was sent by students and professors of the Auburn Theological Seminary on February 12, 1838, and asked Congress to abolish slavery in Washington, D.C. and in the territories and to abolish the slave trade. It included two columns of signatures. Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County historian, checked these signatures against Seminary records and found the following names listed as either students or faculty at the Seminary: Albert C. Willson Francis Child Edwin Reynolds Daniel Gibbs Lewis Hamilton E.B. Fancher Nehemiah Cobb Jr. Charles O. Mill Samuel C. Wilcox Henry Bannister O. Fraser Elliot H. Payson Ransom R. Kirlt Erasmus M. Kellogg Horan M. Crasit William M. Hoyt Hannibal Smith John E. Claghorn On a second petitions sent from Auburn in 1850, more than half of the signers were associated with the seminary, including the following: Amon Spencer Sidney H. Bartea Francis H. Sulye J.E. Blakely A. Fergirson H.B. Morgan Alfred M. Stowe John Campbell Richard G. Keyes T.D. Austin William A. Niles 9 Friend of Man, August 11, 1836. Daniel B. Lyons J.C. Moses Robert H. Booth Martin L. Gaylord William A. Fox Edward D. Morris C.L. Adams David E. Blair George G. Smith Stephen Summix A.H. Lilly Some of these, perhaps most of them, carried their antislavery commitments into work outside the Seminary. In 1852, a student named Bascom was involved with the biracial abolitionist McGrawville College in Cortland County, where, reported Frederick Douglass, he delivered an address that “exhibited considerable talent; but the speaker labored so hard to say witty and pretty things, and went so far aside from his subject to make his attack on those ladies who wear the Bloomer Costume, as to show most clearly that he had mistaken his own qualifications, the character of his hearers, and the claims of the occasion.”\(^{10}\) Rev. Charles Anderson, who graduated from the Seminary in 1843 and went to the Sennett Congregational Church, where he and his wife, Elizabeth, used the parsonage as an active stop on the Underground Railroad. According to Anderson’s obituary, “so great an interest did he take in the Southern slave that his home in Sennett, while he was a pastor of a congregation there was made one of the underground stations for runaway bondsmen and much of his time was occupied in caring for the fugitives.”\(^{11}\) In 1856, Harriet Eglin, freedom seeker from Maryland, stayed several months with the Andersons and wrote three letters to William Still, keeper of the main safe house in Philadelphia, which Still published in his 1872 book, *The Underground Railroad*.\(^{12}\) Faculty members sympathetic to abolitionism most likely included Samuel Miles Hopkins, professor of church history, who arrived at the Seminary in 1847. His sister, Sarah Bradford, worked in 1868 with Harriet Tubman to record and publish the first book-length version of Tubman’s life history.\(^{13}\) The Rev. E.A. Huntington came to the Auburn Theological Seminary in 1855 as professor of Biblical criticism. A graduate of Union College, he had been pastor of Third Presbyterian Church in Albany for eighteen years before coming to Auburn. For most of his tenure, Huntington served not only as a faculty member but as virtual president of the seminary. He retired in 1893, at the age of 80, but he remained active as professor emeritus until his death in 1901. Built in 1861, Huntington’s house on Seminary Avenue\(^{14}\) served as his residence from then until his death in 1901. The house is stucco, with wide unsoffited eaves. It has a large gable with asymmetrical wings on each side and another wing to the rear. Windows on the first and second floor have flat lintels. Those on the front of the main gable have six-over-six sashes. Several windows on the wings have four-over-four sashes. Some are side-by-side, with four-over-four sashes and a mullion down the middle. Simple Florentine windows in the attic gables reflect an Italianate influence, as do the porch supports. --- \(^{10}\) *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, July 30, 1852. \(^{11}\) Church records, as transcribed by Sheila Tucker; Obituary for Rev. Charles Anderson, *Auburn Daily Advertiser*, January 4, 1900; “Graduates and Students Auburn Theological Seminary,” *General Biographical Catalogue of Auburn Theological Seminary, 1818-1918* (Auburn: Auburn Seminary Press, 1918), 85 \(^{12}\) William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872), 221-23. \(^{13}\) *History of Cayuga County* (1908), 182. \(^{14}\) *History of Cayuga County*, 185. In 1863, Rev. E. A. Huntington pronounced the benediction at the funeral of Morgan “Luke” Freeman, an African American barber born in slavery in 1803, who kept an Underground Railroad station in Auburn for 29 years.\textsuperscript{15} Although we have found no other evidence connecting Huntington’s name with any abolitionist or Underground Railroad activity, the house does contain two intriguing hidden rooms with a cistern in the attic. Could these have been built as possible hiding places? In 1903, James R. Cox, former law associated of William Henry Seward, recalled that “the fugitives that came to Auburn were, during the summer time, hidden in the Theological Seminary.”\textsuperscript{16} Research assistance by Sheila Tucker and Anthony Gero. \textsuperscript{15} \textit{Auburn Daily Advertiser}, April 11, 1863. \textsuperscript{16} James R. Cox interviewed by Elbert Wixom, “The Under Ground Railway in the Finger Lakes Country,” B.A. Thesis, Cornell, 1903, 30. L.D. Mansfield House 67 Fulton Street Auburn, New York (Tentative Identification) Significance: Home of well-documented Underground Railroad supporter. Description: This square brick Greek Revival house, with limestone lintels, hipped roof, and a recessed doorway with sidelights makes a substantial high-style addition to this northside neighborhood. Although it appears to be missing an original porch, it nevertheless retains an air of quiet elegance. Significance: L. Delos Mansfield appears not to have been in Auburn long and never to have owned property, which makes identification of his residence difficult. Based on his residence, as listed in the 1857 city directory, he apparently lived here in this house while he was involved in his Underground Railroad activities in the mid-1850s. He left a dramatic and well-documented Underground Railroad legacy, emerging from his work as pastor of a biracial Christian church called the Tabernacle and from his strong connections with an African American Underground Railroad network that included Rev. Jermain Loguen (AME Zion minister and organizer of the main Underground Railroad station in Syracuse) and William Still (Secretary of the Vigilance Committee and keeper of the main Underground Railroad station in Philadelphia). Rev. Mansfield first appeared in the abolitionist press in *Frederick Douglass’ Paper* in 1853, when he wrote a letter praising Douglass and explaining his own situation, then in New York City, ministering to a chapel supported by Gerrit Smith, Arthur Tappan, and other abolitionists: By the blessing of God, New York is to have one more Church where a free gospel is to be preached to all, without distinction of color. The Advent Mission Church of which I have care have erected a neat and comfortable chapel at 39 Forsyth Street, where Negro pews have not place and we intend never shall. Where colored people are at home, by an acknowledged right not by an especial patronage, sometimes quite as humiliating as actual depreciation of place. I hope sometime to hear you earnest and eloquent appeals within the walls of our chapel in behalf of your injured race, with whom I deeply sympathize and for whose good I am ever ready to be used.\(^1\) One of Rev. Mansfield’s most memorable rescues involved a young man named James Harris. As William Still recorded it in his book, *The Underground Railroad*, JAMES HARRIS escaped from Delaware. A white woman, Catharine Odine by name, living near Middletown, claimed James as her man; but James did not care to work for her on the unrequited labor system. He resolved to take the first train on the Underground Railroad that might pass that way. It was not a great while ere he was accommodated, and was brought safely to Philadelphia. The regular examination was made and he passed creditably. He was described in the book as a man of yellow complexion, good-looking, and intelligent. After due assistance, he was regularly forwarded on to Canada. This was in the month of November, 1856. Afterwards nothing more was heard of him, until the receipt of the following letter from Prof. L. D. Mansfield, showing that he had been re-united to his wife, under amusing, as well as touching circumstances: AUBURN, Dec. 15th, ’56. DEAR BRO. STILL:--A very pleasant circumstance has brought you to mind, and I am always happy to be reminded of you, and of the very agreeable, though brief acquaintance which we made at Philadelphia two years since. Last Thursday evening, while at my weekly prayer meeting, our exercises were interrupted by the appearance of Bro. Loguen, of Syracuse, who had come on with Mrs. Harris in search of her husband, whom he had sent to my care three weeks before. I told Bro. L. that no such man had been at my house, and I knew nothing of him. But I dismissed the meeting, and went with him immediately to the African Church, where the colored brethren were holding a meeting. Bro. L. looked through the door, and the first person whom he saw was Harris. He was called out, when Loguen said, in a rather reproving and excited tone, "What are you doing here; didn't I tell --- \(^1\) *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, August 19, 1853. you to be off to Canada? Don't you know they are after you? Come get your hat, and come with us, we'll take care of you." The poor fellow was by this time thoroughly frightened, and really thought he had been pursued. We conducted him nearly a mile, to the hotel where his wife was waiting for him, leaving him still under the impression that he was pursued and that we were conducting him to a place of safety, or were going to box him up to send him to Canada. Bro. L. opened the door of the parlor, and introduced him; but he was so frightened that he did not know his wife at first, until she called him James, when they had a very joyful meeting. She is now a servant in my family, and he has work, and doing well, and boards with her. We shall do all we can for them, and teach them to read and write, and endeavor to place them in a condition to take care of themselves. Loguen had a fine meeting in my Tabernacle last night, and made a good collection for the cause of the fugitives. I should be happy to hear from you and your kind family, to whom remember me very cordially. Believe me ever truly yours, L. D. MANSFIELD. Mr. and Mrs. Harris wish to be gratefully remembered to you and yours.\(^2\) L.D. Mansfield was also involved in assisting Henry Lemmon and his sister, Catherine, who took the name of Jane Clark. When a friend of Henry Lemmon's died on the way North, Mansfield wrote to Still on his behalf: AUBURN, NEW YORK, MAY 4TH, 1857. DEAR BR. STILL:-Henry Lemmon wishes me to write to you in reply to your kind letter, conveying the intelligence of the death of your fugitive guest, Geo. Weems. He was deeply affected at the intelligence, for he was most devotedly attached to him and had been for many years. Mr. Lemmon now expects his sister to come on, and wishes you to aid her in any way in your power-as he knows you will. He wishes you to send the coat and cap of Weems by his sister when she comes. And when you write out the history of Weems' escape, and it is published, that you would send him a copy of the papers. He has not been very successful in getting work yet. Mr. and Mrs. Harris left for Canada last week. The friends made them a purse of $15 or $20, and we hope they will do well. Mr. Lemmon sends his respects to you and Mrs. Still. Give my kind regards to her and accept also yourself, Yours very truly, L. D. MANSFIELD. William Still included in his book an appreciative comment about Mansfield's work on the Underground Railroad. "Rev. Mansfield was," wrote Still, "one of the rare order of ministers, who believed it right 'to do unto others as one would be done by' in practice, not in theory \(^2\) William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872), 516-17, http://www.quinnipiac.edu/other/ABL/etext/ugrr/ugrrmain.html merely, and who felt that they could no more be excused for ‘falling down,’ in obedience to the Fugitive Slave Law under President Fillmore, than could Daniel for worshiping the ‘golden image’ under Nebuchadnezzar.”\textsuperscript{3} \textsuperscript{3} Still, \textit{The Underground Railroad}, 54. North Street Cemetery North Street Auburn, New York Significance: Burial Place of Many People Associated with the Underground Railroad Abolitionism, and African American Life People such as Morgan “Luke” Freeman (1803-1863), born in slavery, whose obituary noted that he kept an Underground Railroad station in Auburn for twenty-nine years; John Stewart, one of Harriet Tubman’s brothers; and Lydia P. Mott, Quaker abolitionist who kept a school in Skaneateles, are buried in North Street cemetery. Northern Christian Advocate Office 16 Clark Street Auburn, New York Significance: Site of publication of Northern Christian Advocate February 2005 Looking NW Abolitionism threatened to disrupt the Union, and many Americans, sympathetic as they might to the plight of people in slavery, were not willing to challenge slaveholders and risk dissolving the country. This building represents the considerable opposition to abolitionism that existed throughout central New York. Built by the Methodist Publishing House, 16 Clark Street was the site of major publishing efforts of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Here they published their journal, the Northern Christian Advocate, for 28 years, beginning in 1841. In 1844, William Hosmer became editor of this newspaper, but his antislavery views made him too radical for Methodist authorities. In 1856, he left the editorship of the Northern Christian Advocate to assume control of a new publication, the Northern Independent. He published this staunchly abolitionist newspaper at 113 Genesee Street, the same location where Morgan “Luke” Freeman, born in slavery in Auburn in 1803, kept his barbershop, beginning in 1857. For 29 years until his death in 1863, Freeman also kept one of the most important Underground Railroad stations in Auburn, undoubtedly with the assistance of William Hosmer. Note signs on side of buildings: “PrintingBinding,” “Book Bindery.” Researched by Joni Lincoln, Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Site of Morgan Freeman Barbership (after 1857) and of Hornbeck, Waire, and Swarts Barbershops later in the century. Site of William Hosmer’s *Northern Independent* newspaper (after 1856). 111-117 Genesee Street Auburn, New York **Significance:** One of most important Underground Railroad sites in Auburn; important African American business site from 1857 through early twentieth century; important reform/abolitionist newspaper published here June 2005 Looking northeast Beginning in 1856, the building that stood on the site of the current First Niagara Bank building was occupied by William Hosmer and the offices of the *Northern Independent*. Beginning in 1857, a succession of African American barbers had their shops in this building and its successor, a Richardsonian Romanesque structure. In 1857, following the movement of Auburn’s business district west along Genesee Street, Morgan “Luke” Freeman moved his barbershop from the corner of Cumpston Lane and South Street to this site. Morgan Freeman died in 1863, and his obituary noted that he had kept an Underground Railroad station for 29 years. Probably this barbershop was a key anchor for that station. Morgan Freeman suffered a stroke in 1859, and Burget Freeman took over his shop. It was here, in B. C. Freeman’s “shaving saloon,” that African American men in Auburn organized the Auburn Suffrage Club in October 1860. As reported by the local newspaper: The colored people of Auburn held a meeting last evening to consider the propriety of forming a club to attend to the suffrage question at the polls. They desired to enjoy the elective franchise; and they know that they are dependent on white men to give it to them—They will attend at the several polls in the city on election day, and distribute tickets “for the amendment of the constitutions.”\textsuperscript{4} John Stuard (Stewart), Harriet Tubman’s brother, was elected treasurer of the new organization, and B.C. Freeman was secretary. African American barbers continued to maintain their businesses at this site into the twentieth century, including John Hornbeck, John Waire, and George Swarts. For many years, Anthony Shimer, the jeweler with whom Harriet Tubman and her brother John Stewart were involved in a gold scheme in 1873, had his store in this building. \textsuperscript{4} The \textit{Auburn Daily Advertiser} noted that the “old and popular barber of Auburn” suffered a severe attack of paralysis yesterday.” His “entire right side was rendered useless.” July 26, 1859. Unknown newspaper, October 30, 1860. Thanks to Anthony Gero for finding this. State and Genesee Streets, Looking East Barber pole at corner of bank on SE corner. 1890–1910 The building on the right replaced an earlier building on this site. Note the barber pole on State Street. Photo found by Bill Hecht. 117 West Genesee Street King Ferry Antique Shop (Walley Drugstore) Auburn, New York Genesee and State Street, northwest corner, Looking NW Limestone Building, King Ferry Antiques (Walley Drugstore) Visible at the left in the historic photo above (with a Mansard roof), this building is still standing on the northwest corner of State and Genesee Streets. Dating from the mid-nineteenth century, it is currently the King Ferry Antique Shop. While it has no direct documented connection with the Underground Railroad, abolitionism, or African American life, it looks much as it once did when Morgan Freeman had his barbershop and William Hosmer had his publishing business in the building across State Street. 1875 Cayuga County Atlas Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Auburn City Directories Occupants of 111, 113, 115 and 117 Genesee St Research by Tanya Warren 1857: 111 W. Genesee Street Businesses: -KEYES & SMITH, CLOTHING STORE -MORRIS, M.E., DAGUERREAN AND AMBROTYPIST -MYERS, MICHAEL S., LAWYER -PEASE, ANN M., AMBROTYPIST -UPHAM, LEWIS S., CLERK -GREENFIELD, EDWIN, CUTTER 113 W. Genesee Street Businesses: -HOSMER, JOHN G., CLERK -HOSMER, REV. WILLIAM, EDITOR OF NORTHERN INDEPENDENT -SHIMER, ANTHONY, WATCHES, JEWELRY AND MUSIC -BETTYS, JOHN R., JEWELERY -NORTHERN INDEPENDENT, OFFICE 115 W. Genesee Street Businesses: -ONGLEY, EDWARD S., CLERK -SCHENCK, SAMUEL L., BARBER (lives at Lumber Court) -TELEGRAPH OFFICE -WARRINER, ABNER E., TELEGRAPH OPERATOR -COBB, E.B., BOOT AND SHOE STORE 117 W. Genesee Street Businesses (still standing): -WALLEY, AMOS T., DRUGGIST/APOTHECARY, COR. W GENESEE/STATE -WEEKLY AMERICAN, OFFICE 117 W GENESEE, COR. STATE 1863-1864: -SWARTZ, GEORGE-BARBER, COR GENESSEE & STATE -FREEMAN, BERGET-BARBER, COR GENESSEE & STATE -BECKER, D. E.-PRINTERS, COR GENESSEE & STATE -MCCREERY, DAVID-TOBACCONIST, COR STATE & GENESEE -MYERS & ADAMS, LAWYERS, 109 GENESEE -BRIGGS, CHARLES-CROCKERY, CHINA & GLASSWARE, 111 GENESEE -WORDEN & PINGREE-LAWYERS, 111 GENESEE -SHIMER, A.-WATCHES & JEWELRY, 113 GENESEE -NORTHERN INDEPENDENT-NEWSPAPER, 115 GENESEE -WALLEY, A. T. & CO.-DRUGGIST, 117 GENESEE 1867-1868: Briggs, Charles-Crockery, etc., 111 Genesee Walley, Amos-Druggist, cor Genesee & State Hornbeck, John-Barber, 113 Genesee 1900: -Cayuga County Savings Bank-113-115 Genesee/-Walley, Martin-druggist, 117 Genesee William and Frances Seward House National Historic Landmark Auburn, New York Significance: Home of William and Frances Seward. As Lincoln’s Secretary of State, Seward was Auburn’s most significant political figure. Both William and Frances harbored freedom seekers in this house. Description: The Seward home was built in 1816-17 in the Federal style, one of the first brick houses in Auburn, by Elijah Miller, Frances Seward’s father. One of the workmen was sixteen-year-old Brigham Young, later a leader of the Mormon Church. In the 1840s, the Sewards enlarged the house, adding a dining room, Italianate tower, and north wing. In 1866-68, they enlarged it again, using designs of architect Edward Tucerkmam Potter, adding a south tower, drawing room, and several bedrooms.\(^1\) \(^1\) Brochure from Seward House. Many thanks to Peter Wisbey and the entire staff of the Seward House for their incredibly helpful support of this project. Significance: William Henry (1801-1872) and Frances (1805-1865) Seward devoted themselves to reform and social justice causes, especially the abolition of slavery. Their home has a clear history as a hub of activism in Auburn. William Seward was born in Florida, New York. His parents, like many homeowners in the Hudson River Valley, owned several slaves. Young William, the fourth of six children, found relief from the severity of his parents, in the company of the family slaves. He noted that they were “vivacious and loquacious, as well as affectionate, toward me. What wonder that I found their apartment more attractive than the parlour, and their conversation a relief from the severe decorum which prevailed there?”\(^2\) Soon however, the young boy discerned the inequity between the races living within his own home. “I early came to the conclusion,” he wrote, “that something was wrong. . . . and [that] determined me, at that early age, to be an abolitionist.”\(^3\) Shortly after his graduation from Union College, Seward moved to Auburn and joined Judge Elijah Miller’s law practice. In 1824, he married the judge’s youngest daughter, Frances, and they moved into Judge Miller’s 1816 home (now Seward House) on South Street. Frances, although a practicing Episcopalian, had received a Quaker education in Cayuga County and at the Troy Female Seminary. Abolition of slavery was the core principle that drew the couple together. Six years after his marriage, William Seward began a career in politics. He served as a state senator (1830-1834) and ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1834. In 1838, as a member of the new Whig Party, Seward won election as governor. During his two gubernatorial terms (1839-1843) he established himself nationally as an outspoken abolitionist. Governor Seward carried on a public (and prickly) correspondence with the Governor of Virginia following his refusal to allow the extradition of three sailors who had assisted in a fugitive slave’s escape attempt. In 1840, he oversaw the passage of legislation empowering state agents to return persons kidnapped into slavery.\(^4\) In 1846, once again a private citizen, Seward became the defense counsel for William Freeman, a mentally-ill Auburn resident of African American and Native American descent, who murdered a white farmer and his family. Seward’s argument that Freeman’s mental state should exculpate his actions is one of the first uses of the “insanity defense” in the United States. Although his argument failed to sway the jury, Seward’s defense was widely reprinted and circulated by capital punishment reform groups.\(^5\) William Seward returned to the political arena in 1849 as a United States senator. In January 1850, Seward, now a recognized leader of the abolitionist faction of the Whig Party, was thrust into the debate over California’s admission into the Union as a free or slave state. In a speech to --- \(^2\) Frederick W. Seward, ed., *William H. Seward: An Autobiography from 1801 to 1834*, New York: Derby and Miller, 1891, p. 27. \(^3\) Ibid., p. 28. \(^4\) This legislation, “An act more effectually to protect the free citizens of this state from being kidnapped, or reduced to Slavery,” passed on May 14, 1840, was used to rescue Solomon Northrup from slavery in 1853. See Soloman Northrup, *Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Soloman Northrup, a Citizen of New York, Kidnapped in Washington City in 1841, and rescued in 1853*, electronic edition, http://docsouth.unc.edu/northrup/northrup.html. \(^5\) For an in-depth examination of the Freeman trial, see Andrew Arpey, *The William Freeman Trial: Insanity, Politics, and Race*, Syracuse University Press, 2003. the Senate, Seward reminded his listeners that there was a “higher law” than the Constitution and warned of the effects of expanding slavery into the new territories of the west. The mood of the country was too strong to tackle the issue of slavery. In the Compromise of 1850, legislation granted statehood for a free California but included the bitter pill of the Fugitive Slave Law. Although supportive of her husband’s political career, Frances Seward did not choose to move with him to Washington. Ongoing health problems, the care of her aging father and a general dislike for the responsibilities of being a politician’s wife, kept Frances in Auburn. Senator Seward’s travel, speechmaking and legal activity suggest that it was Frances who played a more active role in local Underground Railroad activities. In the excitement following the “Jerry Rescue” in Syracuse on October 1, 1851, Frances wrote, “Last evening Mr. May the Unitarian clergyman from Syracuse called with Mr. Austin to enquire the fortune of the letter from Mr. Wheaton and was very desirous that I should forward it immediately. He expects with Mr. Wheaton to be arrested today. . . . There is considerable excitement here. 2 fugitives have gone to Canada – one of them was our acquaintance John.” According to secondary sources, there are two areas of the Seward House that are associated with Underground Railroad use. An oral history from the Sewards’ granddaughter, Frances Messenger, recalls that Mrs. Seward referred to the area over the woodshed as her “dormitory.” Also, an 1891 newspaper article reports “it is said that the old kitchen was one of the most popular stations of the Underground Railroad, and that many a poor slave who fled by this route to Canada carried to his grave the remembrance of its warmth and cheer.” On November 18, 1855, writing from Auburn, William Seward noted “the ‘underground railroad’ works wonderfully. Two passengers came here last night. Watch [the family dog] attacked one of them.” That same fall, John Austin, Unitarian minister who lived on William Street, just behind the Seward house, wrote in his diary, that: Yesterday at the suggestion of Gov. Seward collected some money of the benevolent to help forward a poor Fugitive Slave from the South to Canada. After I collected the money (some six dollars) went over to the Governors and gave it to the poor fugitive. He was inexpressibly thankful. He took the 51/2 p.m. train for Rochester and Niagara Falls. Before I write these words he has undoubtedly crossed the Suspension Bridge, and escaped from "the land of Freedom!!! and found refuge and Liberty under the protection of a monarchical government!" --- 6 Letter, Frances Seward to William Henry Seward, October 16, 1851. Seward Papers, University of Rochester, Rush Rhees Library, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections (hereafter “Seward Papers.”) 7 Memo from Betty Lewis, “Underground Railroad” file, Seward House collection, dated July 13, 1998. 8 “The Home of Seward,” Auburn Daily Herald, February 20, 1891, Scrapbook, Seward House collection. 9 Cited in Frederick W. Seward, Seward at Washington as Senator and Secretary of State . . . 1846-1861, New York: Derby and Miller, 1891, p. 258. 10 John Austen, Diary, September 13, 1855. Found by Audrey and Ken Mochel. Mrs. Seward was also an advocate for education and advancement of African Americans. In 1849, Miss Elizabeth Parsons, headmistress of the Samuel S. Seward Institute, a school founded in Florida, NY, responded to a letter from Frances regarding “whether I can in any way take a pretty little colored girl into my school & give her the benefits of instruction &c.”\(^{11}\) In another instance, Mrs. Seward enrolled an African American boy named John in the primary school associated with the McGrawville College in Cortland County. While it is unclear whether these children were fugitives or not, they were living within the Seward household for periods of time.\(^{12}\) In July of 1852, Mrs. Seward, after a visit to the Auburn Orphan Asylum, reported to her husband “I was greatly interested in the Orphans. . . . One of them has died & is to be buried this morning. As he was a poor colored child placed there by my advice, I am going round and shall defray the funeral expenses.”\(^{13}\) Having inherited money from both sides of their family, the Sewards used their personal wealth to support the abolition movement. They were financial backers of Frederick Douglass’ *North Star* newspaper in Rochester. On July 1, 1852, Frances wrote to her husband, “A man by the name of William Johnson will apply to you for assistance to purchase the freedom of his daughter. You will see that I have given him something by his book. I told him I thought you would give him more. He is very desirous that I should employ his daughter when he gets her which I have agreed to do conditionally if you approve.”\(^{14}\) Frances Seward also helped raise Margaret Stewart, Harriet Tubman’s niece, after Tubman brought her from Maryland in 1861.\(^{15}\) In addition to Frances’ work, there is an indication that William Seward, while a senator in Washington, DC, worked with African American hotelkeeper, James Wormley, to transport fugitives to freedom. A c. 1870 manuscript by Francis B. Carpenter in the Seward Papers notes: “Among the visitors in the evening was Mr. Wormley, the well known colored landlord of Washington. Greeting him cordially and introducing him to his other guests, Mr. Seward said: ‘Wormley and I went into the emancipation business a year and a half before Mr. Lincoln did, down on the James River. How was it Wormley – how many slaves did we take off on our steamer?’ ‘Eighteen,’ replied Mr. Wormley.”\(^{16}\) Finally, the Seward’s support and patronage of Harriet Tubman is well known and documented.\(^{17}\) In 1859, William Henry and Frances conveyed seven acres of land to Tubman as a home. --- \(^{11}\) Letter, Elizabeth Parson to Frances Seward, November 3, 1849. Seward Papers. \(^{12}\) Letter, Frances Seward to William Henry Seward, May 23, 1852: “Johnny is with us and seems in high favour with the boys of the town. I do not think our Fanny [the Seward’s 7-year old daughter] has any thoughts at all on the subject of color – certainly none detrimental to John.” Seward Papers. Milton Sernett documents the rise and fall of the abolitionist New York Central College in McGrawville in *North Star Country: Upstate New York and the Crusade for African American Freedom*, Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2002, p.68-70. \(^{13}\) Letter, Frances Seward to William Henry Seward, July 23, 1852. Seward Papers. \(^{14}\) Letter, Frances Seward to William Henry Seward, July 1, 1852. Seward Papers. \(^{15}\) Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books, 2004), 198. \(^{16}\) Francis B. Carpenter, “A Day with Governor Seward at Auburn,” handwritten mss., no date [prob. July 1870], Seward Papers. \(^{17}\) See Sarah Bradford, *Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman*, Auburn: W.J. Moses, 1869, p. 81 and *Harriet Tubman: Moses of Her People*, New York: George R. Lockwood, 1886. More recent Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 property, the nucleus of the present day Harriet Tubman Home museum, was not paid off until after William Seward’s death in 1872, emphasizing what Sarah Bradford recorded as the Seward’s “very favorable terms” to Tubman. The Seward account books do record occasional payments on the debt and additional loans to Tubman over the next several decades. The striking roles played by both William and Frances Seward in abolition activism have been largely overshadowed by William Seward’s career as Civil War Secretary of State and his purchase of the Alaska Territory in 1867. Adapted from nomination for the Seward House written by Peter Wisbey as part for the New York State Underground Railroad Heritage Trail. Frances Seward, 1844 Courtesy of the Seward House, Auburn, New York scholarship records the Seward’s land transfer to Tubman. See Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero*, Ballantine, 2003, p. 163-166, and Catherine Clinton, *Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom*, Little, Brown & Co., 2004. Senator William Henry Seward, 1855 Courtesy of Seward House, Auburn, New York Seward House, 1853 Courtesy of the Seward House, Auburn, New York Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Seward House Woodshed before 1866 Courtesy of Seward House, Auburn, New York Seward Kitchen, where many freedom seekers reputedly stayed. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Swarts Home 97 Van Anden Auburn, New York Significance: Home of African American barber and his family February 2005 Looking North George Swarts moved to Auburn before 1850. The 1850 census listed him living with the Sebeo Hornbeck family on Jefferson Street. By 1857, he was living here on Van Anden Street. The Underwoods were one of those families allied with William Henry Seward, as a law associate, professional, or Whig-Republican politician who became abolitionists and Underground Railroad supporters. Their offices and homes centered on Genesee Street. They included Seward (whose home was on South Street, just around the corner), George Underwood, Theodore Pomeroy, David Wright (192 Genesee Street), Abijah Fitch (real estate developer, 197 Genesee Street and later 216 Genesee Street), and William Hosmer, 29 Washington Street. George Underwood was one of Seward’s law associates. After 1857, the Underwood family hosted Emily and William Kiah-Williams, who escaped slavery in Maryland from Harriet Tubman’s immediate neighborhood with the famous Dover Eight.\(^{18}\) \(^{18}\) For details of this escape, see Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, and American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books, 2004), 138–41. Wall Street Methodist Church/African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, National Register Wall Street, Auburn, New York Built as Wall Street Methodist Church, 1886 Significance: Biracial church in the nineteenth century. February 2005 Looking NW The Wall Street Methodist Church was a biracial abolitionist church in the nineteenth century. Rev. William Hosmer, editor of the *Northern Independent*, filled the pulpit when needed. William Henry Stewart, Jr., Tubman’s great-nephew, was married to Emma Moseby here about 1879. The current building was constructed in 1886. It is on the National Register. Further research in church records would be very useful to identify the abolitionist-African American connections of the early congregation. Westminster Church William Street Auburn, New York Significance: Abolitionist Church Description: Built of gray limestone with Medina sandstone trim, this church is an early example of Romanesque revival. The cornerstone was laid on August 12, 1869, and the church was dedicated in October 1870. The building cost about $40,000, and the organ cost $5000. Significance: Organized as the Central Presbyterian Society in 1861, this church grew out of the Second Presbyterian Church of Auburn, when Rev. Henry Fowler, was the minister. Rev. Fowler, noted historian Elliott Storke, “an earnest and forcible advocate of the freedom of the slaves,” who “in his pulpit ministrations gave frequent and full expression to his convictions.” It was a time of intense excitement, when armed rebellion confronted the nation and when party lines were tightly drawn, producing wide division in churches as well as in secular organizations. With the anti-slavery views of the pastor the great majority of the congregation participated, resulting in the secession of the colony that formed the Central Presbyterian Society. Members of Central Presbyterian Church were closely associated with Harriet Tubman. Tubman was married in an earlier building of this church, while it was still on Genesee Street. On March 18, 1869, she married Nelson David, a Civil War veteran and a boarder in her home for three years, in a ceremony officiated by Rev. Fowler and attended by “friends . . . and a large number of the first families in the city.” One of the founders of Central Presbyterian was Samuel M. Hopkins, Jr., brother of Sarah H. Bradford, who became Harriet Tubman’s first biographer. David M. Osborne, who married Eliza Wright, daughter of abolitionists Martha and David Wright, was one of the first trustees. Trustees in the 1870s included abolitionists Theodore Pomeroy, who often hired Tubman, and William Henry Seward.\(^{19}\) \(^{19}\) Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County*, 210-11; Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, An American Hero* (New York: Ballantien Books, 2004), 252. Site of Martha and David Wright house. Listed on Network to Freedom 192 Genesee Street Auburn, New York Significance: Safe house and home of major Underground Railroad supporter Marker erected on site of Martha and David Wright Home by City of Auburn, October 2004 Sherry Penney and James Livingston, authors of *A Very Dangerous Woman*. James Livingston, descendant of Martha and David Wright Timothy Lattimore, Mayor of Auburn Erik Osborne, descendent of Martha and David Wright Marker reads: “Martha Coffin Wright with sister Lucretia Mott, an organizer of the 1848 Women’s Rights convention. Underground Railroad stop, Wright home razed in 1880. Noble mansion razed in 1975. City of Auburn, NY, 2004 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 The site of the home of Martha Coffin Pelham Wright and David Wright represents the small network of European American abolitionists and Underground Railroad supporters in Auburn who assisted not only Harriet Tubman and her family but also many other freedom seekers. Linked by ties of family, friendship, and business, this network included women as well as men. Many of these families (including the Wrights, Pomeroy’s, Underwoods, and Fitches) lived along Genesee Street. Others (including the Hosmers, Austins, Sewards, and L.D. Mansfield) lived nearby. It was this group who worked closely with local African Americans (such as Morgan “Luke” Freeman, Nicholas Bogart, Rev. Jermain Loguen from Syracuse, and Harriet Tubman) and their European American allies across central New York (such as James and Lydia Fuller in Skaneateles and Thomas and Mary Ann M’Clintock in Waterloo) to support the Underground Railroad. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Martha Coffin Wright (December 25, 1806-January 4, 1875) was born of Quaker parents, Thomas and Anna Coffin, in Boston, Massachusetts. The family moved to Philadelphia in 1809. After Thomas’s death in the early 18-teens, Anna Coffin supported her eight children by keeping a boarding house and store. Her youngest daughter, Martha, always had a sense of humor and a love of worldly pleasures such as the theater. When she was eighteen years old, she married an army officer, Peter Pelham, many years her senior, and moved to Pensacola, Florida, where she had a daughter, Marianna, before Peter’s early death. Although disowned for marrying out of Quaker meeting, she retained a sense of Quaker values all her life. In 1827, Martha Pelham moved with her mother and cousin to Aurora, New York, where they taught at Brierciff School, previously operated by British-born Quaker Susannah Mariott. There she met and married a young lawyer, David Wright. They moved to Auburn in 1839. David Wright worked as a law associate with William Henry Seward and Theodore Pomeroy. In 1846, Wright was one of the defending attorneys in the murder trial of William Freeman. In Auburn, Martha Wright’s closest friends were Frances Seward (William Henry Seward’s wife) and Frances Seward’s sister, Lazette Worden. Both sisters had attended the Quaker school in Aurora in the 18-teens, and they shared Martha Wright’s Quaker values. Among these were the abolition of slavery, the abolition of capital punishment, and women’s rights. All her life, Martha Wright remained extremely close to her sister, Lucretia Mott, a Quaker minister who lived in Philadelphia and who often visited her in Auburn for several weeks at a time. It was on one such visit in early July 1848 that the two attended a tea party at Jane Hunt’s house in Waterloo, New York, where they helped write the call to the Seneca Falls woman’s rights convention. Martha Wright was one of the signers of the Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments. In the 1850s and 1860s, Martha Wright became a consistent officer at state and national woman’s rights conventions. The Wrights also used their home as a stop on the Underground Railroad. Her detailed description of one visit by a freedom seeker in early January 1843, challenges contemporary ideas of secret hiding places and also reveals the difference between Martha’s more radical outlook and David’s conservative views. On evening, an African American man presented a note to Martha Wright, recommending him to James C. Fuller (a Skaneateles Quaker) and others of the “spiritually minded.” The Wrights gave him food, a place to sleep on the settee in the kitchen, and fifty cents for a ride to Skaneateles. In return, he filled the furnace with wood. Although daughter Eliza was “as afraid as could be of him,” Tallman, their son, was curious. When he went down to the kitchen early the next morning, “to have some interesting conversation with him about the land of chains,” he was “much disappointed” to find the fugitive already gone. Unfortunately, so was Tallman’s hat. As Martha described this incident in detail, she left him “to eat a comfortable supper,” and then he went out for awhile. --- 20 Details of Wright’s life come from Paul Messbarger, “Martha Wright,” *Notable American Women*, ed. Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul S. Boyer (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 1971), 684-85, and Sherry H. Penney and James D. Livingston, *A Very Dangerous Woman: Martha Wright and Women’s Rights* (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004). Our slave returned about 9 last evening & sat alone in the kitchen & read till David came. He went down & talked with him—he said he was from Baltimore & had paid his master 300 dollars—he asked 800—being sold to go south he ran away to Pittsburgh, . . & was on his way to Massachusetts where his people lived. As I didn’t fancy having him go up stairs he had D’s old cloak, & slept by the kitchen stove on me settee—how little I imagined to what use it was to be applied. After getting him to put a stick in the furnace D. left him & fastened the door at the head of the kitchen stairs—he gave him 50 cents as he wanted to get a ride part way. Early this morning David saw him & got some bread & butter for him as he wished to be off before it was very light. So after putting in more wood & tying up a couple of shirts & bosoms that we gave him, he cleared. Tallman came down early to have some interesting conversation with him about the land of chains & was much disappointed to find that he had left—he had to go to the Post Office then, but could not find his tippet, which he knew he hung in the kitchen with his cap, and as David noticed it in the evening the inference was that early morning walks made warmer clothing desirable & the slave had taken Gerritt Smith’s advise & the tippet—But we didn’t say so to Tallman, David said it would give such a shock to his philanthropy & as to Eliza, she was as afraid as could be of him before, & hardly dared to go to bed & if she should know it she would hardly dare stay in the house if another came—David didn’t relish it much & said if his master came for him he would not defend him—I suppose he would willingly have given him the tippet if he had asked. I told him we must consider that he had no one to teacher him better. In 1857, in a letter to her daughter, Ellen, Martha described another instance of aid to freedom seekers. Rev. Mr. Eastup was minister to the AME Zion Church in Auburn and a freedom seeker himself. Rev. Mr. Eastup called here a few weeks ago, to say that there were six fugitives at his house. Pa gave him what money he cd. Spare, and yesterday I sent to see whether they had got to Canada yet. Had quite a pleasant call. Mrs. E. was anxious to form a sort of fugitive aid or Anti-Slavery society among the colored people, to make up & repair garments for those that they have to clothe. I contributed a mite and she hopes to accomplish something this wk. I had quite a pile of coats & things that had been waiting to be judiciously disposed of, so I got Mr. E. to come for them, & while he was here got him to give me a history of his own escape, wh. Was very interesting—his wife is a genuine Native American, being of Indian extraction—was never in the South. He left a wife & 10 children there—his wife died three years after he left, & two of his children were sold to go to Georgia. He is quite a good looking man. Rev. Eastup had been minister at the AME Zion Church in Ithaca before coming to Auburn. Frederick Douglass, who met him there, described him as “a gentleman of decided talent, and one who does not ‘glory because he has not rubbed his head against the college wall.’” --- 21 Martha Wright to Lucretia Mott, January 11, 1843, quoted in Sherry H. Penney and James D. Livingston, *A Very Dangerous Woman: Martha Wright and Women’s Rights* (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004), 56; Judith Wellman, *The Road to Seneca Falls: Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the First Woman’s Rights Convention* (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 118. 22 Martha Wright to Ellen Wright Garrison, November 28, 1857, quoted in Sherry H. Penney and James D. Livingston, *A Very Dangerous Woman*, 58. 23 Frederick Douglass, “Notes by the Way,” *Frederick Douglass Paper*, June 20, 1854. Auburn city directory reported that Rev. Eastup was then living at 5 Washington Street, the site of the AME Zion Church. The census of 1860 listed him as Richard Eastup, a Methodist minister, 59 years old, born in Virginia, living with his wife, Mariah Eastup, 55 years old, born in New York (also listed as Black). Also living with them was John Wesley, age 40, born in Maryland. In 1860, Martha Wright was again involved in a documented Underground Railroad event, this time involving Harriet Tubman. It is possible that Martha Wright first became acquainted with Harriet Tubman through Wright’s sister, Lucretia Mott, who may have known Tubman in Philadelphia.\(^{24}\) In Harriet Tubman’s last trip to Dorchester County, Maryland, she intended to bring out her sister Rachel and Rachel’s two children, Ben and Angerine. When she arrived in Maryland, however, she found that Rachel had died, and she could not rescue the children. She waited for them in a wood, in a “blinding snow storm and a raging wind,” but they did not come. Instead, Tubman brought out Stephen and Maria Ennals, their three small children—Harriet (age 6), Amanda (4), and the baby (three months old)—“a poor woman escaping from Baltimore in a delicate state,” and a man named John.\(^{25}\) Stephen Ennals, wrote William Still, had been a slave of John Kaiger, who would not allow him to live with his wife (if therewas such a thing as a slave's owning a wife.) She lived eight miles distant, hired her time, maintained herself, and took care of her children (until they became of service to their owner), and paid ten dollars a year for her hire. She was owned by Algier Pearcy. Both mother and father desired to deliver their children from his grasp. They had too much intelligence to bear the heavy burdens thus imposed without feeling the pressure a grievous one.\(^{26}\) As Kate Clifford Larson noted, the trip was exhausting. Slave catchers were everywhere on the first part of the journey. Harriet brought them first to the home of Thomas Garrett, a Quaker in Wilmington, Delaware, who often helped her. Garrett felt that she had “a special angel to guard her on her journey of mercy.” As Garrett wrote to William Still, who kept the main safe house in Philadelphia for the Vigilance Committee there: WILMINGTON, 12th mo., 1st, 1860. RESPECTED FRIEND:-WILLIAM STILL:-I write to let thee know that Harriet Tub- man is again in these parts. She arrived last evening from one of her trips of mercy to God's \(^{24}\) Jean Humez, *Harriet Tubman: The Life and the Life Stories* (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, 2003), 26. \(^{25}\) Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, An American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books, 2004), 185; William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872), 531. \(^{26}\) William Still, *The Underground Railroad*, 531. poor, bringing two men with her as far as New Castle. I agreed to pay a man last evening, to pilot them on their way to Chester county; the wife of one of the men, with two or three children, was left some thirty miles below, and I gave Harriet ten dollars, to hire a man with carriage, to take them to Chester county. She said a man had offered for that sum, to bring them on. I shall be very uneasy about them, till I hear they are safe. There is now much more risk on the road, till they arrive here, than there has been for several months past, as we find that some poor, worthless wretches are constantly on the look out on two roads, that they cannot well avoid more especially with carriage, yet, as it is Harriet who seems to have had a special angel to guard her on her journey of mercy, I have hope. Thy Friend, THOMAS GARRETT. When they reached Philadelphia, Still reported that Harriet brought them “out of the prison-house of bondage,” “through great tribulation.” Their trials were not over, however. It took them almost four weeks to reach Auburn from Thomas Garrett’s house. Harriet suffered frostbite, and they were all physically exhausted. Arriving at one home where she had previously received aid, Harriet Tubman rapped to give her usual signal, only to find that a white man now occupied the building. She and her party hurried to a small island in the middle of a swamp, wading through the water with the baby in a basket, drugged with paregoric to keep it quiet, and hiding in the damp grass. Kate Clifford Larson, following Sarah Bradford’s account, as told to her by Tubman herself, told what happened next: Eventually a Quaker man appeared, “slowly walking along the solid pathway on the edge of the swamp.” Tubman and the others, thinking he was “talking to himself,” finally realized he was giving them instructions to get to his nearby barn, where a horse and wagon filled with provisions awaited them. A seemingly miraculous answer to Tubman’s prayer, Bradford later wrote, “never seemed to strike her as at all strange or mysterious; her prayer was the prayer of faith, and she expected an answer.” Hiding in the woods by day, the refugees waited for Tubman to return with food. She would whistle or sing hymns to let them know she was there. They finally reached Auburn in December. On December 30, 1860, Martha Wright wrote to her daughter Ellen that people “had been expending our sympathies, as well as congratulations, on seven newly arrived slaves that Harriet Tubman has just pioneered safely from the Southern part of Maryland.” They had “walked all night, carrying the little ones, and spread the comfort on the frozen ground, in some dense thicket, where they all hid.” Auburn was no longer a place of safety for many freedom seekers. In February, David Wright received a letter from Charles D.B. Mills in Syracuse, another abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter, warning him that “a slaveholder was there the day before enquiring as to the --- 27 Kate Clifford Larson, email October 19, 2004; William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872), 530-31, [http://www.quinnipiac.edu/other/abl/etext/ugrr/ugrr.html](http://www.quinnipiac.edu/other/abl/etext/ugrr/ugrr.html). 28 Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, tells the story of the Ennals family, 185-89; email October 19, 2004. 29 Martha Wright to Ellen Wright Garrison, December 30, 1860, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College, quoted in Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 189, 187, and Jean M. Humez, *Harriet Tubman*, 45-46. possibility of retaking slaves here [Auburn]. Mr. Mills sd. They cd. Learn nothing about Harriet & wished to know if she was here—He also sent a word of caution to fugitives here.” David Wright “immediately called on several whom I knew could be trusted, on—men amongst others, who promised to warn Harriet and her children.” Among those was William Hosmer, editor of the *Northern Independent*, who lived near the Wrights. Hosmer rode out to the Tubman home on the south side of town and read the letter to Tubman’s parents who were staying at the farm. Tubman herself had already left for Canada.\(^{30}\) Charles Mills wrote to Martha Wright, telling her that Tubman was in Canada, and asking her to “see that the family did not suffer, a message came from her, thro’ her favorite slave, desiring that we send them a bbl of flour [and] she [would] pay us on her return.”\(^{31}\) After the war, Martha Wright and Harriet Tubman continued their friendship. Wright hired Tubman to help in her household, bought fresh vegetables and fruits from her garden, and in 1868 helped her organize a fund-raising bazaar.\(^{32}\) Martha Wright died suddenly in 1875, aged 68, but her daughters Eliza Wright Osborne and Ellen Wright Garrison continued the family’s relationship with Harriet Tubman until Harriet’s death in 1913. Eliza’s husband, David Osborne, hired Harriet’s brother John Stewart as a teamster and Harriet’s nephew William Henry Stewart, Jr.\(^{33}\) --- \(^{30}\) Martha Coffin Wright to Lucretia Mott, n.d. [early February 1861]; David Wright to Martha Wright, February 9, 1861, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College. Quoted in Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 190. \(^{31}\) Martha Wright to Lucretia Mott, February 1861, Garrison Papers, Smith, quoted in Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 191. \(^{32}\) Humez, *Harriet Tubman*, 79-80. \(^{33}\) Jean M. Humez, *Harriet Tubman*, 310–11, 323, 328. ARRIVAL FROM DORCHESTER CO., 1860. HARRIET TUBMAN'S LAST "TRIP" TO MARYLAND. STEPHEN ENNETS and wife, MARIA, with three children, whose names were as follows: HARRIET, aged six years; AMANDA, four years, and a babe (in the arms of its mother), three months old. The following letter from Thomas Garrett throws light upon this arrival: WILMINGTON, 12th mo., 1st, 1860. RESPECTED FRIEND:-WILLIAM STILL:-I write to let thee know that Harriet Tubman is again in these parts. She arrived last evening from one of her trips of mercy to God's poor, bringing two men with her as far as New Castle. I agreed to pay a man last evening, to pilot them on their way to Chester county; the wife of one of the men, with two or three children, was left some thirty miles below, and I gave Harriet ten dollars, to hire a man with carriage, to take them to Chester county. She said a man had offered for that sum, to bring them on. I shall be very uneasy about them, till I hear they are safe. There is now much more risk on the road, till they arrive here, than there has been for several months past, as we find that some poor, worthless wretches are constantly on the look out on two roads, that they cannot well avoid more especially with carriage, yet, as it is Harriet who seems to have had a special angel to guard her on her journey of mercy, I have hope. Thy Friend, THOMAS GARRETT. N. B. We hope all will be in Chester county to-morrow. These slaves from Maryland, were the last that Harriet Tubman piloted out of the prison-house of bondage, and these "came through great tribulation." STEPHEN, the husband, had been a slave of John Kaiger, who would not allow him to live with his wife (if there was such a thing as a slave's owning a wife.) She lived eight miles distant, hired her time, maintained herself, and took care of her children (until they became of service to their owner), and paid ten dollars a year for her hire. She was owned by Algier Pearcey. Both mother and father desired to deliver their children from his grasp. They had too much intelligence to bear the heavy burdens thus imposed without feeling the pressure a grievous one. Harriet Tubman being well acquainted in their neighborhood, and knowing of their situation, and having confidence that they would prove true, as passengers on the Underground Rail Road, engaged to pilot them within reach of Wilmington, at least to Thomas Garrett's. Thus the father and mother, with their children and a young man named John, found aid and comfort on their way, with Harriet for their "Moses." A poor woman escaping from Baltimore in a delicate state, cheered with clothing, food, and material aid, and sped on to Canada. Notes taken at that time were very brief; it was evidently deemed prudent in those days, not to keep as full reports as had been the wont of the secretary, prior to 1859. The capture of John Brown's papers and letters, with names and plans in full, admonished us that such papers and correspondence as had been preserved concerning the Underground Rail Road, might perchance be captured by a pro-slavery mob. For a year or more after the Harper's Ferry battle, as many will remember, the mob spirit of the times was very violent in all the principal northern cities, as well as southern ("to save the Union.") Even in Boston, Abolition meetings were fiercely assailed by the mob. During this period, the writer omitted some of the most important particulars in the escapes and narratives of fugitives. Books and papers were sent away for a long time, and during this time the records were kept simply on loose slips of paper. Page # 140 Of This Report Is A Blank Page Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Auburn: South Side South Street Tubman Home Tubman House William Henry Stewart, Sr., Home, site of John Stewart Home, site of Farmer House Farmer Family Cemetery Chapman (Cornell) Avenue Thomas and Sarah Stoop House (Site?) Swart House Parker-Stewart House Stewart-Lucas House, site of Richardson (Union) Avenue Elijah Stewart House Elliott-Stewart House Waire House Gaskin House Chapman (Cornell) Avenue-Garrow (Thornton) Street Belt-Gaskin House William Henry Stewart, Jr., House Clarence (Dye) Stewart House Griffen/White Houses Mary and Charles Griffen House John Purnell House Fitch Street Dale House Cannon House, site of. Cale House Fort Hill Cemetery, entrance Parker Street John Ross Stewart and Eliza Stewart Home AME Zion Church AME Zion Parsonage Copes-Johnson Home Hornbeck-Ray Home 37 Parker St. Dale-Waire House Williams House Carter House Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Aspen Street Gaskin House Cooper House Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged National Historic Landmark 180-82 South Street Auburn, New York Significance: National Historic Landmark relating to Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. Center of a community of Freedom Seekers in Auburn. Gates to Harriet Tubman Site 180 South Street Auburn, New York 0013 November 2005 Looking East Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged is the official name of a thirty-two acre property owned by the AME Zion Church and listed as a National Historic Landmark. It includes Tubman’s own brick house, a frame house called the Home for the Aged, and the foundations of a brick structure known as John Brown Hall. The Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged is a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the Network to Freedom and the Where Women Made History National Register Travel Itinerary. It is owned by the AME Zion Church and is open to the public. **Harriet Tubman House, c. 1884** 182 South Street Auburn, New York 513 February 2, 2005 Looking NE Harriet Tubman may have come to Auburn as early as 1857 or 1858, perhaps introduced through her connection with Lucretia Mott, a Philadelphia Quaker who spent weeks almost every year with her sister, Martha Wright, at Wright’s home on Genesee Street in Auburn. In 1859, Harriet Tubman purchased a seven-acre farm on South Street on the town line between Auburn and Fleming, near the tollgate, from William Henry Seward, then U.S. Senator. As Beth Crawford has noted, the transaction was recorded in Seward’s account book on May 25, 1859. Tubman bought the land for $1200, $25 down, with quarterly payments of $10 with interest. Seward had inherited the property from his father-in-law, Elijah Miller. Known as the Burton farm, it eventually included a house, barn, and several outbuildings, enough to sustain Tubman, her parents, and other family members (although as Beth Crawford has noted, the 1859 Town of Fleming map does not show a house in this location).\(^1\) Seward’s sale of this property to Tubman, as Kate Clifford Larson suggested, was a very unusual event. As a woman under New York State law, even a married woman, Tubman would legally have been allowed to own property. But as a black person and a fugitive from slavery, she had no legal rights at all. The Dred Scott decision of 1857 had declared that African Americans had “no rights” under the U.S. Constitution, and by the terms of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, Seward could have been prosecuted with a fine of $1000 and up to six months in jail term for assisting Harriet Tubman in any way.\(^2\) Instead, Seward sold her this land. In 1859, Tubman moved her parents, Ben and Rit Ross, and her brother, John Stewart, to Auburn from St. Catharine’s, Ontario. With little money and no family to support them, they faced an uncertain future. Harriet Tubman went on a lecture tour to Boston, where she met with John Brown and others. She had become a figure of national importance among anti-slavery supporters, and they rallied to give Tubman what support they could. In the fall of that year, John wrote a letter to his sister, explaining their situation in Auburn [punctuation added]: Sister Harriet Tubman I am well and hope you are the same. Fathers health is very good for him. I received your welcome letter yesterday which relieved my uneasiness. We thought quite hard of you for not writing before. We would like to see you much, but if you can do better where you are you had perhaps better stay. Father wanted to go to Canada after his things on foot, but I would not consent as I thought it would be too much for him, and he consents to stay until he gets your advice on the subject as we three are along. I have a good deal of trouble with them as they are getting old and feeble. There was a man by the name of Young that promised father a stove and some things to go to keeping house, but has refused to do anything for them. Brother John has been with father ever since he left Troy and is doing the best he can. Catharine Stewart [Harriet’s sister-in-law, then in St. Catharine’s] has not come yet but wants to very bad. Send what things you want father to bring if you think best for him to go. I am going to send a letter to Wm. Henry [another of Harriet’s brothers in St. Catharine’s]. If you wish me to say any thing for You to him, let me know when you write. Seward has received nothing as Payment since the 4th of July that I know of—write me particularly what you want me to do as I want to hear from you veryt much. I would like to know what luck you have had since you have been gone. Have heard that you were doing well. Hope to find it so. Direct my letters to me Box 750 Auburn. Truly Yours John Stewart [on reverse side] --- \(^1\) Beth Crawford, “Tubman Chronology, Primarily Relating to Deed Info for Auburn Sites, Prepared by Crawford & Stearns, In Progress, 9/03.” \(^2\) Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 163-65. have you ever written to Canada since you have been gone, let me know (John Stewart to Harriet Tubman, November 1, 1859)\(^3\) Faced with a cold winter, John Stewart took his parents back to St. Catharine’s. The family did not move back to Auburn until the spring of 1861.\(^4\) ![Harriet Tubman, c. 1860](image) *Photo Courtesy of the Cayuga Museum, Auburn* By 1865, twelve people lived in Harriet Tubman’s home, all freedom seekers except the youngest children: Harriet’s parents, Ben and Rit Ross (aged 70 and 69) were living in the Tubman house, along with their daughter-in-law, Catharine Stewart (age 27), born in Maryland, who had escaped with Tubman and Tubman’s three brothers on Christmas Eve, 1854; Catharine’s two children, Elijah (age 9), born in Canada, and Hester (age 1-3/4), born in Cayuga County; Margaret Stewart, one of Ben and Rit’s grandchildren (age 13), born in Maryland; Ann M. Elliott (age 22), born in Maryland, another grandchild; Thomas Elliott (age 25), a freedom seeker born in Maryland, one --- \(^3\) Jean M. Humez, *Harriet Tubman: The Life and the Stories* (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, 2003), 282-83. \(^4\) Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 192. of the famous Dover Eight, and Ann’s husband; Henry Mitchell (age 47), born in Maryland, a laborer and owner of land worth $300; Maria Mitchell (age 27), born in Maryland; Josephine Mitchell (age 8), probably Henry and Maria’s daughter; and Thornton Newton (age 35), a freedom seeker born in Virginia. John Stewart, now married a second time to Milla, lived nearby. Notably, Harriet herself was not in Auburn. She was probably still working with the U.S. Army in the South. By 1870, Harriet Tubman, now married to Charles [Nelson] Davis, both forty years old, lived in the house, along with Harriet’s parents, Benjamin and Rittie Stewart, both eighty years old, and a twenty-two-year-old man named William Lane [?], born in Canada. About 1883, fire destroyed the original house, and the current structure was erected about 1884, probably by Nelson Davis, Harriet Tubman’s second husband.\(^5\) \(^5\) Crawford, “Tubman Chronology.” Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged, c. 1870 182 South Street Auburn, New York November 2004 Looking NW Harriet Tubman purchased this building at auction in 1896 from the estate of her neighbor, John Farmer, who built it about 1870, probably as a tenant house for workers in his brickyard. This was part of twenty-five acres, which included John Brown Hall, a brick structure to the rear of the property. Although Tubman had very little money, she came through with the high bid of $1250. “There was all white folks but me there,” she told her biographer, “and there I was like a blackberry in a pail of milk.” As usual, she did not know how she would raise the money, but she merely said, “I’m going home to tell the Lord Jesus all about it,” and through contributions, a new edition of her biography, and transfer of ownership of this land to the AME Zion Church in 1903, the Harriet Tubman Home formally opened in 1908. Tubman herself died in John Brown Hall on March 10, 1913, and was buried next to her brother, William Henry Stewart in Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged, looking northeast, probably 1930s Photo by Jane Searing, Courtesy Hazard Library John Brown Hall, with Tubman, c. 1913 Courtesy Harriet Tubman Home Sources: Sarah Bradford, *Harriet, the Moses of Her People*. Clinton, Catharine. *Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom*. New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 2004. Crawford, Beth. Manuscript Chronology of Tubman Properties. Humez, Jean. *Harriet Tubman: The Life and the Stories*. University of Wisconsin, 2003. Larson, Kate Clifford. *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero*. New York: Ballantine Books, 2004. National Park Service. *Harriet Tubman Special Resources Study*. http://www.harriettubmanstudy.org/places.htm Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resource Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 William Henry Stewart, Sr., Site of Home South Street Auburn, New York Significance: Site of Home of William Henry Stewart, Sr., (freedom seeker and Harriet Tubman’s brother) William Henry Stewart, Sr., brother of Harriet Tubman. From tintype, c. 1860s, Courtesy of Stewart Family Archives Harriet Tubman had eight brothers and sisters. Two of her brothers, John Stewart and William Henry Stewart, went first to Canada in 1854-55 and later moved to Auburn, as did several nieces and nephews. William Henry Stewart, Sr. was born in 1830 in Dorchester County, Maryland, as Henry Ross, younger brother of Araminta Ross (who would be known in her adult years as Harriet Tubman). He married Harriet Ann, born in 1832, also in Dorchester County, and they had ten children—two boys and eight girls—the two boys born in slavery and eight born in freedom in Canada.\(^6\) Henry Ross (William Henry Stewart) and his two brothers Ben Ross (James Stewart) and Robert Ross (John Stewart) were held in slavery by Eliza Brodess, whom Ben Ross called a “very devilish” mistress, and who had threatened to sell them more than once. In turn, they had earlier tried to run away, without success. In December 1854, their situation was desperate. Eliza Brodess advertised their sale at auction for the day after Christmas. Harriet Tubman, then in Pennsylvania, was “much troubled in spirit” about her brothers and felt that “some great evil was --- \(^6\)Kate Clifford Larson, “Ross-Stewart Family Tree,” *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books), after 295. impending over their heads,” as she later reported. She sent word to her brothers that they were to meet her at their father’s house, in Caroline County forty miles north, on Christmas Eve.\footnote{William Still, \textit{The Underground Railroad} (Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1872), 298; Henry Stewart, Interviewed 1863, Canada, John W. Blassingame, ed., \textit{Slave Testimony} (Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 414-416, Kate Larson dated this interview as November 8, 1863, 368, note 114. Sarah Bradford, \textit{Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman}, 61-62. Kate Clifford Larson, \textit{Bound for the Promised Land}, 110-119 contains a detailed description of this escape.} Rit Ross had expected them for Christmas dinner. She had killed a pig and prepared a large meal. Hiding in a corncrib all day that rainy Sunday, wrote Sarah Bradford, Tubman’s nineteenth century biographer, “every few minutes, they would see the old woman come out, and, shading her eyes with her hand, take a long look down the road to see if her children were coming, and then they could almost hear her sigh as she turned into the house, disappointed.” They dared not tell their mother where they were, for fear she could not keep the secret. Their father, however, visited two or three times that day, pushing food inside the door, hiding his face, so that he could truthfully say, when asked by slavecatchers, that he had not \textit{seen} his children.\footnote{Sarah Bradford, \textit{Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman}, 61-62.} Before they left that Sunday evening, they took “silent farewell” of their mother, wrote Bradford. “Through the little window of the cabin, they saw the old woman sitting by her fire with a pipe in her mouth, her head on her hand, rocking back and forth as she did when she was in trouble, and wondering what new evil had come to her children. With streaming eyes, they watched her for ten or fifteen minutes; but time was precious, and they must reach their next station before daybreak, and so they turned sadly away.” Their father, however, “tied his handkerchief tight over his eyes, and two of his sons taking him by each arm, he accompanied them some miles upon their journey. They then bade him farewell, and left him standing blind-fold in the middle of the road. When he could no longer hear their footsteps, he took off the handkerchief, and turned back.”\footnote{Sarah Bradford, \textit{Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman}, 61-62.} Ben Ross’s scheme, worked out with Harriet, worked. When slave catchers came to collect the brothers for sale on the day after Christmas, they were gone. Rit Ross could truthfully say, as Bradford reported it when told by Harriet Tubman, that “not one of ‘em came this Christmas. She was looking for ‘em most all day, and most broke her heart about it.” “What does Old Ben say?” “Old Ben says that he hasn’t seen one of his children this Christmas.” “Well, if old Ben says that, they haven’t been round.” And so the man-hunters went off disappointed.\footnote{Bradford, \textit{Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman}, 62-3.} Harriet brought her brothers and their friends (nine in total) to Thomas Garrett’s house in Wilmington, Delaware, where she had often stayed. Garret gave her two dollars to buy new shoes and sent her to William Still, who kept the Vigilance Committee office in Philadelphia. As Kate Clifford Larson has noted, he had already helped six other freedom seekers in December 1854. William Still noted in his Journal C, reprinted in \textit{The Underground Railroad} in 1872, that “Henry was only twenty-two, but had quite an insight into matters and things going on among slaves and slave-holders generally, in country life.”\footnote{Still, \textit{Underground Railroad} (Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1872), 298.} From Philadelphia, Harriet took her charges to Albany and then to St. Catharine’s, Canada. Within a year or so after William Stewart, Sr.’s escape, Harriet returned to Maryland to bring out his wife (Harriet Ann), his son (William Henry Stewart, Jr.), and probably his younger brother, John Isaac, as well, who all joined William Stewart, Sr., in St. Catharine. Daughters Caroline and Mary were born in Canada, as were six other sisters.\(^{12}\) According to Kate Larson, William Henry Stewart, Sr., lived in St. Paul’s Ward in St. Catharine’s in 1856, at the same address listed for Harriet Tubman in 1858. At first, reported William Henry, “I made pretty good progress” in Canada, and then he and James Stewart rented a farm for $200 a year and “we got into some trouble there and left that.” In 1861, William Henry Stewart, Sr., and Tubman served as part of the committee for a new Fugitive Aid Society, helping to distribute funds that Tubman raised to assist people newly arrived in Canada from slavery. That same year, he bought “six acres of land out in the country,” in Grantham, Lincoln County, Ontario, outside of St. Catharines, where he lived until the late 1880s. Thomas Elliott, who moved to Auburn in the early 1860s, was one of their neighbors.\(^{13}\) Sometime before 1875, William Henry Stewart’s oldest son, William Henry Stewart, Jr., moved to Auburn, New York, where, in 1879, he married Emma Moseby in the Wall Street Methodist Church.\(^{14}\) Shortly afterwards, they built a house at 64 Garrow Street, on the corner of Chapman Avenue (then known as Cornell Street) and Garrow Street, locally referred to as “the last house on Cornell Street.” This neighborhood had been developed in the 1860s, and many of the first homes had been sold by Abijah Fitch and his son-- European American abolitionists, landowners, and industrialists--to freedom seekers. In the late 1880s, William Henry Stewart, Sr., moved from his home in Grantham, Ontario, to join his son, William Henry Stewart, Jr., who had moved to Auburn sometime before 1875. William Henry Stewart, Jr., had married Emma Moseby Stewart in 1879 and built a home at the northeast corner of Cornell (Chapman) Avenue and Garrow Street. About 1890, William Henry Stewart, Jr.’s younger brother, John Isaac, also moved from Canada to Auburn, perhaps to be near to John Isaac’s daughter, Eva Katherine Helena Harriet, who had been raised by Harriet Tubman after the death in childbirth of John Isaac’s Indian wife, Helena, in 1889. John Isaac died in 1893, leaving his four-year-old daughter an orphan. He was buried in Fort Hill cemetery, next to Harriet Tubman’s second husband, Nelson Davis. When Harriet Tubman made her will on 18 November 1912, Katy Stewart, John Isaac’s daughter and Harriet Tubman’s grand-niece, was one of only three people to whom she left her estate.\(^{15}\) As shown on the 1904 atlas of Auburn, William Henry Stewart owned a home at 176 South Street, just north of Harriet Tubman’s property. He also owned a vacant lot at what is now 15 Richardson (once 15 Union) Avenue, which is now occupied by a modern house and lot. \begin{tabular}{llll} Stewart & William H. & 1887 & 15 Union \\ Stewart & William H. & 1888 & 15 Union-vacant lot \end{tabular} \(^{12}\) Larson, \textit{Bound for the Promised Land}, 118–19, 124. \(^{13}\) Henry Stewart interview, 1863, in John Blassingame, \textit{Slave Testimony}, 416. Kate Clifford Larson, \textit{Bound for the Promised Land}, 118, 155, 193, 349. \(^{14}\) Larson, 260. \(^{15}\) Larson, \textit{Bound for the Promised Land}, 276. Stewart William H. 1889 15 Union-vacant lot 100 Stewart William H. 1900 176 South & 15 Union 400/100 Property research by Tanya Warren. William Henry Stewart, Sr., in 1912 and was buried in the same plot where his sister, Harriet Tubman Davis, was buried in 1913. Written with Judith Bryant and Kate Clifford Larson Auburn, South, 1904 8 showing part of Wards 2-8&9 City of AUBURN N.Y. Scale 400 ft.to an inch Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Site of John and Milla Stewart’s Home First Methodist Church, 99 South Street Northwest corner South Street and Fitch Avenue Auburn, New York Significance: Home of Freedom Seeker, one of Harriet Tubman’s Brothers So powerful a figure was Harriet Tubman that she often overshadowed those around her. Both contemporaries and people in later generations often forgot that, when she settled in Auburn, she brought with her a whole group of family and friends. Many were people she had helped to escape from Maryland. Among them were two brothers, John Stewart and William Henry Stewart, and their wives and children. John Stewart was born Robert Ross in Dorchester County, Maryland in 1816, the fourth child and first son of Benjamin Ross and Harriet Green Ross. The next child born to Ben and Rit Ross, in 1822, would be Araminta Ross, who became known as Harriet Tubman.\(^{16}\) In 1854, Robert Ross was 35 years old. He and wife Mary had two children, and Mary was pregnant with a third. Robert worked with two of his brothers, Benjamin Ross and Henry Ross, on the farm of Eliza Brodess, who was, said Ben, a “very devilish” mistress. Robert did the hard work of the farm, cutting wood, drawing water, raised under what he termed “very wicked” conditions. In December, 1854, all three brothers learned that their worst fear was to be realized: they were to be sold. Their owner, Eliza Brodess, advertised them for sale at auction the day after Christmas. Harriet Tubman, “much troubled in spirit about her three brothers, feeling sure that some great evil was impending over their heads,” as she later said, sent a coded letter to a free black man named Jacob Jackson, alerting her brothers that she was coming back to Maryland She arrived on Christmas Eve and sent word to her brothers to begin their trip at their father’s cabin, forty miles away. Robert stayed behind long enough to help his wife Mary gave birth to a girl, their third child. As Harriet’s biographer, Sarah Bradford, later told it: When they assembled, their brother John was missing; but when Harriet was ready, the word was “Forward!” and she “nebber waited for no one.” Poor John was almost ready to start, when his wife was taken ill, and in an hour or two, another little inheritor of the blessings of slavery had come into the world. John must go off for a “Granny,” and then he would not leave his wife in her present circumstances. But after the birth of the child, he began to think he must start; the North and Liberty, or the South and life-long Slavery--these were the alternatives, and this was his last chance. He tried again and again to steal out of the door, but a watchful eye was on him, and he was always arrested by the question, “Where you gwine John?” At length he told her he was going to try to see if he couldn’t get hired out on Christmas to another man. His wife did not think that he was to be sold. He went out of the door, and stood by the corner of the house, near her bed, listening. At length, he heard her sobbing and crying, and not being able to endure it, he went back. “Oh! John,” said his wife, “you’s gwine to lebe me; but, wherebbeber you go, remember me an’ de chillen.” John went out and started at full speed for his father’s cabin, forty miles \(^{16}\) Kate Clifford Larson, “Ross-Stewart Family Tree,” *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books, 2004), after 295. away. At daybreak, he overtook the others in the “fodder house,” near the cabin of their parents.\textsuperscript{17} Reaching the cornerrib at daybreak, Robert joined Harriet; his brothers, Ben and Henry; Ben’s fiancée Jane Kane; and two others, John Chase, and Peter Jackson.\textsuperscript{18} They made their way North to William Still’s Underground Railroad office in Philadelphia. Many people leaving slavery took new names, and Harriet’s brothers were no exception. William Still carefully recorded them. Benjamin Ross became James Stewart; Robert became John Stewart; and Henry became first Levin Stewart and then William Henry Stewart. Robert, noted Still was “of a chestnut color, and well made.” He had hardly been treated as well “as a gentleman would treat a dumb brute. His feelings, therefore, on leaving his old master and home, were those of an individual who had been unjustly in prison for a dozen years and had at last regained his liberty.”\textsuperscript{19} Robert left behind a wife, Mary Manokey Ross, and three small children, John Henry, Moses and Harriet. In 1856, their master, Dr. Anthony Thompson, perhaps in an effort to prevent more people from running away, manumitted them when they reached age thirty. Mary would officially be free in 1862. Thompson sent Mary and her children to his daughter’s house in Talbot County, Maryland, perhaps to prevent her escape. There she fell in love with a free man of color, and, in 1857, Thompson’s son-in-law purchased Mary and her three children. In 1864, he put John Henry and Moses Ross to work as indentured servants.\textsuperscript{20} From Philadelphia, Harriet took the whole group first to Albany, where Stephen Myers kept the main Underground Railroad station, and then to St. Catharines, Canada, where they joined others from their old Maryland neighborhood. With William Henry, John settled on Niagara Street in St. Catharines, around the corner from Harriet Tubman and his brother, William Henry Stewart, where he worked first as a laborer and then became a coachman, first for Dr. Grimm and by 1860 Dr. Mack.\textsuperscript{21} While in St. Catharine’s, John Stewart was interviewed by Benjamin Drew. He reported to Drew about his life in slavery: The man that owned me, was not fit to own a dog. I had been wanting to get away for the last twenty years. I grieved over my condition, and groaned over it. A few months ago I succeeded in escaping. After I got among abolitionists, I was almost scared; they used me \textsuperscript{17} Sarah Bradford, \textit{Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman} (Auburn, New York: W.J. Moses, 1869), electronic edition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000, \url{http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/bradford/bradford.html}, 59-60. \textsuperscript{18} Sarah Bradford, \textit{Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman}, 57. For more details of this escape story, see, Sarah Bradford, \textit{Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman}, 61-62, Kate Larson, \textit{Bound for the Promised Land}, 110-119, and description of Stewart-Bryant house for this survey. \textsuperscript{19} William Still, \textit{The Underground Railroad} (Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1872), 298. \textsuperscript{20} Larson, 127. \textsuperscript{21} Kate Larson, 118; 340 note 60; 349, note 113. so well, I was afraid of a trick. I had been used so ill before, that I did not know what to make of it to be used so decently.\textsuperscript{22} In 1859, John Stewart moved to Auburn. He lived first with Harriet Tubman. In 1860, probably while he was still living at Tubman’s home, he took part in a meeting of the Auburn Suffrage Club, held at the “shaving saloon” of B.C. Freeman (probably that of Morgan Freeman, at what is now 113 Genesee Street). An article in a local Auburn newspaper on October 30, 1860, reported that the colored people of Auburn held a meeting last evening to consider the propriety of forming a Club to attend to the suffrage question at the polls. They desire to enjoy the elective franchise; and they know that they are dependent on white men to give it to them—They will attend at the several polls in the city on election day, and distribute tickets “for the amendment of the constitution.” William Johnson was elected President; Tillman Jackson, Vice President, B.C. Freeman, Secretary; and John T. Stuard (probably John Stewart), Secretary.\textsuperscript{23} In 1863-64, at the home of Henry and Maria Mitchell, he married a second time. His new wife was Millie Hollis, and they moved to a house of their own, identified in the 1865-6 city directory as located at South near Swift, in 1867-68 as at South near Hamilton, and in 1874-75 as at 101 South Street (now 99 South Street). The latter was at the northwest corner of South Street and Fitch Avenue, where David Munson Osborne and Eliza Wright Osborne (daughter of Martha Wright) also lived.\textsuperscript{24} The 1865 census listed John Stewart as a laborer, age 48, living with Milla, age 46, the only two people in the household. Through help from relative John Bowley, who had returned to live in Maryland, John Stewart managed to get his sons John Henry and Moses Ross rescued from servitude in Talbot County, Maryland, about 1867 or 1868.\textsuperscript{25} By 1870, John Henry and Moses had joined the family in Auburn. The 1870 census listed John Stewart’s age as 53. In 1870, Millie was 53, keeping house; John Henry was 18, a laborer; and Moses was 15, a laborer. John Henry was working again as teamster, the occupation he had held in St. Catharine’s. Harkness Bowley, his nephew, recalled that John Stewart “had a fine team of horses” but that he was crippled with rheumatism. He often could not work, and his sons or nephews would help him.\textsuperscript{26} In the 1870s, Stewart worked as a teamster for David Osborne, mayor of Auburn and son-in-law of Martha and David Wright. Martha Wright was sister of the famous Quaker minister, woman’s rights advocate, and abolitionist Lucretia Mott. Both were long-time friends of Harriet Tubman. The family lived at the northwest corner of South Street and Fitch Avenue, the site of the David Osborne and Eliza Wright Osborne’s home. Although the library of the Osborne home still \textsuperscript{22} Benjamin Drew, \textit{The Refugees: or the The Narratives of Fugitive Slaves in Canada} (Boston: J.P. Jewett, 1856), 40-41. Reprint Toronto: Prospero Books, 2000. \textsuperscript{23} No title for newspaper, October 30, 1860. Many thanks to Anthony Gero for finding this. \textsuperscript{24} Place of marriage and name of Millie Hollis identified by Kate Larson in email to Judith Wellman, February 2005. \textsuperscript{25} Larson, 237-38. \textsuperscript{26} Harkness Bowley to Earl Conrad, 24 August 1939, quoted to Jean Humez. stands, the rest of the buildings are now gone, replaced by the First Methodist Church.\textsuperscript{27} In 1873, John Stewart and Harriet Tubman became involved in a swindle involving a large quantity of gold that was supposedly hidden in a nearby woods.\textsuperscript{28} John Stewart died in 1889, age 77. He was buried in the North Street Cemetery, Auburn.\textsuperscript{29} No house survives to mark John Stewart’s presence in Auburn. \textsuperscript{27} Larson, 260. \textsuperscript{28} Larson, 255-59. \textsuperscript{29} Larson, 276. John Farmer House, c. 1835 South Street Auburn, New York Significance: Hired many African American freedom seekers, including possibly Rit Ross, Harriet Tubman’s mother February 2, 2005, Looking East Description: The John Farmer family lived on the East side of South Street, two doors south of Harriet Tubman Davis. This three-bay house with Greek Revival trim, just south of the Tubman House, is appropriately built of brick, since John Farmer owned a local brick yard, where he hired many African Americans, as did two Englishmen (Ross and Hedges) who also owned a brickyard in the area. Significance: Local tradition (passed on by Walter Long, former director of the Cayuga Museum) suggests that Rit Ross, Harriet Tubman’s mother, may have worked for John Farmer. In 1864, John Farmer bought 25 acres of land from William H. Seward, directly north of Harriet Tubman’s seven acres.\(^{30}\) There he operated a brickyard and built, probably about 1870, the frame structure that Harriet Tubman bought at auction in 1896 and that ultimately became Tubman’s Home for the Aged. That land also included the brick building that became John Brown Hall, which Farmer may have used as a tenant house and/or office for the brickyard. Research by Beth Crawford and Sheila Tucker. \(^{30}\) William H. Seward to John W. Farmer, February 1, 1864, Deed Book 106, page 51, as noted in Beth Crawford, “Tubman Chronology, Primarily Relating to Deed Info for Auburn Sites, Prepared by Crawford & Stearns, In Progress, 9/03.” Farmer Family Cemetery Gates South Street Auburn, New York Significance: Local oral tradition suggests this may be the burial place of Rit Ross, Harriet Tubman’s mother February 2, 2005 Looking South Local tradition (passed on by Walter Long, former director of the Cayuga Museum) suggests that Rit Ross, Harriet Tubman’s mother, may have worked for John Farmer, and that she is buried in the Farmer family cemetery, directly across South St. from the Farmer home. The story about additional graves being located in the Farmer family cemetery may have been fueled by work on the cemetery in the 1960s, when Sheila Tucker, Fleming Town Historian and later Cayuga County Historian, received funding from a federal youth corps program to renovate the Farmer family cemetery. As Sheila Tucker reported in 2005: I believe that the whole story about Harriet’s mother being buried in the Farmer Cemetery stems from my activity. During the late 60’s I was able to get funding and assistance from the youth corp type group to restore Galpin Hill and Farmer Cemeteries. I also was able to get a monument man in Auburn to repair any of the stones that were Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 repairable. I pulled up at the Farmer Cemetery with a truck filled with about eight stones from Galpin Hill and took one from Farmer to the monument man. Years later, a neighbor informed two DAR types who were listing the cemeteries in the county that a woman removed some of the stones—implying that there were more buried there. Of course, the two stones for Farmer were returned. We did probe both cemeteries looking for other bases. Bernie [Corcoran] put a note on his website that there had been additional burials at the Farmer cemetery because of the story of a woman removing the stones.\textsuperscript{31} Thanks to Sheila Tucker and Beth Crawford for research assistance. \textsuperscript{31} Email, April 22, 2005. Thomas and Sarah Stoop House Chapman Avenue Auburn, New York 13021 Significance: Home of African Americans from Eastern New York Thomas and Mary Stoop represent those African Americans, probably born into slavery themselves, who migrated to Auburn from eastern New York, not to escape slavery but to find a congenial neighborhood in which to live, work, and raise their children. They arrived in Auburn by 1854, for on July 22, 1854, the *Auburn Daily Advertiser* noted that Mr. Thomas Stoop had been appointed chair of a meeting held on July 10 to plan a celebration for August 1, 1854, a day on which 800,00 souls were set at liberty in the West Indies by the British Government; and in view of this, Auburn intends manfully to show to the world her warm attachment to so holy and noble a cause; and I speak the sentiments of the citizens generally, when I extend a most cordial invitation to the Empire State, to marshal her sons and daughters in innumerable busts throughout the length and breadth of her borders; and the appointed time crowd every avenue and thoroughfare that shall lead safely to the Queen City of the Empire State. Our brethren from the East and the West, from the North and from the South, will also expect to be heard from. Come one, come all. John H. Freeman, General Secretary On August 1, 1854, the *Auburn Daily Advertiser* reported that “the colored people had made extensive calculations on a good time today in honor of the West Indian Emancipation, but just as their procession had got fairly under way, with banners and musci their ardor was somewhat dampened by sudden showers. They left the streets and assembled at Stanford Hall. Addressed delivered by Frederick Douglass of Rochester, Mr. Loguen of Syracuse. Day ushered in by ringing of church bells and firing of cannon.”\(^1\) The 1855 census listed the Stoops as a family of six. Thomas Stoop (age 52), laborer, born in Ulster County, lived with his wife, Sterah A. (age 29), born in Orange County, with their children John (age 5), Mary (age 4), Freeman (age 2), and Martha (age three months), all born in Cayuga County. The census taker left the column for “color” blank for Thomas and Sterah but noted “B” for “Black” for each of the children. They were ambitious and quickly began to acquire property. They settled first in the older residential area on the north side of town. They bought a small piece of land on Division Street in May 1854, and by 1855, they had constructed a board house worth, according to the 1855 census, $100. The 1857 Auburn city directory listed Thomas Stoop at 64 Division Street, on the site of the house below.\(^2\) In 1859-60, the Stoop family was living, according to the city directory, at 35 Washington Street. In 1860, Thomas Stoop (now age 57), laborer, and Sarah Stoop, a domestic (age 32), had five children: John (10), Mary (9), Freeman (7), Martha (5), and Anna (3). Of this whole family, the census taker labeled only the youngest children, Martha and Anna, as Black. All the rest were left blank in the space for “color.” By 1865, the Stoops now listed their ages as 40 (Thomas) and 36 (Sarah). Thomas was a “team labor”, and Mary (age 14) was a grandchild rather than a child. Of the older children, only Freeman (age 12) and Martha (10) still lived at home, but a new baby, Jemima (six months) had been born. The family now lived in a frame house worth $400. The census listed them in the Town of Fleming. --- \(^1\) Transcription by Sheila Tucker. \(^2\) See transcript of deed by Tanya Warren, attached. In a deed recorded March 6, 1869, Thomas and Sarah Stoop bought a piece of land on the north side of Cornell Street (now Chapman Avenue) near South Street, between land owned by Noah Clark and Seth Watkins, both European Americans, with free access to a well on the west side of the property. This was land newly-opened for sale to working-class families, both white and black, by Abijah Fitch, abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter, near Harriet Tubman’s property. Many freedom seekers bought land farther west on Cornell Street, at the corner of Garrow Street. Harriet Tubman’s niece-in-law, Eliza Stewart Parker, and later another niece, Margaret Stewart Lucas, also purchased land on the south side of Cornell Street, very near the Stoop house, in this mixed-race neighborhood. Clark, John S., “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” A.C. Taber, Surveyor, September 1868. Cayuga County Clerk’s Office. Thomas Stoop [Stup]’s land is noted on Lot 1 at bottom of map. In 1870, Thomas (age 67), listed his occupation in the census as laborer, and Sarah (age 42) listed hers as keeping house. They lived here with their children, John (20), a laborer, Mary (19), Anna (13), Jemima (6), at school, and Eliza (10 months). They were now listed again in Auburn. In the 1880 census, Thomas and Sarah Stoop were no longer listed. Mary (perhaps formerly listed as Sarah) Stoop, now 51, was a washerwoman, head of a household living at what was then 53 Cornell Street with John, her son, age 27, working in a machine shop, Eva, age 24, a daughter; and Jemima, a daughter, age 16, at school. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Uncertain whether any current building is the same house owned by Thomas Stoop. | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property | REAL-$ | MISC. | |-----------|------------|--------|------|---------------------------|--------|--------------------------------------------| | Stoop | Thomas | Auburn | 1869 | Thornton Ave. Cornell-residence | 225 | First entry-previous residences-Division St. and Fleming. | | Stoop | Thomas | Auburn | 1870 | Cornell-residence | 250 | | | Stoop | Thomas | Auburn | 1871 | Cornell-residence | 200 | | | Stoop | Thomas | Auburn | 1872 | Cornell-residence | no entry | | | Stoop | Thomas | Auburn | 1873 | Cornell-residence | 150 | | | Stoop | John | Auburn | 1874 | Cornell-residence | 350 | No more Thomas | | Stoop | John | Auburn | 1875 | 22 Cornell-house | 350 | last Stoop entry | **Deed:** Henry B. Fitch to Thomas Stoop 6 March 1869 City Deed Book 125, pp. 202-204 City of Auburn, NY Cayuga County Records Retention Abstract-TLW Indenture made 6 March 1869 between Henry B. & Adelia Fitch of Auburn and Thomas Stoop of Auburn, for $700.00 do grant, etc. all that land in Auburn described as: Beginning at the SE corner of a lot sold to Noah P. Clark on the North side of Cornell St. and running thence northerly 2 chains, 50 links to the lands of Seth Watkins, thence easterly parallel with Cornell St. 1 chain and 1 link more or less, to the west line of lands of Thomas Shea, thence southerly along the land of said Shea 2 chains, 50 links to the North line of Cornell ST. thence westerly along the north line of said street 1 chain to place of beginning. Reserving the right to the owner or occupant of the land of Seth Watkins, a right of way along the east line of said lot. 12 ½ feet wide. Said Watkins to keep and maintain proper gates on each end of right of way and to keep same closed when not in use as against their own acts. Also the right to use & to have free access to the well which is upon the west line & jointly upon this & the lot next west adjoining. The repairs of said well are to be equally borne by both parties. Said Stoop is to build the fences upon the west line. With all the appurtenances, etc. Signed by the Fitch’s. Also: Deed: Sarah Ann Stoop and Thomas Stoop to Henry B. Fitch 6 March 1869 Page 203 of same Book This indenture between (said parties) for and consideration of the sum of $200.00 have sold and by these presents doth grant…all that parcel of land, situate in Auburn on the South side of Perrine St. (formerly Ellen St.), near Division St., described as follows: Being part of the original Lot #46 of the Town of Aurelius, now Auburn, commencing in the center of Perrine St. (formerly Ellen St), at the NE corner of a lot of land now or formerly owned by Benjamin Rice, running thence South along the East line of said Rice’s land, 10 rods, thence east parallel with Perrine St. 4 rods, thence northerly parallel with the west line of said lot 10 rods to the center of Perrine St. thence... westerly along the center of Perrine St. 4 rods to place of beginning, containing 40 rods of land. A strip of 1 ½ rods across the North line of said lot being for the purpose of a street to be kept forever open for that purpose, it being a part and parcel of Perrine St. This deed is intended to convey that parcel of land, conveyed by Deed dated 13 April 1854 of Joshua Goodrich and wife to Sarah Ann Stoop, said deed being recorded 13 May 1854, Book 88 of Deeds, page 154. With all the Appurtenances, etc. Signed by the hands of Sarah Stoop and Thomas Stoop. **Mortgage Deed Abstract** *Thomas Stoop to Henry B. Fitch* 6 March 1869 City of Auburn, Cayuga County, NY Mortgage Book 73, page 325 This indenture made this 6th day of March 1869 between Thomas Stoop of the City of Auburn and Henry B. Fitch of the same place in consideration of the sum of $450 have sold, etc. all that tract of land situate in the City of Auburn bounded and described as follows: Beginning at the Southeast corner of a lot sold to Noah P. Clark on the North side of Cornell Street and running thence Northerly 2 chains, 50 links to lands of Seth Watkins; thence Easterly parallel with Cornell Street 1 chain, 1 link more or less to the West line of lands of Thomas Shea; thence Southerly along the land of said Shea 2 chains, 50 links to the North line of Cornell Street; Thence Westerly along the North line of Cornell St. 1 chain to place of beginning. Reserving the right to the owners or occupants of the land of Seth Watkins a right of way along the East line of said lot 12 ½ feet wide. Said Watkins to keep and maintain proper gates on each end of right a way and to keep same closed when not in use as against their own acts and also the right to use and to have free access to the well which is upon this and the next lot West adjoining. The repairs of said well to be equally born by both parties. This grant is intended as a security for the payment of $450 being part of the purchase money in payments of $100 annually together with interest semi-annually on all sum or sums unpaid according to the condition of a bond this day executed and delivered by the said Thomas Stoop to the party of the second part. (Payment details follow) Signed by the hand of Thomas Stoop Research and transcription by Tanya Warren Swart House 12 Chapman (Cornell Street) Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seeker In 1887-88, the Auburn city directory listed Sarah Swart, widow of George Swarts, living at 12 Cornell Street. Thornton Newton, a freedom seeker from Maryland, worked at 12 Cornell and lived across the street at 20 Cornell Street. --- 3 Property research by Tanya Warren. Parker-Stewart House 20 Chapman Avenue Auburn, New York 13021 Significance: Home of freedom seekers and Harriet Tubman’s great-nieces and nephew This house, built in 1899, represents the continuing importance of community, both to Harriet Tubman and to the many freedom seekers who settled in Auburn, as their children and grandchildren found jobs, bought property, and raised their own families in Auburn. Clarence “Dye” Stewart, lived here at 20 Chapman Avenue from 1899-1904. Although he was not born in slavery himself, Dye Stewart was the grandson of Harriet Tubman’s brother John Stewart, who escaped with Harriet Tubman from slavery in Dorchester County, Maryland, in December 1854. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resource Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 John Stewart was one of only two of Tubman’s siblings who moved with her to Auburn, and Dye Stewart remained close to Tubman until her death in 1913. He was at Harriet Tubman’s bedside when she died. After John Henry Stewart, son of Tubman’s brother, John, died in 1880 or 1881, his widow, Eliza Stewart, married Alfred Parker. They moved to this house, where Eliza Stewart Parker apparently kept a boarding house for family and friends, many of whom were freedom seekers from Maryland. This house at 20 Chapman Avenue is associated with the descendants of John Stewart, Tubman’s brother, including Tubman’s grand nieces and nephew (Dora, Gertrude, and Clarence “Dye” Stewart), as well as with other freedom seekers who lived here as family members or boarders, including some of Tubman’s old neighbors from Maryland, including Georgie Thompson, a freedom seeker and widow of Philip (whom city directories record as living here in 1885 and 1892-97), Albert Stewart (1888-89), Alfred L. Winslow (1887-88), and Thornton Newton, (1887-88). Thornton Newton listed his birthplace in census records as Virginia. He had boarded with Tubman when he first arrived in Auburn in the early 1860s. By 1870, he had married a woman named, Priscilla, who listed her birthplace as Canada, and they were living in Owasco. In 1880, Priscilla and Thornton lived at 12 Cornell Street, down the street from this house. According to the 1887-88 city directory, Thornton Newton had moved to 20 Cornell Street, but he worked at 12 Cornell Street. When Harriet Tubman was trying to prove her identity, in order to get her Civil War pension, Thornton Newton was one of those who witnessed her documentation.\(^4\) Alfred L. Winslow was the son of Catherine Stewart (Jane Kane), who had escaped with Harriet Tubman and her three brothers on Christmas Eve, 1854. She had then married Tubman’s oldest brother, Ben Ross. When he changed his name to James Stewart, she changed hers to Catharine Stewart. Their son, Elijah Stewart, lived at 29 Union Avenue (now Richardson Avenue). After James Stewart’s death in St. Catharine’s, Ontario, Catharine Stewart married Albert Winslow, and in 1887-88, their son, Alfred Winslow, lived in this house at 20 Cornell Street. (Alfred Winslow may actually be the same person listed in the 1880 census as Albert Winslow, eleven years old, a student, living at 29 Union Avenue, with his half-brother Elijah Stewart.)\(^5\) Alfred L. Winslow thus lived with his cousins—Gertrude, Dora, and Clarence—as well as his Aunt Eliza Stewart Parker. They all lived just down the street from their cousin Margaret Stewart Lucas, who lived at 30 Cornell Street. Dye Stewart lived in this house at 20 Cornell Street from 1899-1904. For a time, Clarence “Dye” Stewart followed his father’s occupation as a coachman. He married as his first wife, Lena, and for a time, they lived at 68 Garrow Street, still standing on the southeast corner of Garrow and Chapman Avenue. When Lena Stewart died, Dye Stewart moved in with his aunt and uncle, at 64 Garrow Street. When he married a second time, Pearl Reed, he moved to ? Parker Street, a house that is also still standing.\(^6\) Tax assessments suggest that this house was constructed in 1899, the same year that the Parker-Stewart family moved here. --- \(^4\) 1865 and 1870 census; Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 278. \(^5\) Thanks to Kate Clifford Larson for sorting out this genealogy. \(^6\) Auburn City Directory, 1896-97, listed him as a coachman. Genealogical research by Judy Bryant. ### Tax assessments for Parker-Stewart House 20 Cornell (Chapman) Avenue | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property/Lot # | REAL-$ | |-----------|------------|--------|------|---------------------------------|--------| | Belt | Isaiah | Auburn | 1885 | 18, 20 Cornell-vacant lots | 200 | | Belt | Isaiah | Auburn | 1885 | 24 Cornell-lot & cellar | 100 | | Parker | Alfred | Auburn | 1899 | 20 Cornell-house & lot | 900 | | Parker | Alfred | Auburn | 1900 | 20 Cornell-house & lot | 900 | | Parker | Alfred | Auburn | 1901 | 20 Cornell-house & lot | 900 | | Parker | Alfred | Auburn | 1902 | 20 Cornell-house & lot | 900 | | Parker | Alfred | Auburn | 1903 | 20 Cornell-house & lot | 900 | | Parker | Alfred | Auburn | 1904 | 20 Cornell-house & lot | 900 | | Parker | Alfred | Auburn | 1905 | 20 Cornell-house & lot | 900 | | Parker | Alfred | Auburn | 1906 | 20 Cornell-house & lot | 900 | Sources: Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land* 1870, 1880 census 1887-88, 1896-97, 1899, 1904 city directories Judy Bryant oral tradition, genealogical research Email from Kate Clifford Larson* Property and genealogical research by Tanya Warren. Site of Stewart-Lucas House Now Oak Creek Town Homes (Historic 30 Cornell Street) Auburn, New York 13021 Significance: Home of one of Harriet Tubman’s nieces (perhaps her daughter) At her core, Harriet Tubman was a caregiver. Her home was constantly full of people, some of them related to her and some not. She took care of anyone who needed help, especially the very old and the very young, including one adopted daughter, Gertie, who joined the household at birth in 1874; one great-niece, Eva Katherine Helena Harriet, whom everyone called Katy Stewart and who lived with Harriet from 1889, when her mother, Helena (Indian wife of her nephew, John Isaac Stewart) died in childbirth; and one great-nephew, Harkless Bowley. As far as we know, however, Harriet Tubman never had any children of her own. The one possible exception was Margaret Stewart Lucas, probably another niece of Harriet but possibly her daughter. After Margaret Stewart married Henry Lucas, they lived in a house at 30 Cornell Street, now on the site of the Oak Creek Town Homes, for many years. This house was torn down in the early twenty-first century, but Donna Richardson-Jones, descendent of Margaret Stewart Lucas, made this sketch of it in June 2005. Margaret Stewart was born in Maryland in October 1850.\(^7\) She may have been the daughter of Harriet Tubman’s brother, Benjamin Ross (James Stewart), and an unknown first wife. If so, she was probably the younger sister of Ann Marie Stewart Elliott, who married Thomas Elliott and lived at 31 Union Avenue in Auburn until her death sometime before 1880. This is supported by Margaret Stewart’s daughter, Alice Lucas Brickler, who remembered that Maria Elliott “was m \(^7\) 1900 U.S. Census. mother’s elder sister and Mary Gaston [Gaskins] always called my mother Aunt Maggie (much to my father’s disgust).” Alice Lucas Brickler, who was thirteen years old when Harriet Tubman died, recounted the story that Harriet Tubman had kidnapped her mother from Maryland, when Margaret was eight or nine years old. About all Margaret Stewart remembered of her childhood home was that she had a twin brother, they had never been slaves, and that the family had “a pair of slick chestnut horses and a shiny carriage in which they rode to church.” When Harriet visited them, sometime before 1862, “she fell in love with the little girl who was my mother,” and “when her visit was ended, she, secretly and without so much as a by-your-leave, took the little girl with her to her northern home.” In the early 1860s, Harriet Tubman, about to begin her career as a scout in the U.S. Army, was in no position to take care of a little girl. She entrusted her to the care of Lazette Worden. Lazette Worden spent much time with her sister, Frances Seward (wife of William Henry Seward, Senator from New York State and soon-to-be Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln). Frances Seward raised Margaret, Alice Brickler recounted, “not as a servant but as a guest within her home. She taught Mother to speak properly, to read, write, sew, do housework and act as a lady. Whenever Aunt Harriet came back, Mother was dressed and sent in the Seward carriage to visit her. Strange to say, Mother looked very much like Aunt Harriet and there was hardness about her character in the face of adversity that must have been hereditary.” As a girl, Margaret Stewart lived with Harriet Tubman “when Aunt Harriet was at home,” and she was proud “to the point of being snobbish.” She used to tell a story about herself, which her daughter later recounted. “In appearance she was short and plump, light brown with long thick Negroid hair. There was a relative living at the home at this time who disliked Mother very much and whenever Aunt Harriet was out of hearing she used to call Mother a ‘pumpkin-colored hussy.’ Ha, ha,” wrote Brickler. For many people, it seems entirely out-of-character for Harriet Tubman to have kidnapped Margaret Stewart from her parents. That incongruity, plus the striking physical likeness between Margaret and Harriet, has prompted speculation that Margaret Stewart may, in fact, have been Harriet Tubman’s birth child. If so, noted Catharine Clinton, “taking Margaret would have been a recovery rather than an abduction. Several puzzle pieces might then fit into place, including Harriet’s decision to return again and again to Maryland. . .There is of course no proof to substantiate this scenario, just a circumstantial timeline and some comments handed down in --- 8 Alice Lucas Brickler to Earl Conrad, 23 April 1940, Earl Conrad-Harriet Tubman Collection, Schomburg Center, New York Public Library, reprinted in Jean M. Humez, *Harriet Tubman, The Life and the Stories* (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), 271. 9 Alice Lucas Brickler to Earl Conrad, 14 August 1939, reprinted in Humez, *Harriet Tubman*, 269. 10 Kate Larson noted that Margaret Stewart went first to live with Lazaette Worden, based on a letter from Martha Wright, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 196; Alice Lucas Brickler to Earl Conrad, 14 August 1939, reprinted in Humez, *Harriet Tubman*, 270. 11 Alice Lucas Brickler to Earl Conrad, 23 April 1940, reprinted in Jean Humez, *Harriet Tubman*, 271. family lore.” Yet, suggested Kate Larson, “such a scenario provides one of the few logical explanations, if not the only one, for Tubman’s ‘kidnapping’ Margaret from her home.” Whatever the circumstances of Margaret Stewart’s birth, she grew into a successful and by all accounts happy adult. In 1872, she married Henry Lucas, twenty-two years old, born in Virginia, at the Central Presbyterian Church in Auburn, the same church that Harriet Tubman and her parents regularly attended and where Harriet Tubman and Nelson Davis were married. Henry Lucas listed his occupation as laborer in the Auburn city directory of 1878-79, and his address as Cornell n. South. By 1887-88, he was working at the City Club at 158 Genesee Street, probably as a caterer. When the census taker came down Cornell Street on the seventh day of June, 1900, Henry and Maggie Lucas were both forty-nine years old. Henry worked as a steward. The city directory listed his workplace as the Auburn City Club. Maggie worked as a cook, perhaps at the same place. They had had seven children, but, according to the 1900 census, only three were living. Margaret D., born in 1882, and Alice H., born in October 1897, were the only children at home in June 1900, but the city directory of that year also listed Della M., a student at CGS [?] and Helen M., student, living at home, making four living children. Allen H. Lucas, perhaps a brother of Henry, was living around the corner at 58 Garrow Street. The Lucas family was living at 30 Cornell Street. Although many African Americans lived farther west on Cornell Street, the nearest neighbors of the Lucas family were first or second-generation English or Irish-Americans. They owned their home free of any mortgage. The Lucas home was just a short walk from Harriet Tubman’s home, and Alice Lucas Brickler often visited Tubman with her mother, bringing Tubman candy, which she loved. After 1910, Tubman could no longer walk, and Alice Lucas was surprised one day, having wandered off to pick some flowers, to hear a slithering sound in the grass and then to discover that “it was Aunt Harriet, flat on her stomach and with only the use of her arms and serpentine movements of her body, gliding smoothly along. Mother helped her back to her chair and they laughed. Aunt Harriet then told me that that was the way she had gone by many a sentinel during the war. Seeing the swaying grass, she was mistaken for an animal or in the dim flicker of the camp fire, she appeared as a small shadow.” On June 14, 1914, Alice Lucas unveiled a bronze tablet, paid for by contributions from the people of Auburn, both black and white, to recognize Harriet Tubman’s “unselfish devotion to the cause of humanity.” Booker T. Washington gave the main speech, and the tablet was placed in the Cayuga County Courthouse, as a permanent reminder of one of Auburn’s most remarkable—and certainly most famous—citizens. By 1929, Margaret and Henry Lucas were living at 77 Fitch Street. Margaret Lucas died May 19, 1930. --- 12 For further discussion of this, see Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 196-202; Catharine Clinton, *Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom* (New York: Little, Brown, and Co., 2004), 117-123. 13 *Auburn City Directory* (Auburn: Alonzo P. Lamey, 1900). 14 Alice Lucas Brickler to Earl Conrad, 28 July 1939, reprinted in Kate Larson, 288. 15 Kate Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 289-90. 16 Gladys Stewart, [Manuscript Census of African Americans in the City of Auburn], 1929, in possession of Judy Bryant; Kate Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, “Ross-Stewart Family Tree,” after 295. Elijah and Georgia Stewart House 29 Richardson Avenue (Union) Auburn, New York Significance: Home of African Americans (including nephew of Harriet Tubman) In lieu of children and grandchildren, Harriet Tubman gathered around her in Auburn her brothers, sister-in-law, niece, nephews, great-nieces, and great-nephews. This house, the one next door, at 31 Union Avenue (now Richardson), and possibly also one that once stood on the now-vacant lot at 33 Richardson Avenue represent several members of Tubman’s extended family. Tubman’s brother, Ben Ross (James Stewart) married Jane Kane (Catherine Stewart) and settled in St. Catherine’s, Canada. After James Stewart’s death in 1862, Catherine Stewart came to Auburn with her son, Elijah, about 1862, where her daughter, Hester, was born. She married Andrew Winslow in 1867 and they had a son, Albert, in 1868. After Andrew’s death shortly thereafter, Catherine was listed in the 1870 census as a servant, living in the household of two African American women who lived next door to the Elliott family. Catherine died before 1880. By 1880, Catharine’s son, Elijah, 24 years old and a laborer, rented a house at 29 Union Avenue from John W. Reed. Elijah Stewart lived with his wife, Georgia, born in Washington, D.C., who was listed in the census as mulatto, keeping house. They shared their home with their daughter, Edith, three months old; boarders James and Hannah Whitmore, both African Americans born in New York, aged 49 and 52; and Albert Winslow, Elijah’s half-brother, still in school. Hester, their sister, had either died or moved out of Cayuga County. The Stewarts lived next door to Thomas Elliott and Ann Marie Stewart Elliott. Ann Marie Stewart was a niece of Harriet Tubman, perhaps a daughter of Ben Ross by an earlier marriage. In any case, the Stewarts shared kinship as well as neighborly ties with the Elliotts. The Elijah and Georgia Stewart house was probably built sometime between 1871 and 1880, for a house in this location did not appear on the 1871 Richie map, but one did appear there by 1882. It was located on Lot 18, just west of the Elliot house, and was labeled “J.W. Rood.” Assessment records show John W. Reed assessed for $150 for a “vacant lot and house” at numbers 29 and 35 Union Avenue from 1880 to 1883. Most likely the vacant lot was at 35 Union Avenue, since neither the 1871 nor the 1882 map shows a house on that site. In 1884, the assessment for 29 Union Avenue jumps to $300 for a “house and lot,” but this may not be accurate, since in 1885 the assessed value for the same property fell to $150, while the vacant lot at 35 Union was worth $100. In 1887, the house and lot at 29 Union were valued at $200. By 1890, they were assessed at only $100, which remained steady until 1897, when the assessment rose to $300, a value it kept until 1912.\(^1\) --- \(^1\) P.A. Cunningham, *Map of Auburn, New York* (Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871); *City Atlas of Auburn, N.Y.* Philadelphia: G.M. Hopkins, 1882. All property research by Tanya Warren. | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property/Lot # | REAL-$ | PERS-$ | |-----------|------------|--------|------|---------------------------------|--------|-------| | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1880 | (29 & 35) Union-vacant lot & house | 150 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1881 | 29/35 Union-vacant lot & house | 150 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1882 | 29/35 Union-vacant lot & house | 150 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1883 | 29/35 Union-vacant lot & house | 150 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1884 | 29 Union-house & lot | 300 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1885 | 29 Union-house & lot | 150 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1885 | 35 Union-vacant lot | 100 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1886 | 35 Union-vacant lot | 100 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1887 | 29 Union-house & lot | 200 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1888 | 29 Union-house & lot | 200 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1889 | 29 Union-house & lot | 200 | | | Reed | J. W. | Auburn | 1890 | 29 Union-house & lot | 100 | | | Reed | J. W. | Auburn | 1893 | 29 Union-house & lot | 100 | | | Reed | J. W. | Auburn | 1894 | 29 Union-house & lot | 100 | | | Reed | J. W. | Auburn | 1895 | 29 Union-house & lot | 100 | | | Reed | J. W. | Auburn | 1896 | 29 Union-house & lot | 100 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1897 | 29 Union-house & lot | 300 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1898 | 29 Union-house & lot | 300 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1899 | 29 Union-house & lot | 300 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1900 | 29 Union-house & lot | 300 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1901 | 29 Union-house & lot | 300 | | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1902-1912 | 25, 27-vacant lots & 29 Union-residence | 100, 100 & 300 | Thomas Elliott and Ann Marie Stewart Elliott 31 Union (Richardson) Significance: Home of Freedom Seekers Thomas Elliott and Ann Marie Stewart Elliott, married in 1864, represent two important Underground Railroad families and stories. Ann Marie Stewart Elliott was likely a niece of Harriet Tubman, probably the daughter of one of her sisters who was sold away or the daughter of Tubman’s brother, Ben Ross, Jr. According to Kate Clifford Larson, Tubman’s biographer, Ann Marie Stewart was probably the same Anne Marie, age four, who was listed as free in the 1850 census of Caroline County, Maryland, in the household of Harriet Tubman’s parents, Ben and Rit Ross. (Though listed as free, she may actually have been enslaved, which was a common error in that particular census). There is also a puzzling reference to her as the older sister of Margaret Stewart, the niece that Harriet Tubman allegedly kidnapped from the Eastern Shore of Maryland before 1862. Margaret Stewart’s daughter, Alice Brickler, wrote in 1940 that “Maria Elliott was my mother’s elder sister.” Ann Marie Stewart married Thomas Elliott about 1864. We know this because the 1865 New York State census listed her as Ann M. Elliot, age 22, living as a boarder with Harriet Tubman. Thomas Elliott, born in Maryland, age 25, was a laborer, also living as a boarder with Tubman. The marriage of Anne Marie Stewart and Thomas Elliott is recorded in the “Marriage Records” of the Central Presbyterian Church of Auburn, NY, February 1864. Thomas Elliott was born into slavery about 1829 in Dorchester County, Maryland. William Still, head of the Vigilance Committee in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, recorded Elliott’s story in detail, first in Still manuscript “Journal C” and then in his printed account, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872). In March 1857, at the age of 28, Thomas Elliott decided to escape from the plantation of Pritchett Meredith in Bucktown, Dorchester County, Maryland. He fled with seven others—five men and two women—using instructions and Underground Railroad connections given to them by Harriet Tubman (in fact, the group sought shelter from Ben Ross, Tubman’s father, in Caroline County, on their first night of flight). With a price of $3000 on their heads, they were betrayed into the hands of the sheriff of Dover, Delaware. They escaped by throwing hot coals into the sheriff’s own apartment, jumping out of a twelve-foot high window and leaping over a wall. When the sheriff fired his gun at them, it misfired. Thomas Elliott and the others successfully made their way to Thomas Garrett’s home in Wilmington, who safely sent them along to William Still’s office in Philadelphia. This dramatic escape story earned them the nickname of the “Dover Eight.” Elliott settled in St. Catharines, Ontario, joining a close community of other refugees from the Eastern Shore of Maryland, including Harriet Tubman’s parents, Ben and Rit Ross, and her brothers John and William Henry Stewart. There, with Denard Hughes, another member of the Dover Eight, along with several other Dorchester County freedom seekers, Elliott joined forces with John Brown. Neither Elliott nor Hughes or the others decided to accompany Brown to Virginia, on Brown’s raid of Harper’s Ferry. It was a decision that ultimately saved their lives. As Kate Clifford Larson has suggested, “they had already come to Canada at great sacrifice and risk; perhaps they felt they had battled slavery enough. Their new lives in freedom were precious now and outweighed any visionary dream of Brown’s.” Elliott was recorded living with his brother, Abraham (who fled Maryland sometime after Thomas did) in St. Catharines in 1861, but by 1862, Thomas Elliott had moved to Auburn, New York, and was living in a building owned by William H. Seward at 32 South Street. After Elliott married Anne Marie Stewart in February 1864, they both boarded at Harriet Tubman’s home at 180 South Street. In 1868, the Auburn city tax assessments listed Thomas Elliott as owning a “house unfinished” on Union Avenue worth $100, on which he paid $2.02 worth of taxes. In 1869, the Auburn City Directory listed --- 2 Alice Brickler to Earl Conrad, 1940, reprinted in Jean M. Humez, *Harriet Tubman: The Life and the Life Stories* (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), 291; Kate Clifford Larson, “Ross-Stewart Family Tree,” *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books, 2004), after 295. For more on Margaret Stewart, see Catherine Clinton, *Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom* (New York: Little, Brown, 2004), 117-123; Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 196-202. 3 William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872), 72-74; Kate Clifford Larson, *Harriet Tubman: Portrait of an American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books, 138-41. See also Thomas Garrett’s description of this escape in letters published in James A. McGowan, *Station Master on the Underground Railroad: The Life and Letters of Thomas Garrett* (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2005) pp. 178-181. 4 Larson, *Harriet Tubman*, 155, 159-61. Thomas Elliott as living at Union n. South St. (now Richardson Avenue), an address that he retained in the 1870 and 1879-80 directories. The Elliott family probably lived in one of the small houses that is part of the house currently on this property, because a small dwelling shows up on Lot #19 on the 1871 map of Auburn published by W.W. Richie. On June 1, 1872, Thomas Elliott bought the property on which this house now stands from Charles and Mary Cootes for $650.00. This price suggests that the lot was not vacant but included a building. This is the same property described in the 1993 deed from Katherine Mary Chapman, executor of Erna M. Strokarck, to Christopher Lupo: “north side of Richardson, formerly Union Avenue, in said city, known as Lot #19, on a certain map made by Dr. A.C. Taber, Surveyor for Charles Swift, filed 1863 Book 1, p. 48, lot being 61 feet 8 inches front and rear 176.6 inches depth.” In 1870, the U.S. census listed Thomas Elliott as 35 years old, a laborer, born in Maryland. Anna Elliott was 24 years old, born in Maryland. They had two daughters, Marietta, age 5, and Martha, age 2, both born in New York State. Local tax assessments also reveal they had a family dog. The 1880 U.S. census listed the Elliotts still at 31 Union Avenue, but Ann Marie had died by this time, and Thomas, age 38, laborer, was now married to Helen, age 37, living with a daughter, Nellie (i.e. Martha), age 12, at school. A son, Anthony Elliott, born in 1871, had died before 1880. By 1880, the city directory listed Thomas Elliott at 31 Union Avenue, the same as the current 31 Richardson Avenue. Thomas Elliott was still listed in the city directory in 1882, but by 1884, the city directory listed C.A. and S. Smith at 31 Union Avenue. Perhaps the Elliott family had moved between 1882 and 1884, or perhaps Thomas Elliott had died. Beginning in 1882, Charles Smith and James Seymour were paying taxes on this property. As it stood in 2005, this house was two smaller houses joined together. Subtle distinctions in the cornice of these two smaller sections revealed their different origins. Probably the original Elliott-Stewart was just one of these houses, with a second house moved to this lot sometime after construction of the original building. The 1904 Auburn map showed an outbuilding at the rear of 31 Union Avenue. Tax assessments for this property doubled (from $100 to $200) between 1911 and 1914 and rose again (from $200 to $700) between 1916 and 1919. Perhaps a small house from a neighboring lot was moved here during the 19-teens, or perhaps the outbuilding at the rear of this property was attached to the house during this period. After an early life of slavery; a terrifying escape to freedom in St. Catherine’s, Canada; and a close brush (for Thomas Elliott) with death at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, with John Brown; this family found relative safety and stability in Auburn, New York, surrounded by friends and family from their old neighborhood in Maryland, from 1868 to about 1882. This modest house represents not wealth but freedom, physical safety, home ownership, and community support for a family who risked their lives to achieve what many Americans took for granted. Written by Judith Wellman and Kate Clifford Larson Property research by Tanya Warren --- 5 Tax assessments, Auburn, Second Ward, 1868, City of Auburn Records Retention Office; P.A. Cunningham, Surveyor, *Map of the City of Auburn, Cayuga County, N.Y.* (Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871); City Deed Book 879, p. 196. 6 Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, “Ross–Stewart Family Tree,” after 295. Catherine Stewart Winslow (a.k.a. Jane Ross) Unknown where she lived after leaving Harriet Tubman’s home Auburn, New York Tubman’s brother, James Stewart (born Ben Ross), had escaped with Tubman and his fiancé, Catharine (born Jane Kane) and his two brothers, John Stewart and William Henry Stewart, on Christmas Eve, 1854. They settled first in St. Catharine’s, Ontario, where James and Catharine Stewart had a son, Elijah, born about 1856. While in St. Catharine’s, Catharine Stewart was interviewed by Benjamin Drew for his book, *The Narratives of Fugitives Slaves*. I am from the eastern shore of Maryland, [she recalled]. I never belonged but to one master; he was very bad indeed. I was never sent to school, nor allowed to go to church. They were afraid we would have more sense than they. I have a father there, three sisters, and a brother. My father is quite an old man, and he is used very badly. Many a time he has been kept at work a whole long summer day without sufficient food. A sister of mine has been punished by his taking away her clothes and locking them up, because she used to run when master whipped her. He kept her at work with only what she could pick up to tie on her for decency. He took away her child which had just begun to walk, and gave it to another woman,—but she went and got it afterward. He had a large farm eight miles from home. Four servants were kept at the house. My master could not manage to whip my sister when she as strong. He waited until she was confined, and the second week after her confinement he said, “Now I can handle you, now you are weak.” She ran from him, however, and had to go through water, and was sick in consequence. I was beaten at one time over the head by my master, until the blood ran from my mouth and nose; then he tied me up in the garret, with my hands over my head,—then he brought me down and put me in a little cupboard, where I had to sit cramped up, part of the evening, all night, and until between four and five o’clock, next day, without any food. The cupboard was near a fire, and I thought I should suffocate. My brother was whipped on one occasion until his back was as raw as a piece of beef, and before it got well, master whipped him again. His back was an awful sight. We were all afraid of master: when I saw him coming, my heart would jump up into my mouth, as if I had seen a serpent. I have been wanting to come away for eight years back. I waited for Jim Seward [her husband, James Stewart] to get ready. Jim had promised to take me away and marry me. Our master would allow no marriages on the farm. When Jim had got ready, he let me know,—he brought to me two suits of clothes—men’s clothes—which he had bought on purpose for me. I put on both suits to keep me warm. We eluded pursuit and reached Canada in safety. James Stewart died in Canada about 1862, and Catharine moved to Auburn by 1863, where their daughter, Hester, was born. According to the 1865 New York State census, Catherine was 37 years old and living with Harriet Tubman as a boarder in her home. About 1867, Catharine married Andrew Winslow, and they had a son, Albert, about 1868. By 1870, Andrew Winslow had died, and Catharine was working as servant. She and her three children, by then aged 14, 7, and 2, lived in the home of Charlotte Parker, a 75-year-old African American woman born --- 1 For all information relating to Tubman genealogy, I am profoundly indebted to Kate Clifford Larson, the world’s expert. See Kate Clifford Larson email to Judith Wellman, November 16, 2004. For more information on their escape, see William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1872), 298; Sarah Bradford, *Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman*, (Auburn, N.Y.: W.J. Moses, 1869), 61-62; Kate Clifford Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land* (New York: Ballantine Books, 2004), 110-119; this survey, descriptions for John Stewart and William Henry Stewart. 2 Benjamin Drew, *The Narratives of Fugitives Slaves* (Boston: J.P. Jewett, 1856), 41-43. Reprint Toronto: Prospero Books, 2000. in Maryland, and Anna Woodbeck, a 44 year-old African American woman, born in New York State. The Parker-Woodbeck house was next door to that of Thomas and Anna Stewart Elliott, possibly just east of the Elliott house, on lot 20, as shown in the Richie map of Auburn, dated 1871. By the 1880, this house was no longer there. The lot was owned by Lorenzo Lombard and later sold to William Hosmer. According to tax records, the lot remained vacant at least until 1915. It was vacant in 2004. (It is also possible that information on the 1871 map was incorrect, and that there never was a house on lot 20.) ### 1865 New York State census | Name | Relation | Age | Year | Place | Page | Age | Sex | Birthplace | Occupation | |----------|----------|-----|------|-------|------|-----|-----|------------|------------| | Winslow | Catherine* | 1870 | Auburn | p. 11 | 35 | f | b | 88 | 91 | Servant | MD | | Winslow | Elijah | 1870 | Auburn | p. 11 | 14 | m | b | 88 | 91 | School | Canada | | Winslow | Albert | 1870 | Auburn | p. 11 | 2 | m | b | 88 | 91 | | NY | | Winslow | Hester | 1870 | Auburn | p. 11 | 7 | f | b | 88 | 91 | | NY | | Woodbeck | Anna | 1870 | Auburn | p. 11 | 44 | f | b | 88 | 91 | Home | NY | | Elliot | Thomas* | 1870 | Auburn | p. 11 | 35 | m | b | 89 | 92 | Laborer | MD | | Elliot | Anna | * | 1870 | Auburn | p. 11 | 24 | f | b | 89 | 92 | KH | MD | | Elliot | Marietta | 1870 | Auburn | p. 11 | 5 | f | b | 89 | 92 | | NY | | Elliot | Martha | 1870 | Auburn | p. 12 | 2 | f | b | 89 | 92 | | NY | Anna (Anne Marie Stewart) Elliott was Catharine Stewart Winslow’s niece by marriage (and also a niece of Harriet Tubman). Catharine Stewart Winslow died by 1880. Further research in city directories might help clarify the correct address for Charlotte Parker and Anna Woodbeck, and tax assessments before 1880 would help determine if they were indeed living at what is now 33 Richardson (Union) Avenue and, if so, when their house disappeared. W.W. Richie, 1871 John H. and Mary Waire House, c. 1890 35 Richardson (Union) Avenue Auburn, New York Significance: Home of probable freedom seeker and leaders of African American community February 2005 Looking NW In the 1860s, John Waire, born about 1836 in Virginia, became part of the partnership of Hornbeck and Waire, successor to Morgan Freeman’s barbershop. In Auburn, as elsewhere throughout the nation, barbers formed an elite group among African Americans. Before the Civil War, Morgan Freeman, born in slavery in 1803 to Kate and John Freeman, was the primary barber in Auburn. He died in 1863, and according to his obituary, he kept one of the main safe houses on the Underground Railroad for 29 years. Sometime before 1857, Freeman moved his shop from Cumpston Lane to the northeast corner of Genesee and State Street. Sebeo Hornbeck, born in New York State, probably in slavery, worked with him in that location, and John Waire became his partner in the 1860s. John Waire quickly became part of the local and regional African American community. In 1870, he was appointed, along with Zadoc Bell and Nelson Davis (Harriet Tubman’s husband), as trustee for the property of the short-lived AME Church of Auburn (known also as St. Mark’s Methodist Episcopal Church). He became a hostler and barber in the firm of Hornbeck and Waire, which operated at 3 Genesee Street, 3 Market, and then at 115? Genesee Street, at the corner of State Street. The 1867-68 Auburn city directory reported John H. Waire lived at 9 Grover Street. Later, the Waire family moved to the new section of Auburn opening on Union Avenue near Harriet Tubman’s home. In the 1880s and 1890s, John H. and Mary Waire lived in several houses along Union Avenue (now Richardson Avenue), including 19, 28, and 35 Union Avenue. Judging from the evidence of the relatively rapid turnover of their houses, John Waire was not only a barber but also a real estate developer. The Waire family did not appear in the 1870 census, but by 1880, they lived at 19 Union Avenue. According to the 1880 census, John H. Waire, age 34, was a barber, born in Virginia. His wife, Mary E. [DuBoise] Waire, age 29, was born in New York, keeping house. They had 5 children—Alta H. (8), William H. (6), Anna M. (4), Harry (2), and Bessie (1 month), all born in New York. In the 1887-88 city directory, John H. and Mary Waire lived at 28 Union Avenue. By 1891-1902, they and their children had moved into this house at 35 Union Avenue. No house appeared on this site on either P.A. Cunningham’s 1871 map of Auburn or Hopkins’ 1882 Auburn atlas. As late as 1885-86, this property was still listed in tax assessments as a vacant lot, owned by John Reed, worth $100, so the Waire family probably built this house to their own specifications sometime in the late 1880s or very early 1890s. It is frame, gable-end-to-the street house, typical of an urban neighborhood in the late nineteenth century. Waire family descendents still own it. --- 7P.A. Cunningham, *Map of Auburn, New York* (Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871); *City Atlas of Auburn, N.Y.* (Philadelphia: G.M. Hopkins, 1882); Database compiled from Auburn City Directories and Image-Mate Real Property Records from Cayuga County Real Property Office by Tanya Warren. Online. City Atlas of Auburn, N.Y., Philadelphia: G.M. Hopkins, 1882. Waire Family--1880 Census | Waire | John H. | m | 34 | Bl | Auburn | Union Ave. | 19 | 118 | 11 | 2 | Head | Barber | |-------------|-------------|-----|----|----|--------|------------|----|-----|----|---|------|-------| | Waire | Mary E. | f | 29 | Bl | Auburn | Union Ave. | 19 | 118 | 11 | 2 | Wife | Keeping house | | Waire | Alta H. | f | 8 | Bl | Auburn | Union Ave. | 19 | 118 | 11 | 2 | Daughter | At school | | Waire | William H. | m | 6 | Bl | Auburn | Union Ave. | 19 | 118 | 11 | 2 | Son | At school | | Waire | Anna M. | f | 4 | Bl | Auburn | Union Ave. | 19 | 118 | 11 | 2 | Daughter | At Home | | Waire | Harry | m | 2 | Bl | Auburn | Union Ave. | 19 | 118 | 11 | 2 | Son | At Home | | Waire | Bessie | f | 1mo| Bl | Auburn | Union Ave. | 19 | 118 | 11 | 2 | Daughter | At Home | Waire Family Residences from Auburn City Directories and Cayuga County Image-Mate Database | Waire, Altie | no | 1894-95 | Lincoln- 6 bds | Gone-replaced by Wegman's | |--------------|----|---------|----------------|--------------------------| | Waire, Altie | no | 1895-96 | South- 106 | Gone | | Waire, Altie | no | 1891-92 | Union Ave- 3 | Most definitely the same house | | Waire, Anna | no | 1895-96 | Fulton- 41-1/2 | Gone | | Waire, Bessie E. | no | 1900-01 | Union Ave.- 35 | Most definitely same house-Imate suggests const. Date of 1890. | | Waire, Bessie E. | no | 1897-98 | Swift- 40, student CGS | Gone-replaced by 1920's house | | Waire, Grace L. | no | 1900-01 | Elizabeth- 7 | Victorian, built about 1900-likely same house | | Waire, Grace L. | no | 1900-02 | Union Ave-. 35 bds | Most definitely same house-Imate suggests const. Date of 1890. | | Waire, Harrison D. | no | 1895-97; 1901 | Union Ave- 35 bds | Most definitely same house-Imate suggests const. Date of 1890. | | Waire, Henry D. | no | 1897-98 | Union Ave-. 35 bds | Most definitely same house-Imate suggests const. Date of 1890. | | Waire, John & Mary (DuBoise) | yes | 1929 | Union/Richardson-35 | | | Waire, John H. | yes | 1867-1868 | Grover- 9 | Gone-replaced by late Victorian structure | | Waire, John H. and Mary | yes | 1879-80; 1880-81 | Genesee- 3 h (work) | Gone | | Waire, John H. and Mary | yes | 1867-68 | Grover- 9 | Gone-replaced by late Victorian structure | | Waire, John H. and Mary | yes | 1887-88) | Market- 35 (work) | Gone | | Waire, John H. and Mary | yes | 1891-94 | Market 57- (work) | Gone | | Waire, John H. and Mary | yes | 1879-80; 1880-81 | Union Ave -19 n South h | Possible site of earlier home-present home of 1890 const.-Imate | | Waire, John H. and Mary | yes | 1887-88) | Union Ave 28 h | Possible site of earlier home-present home of 1890 const.-Imate | Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resource Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 | Waire, John H. and Mary | yes | 1891-94 | Union Ave 35 h | Most definitely same house-lmate suggests const. Date of 1890. | |-------------------------|-----|---------|----------------|-------------------------------------------------------------| | Waire, William | no | 1893-96 | Market 57 | Gone | | Waire, William | no | 1893-96 | Union Ave. 35 bds. | Most definitely same house-lmate suggests const. Date of 1890. | **Tax Assessments—35 Union Avenue** | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | TOWN | YEAR | Property/Lot # | REAL-$ | |-----------|------------|--------|------|---------------------------------|--------| | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1885 | 35 Union-vacant lot | 100 | | Reed | John W. | Auburn | 1886 | 35 Union-vacant lot | 100 | **Sources:** Bryant, Judith, comp., “Directory Database of African Americans in Auburn, New York.” Bryant, Gladys Stewart. “Census of Auburn.” Typscript, 1929. *Auburn, Two Hundred Years of History, 1793-1993* (Auburn: Auburn Bicentennial Committee, 1992), 39. Storke, Elliott. *History of Cayuga County.* U.S. Census, 1880. Warren, Tanya. “Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn, from City Directories and Image Mate Database.” Philip and Mary Gaskin House 34 Union Richardson (Union) Avenue Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seekers This house represents the second generation of families of freedom seekers, as those who came in the 1850s and 1860s began to intermarry. Thomas Elliott and Ann Marie Stewart (Harriet Tubman’s niece), both freedom seekers from Maryland, bought a home at 31 Union (Richardson) Avenue. They raised two daughters. One of them, Mary Elliott, married Philip Gaskin, who had come in 1864 from Virginia as a young boy (8-10 years old), with his parents, Mary and Richard Gaskin. The Gaskins settled in Ledyard, where Mary and Richard bought a home on Dixon Road in 1869. When Mary Elliott and Philip Gaskin married, they built this home at 34 Union Avenue (now Richardson), across the street from her parents, in a newly-opened suburb on the south of the city. The 1880 census did not list any Gaskins in Auburn, but the Auburn city directory for 1887-88 listed Philip Gaskin at 34 Union. In 1892, Mary and Philip Gaskin, both 38, were living here, along with Delia (age 49), Frankie (age 40), Naomi (age 43), Harriet M. (age 34), and Mary and Philip’s two children, Harriet (age 14) and John (age 10). Philip Gaskin was a barber, perhaps working with the firm of his neighbor, John Waire, who lived across the street at 35 Union Avenue (Hornbeck and Waire). In 1894, Philip Gaskin was assessed for a residence at 34 Gaskin worth $100. Further work in assessment records would indicate when the current house was built. By 1929, Philip and Mary Gaskin were living at 77 Chapman Avenue with their son, Philip Gaskin, Jr., his wife, Myrtle Gaskin, and their children. Mary Gaskin, 1913 With Harriet Tubman and friends, at Tubman Home Courtesy of Tubman Home for the Aged John Brown Hall, c. 1912 Harriet Tubman, in wheelchair, front row, center Mary Gaskin, back row, standing, third from left Photo Courtesy of Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Auburn, South, 1904 Explanation: - Indicated Brick Building - Frame - Wood on steel - Green Roof on - Water Main R. - Electric Bay - Fire Hydrant 78 showing part of Wards 2-8&9 City of AUBURN N.Y. Scale 400 ft to an inch Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Belt-Gaskin House 77 Chapman Avenue Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seekers November 2004 Looking NE The Belt-Gaskin house, continuously inhabited or owned by freedom seekers or their descendents since its construction about 1870, represents the continuity and importance of freedom seekers in Auburn from the 1860s to the present. About 1805, Rachael Belt and Thomas Belt were born in Maryland, probably in slavery. Sometime before 1849, they came to New York State, where their son George was born about 1849. Perhaps as a result of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, they left New York State for Canada, where another son, Isaiah, was born about 1854. Between 1865 and 1870, Thomas and Rachael Belt returned to the U.S. and settled on Cornell Street (now Chapman Avenue) in Auburn, New York, newly opened on the south side of the city, near Harriet Tubman’s home, where many other freedom seekers were also buying homes. An 1868 manuscript map by John S. Clark, Auburn Surveyor, shows a series of small houses already built along the north side of Cornell Street on lands “conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms,” including on the lot that the Belt family purchased in 1869 on the “East line of Cornell Street” [shown as lot 12 on the Clark map?] from Horace Fitch, son of Auburn abolitionist Abijah Fitch. The small houses indicated on this map were, however, perhaps meant to show what could be built there rather than already existed, for Horace Fitch seems to have owned only a “vacant lot” on Cornell Street, assessed in 1868 for $100. In 1869, Thomas Belt paid taxes on a residence valued at $200. In 1874, his property was valued at $450, $325 in 1875 and $300 in 1877.\(^1\) It seems likely, therefore, that the house at 77 Cornell Street was built sometime between 1869 and 1874. In 1870, Rachael Belt was, according to the census of that year, 65 years old. She was keeping house for her husband, Thomas Belt, also age 65, a porter in a store, and her two sons still at home, George, age 21, a teamster, and Isaiah, age 17, who attended school. Thomas’s will, dated 1882, mentioned other children, too: Julia Belt Cannon (wife of Plymouth Cannon of Auburn), Charlotte Belt Washington (wife of John Washington of Auburn), Harriet Belt Williams (wife of George Williams of Canada) and Emeline Belt Thomas (widow of John Thomas of Canada).\(^2\) Other members of the Belt family living in Auburn may have been related to Thomas and Rachael, although probably not as their children. Zadoc, Joseph, and Howard Bell were all born in Washington, D.C. \(^3\) Zadoc, age 25, was a machinist. He had married a woman, Uretha (Reda) Bell, age 23, born in Canada. Jane Bell, age 13, was in the county orphan asylum. Two other women, Mary Bell (age 40), born in Canada, and Jemima Bell (age 14), born in Canada, and working with Cornelia Langham, were living as the only African Americans in other households. Whether they were related to Thomas and Rachael Belt is unknown. In 1870, Zadoc Bell was appointed, along with Nelson Davis (Harriet Tubman’s husband) and others, to a committee to care for the AME church property (probably the short-lived St. Mark’s AME Church). In 1880, Zadoc Bell and Uretha Bell were living at 17 Garrow Street, just around the corner from Thomas and Rachael Belt. Joseph and Howard Bell were both living on Genesee Street. After Thomas Belt’s death, Thomas and Rachael’s son, George Belt, continued to live at 77 Cornell Street with his wife Mary E. The 1896-97 city directory listed George as a janitor and Mary as a cook and nurse. In 1892, John Thomas, one of the first AME Zion ministers in Auburn and himself a freedom seeker from Maryland, was boarding at the Belt home at the time of his death. In 1903, by the terms of George Belt’s will, the house was given to the AME Zion Church, to be used by the Belt family until they no longer needed it. The 1920 listed the Belts as still living at this location. --- \(^1\) Tax rolls, 1868–1875. \(^2\) 1870 U.S. Census and Thomas Bell will, 1882, City of Auburn Records Retention Center. \(^3\) Census records show that Zadoc, Joseph, and Howard Bell were all born in Washington, D.C. According to Auburn Bicentennial Committee, *Auburn: 200 Years of History, 1793-1993* (1992), 39, Zadoc, Howard, and Howard’s wife Julia (b. Canada) are buried in Lot 92 Home at Fort Hill Cemetery. In 1927, Philip and Mary Gaskin purchased this house. Philip Gaskin had been born in Virginia about 1854. He was the son of Richard and Mary Gaskin, probably freedom seekers from Virginia, who had come to Ledyard, Cayuga County, about 1864. Richard and Mary Gaskin purchased a house in Ledyard in 1869. In 1886, they sold their Ledyard property. Mary Gaskin died in 1893 at 63 Hamilton Street, but from 1899-1903, Richard Gaskin owned a house 18 Aspen Street in Auburn. Their son Philip married Mary Elliott, daughter of Ann Marie Stewart Elliott (one of Harriet Tubman’s nieces) and Thomas Elliott (a freedom seeker from Maryland and one of the famous Dover Eight). Mary Elliott Gaskin was one of only three people mentioned in Harriet Tubman’s will. She inherited one-third of Tubman’s estate at her death.\(^4\) Philip and Mary Elliott Gaskin moved first to 35 Union Street (now Richardson Avenue), near her parents’ house. Then, in 1927, they purchased 77 Cornell Street. This was a double house, and Philip and Mary Gaskin lived on one side, and their son, Philip, Jr., lived on the other, with his wife, Myrtle and their children, Richard, Jennie, Lida, Mary, and Rose. Jennie Gaskin married William Copes, and their daughter, Pauline Copes Johnson, still lived in Auburn in 2005. Laberta Gaskin Greenlea, who later moved to Rochester, grew up in this house. She remembered that there was a fire in the house at one time, and they found some names on the walls of the back stairway. They wondered if “Aunt Harriet, when she came to visit my grandmother, was part of the Underground Railway.”\(^5\) Given the age of this house, it is quite possible, even likely, that Harriet Tubman did visit this house. Whose names these were on the walls of the back stairway and how they came to be written there will remain forever a mystery. Sources: **Manuscripts** Assessments, 1868-1875. Cayuga County Records Retention Office. Belt, George Steven. Will, July 14, 1897. Cayuga County Records Retention Office. Belt, Thomas, Will, 1882. City of Auburn Records Retention Center. Census records, 1870, 1880, 1920. Deeds: Abijah Fitch, Grantor Deeds, 1823-36” and “Sales to Blacks,” Horace and Mary Fitch and wife to Thomas Belt, November 5, 1868, recorded July 25, 1870, Cayuga County Clerk’s office, book 129, page 498. Osborne, Eliza Wright. “A Recollection of Martha Coffin Wright by her daughter,” typescript, 15, Osborne Papers, Syracuse University. Tubman, Harriet. Will. November 18, 1912, Surrogate’s Records, Cayuga County Records Retention Office. Wellman, Judith and Paul Malo. “Gaskin/King House,” Survey of Historic Sites Related to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn and Cayuga --- \(^4\) For information on Richard and Mary Gaskin, see section in this survey report under Gaskin/King House in Ledyard Gaskin House at 18 Aspen Street, Auburn. Harriet Tubman’s will dated ? Cayuga County Probate Records \(^5\) Conversation with Laberta Gaskin Greenlea, January 12, 2005. County,” 2005, Cayuga County Historian’s Office. **Printed Materials** Auburn Bicentennial Committee, *Auburn: 200 Years of History, 1793-1993* (1992), 39. *Auburn Daily Advertiser*, January 8, 1851. “Death of Abijah Fitch,” February 1, 1883, *Weekly News and Democrat*, found by Beth Crawford. Fitch, Abijah. Elliot Storke, *History of Cayuga County*. Syracuse: D. Mason, 1879, 541 and 200. *Frederick Douglass Paper*, June 10, 1852, August 13, 1852. *National Era*, December 23, 1847. Rosell, Lydia, “100 Years Ago,” August 4, 1894, *Cayuga Accent, Syracuse Post-Standard*. Still, William. *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1872), 463-67. **Oral interviews** Belt, Helene, April 6, 2005 Bryant, Judith, April 5, 2005. Greenlea, Laberta Gaskin, January 10, 2004. Johnson, Pauline Copes, February 23, 2004; April 8, 2005. **Maps** 1868 Clark, John S., “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” A.C. Taber, Surveyor, September 1868. Cayuga County Clerk’s Office, Auburn, New York. 1871 Cunningham, P.A. *Cayuga Co., N.Y.* Philadelphia: W.W. Richie, 1871. City Hall, Auburn, New York 1882 *City Atlas of Auburn, N.Y.* Philadelphia: G.M. Hopkins, 1882. http://www.rootsweb.com/~nycayuga/maps/1882/index.html#1882 2005 Tax map, plotted from current tax information by Bernard Corcoran, Cayuga County Real Property Office, 2005. http://co.cayuga.ny.us/realproperty/77chapman. Property and genealogical research by: Tanya Warren William Henry Stewart, Jr., Home, c. 1901 64 Garrow Auburn, New York Significance: Home of William Henry Stewart, Jr., (freedom seeker and Harriet Tubman’s nephew) and his wife, Emma Moseby Stewart 016 November 2004 Looking NE Built in 1899 by Harriet Tubman’s nephew, William Henry Stewart, Jr. (born in slavery in 1851), this house represents the community of family and friends, many of them freedom seekers from Maryland, that Tubman created around her in Auburn. With other houses along Chapman Avenue and Garrow, Fitch, and Parker Streets, this house suggests the culmination of the dream of all of those who left slavery, to find a community where they could settle in safety, with relative economic prosperity, religious freedom, and education for their children. Several of descendents of the original generation still live in this neighborhood, including Judith G. Bryant, great-great-granddaughter of William Henry Stewart, who still lived in this house in the early twenty-first century. All of her life, Harriet Tubman worked for her family. In all of her trips to Maryland (as many as thirteen) almost of the approximately seventy people she brought out of slavery were family and friends from her old neighborhood. Although she had no children (with the possible exception of Margaret Stewart, born in Maryland in 1850, whom Tubman brought to Auburn before 1862), Harriet Tubman had eight brothers and sisters. Two of her brothers, John Stewart and William Henry Stewart, went first to Canada in 1854-55 and later moved to Auburn, as did several nieces and nephews. Tax assessments suggest that this house was built by William Henry Stewart, Jr., son of Tubman’s younger brother, in 1899. It replaced an earlier house on the same site constructed by William Henry Stewart, Jr., for his new wife, Emma Moseby, shortly after their marriage in 1879. It remains virtually intact from its original construction. | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property/Lot # | REAL-$ | |-----------|------------|--------|------|--------------------|-------| | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1882 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1883 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1884 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1885 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1886 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1887 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1888 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1889 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1890 | 64 Garrow-residence | 250 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1891 | 64 Garrow-residence | 250 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1892 | 64 Garrow-residence | 250 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1893 | 64 Garrow-residence | 250 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1894 | 64 Garrow-residence | 250 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1895 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1896 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1897 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1898 | 64 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1899 | 64 Garrow-residence | 800 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1900 | 64 Garrow-residence | 800 | | Stewart | William H. | Auburn | 1901 | 64 Garrow-residence | 800 | William Henry Stewart, Jr.’s story began in Maryland, with his birth in Dorchester County in 1851. His father was William Henry Stewart, born 1830 as Henry Ross, younger brother of Araminta Ross (who would be known in her adult years as Harriet Tubman). His mother was Harriet Ann, born in 1832, also in Dorchester County. He was the oldest of ten children—two boys and eight girls—the two boys born in slavery and eight born in freedom in Canada.\(^6\) William Henry Stewart, Sr., escaped at Christmas 1854 with his two brothers and the help of their sister, Harriet Tubman. They went to St. Catherine’s Canada, where William Henry Stewart, Jr., his mother, Harriet Ann, and possibly his younger brother, John Isaac Stewart, joined William Sr. a year or two later. Eight sisters were born in St. Catherine’s over the next several years.\(^7\) Sometime before 1875, William Henry Stewart, Jr., left his parents and siblings in Canada and joined his aunt Harriet Tubman in Auburn. In 1879, he married Emma Moseby in the Wall Street Methodist Church.\(^8\) Shortly afterwards, they built their house at 64 Garrow Street, on the corner of Chapman Avenue (then known as Cornell Street) and Garrow Street, locally referred to as “the last house on Cornell Street.” This neighborhood had been developed in the 1860s, and many of --- \(^6\) Kate Clifford Larson, “Ross–Stewart Family Tree,” *Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero* (New York: Ballantine Books), after 295; email July 6, 2005. \(^7\) Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 118-19, 124. \(^8\) Larson, 260. the first homes had been sold by Abijah Fitch and his son-- European American abolitionists, landowners, and industrialists—to freedom seekers. William Henry Stewart, Jr., and Emma Moseby Stewart had three children: Charles Edward (1880-1969), Alida Maud (1882-1947, who married Carroll H. Johnson), and Emma L. Stewart (1886-1888). In 1900, William Henry Stewart, Jr., was working at David Munson Osborne’s factory, as was his son, Charles H. Stewart. Daughter Alida was still living at home. The family was doing well financially, and they reflected their economic prosperity by building a new house, the one still standing on this site in 2005, to take the place of their original one. William Henry Stewart, Jr., did not live to enjoy his new dwelling long. He died in 1906. Emma Moseby Stewart died in 1912. They were buried in Fort Hill Cemetery, beneath a gigantic Norway Spruce planted by their children. The tree has become a landmark to locate the grave of Harriet Tubman. William Henry Stewart, Sr., died in 1912 and was buried in the same plot where his sister, Harriet Tubman Davis, would be laid to rest in 1913. The grave is adjacent to and south of that of William Henry Stewart, Sr.’s, son and daughter-in-law. All are protected by the towering evergreen—perhaps the tallest of Fort Hill trees—in a lovely family plot. This house has always remained in the Stewart family. Charles Stewart never married and had no children. His sister, Alida Maud, married Carroll Johnson. Judith G. Bryant recalled that “Uncle Charles (Grandma Alida’s brother) was a skilled artisan, a woodworker who loved to tinker and loved to read, who crafted intricate games and puzzles for his baby niece (my mother) and, after his father’s death in 1906, was primarily responsible for keeping the house and garage in tiptop shape. (It would be some years before he would own an automobile to keep in the garage to chauffeur his sister, her daughter and others to visit relatives in St. Catharines, Canada, and friends in New York City.) Throughout their lives, the property was a constant source of comfort and enormous pride for Alida and Charles who took good care of their family members (including Harriet Tubman), lavishly entertained friends, and realized how very fortunate they were. During their lifetimes, the property was always well maintained. Undoubtedly trained by his father, Charles was clearly up to the task.” **Description** Anchoring the corner of this historic neighborhood, the Stewart-Bryant house reflects the character of a turn-of-the century building, with colonial revival details (such as corner blocks on interior door molding). At the same time, it was clearly created to fit this unique spot. It has three gables, facing North (toward Fitch Avenue), South (toward Chapman Avenue), and West (toward Garrow Street), with 45 degree angles on each roofline. Its interior staircase begins at what was originally the front door, on the northeast corner of Garrow Street and Chapman Avenue. Original porch entrances still exist on the South and East. The house is in excellent condition. Virtually every feature of this house retains it original character, including its original interior molding. --- 9 Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, “Ross-Stewart Family Tree,” after 295. 10 *Auburn City Directory* (Auburn, New York: Alonzo P. Lamey, 1900). 11 Larson, 276, 289, and “Ross-Stewart Family Tree,” after 295. 12 Judith G. Bryant email March 23, 2005. (with original finish), and original exterior porch moldings. Exterior siding was installed in 1992 to reflect the original cove (or drop) siding (Dutchlap clapboards) on the main body of the house and scalloped shingles on the gables, which still exist underneath. A 1-1/2 story garage was demolished in 1999. Family legend suggests that this was used as a playhouse for the children and that it may have been part of the earlier house on this site. Written with Judith Bryant and Kate Clifford Larson Clarence (Dye) and Lena Stewart House 66 Garrow Street Auburn, New York 13021 Significance: Home of Harriet Tubman’s grand-nephew, Clarence “Dye” Stewart, early twentieth century November 2004 Looking South Sometime after 1904, probably after his marriage to Lena, Clarence “Dye” Stewart (Harriet Tubman’s great-nephew), son of John Henry Stewart (Harriet Tubman’s nephew) moved from 20 Chapman Avenue to this house at 68 Garrow Street. He was living here at the time of Harriet Tubman’s death, and he and another great nephew, Charles Stewart, were the only two family members with Tubman when she died. The others at her bedside were two clergymen (Rev. E.U.A. Brooks and Rev. Charles A. Smith, clergyman with the Massachusetts 54th Regiment during the Civil War), Frances Smith (Charles Smith’s wife), Martha Rdgeway, Tubman’s nurse, and Eliza E. Peterson, from the Women’s Christian Temperance Union in Texas. Tubman’s last words supposedly were: “I go away to prepare a place for you, that where I am you also may be.”\(^{13}\) \(^{13}\) Larson, *Bound for the Promised Land*, 288–89. Robert Griffen and Isaac and Helen White 60 and 62 Garrow Street Auburn, New York Significance: Homes of freedom seekers Description: Both houses, with gable ends to the street, are typical of urban working class forms of the mid-nineteenth century. The somewhat steeper gable of the Griffen house suggests that it may have been built later than the White house, in between what appear on the Clark map of Abijah Fitch’s lands as the second and third houses from the corner of Cornell (now Chapman Avenue) and Garrow Streets. Significance: These two houses are one of several, including four or five contiguous dwellings on this corner of Garrow Street and Chapman Avenue (and one across the street at 66 Garrow Street), sold to African Americans who were freedom seekers or affiliated with freedom seekers in the years directly after the Civil War by Abijah Fitch, a European American abolitionist and Underground Railroad sympathizer. According to the 1880 census, Isaac White and Helen White lived at 62 Garrow Street, the house on the right. Isaac White was 63, born in Alabama and a laborer. Helen was 65, born in New York State. They still lived there in 1887-88, according to the city directory. In 1880, 60 Garrow Street, the house on the left, was inhabited by Robert B. Lee, age 49, born in Washington, D.C., and his wife, Henrietta Lee, age 48, born in New York of parents who had been born in Massachusetts. Both were laborers. By 1887, Robert H. Griffen lived at 60 Garrow Street. In 1860, Robert Griffen had been listed in the census living in Auburn as born in New York State, the ten-year-old son of Charles Griffen, a whitewasher born in Virginia, and Mary Griffen, born in Pennsylvania (who listed her birthplace in 1850 as Virginia, in 1870 as Maryland, and in 1880 as Virginia). About 1868, Charles and Mary Griffen had purchased the house just north of Robert’s, at 58 Garrow Street. A house that may have been the White house appeared on the 1868 manuscript map of lands sold by Abijah Fitch. Clark, John S., “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” A.C. Taber, Surveyor, September 1868. Cayuga County Clerk’s Office, Auburn, New York. 60 Garrow Street | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property/Lot # | REAL-$ | TOTAL-$ | MISC. | |-----------|------------|--------|------|-------------------------|--------|---------|-------| | Griffin | Jane | Auburn | 1887 | 60 Garrow-residence | 200 | 200 | | | Griffin | Jane | Auburn | 1888 | 60 Garrow-residence | 200 | 200 | | | Griffin | Jane | Auburn | 1889 | 60 Garrow-residence | 200 | 200 | | Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property | REAL-$ | MISC. | |-----------|------------|--------|------|---------------------------------|--------|----------------| | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1890 | 60 Garrow | 200 | 200 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1891 | 60 Garrow | 200 | 200 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1892 | 60 Garrow-residence | 200 | 200 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1893 | 60 Garrow-residence & lot | 200 | 200 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1894 | 60 1/2 & 60 Garrow-house & lot | 500 | 500 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1895 | 60 1/2 & 60 Garrow-house & lot | 500 | 500 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1896 | 60 1/2 & 60 Garrow-house & lot | 500 | 500 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1897 | 60 1/2 & 60 Garrow-house & lot | 500 | 500 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1898 | 60 1/2 (residence)& 60 Garrow | 500 | 500 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1899 | 60 1/2 (residence)& 60 Garrow | 500 | 500 | | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1900 | 60 1/2 (residence)& 60 Garrow | 500 | 500 | The 1904 City of Auburn atlas shows a second house on the lot at 60 Garrow Street, just north of the current structure. Probably the second house was built between 1893 and 1894, accounting for the rise in assessments from $200 to $500 and the addition of 60-1/2 Garrow Street. The second building no longer stands. **62 Garrow Street** | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property | REAL-$ | MISC. | |-----------|------------|--------|------|---------------------------------|--------|----------------| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1868 | Thornton-lot | 75 | First entry | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1869 | Thornton-residence | 200 | | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1870 | Thornton-residence | 200 | no entry | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1871 | | | no entry | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1872 | | | no entry | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1873 | Garrow-residence | 200 | entered as "Ira" White | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1874 | Garrow-residence | 375 | no entry | | | | | 1875 | | | no "w's" available | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1876 | Garrow-residence | 225 | 1 dog | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1877 | Garrow-residence | 225 | 1 dog | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1878 | Garrow-residence | 150 | 1 dog | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1879 | | | no entry | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1880 | 62 Garrow-residence | 150 | 1 dog | Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 | Name | First Name | Location | Year | Description | Value | Pets | |------------|------------|-----------|------|----------------------|-------|------| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1881 | 62 Garrow-residence | 200 | | | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1882 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1883 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1884 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1885 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1886 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1887 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1888 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1889 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1890 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1891 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1892 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1893 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1894 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1895 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1896 | 62 Garrow-res. | 500 | 1 dog| | White | Isaac | Auburn | 1897 | 62 Garrow-house & lot| 500 | 1 dog| | Griffin | Robert H. | Auburn | 1897 | 62 Garrow-house & lot| 500 | 1 dog| | Griffin | Robert | Auburn | 1898 | 62 Garrow-house & lot| 500 | 1 dog| | Griffin | Robert | Auburn | 1899 | 62 Garrow-house & lot| 500 | 1 dog| | Griffin | Robert | Auburn | 1900 | 62 Garrow-house & lot| 500 | 1 dog| | Griffin | Robert | Auburn | 1901 | 62 Garrow-house & lot| 500 | 1 dog| Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Charles and Mary Griffen House 58 Garrow Street Auburn, New York 13021 Significance: Site of home of Freedom Seekers February 2005 Looking SE From the earliest years of post-Iroquois settlement, Auburn was the home African Americans, born in slavery in New York State, who formed the nucleus of a community of free people of color. They also created a strong network of support for freedom seekers from the South, who came to Auburn in large numbers, beginning in the 1830s. Most of these freedom seekers continued on northward to Canada, however. Before the late 1850s, few remained to make their homes in Auburn. Two of those who stayed were Charles and Mary Griffin, who came to Auburn from Virginia sometime before 1850. The Griffin family did not get rich in Auburn, but they did create a stable family life, send their children to school, and earn enough to buy their own home on Garrow Street, where they lived for many decades. In 1850, Charles and Mary Griffin were both 28 years old, and both listed themselves as illiterate. Charles worked as a laborer. By 1860, Charles listed his occupation as a whitewasher, and he had acquired $100 worth of personal property. Mary now listed her birthplace as Pennsylvania. They had a daughter, Elvira, age 14, and a son, Robert, age 10, both born in New York State, and both in school. In 1870, the census continued to list Charles as a whitewasher, born in Virginia, but Mary now listed her birthplace as Maryland. Both children had left home. Mary still counted herself as illiterate, but Charles did not. Mary Jones, age 23, born in Pennsylvania, also lived in their household. In the late 1850s, city directories had listed the Griffin address as 22 Seminary Street. In 1867, they were living on Owasco Street near the city limits. By 1869, however, they had purchased their own home in the new suburb developed by Abijah Fitch and his sons on the south side of the city, just west of Harriet Tubman’s home. An 1868 manuscript map, “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” shows a house on the east side of Thornton St. (now Garrow), the third one from the corner, labeled “Griffith,” and this is probably the lot purchased by Charles and Mary Griffith.\(^{14}\) The house was variously listed in the directories as “Thornton n. Cornell” (1869), “Garrow n. Fitch” (1870), or “Garrow n. Cornell” (1879-80). By 1887-88, Charles Griffin is listed at 58 Garrow Street. At a time when many African Americans were creating independent communities in enclaves throughout the eastern states or in newly-opened frontier areas of the West, these freedom seekers were in effect creating a small community of their own. The Griffins and their neighbors would become anchors for a community of freedom seekers from Maryland and Virginia who purchased homes along Garrow, Cornell, Fitch, and Parker Streets in the 1860s, 1870s, and 1880s. Overall, these African Americans shared this neighborhood for generations with people of English, Irish, German, and American-born descent, but there were high concentration of African Americans, especially those who had been born in the South in slavery, in particular small blocks. Charles Griffen’s name (as Griffiths) was listed in an 1868 manuscript map of lands sold by Abijah Fitch, European American abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter, to white and black after the Civil War. \(^{14}\) A.C. Taber, Surveyor, “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.,” manuscript map in Cayuga County Clerk’s Office. Clark, John S., “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” A.C. Taber, Surveyor, September 1868. Cayuga County Clerk’s Office, Auburn, New York. The deed and a mortgage dated July 22, 1870, were in Mary J. Griffin’s name, a practice common to many freedom seekers. Perhaps they feared the potential loss of their lands if their status as former slaves was discovered, so they put the official deeds in their spouse’s names.\(^{15}\) This particular corner, the northeast corner of Garrow and Cornell, was especially stable over a long period of time. John Purnell, most likely a freedom seeker from Maryland, purchased the house to just north of the Griffen house at the same time that Charles and Mary Griffen purchased this one. Charles and Mary’s son, Robert, purchased the house just south of them, at 60 Garrow Street. Isaac and Helen White, from Alabama, owned 62 Garrow Street. In 1880, William Henry Stewart, Jr., grandnephew of Harriet Tubman, and his new wife, Emma Moseby Stewart, purchased the vacant lot on the corner and built a new house, which they replaced in 1901 with a brand new dwelling.\(^{16}\) Thomas and Rachael Belt, freedom seekers from Maryland, bought the house at 77 Cornell Street, just around the corner, in 1868. In 1891, Mary J. Griffin sold 58 Garrow Street to Mary J. Jones.\(^{17}\) Charles continued to be a very active and vocal member of the African American community. In 1846, he was a trustee of the first school for African American children in Auburn, set up on \(^{15}\) Mortgage deed, Mary J. Griffin and Husband to Chrlse P. Fitch, July 22, 1870, Mortgage book 77, page 396, City of Auburn, Cayuga County Clerk’s Office. \(^{16}\) Judy Bryant, oral tradition. \(^{17}\) See Belt-Gaskin House. Mary J. Griffin to Mary J. Jones, June 18, 1891, City Deed Bok 23, page 228. Washington Street in the building that shortly became the first AME Zion Church. The school disbanded in 1851, when African American children began to attend local public schools. In 1852, Charles Griffen donated $1.00 to the New York State Anti-Slavery Society through agent J.R. Johnson. Most significantly in 1882, C. Griffen published a book entitled *A Sketch of the Origin of the Colored Man* (Auburn: Auburnian Steam Printing House, 1882). The only C. Griffen in Auburn at the time was Charles Griffen, at 58 Garrow Street.\(^{18}\) **Description** The house as it stands today is probably not the original. Assessment records suggest that the original house may have been torn down about 1913-1914. The assessment records are ambiguous, however. Mary Jones was assessed for both a house and lot and a vacant lot in 1913 and 1914. It is possible that the current structure is actually the original house on this lot and that the vacant lot was adjacent to this one. Many thanks to Tanya Warren for all property research. --- **Mortgage Deed Abstract** **Mary J. Griffin & husband to Charles P. Fitch** **22 July 1870** **City of Auburn, Cayuga County, NY** **Mortgage Book 77, page 396** This indenture made this 22\(^{nd}\) day of July in 1870 between Mary J. Griffin and her husband Charles Griffin of Auburn and Charles P. Fitch of the same place in consideration of $205.81 being for purchase money, do by these presents grant, etc., All that tract of land situate in the City of Auburn, NY, being part of the Garrow Farm bounded and described as follows: Beginning at the East line of Garrow St, (formerly Thornton St.), 3 chains, 42 links North of the intersection of the North line of Cornell St. with the East line of Garrow Street; thence North 70 degrees East on John Purnell’s south line, 2 chains and 36 links; thence South 1 \( \frac{1}{4} \) degrees East 1 chain; thence --- \(^{18}\)Henry Hall, *History of Auburn* (Auburn, New York: Denis Brothers & Company, 1869), reprint 1989, 256. Thanks to Mary Seymour for finding this. *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, July 16, 1852. Thanks to Shayle Kann for discovering the book by Charles Griffen. South, 70 degrees West, 2 chains and 3 links to the East line of said Garrow St.; thence North on the line of said street 94 ½ links to the place of beginning. And to pay party of the 2nd part (Charles Fitch) for insuring the house on said lot. This grant is intended as a security for the payment of the sum of $205.81 with interest according to the condition of a bond this day executed and delivered by Mary and Charles Griffin to Charles Fitch. (Payment details follow). Witness: D. O. Baker Signed by the mark of Mary J. Griffin and the hand of Charles Griffin Deed Abstract Mary J. Griffin to Mary J. Jones 18 June 1891 City of Auburn, Cayuga County, NY City Deed Book 23, page 228 This indenture made this 18th day of June in 1891 between Mary J. Griffin, of Auburn, NY...and Mary J. Jones, of the same place, in consideration of $1 and other considerations...hath sold, etc. all that tract...of land situate in the City of Auburn, (being part of the Garrow Farm), described as follows; Beginning at the East line of Garrow St., (formerly Thornton St.), 3 chains, 42 links North of the intersection of the North line of Cornell St. with the East line of Garrow Street; thence North 70 degrees East on John Purnell's south line, 2 chains and 36 links; thence South 1 ¼ degrees East 1 chain; thence South, 70 degrees West, 2 chains and 3 links to the East line of said Garrow St.; thence North on the line of said street 94 ½ links to the place of beginning. Reserving to the party of the first part (Mary J. Griffin) use of said premises during her natural life and of her husband. Together with all singular, etc....... Witness: Harry R. Kidney Signed by the mark of Mary J. Griffin. Research and transcription by Tanya Warren Mary and Charles Griffen House 58 Garrow Street--Assessments Research by Tanya Warren | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | YEAR | Property/Lot # | REAL-$ | |-----------|------------|------|----------------|--------| | Griffin | Mary | 1880 | 58 Garrow--residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1881 | 58 Garrow--residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1882 | 58 Garrow--residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1883 | 58 Garrow--residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1884 | 58 Garrow--residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1885 | 58 Garrow--residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1886 | 58 Garrow--residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1887 | 58 Garrow--residence | 200 | Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 | Name | First Name | Year | Address | Description | |------------|------------|------|--------------------------|----------------------| | Griffin | Mary | 1888 | 58 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1889 | 58 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1890 | 58 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Griffin | Mary | 1891 | 58 Garrow-residence | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1892 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1893 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1894 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1895 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1896 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1897 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1898 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1899 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1900 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1901 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1902 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1903 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1904 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1905 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1906 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1907 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1908 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1909 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1910 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary | 1911 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1911 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary | 1912 | 58 Garrow-vacant lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1912 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1913 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary | 1913 | 58 Garrow-vacant lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary J. | 1914 | 58 Garrow-House & lot | 200 | | Jones | Mary | 1914 | 58 Garrow-vacant lot | 200 | | Osborne | Jessica | 1916 | 58 Garrow-house & lot | 300 | Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 John and Mariah Purnell House 56 Garrow Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seekers 046 November 2004 Looking East John Purnell, born in Maryland, appears to have been one of those many freedom seekers who migrated to Auburn after the Civil War and purchased land here on the south side of Auburn, near Harriet Tubman’s home, from abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter Abijah Fitch. His name is listed in this spot on a manuscript map dated 1868 of lands acquired by Abijah Fitch from the former Garrow and Richardson farms. The house itself, although now being fixed up with vinyl siding, new porches, and new windows, retains its original gable and wing form, typical of vernacular Greek Revival houses throughout upstate New York in the mid-nineteenth century. With the wing on the south side, this would be more typically a rural than an urban form, perhaps reflecting this relatively large lot. Assessments show that Purnell owned a vacant lot on the corner of Garrow and Fitch, this house (his residence, assessed at $600), another small house and lot just to the south of this one (assessed at $200), and two vacant lots just south of that, in a damp swale that inhibited construction of other houses there until 2004. Clark, John S., “Plot of the Lands as Conveyed by Abijah Fitch on Garrow and Richardson Farms, Auburn, N.Y.” A.C. Taber, Surveyor, September 1868. Cayuga County Clerk’s Office, Auburn, New York. The 1870 census listed John Purnell as a laborer, born in Maryland, age 32, living with his wife, Maria, born in Pennsylvania (of parents born in Virginia, according to the 1880 census) age 28, keeping house. They had three sons, Charles (age 4), John (age 3), and Albert (8 months). That year, John Purnell was appointed to a committee with Zadoc Bell and Nelson Davis (Harriet Tubman’s husband) to care for the AME Church, probably the short-lived St. Mark’s AME, which met for a time in the Auburn City Hall.\(^{19}\) By 1880, Charles was no longer in the household, but John, Jr., now 13, and Albert, now 10, still lived at home and were attending school. John, still a laborer, was now 44, and Mariah was 39. | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property/Lot # | REAL-$ | TOTAL-$ | |-----------|------------|--------|------|---------------------------------------|------------|---------| | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1886 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence, 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100,600, 200,200 respectively | 900 | \(^{19}\) *Auburn, 200 years of History, 1793-1993* (Auburn: Auburn Bicentennial Committee, 1992), 39. | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1887 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence, 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | |---------|------|--------|------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|-----| | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1888 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence, 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1889 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence, 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1890 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence, 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1891 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence, 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1892 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence, 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1893 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence. 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | |---------|------|--------|------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|-----| | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1894 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence. 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1895-1906 | 50 Garrow-vacant lot. 52 Garrow-residence. 54 Garrow-house & lot. 56 Garrow-2 vacant lots. | 100, 600, 200, 200 respectively | 900 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1880 | 56 Garrow-residence | 200 | 200 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1881 | 56 Garrow-residence | 300 | 300 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1882 | 58 (may have meant 56?) Garrow-residence (?-see Griffin) and 56 Garrow (may have meant 54?)-house & lot | 600-residence, 200-house & lot | 800 | | Purnell | John | Auburn | 1885 | 58 (may have meant 56?) Garrow-residence (?-see Griffin) and 56 Garrow (may have meant 54?)-house & lot | 600-residence, 200-house & lot | 800 | Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Mortgage Deed Abstract John Purnell to Trustees of the Auburn Theological Seminary 2 October 1876 City of Auburn, Cayuga County, NY Mortgage Book 94, page 84 This indenture made this 2\textsuperscript{nd} day of October 1876, between John Purnell and Mariah Jane Purnell his wife of the City of Auburn and the Trustees of the Auburn Theological Seminary of the same place, for the sum of $420, being for the remainder of the purchase money, have sold, etc., all that tract of land situate in the City of Auburn being part of the Garrow Farm bounded and described as follows: Beginning at the East line of Garrow Street (formerly Thornton St.) (illegible) from the intersection of the North line of Cornell Street with the East line of the (ill.) thence North 70 degrees East 3 chains, 32 links to land now owned by Henry B. Fitch; thence Northerly on said Fitch’s West line to land of David Shaw; thence Westerly 31 links to corner said Shaw land thence North to land of the late J. (ill) Parsons thence Westerly on Parson’s South line and a continuation of the same line to the East line of said Garrow Street; Thence South along East line of said Street to place of beginning on which stands a dwelling house. Excepting and reserving therefrom a piece of land from the Northwest corner of the above-described lot (previously conveyed by said Fitch to or for George Andrews) being about 37 feet front on Garrow Street about 17 feet on the rear and about 74 feet deep. The first above-described lot is about 200 feet fronting on Garrow Street. This grant is intended as a security for the payment of the sum of $420 with interest to wit. Payable as follows: $25 semi-annually from the date hereof until the whole is paid with the interest, according to the condition of a bond this day executed and delivered by the said John Purnell to the Trustees of the Auburn Theological Seminary, (payment details). (John Purnell) shall and will keep the buildings erected and to have upon the lands above conveyed insured against loss and damage by fire in an amount approved by the party of the 2\textsuperscript{nd} part (more insurance details). Signed by the mark of John Purnell and the hand of Mariah Jane Purnell Research and transcription by Tanya Warren Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Diggs House 105 Fitch Avenue Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seekers February 2005 Looking North Many members of the Diggs family came to Auburn from Maryland, as suggested in the 1870 census. Daniel Diggs was listed as living here in the 1887-88 Auburn city directory. Diggs House-Apostolic Church 101 Fitch Avenue Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seekers and current site of African American community church February 2005 Looking NW Many members of the Diggs family came to Auburn from Maryland, as suggested in the 1870 census. John T. Diggs was listed as living here in the 1887-88 city directory. Roosevelt Memorial Church Site of Plymouth Rock Cannon and Alice Cannon’s House 79 Fitch Avenue Auburn, New York Significance: Site of home of freedom seekers and current site of major African American community institution February 2005 Looking ENE Freedom seekers Plymouth and Julia Cannon were freedom seekers who ran away from Nat Horsey in Delaware. Sons William and John and daughter Alice were all born in Canada before the Cannon family moved to Auburn in the late 1860s, where they appeared in the 1870, 1875, and 1880 census records. Their story was told in William Still, *The Underground Railroad*, 463-67. Thanks to Kate Larson for this information. Fort Hill Cemetery Auburn, New York Significance: Graves of Harriet Tubman, Seward family, Logan (the Seneca orator) and many others related to Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life. Opened in 1851, Fort Hill cemetery contains the graves of many of Auburn’s citizens, famous and ordinary alike, including those involved in abolitionism and the Underground Railroad. Among the best-known graves are those of Harriet Tubman and her brother William Henry Stewart, Sr.; William Henry Seward and Frances Seward; the Bogart family, and Abijah Fitch. Harriet Tubman was laid to rest in 1913 at Fort Hill Cemetery with military honors in a section of the cemetery designed with curving roads and paths winding through hilly terrain. The Empire State Women’s Federation erected a monument at her gravesite within a year of her death and in 1937, replaced it with the current three-foot granite marker. It is an important site for the annual Harriet Tubman pilgrimage to Auburn as well as for others who visit the Auburn sites which convey her legacy. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. John Henry Ross Stewart and Eliza Stewart House 51 Parker Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seekers and of Harriet Tubman’s nephew, John Henry Ross Stewart February 2005, Looking NW About to be sold, three of Harriet Tubman’s brothers escaped with her help on Christmas Eve, 1854. One of them, John Stewart, born Robert Ross, lived first with Harriet Tubman and then on South Street, where the First Methodist Church now stands. John Stewart had been forced to leave his first wife, Mary Manokey Ross, and two toddler sons, John Henry Ross, born in 1851, and Moses Ross, born in 1853. Mary Manokey Ross was in childbed with their third child, Harriet, when he escaped. Although ostensibly freed by the Civil War, these sons found themselves placed as indentured servants in Talbot County, Maryland, on the farm of Thomas Haddaway. (Maryland slaveholders indentured formerly enslaved children after Maryland’s Emancipation Act in Nov. 1864.) Their uncle John Bowley managed to rescue them about 1868 and bring them to Auburn. By 1870, John, age 53 and a teamster; Millie, age 53, keeping house; John Henry, age 18 and a laborer; and Moses, age 15 and a laborer, all born in Maryland, were living together in one household in Auburn. Millie Hollis Stewart was also from Dorchester County. Whether she was born free or enslaved is not known, nor do we know whether she had known John Stewart before their escape to Canada. They married in Auburn in 1863 or 1864. In the early 1870s, John Henry Stewart married Eliza Smith, born in Canada about 1854, and they had three children, Dora, born about 1875; Gertrude, born about 1878; and Clarence, whom everyone called Dye, born about 1879. In 1880, John Henry Ross Stewart worked as a “grinder in a shop,” and Eliza kept house here at 35 Parker Street (now 51 Parker). Very shortly, John Henry Stewart would be dead, of “congestion of the lungs.” Perhaps this was pneumonia or tuberculosis. Eliza would move with her three children to Union Avenue, to live with her cousin-in-law, Elijah Stewart, and his family, until she married Alfred Parker. The family then moved to 20 Chapman Avenue, and Parker became a loving father to her children and an important figure in the Auburn African American community into the 20th century. In 1887-88, James and John Warren, Maryland-born, probably freedom seekers, lived here.\(^1\) \(^1\)Grateful acknowledgements to Kate Clifford Larson, for her careful work on Stewart genealogy, 237-38, and for her email, July 5, 2005. Research assistance by Tanya Warren, Pauline Johnson, and Judith Bryant. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Thompson Memorial African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, 1891 National Historic Landmark 49 Parker Street Auburn, New York Significance: Harriet Tubman’s Church Description: Built as a simple frame church with a small belfry and a hooded doorway, this building retains many original features, both inside and outside, including interior stenciling. It is a National Historic Landmark and is currently under restoration by Crawford and Stearns, Architects and Preservation Planners, with funding from Save America’s Treasures. Significance: Incorporated in 1838, the first AME Zion Church in Auburn was built on Washington Street, just north of Genesee. After the Civil War, Auburn’s African American population expanded considerably, as freedom seekers who had settled in Canada, especially St. Catherine’s, followed Harriet Tubman to Auburn and purchased property on the south side of the city along Chapman Avenue, Garrow Street, Fitch Avenue, Union (Richardson) Avenue, and Parker Street. Following the population, the AME Zion Church built a new structure here at 49 Parker Street. This church was dedicated in 1891, named after Henry Thompson, first local AME Zion bishop and himself a freedom seeker. AME Zion Parsonage, post-1904 47 Parker Street Auburn, New York Looking southwest July 2005 Copes Johnson House 45 Parker Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of African American community leaders and descendents of freedom seekers February 2005 Looking NW Pauline Copes Johnson, who has lived in this house since her marriage, is a descendent of Ann Marie Stewart Elliott, niece of Harriet Tubman and wife of Thomas Elliott, one of the Dover Eight, who lived at 31 Richardson (Union) Avenue, through their daughter Mary Elliot Gaskin. She is also a descendent of William Copes, probably another freedom seekers, who is first listed in Auburn in the 1865 census as born in Virginia, living in a house worth $500. In the 1867-68 city directory, he lived on South Street, near Hamilton. Mrs. Johnson has been an important source of information for this survey of historic sites. Hornbeck-Ray House 41-43 Parker Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of African American community leaders February 2005 Looking West Important members of the Hornbeck and Ray families lived here from the late nineteenth century into the early twenty-first century. More research is needed to document both the house and the families. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 37 Parker Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of African American Community Members Further research is needed to document this house. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Dale-Waire House 35 Parker Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seeker and son of freedom seeker February 2005 Looking NW In 1887-88, James and Elizabeth Dale lived at this site. James Dale was one of the sons of George Dale, freedom seeker. George’s obituary noted that he rescued both his sons—James and Jacob—from slavery. It is not known how long the Dales lived here or when this house was built. This site was later occupied by the Waire family, descendents of John Waire, born in Virginia and probably a freedom seeker, who lived at 35 Union (Richardson) Avenue. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Perry Williams, Melinda/Elizabeth Williams House 31 Parker Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seeker Looking southwest July 2005 Perry Williams, whose obituary noted that he was a fugitive from slavery, came to Auburn by the 1860s. City directories noted that he lived in several different places, including the American Hotel (1867-68, at 141 Genesee, now gone), a house at Fitch near Genesee (1869) when he worked at 107 Genesee (gone, replaced by Cayuga Bank), a house at Fitch near Garrow (1879-80), 63 Fitch Avenue according to the 1880 census, and a house at 41 Garrow in 1887-88 (probably still standing). By 1900 and until his death in 1925, he was living here at 31 Parker Street. The 1880 census listed Perry Williams and wife, with two sons and father-in-law Henry Mitchell, age 69, b. Virginia. Worked as janitor at a bank. He had a second wife Elizabeth in 1910. Perry Williams’ obituary, dated July 27, 1925, read: Former Slave, Beloved City Character-Dead. Lived at 31 Parker St. Died age 85. Born in slavery and lived the life of a slave in Virginia and the Carolinas, joined the Union Army, was a doorkeeper at military balls, etc. at the State Armory. Known as “Uncle Perry”. --- 2 Perry Williams obituary found by Sheila Edmunds. Property and genealogical research by Tanya Warren. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Carter House 22 Parker Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of African American Community Leaders Looking northeast July 2005 Members of the Carter family, influential African American community leaders, lived in this house into the twenty-first century. More research should be done to document this house and this family. Page # 228 Of The Report Is A Blank Page Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Richard Gaskin House, c. 1899 18 Aspen Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of Freedom Seekers Richard Gaskin was born in Virginia and came to Ledyard about 1864, with his wife Mary and their four children. He became a Quaker and owned property on Dixon Road in Ledyard from 1869 until the late 1880s. He was listed in the Auburn assessment rolls as owning a house here on Aspen Street worth $600 from 1899 to 1903, until he moved to Sherwood, New York, to live with his daughter Rose Gaskin Phillips, before his death. His son, Philip Gaskin, married Mary Elliott, daughter of Thomas Elliott and Ann Marie Stewart. They lived for many years at 34 Union (Richardson) Avenue before moving to the Belt-Gaskin house at 77 Chapman Avenue in 1927. Cooper House 22 Aspen Street Auburn, New York Significance: Home of freedom seekers, b. Canada and Delaware February 2005 Looking South The Cooper family represents a very common pattern in Auburn, of freedom seekers who migrated first to Canada and then, during or after the Civil War, settled in Auburn, where they purchased a home on the south side of the city on streets that were newly-opened for development. Charles and Anna Cooper and their children came to Auburn sometime between 1865 and 1870, when they were first listed in the census. Charles Cooper, age 30, listed his occupation as a farm laborer and his birthplace as Delaware. Anna Cooper, age 27, listed her occupation as keeping house and her birthplace as Delaware. Their children, Alexander, age 8 and Arenta, age 4, were born in Canada. Laura, age five months, was born in New York). By 1880, they were living at 143 South Division Street. They listed their names as Henry and Anna, laborer and washerwoman, ages 45 and 47, both born in Delaware, with children Alexander (age 17, born Canada), Araminta (14, born Canada), and Laura (10, born New York State). Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Cayuga County: North Aurelius Shorter House Cato Hickock Home, Meridian Ingham House, Meridian Conquest Jarrod House Mentz Duvall House and Tenant House, Port Byron Port Byron Hotel Sennett Sennett Federated Church and Parsonage Sterling Kirk House, Sterling Center Sterling Center Churches Weedsport Bell House Charles and Sally Shorter House Cayuga Village Significance: Home of African American community leaders, manumitted from slavery Description: The Shorter House, in the small village of Cayuga in the town of Aurelius in Cayuga County, New York, stands in a hollow along what is known as the Great Genesee Road. Located on the eastern side of this small, lakeside village, it is a rare surviving example of a “shanty”, built by freed African-Americans. The mere fact of its survival lends great importance to its place in the history of the settlement of freed African Americans in Cayuga County in the first half of the 19th century. It is from Charles Shorter’s (Sr.) written will (Cayuga County Records Retention, Box 27 and Book D, p. 36 of Wills) that we are able to trace the origins of the inconspicuous shanty still standing at 255 Genesee Street in Cayuga Village. This lot of 1.80 acres was included in his will with detailed instructions concerning the construction of a house on its site. The first part of the will states: “To my beloved wife Sally Shorter, (I give) lots 93 and 94 in the village.” This would be the lot just west of the present shanty and the marital home of Charles and Sally Shorter. (see map 1859, lot marked “Mrs. Shorter”). In 1882, this property was sold to Horace Wiley by their grandson Charles Shorter. (Reservation Deed Book Q, p. 393.) In the second part of the will, he declares, “I give to my only child, Charles Shorter, Jr., the use of lots 95 and 96 in the village of Cayuga together with a house to be built thereon measuring 18 feet by 14 feet, being built by myself or my executors for son Charles’ use during his natural life…If the house is unbuilt at my decease, executor is to build said house within six months of my decease at a cost not to exceed $1200.00. In no case may my executor furnish him with the money.” Despite what illness or fear of mortality may have caused Charles to write his will in 1837 at about age 67, he did live on an additional 13 years and it may be surmised that in this time span, father Charles would have indeed had the time to build this house for his son. It is not known what year the shanty on lot 95 was built, but it can be estimated between 1837 (date of will) and 1859 (when an additional house belonging to Sally Shorter appears on the lot in the 1859 map of Cayuga County) and was lived in by Charles Shorter, Jr. and possibly his mother. The house as it stands today is sided with brown-shingles. It is not known which of the sections is the oldest. It may be that the west wing, approximately 18 feet wide by 14 feet deep (the same measurements suggested in Charles Shorter, Sr.’s will for the house to be built for his son) is the house built for Charles Shorter, Jr.. It may also be that the west wing was originally built by Charles and Sally Shorter on the lot just west of the current lot and moved to its current location after Sally Shorter’s death. A difference is the slope of the back and front roofline suggests some modifications of this wing. A small addition extended the original structure in back (north) by 6 feet. The two-story section was most likely built *in situ*. Its relatively steep gable suggests a post-Civil War construction date. It may have been built in two sections. In which case, the original measurements were 18 feet by 14 feet, again the same measurements requested by Charles, Sr., in his will. A basement extends under the two-story section. Foundation stones and sills in the two-story section were made of re-used materials and were generally of poor quality. The stones used for the foundation were of wildly differing sizes and composition and put together loosely with a thin mortar. The sills were of mismatched sizes and in some cases made of previously used beams showing evidence of primitive hand-hewn treatment and with notches and grooves from a previous use. A few were merely thin tree trunks with bark still clinging to them. **Significance:** Charles Shorter, owner and possible builder of this shanty, first appears in the census records of Cayuga village in 1820. This entry records a man over 45, a boy under 14 and a woman over 45. From the 1850 census of Cayuga, we know that Charles was born in Maryland and was married to Sally, a freed African American born in the West Indies. Charles Shorter wrote a will in 1837 and in it he mentions that he has only one child, a son named Charles, Jr. While no entry exists for this family in 1830, Charles, Sr., his wife and son appear again in 1840 in Cayuga Village. Interestingly, another Charles Shorter with a young family, all African Americans, is found in 1840, living in Seneca Falls, just over the Cayuga Bridge in Seneca County. What relationship he might have to the Cayuga Shorter family is not known. Charles Shorter bought four lots of land in the village of Cayuga, namely, lots 93, 94, 95 & 96 between 1820 and 1827. His first purchase, that of lot 96, was purchased from Judge Thomas Mumford in 1820. (Reservation Deed Book F, p. 329) Thomas Mumford was a lawyer from Aurora and came into Cayuga Village in 1795\(^1\). Mumford, and other prominent lawyers such as Judge Elijah Miller, father-in-law of William Henry Seward and Judge Joseph Annin, had all settled in Cayuga Village due to the new (1799) county seat being situated in Cayuga Village. This honor was short-lived as the county seat was switched to Aurora in 1804 and then finally to Auburn in 1809. In 1820, Cayuga Village was adjusting to its fate as a former county seat but making news as the village that gave birth to one of the longest bridges in the western world. This wooden bridge was known as the Cayuga Bridge and linked Cayuga County with the new county of Seneca across the north end of Cayuga Lake. This bridge was also important as being a part of the great Genesee or Seneca Turnpike that carried thousands of people from the northeastern states of the nation into the great western frontier. It was here in this small but strategically located village that Charles and Sally Shorter came to live and raise their family. Charles Shorter and his wife, Sally did not themselves leave any written record as to their parentage, state of origin or even status as a free or enslaved African Americans before their arrival in Cayuga. In the Florence P. McIntosh book *History of Cayuga Village*, the author claims that Charles Shorter married Sally, a former West Indian slave, in New York City and that they both then moved to Cayuga to set up housekeeping. According to this source, Sally Shorter was sent to New York by her mistress and was then freed upon arrival. Federal and State Census entries from 1850 to 1870 consistently list Sally’s birthplace as the West Indies. Charles Shorter listed his birthplace as Maryland in the 1850 census. An African American born in 1770 in Maryland was highly likely to have been born in slavery. His birth year, and that of Sally’s, can be calculated to have been about 1770, both claiming to be 80 years old in 1850. In later --- \(^1\) **HISTORY OF CAYUGA VILLAGE May 1927 By: Florence Pharis McIntosh** Copyright 1927, pp. 23-24 censuses, Sally’s birth year appears to be closer to 1780-1785. Charles Shorter wrote a will in 1837 and died on May 5, 1851 in Cayuga Village. His wife Sally and only child Charles, Jr. continued to live in the village, with Sally dying in January 1874.\(^2\) Evidently Sally Shorter was a well beloved person in the village of Cayuga. She merited a separate write-up in McIntosh’s History of Cayuga Village, a portion of which is quoted here: They (Charles and Sally) had one son, Charles, who took care of his mother after his father died. Mother and son lived in a shanty, which stood on the street in front of what is now Mrs. Horace Wiley’s house in “Pious Hollow”. She used to make cakes and candies for the ladies of the village when they had parties. The children of the village were always eager to visit “Aunty Shorter” because she would supply them with cookies and doll clothes; but first demanding politeness from the child.\(^3\) This house stands as a testament to the African Americans who came into Cayuga County between 1820 and 1870 and, with their freedom won, chose to remain in the area and become productive citizens. Charles Shorter bought his land from the village’s most prominent citizens of the time and took steps to ensure that his legacy was left to his wife and son after his decease. The Shorter house’s location on the Genesee Turnpike (a known Underground Railroad route) leads one to speculate as to what roles Charles and Sally may have played in harboring and assisting freedom seekers that surely passed by the Shorter’s humble shanty on their way to freedom in Canada. In addition to living on the major East/West highway in New York, they were also just up the road from an active port of the Erie Canal system. This in conjunction with the presence of Cayuga Lake boat traffic from points south from Pennsylvania ending at Cayuga Village port and the fact that at least two prominent Cayuga County Abolitionists and Underground Railroad agents, Matthias Hutchinson owned a warehouse in the village lending further credence to the idea that the Shorter’s presence may have been a welcome rest for fellow freedom seekers in a foreign land.\(^4\) Cayuga Bridge. John W. Barber and Henry Howe, *Historical Collections of the State of New York* (New York: S. Tuttle, 1842) That this shanty has survived the test of time is miraculous considering that the increasing numbers of European Americans coming into Cayuga County throughout the 19th century had a tendency to demolish the great majority of these first homes of poor African Americans in favor of larger structures. The house’s location in the small, forgotten village of Cayuga is what probably saved it from this fate and remains today as one of the most exciting finds of the present survey of African American sites in Cayuga County. Tanya Warren --- \(^2\) HISTORY OF CAYUGA VILLAGE May 1927 By: Florence Pharis McIntosh Copyright 1927 p. 86 \(^3\) HISTORY OF CAYUGA VILLAGE May 1927 By: Florence Pharis McIntosh Copyright 1927 p. 86 \(^4\) 1859 Cayuga County map? (1853?) Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Hickok Home Bonta Bridge Road Meridian, New York Significance: Home of Underground Railroad Activist Description: This simple gable-end-to-the-street three-bay house sits on a street of nineteenth century houses, in a neighborhood that is intact except for the replacement of a furniture store that burned next door, on the southwest corner of Route 370, with a 1920s bungalow. Significance: James Hickock was one of W.S. Ingham’s clerks until he went into partnership with Ingham in 1836. After he left his partnership with Ingham, he formed a partnership with his brother, C.B. Hickok, as J. & C.B. Hockok. Together, they opened a general store, which they maintained until 1848, when James Hickock bought out his brother’s interests. In 1865, he changed his business to that of undertaker and dealer in furniture, books, and drugs.\(^5\) Both Ingham and Hickock were involved in the rescue of George Washington from Auburn Prison in 1854. For more details, see the description of Auburn prison. This house suggests that those who aided freedom seekers were very often people of modest wealth. Certainly, they were not all wealthy, as W. Smith Ingham was before he lost his money in the late 1850s. While it appears from the 1853 map that this house belonged to James Hickock, a deed search should be done to check this. Samuel Geil, *Map of Cayuga County*, 1853 The J. Hickok home is on the left side of the street, just above the G.H. Lawrence home, south of the main east-wide highway (now Route 370) The Ingham home is labeled “C. Morley, second from the intersection, just west of the “store” on the northwest corner of the main intersection. --- \(^5\) Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County*. Research by Sheila Tucker; Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County*. Research by Sheila Tucker; Betty H. Murphy, *History of Meridian: A Bicentennial Product*, rev. by Marion Dudley, 3\(^{rd}\) edition, 1996, Online. William S. Ingham House Route 370 Meridian, New York Town of Cato Significance: Home of Underground Railroad supporter Description: Local sources suggest that his twenty-room Greek Revival house, with a full pediment and four Ionic columns on the central section, flanked by two main wings and two lower wings, was constructed about 1835. In the 1920s, the home was used as a hospital by Herbert Gifford, a physician. It was later used briefly as an inn. The two-story privy is still intact.\(^6\) Significance: William Smith Ingham, primary investor in the village of Meridian, represented the biracial cross-class network of people who created the Underground Railroad network in Cayuga County. He was part of the group that rescued George Washington in 1854 and successfully sent --- \(^6\) Dave Tobin, *Cayuga Neighbors*, *Post-Standard*, February ?, 2005. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 him to Canada, when Washington’s owner tried to recapture him under the terms of the Fugitive Slave Act. William Smith Ingham opened a store in Meridian in 1831, succeeding his father, William Ingham, who had come to Meridian in 1815. William Smith Ingham built a sawmill and hotel, in addition to his merchant operations, and under his patronage, the village expanded rapidly. Ingham went into business with James Hickok (1836-41) and D.E. Haven (1839-45), David Emerick, his son-in-law (1845-52), and Chester Morley (1852-57). Ingham’s business failed in the depression of 1857, and he left the village, leaving several of his children to board with other families in the area. He went to Hannibal, Missouri. James Hickok was one of W.S. Ingham’s clerks until he went into partnership with him in 1836. After he left his partnership with Ingham, he formed a partnership with his brother, C.B. Hickok, as J. & C.B. Hickok. Together, they opened a general store, which they maintained until 1848, when James Hickok bought out his brother’s interests. In 1865, he changed his business to that of undertaker and dealer in furniture, books, and drugs.\(^7\) Both Ingham and Hickok were involved in the rescue of George Washington from Auburn Prison in 1854. For more details, see the description of Auburn prison.\(^8\) **Map of Meridian** *Samuel Geil, Map of Cayuga County, 1853* The Ingham house is listed on this map as belonging to C. Morley, just behind the store on the northwest corner of the main crossroads. --- \(^7\) Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County*. Research by Sheila Tucker; Betty H. Murphy, *History of Meridian: A Bicentennial Product*, rev. by Marion Dudley, 3\(^{rd}\) edition, 1996, Online. \(^8\) Dave Tobin, “They braved arrest to shuttle slaves,” *Post-Standard*, February 9, 2005. Canfield and Terrisa Jarrod House Conquest, New York Significance: Home of Underground Railroad Activists Description: The Jarrods had several houses. They originally lived near Wolcott and Sterling, in the north part of the county, before they married in 1823 and moved to a house on Lot 4 in the Town of Conquest. This house was frame, post-and-beam, with twelve-inch thick beams, gable-end-to-the-street, four-over-four windows, and small frieze windows under the eaves. By 1859, they were living at 1 Pulsifer Street, in Auburn. By 1863-64 until at least 1880, they lived at North Street near the tollgate, 277 North Street (now 275 North Street). The house on North Street in Auburn was pictured in Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County*. It is now the site of the Spano Drive-through car wash. --- Many thanks to Sheila Tucker for first finding the reference to the Jarrods and their Underground Railroad work Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County, 1789-1879*. Many thanks to Joni Lincoln for finding the Jarrod house in Conquest and contacting the former owners and to Tanya Warren for her research in city directories; maps, and Imate database [online Cayuga County real property database]. Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County* (1879), 198a. Samuel Geil, *Map of Cayuga County*, 1853 C. Jarrod house is just under the large “U.” **Significance:** Canfield Jarrod (1801-1867) and Terrissa Jarrod (1800-?) represent those abolitionists who worked in a variety of reform movements, including caring for orphans, keeping a station on the Underground Railroad, and working with Onondaga women. As Wesleyan Methodists, they based their work for equality on their religious commitment. The main evidence we have about the Underground Railroad activity of Canfield and Terrissa Jarrod appeared in the Canfield Jarrod biography in Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County, 1789-1879*, p. 198a. Born November 21, 1801 in Dutchess County, New York, Canfield Jarrod moved first to Salisbury, Connecticut, and then after 1820 to Wolcott, then in the north part of Cayuga County. He was primarily a farmer but also a wool buyer and an insurance agent. Terrissa Skeel was born in Rensselaer County on February 22, 1800, and moved to Sterling, Cayuga County in 1817. She married Canfield Jarrod in 1823, and, although they had no birth children, they raised five orphans, “whom they reared, educated and assisted to business employments.” In 1846, the both became Wesleyan Methodists. “Politically, Mr. Jarrod was a firm Republican,” noted their biography, using his influence for the liberation of the slaves, and his house was one of the stations on the “underground Railroad,” where many a sable traveler, bound for Canada, found refuge, sympathy, rest and refreshment. Their sympathy for the unfortunate and care for their wants are proverbial, and Mrs. Jarrod now entertains and befriends the Onondaga women, who are selling Indian trinkets in this vicinity.\(^{10}\) The Jarrods apparently moved frequently. (“His attachment to a particular spot was not very strong, and he frequently changed his residence,” noted their biography in the *History of Cayuga County.*) In 1853, however, they lived in this house in the Town of Conquest, New York. **Research by Sheila Tucker, Joni Lincoln, and Tanya Warren.** --- \(^{10}\) Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga Country, 1789-1879*, 198a. William O. Duvall House “Haiti” Port Byron, New York Town of Mentz Significance: Home of William O. Duvall, the “Island Chieftain,” Abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter Duvall house and barn November 2004 Looking NW Duvall tenant house November 2004 Looking South Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 “Hayti” on 1859 Cayuga County map showing Duvall house and tenant house Seneca River near Duvall’s House—“Hayti” Looking South November 2004 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Description: Located on what was a marshy point, usually described as an island, in the Seneca River, across from Howland’s Island, “stocked with the choicest fruits, the near woods with an abundance of game, the surrounding rivers abounded with fowl and with fish,” stands a large farmhouse, barn, and tenant house built by William Orvall Duvall, Jr., probably sometime in the late 1830s. It is accessible today across a bridge, built when the area was cut off from the mainland by the construction of the Erie Barge Canal in the 19-teens. The access road passes small summer cottages built in the twentieth century. At the very end of the road stands the farmhouse, with a barn on the north side and a tenant house, on the left (south) side. These apparently are the originals, with some additions to the houses. Significance: From the 1830s to the end of his life, William Orvall Duvall (born Mentz, Cayuga County, 1807–died Detroit, Michigan, August 8, 1882) was an outspoken, daring, warm-hearted, generous, brilliant, rough-hewn, courageous, and committed abolitionist; lecturer and organizer for the Western New York Anti-Slavery Society in 1840; friend of William Henry Seward, Slocum Howland, James C. Jackson, and Gerrit Smith; and an enthusiastic supporter of the Underground Railroad. His home on an island in the Seneca River in the Town of Mentz, near Port Byron, was so well-known as a haven for African Americans that neighbors dubbed it “Hayti,” a name that it retains today. --- 11 Thanks to Mike Riley and Penny Helzer for finding this. 12 W.O. Duvall’s signature on “New York Inhabitants of Port Byron. Petition of William O. Duvall & Others. Receive petitions or dissolve the Union.” National Archives and Records Administration, HR 27A–H1.7. William O. Duvall’s parents, William Duvall (1765-1847) and Naomi Duvall (1762-1839), arrived in the Town of Mentz from New Jersey in 1796. William Duvall was a surveyor. They settled first on Lot 2, then in Port Byron, and finally on an island in the Seneca River in the late 1830s. They had three children (Israel, John Baldwin, and William O. Duvall, Jr.) before Naomi Duvall’s death on October 7, 1839. William O. Duvall, Sr., died February 22, 1847. He left his land to his grandchildren, but they had to mortgage it, and the land was sold in 1867. Both William O. Duvall, Sr., and Naomi Duvall are buried in Mt. Pleasant Cemetery, as are Israel Smith Duvall and John Baldwin Duvall.\(^{13}\) William O. Duvall, Jr., married a woman named Eliza Cobb, born in New York State about 1811. They had four children: Henry C., a farmer, born about 1837; Catherine E., born about 1839, who became a schoolteacher; William O. Duvall, 3rd, born about 1842, who served in the Civil War (Battery A, 3rd Regiment, L Artillery) but then died of an accidental gunshot wound in 1866; and Laura T. Duvall, born about 1843.\(^{14}\) William O. Duvall, Jr., settled on a marshy point near Duvall’s island, building a large farmhouse, barn, and tenant house, all of which still stand. Sometime between October 1848 and July 1849, Duvall began to call his farm “Hayti” or “Haiti,” a name it still retains.\(^{15}\) An antislavery lecturer (possibly Frederick Douglass) visited Port Byron in 1853 and learned why. Mr. Duvall was, he wrote, a practical Anti-Slavery man, a thorough worker in the vineyard. This gentleman resides on an island, about four miles from the village of Port Byron. . . . He saw fit on one occasion, to hire a considerable number of colored men to work on his farm. This aroused the jealousy and excited the envy of the white laborers who had formerly worked for him. They could do nothing that would hurt Mr. Duvall, he being so far above them in the estimation of all honorable men. So they took revenge out of the island, by calling it Haiti. But Mr. Duvall thought this a capital idea. And now, when he writes his letters, they are dated Haiti, this being the name given to the island.\(^{16}\) W.O. Duvall allied himself strongly with the Whig Party in the 1830s, and by 1838, he began a correspondence with Governor William Henry Seward based on political and economic interests that continued for several years. In 1838, working with Archibald Green, a like-minded abolitionist Whig in Port Byron (and brother of Cassandra Green Hamblin, who organized abolitionist women in Port Byron), Duvall tried to secure Port Byron votes for Seward as governor.\(^{17}\) By the summer of 1839, Duvall felt confident enough of Seward’s friendship to give him frank political advice. Writing from Farmington, Ontario County (a major center of Quaker abolitionism), Duvall urged Seward to come out publicly as an abolitionist candidate. July 11, 1839 --- \(^{13}\) Joseph Hadger (son-in-law to William O. Duvall, Jr.), to Bennetts, Book 118, page 192, 194; Mt. Pleasant Cemetery list. Thanks to Penney Helzer, Mike Riley, and Tanya Warren for this information. \(^{14}\) 1860 U.S. Census. Thanks to Mike Riley for details about the Duvall family, email August 15, 2005. \(^{15}\) W.O. Duvall to William Henry Seward, October 18, 1848, noted that the letter was written from Port Byron. W.O. Duvall to William Henry Seward, July 9, 1849, noted that it was written from Hayti, although he did not use Hayti consistently after this time. Seward Papers, University of Rochester. \(^{16}\) Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County, 1789-1879*, reprint 1980 (Interlaken, New York: Heart of the Lakes Publishing, 1980), 335, called this Campbell’s Island, but this may be an error. Campbell’s Island was south of Howland’s Island. It is no longer there, removed during construction of the Erie Barge Canal in the 19-teens. Email from Michael Riley, October 31, 2004. [Frederick Douglass?], *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, December 23, 1853. \(^{17}\) Duvall to William Henry Seward, November 2, 1838, urged Seward to send Whigs to watch the polls, to prevent illegal votes. Seward Papers, University of Rochester. Gov. Seward, Wilt thou permit one who has long been thy friend to address thee a few lines, by way of friendship. My old friend, I have traveled through & through the counties of Tompkins, Yates, Steuben & Ontario, and I can assure you that I have taken the utmost pains to make myself acquainted with public sentiments, in those sections, especially in the Whig party, & I declare to you, that unless the next Whig candidate for Gov. takes the promise as did Luther Bradish last year he is defeated. Very many of your best friends have come out decidedly upon the subject and I do not think they can be moved from their position. Oh, how I do hope that Wm. H. Seward will see his true position. And now, why should you not come out boldly in favor of human rights—in other words—an abolitionist? Their principles are your principles—and were Washington, Franklin, Jay’s & Jefferson’s and why in the name of Heaven should you be ashamed openly to avow them?—Why my friend West of Albany, there’s not a Whig that would leave you in consequence of your avowal and you would secure from the Van Buren party more—vastly more than you could lose in the cities of N York & Albany. Before God I assert that, in the counties through which I have traveled, there’s not one single Whig that would forsake you, in my opinion and I know of many of the other party who would vote for you with the greatest pleasure were you an abolitionist. I do hope you will range yourself upon the side of humanity, for God knows, and my esteemed friend, you, know, that the principles of abolitionism are correct, and that sooner or later they must prevail, and my prayer to our Father in heavie is that the time may speedily come when our beloved Seward & Webster will be found in the front ranks of the open friends of liberty and equality. Excuse the families mode I have made in addressing you—you know me—and I know that it is impossible for me to be smooth. You know the old maxim that “a whistle can’t be made out of a &c”— . . . I don’t want to see this black hearted Loco Foco party ever again get the ascendency, but unless my friend Seward “remembers those in bonds as bound with them”—they will assuredly arise.” Yours in the great cause of liberty & equality W.O. Duvall With friends such as these giving him advice such as this in central New York, Seward’s political policies at the state and national level comes into clearer focus. Duvall spent the spring of 1840 traversing central New York, giving speeches and organizing societies for the Western New York Anti-Slavery Society. When he came to his own town of Port Byron, he reported that the meeting was “small, owing to the almost impassable state of the roads. In this vicinity there is but very little sympathy felt, or interest manifested for the suffering bondman. “To take care of myself,” is the standing motto of this people, and I regret to add, the women, whose sympathies one would suppose would naturally gush out for their sisters in chains, appear nearly as callous as their sensibility benumbed husbands and brothers. How little of the true dignity of human nature is manifested by this “gentler sex” of the present day! May God’s spirit of eternal truth divorce from their hearts those mists of ignorance, selfishness, prejudice and servility, and make them to feel with that ornament to her sex—Margaret Chandler—whose soul was too large to be confined solely to her own family— “Shall we behold—unheeding --- 18 W.O. Duvall to William Henry Seward, July 11, 1839, Seward Papers, University of Rochester. Life’s holiest feelings crushed! When woman’s heart is bleeding, Shall woman’s voice be hushed!” Notwithstanding the meeting at this place was small, yet I rejoice that we met there. A venerable deacon in the pro-slavery Pres. Church in the place, came out boldly and manfully for the first time in favor of immediate emancipation.—Never shall I forget the solemnity of his appearance and language when he said: “I have long been a member of the professed church of Christ, and I hope ever to be but that church, o state, or party which stands in the way of abolition, is wrong, and must go down, and no church or party thus situated shall receive my support.” Amen, amen. In November 1840, Duvall again presumed to give Seward advice. This time, to undercut Liberty Party voters, Duvall urged Seward to repeal the “9 months law,” allowing slave owners to bring slaves into the state legally and to keep them here for nine months, and to change New York State Constitution’s to give equal suffrage to African Americans. “Now, Seward,” he wrote, “if your next Message you come out boldly and recommend these two measures, the “third party” is a dead dog.” Duvall did his part to help Seward’s political chances. He spent November and December 1840 in the western New York with seven other lecturers, speaking for the Whig Party and against third party politics. Interestingly, a flyer announcing their lectures, “NO THIRD PARTY!!!,” invited all “Friends of the slave” to come to the rallies, including “the old and the young—the grave and the gay—men, women, and children—ALL who claim to be human, come up to the rescue of suffering humanity!” Duvall’s correspondence with Seward resumed in 1848, with references to loans and a mortgage, the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in Washington, D.C., and the capture of William Chaplin for his attempted rescue of people enslaved in Washington, D.C. (Duvall asked Seward to visit Chaplin and “remember me to one who occupies one of the holier rooms in my heart.”) At the same time that he was working to promote Seward’s political career within the Whig party, W.O. Duvall also signed at least two antislavery petitions sent to Congress. One, drafted by himself, was sent in opposition to congressional refusal to admit petitions referring to slavery. Since the right of petition was guaranteed in the Bill of Rights, its abrogation effectually meant a dissolution of the Union, argued Duval and more than 100 other men in Port Byron: To the Hon. The House of Rep. of the U.S. The undersigned, citizens of Port Byron, Cayuga County and State of New York, regarding the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States as the fundamental law of the land—the former as specifying, the latter as guaranteeing [sic] our rights—we beg leave to solemnly call your attention to the following notorious facts. Previous to, during and succeeding the Am. Rev. to petition our national legislature was regarded as among our most sacred rights. Among the grievous charges preferred against the mother country in our celebrated “Bill of Rights” was this. “Our petitions have been spurned with contempt from the foot of the throne.” It is matter of history, that this right, “our sacred, now trampled upon”—was always venerated by our Washington’s—Adam’s Jay’s—Hamilton’s—Henry’s==Pinkney’s==Franklin’s—Rush’s—and their associates who pledged their “lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor” in the establishment of this --- 19 W.O. Duvall, Seneca Falls, March 12, 1840, published in *Friend of Man*, April 1, 1840. 20 W.O. Duvall to William Henry Seward, November 9, 1840, Seward Papers, University of Rochester. 21 Flyer enclosed with Duvall to Seward, November 9, 1840. Other lecturers included J.C. Hathaway, W.C. Rogers, Lorenzo Hathaway, Ezek Wilbur, Gideon Ramsdell, P.D. Hathaway, and Pliny Sexton. 22 W.O. Duvall to William Henry Seward, October 18, 1848; July 9, 1849; February 3, 1850; August 17, 1850; September 18, 1851; October 24, 1851; October 5, 1851; February 14, 1852. government. The Constitution formed by these men secures the exercise of this right, and the Congress of the nation has always, and still does recognize the right in all cases—save the abolition of slavery. For this end Congress denies the right, and thus annuls the Dec. of In. and sets the Constitution at defiance! In view of these indisputed facts, we would respectfully and most solemnly ask of your Hon. Body: What remains of this boasted Union? . . . The undersigned are not many of them what are technically called abolitionists—yet they would seriously enquire how long 3,000,000 of imbruted [?] slaves and 16,000,000 of white freemen are to be deprived of their rights by 250,000 slave breeders? How long are the people’s servants to assume the prerogatives of being the People’s masters, and by “spurning their petitions from the foot of the throne” destroy the last vestige of the “Liberty & Union” which it was fondly hoped the blood of our common ancestors had cemented? We ask these questions in sorrow, not in anger. We feel deeply for the interests of this nation, and we will make any sacrifice for the permanency of free institutions. We may be wrong, but it appears to us that our southern people love slavery more than they do the Constitution and the Dec. of Independence and are ready to sacrifice the latter for the sake of the former. If so, we can assure you, that we sympathize with no such sentiment. We will sacrifice the Union to nothing but Liberty. When the question comes, Union or Liberty (and we think there is a prospect of that time speedily arriving,) we will be found on the side of the former [latter]; nor shall the terrible name “abolition” deter us from espousing the antislavery cause knowing as we do that their principles are those upon which this Union was based, and that the perpetuity of the government depends upon their being all [?] carried out in practice. We therefore [ask?] that the petitions of the northern people on the subject of slavery be respectfully received and referred, or that this Union be immediately dissolved in theory, as it long has been in Practice. And, as in duty bound, we will ever pray. Duvall mailed this February 16, probably 1843, to Honorable Christopher Morgan, who represented Cayuga County in Congress. The House received it, and immediately laid it on the table, as it did all antislavery petitions, according to what abolitionists called a gag law that Congress had passed beginning in 1836. Duvall signed another petition, sent from Mentz on October 20, 1849, signed by hundreds of men. This one was a lengthy printed petitions against slavery in the District of Columbia. Like all the others, it was immediately tabled. Sometime during the 1840s (or perhaps earlier), Duvall began active work on the Underground Railroad. He was linked to the network of Quaker activists that included Slocum Howland in Sherwood, New York; John Mann in Friendsville, Pennsylvania; Dr. Bartholomew Fussell and his niece Graceanna Lewis in Chester County, Pennsylvania, and Thomas Garrett in Wilmington, Delaware. Although probably not a Quaker himself, since he ardently promoted political participation and advocated violent resistance, if necessary, to slave-catchers, he adopted some forms of Quaker culture, including use of “thee” in some of his letters. Duvall’s obituary noted that he was part of the group that rescued William “Jerry” Henry in October 1851. The first direct evidence that we have of Duvall’s Underground Railroad involvement comes from a reply to a letter form Slocum Howland in October 1851, just after the rescue of Jerry Henry. Howland had apparently written asking if Duvall could hide and, if necessary, defend a family of freedom seekers. Herman and Hannah Phillips and their four children, freedom seekers from Maryland, were living in Sherwood, New York, fearful of recapture under the Fugitive Slave Act. After having once gone to Canada, --- 23. “New York Inhabitants of Port Byron. Petition of William O. Duvall & Others. Receive petitions or dissolve the Union.” National Archives and Records Administration, HR 27A-H1.7. 24. National Archives and Records Administration, Senate 31A. January 16, 1850. Tabled. 25. “A Cayuga County Pioneer and Reformer Gone to His Rest,” Detroit Post and Tribune, n.d., Cayuga Museum. Found by Mike Riley. they were considering flight a second time. Duvall’s letter revealed his willingness to stop at nothing to protect people from slavery: October 16, 1851 Respected Friend Howland: Morning of the 14th, just received and hasten to answer it. It strikes me I would not go to Canada. The winter will soon be upon us. And doubly there are more there now that can maintain themselves with any degree of comfort. If he were to come to my place I would protect him to the last drop of blood in my veins, and I think that our location is such that it would be hard to get him. My own opinion is that he and his family will be safe here and I will give him employment. If he is a fugitive slave, of course, he is not without a good, loaded revolver and ? constantly in his pocket. If he has not these weapons let him sell his coat and get them forthwith, and then in case of an arrest let him defend himself like a man who loves freedom better than life even though the blood flows to the horse bits. Friend Slocum, you know my location and its facilities for escape if necessary, and the pretty healthy sentiment here about on the subject if you and him think it a good plan, fetch him out and I will do the best I can. Every and Truly Yours, W. O. Duvall Duvall continued his antislavery activism in other ways, too. In the 1850s, he began to send regular contributions of both money and writings to *Frederick Douglass’ Paper.* Although in 1839, Duvall had called himself a nonresistant, by 1851, he began to advocate violent resistance to slavery. In the fall of 1851, when a slave owner was killed while trying to capture a man who was hiding at William Parker’s house in Christiana, Pennsylvania, Duvall rejoiced, wishing that other “miscreant Maryland hell-hounds” could also have been killed. “WHOEVER DIES FOR LIBERTY, LIVES FOREVER,” Duvall asserted. HAYTI, Sept. 28, 1851. FRIEND DOUGLASS: - I admire your leader in the last number of your paper, on the Christiana affair. "Cato, thou reasonest well!" I'll venture the prediction, that the conduct of those truly noble colored people at Parker's will go further in compelling respect for their race, than anything that has occurred in their history, since the settlement of this country. Oh! that the whole posse attending Gorsuch, Ingraham, with his officers and marines, and those miscreant Maryland hell-hounds that prowled about that hitherto peaceful district, armed with rifles, could have shared the same fate! Then would justice have been vindicated in the house of her friends. But, glorious men! Well have you shown "the wealth of your pasture." You have reared for yourselves an enduring monument in the heart of every true lover of liberty, and should this bastard republic succeed in its foul attempt in fastening upon your worthy conduct the crime of treason, heed it not, knowing full well that WHOEVER DIES FOR LIBERTY, LIVES FOREVER. --- 26 W.O. Duvall to Slocum Howland, October 16, 1851, Howland Papers, Cornell University. Thanks to James Driscoll, Director, Queens Historical Society, for finding this, and to Joseph McCaffery for suggesting its connection to the Herman and Hannah Phillips family. 27 *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, December 4, 1851; January 21, 1853; February 10, 1854, recorded monetary contributions. 28 W.O. Duvall to Gerrit Smith, Farmington, December 9, 1839, Smith Papers, Syracuse University; W.O. Duvall, Hayti, September 28, 1851, printed in *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, October 2, 1851. Yours for the right, W.O. Duvall A few months later, Duvall continued his tirade. I see it stated in the papers that the lives of those kidnappers were saved by Hannaway and his white companions. I trust this is not true - but if true, the white men deserve to be convicted of Treason. Had the worthless carcasses of all those hell-hounds been left dead upon the field, it would have cost neither individuals nor the State one farthing more. Slavery has done her best, and I deeply regret that Liberty has deprived her of but one man. W.O. Duvall HAYTI, Jan. 25, 1852\(^{29}\) With other abolitionists, Duvall despised the American Colonization Society. Organized in 1817, the ACS was designed to free people from slavery and send them to the colony of Liberia, on the west coast of Africa. Few free people of color wanted to leave the United States, where they had been born and raised, however, to go to a country which was completely strange to them, and the American Colonization Society found few friends among either African Americans or their allies. Certainly, W.O. Duvall was no supporter. When Washington Hunt, newly-elected Governor of New York State, came out in support of the ACS, Duvall, writing from his farm in Hayti, Port Byron, urged that “the whole litter of these be blasted and accursed”: This, then, is the order of the day. By persecution from the haggard, traitorous Webster, and all his pampered political menials, these suffering people are to be driven to the pestilential shores of Africa, or the ports of Canada, there to starvingly meditate upon the beauties of christianity as exemplified in the stealing and enslaving their ancestors by the very fathers of the villains now waging this exterminating war. May the whole litter of these be blasted and accursed!\(^{30}\) In 1853, Duvall continued his attack. The infernal scheme, with all its black-hearted politicians, and white-livered, saunyed [?] priests, should be blown to the devil. - Allow this lying, hypocritical nation to succeed in expatriating those kind, docile, suffering, forbearing, and forgiving colored people from the land of their birth, where, many of them, and their fathers before them, shed their hearts' blood in defence of the freedom which we boast of and enjoy - and nothing short of orthodox hell should be our doom. Nor can I conceive how any mind, with any true conception of the dignity of manhood, could consent to anything less. Yours for truth, W.O. Duvall\(^{31}\) By 1856, the Whig Party had broken up, and former Whigs, along with many former Liberty Party men and some antislavery Democrats, had coalesced into the new Republican Party. Some radical abolitionists, a remnant of the old Liberty League, found the Republican Party too compromising on abolitionism, however. This group included Gerrit Smith, James C. Jackson, Lewis Tappan, William Goddell, Beriah Green, and Frederick Douglass. They met in the National Abolition Convention at Syracuse, New York, in the spring 1856. W.O. Duvall took an active part in this convention, speaking and serving on the finance \(^{29}\)W.O. Duvall, January 25, 1852, printed in *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, February 12, 1852. \(^{30}\)W.O. Duvall, January 25, 1852, printed in *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, February 12, 1852. \(^{31}\)W.O. Duvall to *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, April 8, 1853. committee. In May, W.O. Duvall wrote to the *National Era*, urging voters in New York State to support temperance and abolitionism and vote for Gerrit Smith: PORT BYRON, CAYUGA, CO., N.Y.. May 10, 1856. To the Editor of the National Era: I am pained at the prospect of the Republic party. Should the leaders thereof take up some new, untried man as its standard-bearer at the coming election, nothing can or should save it from overwhelming defeat. We must have those who live Anti-Slavery, whether they talk in Congress and Conventions or not. Owing to weak and wicked leaders ignoring the Temperance cause last fall, the Republican ticket was lost, and this State was given to the Goths. Thousands of old and tried men, disgusted with the utter want of backbone, quietly staid at home, and allowed the matter to go by default, preferring the chance of bold, bare-faced infamy overleaping itself, than half-way, milk-and-water reformation. The year before, when the Whig party wheeled into line, by adopting fully Anti-Slavery and Temperance, the whole ticket was carried triumphantly, and that most excellent man, Myron Holley Clark was elected Governor, notwithstanding tens of thousands of Temperance men were seduced into the support of one Daniel Ullman, of Hindoo memory. The same result, with increased majorities, awaited the Republican ticket last year, and was only defeated by the weakness or wickedness of its leaders. I think I perceive symptoms of a similar fate in this great National party now being engineered into existence at Washington. If our wise men there suppose that the swindling policy of the old parties—that of taking some man against whom nothing can be said, for the simple reason that of whom nothing is known—can succeed, they will pardon a very humble individual for assuring them of their great mistake. The person who receives the suffrages of the good men of this State must be one well known and read for men. No man can carry this State upon the strength of Republican party principles, for they are considered not only as small potatoes, but exceedingly few in the hill. The leaders of the party do not want the people to know it, but, as true as you live, my dear sir, a large proportion of the voters of this State is thoroughly indoctrinated with the constitutional construction of that purely good man and wise statesman, Gerrit Smith, who, for any high office, could receive more votes to-day than any man in the States of New York. There is a clear majority of voters in this State determined that Anti-Slavery and Temperance shall go hand in hand; and if our leading politicians can be prevailed upon to be honest enough to select good and strong men with these principles, the State is triumphantly ours—otherwise not, most emphatically. And, if nothing more than on the score of economy, this should be done. What a world of trouble it would save them in this little matter of enlightening the country with the causes of their defeat, carefully keeping out of view, in the mean time, the true and only cause thereof, to wit, their own folly. Yours sincerely, W.O. Duvall By 1860, W.O. Duvall was 52 years old, a farmer with land worth $4200 and personal property worth $1000. His wife, Eliza, was 51, keeping house. Their four children were still at home. Catherine E. was 21, a school teacher; Henry C. was 23, a farmer; William O., Jr. was 19, a farmer; and Laura T. was 17. Their family, however, would soon break apart. When the Civil War broke out, Duvall’s son, W.O. Duvall 3rd. --- 32 *National Era*, June 26, 1856. 33 *National Era*, May 22, 1856. joined Battery A, 3rd Regiment, L Artillery but died of an accidental gunshot wound on September 26, 1866. Unable to keep his farm because of severe rheumatism, Duvall spent his later years in poverty, partly on Brentwood, Long Island, and then in Detroit, Michigan, with his daughter. Duvall carried on a lengthy correspondence with Gerrit Smith, beginning in 1839. This grew more extensive in Duvall’s later years and continued to reflect his radicalism on issues of equality for free blacks and women. It ended only with Smith’s death. His last letter to Smith reflected his continued brilliance of mind, his humor, and his continued concern for the world, writing a poem on his rheumatism, asking what Smith thought of the Susan B. Anthony trial, chiding Smith for not being radical enough on woman suffrage. Duvall died August 8, 1882, in Detroit and was buried in Woodmere Cemetery. His obituary noted that Mr. Duvall was a tall, well-proportioned, athletic, stalwart man, brave and fearless, and endowed with rare intellectual powers. He was an extensive reader and had a most retentive memory, and could always use to great advantage his varied store of knowledge. He possessed indomitable will power and was a force not easily resisted. He was one of the Jerry fugitive slave rescuers in Syracuse in 1852. He was just the man for such an emergency, and the “underground railway” had few more brave, daring or safer engineers. He lived for many years on a beautiful island farm north of Auburn, near Port Byron, NY and was intimately acquainted with Wm. H. Seward, and well associated with all the prominent anti-slavery workers of the day. His farm was stocked with the choicest fruits, the near woods with an abundance of game, the surrounding rivers abounded with fowl and with fish. He was a man of remarkable, social and convivial qualities and large hearted and generous to a fault, and his pretty “Island Home” known far and near as “Hayti”, was the resort of the worn and weary reformers from all parts of the country. Here they always found a most cordial and hearty welcome and a most generous hospitality, a restful, refreshing and joyous retreat. Those who knew him can never forget William O. Duval. Peace to his slumbering ashes. Thanks to Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian; Michael Riley, Historian, Town of Mentz; Penney Helzer, Historian, Port Byron; James Driscoll, Director, Queens Historical Society; and Tanya Warren, Project Researcher, for research assistance. --- 34 At his death in 1847, W.O. Duvall, Sr., had willed his farm to his grandchildren, and W.O. Duvall 3rd’s will included massive amounts of farm equipment. Thanks to Mike Riley and Tanya Warren for information about W.O. Duvall 3rd. 35 W.O. Duvall to Gerrit Smith, June 19, 1873, Smith Papers, Syracuse University. 36 “A Cayuga County Pioneer and Reformer Gone to His Rest,” *Detroit Post and Tribune*, n.d., Cayuga Museum. Found by Mike Riley. A Cayuga County Pioneer and Reformer Gone to His Rest.\textsuperscript{37} From the \textit{Detroit Post and Tribune}, n.d. William O. Duvall, Esq., formerly and for many years a resident of Cayuga County, NY, and extensively known through the western and eastern part of the Empire State as one of the earliest, most prominent and earnest supporters of the temperance and anti-slavery reforms, died on the morning of August 8, 1882, at St. Luke’s Hospital in Detroit, after many years of intense suffering from acute rheumatism. His remains were deposited for the present in a retired and lovely spot in the beautiful Woodmere Cemetery, near a charming little lake, a short distance out of this city. Mr. Duvall was born in the town of Mentz, Cayuga County, near Auburn, NY, in the year 1807, and was 75 at the time of his death. He leaves a son and two daughters, Mrs. Joseph Hadger of this city being one of the latter, his wife died some years ago. Mr. Duvall was a tall, well-proportioned, athletic, stalwart man, brave and fearless, and endowed with rare intellectual powers. He was an extensive reader and had a most retentive memory, and could always use to great advantage his varied store of knowledge. He possessed indomitable will power and was a force not easily resisted. He was one of the Jerry fugitive slave rescuers in Syracuse in 1852. He was just the man for such an emergency, and the “underground railway” had few more brave, daring or safer engineers. He lived for many years on a beautiful island farm north of Auburn, near Port Byron, NY and was intimately acquainted with Wm. H. Seward, and well associated with all the prominent anti-slavery workers of the day. His farm was stocked with the choicest fruits, the near woods with an abundance of game, the surrounding rivers abounded with fowl and with fish. He was a man of remarkable, social and convivial qualities and large hearted and generous to a fault, and his pretty “Island Home” known far and near as “Hayti”, was the resort of the worn and weary reformers from all parts of the country. Here they always found a most cordial and hearty welcome and a most generous hospitality, a restful, refreshing and joyous retreat. Those who knew him can never forget William O. Duvall. Peace to his slumbering ashes. The following is a fitting and beautiful tribute to the heroic chieftain and his beautiful and hospitable “Island Home” by E. H. Coggins: Chieftain of the lone green isle- Still upon my heart is wrought Orville’s name and Orville’s smile, Though perchance he knew it not. Still before my vision gleams Those wild and solitary streams: Seneca’s elm shaded foam, Fair Owasco’s diamond tide, That around thy distant home In their peaceful beauty glide Where the water lilies blow, Some of gold and some of snow The fringe of sheltering green below; When our paddle crushed the gems Fragrance floated from their stems And the startled wild duck flew Swiftly from our stranger view. Lovely children, do ye seek For “Indian darts” along the shore? And do ye ever think or speak \textsuperscript{37} Cayuga County Museum. Thanks to Mike Riley for finding this. Of him who strolled with you the island o’er, But who may never know such hours Again among your woodland flowers! “When shall we three meet again?” Who floated in the old canoe, Singing Liberty songs amain, Until our gaily chanted strain Died along the lighted blue. Boding thoughts forewarn me never; But though far from you I wander Grateful, sincerely, ever, On your kindness I will ponder. Island Chieftain, ever blest, Be the spot where thou dost rest The Lording on his breast may wear The regal star, for gold may win it: On thine ’tis true no stars appear, But nobleness abides within it; And for thee, and such as thee, “Nature’s true nobility”, Shall the glorious title be. Detroit, August 11, 1882 Port Byron Hotel Port Byron, New York Town of Mentz Significance: African American workplace, Owned by abolitionist and Underground Railroad sympathizer Description: Standing at the center of the village of Port Byron, at the intersection of five main roads, this hotel is a brick, square Greek Revival building, with a wide frieze all around, small frieze windows on the size, a double portico with four Doric columns across the front, and a small cupola. A frame addition with Gothic details, including board and batten siding, extends to the rear (north). Significance: The Port Byron Hotel, once called the National Hotel, represents the many public places in Cayuga County where African American men and women, many of them freedom seekers, worked on a daily basis, as an integral part of the life of the whole community. Port Byron was one of Cayuga County’s abolitionist hotspots. Of the many sites once identified with abolitionism in this village, only this inn, along with W.O. Duvall’s home on the Seneca River, has so far been identified as a standing site. As early as October 20 1849, Richard Dyer indicated his antislavery sympathies when “R. Dyer” signed a petition to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, arguing that the Constitution was an antislavery document.\(^{38}\) In 1855, for $500, Richard Dyer bought this brick inn from Phebe Lamkin, widow of Harry Lamkin.\(^{39}\) In June of that year, the census taker recorded two African Americans living with Richard Dyer, “hotelkeeper.” John Stewart was listed as mulatto, thirty years old, a servant, born in Maryland, who had been living in the town of Mentz for four years. Mary Stewart, presumably his wife, was twenty-three years old, born and raised in in Cayuga County. Four years later, John B. Stewart still lived at the hotel, but without his wife. This time, he listed his occupation as a waiter, his birthplace as New York, and his age as thirty-five. A second African American, William Powell, also lived at the hotel, born in New York, working as a porter, also age thirty-five. In 1865, John Stewart listed himself as a barber, age 35, born in Virginia, living with his wife Jane Ann, age 37, born in Cayuga County. Now John Stewart was the owner of land, and the family lived in a separate household, outside the hotel. The fact that John Stewart identified his birthplace in several different census records as Maryland, New York, and Virginia suggests strongly that he may have been a freedom seeker himself who arrived in New York State just after passage of the Fugitive Slave Act. The fact that Richard Dyer hired John Stewart, quite likely knowing of his status, marks Richard Dyer as an abolitionist sympathizer and as a co-conspirator against the Fugitive Slave Law.\(^{40}\) By 1870, Peter Jenkins, age 53, born in New York, was listed as living in the “Port Byron Hotel.” Whether this was Richard Dyer’s hotel or another one, owned by J.R. Howard, a subscriber to the abolitionist newspaper, the *Liberator*, we do not know.\(^{41}\) A 1916 deed from Belle J. Scott to Elizabeth T. Orlando for an adjoining lot referred to “R. Dyer’s Inn (brick part) and also to A.M. Green’s. Archibald Green and his sister, Cassandra Green Hamblin (or Hamlin), along with Green’s business partner, Nathan Marble, were at the core of a very active abolitionist network centered in Port Byron, which also included B. B. Clapp and W. O. Duvall. This hotel may have been part of that network. In 1840, William O. Duvall, who lived on a marshy point in the Seneca River near the village of Port Byron, reported that “a venerable deacon in the pro-slavery Presbyterian Ch. in the place, came out boldly & manfully for the first time in favor of immediate emancipation.” Frederick Douglas spoke in the Port Byron Methodist Church (no longer standing). In 1848, 1850, and 1855, Cassandra Green Hamlin organized Port Byron women to work with women in Rochester on antislavery fairs. They gave “a box of useful and fancy goods” to this meeting. In 1849, \(^{38}\) National Archives and Records Administration, Sen 31A-J7.81. \(^{39}\) Deed Book 90, page 78, March 30, 1855. \(^{40}\) Census records, 1855, 1860, 1865, 1870, online through Cayuga County Historian’s Office and Cayuga County GenWebsite. \(^{41}\) Howard’s status as a subscriber to the *Liberator* was identified through the *Liberator* subscription list, Boston Public Library, and by Michael Riley, Town Historian of Mentz, and his careful detective work in reading the very difficult handwriting on this list. Cassandra Hamlin also worked on a committee with women from Farmington, Ontario County, to raise funds to educate young people recently escaped from slavery, among them the Edmondson sisters, whose rescue from slavery after being captured on the *Pearl* in 1848 energized abolitionists all over upstate New York. Cassandra Hamlin later married J. C. Hathaway of Farmington. Her brother, Archibald Green, worked with William Henry Seward on antislavery politics in the Whig Party.\textsuperscript{42} \textsuperscript{42} *Friend of Man*, April 1, 1840; Frederick Douglass’ *Paper*, October 26, 1849; July 29 1853, December 23, 1853; *North Star*, January 14, 1848, September 1, 1848; March 15, 1850; January 19, 1855. Several letters from Green to Seward, Seward Papers, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester. Thanks to Charles Lenhart for information about the Green-Hamlin family genealogy. The Greens were original from Sennett and may have been affiliated with what is now the Sennett Federated Church. Sennett Federated Church and Parsonage Weedsport-Sennett Road Sennett, New York Significance: Site of major Underground Railroad stop Looking North March 25, 2005 Paul Malo, Photographer Description: Now occupied by the Sennett Federated Church (created in 1929 by the combined memberships of the Congregational and Baptist churches in Sennett), this church building was constructed in 1848 for the Congregational Church of Sennett for $3269.00 by Edward Munson and James M. Servis, with help from Baptist Dr. C.C. Curtiss, Jr. The original contract now hangs on the wall of the library in the church. The building probably incorporates part of the 1820 church building, perhaps as part of the library itself. According to the church minutes, the parsonage next door was built in 1818 or shortly thereafter as a frame structure, 16 feet x 24 feet. This original building was perhaps included in the west wing of the current gable-and-wing Greek Revival structure. In the twentieth century, a second story was added to the wing. Both church and parsonage retain their original locations and their original function. Both retain their integrity of design, setting, feeling, and association. In 1799, the Sennett Baptist Church was organized as the Third Baptist Church of Aurelius, and two years later, the Cayuga Baptist Association organized in the barn of Sennett Baptist Ebenezer Healy, whose son later became an active abolitionist and possible Underground Railroad activist. In 1805, the First Congregational Church of Brutus was organized, which became the Congregational Church of Sennett after Brutus and Sennett became separate townships. On Tuesday, March 11, 1817, the Congregational Society voted that Ira Hopkins, E.B. Fellows, and Moses Robinson be a committee “For the purpose of Circulating a subscription paper for the purpose of Raising Money to Purchase a Parsonage for the use and Benefit of Sd. Society.” On October 1, 1818, they voted “that we build a House for Said Society on the Persanage of Sd. Society 24 by 16 feet and to be framed House.” No mention was made of a meeting house itself until 1821, when the society first noted they “convened at the Meeting House in Said Society on the 13th of November at 1 O clock P.M. 1821” and voted that Zalman Hanford be given “keeping of the Key to the Meeting House.” The Society made no further mention of physical buildings until January 24, 1828, when they resolved “that any of the Members of this Society shall have a right to build horse sheds on the South and West line of the Society ground near the Meeting house” and “that the sheds now building by Luther Bassett and Elias Cady Shall be prised at ten Dollars each and if any person bids higher than the Sum, the overplus shall be deposited in the Societies fund for the benefit of the Society.” At their annual meeting on January 9, 1833, they made another reference to the horse sheds when they resolved “that any member of the Society shall be privileged to build sheds on the boundaries of the Societies lot provided they do not place them in a situation to interfere in any way with the use of those which are now built.” No record of the location of these horse sheds now exists. In 1848, under the pastorate of Rev. Charles Anderson, the congregation decided to build a new church. On April 8, 1848, two men representing the church—Jacob Sheldon, Clerk, and Dr. C.C. Cady, 2d—signed a contract with Edward Munson and James M. Servis, builders. Munson and Servis agreed to “make erect build and finish in a good substantial & workmanlike manner on the meeting house lot of the said party, of the first part, a meeting house & Lecture room, agreeable to the draft plan & explanation, hereunto annexed, of good & substantial materials . . . The meeting house to be finished by the 1st day of February next and said Lecture room to be finished by the 1st day of October next . . . $3269.00 in four equal installments. . . with the understanding that so much of said old meeting house may be used in the new one as will answer the specifications.” While Munson and Servis’s “draft plan and explanation” did not survive, we can guess that they turned to one of the most popular contemporary architects’ and builders’ guides for their Greek Revival design. Asher Benjamin’s *The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter*, first appeared in 1830 (one of many guides published by Benjamin, beginning in 1797) but was subsequently --- 43 Elliot G. Storke, *History of Cayuga County, New York* (Syracuse: D. Mason, 1879), 345-46. 44 Congregational Church of Sennett, “A Record of the Proceedings of the First Congregational Society of Brutus.” Beginning September 3, 1805, [http://www.rootsweb.com/~nycayuga/church/1stcongress_proceedings.htm](http://www.rootsweb.com/~nycayuga/church/1stcongress_proceedings.htm). The following quotations also come from this source. 45 Contract. Library, Sennett Federated Church. published in 1844 by L. Coffin, Boston, and again in 1850 by Benjamin B. Mussey, Boston. Munson and Servis would probably have been using the L. Coffin edition of 1844. Plate IV and Plate VI both give detailed drawings for columns and architrave in the Doric order.\textsuperscript{46} Plate VI. Asher Benjamin, \textit{The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter} (Boston: L. Coffin, 1844), reprint (Boston: Dover, 1988). It is possible that the builders incorporated part of the 1820 church into the “lecture room” and that this is now the church library, whose walls are more than a foot thick, suggesting the possibility that this section of the building is post-and-beam construction covered by wall board. When the congregation dedicated their new church building in January 1849, they must have been very pleased. It was a frame building, built on a stone foundation, but it was no simple wooden box. It was a true work of art. Edward Munson and James M. Servis created an especially fine local example of high-style Greek Revival architecture. Two fluted Doric columns highlighted the portico, flanked by two pilasters on each side, with a simplified architrave that framed a recessed doorway. Columns and pilasters led people to look toward upward, where the steeple pointed toward heaven. Rather than emphasizing the slope of the roof, as many builders would do with a pedimented roofline, these contractors used a parapet to form a base for the tower. Sennett Federated Church Façade, looking North, November 2004 \textsuperscript{46} Reprinted (Boston: Dover, 1988). Asher Benjamin’s first published architectural work was \textit{The Country Builder’s Assistant} (1797), which was also the first original architectural book published in the U.S. He followed this with \textit{The American Builder’s Companion} (1806), \textit{The Rudiments of Architecture} (1814), \textit{The Practical House Carpenter} (1830), \textit{The Practice of Architecture} (1935), \textit{The Builder’s Guide} (1839)), and \textit{The Elements of Architecture} (1843). These were published in several editions, making forty-four in all. William Morgan, introduction to reprint of Dover edition of \textit{American Builder’s Companion} (Boston: Dover, 1988), vi-vii. Marcellus Presbyterian Church façade. http://www.rcpp.presbychurch.org/pyp/ny/ny073.jpg Stained glass windows were added in the twentieth century, including one in the foyer to honor Rev. Charles Anderson. The fellowship hall was expanded in 1948-49. Vinyl siding was added over the original clapboards in the 1990s. At some point, the shutters were removed. Otherwise, the church retains its original form, location, and primary features.\footnote{Sennett Sesquicentennial, September 11\textsuperscript{th}, 1949. Thanks to Sheila Tucker for finding this.} The parsonage next door, built about 1818 as a small 16 x 24 foot building, was enlarged in the mid-nineteenth century into a typical Greek Revival gable-and-wing building, perhaps incorporating the original smaller house as the west wing. Newspaper article, n.d. Significance: Before the Civil War, both Congregationalists and Baptists in Sennett were committed abolitionists, passing antislavery resolutions and supporting Underground Railroad activities. Rev. Charles Anderson, pastor of the Congregational Church, and his wife, Elizabeth Anderson, hosted freedom seekers in the parsonage next door to this church. Through records kept by William Still and the Vigilance Committee in Philadelphia, we have detailed documentation for four freedom seekers who lived in Sennett, including Harriet Eglin, who wrote three letters from her home in the parsonage. Through other sources, we have names of ten more African Americans in Sennett who were most likely freedom seekers and eight European American families who may have been Underground Railroad activists. The work of these congregations illustrates the importance of religious values in sustaining abolitionist action and the commitment of this whole community, supported by the interdenominational work of these two churches, to Underground Railroad activity. Abolitionist and Underground Railroad action in Sennett churches took place in the context of national debate that split apart several denominations. In Sennett, both Baptists and Congregationalists initiated formal debates about abolitionism in the early 1840s. In 1842, the Baptist Church of Sennett “at our regular Church Meeting in April last,” “voted that we adopt the following resolutions respecting Slavery, and that we send them to the Baptist register & Christian Reflector for publication”: Whereas we believe the system of slavery to be a sin of the most aggravated character and believing that sufficient light and truth has in the providence of God been presented to the conscience of every intelligent mind of the enormity of this crime, and knowing as we do that this sin is practiced by a portion of the professed Church of Christ we do as a distinct portion of this great compact, solemnly and we trust prayerfully deem it our duty to pass the following resolution Resolved that we have no fellowship for the System of Slavery nor for any engaged in the traffick in any way, or any attempting to justify the practice of this enormous crime. [spelling in original] In 1844, the Congregationalists, too, passed an antislavery resolution. They had first considered this issue in 1840, when Deacon Stone accused the minister and the congregation of worshipping “the goddess of sectarianism and slavery.” The church threw out Deacon Stone and deferred the debate. Then came a new preacher. Charles Anderson was born in Schenectady, New York, on August 8, 1812, son of a Presbyterian minister from Scotland. He graduated from Union College in 1840 and then went to Auburn Theological Seminary. He arrived in Sennett in 1842 as a student. The congregation liked him so well that when he graduated the following year, they called him to be their regular pastor. He was ordained on November 14, 1843, and he remained until 1864. It is probably no accident that just over two months later, on January 31, 1844, the church adopted its first antislavery resolution: --- 48 Microfilm of manuscript Baptist Church Records, October 22, 184[2], Cayuga County Historian’s Office. 49 Church records, as transcribed by Sheila Tucker; Obituary for Rev. Charles Anderson, *Auburn Daily Advertiser*, January 4, 1900; “Graduates and Students Auburn Theological Seminary,” *General Biographical Catalogue of Auburn Theological Seminary, 1818-1918* (Auburn: Auburn Seminary Press, 1918), 85 Whereas, we the members of the first Congregational Church in Sennett, believing the system of slavery to be a great sin against God and man,—& that all men are in duty bound to lift their voice against it, but especially the church of Jesus Christ, that the blood of the slave or slaveholder, may not be found in their skirts at the day of Judgment—and as it is the practice of many churches in our land to hold & thus perpetuate the system of Slavery— Therefore resolved—1st That we will not in any way support slavery, nor will we invite any individual that is a slaveholder or an advocate of the system to preach in our pulpit— 2nd That we will not receive into our communion a slave holder—or an apologist for slavery—nor will we invite one to sit with us at the table of the Lord. 3rd That we heartily disapprove the course of those ministers or laymen who attempt to prove slavery right by the bible. 4th That in our opinion it is the duty of the church to testify against this heaven-daring iniquity, & by every means in her power to wash her hands clean from the pollution & guilt of slavery. 5th That these proceedings be published in the Northern Advocate—New York Evangelist, & New York Observer. The moderator for this session? None other than Rev. Charles Anderson, the new pastor. Passage of the Fugitive Slave Law did nothing to deter people in Sennett from working on the Underground Railroad. On November 27, 1851, Rev. Anderson, pastor of the Congregational Church, preached a Thanksgiving Day sermon in the Baptist Church, using Psalms 32:12 as a text: “Blessed is the national whose God is the Lord.” He concluded with “a few reflections.” Among them was an explicit reference to the Fugitive Slave Law: As members of the nation, we cannot fail to see how desirable it is that we, in common with all the nations of the world, choose the Lord for our God. Then, my dear hearers, would we be a blessed nation . . . Our rulers would not then be as, alas, too many of them now are, among the vilest of earth's inhabitants: then would oppression, with its untold enormities, be unknown; the cry of the poor slave would be unheard: the panting fugitive fleeing for liberty, would not from day to day be witnessed in our streets, followed by the bloodhounds of a pro-slavery government eager to devour or carry them back into the hell of slavery from which they had escaped; then would not our Senators and Representatives conspire together to frame mischief by a law, which future ages will hold up to unutterable execration and eternal abhorrence. A law sanctioned by the President of these United States, and his Cabinet. A law sustained by many of the so-called ministers of Christ, and by multitudes professing his name. A law which tramples under its unhallowed feet, God's law, containing the principles of eternal rectitude and justice. A law which overrides and crushes the poor and the needy in the dust, and seeks to obliterate forever, the moral image of Jehovah. But it was not enough to condemn this law. Rev. Anderson asked each person to consider “the vast importance of doing what we can, individually and collectively, to hasten that day when the nation shall choose the Lord to be its God. [italics in original.] Every being in God's universe is not only possessed of influence, but is actually exerting it, and it is a matter of no small moment to each of us, how we exert our influence. God has given to each member of this republic, the power of doing something towards hastening on the time when our land shall be what it ought to --- 50 Microfilm of manuscript Congregational Church Records, January 31, 1844, Cayuga County Historian’s Office. be.” He concluded “That it is a time when we are loudly called upon to be up and doing is certain; and the question for each to settle is, am I ready, willing, and determined to do what I can to put this nation in such a condition as that the Lord can and will bless us. . . . Then rest assured, our land will be Immanuel’s land, a mountain of holiness, and a dwelling-place for God. Then will the voice of Jehovah, be heard, saying to us, Rejoice and be glad, oh land, for the Lord will do great things; then shall we be that happy people, that blessed nation, whose God is the Lord.” In the context of slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law, some of his hearers may well have used Rev. Anderson’s words to strengthen their resolve to work on the Underground Railroad. It seems clear from his actions that Rev. Anderson himself did so. At some time during this period, he became not only an abolitionist but also an active worker on the Underground Railroad. According to his obituary, “so great an interest did he take in the Southern slave that his home in Sennett, while he was a pastor of a congregation there was made one of the underground stations for runaway bondsmen and much of his time was occupied in caring for the fugitives.” On September 9, 1844, Reverend Anderson had married Elizabeth L. Clary of Throopsville. Much of Elizabeth Anderson’s time, as well, must have been spent in this work. John Mason Healy, noted in one local history as “a consistent and firm friend of the freedom of the slaves,” may also have been involved in the Underground Railroad in Sennett. He was “a liberal contributor to the church,” probably the Baptist church, since his father, Ebenezer Healy was a deacon in the Baptist church. In fact, the regional Baptist Association had been formed in the Healy barn in 1801. Other local supporters of the Underground Railroad may have included John B. Benham, Ezra Brigham, Levi Hill, Philip Lockwood, Joel Meriman, Norman Strong, William Webster (who appeared in Congregational Church records as a member of that church), and Alanson White. According to state and federal census records between 1850 and 1870, all of these men had African Americans working as servants, laborers, or farm laborers, and several of these African Americans listed their birthplaces as Maryland, Africa, or the West Indies. Through census records, we also know the names of several African Americans who were probably freedom seekers who came to Sennett. In 1850, Charlotte Mathias, age 14, born in Africa, was living with the family of John Benham. Peter and Dinah Silver, aged 54 and 42, both born in the West Indies, were living in the Cayuga County poorhouse in Sennett, as they were also in 1855. In the 1855 New York State census, Henry Allen, aged 18, a servant with Joel Meriman, listed his birthplace as Maryland and noted that he had lived in Sennett for six months. Charles Henry, age 20, told the census taker that he was a servant with Levi Hill, a farmer, that he had been born in Maryland, and that he had lived in Sennett for eight months. John Swarts, born --- 51 “A Sermon, Preached at the Baptist Church in Sennett, Nov. 27, 1851, by the Rev. Charles Anderson,” Frederick Douglass Paper, January 8, 1852. 52 Obituary for Rev. Charles Anderson, Auburn Daily Advertiser, January 4, 1900. 53 Elliot G. Storke, History of Cayuga County, New York (Syracuse: D. Mason, 1879), facing 345. 54 New York State and U.S. census records, 1850, 1855, 1860, 1865, 1870, as compiled by Historical New York Research Associates for Survey of Historic Resources Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn and Cayuga County. Sponsored by the City of Auburn Historic Resources Review Board and the Cayuga County Historian’s Office, online at Cayuga County Rootsweb, http://www.rootsweb.com/~nycayuga/census/afriamer/index.html. in Washington, D.C., was 65 years old and had lived in Sennett three months. In 1860, Samuel Hursey, age 23, was a Maryland-born laborer living with Alanson White. In 1865, Benjamin Jackson, age 52, born in Maryland, was a laborer living with Norman Strong, a farmer. In 1870, Mary and Thomas Savois, both born in Virginia, lived in their own home in Sennett with their one-year-old daughter, Settie.\footnote{http://www.rootsweb.com/~nycayuga/census/afriamer/index.html.} Our most detailed information about freedom seekers in Sennett comes through the printed and manuscript journals of William Still, who kept the main safe house in Philadelphia. In 1872, William Still published \textit{The Underground Railroad: A Record of Facts, Authentic Narratives, Letters, \&c., Narrating the Hardsships, Hair-breadth Escapes and Death Struggles of the Slaves in their Efforst for Freedom, as Related by Themselves and Others, or Witnessed by the Author} (Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1872). This account was based on Still’s own manuscript journals, kept for the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society and available on microfilm from the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Thanks to William Still’s careful records, we know the names of at least four freedom seekers who traveled from Maryland through Philadelphia to Sennett. They are John Cannon (known in slavery as Loudon Davis), who escaped in 1854; Harriet Eglin and her cousin, Charlotte Gildes (who escaped together in the spring of 1856); and Green Murdock. We have extraordinary documentation for two of them, John Cannon and Harriet Eglin. Their testimony hints at the involvement of many members of the Sennett community in giving refuge to freedom seekers. John Cannon, formerly known as Loudon Davis, came from Cedar neck, near Milford, Delaware, escaping in October 1854. For some reason, William Still omitted Cannon’s story from his published book, and it only came to light in 2004 thanks to research by Kate Clifford Larson. In Journal C, Still recorded Cannon’s arrival in the Philadelphia office of the Vigilance Committee on November 2, 1854: \begin{quote} Nov. 2, 54 Arrived - John Cannon - old name Loudon(?) Davis. john is about 21 yrs of age - black. Slender ["slender" is crossed out.] Tall, rather of a round built. Was owned by Wm. Watson, who resided at Cedar Neck, near Milford (Delaware) - from whom John fled the latter part of last August. John left two Bros. & one Sister in slavery. The eldest Bro is named ["named" is crossed out] John Davis, youngest Bro. George Davis - both belong to Thos. Davis - blind man. John left before ['before' crossed out] because he feared that he was to be sold. Besides he had fared badly - had been beaten, starved etc. - John's farther-in-law [sic] Andrew Wilmer Milford. To 2 1/2 days board $1.25 To Cash $2.00.\footnote{Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, Journal C of State No. 2 of the Underground Railroad (Philadelphia, Agent William Still), 1852-1857. Manuscript on microfilm, Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Thanks to Kate Clifford Larson for finding and transcribing this, email to Judith Wellman, December 11, 2004.} \end{quote} We do not know whether John Cannon traveled immediately to Sennett from Philadelphia or where he lived once he reached Sennett. His name did not appear in Cayuga County as an African American in the 1855 New York State census. But we do know, however, that he was safely living in Sennett by 1856 for, as Kate Clifford Larson reported, “tucked into Journal C” was a letter which never appeared in Still’s published book, which John Cannon wrote from Sennett in May 1856: "Sennett - May 19th, 56 Mr. Wm. Still Dear Sir, I take this opportunity of writing you a few lines to let you know that after I left you I got along well. I am now at work where I get twelve dollars per month, probably you have forgot me and to let you know who I am I will state that I came to your house about the 1st of November 1854 in the evening - you will remember that Mr. Blow, who went to New Bedford was there at the same time and that you went with me to one of my acquaintance who assured you that I was a fugitive - his name was Pete Lewis(?) of Lewistown and who was also acquainted with my father and mother - & You took me to George Davis next door to big Wesleyan Church. You recollect that you sent a letter to Lucretia Tilman stating to her that a friend wished to see her & she did not come - Also that I mentioned the name of Jacob Williams whom Jacob Cannon raised - & who made his home at Lucretia Tillman's when I was in Philadelphia - I am well acquainted with Cresey Cannon & Mary Cannon - I need not say anymore to let you know who I am - I wish you would ask Jacob Williams how Mother gets along in Delaware - at a place called Milford. My Mother's name is Grace Windsmore - I wish you would write me as soon as you can after you have got some information about my Mother & friends in Delaware. I am very anxious to hear from my old home - don't neglect to write - I have written a number of letters but have not heard a word from my people - You will recollect that you wrote my name that I bore when at home - Louden Davis - also that I told you I would change my name to John Cannon - this is the name by which I go now - Please do not forget to write me to this place Sennett – Cayuga Co. N.Y. Your Friend - John Cannon" John Cannon surely knew two more freedom seekers who came to Sennett about the time he wrote this letter. Harriet Eglin and her cousin, Charlotte Gildes, arrived in Sennett in June 1856. Their owner, William Applegate, owned a plantation in Dorchester County, Maryland, and a shipyard in Baltimore. With the help of an African American friend, James Adams, they had escaped by dressing in mourning clothes, with heavy veils over their faces, and boarding a train. Applegate, enraged, entered the railroad car looking for his runaways and actually spoke to the two girls. Not recognizing them, he left the train and declared to the conductor that the "two girls in mourning, were not the ones he was looking after." They arrived in Philadelphia, where they passed through the office of the Philadelphia Anti-Slavery Society and met the agent, William Still, who sent them on to Rev. Jermain Loguen in Philadelphia. With his wife, Caroline Storum Loguen, Loguen kept the main safe house in Syracuse, New York. There, reported Harriet, "two gentlemen from this community [Sennett] called and we went with them to work in their families." Harriet Eglin stayed with Rev. Charles Anderson and his wife, Elizabeth Anderson. Charlotte Gildes stayed in Sennett only a week before moving on to Canada, where she found a home near the Suspension Bridge. Harriet Eglin, however, remained in the Anderson home at --- 57 Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, Journal C of State No. 2 of the Underground Railroad (Philadelphia, Agent William Still), 1852-1857. Manuscript on microfilm, Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Thanks to Kate Clifford Larson for finding and transcribing this, email to Judith Wellman, December 11, 2004. 58 William Still, *The Underground Railroad* (Philadelphia, 1872), 221-23. Information on William Applegate from Kate Clifford Larson, November 15, 2004. least through October, and perhaps much longer. With the help of someone (perhaps Elizabeth Anderson), she wrote three letters to William Still about her experience. William Still published these letters in *The Underground Railroad*. From these letters, we learn details about her experience and that of her cousin, Charlotte Gildes. In her first letter, dated June 1856, she reported on her trip through Syracuse and her new home with Revd. Chas. Anderson in Sennett, and she asked that William Still send their clothes to Mr. Loguen so that he could send them on to Sennett. Her second letter, July 31, responded to Still’s inquiry about the “trouble” in Baltimore. Apparently, Charlotte’s letter to her uncle in Baltimore about their clothing had been intercepted, and their owner had learned about how they had escaped. James Adams, who had helped them get on the train, was imprisoned, and William Applegate brought suit against the railroad for assisting the girls to reach Philadelphia. Because, as William Still reported, the “Rail Road Company” had “‘money, power, friends, etc., and coul defy the courts,’” they argued that, since Applegate had boarded the cars and reported that he did not see the girls, they (and therefore also James Adams) won the suit. In her final letter to William Still, dated October 28, 1856, Harriet Eglin wrote that “I am happy to tell you that I am well and happy, I still live with Rev. Mr. Andersen [sic] in this place, I am learning to red and write. I do not like to trouble you too much, but I would like to know if you have heard anything more about my friends in Baltimore who got into trouble on our account. Do be pleased to write me if you can give me any information about them, I feel bad that they should suffer for me. I wish all my brethren and sisters in bondage, were as well off as I am.” She reported that “the girl that came with me [Charlotte Gildes] is in Canada, near the Suspension Bridge.” She also mentioned a fourth man who had fled from slavery and was living in Sennett. “I was glad to see Green Murdock,” she wrote, “a colored young man, who stopped at your house about six weeks ago, he knew my folks at the South. He has got into a good place to work in this neighborhood.” Finally, she inquired about another man, Johnson, “whose foot was smashed by jumping off the cars, he was at your house when I was there.” Testimony from both John Cannon and Harriet Eglin suggests the widespread involvement of people from the Sennett community in Underground Railroad activities. John Cannon and Harriet Eglin were clearly staying with different families. Charlotte Gildes stayed with a third family. Murdock Green stayed with a fourth. If we add the names of those in the 1850-1870 census records who listed their birthplaces as a slave state, we come up with ten more names of possible freedom seekers. We can assume that this is an undercount, since many freedom seekers (or census takers) would report their birthplaces as New York State or their color as white, to protect themselves. Many more might pass through Sennett in between census years and so would never be counted (including perhaps John Cannon, Harriet Eglin, Charlotte Gildes, and Green Murdock.) --- 59 In her second letter to William Still, on July 31, 1856, Harriet Eglin reported that “my Cousin Charlotte who came with me, got into a good place in this vicinity, but she could not content herself to stay here but just one week—she then went to Canada.” In October, Eglin reported that “the girl that came with me is in Canada, near the Suspension Bridge.” Harriet Eglin to William Still, October 28, 1856, William Still, *Underground Railroad*, 223. Her last printed letter to William Still was dated October 18, 1856. 60 William Still, *The Underground Railroad*, 221–223. 61 Harriet Eglin to William Still, October 28, 1856, William Still, *Underground Railroad*, 223. After Rev. Anderson left Sennett in 1864, he served at Union Springs, 1864-68, Savannah 1868-70, Sennett again, 1870-77, Castile, 1877-78, and Sand Beach, 1879-81. Rev. Charles Anderson died on January 4, 1900, at his home on Seward Avenue in Auburn, New York. His obituary noted that “when the shackles of slaves were taken off, the principle desire of his life was the promotion of the cause of Prohibition.” “He lived to see the abolition of slavery; he died believing the cause of Prohibition is surely approaching ultimate victory.” Memories of people born in slavery continue to the present day in Sennett. Doug Riley, a member of the Sennett Federated Church, recalled that, when he was five or six years old, he saw a man called “Nigger Bill,” who was once a slave. He lived in a little house in Miller woods, near Center Street, and worked with Doug Riley’s grandfather, doing odd jobs. He “liked to keep himself concealed. That’s why he slept in the woods. He slept in a horse manger, fifteen feet square. Kept himself unknown, as far as he could.” He probably died about 1925 or 1926 and was buried on the grounds of the poorhouse. The history of the Sennett Federated Church, made up of the former Congregational and Baptist Churches of Sennett, powerfully illustrates the impact of abolitionism on one small community, as these two churches committed themselves to carrying out Christian ideals of equality for all people. Eventually, their antislavery beliefs led them to challenge the power of the federal government itself. Even after the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 levied heavy fines for Underground Railroad activists, people affiliated with these churches openly kept safe houses for African Americans who had escaped from slavery. The story of these churches also illustrates the importance of ecumenical action in this community, as these two congregations worked closely together to promote abolitionism and the Underground Railroad. By the terms of the original building contract, dated April 8, 1848, Edward Munson and James W. Servis agreed to “make erect build and finish in a good substantial & workmanlike manner . . . a meeting house & Lecture room . . . of good & substantial materials . . . with the understanding that so much of said old meeting house may be used in the new one as will answer the specifications.” Munson and Servis did not, however, construct a simple functional box. They created a work of art in the Greek Revival style, reflecting local commitment to relative simplicity and democratic ideals in the Early Republic. At the same time, their use of Greek Revival patterns suggests their awareness of contemporary high-style fashion. They did not reflect traditional building practices but rather articulated influences from the larger culture. Almost certainly, they used designs from Asher Benjamin’s *The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter*, first printed in 1830 and reprinted in Boston in 1844. Benjamin’s influence is particularly noticeable in the Doric columns. From its initial construction, this building illustrates the ecumenical cooperation that existed in Sennett between Baptists and Congregationalists and the resulted in the joining of these two congregations to create the Sennett Federated Church in 1929. The contract was signed by four men, the builders (Munson and Serviss), Jacob Sheldon, Clerk, and C.C. Cady, 2d. Both Curtiss C. Cady and his son, C.C. Cady, Jr. were doctors in Sennett and both were Baptists. The 1879 --- 62 Obituary for Rev. Charles Anderson, *Auburn Daily Advertiser*, January 4, 1900; *Graduates and Students Auburn Theological Seminary* (Auburn, ), 85 63 Recollections of Doug Riley, March 13, 2005. History of Cayuga County, New York noted that Curtiss C. Cady, Sr., was a Baptist “in religious sentiment” “but did not unite with the Church in Sennett. He was a liberal supporter of it, however, and contributed largely of his means to different denominations, in aid of the cause of Christ.” His son, too, “in religious sentiments” was a Baptist, but we do not know whether or not he joined the Baptist Church in Sennett. It was C.C. Cady 2d who signed the building contract for the Congregational Church.\(^{64}\) The builders did their work well. With only minor modifications, the main building retains its original form, tower, and spatial configuration. It has lost its shutters, but original wood clapboards remain under the new vinyl siding. Stained glass windows were put in the church in the twentieth century, and the rear rooms of the church were enlarged in 1948-49.\(^{65}\) The church and parsonage still stand in their original location at the crossroads of this small village, retaining their original feeling and association, surrounded by the homes of nineteenth century church members, a monument to values of equality and democracy in the early Republic. **Conclusion** The Sennett Federated Church and parsonage are important historic resources both because the church is an excellent example of Greek Revival church architecture and because both church and parsonage reflect the experiences of several freedom seekers and their helpers in the Congregational and Baptist churches. Documentation for both abolitionist and Underground Railroad activists is extremely good (especially for the experiences of John Cannon, Harriet Eglin, and Rev. Charles Anderson), relying on church records, census records, and the manuscript journals and 1872 publication, *The Underground Railroad*, of William Still, who kept the main safe house for the Philadelphia Anti-Slavery Society. The church is a fine example of Greek Revival architecture, built by Edward Munson and James M. Servis in 1848. Many, many thanks to Sheila Tucker, who found most of the material relating to Reverend Charles Anderson; to Kate Clifford Larson, who found manuscript material in William Still’s journals relating to Sennet, not printed in *The Underground Railroad*; and to several members of the Sennett Federated Church for research assistance. \(^{64}\) Original manuscript contract hanging in library of Sennett Church. Elliott G. Storke, *History of Cayuga County, New York* (Syracuse: D. Mason, 1879), 344. \(^{65}\) *Sennett Sesquicentennial*, September 11th, 1949. William and Martha Kirk House Sterling Center, New York Town of Sterling Significance: Strong oral tradition that this was a major Underground Railroad safe house February 2005 Looking southwest Description: Located on the west edge of the village of Sterling Center, the William and Martha Kirk house is a large gable-and-wing Greek Revival farmhouse, with multiple wings. At least two other houses labeled “Kirk” appear on the 1853 and 1859 maps of Sterling, but this is that local oral tradition associates with the Underground Railroad. Significance: Local tradition, carried on through William Kirk’s granddaughter Belle M. Kirk-Rea, strongly associates William and Martha Kirk with the local abolitionist Baptist Church in Sterling and with extensive Underground Railroad activity. In 1938, Belle M. Kirk-Rea (1873-1952) wrote to county historian Leonard Searing regarding a proposal to mark her grandfather’s home in Sterling as a station on the Underground Railroad: About a year ago Mr. Walter Long called and asked if I knew of historic places in Sterling which should be marked. Among other places, I mentioned our own, which was a station of the Underground RailRoad, on which my grandfather, William B. Kirk, was an engineer, associated with the leader Frederick Douglass, and with a Mr. John or Johnathan Edwards, Oswego. Mr. Long assured me that this marker could be placed, said he would call sometime during the winter to discuss what statement should be placed on the marker and that by spring it could be set on a large boulder at the entrance of the old lane up which the refugee slaves doubtless crept on the way to the house. By the way that window by which I sit as I write is the one to which they negroes came and tapped and called “Massa. Massa,” to my grandfather. . . . There is very little record of this? but certainly it made history. Frederick Douglas at times stayed in this home when about on his work. Another account by Belle Kirk-Rea was printed in the Sterling Historical Society’s *Tales of Sterling*, courtesy of Raymond Arthur Waldron: As carpenter on a boat, in harbour in New Orleans, Grandfather Willaim B. Kirk saw the Slave market in action there. He came home determined to fight the slave trade. Grandmother was with him. Their home became a station on the Underground Railroad. Fugitive slaves, coming probably from Auburn, crept up the old lane in the dark, tapped on a window, as they had been directed, softly called, “Massa.” They were often taken in, hidden somewhere. I often wonder where. If there was a boat for Canada in harbour at Fair Haven, they were secretly gotten on board. If not they were taken or directed to Mr. John B. Edwards of Oswego who directed the affairs of Gerrit Smith’s office in Oswego. In carrying on this system Mr. Edward represented Gerrit Smith, the great abolitionist who was at one time nominated for the Presidency on the Abolitionist ticket at a party convention held in Oswego’s first City Hall. The John B. Edwards home on East Third Street in Oswego is now on both the National Park Service’s Network to Freedom and the National Register of Historic Places, because of its importance as an Underground Railroad and abolitionist site. Raymond Sant, local historian, noted that Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, as well as Frederick Douglass, stayed in the Kirk home. The Kirks belonged to the abolitionist Baptist Church, although William Kirk’s mother, Martha McCrea Kirk, the first woman school teacher in Sterling, was raised in the Presbyterian Covenanter Church, also strongly abolitionist. They were so thoroughly focused on living their version of a Christian life that they opposed any participation in secular politics. --- 66 Belle M. Kirk to Leonard Searing, December 8, 1938, copy in Cayuga County Historian’s Office. 67 *Post-Herald*, January 19, 2005. 68 Raymond Sant, *Sterling and Fair-Haven* (Waterloo: K-Mar, 1973), 88-89. Belle Kirk-Rea noted that Frederick Douglass stayed at the Kirk home. Archival evidence supports William Kirk’s knowledge of Douglass’s work, because in 1853, Kirk gave $2.00 to *Frederick Douglass’ Paper.* Belle Kirk-Rea also reported that, through her parents’ work for temperance, she was introduced to Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton: When the time came to do something about the liquor traffic, William and Martha were one against it. In joining what was probably the first State Temperance organization, Grandma became associated with Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. At one time when they were guests of hers at her Sterling Centre home, she brought them up across lots to see her youngest sons’ daughter (now Mrs. Belle Kirk-Rea). Miss Stanton sat in Mother’s best rocker and they stood me up in front of her. She talked to me. I don’t recall what she said, but I’ve been an advocate of woman’s rights ever since. Stanton and Anthony were most active in temperance work in the early and mid-1850s. Since Belle Kirk-Rea was born in 1853, she must have been a very small child when this incident occurred. The 1860 U.S. census listed two William Kirks, probably father and son. William Kirk, father, age 58, was a farmer, with real estate worth $1050, married to Martha, age 57, with two daughters, Ellen (age 22) and Rachael (age 20) still at home. Son William Kirk was age 34, a carpenter, with real estate worth $500, married to Cornelia, age 28, and children George (age 4), and Martha (age 2). Belle Kirk-Rea’s parents names are not known. **Further work:** William Kirk’s names was not located on any extant antislavery petitions, nor did his name appear further in *Frederick Douglass’s Paper* or in other references in the Accessible Archives index to African American newspapers. One reference to a William Kirk appeared in the Gerrit Smith papers, but the letter did not refer to abolitionist activities. Local tradition suggests that an obituary for William Kirk gives more details about his antislavery work. --- 69 *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, May 13, 1853. 70 Belle Kirk-Rea, quoted in “Tales of Sterling,” *Post-Herald*, January 19, 2005. Thanks to Joni Lincoln for finding this article. Ormando Willis Gray, *Map of Cayuga County*, 1859. The Kirk house is on the south (right) side of the road leading west out of Sterling Center, toward the bottom of the map. Churches in Sterling Center, New York Town of Sterling Significance: Both Covenanter Church and Baptist Church in Sterling were major abolitionist centers. 610 Site of Covenanter Church February 2005 Sterling Center The Covenanter Church (Presbyterian) in Sterling was an active abolitionist center, located on the northwest corner of the original town square. Raymond Sant, local historian, noted that the national body of this church voted in 1787 to educate people in slavery and to find some “prudent methods for the abolition of slavery as it was contrary to the laws of God and the spirit of Christianity.”\(^{71}\) At some point, the building was either demolished or moved. The Sterling Baptist Church also passed a resolution on November 2, 1844, against slavery: --- \(^{71}\) Raymond Sant, *Sterling-Fair Haven: Where the Trails, Sails and Rails Met on the Shores of Lake Ontario* (Waterloo, N.Y.: K-Mar Press, 1973), 115. We believe human slavery or the degrading of human beings to the condition of chattels is a gross violation of the principles of the Gospels and we withhold our fellowship from those who are guilty of this sin.\textsuperscript{72} Raymond Sant noted that Frederick Douglass spoke in this church. Both churches appeared on Orlando Willis Gray’s \textit{Map of Cayuga and Seneca Counties, New York} (Philadelphia: A.R.Z. Dawson, 1859). Today, no church appears on either site, but a Greek Revival Church now stands on the main road, across from the schoolhouse. Probably this is either the Covenanter Church or the Baptist Church building, moved across the creek from its original site. \begin{figure}[h] \centering \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{image.png} \caption{February 2005\\Sterling Center Church\\Looking NE} \end{figure} \textsuperscript{72} Raymond Sant, \textit{Sterling-Fair Haven}, 115. Orlando Willis Gray’s *Map of Cayuga and Seneca Counties, New York* (Philadelphia: A.R.Z. Dawson, 1859). The Covenanter Church was located at the northeast corner of the town square (top right). The Baptist Church was on the north side of the main road entering the village from the east, the third building on the east (right) of the intersection of the east road of the square with the main road. Isaac Bell House Northeast Corner Route 34 and Rude Street Weedsport, New York Significance: Home of abolitionist and reputed Underground Railroad supporter Photo by Tanya Warren, August 2005 Looking north Description: Five-bay frame Federal house on a slight rise, with six-over-six windows and a remarkable oval window in the gable end. Front door has sidelights and a tripartite fanlight. Significance: Isaac Bell signed an antislavery petition from Weedsport. Local residents report a strong oral tradition that the house was used as a stop on the Underground Railroad. People came on the turnpike to Rude Street and then went on an old road (no longer there) to Hamilton Street, before they cut across Oakland to the Seneca River. From there, they might go west to Port Byron (perhaps to the island home of W.O. Duvall). Local tradition suggests that other local places were also involved with the Underground Railroad, including: 1) Federal house, a mile from Route 31B on East Brutus Street Road at Crossman’s Corners), on the north side of the road to Auburn. 2) house on Route 5, with a basement full of little rooms. 3) a cave off Hamilton St. on Harold Hawley farm. It was behind the house of one of the volunteers at the Brutus Historical Society. Kids used to play in it, so the owner blew it up.\(^{73}\) In 1855, the Town of Brutus (with the village of Weedsport) had 28 African Americans living in it (one percent of the total population of 2807)), more than any other town in Cayuga County except Ledyard (with the village of Aurora), which had 51 African Americans, 2.5 percent of the total population of 1976, Mentz (with the village of Port Byron), which had 48 African Americans, one percent of the total population of 5058, and the City of Auburn (which counted 183 African Americans, two percent of the total population of 9470).\(^{74}\) \(^{73}\) Thanks to Jean Baker, Town of Brutus historian, for collecting these stories. \(^{74}\) *New York State census, 1855* (Albany, 1857). Some of the African Americans in the Town of Brutus may have lived and worked along the canal, especially in the village of Weedsport, where Erie Canal warehouses still stand at 8921 and 8923 Seneca Street, an Erie Canal-era building still stands at 8924 Seneca Street (Old Erie Restaurant), and a pre-Civil War blacksmith shop stands at 8952 Seneca Street. Cayuga County: Central Fleming Van Nest House Genoa Hutchinson House, Northville Northville Presbyterian Church Ledyard Cooper House, Aurora Site of Griger House, Town of Ledyard (See Levanna) Hart House, Aurora Hutchinson House King-Gaskin House Levanna Square Marriott Houses (two), Aurora and Town of Ledyard North Street Friends Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse) Taber House, Barber’s Corners Tate House, Site of, Aurora Youngs House, Aurora Niles Fillmore Boyhood Home, Site of New Hope Mills (Rounds Mills), New Hope New Hope Mills Methodist Church, New Hope Scipio Howland House, Emily, Sherwood Howland House, Slocum and Hannah, Sherwood Howland House, William, Hannah, Isabel (Opendore), Sherwood Howland Stone Store, Sherwood Howland Tenant House, Sherwood Letchworth House, Sherwood Phillips House, Sherwood School House, Sherwood Springport Hart House, Union Springs Van Nest Family Home Route 38 Fleming, New York Significance: Home of family murdered by William Freeman, 1846 George J. Mastin, *Van Nest House*, c. 1846 Property of Fenimore Art Museum, Cooperstown, NY Van Nest House Photograph by Carrie N. Barrett, June 2005 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Van Nest House Photo by Judith Wellman, June 2005 Description: On Route 38 in Fleming, New York, stands a simple frame structure with attached wing. The structure has undergone only minor changes over the years (including adding an Italianate front porch and creating a full two-story wing). A comparison between recent photographs and the 1846 Mastin paintings (now in the collection of the Fenimore Art Museum in Cooperstown, New York) provides evidence of the integrity of the site. Significance: In 1846, this house became famous as the site of one of the most horrific and controversial crimes in the history of New York State, the murder of five members of the Van Nest household by African American William Freeman. The subsequent trial raised issues of race, class, and capital punishment and made legal history when former Governor (and future Senator and Secretary of State) William Henry Seward defended Freeman on the basis of insanity. The events were commemorated by a local artist, George Mastin, in fourteen large murals now located in the Fenimore Art Museum in Cooperstown. On the evening of March 12th, 1846, Freeman entered the Van Nest home at approximately 9:00 p.m. Eight individuals were within the home at the time, including Mr. and Mrs. John G. Van Nest, their three children, Julia, Peter, and George, Mrs. Peter Wykoff and her young great niece, Helen Holmes, and Mr. Cornelius Arsdale. The intruder was named William Freeman, a recently released African American prisoner from Auburn State Prison. This was not the first time he had visited the Van Nest home. According to Helen Holmes, Freeman had inquired after work a week prior but had been turned away. On the evening in question, Freeman had entered the home and first attacked John Van Nest, followed next by Mrs. Van Nest, young George Van Nest, Mrs. Wykoff, and Mr. Arsdale. The brutal savagery of the murders stunned local citizens and created a wave of speculation and mania that encouraged figures like George J. Mastin, a “phrenologist, tailor, storekeeper, and farmer of Genoa, New York”, to capitalize on the popular interest of such macabre events.\(^1\) Under his direction, a number of artists were commissioned to paint fourteen tableaux of “Landscapes, Historical, Scriptural and Tragical Scenes”.\(^2\) *Van Nest House* as illustrated above is one of four paintings dedicated to the Van Nest Murders ranging in size from 8’ x 10’ to 10’ x 14’. William Freeman fled the scene of the murders and was eventually captured in Phoenix, New York on Friday, March 13, and returned to Auburn where he would await trial. Representing his defense was William H. Seward, former governor of New York, and fellow attorneys Christopher Morgan and Samuel Blatchford. On account of several factors, Seward chose to pursue a plea of insanity for his client whom he felt had suffered continued injustice and abuse at the hands of his caretakers throughout his short life. Freeman’s incapacity to articulate himself clearly, incognizance of the events that had transpired, and his apparent delusionary behavior prior to the murders were seemingly indicators of the murderer’s mental illness. On the charge of insanity, William Freeman was found “sufficiently sane in mind and memory to distinguish between right and wrong”.\(^3\) Seward and his colleagues were eventually able to overturn the decision of the court which found Freeman guilty and punishable by death. The accused, however, had no opportunity to present his case before a higher court. William Freeman died in prison August 21, 1847, of numerous conflicting health issues including tuberculosis, paralysis, and loss of hearing and sight. Very little is known of surviving members of the Van Nest Murders. Their story remains untold in the wake of the Freeman trial. Carrie N. Barrett \(^1\) Arpey, Andrew W., *The William Freeman Murder Trial: Insanity, Politics, and Race*, (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003), ix. \(^2\) Ibid, ix. \(^3\) Ibid, 65. Matthias and Hannah Hutchinson House, pre-1835 Northville, New York Significance: Underground Railroad safe house (probably where Herman and Hannah Phillips stayed, 1843) Description: There are at least two houses associated with the Hutchinson family in Cayuga County. This one, located on the west side of Route 34B at the north edge of Northville, is a large three-bay gable-end-to-the-street frame building with a half-oval window in the gable end and large chimney still protruding from the west end of the roof. Local tradition in central Cayuga County associates another house with the Underground Railroad, also owned by the Hutchinson family, later owned by the Heffernan family, located on the west side of Route 34B just north of the Genoa-Ledyard Town line. On the first floor of this house was a removable panel which concealed a small hiding place. In a summer kitchen in back of the house were metal cleats on the wall. These went up to an open attic or down to a storage area. --- 4 Oral tradition passed on by Joan Heffernan, Ithaca, New York; Bradley Mitchell, Aurora, New York. 1875 Atlas of Cayuga County. Significance: Emily Howland, in her “Early History of Quakers in Cayuga County,” reported that Matthias Hutchinson was a Quaker who came to Cayuga County with his parents in 1821. He married Hannah, also a Quaker.\(^5\) In 1843, according to an oral tradition recorded by Jane Searing in the 1930s, Matthias and Hannah Hutchinson cared for Herman and Hannah Phillips and their four children, freedom seekers who had walked all the way from Maryland with their youngest child on their back. Matthias Hutchinson told Herman Phillips that he would take the family the next day to Slocum Howland, a few miles north, in Sherwood, who would be able to help him. Phillips replied that he had had a vision that he was to stay in a place where there was an orchard, a stone store, and a man crossing the road who was to be his friend. And indeed, that is what he found in Sherwood the very next day.\(^6\) In 1843, however, the Hutchinson family was living on the north edge of the village of Northville, in the Town of Genoa, in a house that Matthias had inherited from his father, Thomas Hutchinson. Hutchinson subscribed to William Lloyd Garrison’s newspaper *The Liberator* from this house in King’s Ferry from at least 1844 to 1859. Matthias Hutchinson contributed $2.00 to *Frederick Douglass’ Paper* in 1851, 1852, and 1855.\(^7\) By 1850, Hannah Hutchinson had died. In 1859, Matthias purchased the house on the southeast corner of Lot 92 in Ledyard. --- \(^5\) Emily Howland, “Early History of Friends in Cayuga County, N.Y., Read before the Cayuga County Historical Society, April 8th, 1880,” *Collections of Cayuga County Historical Society*, 2 (1882): 49-90, online through Cayuga County Historian’s Office. \(^6\) Jane Searing, article in vertical file, Hazard Library. \(^7\) *Liberator* subscription list, Boston Public Library; *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, December 25, 1851; December 31, 1852; January 12, 1855. Since he did not move to Ledyard until just two years before the beginning of the Civil War, most of his Underground Railroad work probably took place in the family’s home in Northville (King’s Ferry). Nevertheless, if the family was active in the Underground Railroad, it might make sense that they would incorporate physical hiding places in their new home. Ormando Willis Gray, *Map of Cayuga and Seneca Counties, New York* (Philadelphia: A.R.Z. Dawson, 1859). A warehouse labeled “M. Hutchinson” appeared on the 1859 Cayuga County map in Cayuga Village, at the north end of Cayuga Lake. If Hutchinson was one of those farmer-traders involved in commercial ventures along Cayuga Lake (much like Slocum Howland), he would have been in a good position to give shelter and work to freedom seekers, as well as help them travel north toward Canada. Matthias Hutchinson appeared in the 1860 census but not in the 1870 census. He reappeared in the 1880 census as an 84-year-old widower living as a boarder in another family. No burial place has been found in any cemetery in either Ledyard or Genoa. Research by Joan Heffernan, Bradley Mitchell, Tanya Warren, Carrie Barrett. --- 8 Deeds, Cayuga County Clerk’s Office (deed search by Tanya Warren and Carrie Barrett); U.S. census records, 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880 searched by Tanya Warren. Presbyterian Church, built c. 1847 King Ferry (Northville) Town of Genoa Significance: Abolitionist meetings held here Description: This large frame church stands on the village green of Northville, in a classic village setting. It appears to have a Greek Revival front doorway, although the Florentine windows in its belfry may be a later addition. A letter from H. Collins, abolitionist lecturer to *The North Star* in 1848 noted that the church was “built new last year.” Significance: Northville (King Ferry) in the Town of Genoa, was the site of several abolitionist meetings, supported by the 1850s by this local Presbyterian church and earlier by at least three families—those of Asa Crocker, Joseph Crocker, and Quakers Mathias and Hannah Hutchinson. --- 9 H. Collins to “Dear Friend Douglass,” *The North Star*, January 21, 1848. This Northville Church represents the change in attitude toward abolition of many local Presbyterian churches, including those at Five Corners and Genoa. The Western New York Anti-Slavery Society held at meeting at Northville on February 24-25, 1841. “Let us not forget that there is at work in midst a system which is antagonistical to sound civil and religious liberty, and that it lives and breathes only at the expense of Human Rights. The battle is in, and will be decided: Under which banner then shall we enlist—the pure and peaceful banner of Truth and Freedom, or the dark and blood-stained banner of Tyranny and Oppression?” read the notice, signed by J.C. Hathaway, Chairman, Farmington.\(^{10}\) When antislavery agent H. Collins visited Northville in 1848, the Presbyterian Church, newly built in 1847, was not sympathetic to his cause. Collins wrote to Frederick Douglass from Poplar Ridge on January 6, 1848, Dear Friend Douglass: Events do happen which ought to be told that expose the utter shamelessness of their authors. I have not the vanity, however, to suppose that I can chronicle them in such a manner as to interest your readers. I do often wish that I had the power of giving vent to my indignation, when I have the misfortune to witness what I did yesterday, at Northville, in this county. A Locofoco ex-judge and a Whig Presbyterian deacon were in conversation, on the subject of the Mexican war. The deacon expressed the opinion, unqualifiedly, that the war was justifiable on the part of the United States; and he thought that our “national honor” required that we should prosecute it vigorously, until we compel the Mexicans to pay the expenses of it, and give us an “honorable peace.” Of course, the ex-functionary of state subscribed to all this, and said, further, that we ought to push the matter through, “right or wrong.” church were this patriotic deacon attends was built new last year, and dedicated to the worship of God, and, ato be kept for that prupose only;” and, consequently, is not opened to the friends of the slave. This fact is one of a thousand which show that on the CHURCH rests the responsibility of the iniquities of the land. Let her rottenness be exposed, and let her go down to posterity, hated and despised of all honest men, as she is now of God. Yours, for Truth and Freedom, H. Collins.\(^{11}\) In the meantime, however, individuals continued to be active for abolitionism. Herman and Hannah Phillips stayed with the Hutchinson family in 1843. In September 1850, Northville was on the route of those who spoke on behalf of William Chaplin, held in jail in Maryland for attempting to rescue—in at least the second major national rescue attempt—people from slavery. Those who spoke on this tour included outspoken freedom seekers such as James Baker, from South Carolina, and the Edmondson sisters, whose sage of attempted escape from slavery and \(^{10}\) *Wayne Sentinel*, February 10, 1841. Found by Charles Lenhart in the King’s Daughter Library, Palmyra, New York. \(^{11}\) H. Collins, *The North Star*, January 21, 1848. recapture on the ship *The Pearl*, had made them famous throughout the northeast. Chaplin’s story abolitionized many who been lukewarm to the movement. Certainly, by the 1850s, the Presbyterian Church in Northville was open to antislavery lecturers. On November 6, 1851, Joseph R. Johnson, antislavery agent, increased the number of subscribers to *Frederick Douglass’ Paper* from three to fifteen in Genoa (whether town or village is not clear): **A THOROUGH EFFORT FOR THIS PAPER.** To the friends of Freedom: Now let us be in earnest to increase the circulation of this efficient periodical. - Wherever I lecture, I do not desire that any contributions should be made to me, if the friends of Human Rights will generously enlist to subscribe for the paper. By doing this, they will help themselves to a good family newspaper, they will help Frederick Douglass, a fugitive from American Slavery, they will rebuke the slaveholders, and all the slave-catchers, South and North. James R. Lawrence and H.K. Smith included, and they will keep "J.R.J." in the lecturing field, and help him to secure the Missionary Home at Syracuse. These are the motives to influence you to act: In each place let the friends who have this world's goods, assist others to pay for the paper who are not able to give the full price. - In Genoa, Cayuga County, we found but three subscribers for the paper, and the number was increased to fifteen. Joseph Crocker of Northville especially aided. More such co-operators are wanted. Reader, will you be one? Yours, for Freedom, JOSEPH R. JOHNSON, SYRACUSE, Nov. 1st.\(^{12}\) At the same time, Liberty Party men were active in the village. The same issue of the paper contained a plea from someone in “King’s Ferry” for Liberty Party votes.\(^{13}\) **LET US GO HOME TO VOTE.** We, who are itinerating Liberty Party men, must take as much care to be at home to vote, Tuesday, November 4th, as if we expected to elect every man whose name is on our ticket, knowing also that each vote of ours would be necessary for that purpose. - Our neighbors should see our faces at the ballot box. We shall thus give them our practical commentary on our speech-making "Actions speak louder than words." Some, who have fled from the man-hunter, dare not venture to return home and mingle with their fellow-citizens at the polls. Think of that! Think it all over, the whole chapter, and vote for righteous civil government on the 4th of November. J.R.J. KING’S FERRY, Cayuga Co., Oct. 25th. By 1852, Rev. Graves had become the pastor at the Presbyterian Church, and under his leadership, the church opened its doors to abolitionist lecturers. William C. Nell, who worked in William Lloyd Garrison’s office, printing *The Liberator*, in Boston, made a lecturing tour of western New York in 1852 and reported that --- \(^{12}\) *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, November 6, 1851. \(^{13}\) *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, November 6, 1851. Rev. Mr. Graves, of the Presbyterian Church at Northville . . . granted his pulpit and exerted an influence that secured me an intelligent and attentive audience, participating very faithfully in the exercises himself. I felt encouraged for the sake of the cause, regarding it as a Sabbath day’s journey in the right path.\(^{14}\) In June, 1854, “W.” wrote to *Frederick Douglass’ Paper* that he had come to Northville from Ledyard, carried by William Savage, an Englishman, “one filled with pure unadulterated abolitionism.” We here [at Northville] met a very cordial reception. Our meetings were held in the Presbyterian church, of which a Mr. Braves [Graves] is the worthy pastor. He is an outspoken Abolitionist—a model Reformer—an eyesore to the Presbyterian Church because of his fearless denunciation of crime and iniquity in the Church, as well as out of it. He is one of the ablest ministers in the Church, and one, too, possessing considerable influence. But to our meetings here. They were well attended by most attentive and seemingly interested audiences, upon whom, we think, a favorable impression was made. To our friend Crocker and family, we were especially indebted. We never experienced kinder treatment, even at the hands of our mother, than at the hands of Mrs. Crocker and family. May the Lord reward them all! Friend C. conveyed us for Northville to Five Corners, the place of our next meeting. Where we had a very good meeting in the Presbyterian Church, which was filled with anxious inquirers of freedom. They love the Bible, and resolved to obey its sacred behest. They love the Declaration of American Independence, and exemplify its principles. Our friend Palmer and family will receive our thanks for the many manifestations of their kindness to us, while sojourning beneath their hospitable roof. From this pretty village we went to Genoa. We lectured to large and interested audiences, in the Presbyterian Church. We were the recipient of the hospitality of Messrs. Brownell and Smith—men well known as firm and consistent advocates of Human Rights.\(^{15}\) **Further research:** More research would help document the homes and families of Asa Crocker and Joseph Crocker and the Presbyterian churches in Five Corners and Genoa. --- \(^{14}\) William C. Nell, Rochester, August 6, 1852, *National Anti-Slavery Standard*, August 26, 1852. \(^{15}\) W. to *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, June 30, 1854. Northville, Samuel Geil, *Map of Cayuga County*, 1853 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Cromwell-Cooper House 231 Main Street Aurora, New York (part of Aurora Village Historic District) Town of Ledyard Description: This gable-and-wing, two-story house stands on the edge of Cayuga Lake, facing Main Street at the south end of the village of Aurora. Mandell’s *History of Aurora Houses* notes that this house was moved to its present site around 1840 and was the original law office of Glen Cuyler, originally just north up Main Street near the Episcopal Church. Although the basement is insulated, so that original materials are mostly covered up, at least one cut nail was visible in the spring of 2005 in floor joints in the basement on the north (gable) section. Significance: Joseph Cooper was born in slavery in New York City about 1790. He came to Aurora about 1828. His wife Sarah Cromwell was born in Cayuga County about 1813 and had lived in Aurora since about 1822. They were manumitted, and lived the rest of their lives as free people of color in Aurora. In 1849, Joseph Cooper bought, via a mortgage, this house here on the shore of Cayuga Lake. In 1851, the tax assessment noted that Cooper owned 1/2 acre worth $500.00, a figure confirmed by the 1855 census (although the tax assessment for 1855 dropped the value of their house to $270.00). At least part of the time, the Coopers lived next door to... daughters and sons-in-law Zilpha Cromwell, Moses and Mary Cromwell Johnson, and Sarah Jane Cromwell Hart and Thomas Hart, freedom seeker who came from Maryland in 1840. Cooper sold this property in 1871 to Henry Chase.\textsuperscript{16} According the 1865 census, the Coopers had five children. In his record book, 1789-1881, E.B. Morgan noted that Mrs. Cooper died in 1869.\textsuperscript{17} By 1880, Joseph Cooper, a widower, was living with his son, William, William’s wife Elizabeth, and their nine children, probably not in this house. Joseph’s birthplace was listed as New Jersey. On February 5, 1881, E.B. Morgan noted in his diary that “Joseph Cooper died at 10 this evening, aged 91 years 6 months. He was an old citizen, once a slave.” The next day, Sunday, February 6, 1881, Morgan wrote that “Went to see remains of Joseph Cooper, an old colored man who died last night aged 92 years and a half.”\textsuperscript{18} **Census records for Cooper family, Ledyard, 1850-1870:** | Name | Year | Age | Sex | Race | Occupation | County | Value | |----------|------|-----|-----|------|------------|--------|-------| | Joseph | 1850 | 59 | m | b | laborer | NY | 500/landowner | | Sarah | 1850 | 27 | f | b | | NY | | | William | 1850 | 16 | m | b | laborer | NY | | | Zilpha | 1850 | 10 | f | b | | NY | | | Joseph | 1855 | 54 | m | b | laborer | 27 | NY | frame 500/landowner | | Sarah | 1855 | 42 | f | b | wife | 33 | cayuga | | | Zilpha | 1855 | 15 | f | b | child | 15 | cayuga | | | Charles | 1860 | 1 | b | | | NY | | | Charlotte| 1860 | 3 | b | | | NY | | | Joseph | 1860 | 70 | m | b | laborer | NJ | 800/landowner | | Sarah | 1860 | 47 | b | | domestic | NY | | | Sarah e | 1860 | 23 | b | | domestic | NY | | | William h| 1860 | 24 | b | | laborer | NY | | | Zilpha | 1860 | 19 | b | | domestic | NY | | | William | 1860 | 1 | m | | blank | NY | | | Charles | 1865 | 6 | m | b | Child | Cayuga | | | Charlotte| 1865 | 8 | f | b | Child | Cayuga | | | Edward | 1865 | 1 1/3 | m | b | Child | Cayuga | | | Eliz. | 1865 | 37 | f | b | Wife | Albany | | | Frederick| 1865 | 4 | m | b | Child | Cayuga | | | Joseph | 1865 | 72 | m | b | Laborer | NJ | none 160 | | Sally M. | 1865 | 52 | f | b | Wife | Cayuga | | | William | 1865 | 29 | m | b | Laborer | Cayuga | | | Alexander| 1870 | 8 | m | M | 132 | Canada | | | Anna | 1870 | 26 | f | M | 132 | KH | DE | | Arenta | 1870 | 4 | f | M | 132 | | Canada | | Charles | 1870 | 30 | m | M | Farm Laborer | DE | | | Laura | 1870 | 5 mo.| f | M | 132 | NY | | \textsuperscript{16}Birth dates estimated from census records. Counties of birth and years of residence in Cayuga County reported in 1855 census. Cooper appeared as a debtor in the estate papers of Cornelius Cuyler in 1857. Thanks to Sheila Edmunds for finding this. \textsuperscript{17}Thanks to Sheila Edmunds for this research. \textsuperscript{18}Thanks to Sheila Edmunds for Morgan diary entries. | Cooper | Joseph | 1870 | 17 | m | b | 287 | Laborer | NJ | w/ T.C. Stork-Iron Foreman | |--------|--------|------|----|---|---|-----|---------|----|--------------------------| | Cooper | Charles | 1870 | 10 | m | b | 288 | | NY | | | Cooper | Charlotte | 1870 | 12 | f | b | 288 | | NY | | | Cooper | Edward | 1870 | 6 | m | b | 288 | | NY | | | Cooper | Eliza | 1870 | 1 | f | b | 288 | | NY | | | Cooper | Fred | 1870 | 9 | m | b | 288 | | NY | | | Cooper | Robert | 1870 | 4 | m | b | 288 | | NY | | | Cooper | Sarah | 1870 | 29 | f | b | 288 | | NY | | | Cooper | W. | 1870 | 30 | m | b | 288 | | NY | | **Deed History: 231 Main St. (Cooper, Chase, Hickey House). Research and transcriptions by Tanya Warren:** 1. **13 March 1963. Annie M. Hickey (daughter of Patrick a& Rosa Hickey to Wells College. Book 329, p. 1088.** “…between Annie M. Hickey of the Village of Aurora and Wells College of the same place…All that parcel of land in the village of Aurora bounded and described as follows: Beginning in the center of the highway (or Main St., so called) at the southeast corner of lands formerly owned by William H. Bogart, and now owned by Wells College and running thence southerly along the center of said highway to the northeast corner of lands formerly owned by Lawrence Hickey and now owned by Wells College: thence running westerly along the north line of said lands of Wells College to the low water mark of Cayuga Lake; thence northerly along the said Lake to the lands formerly of the said William Bogart and now Wells College and thence east along the south line of said lands to the place of beginning, and containing about ¼ acre of land, more or less. Subject, nevertheless, to such vested rights as the Cayuga Lake Railway, or its successors may have therein. The premises hereby conveyed being those conveyed by Henry Chase and Harriet Chase, his wife, to Rosa Hickey, by deed dated 22 March 1877 in book 146, p. 416. 1. **22 March 1877. Henry and Harriet Chase to Rosa Hickey. Book 146, p. 416.** “Between Henry and Harriet Chase of Genoa and Rosa Hickey of Aurora, for the sum of ***hundred dollars, all that parcel, etc. of land described as follows: Beginning in the center of the highway (or Main St., so called) at the southeast corner of lands owned by William H. Bogart and running thence southerly along the center of said highway to the northeast corner of lands owned by Lawrence Hickey; thence running westerly along the north line of said lands of Lawrence Hickey to the low water mark of Cayuga Lake; thence northerly along the said Lake to the lands of the said William Bogart and thence east along the south line of said Bogart’s lands to the place of beginning, and containing about ¼ acre of land, more or less, and being the same premises formerly owned by Joseph Cooper and conveyed by him to the said Henry Chase on 18 May 1871 in book 130, p. 529. Subject, nevertheless, to such vested rights as the Cayuga Lake Railway, or its successors may have therein. 2. **18 May 1871. Joseph Cooper to Henry Chase. Book 130, p. 529.** “Between Joseph Cooper of Aurora and Henry Chase of the Town of Genoa, for the sum of $175.00, all that parcel of land described as follows: Beginning in the center of the highway (or Main St., so called) at the southeast corner of lands owned by William H. Bogart and running thence southerly along the center of said highway to the northeast corner of lands owned by Lary (Lawrence) Martin; thence running westerly along the north line of said lands of Lary (Lawrence) Martin to the low water mark of Cayuga Lake; thence northerly along the said Lake to the lands of the said William Bogart and thence east along the south line of said Bogart’s lands to the place of beginning, and containing about ¼ acre of land, more or less. Subject, however, to the payments, conditions and agreements specified and contained in a certain Indenture Mortgage executed by the said Joseph Cooper to Lewis Himrod on the 31st of July 1849 and recorded in Mortgage book 39, p. 384, in which said mortgage was given for securing the payment of $100.00 in the manner specified and upon which is now due and payable this day in the sum of $151.12 which the party of the 2nd part assumes. The usual closings.” 3. **31 July 1849. Joseph Cooper & wife to Lewis Himrod. Mortgage Book 39, p. 384.** “This indenture made between Joseph Cooper and Sarah his wife of Aurora and Lewis Himrod of Aurora, for the consideration of $100.00 do grant, sell and confirm unto the party of the second part and to his heirs, etc., all that certain parcel of land situated and lying in the Village of Aurora and bounded as follows: Beginning in the center of the highway or Main Street leading from the said village southerly at a point 2 chains and 18 links south of the south of the southeast corner of the lot of land (formerly) owned and occupied by Austin Cross running thence northerly along the center of said highway 2 chains, 18 links to the southeast corner of said Cross’ land thence westwardly along the south line of said Cross’ land to the Cayuga Lake, thence southerly along the margin of the lake 2 chains, thence eastwardly to the place of beginning, supposed to contain about 3/8 of an acre of land, be the same more or less. The conveyance is intended as a mortgage to secure the payment of $100.00 in one year from the date hereof with interest on the same annually at 7% per annum, etc. Signed by the mark of Joseph Cooper and the hand of Sarah Cooper. Witnessed by Ebenezer W. Arms. **Conclusion:** Tax assessment records did not include Henry Chase as a property owner at any time between 1850 and 1901. Perhaps Joseph Cooper sold the lot to him and had an agreement to pay taxes on it until Chase sold it to Rosa (Patrick’s wife) Hickey in 1877? The tax records do show that Joseph Cooper’s land decreased from ½ to ¼ between 1868 and 1869. What relevance this may have to his deed to Henry Chase is not known. The 1875 Cayuga County map still shows Joseph Cooper as living at this house, four years after selling to Chase. Mandell’s “History of Aurora Houses” as cited above, claims that this house was moved to its present site around 1840 and was the original law office of Glen Cuyler, originally just north up Main Street near the Episcopal Church. Note in the tax records that in 1851, Cooper has 1/2 acre worth $500.00 and the very next year the lot decreases to 1/3 acre and the value decreases to $125.00. Perhaps the Cuyler structure burned in this year and Cooper built a new, smaller house? Mandell makes no other mention of any further disturbances or alterations to the house as of 1906. **It is likely that this house, especially the original north structure, is the house that was lived in by Joseph Cooper.** Tax assessments for Joseph Cooper-Patrick Hickey, lot 34, Town of Ledyard, 1851-1901. Research by Tanya Warren: | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1851 | 34 | 1/2 | 500.00 | 500.00 | 1.55 | |--------|--------|---------|------|----|-----|--------|--------|------| | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1852 | 34 | 1/3 | 125.00 | 125.00 | 0.57 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1854 | 34 | 1/2 | 300.00 | 300.00 | 1.10 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1855 | 34 | 1/2 | 270.00 | 311.00 | 1.26 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1856 | 34 | 1/2 | 270.00 | 270.00 | 1.26 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1857 | 34 | 1/2 | 270.00 | 270.00 | 1.53 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1858 | 34 | 1/2 | 270.00 | 270.00 | 1.43 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1859 | 34 | 1/2 | 270.00 | 270.00 | 1.40 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1860 | 34 | 1/4 | 212.00 | 212.00 | 1.34 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1861 | 34 | 1 1/4 | 212.00 | 212.00 | 1.31 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1862 | 34 | 1/2 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 1.66 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1863 | 34 | 1/2 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 1.85 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1864 | 34 | 1/2 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 3.37 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1865 | 34 | 1/2 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 3.42 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1866 | 34 | 1/2 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 3.66 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1867 | 34 | 1/2 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 3.02 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1868 | 34 | 1/2 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 2.68 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1869 | 34 | 1/4 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 2.53 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1870 | 34 | 1/4 | 175.00 | 175.00 | 3.17 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1875 | 34 | 1/4 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 1.30 | | Cooper | Joseph | Ledyard | 1876 | 34 | 1/4 | 200.00 | 200.00 | | | Hickey | Patrick | Ledyard | 1877-1899 | 34 | 1/4 | 360.00 | 360.00 | | | Hickey | Patrick | Ledyard | 1900-1901 | 34 | 1/4 | 400.00 | 400.00 | | Many thanks to Sheila Edmunds, Village Historian of Aurora, for research assistance with this family. Deed and assessment research by Tanya Warren. Thomas and Sarah Jane Hart House, Site of 237 Main Street Aurora, New York (part of Aurora Historic District) Significance: Thomas Hart was a freedom seeker who came from Maryland in 1840 and Sarah Jane Cromwell Hart was a descendent of family brought to Aurora in slavery Description: This gable-and-wing Greek Revival type house sits on the shore of Cayuga Lake, at the south end of the village of Aurora, just south of another house once owned by the Cromwell/Cooper family, an African American family born into slavery, well-known in the village, who acquired this land in 1826 from Cornelius Cuyler, wealthy white settler. Deeds suggest that the Harts purchased this property in 1857 and sold it in 1861. This house actually burned in 1899 and was immediately rebuilt, probably on the same foundation, since it so closely reflects the style of an earlier building and its foundations show signs of soot from a fire. Research by Tanya Warren, with the assistance of Aurora Village Historian Sheila Edmunds, suggests that, “From both tax assessment history (see attachment) and information provided by Sheila Edmunds from the Samuel D. Mandell ‘History of Aurora Houses’, it is possible that a house was here as early as 1826 when Zilpha Cromwell obtained a deed for the parcel from Cornelius Cuyler. This property is listed variably as 1/8 and ¼ acre. Tax assessments show a rise in value in 1860 under the ownership of Thomas and Sarah Jane Hart, precisely the year Mandell claims that later owner Lawrence Martin built a new house on the lot. The value remains fairly consistent until 1874, when Lawrence Martin sells to Lawrence Hickey and the value rises by $100.00. Lawrence and Ann Hickey remain in ownership through to 1900 when the value then jumps to $700.00. This would coincide with Mandell’s claim that a fire destroyed the previous house and a new one built in its place in 1899. It can be concluded from this information that the house presently at 237 Main Street is, unfortunately, not the house lived in by the Cromwell/Hart families.” It is possible, however, that parts of the original house still remain, especially its foundations and basement. **Significance:** Thomas and James Hart, born in slavery in Maryland, were some of the earliest documented freedom seekers to arrive in Cayuga County. On April 9, 1840, they left the home of Quaker John Mann, in Friendsville, Pennsylvania, who gave them a small slip of paper addressed to “Slocum Howland, Sherwood’s Corner, Scipio, N.Y., Owego, Ithaca.” It read: I have mailed two passengers to thee, in the “shank’s horse diligence”: baggage free, and at the risk of the owners. 9th of 4th mo. 1840. John Mann. This is a remarkable and rare extant example of a pass for two freedom seekers. A note in Emily Howland’s shaky handwriting at the bottom adds details: “This note introduced two fugitives from Slavery in Maryland Thomas and James Hart, stalwart vigorous and young.” Emily Howland suggested later that both Thomas and James remained in the area, but only Thomas Hart’s name appeared in the Cayuga County census. He married Sarah Jane Cromwell, daughter of William and Zilpah Cromwell of Aurora, and, in Sarah Jane’s name, the family owned a home from 1857 to 1861 next to the African American Cromwell-Cooper family on the shore of Cayuga Lake in Aurora, just west of Sherwood. In 1861, the Harts sold this property on Cayuga Lake to Ann Martin in 1861. That same year, the bought land in Union Springs from Lawrence and Ann Martin. They were living in Union Springs when Thomas died, sometime before 1865. In 1865, Sarah Jane Hart. The “widow and survivor of Thomas Hart,” sold this property to James Milliman. In 1869, she purchased an acre land on Lot 124 in Ledyard, near Levanna, where the Griger family also lived, where she lived until at least 1872, when she sold this land to John Bradford. She paid taxes on this property, and she also paid a dog tax. Sarah Jane was still in Ledyard in 1880 with children Francis & Thomas as a widow.\textsuperscript{19} \textsuperscript{19}Pass owned by Howland Stone Store Museum. Sarah Jane Hart purchased property in 1857 from Moses and Mary Cromwell Johnson. Thomas and Jane Hart sold it to Ann Martin, 1861, Book 101, p. 46. Hart, Sarah Jane and Thomas—Deeds Ledyard and Springport, Cayuga County, NY Research and transcription by Tanya Warren Moses and Mary Cromwell Johnson to Thomas and Sarah Jane Hart 8 September 1857. Cayuga County Clerk, Book 95, p 208. Lot # 34 of the original Military Tract town of Scipio. This indenture made this eighth day of September, 1857 between Moses Johnson and Mary his wife, late Mary Cromwell of Scipio in the county of Cayuga and state of New York of the first part and Thomas Hart and Sarah Jane, his wife, of Aurora in the county and state aforesaid of the second part. Witnesseth that the party of the first part for and in consideration of one hundred and twenty five dollars to them in hand paid by the party of the second part do grat, etc. onto the party of the second part, etc. All that certain piece or parcel of land, being part of Lot number 34 in the Village of Aurora in the County of Cayuga aforesaid, being the south part of half an acre of land conveyed by Cornelius Cuyler and wife to Zilpha and Mary Cromwell by deed bearing April 1, 1826 and recorded in Cayuga County Clerk’s Office in Book EE of Deeds page 442. Said south part hereby intended to be conveyed is bounded on the east by the Main Street in Aurora, on the South by Lot # 43, called the Fisher Lot, now owned by Charles Wells, on the West by Cayuga Lake and on the North by land now owned by Joseph Cooper. For evidence of chain of title to the above described premises reference is hereby made to the last will and testament of Zilpha Cromwell, deceased bearing date February 26 1851 witnessed by Eleazer Burnham and Cornelius Cuyler, not yet proved before the surrogate and now in the possession of Ebenezer Arms, Esq. The premises above described and hereby conveyed are designed to be held as a homestead, exempt from sale on execution according to the provisions of the act entitled “An act to exempt from sale on execution the homestead of a householder having a family, passed April 10th 1850.” …The said Moses and Mary Johnson do hereby grant, etc… Witness E. W. Arms County Book 101, p. 46. Thomas Hart and Sarah Jane Hart to Ann Martin 21 Sept. 1861 $175.00 Description: “Between Thomas and Sarah Jane Hart of Ledyard and Ann Martin, wife of Lawrence Martin of said town for the consideration of $175.00, have sold, etc all that parcel of land situate in the Village of Aurora, etc. and being the south part of half an acre of land conveyed by Cornelius Cuyler and wife to Zilpha & Mary Cromwell by deed dated 1 April 1826 and recorded in Book EE, p. 442. Said south part hereby intended to be conveyed is bounded on the east by the Main Street in Aurora, on the south by lot #43, called the Fisher lot formerly owned by Charles H. Wells. On the west by Cayuga Lake and on the north by lands now owned by Joseph Cooper. For evidence of claim of title to the above described premises reference is hereby made to the last will and testament of Zilpha Cromwell, deceased, bearing date Feb 26 1851, witnessed by Eleazur Burnham and Cornelius Cuyler, not yet proved before the Surrogate Court and now in the possession of E. W. Arms. (note: not found in the records of Cayuga County as of 2005-TLW) Being the same premises conveyed by deed dated 8 Sept 1857 made by Moses Johnson and Mary his wife, late Mary Cromwell, to Thomas Hart and Sarah Jane Hart his wife and which deed was recorded in book 95, p. 200. This conveyance is made subject to a mortgage for $100.00 (mortgage book 51, p. 157) made by the said Thomas and Sarah Jane Hart to Moses and Mary Johnson on 8 Sept 1857, etc., and which is now assumed by the said Ann Martin. The usual closings…” East Cayuga Reservation (ECR) Deed Book L, p., 261 **Lawrence & Ann Martin to Thomas and Sarah Jane Hart, all of Ledyard.** 21 September 1861 #250.00 Description: “All that tract or parcel of land situate in the Village of Union Springs, town of Springport on the south side of Chapel Street bounded on the east by the land of Michael Cullins, on the south by the lands of Mr. Culver, on the west by the land of Michael Cullins, on the north by Chapel Street, said to contain ¼ acre of land. Being the same as conveyed to Lawrence Martin by Samuel Winegar and subject to a mortgage of Martin to Winegar made on the 25th day of 1859 of which remains due #100.00 which Thomas and Sarah Hart agree to pay.” Signed by the marks of Lawrence and Ann Martin. (Tax Map # 141.13-1-19) ECR Deed Book M, p., 162 **Sarah Jane Hart to James Milliman** 27 June 1865 $300.00 Description: “Between Sarah Jane Hart as the widow and survivor of Thomas Hart, late of the Village of Union Springs, deceased and James Milliman of the U. S., all that tract or parcel of land situate in the Village of Union Springs, town of Springport on the south side of Chapel Street bounded on the east by the land of Michael Cullins, on the south by the lands of Mr. Culver, on the west by the land of Michael Cullins, on the north by Chapel Street, said to contain ¼ acre of land. Signed by the hand of Sarah Jane Hart. ECR Deed Book N, p., 324 **Wadsworth Hauchett to Sarah Jane Hart** 1 April 1869 $500.00 Description: “Being a part of Lot #124 in Ledyard (Levanna) and starting at the northwest corner of land formerly of Seneca Boyce, thence east to the center of the Lake Road, thence north along the center of the road to the lands of Samuel Ayres, being the store lot, thence west to the lands of Samuel Bowen, jr., thence south to the south line of Bowen’s land thence west to the land of Elias Manchester then south to the place of beginning, containing 1 acre of land. ECR Deed Book H, p. 293 **Sarah Jane Hart to John H. Bradford, both of Ledyard.** 2 March 1872 $500.00 Description: “Being a part of Lot #124 in Ledyard (Levanna) and starting at the northwest corner of land formerly of Seneca Boyce, thence east to the center of the Lake Road, thence north along the center of the road to the lands of Samuel Ayres, being the store lot, thence west to the lands of Samuel Bowen, jr., thence south to the south line of Bowen’s land thence west to the land of Elias Manchester then south to the place of beginning, containing 1 acre of land.” Signed by the hand of Sarah Jane Hart. | Name | Name | Location | Year | Acres | Fraction | Value | Assessment | |---------------|-----------------------|----------|-------|-------|----------|---------|------------| | Cromwell | Zilpha, Mary | Ledyard | 1851 | 34 | 1/8 | 250.00 | 800 | | Johnson | Mary (Moses) | Ledyard | 1856 | 34 | 1/8 | 150.00 | | | Johnson | Mary (Moses) | Ledyard | 1857 | 34 | 1/8 | 150.00 | | | Johnson | William | Ledyard | 1858 | 34 | 1/8 | 150.00 | | | Hart | Thomas | Ledyard | 1860 | 34 | 1/4 | 400.00 | | | Hart | Thomas | Ledyard | 1861 | 34 | 1/4 | 200.00 | | | Hart | Thomas | Ledyard | 1862 | Blank | Blank | Blank | | | Martin | Lawrence & Ann | Ledyard | 1862-1873 | 34 | 1/8 | 300.00 | | | Moore-Hickey | Ann (Lawrence Hickey) | Ledyard | 1874 | 34 | 1/4 | 500.00 | | | Hickey | Lawrence | Ledyard | 1880-1896 | 34 | 1/8 | 400.00 | | | Hickey | Lawrence | Ledyard | 1897-1898 | 34 | 1/4 | 350.00 | | | Hickey | Lawrence | Ledyard | 1899 | No book | 1/4 | 700.00 | | Thanks to Sheila Edmunds, Aurora Village Historian, for research assistance, and to Tanya Warred for deed and assessment research. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 John and Susan King House, possibly incorporating parts of Richard and Mary Gaskin House Dixon Road Ledyard Significance: Home of European American abolitionists and probable Underground Railroad supporters, possibly incorporating part of home of freedom seekers John and Susan King House Dixon Road, Ledyard Looking East February 2005 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 John and Susan King House Dixon Road, Ledyard Looking NE February 2005 John and Susan King House Dixon Road, Ledyard Looking NW, February 2005 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 King/Gaskin/Green House Looking Southwest Introduction The Survey of Historic Sites Related to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Auburn and Cayuga County (sponsored by the City of Auburn Historic Resources Review Board and funded by Preserve New York, a program of the Preservation League of New York State and the New York State Council on the Arts) revealed that a house on Dixon Road in the Town of Ledyard was associated with two families involved in abolitionism and the Underground Railroad. The John and Mary King family, allied with abolitionist and educator Susannah Marriott, were English Quakers. Richard and Mary Gaskin (Gaston) were born in Virginia and came to Ledyard, most likely fleeing slavery, about 1864. They purchased two acres of land just north of the current site in 1869, until they sold their land and moved to 18 Aspen Street in Auburn in 1886. By 1904, both the Gaskin and King properties were owned by W.W. Hazzard. The Gaskin property is listed on the 1904 Cayuga County map as a farm called “The Meadows.” The King house was purchased by Alfred and Georgia Richardson in 1932. The current owner is William Green, their grandson. While the Gaskin house is no longer standing in its original location, Green family tradition, passed on through Alfred and Georgia Richardson and carried on by the current owners and their families, suggests that part of this house was once owned by a black man and was moved to the current site from a location just north of this one. This is consistent with deeds, which show that the Gaskin family owned the lot north of the current site. Current family members recall a well and foundation north of the current house. Bill Green recalled that his grandfather was sure that at least the north wing of the house had been moved to its current site. Pauline Copes Johnson, great-granddaughter of Richard and Mary Gaskin, recalled that family tradition suggested that the Gaskins once had a house somewhere “out near Union Springs.” Were parts of this house moved to the current location? Were parts of this house the original Gaskin house? On February 19, 2005, William and Dick Green invited several people involved with the project to take a tour of this house. It was a blustery, very cold gray day, but we were warmed by a kerosene heater and by the shared hope that by pooling all of our information we might make new discoveries. Present were several members of the Green family, including Dick Green, William Green, Chris Green, and Allison Williams, as well as Tanya Warren, project researcher; Paul Malo, architect; and Judith Wellman, project coordinator. Certainly, this is a fascinating house, a real treasure, built in at least two and perhaps three parts. The back wing in certainly one of the earliest buildings in the area. While the house did not yield all (or even most) of its secrets based on our quick tour, here are some preliminary hypotheses and some suggestions for further research. **Summary** 1. The back section is one of the oldest houses still standing in the region. It was built on its present location, most likely before 1825, perhaps as early as the 1790s, certainly before 1835. 2. The front section was probably built in its present location, most likely in the late 1830s or early 1840s about the time that John and Susan King were married (1839). It is unlikely but possible that the house was built at this time somewhere else and moved to this location at a later date. 3. The north wing may have been moved to this site or may have been built *in situ*. This may have been the Gaskin house (or a part of it), built between 1857 and 1859 and moved from the “2-acre piece,” as Alfred Richardson called it, just north of the current lot, sometime after 1904. Or it may have been part of the original house. The physical fabric of this section warrants further investigation. The following is a very quick sketch of what we had learned about the house based on earlier research. Tanya Warren, project researcher, did all deed and assessment research and much of the genealogical work. Sheila Edmonds contributed research on Susannah Marriott and some of the family information on the Kings. Jane Simpkin, Judy Furness, and Karl Kabelac contributed much detailed information about local families and local Quakers. Charles Lenhart found a key letter from John King. Christopher Densmore found the Quaker antislavery petition. William and Richard Green and their family shared information, including many photographs, about their grandparents, as well as their own memories of this house. **King and Marriott Families** William King (b. 1784) and Mary King from Nottinghamshire, England, were Quakers who immigrated to the U.S. with their two sons, Alfred, b. 1814, and John, b. 1813, and perhaps also with a girl named Susan Swenarton, b. 1814. Moving first to Pennsylvania, they arrived in... Ledyard about 1828, and four were received into membership that year into Scipio Orthodox Meeting of Friends from Stroudsburgh Monthly Meeting of Friends. Susannah Marriott, b. 1769, immigrated from England about 1793, spending time in Dutchess County, New York; Muncy, Pennsylvania; and Manhattanville, New York, before moving to Ledyard. Susannah Marriott settled in Aurora, where she took over a school that she named Brier Cliff, after her birthplace in England, from 1820-27. In 1827, she purchased a house on Court Street in Aurora. In 1831, William and Mary King purchased 120 acres, the whole northwest corner of Lot 70 in Ledyard, in March 1831 for $3000, from William and Ruth Birdsall. (William Birdsall, b. 1784, had purchased the 120 acres from Monmouth Purdy of Scipio in 1819.) On 5 March 1849, Alfred King purchased most of this property, including the family homestead from his parents. In 1845, Alfred had married Marianne Armistead, a 30-year-old woman who had arrived from England with Edward Simkin (who purchased the property just south of the Kings), his wife, and eight children in 1844. Alfred King moved to Autora in the late 1870s and sold his property on Lot 70 to his son John F. King for $1.00 and “natural love and affection.” Alfred King died in 1914, aged 100. In 1911, John F. King and Lydia King, Hamilton County, Iowa, sold the Ledyard property, 121 acres, to Sandford Lyon, “beginning at the southwest corner of lands of William Hazard estate.” John King, William and Mary’s youngest son, purchased 20 acres from his parents, just north of his brother’s house. On 19 September 1839 at North Street meeting in Ledyard, John King married Susan Swenarton. They may have built the front section of the current house about this time, as their new home. Susannah Marriott apparently moved in with the Kings in the last years of her life. A letter from John King to Thomas B. Gould, February 2, 1855, ended with the note: “Please to inform thy wife that Susannah Marriott still continues to enjoy a comfortable state of health. In love to thyself, wife and family, my wife and Susannah Marriott uniting with me. Thy affectionate friend John King.” Susannah Marriott paid $4000 of personal property tax, listed under Lot 70, in the 1850s. Susannah Marriott died in 1857, and in her will, she left her estate to Susan King. By 1875, the county atlas listed the King property under Mrs. King’s name alone. Gaskin Family Between 1863 and 1865, Richard and Mary Gaskin and their four children (Eliza, 17; Philip, 13; Rose, 11; and Emma, 2) left Virginia and came to Ledyard. We know this because, according to the 1865 New York State census, Emma was born in Virginia in 1863. The whole family appeared in the 1865 census in Ledyard, which also noted that Richard had served in the Civil War. Richard Gaskin was listed as a farmer. They were living in a frame house worth $250. Rosa Gaskin, aged 17, was living with Samuel Simkins and Elizabeth Cadiff. On 11 September 1869, Richard Gaskin (Gaston) purchased two acres on lot 70 for $700, “beginning at northwest corner of land now owned by John King,” from the John and Mary Flanagan. In 1874, Richard Gaskin joined an Orthodox Friends meeting affiliated with Scipio Yearly Meeting. He was disowned in 1902. On 1 April 1886, Richard and Mary G. Gaskin sold this land to John Coiley for $800. Both signed with their marks. Shortly thereafter, they built a house at 18 Aspen Street in Auburn. Their daughter, Rose, married James Phillips, of Sherwood, and Richard Gaskin moved to the Phillips house about 1906, where he died. I. Back Wing This was probably built exactly where it now stands, as a little saltbox house facing south. Most likely, it was one of the earliest settlement houses, dating before 1825, but certainly no later than 1835. Date of construction is based primarily on evidence from the fireplace, including the basement foundation, which obviously was reinforced to make it a working fireplace on the first floor, with a large hearth, broken pieces of which are still visible in the basement. Fireplaces were replaced with stoves by the mid-1830s, so this would not have been built after that. Other evidence for early construction includes Norfolk latches, beaded molding, and wide floorboards. II. Front Section. This was probably built *in situ*, 1835-55, mostly likely in the late 1830s or early 1840s. Perhaps this was added when John King and Susan Swenarton married in 1839. The entrance stairway and hall, with the creation of a five-bay façade on the south side, suggest a formal plan, reflecting other large Quaker houses in the area. Evidence for construction in this period includes: 1. Most molding, outside and in, is consistent with Greek Revival period, including mantelpieces. These mantelpieces were also made to go around a stove, not as working fireplaces. 2. Federal features (including corner blocks on exterior doorway and the stair railing) could have been made by an old-fashioned carpenter or may have been recycled from an earlier dwelling, perhaps even from the back wing when the new front section was added. 3. Window sashes were originally six-over-six panes (changed by Alfred Richardson), consistent with construction before 1855. 4. Cut nails suggest pre-Civil War construction. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 III. North wing May be the Flanagan-Gaskin House (or part of Flanagan-Gaskin house), built between 1853 and 1859 on 2-acre piece north of current site. (A house shows on that site on the 1859 Cayuga County map but not on the 1853 map.) In 1857, John and Bridget Fox bought two acres of land from a 44-acre parcel owned by Augustus Mosher. Perhaps they constructed a house shortly thereafter. A Greek Revival mantel, similar to that in the front part of the King house, is consistent with a mid-nineteenth century construction date. This could have been the whole house, approximately 20 x 20 feet, perhaps subdivided inside into a hall-and-parlor form. It could also have been part of a larger house. Most likely the original Gaskin house had at least a small kitchen and woodshed wing. If this is the Flanagan-Gaskin house (or a part of it), it was moved to its current side sometime after 1904, since a house appears on the 2-acre piece on the 1904 county map. Foundation is entirely separate from rest of house. There is only a crawl space underneath. Alternatively, this could have been moved from across the street from E. Simkins’ property just south of the current site, where an A. King tenant house appeared between 1853 and 1859, owned by W. King in 1904. (A house owned by W. King across the street just north of the current site was built between 1859 and 1904, probably too late to be consistent with interior moldings of current north wing.) Finally, this wing could well have been built as part of the original house. We were not able to get into this wing during this brief tour, and it deserves further investigation. Doorway on south side Looking North Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Mantel in back wing Looking NE Alfred Richardson applying siding to the house, 1940s Photo in possession of Green family Ideas for further research: 1. **Assessments** King—See if there is a rise in King assessments at the same time there is a drop in assessments for W.W. Hazzard (after 1904), or W. King (after 1904). Fox-Flanagan (1850-1869)—when built? W.W. Hazzard, Lot 70 W. King, Lot 69 Tanya Warren has checked assessments for several years after the Gaskins sold this house to Coiley in 1886. No taxes show for the land at all. People who live there pay only taxes on dogs! 2. **Deeds** Post-Hazzard 3. **Census records** Gaskin—Virginia 1850. A free person of color named Richard Gaskins appeared in Fauquier County, Virginia, on a National Register nomination for the plantation of John Marshall, as a carpenter in 1850. Is this the same person? 1860 New York 1865—check regiment 1875 Kings/Marriott Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 1830-70 4. **Pension records** - Gaskin 4. **Oral History Interviews** A careful interview about what family remember their grandfather saying about the house would help piece together these memories. 5. **Photographs** Family photographs, generously shared, will be very helpful in analyzing some of the changes to the house and grounds over the years. 6. **Physical Analysis of Two-acre Piece** Measuring extant foundations of house that once stood on this lot may help determine whether north wing of current house was moved from that site. **List of Works Cited** Deeds and assessments searched by Tanya Warren. *The Friend* 9:11, Twelfth Month 19, 1835 Edmunds, Sheila, Village Historian, Aurora, email January 31, 2005. Lenhart, Charles. Email, January 29, 2005. Simkin, Jane, email, January 30, 2005. International Genealogical Index New York State census, 1865. Interviews with Richard Green and William Green, February 19 and 20, 2005. Interview with Pauline Copes Johnson, February 23, 2005. Howland, Emily, *History of Quakers in Cayuga County*. 1882. Storke, Elliot G., *History of Cayuga County*. Syracuse: D. Mason, 1879. John King to Thomas B. Gould, February 2, 1855, Philip Schlee Collection, [http://18.104.22.168/search?q=cache:PXfSEPc-eHEJ:pastvoices.com/usa/king1855.shtml+%22John+King%22+Ledyard,+Cayuga&hl=en](http://22.214.171.124/search?q=cache:PXfSEPc-eHEJ:pastvoices.com/usa/king1855.shtml+%22John+King%22+Ledyard,+Cayuga&hl=en). Found by Charles Lenhart. Judith Wellman and Paul Malo February 2005 Levanna Square Town of Ledyard Significance: Site of Underground Railroad Activist Slocum Howland’s docks, warehouses, and steam mill. Sites of homes of African Americans Jerome Griger (freedom seeker), Sherburne Griger, and Alfred Tate Levanna Square, December 2004, Looking northeast from road along Cayuga Lake. Possible site of Jerome Griger’s property and home. Levanna Square, Site of Howland docks, February 2005, Looking southwest toward Cayuga Lake Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Levanna Square Site of Howland docks, December 2004 Looking northwest Levanna Square Steam mill, looking north, March 2005 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Levanna Square Yellow house, with steam mill in background, looking southwest, February 2005 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Ellis House, just north of S. Grigg house (1853 map) Levanna Square. Howland docks would have been at left and rear. December 2004, Looking northwest Ellis House, Levanna Square, looking toward dock at left Carole U. Sisler, *Cayuga Lake: Past, Present, and Future* (Ithaca, New York: DeWitt Historical Society, 1999) Levanna Square, December 2004 S. Grigg House (1853 map) Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Levanna Square, Road to lake on north side of square Gable-and-wing, looking south **Description:** A small square, perhaps three-eighths of a mile on a side, stands between Route 90 and Cayuga Lake, north of Aurora, New York, marking the site of Slocum Howland’s main dock facilities on Cayuga Lake in the nineteenth century. Today, docks and warehouses are gone, but the square remains ringed by large trees and nineteenth century houses, with a steam mill in its center, reputed to have been built by Slocum Howland. Just north of the square, the former Manchester home was the site of the early (1870s) Levanna catsup manufacturing plant. **Significance:** Slocum Howland, Quaker merchant and Underground Railroad agent, maintained a docks and warehouses at Levanna. With the help of African Americans such as Alfred Tate (whose parents had been born in slavery in New York State), Jerome (or Rome) Grigor (or Gregor, who was almost certainly a freedom seeker), and Grigor’s son, Sherburne, Howland shipped products from his store at Sherwood north along Cayuga Lake to the Seneca Turnpike and the Erie Canal. In 1868, he shipped 40,000 to 60,000 bushels of grain out of Levanna.\(^{20}\) According to various census records, Rome Griger was born about 1795. He arrived in the Town of Ledyard sometime before 1837, when he purchased his first property in Levanna. He consistently reported his occupation as carpenter. From one census year to another, however, he variously reported his place of birth as unknown (1850), the West Indies (1855), Spain (1865), and New York (1870). It is reasonable to assume that Grigor was a freedom seeker, and that to protect his identity, he did not tell the census takers (or us) his real place of birth. His first wife was Barbery Ann, mentioned in court and estate records beginning in 1849. His second wife Matilda was listed in the 1865 as born in Maryland. After Grigor’s death in the early 1870s, his son Sherburne said that his father had been born in the West Indies.\(^{21}\) Both Jerome Gregor and his son Sherburne owned property on Lot 124 in Ledyard. One of the houses still standing on the south side of the road leading to Cayuga Lake along the north side of the Levanna quare may be the Grigor house, or the house may have been torn down. (See attached deed abstracts.) We can surmise that both father and son were an integral part of Howland’s operations at Levanna. Howland may also have had a steam mill at Levanna, and Gregor may have been involved in making barrels and crates for shipping flour and other goods on lake boats. Between 1851 and 1870, Rome Griger was assessed for property on Lot 124, valued between $250 and $500. In 1851-52, he was also assessed for personal property worth from $2500-$3000. His name appeared on a local poll list in 1849 as a voter. Rome Griger died in June 1871, and E.B. Morgan of Aurora mentioned in diary on June 7 that “Rome Griger was buried this morning.”\(^{22}\) --- \(^{20}\) Carol Sisler, *Cayuga Lake: Past, Present, and Future* (Ithaca: Enterprise Publishing, 1989), 49. \(^{21}\) Census records for 1850, 1855, 1860, 1865, 1870, 1880. Tax assessment research by Tanya Warren. Many thanks to Sheila Edmunds, Village of Aurora Historian, for information from E.B. Morgan’s diary and for research on Barbery Ann Grigor. \(^{22}\) Many thanks to Sheila Edmunds, Village of Aurora Historian, for information on poll lists and on Rome Gregor generally. Assessment research by Tanya Warren. Sherburne bought land in “Milton” (Genoa?) in 1868 and also had a lot in Ledyard, Aurora Village. Tax roll from 1863 shows Sherburn and father Rome each paying on a 1/4 acre in Aurora or nearby. Sherburne Griger apparently kept some kind of restaurant or eating place near the railroad, for in 1880, E.B. Morgan noted that “I gave to some thirty colored voters who voted the Republican ticket a fine supper at Griger’s.” In 1881, in guidebooks for people on the railroad, S. Grigor advertised that he was running a “confectionary,” with “fruits, oysters, tobacco, and cigars.” By the early twentieth century, Sherburne Griger was living in Harrit Tubman’s Home for the Aged in Auburn. Alfred and Diane Tate also owned property in Levanna Square. Alfred was probably related to James Tate, who owned property on Dublin Road in Aurora. Both were probably born in slavery in New York State, perhaps in the household of the Cuyler family. Diane may have been born in slavery. In the census, she listed her birthplace variously as New York, New Jersey, or unknown. Alfred Tate also worked as a carpenter, for on October 14\textsuperscript{th}, 1879, E.B. Morgan noted in his diary that he “ordered Alf Tate to build bins in Morgan store for fruits, etc.” --- 23 Book 123, p. 554; 1876, Book 133, p. 253. Thanks to Sheila Edmunds for references to E.B. Morgan’s diary and S. Griger’s advertisements. 24 Thanks to Sheila Edmunds for information from E.B. Morgan’s diary. Samuel Geil, *Map of Cayuga County*, 1853 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Levanna, Map of Cayuga County, 1904 Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Jerome Griger Deeds Ledyard, Cayuga County, NY Research and transcription by Tanya Warren East Cayuga Reservation (ECR) Deed Book H, p., 294 **Slocum Howland and Benj. Comstock to Rome Griger** 9 December 1837 Description: “Slocum Howland and Benj. Comstock, as agents of the estate of Gardner Chidester of Scipio and Springport, and Rome Griger of Ledyard for $300.00: Being a part of Lot #124, beginning 10 rods, 7 feet west of Polly Munn’s west line thence west 5 rods, 10 feet along the south side of the road leading from the Lake Rd. to the storehouse formerly owned by Gardner Chidester, thence south 7 rods to the land of Elias Manchester thence east 5 rods and 2 feet along Manchester’s land thence north 7 rods to the place of beginning, containing 39 perches of land.” ECR Deed Book H, p., 293 **Gardner Chidester to Rome Griger, both of Ledyard.** 2 May 1839 $300.00 Description: “Being a part of Lot #124, beginning 10 rods, 7 feet west of Polly Munn’s west line thence west 5 rods, 10 feet along the south side of the road leading from the Lake Rd. to the storehouse formerly owned by Gardner Chidester, thence south 7 rods to the land of Elias Manchester thence east 5 rods and 2 feet along Manchester’s land thence north 7 rods to the place of beginning, containing 39 perches of land.” ECR Deed Book J, p., 202 **Asahel Warner of Scipio to Rome Griger of Ledyard.** 15 January 1850 $170.00 Description: “All that land in Levanna, being a part of Lot #124, beginning at a certain willow tree on the north line of the Steam Mills lot thence north 127 feet to the center of the highway leading from the Lake Road to the Chidester Store, thence along the center of the highway east to the west line of Rome Griger’s west line 150 feet, thence south 127 feet to Samuel Hoskins’s north line, thence west to the place of beginning, containing 70 perches of land.” ECR Deed Book L, p., 299 **Rome Griger to Linneus Tallman Griger, of Ledyard.** 17 March 1862 $850.00 Description: “Being a part of Lot #124, beginning 10 rods, 7 feet west of Polly Munn’s west line thence west 5 rods, 10 feet along the south side of the road leading from the Lake Rd. to the storehouse formerly owned by Gardner Chidester, thence south 7 rods to the land of Elias Manchester thence east 5 rods and 2 feet along Manchester’s land thence north 7 rods to the place of beginning, containing 39 perches of land.” Leonard Aiken of Moravia, (as referee) to Sherborn Griger of Aurora. 3 September 1872 $490.00 Description: “Whereas at a special term of the Supreme Court of the state of New York heard at Rochester on 26 June 1872, it was judged by the court in a certain action here pending in court between Linneus Griger, plaintiff and Sherburne and Dorcas Griger, William P. Griger, John Griger, Edward Griger, Wallace Griger, Jerome and Ann Griger, Henry Griger and Josephine Griger Demund and her husband Charles Demund as defendants. Aiken did sell on 17 August 1872 sell at public auction at the Village of Levanna, for $490.00, to the party of the second part (Sherburne Griger) that part of Lot #124 being the same premises of which Rome Griger died seized and possessed.” Note: The 1880 census of “Shaborn” Griger lists him in Ledyard with wife Dorcas and children Hattie, Frederick, Avery and Carrie. Sherburn lists his father’s birthplace as the WEST INDIES. Susannah Marriott Houses Sherwood-Aurora Road and Corner Court St. and Sherwood-Aurora Road, Aurora Town of Ledyard Significance: Abolitionist Quaker educator, especially important in schools for women Susannah Marriott c. 1850 Courtesy of Howland Stone Store Museum Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Description: This five-bay Federal house has six-over-six windows, a central doorway with a central portico with four iron supports that appear to be original. A hipped roof has two chimneys emerging at the peak. Judging from the style of the building as well as land prices reflected in deeds, the house may have been built between 1824 and 1835, during Susannah Marriott’s ownership. In 1824, she purchased the original 100 acres for $2750, with an additional 19 acres for $516 in 1832. In 1835, she sold the entire plot to Benjamin Gould for $6500. An almost identical house (with the exception of a Florentine window in the center of the second story) was later built across the street. Marriott sold this house (“the same now and heretofore occupied by . . . Susannah Marriott as and for a farm”) in 1835 to Benjamin Gould, one of the builders of the North Street Friends Meetinghouse, located east of this house on the Sherwood-Aurora Road. Gould built himself a four-bay brick house with limestone lintels across the road from this house and gave the Marriott house to his son, Thomas, who in turn gave it to his daughter Anna Gould Gilcher. In 1904, this house was called Glen Mailen. The *New Century Atlas of Cayuga County, New York*, described it as: Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 GLEN MAILEN, Mrs. H. J. Gilcher, owner, post office address, Aurora. This farm with its fine surroundings beautiful view, excellent buildings, apple orchard of five acres, and dairy, consisting of one hundred and nineteen acres, located on the Sherwood Road to Aurora, within three miles of Sherwood, fifteen to Auburn, and within a short distance of Aurora. This is one of the few farms upon which there is no wasteland, and with the exception of the timber, it is all under cultivation, and well adapted to the raising of vegetables and various farm products. The water is obtained from wells for the house and barns, and living springs and creeks for the use of the stock. There are twenty acres of hardwood timber. This farm was formerly owned by Susan Merritt, who sold to Benjamin Gould, in 1835, and has always been in the family name, as Mrs. Gilcher, previous to her marriage, was Miss Gould.\textsuperscript{25} In 1915, Anna Gould Gilcher sold this property to \textbf{William Lewis and Gertrude Schuster Beck of Aurora}. William was a descendant of West Indian immigrants who came to Aurora in 1870, and his daughter became a local school teacher.\textsuperscript{26} \textsuperscript{25}“The Most Valuable And Productive Farms Section,” \textit{The New Century Atlas Of Cayuga County, New York} (1904), 120. Many thanks to Tanya Warren for finding this, and for her excellent and thorough documentation of all of Susannah Marriott’s property holdings. All references to deeds, tax assessments, and census records for Susannah Marriott come from Tanya Warren’s detailed report. \textsuperscript{26}Thanks to Bradley Mitchell, who noted that Mrs. Beck was one of his teachers. In 1991, the property was sold by William Beck, III of Freeville, Tompkins County, New York (as executor of Charles C. Beck of Aurora) to Richard Beck of Houston, Texas. In 1996, the property was sold by Richard Beck to Frank and Jordan Piechuta who are now the current owners. Deed Book W., p., 297; Deed Book 951, p., 177. Description: The five-bay Federal house still has its original six-over-six window panes, but its first floor façade is obscured by a twentieth century porch addition. Susannah Marriott bought this property, “in her possession now being,” from Charles Kimball in 1826 for $400. Shown below is the map mentioned in this deed.\textsuperscript{27} \textsuperscript{27} This map is a tracing by Leonard Searing in 1957 of the original Seth Phillips map done in circa 1795 of the village of Aurora. Cayuga County maps U-97. In 1831, Susannah Marriott sold this property to Oliver Bartlett, who then sold it to Stephen Gifford in 1832, “in his actual possession now being . . . excepting thereout and therefrom all that certain upper room in the dwelling house situate upon said premises which has for some time past been occupied by the Methodist Society as a place of public worship, so long as they should continue to use and occupy same, keeping in good order and repair.”\textsuperscript{28} As Temple Rice Hollcroft, Aurora Village Historian, noted “The Aurora Methodist Church was organized about 1835. One of its principal founders was Stephen Gifford, in whose home the first meetings were held. The Gifford residence still stands on the northeast corner of Court St. and Sherwood Road.”\textsuperscript{29} \textsuperscript{28} 9 December 1831, Deed Book OO, p. 153; 27 December 1832, Deed Book QQ, 124. \textsuperscript{29} \textit{Aurora: Village of Constant Dawn} (Ovid, 1976), 40. Significance: Susannah Marriott, b. 1769, emigrated from England about 1793, spending time in Muncy, Pennsylvania; Dutchess County, New York; and Manhattanville, New York, before moving to Aurora in 1820, where she took over a school on Court Street that she named Brier Cliff, after her birthplace in England. According to Emily Howland, this school had been operated earlier by Asa and Ruth Potter, Quakers who had come from Uxbridge, Massachusetts, about 1809 and who had opened “a select school for girls” in their own home, taught by Phila Aldrich. They later moved to Aurora, where Cynthia and Sophia Southwick taught the school, and young women, even if they were not Quakers, came as boarding students. (As Sheila Edmunds has noted, however, these were not young women but girls, aged 7-15.) Judge Elijah Miller of Auburn, whose mother was a Quaker, sent his daughters Lizette and Frances to this school in 1817. The 1820 census listed Susannah Marriott as living with fifteen young woman, probably students, six other European Americans, and three African Americans. Susannah Marriott left Brier Cliff in the autumn of 1827, when the “Philadelphia group” (as Sheila Edmunds, Aurora Village Historian, called them) took over. This group consisted of Martha Wright (Lucretia Mott’s) sister, Anna Coffin (Martha’s mother) and Rebecca Bunker (Martha’s cousin). Perhaps this was related to the split between Hicksite and Orthodox Quakers in 1827-28, when Susannah Marriott sided with North Street Friends Meeting and the Orthodox group. Martha Wright and her family (and perhaps the trustees of Brier Cliff School) became Hicksite. Susannah Marriott, however, continued to run schools in Ledyard. Emily Howland noted that “this school was destined to mould characters which should shine in the highest walks of social life, and influence for good, the affairs of the nation.” Certainly, the connections forged among Lizette Miller Worden, Frances Miller Seward, Martha Wright (who taught at the school after Susannah Marriott left), Emily Howland, and undoubtedly Susannah Marriott herself continued far after their immediate connection with the school ended. It does much to explain the ongoing Underground Railroad network to linked Aurora, Sherwood, and Auburn in the pre-Civil War years. In 1824, Susannah Marriott purchased 100 acres on lots 139 and 146 on the north side of the Sherwood-Aurora Road. From 1826-31, she also owned a house at the southeast corner of Court Street and the Sherwood-Aurora Road in Aurora, where she may have held a school after she left Brier Cliff. The presence of a large room on the second floor of this house, later used as the site of the first Methodist meetings in the village, suggests this possibility. In 1835, she moved to another farm, just north of the North Street Friends Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse). There she lived until after 1850. She also ran another school while she was there, although we do not know whether that school met in her own house, in the meetinghouse, or in another location. Emily Howland, daughter of Underground Railroad activist Slocum Howland, probably attended Susannah Marriott’s third school about 1837, and she later would regard Susannah Marriott as one of the three most influential people in her life. 30 Howland, Emily. “Early History of Friends in Cayuga County, N.Y., Read before the Cayuga County Historical Society, April 8th, 1880,” Collections of Cayuga County Historical Society, 2 (1882), 49-90. Available on-line at: http://www.co.cayuga.ny.us/history/friends/. 31 Many thanks to Sheila Edmunds, Aurora Village Historian, for this information about Susannah Marriott. Susannah Marriott was influential Quaker and abolitionist. Along with several other Quakers affiliated with Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends (Orthodox), she signed an antislavery petition published in *The Friend*, a Quaker newspaper, in 1835. The 1850 Census showed Susannah Marriott, age 80, born in England, owning property worth $2700, living with Sarah Shaw, age 55, born Massachusetts; Mary Shaw, age 14, born New York; William H. Woodin, age 29, farmer, born New York; George Woodin, age 19, laborer, born New York; and Laura M. Woodin, age 20, born New York. Susannah Marriott was very close to a woman named Susan Swenarton King, sponsoring her for membership in Quaker meeting when Susan was twelve years old. Susan Swenarton later married John King, and they lived in a house on Dixon Road, built about 1840 next to John’s father, William, and later owned by John’s brother, Alfred. Susannah Marriott moved in with John and Susan King after 1850. A letter from John King to Thomas B. Gould (son of Benjamin Gould), who was then in Newport, Rhode Island, on February 2, 1855, noted that: Please to inform thy wife that Susannah Marriott still continues to enjoy a comfortable state of health. In love to thyself, wife and family, my wife and Susannah Marriott uniting with me. Thy affectionate friend John King.\(^{32}\) The 1855 NYS census listed Susannah Marriott as a boarder with John and Susan King along with a young 18-year-old servant girl from England, named Harriet Taylor. Susannah Marriott died in 1857, age 87. In her will, she left many bequests to friends and relatives and the residue of her estate to Susan King. The tax records of Ledyard, available only from 1851 on, reveal that Susannah Marriott, after the sale of her Lot #142 property in 1850, moved to Lot #70 in southeastern portion of Ledyard (the King property). She paid her last taxes on Lot #142 in 1852, the original 50 acres now shown as 48. She did appear to have paid taxes in 1851 on 1 acre near the Kings, but no deed reflected this ownership. This may possibly be the 1-acre that was later owned by Richard Gaskin. | LAST NAME | FIRST NAME | Town | YEAR | Property/Lot # | ACRES | REAL-$ | PERS-$ | TOTAL-$ | |-----------|------------|--------|------|----------------|-------|--------|--------|---------| | Marriott | Susannah | Ledyard| 1851 | 70 | 1 | 600.00 | 3300 | | | Marriott | Susannah | Ledyard| 1852 | 142 | 48 | 1100.00| 600 | 1700.00 | | Marriott | Susannah | Ledyard| 1854 | 70 | | | 4000 | | | Marriott | Susannah | Ledyard| 1854 | 70 | | | 4000 | 4000.00 | | Marriott | Susannah | Ledyard| 1855 | 70 | | | 4000 | 4000.00 | | Marriott | Susannah | Ledyard| 1856 | 70 | | | 4000 | 4000.00 | | Marriott | Susannah | Ledyard| 1857 | 70 | | | 4000 | 4000.00 | | Marriott | Susannah | Ledyard| 1858 | 70 | | | 4000 | 4000.00 | | Marriott | Estate-P.King | Ledyard| 1859 | 70 | | | 4000 | 4000.00 | From 1854-59, Susannah Marriott paid $4000 of personal property tax, listed under Lot 70. Could this have been agricultural machinery and cattle, interest in a wool factory, or some other form of investment? Susannah Marriott was an influential Quaker, member of North Street Friends Meeting (Orthodox), which was, as Emily Howland remembered, “a storm center of reform.” She left her mark especially on abolitionism and women’s education, teaching in and around Aurora, New York, creating women’s schools that were precursors of the much better known Wells College. As Tanya Warren has suggested, based on extensive property research, she also had another side to her multi-faceted personality: “Susannah Marriott appears to have been not only been a memorable Quaker teacher and abolitionist but a shrewd and wealthy real estate tycoon as well.” **Special thanks to Sheila Edmunds, Village Historian of Aurora, for her help with research** \(^{32}\) Phillip F. Schlee Collection, online. Found by Charles Lenhart. and writing Susannah Marriott’s biography, to Tanya Warren for her work on Susannah Marriott’s property ownership, and to the Howland Stone Store Museum for use of Susannah Marriott’s daguerreotype. The following map, prepared by Tanya Warren from the 1853 base map of Ledyard, Cayuga County, shows Susannah Marriott’s property ownership in Ledyard. Each property is marked by two arrows. Susannah Marriott’s Deeds Lots 139 and 146 (North Side of Sherwood-Aurora Road) Lots #139 and #146: East Cayuga Reservation (ECR) Deed Book E, p. 134 Amos Cook to Susannah Marriott 31 August 1824 $2750.00 Description: “All that parcel of land being distinguished as Lot #146 and bounded as follows: Beginning at the SW corner of said lot at the center of the highway and runs from thence North to the NW corner of the said lot, thence East on the North line of the lot, until a line drawn south to the south line of the lot then West to the place of beginning-this will contain 100 acres, reserving out of said premises to Jesse Field of Ledyard to enter said premises or such parts thereof as may contain stone coal at all reasonable times and ways with his servants, teams and implements to dig, take and carry away, free from all demands whatsoever the equal undivided half of all the stone coal that is upon the premises.” (Note: Anthracite, also known as stone coal, burned at higher temperatures and became very important in the production of good quality iron for the rapid growth of Victorian industry. http://history.powys.org.uk/school/ystradgynlais/links.shtml) William Hecht, geologist, of Union Springs states that no coal mines were ever discovered in Cayuga County, but that early settlers had hopes there would be. ECR Deed Book F, p. 359 Eleazer Burnham to Susannah Marriott 9 February 1832 $516.00 Description: “In her actual possession now being, all that parcel of land, being part of Lot #139 in Ledyard, etc., Beg. at the SW corner of the said lot, thence running North 8 chains 64 ½ links to the top of the north bank of a ravine, thence easterly along the top of said bank of said ravine which is the south line of lands this day conveyed by Burnham to Lucius Gaylord so far that a line drawn south will intersect to the south line of said lot, 25 chains, 7 ½ links east of the SW corner of said lot, thence south to the south line of the lot, thence west to the place of beginning, containing 19 acres and 22 ½ rods of land. Susannah Marriott then sells the above two lots as 1 transaction, selling them both to Benjamin Gould in 1835: ECR Book G, p. 295 Susannah Marriott to Benjamin Gould 1 September 1835 $6500.00 Lots #146 and #139 Description: Same as the two descriptions in ECR Book E, p. 134 and Book F, p. 359, with the addition of “Which said above described lands are the same now and heretofore occupied by said party of the first part (Susannah Marriott) as and for a farm.” Lot 19 (Court Street in Aurora) Deed Book FF, p. 360 Charles Kimball to Susannah Marriottt, both of Ledyard 2 December 1826 $400.00 In her actual possession now being…land in the village of Aurora laid out in a town plat map by Seth Phelps on Lot #34 in old Scipio, now Lot # 19 of Aurora. Beginning at the northwest corner of Lot #19 where it corners on the road leading from Poplar Ridge to said Aurora and Court Street on the east side thereof, thence running east along Poplar Ridge Rd (now Sherwood Rd.), 20 rods, thence south 6 rods then west 20 rods, then north along the east line of Court Street to the place of beginning, supposed to contain ¾ of an acre. Witness: Glen Cuyler Recorded: 5 January 1827 Deed Book OO, p. 153 Susannah Marriottt to Oliver C. Bartlett (Oliver Cromwell Bartlett, born 1775, Newport, RI) 9 December 1831 $450.00 Description: Same as Deed Book FF, p. 360. And then Oliver Bartlett to Stephen Gifford: Deed Book QQ, p. 124 Oliver C. Bartlett to Stephen Gifford 27 December 1832 $450.00 Description: Same as above with the addition of: “in his actual possession now being…excepting thereout and therefrom all that certain upper room in the dwelling house situate upon said premises which has for some time past been occupied by the Methodist Society as a place of public worship, so long as they should continue to use and occupy same, keeping in good order and repair. In case said society shall at any time neglect to occupy for a place of public worship for the space of six months, this reservation will cease. Signed Oliver and Fanny (Lamson) Bartlett.” (Oliver and Fanny were married on Nantucket in 1820 and moved to Aurora in the 1820’s. Ancestry.com.) Stephen Gifford’s relationship to this house is explained in the following article: “The Aurora Methodist Church was organized about 1835. One of its principal founders was Stephen Gifford, in whose home the first meetings were held. The Gifford residence still stands on the northeast corner of Court St. and Sherwood Road. Later, Stephen Gifford’s son, George W. Gifford, grandfather of Estelle and Floyd Gifford, became the leading member of this church.” (A Brief History of Aurora NY. Temple Rice Hollcroft for the Wells College Alumnae News 1950 - 1958.) Stephen Gifford is shown as owner of the house at the corner of Court and Sherwood streets in the 1859 and 1875 Cayuga County maps and his son George Gifford as owner in the 1904 County Atlas. **Lot 121 in Ledyard** About the same year Susannah buys her Court Street property she also purchases Lot #121. ECR Deed Book E, p. 206 **Aaron and Melinda Lyon to Susannah Marriott** 5 February 1827 $830.00 Description: “Being distinguished as part of **Lot#121** of the East Cayuga Reservation lands, beginning at the NE corner of land owned by Robert Durkee and running thence east 9 chains, 19 links along the north bounds of Lot #121 to lands owned by Andrew Benedict, thence south along said Benedict’s land 32 chains 14 links to the center of the highway, thence west along the highway 9 chains 19 links, thence north along the east bounds of Robert Durkee’s land 32 chains 14 links to the place of beginning, containing 29 acres and 2 rods and 4 rods of land. Also, 3 acres of land in Lot #121 on the north 3 chains 12 links by a highway, on the East 9 chains 62 links by the land of Robert Durkee, on the south 3 chains 12 links by Jesse Babcock’s land then west 9 chains 6 links by Samuel Hoyt’s land, the bounds of said lot running due north, south, east and west.” Susannah Sells this same lot in 1830 to Andrew Benedict for a profit: ECR Deed Book F, p. 485 **Susannah Marriott to Andrew Benedict** 2 June 1830 $1200.00 Description: **Lot #121.** Same as in ECR Book E, p. 206 with the addition of “In his actual possession now being”. **Note:** Both **Lot #19 in Aurora Village (Court St.) and Lot #121 in Ledyard were bought and sold in a 4-5 year period.** During this time period, Susannah is living on her farm on Lots #146 and #139 up on the Sherwood Rd. Does she buy the Court St. property solely for a schoolhouse? She could have easily walked the short distance between her farm on Sherwood Rd. and the corner of Court St. in any weather. That a large room on the second floor is mentioned in subsequent deeds of the Court St. property leads one to believe that it may have been built and designed by Susannah as a school with a large classroom, but this is pure speculation. The 1820 census is the only one that shows Susannah living WITH many students (15+) in the same building. Her 1826 deed for Court St. mentions that it was “in her possession now being”. This could mean that she was living and teaching at this Court St. house up until 1824 when she moves to her farm on Sherwood Rd (Lot #146-139). She then continued her school there. as a non-resident teacher, perhaps “renting to own” until actually purchasing it in 1826. **Lot 142 in Ledyard (North of Brick Meetinghouse)** ECR Deed Book G, p. 345 **Ezra D. Barnes to Susannah Marriott** 17 March 1836 $2250.00 Description: “Being part of **Lot #142** of the late East Cayuga Reservation, beginning at the SW corner of said lot in the center of the highway that leads south from Barber’s Corners and runs from thence east 34 chains 70 links to the SW corner of the land now in possession of Cyrus Gage. Thence northerly in company with the line of said Gage’s land 14 chains 41 links to a stake and stones thence westerly 34 chains 70 links to the center of the highway thence south along the center of the highway 14 chains 41 links to the place of beginning. Contains 50 acres.” Susannah sells this property 14 years later: ECR Deed Book J **Susannah Marriott to William Empson** 5 October 1850 $2700.00 Description: Same as Book G, p. 345, with the exception of Cornelius Weeks as land owner of a boundary property instead of Cyrus Gage. 1853 map showing William Empson as new property owner. Lot numbers differ for this particular property, though, being in the extreme northwestern corner of lot 149, not in Lot #142 as in the deed. An explanation for this comes from Mrs. Hiram Lyon, current owner of the Perry Howland house (see Lot # 134). She claims that this house was torn down a few years back and that the driveway to it is off of today’s Goose Lane Road, on Lot #142. North Street Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse), 1834, built by Noah Dennis and Benjamin Gould Brick Church Road Town of Ledyard, New York Significance: Friends Meetinghouse. Center of abolitionism, Underground Railroad activity, and woman’s rights. Description: With its gable end to the street, two front doors flanked by two windows, twelve-over-twelve window sashes, and limestone lintels, the North Street Meetinghouse, built in 1834, represents a departure from the frame meetinghouses built earlier in this area. Although similar in interior layout to the meetinghouse constructed in 1810 for the Scipio Monthly Meeting on Poplar Ridge Road in Ledyard, and probably also for the one constructed in 1820 for the North Street Meeting at Barber’s Corners, this meetinghouse represents a distinctly different exterior form. While the 1810 meetinghouse was a frame building, with its broad side to the street, reflecting a common pattern in both Pennsylvania and New England, this new meetinghouse was brick, built with its gable end to the front, about 48 feet wide by 45 feet deep. While exterior details are... different, its basic form strikingly resembles the meetinghouse built in Philadelphia in 1804 and for the Arch Street Meetinghouse of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of Friends. After the Hicksite-Orthodox split in 1828, the “larger body,” as Emily Howland referred to them, of Friends in Scipio became Hicksite and took over the original two-story frame meetinghouse, built in 1810 by Aaron Baker, one mile west of Poplar Ridge, near Dixon Road, as well as the North Street meetinghouse near Barber’s Corners. Minutes of the North Street Preparative Meeting (Orthodox), part of Scipio Monthly Meeting (now located in Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore) record: 12 Mo. 11, 1834. Having for some time been deprived of our meeting house at our usual time by those who have separated from us subjecting us to much inconvenience particularly on first days we have thought best to build one 1 ½ mile west of Sheerwood [sic] Corners and it now being ready to occupy we propose to hold our next meeting there.\(^{33}\) Like all traditional Quaker meetinghouses, the North Street Meetinghouse incorporated values of simplicity, symmetry, and integrity. Its exterior and much of its interior (with the exception of its furnishings, the facing bench, and the dividing wall) are virtually intact from its original construction in 1834, and it possesses an exceptional degree of integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association. **Significance:** Emily Howland, a member of this meeting, called it “a storm center for reformers.” Built in 1834 for North Street Preparative Meeting of Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends (Orthodox), this meetinghouse was the center of a Quaker network of abolitionists, Underground Railroad supporters, supporters of Seneca Indian land rights, and woman’s rights activists. Abolitionist members of this meeting included the Slocum and Hannah Howland family, David and Edna Thomas, Isaac and Susan Jacobs, Susannah Marriott, and Joseph and Sarah Tallcott. In its earliest years, before the split in 1827–28, this meeting also had at least one African American member (Gideon Wainwright, a nephew of Paul Cuffe, the famous sea captain). At least one freedom seeker, Richard Gaskin, also joined this meeting. He was “received by request” in 1874. In 1837, the Cayuga County Anti-Slavery Society held one of its first meetings here on November 29 (having been refused space in the Presbyterian Church in Aurora). “The meeting was well attended principally by the Friends who are numerous in this quarter and quite generally abolitionists,” reported the *Friend of Man*, newspaper of the New York State Anti-Slavery Society. In 1843, Garrisonian abolitionist Abby Kelley spoke here, probably with Frederick Douglass, who accompanied her on a tour of New York State. Also about 1843, members of this meeting signed one of six petitions sent to Congress in support of Seneca land claims in New York State. In 1850, the meeting helped raise bail money for William Chaplin, jailed in Maryland for attempting to rescue 77 people from slavery in 1848. The meeting also raised money to give him an inscribed silver pitcher. During the Civil War, a women’s sewing circle made clothes for freed people. Harriot Hunt, one of the earliest woman physicians in the U.S., gave a lecture here. In 1906, the meetinghouse reverted to the original owners of the land and became a barn.\(^{34}\) \(^{33}\) Minutes of North Street Preparative Meeting (Orthodox), part of Scipio Monthly Meeting. Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore. Thanks to Christopher Densmore, Curator, for finding this. \(^{34}\) *Friend of Man*, December 27, 1837; Emily Howland, “Early History of Friends in Cayuga County, N.Y.,” *Collections of Cayuga County Historical Society*, 2 (1882), 49-90; Emily Howland to [Caroline] Putnam, January 8, 1906, transcript of letter in possession of Paul and Jane Simkin. Many thanks to the Simkins for Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Background According to Emily Howland, a member of North Street Meeting (Orthodox), the first Friends came to Cayuga County about 1795. These included her own grandparents, Benjamin and Slocum Howland, who built a two-story saltbox house on Poplar Ridge Road between 1797 and 1799. They also included Gideon Wainwright, a nephew of the famous African American ship captain, Paul Cuffee, who had died on an expedition to Sierra Leone in 1814. Many of these Quakers came from eastern seaport cities such as Nantucket and New Bedford.\(^{35}\) The first Friends met in 1799 at the home of Benjamin and Mary Howland. In 1808, Friends were numerous enough to form Scipio Monthly Meeting, under Easton Quarterly Meeting, of New York Yearly Meeting of Friends. In 1810, they built a meetinghouse, constructed by Aaron Baker, one mile west of Poplar Ridge, near Dixon Road, not far from Benjamin and Mary Howland’s house. Local tradition suggests that Benjamin Howland, a mason, may have helped build the stone and brick foundations and chimneys. The five Quaker meetinghouses built in the Scipio-Ledyard-Venice area reflected both geographic location and various splits in local meetings. Beginning in 1817, another early meeting was held at Barber’s Corners. In 1828, the original group of Friends meeting on the Poplar Ridge 1810 meetinghouse on the Poplar Ridge Road split into Hicksite and Orthodox. In 1847, Orthodox Friends split into Orthodox and Wilburite. In 1859, the Wilburites split into Otisite and Kingite branches. According to local Quaker historian Jane Simkin, “these branches [Otisite and Kingite] re-united in 1881. In 1947, the remaining Wilburites in the area were reorganized into Scipio 4-Months Meeting, which was laid down in 1964. In 1962 the Orthodox branch became Poplar Ridge Monthly Meeting, the body which continues to the present day.”\(^{36}\) Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends (Orthodox) had at least four preparative meetings, North Street, South Street, Skaneateles (laid down between 1917-1922), and Union Springs (which sold its meetinghouse to the Springport Library in 1910 and was laid down in 1920). Two of these—North Street and South Street—were in present-day Ledyard and Venice (both part of the original town of Scipio), with North Street in the town of Ledyard. These meetings created five meetinghouses: 1. Scipio Meetinghouse, Poplar Ridge Road, near Dixon Road, 1810. It became Hicksite at the time of the separation in 1828. In 1810, Aaron Baker built the original meetinghouse for Scipio Preparative Meeting and Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends on Poplar Ridge Road near Dixon Road. Minutes of Scipio \(^{35}\) Emily Howland, “Early History of Friends in Cayuga County, N.Y.,” *Collections of Cayuga County Historical Society*, 2 (1882), 49-90. Available on-line at: [http://www.co.cayuga.ny.us/history/friends/](http://www.co.cayuga.ny.us/history/friends/). \(^{36}\) Email from Jane Simkin, January 16, 2005. Monthly Meeting for 10th Month 20, 1808, requested a building 34 x 50 feet, with 22-foot posts.\(^{37}\) It was a two-story frame building, with two front doors (one for men and one for women), flanked by two windows each. Friends Meetinghouse Built by Aaron Baker, 1810, Poplar Ridge Road near Dixon Road Became Hicksite Meetinghouse after 1828. Taken down in 1912. Photo courtesy of Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College. This form reflected meetinghouses common in New England. See, e.g., Pomfret, Connecticut, meetinghouse (no longer standing), built in 1805; Apponegansett Friends Meetinghouse, built in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts, in 1790; New Bedford Friends Meetinghouse, built in 1822 (brick, with a hipped roof); Little Compton, Rhode Island, built 1700; and Dover Friends Meetinghouse, built in 1768 (with five bays and two doors side-by-side in the center). It was also a common form in Pennsylvania, although there it was usually built in stone rather than wood. See, for example, Buckingham Meetinghouse (1768).\(^{38}\) \(^{37}\) Minutes of Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College. Thanks to Christopher Densmore for this research. \(^{38}\) Silas B. Weeks, *New England Quaker Meetinghouses: Past and Present* (Richmond, Indiana: Friends United Press, 2001), 10, 57, 68, 96, 120; Catherine C. Lavoie, “Historic American Buildings Survey Recording of Friends Meetinghouses within the Region of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting,” *Silent Witness: Quaker Meetinghouses in the Delaware Valley, 1695 to the Present* (Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends with support from HABS, [2003]), 25-26. Hicksite Meeting (Hicksite), Interior, c. 1912 Courtesy Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore, and Cayuga County Historian’s Office Note high windows behind facing bench, gallery at right, and interior dividers at left About 1912, Olive Ryon, wife of a local Quaker pastor, posed with Jane Searing, Matilda Jacobs and an unidentified man on the facing bench inside this building, shortly before it was taken down. Nothing remained above ground at this site in 2005 except the gravestones and a stone marker for the building itself. 2. North Street Preparative Meeting, Barber’s Corners. According to Christopher Densmore, Minutes of Scipio Monthly Meeting, 2nd Month 13, 1817, record the request for a meeting for worship ‘near Charles Gifford’s.’ This seems to be the beginning of North Street meeting. On 4th Month 15, 1819, Scipio Monthly Meeting temporarily granted North Street the status of a Preparative Meeting. Apparently at this time becoming a preparative meeting also required the permission of the Quarterly Meeting, and Scipio Monthly Meeting reports that approval in its minutes of 1st Month 27, 1820. The minutes of Scipio Monthly Meeting for 3rd Month 16, 1820, report that North Street wants to erect a meeting house on a lot of two acres, about forty rods west of Charles Gifford’s, to be 32 x 44 feet with 21 foot posts, and estimated to cost $1300, with $515 already subscribed. A small cemetery still exists near there. Jane Simkin reported that the meetinghouse was sold in 1903, and it became a barn for Arthur Gamlen, which stood until the late twentieth century. Jane Searing was the last of the Hicksite Friends. According to Jane Simkin, the North Street --- 39 Howland, “Early History of Friends,” Bradley Mitchell, conversation with Judith Wellman, November 2004; Email from Christopher Densmore, June 13, 2005; Email from Jane Simkin, June 9 and June 17, 2005; Bradley Mitchell identified Matilda Jacobs and Jane Searing; Jane Simkin identified Olive Ryon and Jane Searing. Friends meetinghouse (Hicksite) had a porch, “but otherwise the exterior would be difficult to distinguish from the 1810 building.”\textsuperscript{40} 3. North Street Preparative Meeting. North Street Meetinghouse (Brick Meetinghouse), corner Sherwood-Aurora Road and Brick Church, 1834. North Street Meetinghouse, built 1834 Note steps for dismounting from carriages. Also note lintel over right front door is of rough stone rather than smooth. Earliest known photo, late 19\textsuperscript{th} century [?] From glass plate negative Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore [?] Howland Stone Store Museum has a glass plate negative of this, damaged in fire \textsuperscript{40} Email from Jane Simkin, August 19, 2005. 4. Conservative (Wilburite) Meetinghouse, 34B at Poplar Ridge, across from the Octagon house, where there is still a cemetery, identified in an early twentieth century postcard as the North Street meetinghouse. As a possible explanation about why this meetinghouse may have been labeled the North Street meetinghouse on an old postcard, Jane Simkin reported that “Phyllis Ward Stanton who lives in her family’s home across the road and slightly south of this meetinghouse site said in connection with this postcard that her father (or grandfather) always called the part of 34B where they lived North street.” This building was used by both Otisite and Kingite branches. Members of the Otis family were the last members of that meeting. It was still standing as late as 1934. Conservative Friends Meetinghouse, 34B, built 1850-51, from earlier building [?] Courtesy of Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore --- 41 Emails from Jane Simkin, January 16, January 23, 2005, and June 9, 2005. 5. South Street Meetinghouse (Poplar Ridge Meetinghouse), 1883. South Street meeting was probably the one at Wheeler’s corners (the site of the Ridgeway cemetery). Local oral tradition suggests that the original building may now be a farm building on the Haines farm. The current South Street Quaker meetinghouse was built in 1883. At some point, the meeting changed its name to Poplar Ridge meeting. It moved its meetinghouse to Poplar Ridge in 1897, where it is now the Poplar Ridge meetinghouse.\(^{42}\) ![Poplar Ridge Friends’ Meetinghouse, 1883. Moved from Ridgeway Cemetery Site, 1897](image) 6. Union Springs Meetinghouse. Union Springs Preparative Meeting of Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends (Orthodox) sold its meetinghouse to the Springport Library in 1910 and was laid down in 1920.\(^{43}\) 7. Skaneateles Preparative Meeting of Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends had a meetinghouse on West Lake Road. Several members, including James Canning Fuller and Lydia Fuller, were very active in abolitionism and the Underground Railroad. The meeting was laid down between 1917-1922. In terms of the North Street Meetinghouse, the most significant of the splits among Quakers was the Orthodox-Hicksite separation in 1828. In the context of Philadelphia, where the split has been \(^{42}\) Emails from Jane Simkin, January 16, January 23, and June 17, 2005. \(^{43}\) Jane Simkin, email, August 9, 2005. most closely studied, the Orthodox were more urban, often influenced by religious revivals, and tended to emphasize the Bible as the revealed word of God. Hicksites, on the other hand, were tied more closely to rural areas and emphasized continuing revelation as the primary source of spiritual wisdom. In a rural area such as Scipio, we know much less about the causes or the implications of this split. We do know, however, that it profoundly and painfully affected personal relations, so strongly that local Quakers preferred not to refer to themselves as Orthodox or Hicksite but only, in Emily Howland’s terms, as “the larger body” [Hicksite]. Both the meetings with meetinghouses on Poplar Ridge Road (Scipio Preparative Meeting and Monthly Meeting) and at Barber’s Corners (North Street Preparative Meeting) became Hicksite, so that Orthodox Quakers had to build new meetinghouses. In 1834, North Street Preparative Meeting of Friends (Orthodox) chose to build a new brick meetinghouse on the north side of the Sherwood-Aurora Road, about a mile-and-a-half west of Sherwood. **North Street Preparative Meetinghouse (Orthodox)—Brick Meetinghouse** Because of problems with both groups sharing the old North Street meetinghouse, especially on Sundays, Orthodox Friends began to discuss the construction of new meetinghouse in March 1833. As meeting minutes noted in December 1834, “Having for some time been deprived of our meeting house at our usual time by those who have separated from us subjecting us to much inconvenience particularly on first days we have thought best to build one 1 ½ mile west of Sheerwood Corners.”\(^{44}\) Minutes further record details of the building’s construction, from its first planning in March 1833 until its completion, ready for occupancy, by December 11, 1834: - **3 Mo. 14, 1833** committee appointed on the building of a new meetinghouse (and continued over the next year) - **2 Mo. 6, 1834** to build a little north west of the Augustus Howland, $1600 subscribed. - **3 Mo. 13, 1834** Noah Dennis and Benjamin Gould to build meetinghouse. Lot for the meeting house is to contain 1 ½ acres & to be paid for, a suitable portion is to be prepared by proper fencing & draining for a burial ground for this preparative meeting. The whole lot is to be properly fenced. Good horse sheds are to be made of at least two hundred feet total length. Other requisite out buildings & enclosures are to be well made. The meeting house is to be faithfully --- \(^{44}\) Minutes of North Street Preparative Meeting (Orthodox), 12 Mo. 11, 1834. Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore. Thanks to Christopher Densmore for researching these. built of brick & about the size of North Street meeting house. The outside of the house & the inside, except the stairs, the galleries above them & the room, if any, over the entry, are to be finished. Neither this meeting nor any of its members are to be called upon for any further contributions towards the building described. 12 Mo. 11, 1834. Having for some time been deprived of our meeting house at our usual time by those who have separated from us subjecting us to much inconvenience particularly on first days we have thought best to build one 1 ½ mile west of Sheerwood [sic] Corners and it now being ready to occupy we propose to hold our next meeting there. Slocum Howland helped collect money to build the meetinghouse, for on 2 mo 1, 1837, Martha Heazlit (one of Slocum Howland’s sisters) wrote “Brother Slocum Howland” a letter noting that “I have subscribed twenty dollars towards building the meeting house for North Street preparative meeting but it not being convenient to pay it at this time I wish thee to pay it for me and I will pay it to thee on the decease of our dear mother soon as any comes to my hands from my deceased Father’s estate with interest from this on said subscription.” A note on the back read: “Received of Slocum Howland the within order of twenty dollars. Benjamin Gould.” Augustus Howland gave the land on which the new meetinghouse was built. In 1837, the deed officially conveyed one acre three rods, and seventeen perches to David Thomas and Benjamin Gould, subsequently conveyed to Slocum Howland, Abram M. Underhill, and Nicholas D. Tripp, Trustees of North Street Preparative Meeting, reserving from that conveyance the burial ground in the northwest corner of the property. As noted in the minutes of the meeting, the builders were Noah Dennis and Benjamin Gould, both Quakers. Noah Dennis was born between 1795 and 1800 in Cambridge, Washington County, New York. His parents were Wilbur John Dennis, born in Little Compton, Rhode Island in 1775, and his first wife. Wilbur John Dennis married twice more, one to Elizabeth Cornell Dennis, born in Easton, Washington County, New York, and again to Susanna Brown, in 1812. (Little Compton, Rhode Island, had a Quaker meetinghouse very similar in form to the 1810 Scipio Meetinghouse, and Scipio Meeting was organized originally under the care of Easton Friends Meeting.) Noah Dennis taught in the district school locally in 1817-18, became a civil engineer (according to the *History of Cayuga County*), and married Hannah Jane Gifford on October 27, 1831, in Ledyard, and they had a child Noah W. Dennis, born on August 22, 1832, at “Scipio Monthly Meeting.” Wilbur Dennis died on May 6, 1834, and his son Noah Dennis, one of the builders of the meetinghouse, also died sometime during that year. --- 45 Martha Heazlit to Slocum Howland, February 1, 1836, from Talcott Family Papers, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester. Martha Heazlit’s name is also spelled “Hazlitt” in genealogies and local records. 46 August Howland to David Thomas and Benjamin Gould, Deed Book H, page 12, Cayuga County Clerk’s Office. Thanks to Patricia White, descendant of Augustus Howland, for finding this. 47 *International Genealogical Index* ([http://iawt.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/gim.cgi?op=GET&db=brownermd1&id=140997](http://iawt.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/gim.cgi?op=GET&db=brownermd1&id=140997)); Emily Howland, “Early History of Friends in Cayuga County”; Elliott Storke, *History of Cayuga County* (1878), 424. Research by Tanya Warren. Benjamin Gould (1804-1888) was a Quaker, born in New York State about 1801. Benjamin Gould married Abby Gifford in 1825 at North Street Meeting (probably the meetinghouse then at Barber’s Corners). She died in February 1826. He then married Anna Heazlet, daughter of Martha Heazlet, Slocum Howland’s sister. When she died in 1869, age 66, he married a third time, Sylvia Ann Wood, another niece. Benjamin Gould and Anna Heazlet Gould had at least five children, all buried with them in the Howland family graveyard at the corner of Poplar Ridge and Angling Road.\footnote{International Genealogical Index; Cemetery Listings, online at Cayuga County Historian’s Office.} Grave of Benjamin Gould Howland Family Cemetery, looking west Poplar Ridge Road, near Angling Road July 2005 Benjamin Gould was just at the beginning of his career in the 1830s, but he eventually became one of central Cayuga County’s wealthiest farmers. The 1850 census listed Benjamin Gould as owning property worth $17,000. The 1853 Cayuga County map showed him owning several properties in Ledyard, including a large brick farmhouse on the south side of the Sherwood-Aurora Road, just east of Aurora, across the road from a farm that he had purchased in 1835 from Susannah Marriott and given to his son, Thomas. As per directions from the meeting to build this new meetinghouse “about the size of [the original] North Street meeting house,” the new building was actually slightly larger than the proposal had been for its predecessor. The original 1820 North Street Meetinghouse, as defined in the request to the builder, had been 32 x 44 feet. The new brick meetinghouse was about 48 feet wide by 45 feet deep.\footnote{Thanks to Christopher Densmore for finding these dimensions in the Scipio and North Street Preparative meeting minutes.} The new building, however, most likely reflected the basic floor plan of both the 1810 and the 1820 building. Its two front doors created separate entrances for men’s and women’s meetings for business. Inside, the interior could be divided by panels into separate rooms for business meetings for women and men, with facing benches for ministers and elders, who sat looking out toward the larger congregation. Local residents remembered these folding panels. Physical placement of the windows high on the north side indicated that facing benches were placed on the north wall to raise ministers and elders above the level of the congregation. In the early twenty-first century, construction of a third sash at the bottom of the one remaining high two-sash window (of the original two) revealed two unusual bricks hidden in the middle of the north wall, one reading “Peace and plenty” and the other inscribed with two intersecting diagonal lines, one crooked, the other straight. In \textit{Silent Witness: Quaker Meetinghouses in the Delaware Valley, 1695 to the Present}, Catherine C. Lavoie argued that this interior meeting plan, with equal spaces for men’s and women’s meetings, had become standard for American meetinghouses, by the late eighteenth century. English meetinghouses and those constructed earlier in colonial American had typically used one large meeting space for meetings for worship and for men’s meetings for business and created a smaller room for women’s meetings for business. In 1768, however, Buckingham Friends Meeting in Pennsylvania incorporated two equal sections in its meetinghouse, one for men and one for women. This new plan reflected a spiritual reform movement within Quakerism. Friends began to withdraw from worldly concerns, including the militarism of the French and Indian War and the increasing affluence of the society around them, to pay more attention to internal discipline, including, in 1762, “marrying out of meeting.” Since this offense was typically under the care of women’s meetings, this 1762 guideline elevated the role of women within Quaker meetings. It also led to a relatively standardized plan of meetinghouse construction, with one large meeting for worship that could be divided into two equal sections for men’s and women’s meetings for business.\(^{50}\) Both the 1810 Scipio meetinghouse and the 1834 North Street Preparative Meeting brick meetinghouse incorporated this basic interior layout. If the interior of the new North Street Meetinghouse reflected that of the 1810 Scipio Meetinghouse, however, its exterior did not. Built of brick, with its gable-end-to-the street, it was a dramatic departure in both materials and design from either the 1810 Scipio Meetinghouse or the 1820 North Street Meetinghouse. Still simple and plain, it was nevertheless both more sophisticated and more elegant than the earlier buildings. Where did North Street Meeting (Orthodox)—and builders Noah Dennis and Benjamin Gould—get their ideas for such a dramatically different building? They might have absorbed some influences from new Greek Revival designs in the larger culture. But one likely influence came from the Arch Street Meetinghouse in Philadelphia, home of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of Friends (Orthodox). Built in 1804 from a design by Quaker Owen Biddle, with a west wing added in 1811, it was a simple brick building, with a main central gable and a full pediment flanked by two wings—one each for the men’s and women’s yearly meetings. There were distinct differences between the two buildings. North Street Preparative Meetinghouse had no porticos and Arch Street Meetinghouse had three, one over each of the front doors, for the central hall and for the men’s and women’s meeting rooms. North Street Meetinghouse was distinctly Greek Revival in feel, with large limestone lintels, compared to the Roman Revival character of Arch Street, with Tuscan columns supporting each of the porticos. Arch Street Meetinghouse had one large central room with wings on each side for separate men’s and women’s meetings. When North Street Preparative Meetinghouse tried to incorporate the older interior plan of dividing one large room into two separate but equal spaces (which they had used so successfully in the earlier meetinghouse on Poplar Ridge Road), into a gable-end-to-the-street design, they created a building that was broader than it was deep (48 feet wide by 45 deep), so that the gable became very large and very wide. Cayuga County Quakers had regular contact with friends, family, and fellow Quakers in Philadelphia, including those who channeled freedom seekers north to safe houses in Cayuga County. In addition, they were attempting to establish their identities as Orthodox Friends (the real inheritors of George Fox’s tradition). They might well have patterned their new meetinghouse after the home of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Orthodox), the largest Yearly Meeting in North America, to make a statement about the validity of their own historical lineage. Were they trying to make this new North Street Meetinghouse into the Cayuga County equivalent of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting? Or perhaps they simply liked the way the Arch Street Meetinghouse looked, and they wanted to build in brick as a lasting contribution to the future. \(^{50}\) Catherine C. Lavoie, “Historic American Buildings Survey Recording of Friends Meetinghouses within the Region of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting,” *Silent Witness: Quaker Meetinghouses in the Delaware Valley, 1695 to the Present* (Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends with support from HABS, [2003]), 4-5, 25-26. Both Arch Street Meetinghouse and North Street Preparative Meetinghouse project a sense of balance, harmony, and quiet simplicity. Both are brick, with a main gable to the street, very different from anything else that Quakers had built in upstate New York. Friends used North Street Preparative Meetinghouse regularly into the late nineteenth century. On December 18, 1905, a quitclaim deed from Giles F. Slocum, Trustee of North Street Preparative Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends, returned the brick meetinghouse to George Howland. In April 1906, records of Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends noted that the North Street Meetinghouse had been sold. Sometime after 1906, the meetinghouse was converted into a barn.\(^{51}\) Many years later, North Street Meetinghouse became a private residence. **Significance: Social History of North Street Preparative Friends Meetinghouse** Immediately after Friends first occupied this meetinghouse, it became what Emily Howland, one member of the meeting, called “the storm center of reformers.” In 1835, Slocum Howland, trustee of North Street Meeting, signed an antislavery petition printed in *The Friend*, asking *The Friend* to cover more antislavery news. Other members of this monthly meeting, both men and women, also signed this petition, including trustee Abram M. Underhill, Charles Gifford, Abram Samuel Savage, Samuel Shords, David Thomas, Martha Heazlitt, Susannah Marriott, William King, and James C. Fuller. The last three were all originally British Friends, and James Canning Fuller, like Slocum Howland, was an extremely active Underground Railroad agent.\(^{52}\) On January 20, 1835, Friends from North Street Preparative Meeting (including Slocum Howland, Humphrey Howland, Allen Thomas, Josiah Letchworth, and Benjamin Gould) also signed the first antislavery petition sent to Congress from Cayuga County: > Your petitioners Inhabitants of the County of Cayuga and State of New York > Do earnestly entreat Your Honorable body to pass such laws at the present session that will immediately liberate the slaves in the District of Columbia, that all may enjoy freedom within the limits of our capital District and put it out of the power of any persons living at the seat of our government to exact the labor of a fellow being without paying satisfactory wages. > Your petitioners sensible of the excited feelings that rests on this subject do not ask Congress to interfere with slavery as it exists in any of the states. The experiment of immediately emancipating the slaves in the District of Columbia may be beneficial to the interest of those states where slavery is not abolished. \(^{51}\) Deed from Giles F. Slocum to George Howland, December 18, 1905, Deed Book U, Res. Deeds, page 577, filed March 5, 1906, Cayuga County Clerk’s Office. Thanks to Patricia White for finding this deed. Thanks to Jane Simkin and Christopher Densmore for research in the Scipio Monthly Meeting records, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College. Emily Howland to [Caroline] Putnam, January 8, 1906, transcript of letter in possession of Paul and Jane Simkin, Keeper of the Records of Poplar Ridge Monthly Meeting of Friends. A transcript of this letter is on the Cayuga County Historian’s website. \(^{52}\) *The Friend*, 9:11 (December 12, 1835). Your petitioners trust that the wisdom of Congress will easily devise some plan by which the slaves of the District may be liberate without injustice to any and to the entire satisfaction of all parties. January 20th 1835.\textsuperscript{53} Slocum Howland also regularly attended annual meetings of the American Anti-Slavery Society and subscribed to Frederick Douglass’s \textit{North Star} and \textit{Frederick Douglass’ Paper}. In 1852, he was president of a meeting of the “friends of freedom,” held in Port Byron, New York, that celebrated the emergence of slavery as the one great issue before the American people at the next election and freedom of speech, and of the press, as “the great weapon of defence of civil liberty; that when we part with these, we part with all; and we will, therefore, never associate nor vote with any political party that is willing to purchase peace from the enemy, by delivering as hostages our principal means of protection.”\textsuperscript{54} Emily Howland recalled that “there was much more freedom of speech there [in the brick meetinghouse] than there ever was in the South Street meeting, because David Thomas and Susan Marriott and my father [Slocum Howland] were active abolitionists as well as leading members of the meeting.” In contrast, when James Canning Fuller, “the little English Friend, who always wore knee breeches, was to give an address in that house on slavery, and when the speaker and some others arrived they found the house barred and bolted; nothing daunted, a window was raised. I think James himself crawled through it, unbolted the door on the inside, and so the audience assembled and held their meeting.” The home of James Canning Fuller and Lydia Fuller on West Genesee Street in Skaneateles is on the National Register as part of the Multiple Property Document of Historic Resources Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Central New York.\textsuperscript{55} In 1837, the Cayuga County Anti-Slavery Society, barred from holding its meeting in the Aurora Presbyterian Church, met in the North Street Meetinghouse. “The meeting was well attended principally by the Friends who are numerous in this quarter and quite generally abolitionists,” reported the \textit{Friend of Man}, newspaper of the New York State Anti-Slavery Society.\textsuperscript{56} In 1843, Abby Kelley, a Garrisonian abolitionist, spoke at an antislavery convention at the North Street Meetinghouse. Kelley’s first public speech was at a national women’s anti-slavery meeting held in Philadelphia in 1838. So hostile were local people to these abolitionist women, black and white, that they burned down the brand new hall around them. When Kelley made a tour through upstate New York for the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1843, she spoke out against churches as proslavery institutions, and so radical were her words that few people gave her space in which to lecture. The North Street Meetinghouse was an exception. At that convention, Emily Howland, then an impressionable sixteen-year-old girl, also met John Collins, founder of a Fourierist utopian community near Skaneateles, New York, and Thomas and Mary Ann M’Clintock and \textsuperscript{53} National Archives and Records Administration, HR23A-H1.2. \textsuperscript{54} Howland, Emily, “Early History of Friends in Cayuga County, N.Y., Read before the Cayuga County Historical Society, April 8th, 1880,” \textit{Collections of Cayuga County Historical Society}, 2 (1882): 49-90, online through Cayuga County Historian’s Office; \textit{North Star}, January 25, 1850; \textit{Frederick Douglass’ Paper}, March 18, 1852; August 13, 1852; May 13, 1853; August 24, 1855. \textsuperscript{55} Emily Howland to Caroline Putnam, January 8, 1908, from Jane Simkin, online at Cayuga County Historian’s Office website. \textsuperscript{56}\textit{Friend of Man}, December 27, 1837. their daughters, Elizabeth, Mary Ann (and perhaps also Sarah and Julia), who in 1848 helped organize the first woman’s rights convention in the United States at Seneca Falls, New York. “Those were thrilling, mentally active times in this country,” remembered Emily Howland. “The struggle to improve caused intense activity and brightening of the mind in that time.”57 About 1843, hundreds of citizens of Cayuga County—from Auburn, Springport, Venice, Ledyard, and Scipio—sent six petitions to Congress (one signed by men and women and the rest signed only by men) supporting the claims of Seneca Indians to keep their lands in western New York. Members of North Street Preparative Meeting signed at least one of these, signed by [Josiah] Letchworth, Allen Thomas, Slocum Howland, Humphrey Howland, Augustus Howland, and others (155 men in all) that read: To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States in Congress Assembled: The undersigned, inhabitants of the County of Cayuga in the States of New York being convinced that a majority of the Seneca Nation of Indians are decidedly averse to emigration, and have never given their assent to the treaty for the sale of their lands, as amended by the Senate, and believing that the honour, dignity, and interest of the United States do not require that Treaty to be forced upon said Indians; would most respectfully petition your Bodies to adopt such measures, as in your wisdom shall appear best adapted to sustain the honor of the Unites States, and prevent injustice to the Indians [sic].58 Other reformers and reform movements left their mark on the North Street Meetinghouse. Harriot Hunt, an early woman physician, lectured there. Emily Howland remembered little about her lecture except that she was “a bright lovable woman,” with “fat dimpled hands” and “a little fat figure,” and “a young woman who was one of her hearers thought some of her allusions to maternity were immodest.”59 In 1850, William Chaplin, an antislavery editor and Underground Railroad activist, attempted to rescue about fifty people from slavery in Washington, D.C., including two teenaged girls, Mary and Emily Edmondson. Captured and thrown in jail in Maryland, Chaplin’s only hope of survival was to raise bail and escape to the North. The North Star, September 5, 1850, noted that meetings to raise money for William Chaplin’s bail would be held in Ledyard on Friday, September 20, 1850, at which the Edmondson sisters as well as many other noted abolitionists would speak. At a large meeting in the North Street Meetinghouse, abolitionists raised money not only for Chaplin’s bail but also for an inscribed silver pitcher to commemorate Chaplin’s bravery. Emily Howland collected money, a dime from each donor. A notice printed in the New York Tribune and reprinted in the Syracuse Standard, September 14, 1850, noted that this silver pitcher was ordered by “a Committee of Ladies in Western new-York” from the firm of Jones, Ball, and Poor, in New York, and contained the following inscription: To WILLIAM L. CHAPLIN, IN PRISON, from 57 Emily Howland to Caroline Putnam, January 8, 1906, from Jane Simkin, online at Cayuga County Historian’s Office website. 58 Sent to Christopher Morgan with five other other similar petitions, National Archives and Records Administration, HR27A-H1.6. 59 Emily Howland to Caroline Putnam, January 8, 1906, from Jane Simkin, online at Cayuga County Historian’s Office website. ONE THOUSAND OF HIS FRIENDS, A Testimonial of their high regard for his Character. August 8th, 1850. On the other side, it read: "Blessed is he that considereth the poor; the Lord will deliver him in time of trouble" Ps. XII.1. No one was allowed to contribute more than ten cents. Since the pitcher cost $100, one thousand women, young and old, contributed.\(^{60}\) During the Civil War, women in Scipio met at the North Street Meetinghouse to sew clothes for freed people of color.\(^{61}\) On a regular basis, Emily Howland remembered "many weddings and many funerals, and hundreds of hours have I sat on the hard seats as motionless as the sphinx in perfect silence and sometimes when there was speaking I thought that 'silence was golden and speech silver.' The social life in the lobby before and after meeting was the best part of it." One of Emily Howland's most welcome memories was of Edna Thomas, "rosy, her face handsome," who was not only an abolitionist but also a believer in woman's rights. Howland looked forward to "heart-to-heart chats" with Edna Thomas and "enjoyed meeting her more than any other person whom I met there." Edna and her husband David had a large nursery just west of the meetinghouse, and Edna Thomas "often brought me a bouquet in the season of flowers." "Yet more, she never wore an expression of reproof and rebuke, as many of the elder friends did when they met any of us younger members." In addition to these European American reformers, North Street Meeting may have had at least one African American member. Richard Gaskin, born in Virginia, brought his family (including his wife Mary and his four children) to Ledyard in 1864. By 1869, they had purchased a home on Dixon Road. Gaskin joined a Quaker meeting in Scipio, most likely this one, where his neighbor, William King, was also a member.\(^{62}\) North Street Preparative Meeting was also a center of Quaker education, including education for girls. Susannah Marriott, b. 1769, immigrated from England about 1793, spending time in Dutchess County, New York; Muncy, Pennsylvania; and Manhattanville, New York, before moving to Ledyard. Susannah Marriott settled in Aurora, where she took over a school that she named Brier Cliff, after her birthplace in England, from 1820-27. Earlier, daughters of Judge Elijah Miller in Auburn—Lizette and Frances—later Lizette Miller Worden and Frances Seward, wife of William Henry Seward, who would both become strong abolitionists—attended this school. From 1824 to 1835, Susannah Marriott owned a house still standing on the north side of the Sherwood-Aurora Road, later owned by Benjamin Gould, his son Thomas Gould, Thomas Gould’s daughter, Mrs. Gilcher, and then an African American family named Beck. In 1827, \(^{60}\) Syracuse Standard, September 14, 1850. Vertical file, Onondaga Historical Association. \(^{61}\) Emily Howland to Caroline Putnam, January 8, 1906, from Jane Simkin, online at Cayuga County Historian’s Office website; \(^{62}\) Scipio Monthly Meeting Records, found by Jane Simkin, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore. Susannah Marriott purchased a house on the corner of Court Street and the Sherwood Road in Aurora. She later purchased a house on the Brick Church Road, just north of the North Street Meetinghouse.\(^{63}\) After she left Brier Cliff, she continued to run schools. She was listed in the 1820 census as operating a school with several pupils boarding in her home. Emily Howland probably attended her school about 1836, because she listed Susannah Marriott as one of the three most influential people in her life. Susannah Marriott was one of several signers from North Street Preparative Meeting of the antislavery petition published in *The Friend*, a Quaker newspaper, in 1835. For not everyone in North Street meeting was a reformer. Many were very conservative in their dress, speech, and attitudes, focused on maintaining traditional Quaker ways rather than on changing the larger world. “Sometimes when the bonnet rose skyward too high,” remembered Howland, as the fashion of those days required, a reproving hand would be raised to press the lofty front down to a lower level. This was a kind of freedom that was decidedly exasperating to the victim and made an unpleasant impression that must endure as long as life lasts. They knew not what they did; they thought they were doing their duty: they permitted their lives to run in such narrow grooves that instead of enforcing the value of high moral sentiments, they put all of their emphasis on their peculiarities, which give no reason for their strenuous enforcement of saying “thee” instead of “you,” except that it was the rule of their society. . . .It used to seem to me that they said more about it than they did about what was really wrong.\(^{64}\) **Conclusion** In 1996, the New York Landmarks Conservancy noted in a report on the Amawalk Friends Meetinghouse that “the architectural design of American Quaker Meetinghouses developed independently without formal directives but according to “the sense of the meeting.”” “Plainness, simplicity, and symmetry were fundamental design principles and any functional requirements were minimal.”\(^{65}\) Its incorporation of one main room for worship with a divider to create room of equal size of men’s and women’s meeting for business reflected a standard interior plan for Quaker meetinghouses that emerged in the late eighteenth century in response to a new emphasis on the importance of women’s meetings. Its exterior design was a dramatic departure from early Quaker meetinghouses in New York State and may have been influenced by the 1804 Arch Street Meetinghouse, home of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Orthodox). The North Street Meetinghouse as it stands today communicates the ideals of plainness, simplicity, symmetry, integrity, and honesty that its builders incorporated in 1834. Its exterior and much of its interior possess an exceptional degree of integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association. --- \(^{63}\) Deed searches by Tanya Warren. Deed, Charles Kimball to Susannah (Susan) Marriott, both of Ledyard, Book FF, p. 360, December 2, 1826, for $400. \(^{64}\) Emily Howland to Caroline Putnam, January 8, 1906, from Jane Simkin, online at Cayuga County Historian’s Office website. \(^{65}\) “Quaker Meetinghouse Architecture: Amawalk Friends Meeting House”, New York Landmarks Conservancy, *Common Bond*, Volume 12, No.2 [American Religious Buildings, 2], October 1996. Quoted in National Register nomination for Easton Meetinghouse. In addition, the North Street Meetinghouse is significant for its association with nineteenth century reform movements, especially abolitionism and woman’s rights. As a “storm center of reform,” it attracted nationally-known speakers, such as Abby Kelley and Harriot Hunt. Its members included Slocum Howland, keeper of the most important Underground Railroad station in Cayuga County outside of Auburn; his daughter Emily Howland, whose work with schools for freed people of color and for woman’s suffrage made Sherwood a major center of activism for both African American and woman’s rights; and Susannah Marriott, whose work with Briercliff, a school for girls in Aurora, New York, and other schools in the Ledyard area helped make Aurora a center for women’s education to the present day. Many thanks to Christopher Densmore, Jane Simkin, Patricia White, Carrie Barrett, Alison Van Dyke, Sheila Edmunds, Bradley Mitchell, Bernard Corcoran, Mary Huth, Judy Furness, and Tanya Warren for their help with research for this description. --- **CAYUGA COUNTY ABOLITIONIST MEETING** The Cayuga County Anti-Slavery Society held an anti-slavery meeting in the Methodist Church on the North Street, Aurora, on the 24th inst. The meeting was well attended, there being upwards of 150 persons present, including many from Le Roy, Seneca Falls and M. W. Harris, and we passed the following resolutions: Whereas, the institution which we have received from our ancestors at the time of our country's formation, is the only thing left of the community free among us today; and upon slavery, torture and murder, a part of our first children's inheritance, and further enslavement of our posterity and ourselves. And whereas the law, which is now being so harshly administered, is the cause of the bloodshed and suffering which has been so general, and which the country is threatened with, when the people are called by such terrible circumstances, and shall exhibit their power to make the law, through and be obeyed. Whether the peace of the public nation was preserved by the late war or not, is another: And others --- *Friend of Man*, December 27, 1837 Courtesy of Cornell University Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Taber House Barber’s Corners Levanna Road Town of Ledyard Significance: Strong oral tradition connects this house to Underground Railroad Description: Located on the Levanna Road, at the northwest corner of the crossroads at Barber’s corners, this three-bay brick house has a center doorway and large stone lintels, similar to those on the North Street Meetinghouse (Orthodox) and the Benjamin Gould house just east of Aurora. The stone lintels, combined with six-over-six windows and an lunette window in the gable end suggest a construction date in the mid-1830s. A large frame addition extends to the west. Kevin Hunt, whose grandmother owned the house, did a detailed description of this building. He described a false wall and concealed passageway on the second floor.\(^{66}\) Significance: A strong local tradition identifies this house with the Underground Railroad, but no documentary evidence has so far been found that connects the owners of this house to abolitionism. The Wood family came from Maryland to Barber’s Corners about 1809, bringing Whittington Armwood in slavery, and Whittington Armwood and his son Timothy later purchased property in the area. Beginning in 1817, this was also near the site of a the North Street Preparative Meeting of Scipio Monthly Meeting of Friends, who built a meetinghouse in 1820 just north of here, on the north side of the Levanna Road. The Gifford family name is a Quaker name, so this house may have been owned by Quakers. \(^{66}\) Kevin Hunt, “The Brick House,” paper on file in Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Records show William R. Taber to be the second owner after James Barber and many subsequent owners and inheritors followed: | Grantee | Date | |--------------------------|------------| | Susannah & Edward Dorland| Mar 25, 1861| | Mary Ann Gifford | Apr 1, 1873 | | Arthur & Jessie Gifford | May 30, 1898| | Oscar Hill | Mar 1, 1901 | | John Ganlin | Apr 1, 1912 | | Fannie Carr | Sept 30, 1921| | Jay Harwood | Jul 2, 1935 | | Jon & Lotie Scott | Nov 7, 1935 | | Wallace & Viola Chapman | Nov 28, 1936| | Edgar Mosher | Oct 21, 1937| | Mary Mosher | Oct 28, 1939| | Mary Jane Gatsby | May 21, 1940| | Paul & Dorothea Farnham | May 16, 1947| | Hazel E. Stearn | Feb 6, 1955 | | Verda E. Hunt | Jun 28, 1963| Deed research by Kevin Hunt, “The Brick House,” paper on file in Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Site of James Tate Home Dublin Hill Road Aurora, New York Significance: Home of African American who was formerly enslaved in New York State February 2005 Looking south In 1855, James Tate, age 39, was a boarder with Stephen Gifford, butcher. According to an 1851 poll list, he voted that year, which means that he owned property worth at least $250. In 1856, he was listed in Cornelius Cuyler’s administration/will papers as owing a loan for $21.28. In 1860, he was, a farmer, age 43, living alone in Aurora, two doors down from the Saul and Lucretia Youngs family, with property worth $1300. Deeds and maps reflect ownership as willed to Tate via James Avery will and deed for Dublin Hill property. He was buried at Oak Glen Cemetery. --- 67 Deed Book 96, p. 170. Deed Book 123, p. 341. Deed Book 123, p. 340-341. Deed Book 124, p. 247. Deed research by Tanya Warren. Poll book, Cornelius Cuyler information, and cemetery records thanks to Sheila Edmunds, Historian, Village of Aurora. Saul and Lucretia Youngs House Dublin Hill Road Aurora, New York Significance: Home of African Americans born in slavery Description: The Saul and Lucretia Youngs house is a two-story gable-and-wing house unsoffited eaves and with a porch with two simple supports. Windows (with single-pane sashes) and siding (with shingles) have been changed in the twentieth century. Significance: Saul and Lucretia Young, born in New York State, ages 49 and 45, appeared in the 1850 census in Ledyard, with Mary (age 20), Caroline (18), Arien ? (age 9), Charles (7), and George (age 3). By 1855, only Charles (13) and George (9) were still living at home. Saul, age 54, was listed as born in Queens, a boat builder, who had lived in Ledyard for 28 years. Lucretia had lived all of her fifty years in Ledyard. They lived in a frame house worth $250 but were not listed as landowners. Ann E., now 16, was a servant with John Leech, and Caroline, now 18, was a servant with William and Jane Bryant. By 1865, Saul had died, and Lucretia owned property... worth $450. Her children (George, Eliza, and Carrie) lived with her. By 1870, “Lenerva” Young was 68 years old and listed in the census as “with Wells College.” Deeds amplify this picture. In 1831, Saul Youngs purchased 36 Rods of land in Aurora on Main St. from Lazarus Ewer. It is not clear how this related to the Dublin Hill property, or when the family acquired the land on Dublin Hill Road. Saul Youngs appeared as both debtor to and grave digger for Cornelius Cuyler of Aurora. Youngs still owned property on Dublin Hill Road in 1904. Sources: 1850, 1855, 1865 Census. (The Youngs family appears in the 1860 census but without a designation as African Americans.) Deed book NN, p. 195. Cornelius Cuyler Estate papers, Ledyard Town Hall, Judy Furness, Town Historian. Site of Fillmore Boyhood Home Carver Road, just west of North Glen Haven Road Niles, New York Significance: Site of boyhood home of President Millard Fillmore, signer of Fugitive Slave Act Looking northwest July 2005 Photo by Paul Malo Sign reads: “Boyhood Site, 1802-1816, Millard Fillmore, 13th President of the United States.” This home was moved to the front of the Purchase farm barns. When the barn was about the collapse, The Cayuga County Agricultural Museum salvaged beams from it and then the local fire department burned it down, not realizing its significance.\textsuperscript{1} For more discussion of the importance of this site for abolitionism and the Underground Railroad, see Fillmore Birthplace Cabin: Replica, Cayuga County: South. \textsuperscript{1} Sheila Tucker, email, August 10, 2005. Rounds Grist Mill Complex (National Register) Glen Haven Road and New York 41A New Hope Mills Niles, New York Significance: Workplace of Sampson Eddy, freedom seeker Description: This large frame mill, situated in a glen, is virtually in original condition, with mill pond, race, wheel, and machinery still intact, in operating condition, producing grain. Looking northwest Photo by Paul Malo May 2005 commercially until a few years ago. Owners intend to open it as a museum. It was placed on the National Register in the fall of 2004. **Significance:** Sampson Eddy represents a pattern that some African Americans born in slavery followed, as they joined the Union Army during the Civil War and came North to settle in upstate New York when the War was over. Eddy left a special mark, because he had a remarkable gift as a Christian evangelical preacher. Sampson Eddy was born in slavery in Goldsboro, North Carolina, in 1844. According to Eddy’s obituary, “Sampson’s life as a slave as related by him was anything but pleasant. He bore the marks of the lash until his dying day, not because he refused to obey his master but because he had become a Christian and had learned to pray, and his master was trying to whip the praying out of him.” When the Civil War began, Sampson’s master, Colonel Handy, kept him as a waiter in the Confederate Army. During the battle of Goldsboro, which took place on Handy’s plantation, Sampson was captured by Union troops. He joined the Union Army and served for three years. At the end of the war, he came North to Skaneateles, New York, where he worked for many years for a man named Gillett. He married Mary Caesar and moved to Sempronius for a few years before moving to New Hope about 1880, where he worked for the Rounds Milling Company for almost 35 years. After the death of Mary Caesar Eddy and six children, he married Mary Williams of Auburn, who survived him, along with two children, at his death in New Hope on December 30, 1909. He was buried in New Hope Cemetery.\(^2\) Sampson Eddy was “a preacher of power and one fervent in prayer. He conducted evangelistic and worship services in local churches and school houses, private homes and camp meetings.” In 1936, the local Methodist Church, to which his widow and son still belonged, installed a window in Eddy’s memory.\(^3\) Research by Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian. --- \(^2\) Obituary, Sampson Eddy, *Moravia Republican-Register*, January 7, 1910, reprinted in Leslie L. Luther, *Moravia and Its Past* (Moravia: F. Luther and Co., 1966). \(^3\) *Moravia Republican-Register*, February 28, 1936, quoted in Leslie L. Luther, *Moravia and Its Past* (Moravia: F. Luther and Co., 1966). New Hope (Niles) *Map of Cayuga County, New York, 1859.* Rounds Grist Mill is at north end of large pond at right of crossroads. Methodist Episcopal Church is second building south of crossroads on the left. Mid-Lakes United Methodist Church of New Hope New York 41A Niles, New York Significance: Church of freedom seeker after the Civil War Sampson Eddy, born in slavery in Goldsboro, North Carolina, worked at Rounds Mills in New Hope, New York, for almost thirty-five years. He was “a preacher of power and one fervent in prayer. He conducted evangelistic and worship services in local churches and school houses, private homes and camp meetings.” He died in 1909 and was buried in the New Hope cemetery. In 1936, the local Methodist Church, to which his widow and son still belonged, installed a window in Eddy’s memory.\(^4\) See description for Rounds Mills, New Hope, for more details about Eddy’s life. Research by Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian. \(^4\) *Moravia Republican-Register*, February 28, 1936, quoted in Leslie L. Luther, *Moravia and Its Past* (Moravia: F. Luther and Co., 1966). Memorial window to Sampson Eddy installed 1936. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 New Hope (Niles) *Map of Cayuga County, New York, 1859.* Rounds Grist Mill is at north end of large pond at right of crossroads. Methodist Episcopal Church is second building south of crossroads on the left. Emily Howland House 34B Sherwood, New York Significance: Home of abolitionists, Underground Railroad supporters, and woman’s rights activist Looking northeast November 2004 Description: Built about 1808 by Seth Sherwood, founder of the hamlet of Sherwood, this house was a simple frame gable-and-wing when the Slocum and Hannah Howland family purchased it in 1857. It still retains much of its original character, with six-over-six window sashes, a portico with Ionic columns, a doorway with ornate lights and a square block over the center. Sometime later in the century, however, probably after her father’s death in 1881, Emily Howland added Queen Anne window sashes with colored glass, rounded-topped bay windows, and other features that reflected 1880s and later renovations. Significance: Born in 1827, Emily Howland was an important figure in both abolitionism and woman’s rights from the mid-nineteenth century until her death in 1929. Beginning in 1857, she worked in schools for free people of color in Washington, D.C., and Virginia, and she (and her father Slocum Howland until he died) continued to support these schools until her death. When she returned to Sherwood, she began her own school, which later became part of the local public school system and is still called the Emily Howland School. With her niece, Isabel Howland, she played an active role in the woman’s rights and woman’s suffrage movement. One of the largest celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the Seneca Falls woman’s rights convention anywhere in the country took place in Sherwood, New York, and Susan B. Anthony and other national leaders visited Emily and Isabel Howland in Sherwood. Today, the Howland Stone Store Museum has an exceptional collection of woman’s rights posters and other memorabilia, the direct result of the work of Emily and Isabel Howland. For more on the work of Emily Howland, see Judith Colucci Breault, *The World of Emily Howland* (Milbrae, California: LesFemmes, 1976). Mildred D. Myers, *Miss Emily: Emily Howland, Teacher of Freed Slaves, Suffragist, and Friend of Susan B. Anthony and Harriet Tubman* (Charlotte Harbor, Florida: Tabby House, 1998). Carol Faulkner, *Women's Radical Reconstruction: The Freedmen's Aid Movement* (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003). Howland papers are available at Cornell University, Friends Historical Library at Swarthmore, and the University of Rochester. A thorough biography of Emily Howland and the Slocum Howland family remains to be written. Slocum and Hannah Howland House, c. 1830 (National Register) Sherwood, Town of Scipio Significance: Center of Underground Railroad in central Cayuga County Looking northeast November 2004 Photo courtesy of Hazard Library Poplar Ridge, New York Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Howland House, 1969 Courtesy Fay and Louie Rood Slocum and Hannah Howland House, looking toward hotel and store Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 November 2004, Looking NE On the road to Aurora, just west of Route 34B and the four corners in Sherwood, New York, Slocum and Hannah Howland’s simple frame house stands, faded red paint still visible under the eaves, flanked by a huge old maple tree. Its modest appearance belies its importance as the center—along with the Howland Store—as one of the most important Underground Railroad nodes in Cayuga County. Sustained by his commitment to the Light within all people, part of the core worldview of the Society of Friends to which he belonged, and by a national network of radical abolitionists centered in the American Antislavery Society, Slocum Howland used his economic resources (including his store, his tenant houses, and his port facilities at Levanna, on Cayuga Lake) to help freedom seekers move to Canada and to find homes and jobs for those who wanted to settle in Cayuga County. These included Thomas Hart, Jerome Grieger, Herman and Hannah Phillips, and perhaps Richard and Mary Gaskin. Howland’s local allies included other family members (son-in-law Josiah Letchworth and son and daughter-in-law, William and Hannah Howland) and Quakers Matthias and Hannah Hutchinson at King Ferry and David and Edna Thomas of Scipio. Quite likely, local African American families, (including the Hart, Phillips, and Griger families, who escaped from slavery in the South, and the Armwood, Cooper, Tate, and Cromwell families, who had been manumitted in New York State) were also part of this network. Slocum Howland was the youngest of six children of Benjamin and Mary Howland, Quakers who had migrated from Dartmouth, Massachusetts, to Saratoga County, New York, where Slocum was born September 20, 1794. When Slocum was about three years old, the family moved once more, this time to Scipio, Cayuga County, where they purchased 85 acres of land. As a mason, Benjamin Howland found steady work constructing many early houses, including his own, in 1797-98, a simple two-story saltbox which still stands on the road west of Poplar Ridge, on land now occupied by the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station.\(^5\) \(^5\) “Biography of Slocum Howland,” *1894 Biographical Review* (Boston: Biographical Review Publishing Company, 1894), online through Cayuga County Historian’s Office; Emily Howland, “Early History of Friends in Cayuga County, N.Y., Read before the Cayuga County Historical Society, April 8th, 1880,” *Collections of Cayuga County Historical Society*, 2 (1882): 49-90, online through Cayuga County Historian’s Office. In 1821, Slocum Howland married Hannah Tallcott, who in 1807 had settled with her parents, Joseph and Sarah Tallcott on a farm one-quarter mile north of the Howlands. The Tallcotts, too, were an abolitionist family. In 1836, Joseph Tallcott visited African American settlements in Canada. Joseph Tallcott also gained considerable renown as an educator.\(^6\) When he married, Slocum Howland became clerk in the store of his brother-in-law, Richard Tallcott, at Tallcott’s Corners. When Richard Tallcott moved to Skaneateles in 1821, Slocum went into partnership with another brother-in-law, Thomas Alsop (his sister Mary’s husband) in Sherwood. This partnership dissolved, and in 1831 Howland took a nephew, Ledra Heazlet, as partner. After Heazlet’s death, Howland made his son William his partner, and the firm was known as Howland and Son until Slocum Howland died in 1881.\(^7\) Howland’s Underground Railroad work was rooted in two major aspects of his life: his Quaker worldview and his economic position at the center of a farflung network of trade. As a Quaker, Howland had been raised with the core belief that, as George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends, had suggested, people should “walk cheerfully over the earth, answering that of God in everyone.” Judging by his life’s work, Howland took that admonition to heart. In the splits among Quakers beginning in 1828, the Howlands continued to attend meeting at the Brick Meetinghouse, an Orthodox Quaker --- \(^6\)Joseph Tallcott, *Memoirs and Letters of Joseph Tallcott* (Auburn: Miller, Orton, and Mulligan, Printers, 1855). Thanks to Pat White for transcribing selections relating to slavery. Joseph Bowne to Joseph Tallcott, December 3, 1836, Howland Family Papers, Cornell University. Thanks to James Driscoll, Queens Historical Society, for finding this. Joseph Tallcott was born in 1768 and lived in Sherwood from at least the 1830s, where he died August 20, 1853. \(^7\)“Biography of Slocum Howland,” 1894. meeting (although, as Emily Howland suggested, they did not themselves use that term) that invited radical abolitionists such as the Garrisonian Abby Kelley to speak.\(^8\) Slocum Howland’s business dealings need much further, detailed study. Broadly, however, Slocum Howland’s store in Sherwood seems to have been the anchor for a farflung trading network that involved the collection, transportation, and sale to both regional and national markets not only of Cayuga County agricultural goods but also the new iron plow invented by Howland’s brother-in-law Jethro Wood. The early 1830s were a period of economic expansion for the country as a whole, and Slocum Howland seems to have shared in the general well-being. Although a massive depression hit the nation in 1837, Howland was still doing well enough to complete a new stone store that year. Howland probably built his house about the same time. With its pedimented gable facing the street, it reflects Greek Revival influences, consistent with this period. Most likely, farmers from all over central Cayuga County brought produce such as wheat, wool, and pork to Howland’s store, where Howland barreled it and sent it in wagons to his port at Levanna. There, with the help of African Americans such as Alfred Tate (whose parents, James’ and Dinah Tate, had been born in slavery in New York State), Rome (or Jerome) Grieger (who was almost certainly a freedom seeker), and Grieger’s son, Sherburne Grieger, Howland loaded these agricultural goods onto lake boats and sent them north to Cayuga Village, where he transferred them once more to wagons for transport along the Seneca Turnpike to the Seneca and Cayuga Canal at Seneca Falls or, in the case of raw wool, to factories at Seneca Falls, Waterloo, or Auburn. In 1868, 40,000 to 60,000 bushels of grain were shipped out of Levanna.\(^9\) One other product accounted for much of Howland’s extraordinary commercial success. That was the iron plow designed by his oldest sister, Sylvia’s husband, Jethro Wood. Patented in 1819?, this plow proved far superior to the wooden plows with iron tips that farmers had used earlier. As European American farm families settled the western U.S., markets for Jethro Wood’s plows expanded. Manufactured in Moravia in the southern part of Cayuga County, these plows were assembled in Sherwood and sent to market through Howland’s store and port facilities. [Check this whole sentence.] Howland’s store, then, did not serve simply a small local or even regional rural clientele. It was part of an emerging national market economy, tied to a transportation network that involved local roads, lakes, turnpikes, and canals. This transportation network sustained more than Howland’s prosperous business interests, however. Human beings also traveled these routes for reasons other than business. Some of them were escaping from slavery. The long length of Cayuga County, with Cayuga Lake on the west side, running north and south from Ithaca to Lake Ontario, bisected by the Seneca Turnpike and the Erie Canal, acted like a funnel for freedom seekers. And Slocum Howland’s house and store—with wagons going constantly south to Moravia, west to Levanna on Cayuga Lake, and north to Auburn and Skaneateles—was right in the middle of this network. Slocum Howland’s Underground Railroad activism was sustained by his abolitionist connections. In 1835, he (along with Susannah Marriott, William King, David Thomas, James C. Fuller, Martha Heazlt, Samuel Savage, Charles Gifford, and Asa M. Underhill from Scipio Monthly Meeting and other Friends from Farmington Monthly Meeting) signed an antislavery petition printed in *The Friend*. “We feel it to be our duty as Christians, to endeavour, according to our ability, to disseminate more widely, and to impress more deeply, the doctrine that slavery, as it exists in this country, is utterly repugnant both to the letter and to the spirit of the Bible, and that the only proper and safe course is to abandon it immediately and altogether. . . .though we desire to make due allowance for the difficulties of the slaveholder, we view the system of --- \(^8\) Emily Howland, “Early History of Friends,” online; Emily Howland to \(^9\) Carol Sisler, *Cayuga Lake: Past, Present, and Future* (Ithaca: Enterprise Publishing, 1989), 49. slavery with uncompromising disapprobation.\textsuperscript{10} In 1852, Slocum Howland was president of a meeting of the “friends of freedom of the 27\textsuperscript{th} Congressional District,” held in Port Byron. This meeting affirmed slavery as the pressing issue of the day, deemed freedom of speech and of the press as “the great weapon of defence of civil liberty,” hoped that “honest men, of all shades of opinion, will rally upon the common ground of opposition to slavery,” and appointed William R. Smith of Wayne County and Abijah Fitch and James Cox of Cayuga County to represent the group at a convention in Pittsburgh of the friends of freedom.\textsuperscript{11} We do not know how many people came through Cayuga County on their way to Canada before the end of the Civil War. It is reasonable to assume that there were many hundreds and perhaps thousands. Just as many Quakers from Scipio Monthly Meeting had come from Pennsylvania, so Quaker connections in Pennsylvania sent many freedom seekers to central Cayuga County. In 1928, Emily Howland, Slocum’s daughter, noted in a letter to Leonard Searing, Cayuga County historian, that my father’s house was a station for those who fled from slavery. I can remember several arrivals from what was called the patriarchal institution. There was Herman Phillips, his wife and four children, comgin about 1843. At another time two young men, all from Maryland. Another man came from West Virginia. Footsore and weary they reached here, having walked all the way. They were usually sent forward from a station in Pennsylvania, by John Mann, a Friend who was head of a school. Some came from another station farther south, the home of Dr. Fussell. All of these stations were the homes of Friends. The fugitives whom I have mentioned felt so safe that they made their home here.\textsuperscript{12} Many freedom seekers chose to stay in Cayuga County, rather than travel on to Canada. The Town of Ledyard, just south of Sherwood, had more African Americans listed in the census than any other town in Cayuga County. [Check #]. Some of these had been born in New York State, either in slavery or freedom. Others, however, had been born in the South. At least three of these families were directly associated with Slocum Howland during the period that the Howland family lived in this house. Probably others were, too, but we lack documentation for them. 1. Thomas and James Hart, 1840. On April 9, 1840, John Mann, a Friend who kept a school somewhere in Pennsylvania, addressed the following on a small piece of paper to “Slocum Howland, Sherwood’s Corner, Scipio, N.Y., Owego, Ithaca.”: I have mailed two passengers to thee, in the “shank’s horse diligence”: baggage free, and at the risk of the owners. 9\textsuperscript{th} of 4\textsuperscript{th} mo. 1840. John Mann This is a remarkable and rare extant example of a pass for two freedom seekers. A note in shaky handwriting at the bottom, probably Slocum Howland’s own hand, adds details: This note introduced two fugitives from Slavery in Maryland Thomas and James Hart, stalwart vigorous and young. Emily Howland implied later that both Thomas and James remained in the area, but only Thomas Hart’s name appeared in the Cayuga County census. He married Sarah Jane Cromwell, daughter of William and \textsuperscript{10} \textit{The Friend} 9:11 (Twelfth Month 19, 1835). Thanks to Christopher Densmore, Curator, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore, for finding this. \textsuperscript{11} \textit{Frederick Douglass’ Paper}, August 13, 1852. \textsuperscript{12} Emily Howland to Leonard Searing, October 8, 1928. See also March 19, 1929. Copies on Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Originals probably from Howland Collection, Swarthmore. Zilpah Cromwell of Aurora, and Sarah Jane’s name, the owned a home next to the African American Cromwell-Cooper family on the shore of Cayuga Lake in Aurora, just west of Sherwood, where they lived at least until the 1880s.[Check all this.] 2. Hannah and Herman Phillips. This family arrived from Maryland in 1843 with four children, the youngest an infant. Discovered by a neighbor from Maryland, who visited Sherwood, they fled to Canada, where their son James was born in 1849. Canada, however, was too cold for them, reported Emily Howland, and they returned to the U.S., only to be confronted with the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. Again fearing for their lives, they once more contemplated flight. Slocum Howland, however, apparently purchased their freedom, and in 1856, the family bought a small plot of land just north of the village. They most likely moved a couple of older houses from the corner near Howland’s store and created a two-story frame house, which has recently been listed on the Network to Freedom. Three sons served in the Civil War, and Hannah, Herman, son James, and daughter-in-law Rose Gaskin Phillips are all buried in the Sherwood village cemetery, across the street from their house.\(^{13}\) 3. Rome Grieger. We know very little about Rome (Jerome) Grieger (Griger, Grigor), except what he told various census takers. Consistently, he reported his occupation as carpenter. He was ? years old in 1850. . . . From one census year to another, however, he variously reported his place of birth as Spain, unknown, the West Indies, and ? [Check]. It is reasonable to assume that Griegor was a freedom seeker, and that to protect his identity, he did not tell the census takers (or us) his real place of birth. We do know that he and his son, Sherburne, both owned small pieces of property directly across from Slocum Howland’s docks, right next to Howland’s warehouse at Levanna Square, so we can surmise that he was an integral part of the operations of that port. 4. Richard and Mary Gaskin. Emily Howland mentioned another man who settled in the area “from West Virginia.” Since West Virginia did not separate from Virginia until Virginia seceded from the Union at the start of the Civil War, it is a puzzle as to who this might be. Richard and Mary Gaskin and their four children, all born in Virginia, did arrive in Cayuga County in 1864, however, and purchased land on Dixon Road in Ledyard in 1869, next to the home of John and Susan King, Friends from England who had taken care of the famous Quaker teachers, Susannah Marriott, in her old age. Richard Gaskin may have been the West Virginia man that Emily Howland referred to. Slocum and Hannah Howland had three children—William, Emily, and Benjamin. Benjamin died when a young man, but Slocum’s reform legacy lived on through his other two children, especially his daughter, Emily. William married Hannah Letchworth, daughter of Josiah and ? Letchworth, who lived in Sherwood on the east side of Route 34B, in a house that still stands just two houses north of the corner. Josiah Letchworth, too, was associated with the Underground Railroad. In a eulogy for Letchworth, . . . . William also reputedly aided his father in his work on the Underground Railroad. In 1910, William’s daughter, Isabel, remodeled their home and renamed it Opendore. Isabel made her home a center of community activity for the people of Sherwood and a major woman’s rights center for New York State. She retained a close relationship with the last remaining local member of the Phillips family, Rose Phillips, until Isabel’s death in 1941. In 1857, the Howland family moved to a house just south of the four corners in Sherwood, built in 1806 by Seth Sherwood, founder of the village. That same year, Emily Howland left to teach at a school in \(^{13}\) Wellman, Network to Freedom Nomination, January 2005. Washington, D.C., operated by Myrtilla Miner for African American girls. After the Civil War began, Emily continued her teaching career in a Freedmen’s School in Virginia. With her father’s help, she established a new school in Heathsville, Virginia, which she supported through the nineteenth century. She also brought African American students to Cayuga County, to study both at the school she established in Sherwood and at the girls’ school set up in Union Springs through the estate of her uncle George Howland.\textsuperscript{14} Emily Howland was also a lifelong and unwavering supporter of woman’s rights. In her youth, she had known Lucretia Mott, Abby Kelley, and Frederick Douglass. In her maturity, she counted Susan B. Anthony as a friend. Slocum Howland would have been proud. Though the small Howland house now stands empty, it is filled with a powerful legacy of respect for all people—not preached but lived. \begin{center} \includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{image.png} Emily Howland, Slocum Howland, and dog (Grant?0 Late 1850s) Courtesy of Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College \end{center} \textsuperscript{14}Carol Faulkner, \textit{Women’s Radical Reconstruction: The Freedmen’s Aid Movement} (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003). William and Hannah and Isabel Howland House (Opendore), mid-nineteenth century, 1910 34B, Sherwood, New York Significance: Home of abolitionists, Underground Railroad supporters, and woman’s rights advocate Looking west February 2005 Opendore, c. early twentieth century Courtesy Sheila Tucker Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Originally a small frame gable-and-wing house, the home of Slocum Howland’s son William and daughter-in-law Hannah Letchworth Howland, this building was vastly expanded about 1910 by Isabel Howland, who hired an unknown Syracuse architect to create this many-gabled small mansion where “Miss Isabel,” as she is still locally known, entertained the community and organized extensive programs for the woman’s suffrage movement with the help of Stella Phillips, granddaughter of freedom seekers Herman and Hannah Phillips (whose house still remains next door) until Miss Isabel’s death in 1941. The house has been abandoned since the 1970s. Howland Stone Store, 1837 Route 34B Sherwood, New York Significance: Center of business operations for Slocum Howland, major Underground Railroad supporter in central Cayuga County Howland Stone Store Museum Photo by Paul Malo, May 2005 Looking southeast Description: On Route 34B, just north of the four corners in the hamlet of Sherwood, New York, stands the Howland store, a small gable-end-to-the-street cobblestone structure, built in 1837 by Slocum Howland, as the commercial center of his large trading network, a network that encompassed farmers, lake ships, and wool factories. The 1850 census listed his property valued as $18,700. Significance: This small store anchored one of the most important Underground Railroad nodes in Cayuga County. Sustained by his commitment to the Light within all people and by a national network of radical abolitionists centered in the American Antislavery Society, Slocum Howland, Quaker abolitionist and Underground Railroad supporter, used his economic resources (including this store, his tenant houses, and his port facilities at Levanna, on Cayuga Lake) to help freedom seekers move to Canada and to find homes and jobs for those who wanted to settle in Cayuga County. These included Thomas Hart, Jerome Grieger, Herman and Hannah Phillips, and perhaps Richard and Mary Gaskin. Howland’s local allies included other family members (son-in-law Josiah Letchworth and son and daughter-in-law, William and Hannah Letchworth Howland) and Quakers Matthias and Hannah Hutchinson at King Ferry and David and Edna Thomas of Scipio. Quite likely, local African American families, (including the Hart, Phillips, and Grieger families, who escaped from slavery in the South, and the Armwood, Cooper, Tate, and Cromwell families, who had been manumitted in New York State) were also part of this network. For more information on Howland’s importance to the Underground Railroad, see the description for the Howland House. Howland Tenant Houses Route 34B Sherwood, New York Significance: Used to house freedom seekers Description: This small gable-and-wing frame house looks today very much as it did in the nineteenth century, with the exception of a twentieth century picture window added on the first-floor façade. Tenant House Sherwood-Aurora Road Sherwood, New York Description: This tenant house is just west of the schoolhouse on the Sherwood-Aurora Road, two doors east of the Howland stone store. Samuel Geil, *Map of Cayuga County* (Philadelphia: Samuel Geil, 1853). Significance: Emily Howland recalled that, when the Phillips family first arrived in Sherwood in 1843, they stayed in one of her father’s tenant houses “on the post road.” The 1853 Cayuga County map shows this to have been one of the two Howland tenant houses in Sherwood. Because of high taxes and little contemporary use for tenant houses, they have often been torn down. Extant tenant houses are increasingly rare. Josiah and Hannah Letchworth Home Route 34B Sherwood, New York Significance: Home of Underground Railroad Activists November 2004, Looking east Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Description: As it currently stands, the Letchworth house is a gable-and-wing with Greek Revival trim. The original house was much simpler, broad side to the street, three-bay settlement house, probably the wing of this house. Letchworth moved to Auburn in 1852, and this house may have been built in its current form after that date. Significance: Josiah Letchworth, son-in-law of Slocum Howland, was involved with the abolitionism and the Underground Railroad both in Sherwood and after his move to Auburn in 1852. He was born in Philadelphia on November 22, 1791. In 1815, he married Ann Hause and moved to Burlington, New Jersey, where he trained as a saddler. They moved to Jefferson County, New York, and then to Moravia, before moving to Sherwood in 1819. In the 1850 census, Josiah listed his occupation as a harnessmaker. He was 58 years old. Ann was 54. They had three children living at home, Hannah (age 20), Charlotte (16), and Micah? (14), as well as Abigail Cazewell (age 24) and Hannah Cazewell (6). He owned property worth $800. When Letchworth died in April 1857, his obituary in the local newspaper noted that ““Mr. Letchworth had long been known as a genuine reformer and philanthropist, and was accounted among the staunch friends of freedom, temperance and education. The oppressed had in him a true friend, and the fugitive slave was never refused aid and comfort at his hand.””\(^{15}\) William Henry Seward gave a eulogy, recalling Letchworth’s words of comfort at local reception to a speech Seward had given in Auburn in 1847 on human rights. \(^{15}\) Research by Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian. Prejudices intense, and passions strong, ruled the hour. I spoke, as you may perhaps remember, with sorrow aggravated to the verge of impatience. When I descended from the platform, a fellow citizen, venerable in years, and beloved by us all, gently asked me whether I was not becoming disheartened and despondent. He added that there was no occasion for dejection, and what I had seen was but the caprice of a day. "Go on and do your duty, and we, your neighbors, will come around you again right soon, and sustain you throughout." Do you ask who it was that administered that just, though mild rebuke? Who else could it be but Josiah Letchworth, a man whose patience was equal to his enthusiastic zeal in every good cause, and to his benevolence in every good work. Seward gave eulogy at funeral. Frederick Douglass Paper, 27 Oct 1854 and 3 Nov 1854 A lengthy biography in Elliott Storke’s *History of Cayuga County* noted that Letchworth was “was a strong anti-slavery man at a time when those sentiments were not so popular as they became at a later period, when to be known as holding such views well nigh amounted to ostracism from the friendship and good will of considerable and very respectable portion of community.” Herman and Hannah Phillips House Router 34B Sherwood, New York State Route 34B, Sherwood, New York, looking SE February 2003 Description: The Herman and Hannah Phillips House stands today just north of the hamlet of Sherwood, New York. The Phillips’ family, born in slavery in Maryland, came to Sherwood in 1843. After a brief sojourn in Canada, they returned to Sherwood. Local tradition suggests that Slocum Howland may have purchased their freedom. In any case, the Phillips family settled permanently in Sherwood. They purchased this one-half acre of land from Slocum and Hannah Howland, abolitionists and Underground Railroad supporters, on October 10, 1854. Shortly thereafter, they built a house on this lot. Samuel Geil’s 1853 map of Cayuga County shows no house on this land, but Ormando Willis Gray, *Map of Cauga and Seneca Counties, New York* (Philadelphia: A.R.Z. Dawson, 1859) clearly shows a building at this location. Whether they built the house themselves or someone build it for them, we do not know. Dorothy Wiggans, in *Historic Homes of Sherwood*, attributed its construction to John Lapham. There is no record that John Lapham ever owned this land, but it is possible that the house was an older house, moved to this lot from another site.\(^{16}\) This theory gains some support from a note by Austin Comstock in his 1940 *Early History of the Town of Scipio*, in which he noted that in 1837, “the only habitations on the northeast corner were the old tavern, the house just built by Lapham, and an old house later owned and rebuilt by Herman Phillips, now (1938) occupied by LaMar Lane, principal of Emily Howland High School.” LaMar Lane was renting the house at that time. Two small structures appear on the northeast corner of the crossroads in Geil’s 1853 map of Cayuga south of the Stone Store. These do not appear on the 1859 Gray map. Could one of these have been the Phillips house, moved to its current location about 1855? Perhaps the Aurora-Sherwood Road was widened about this time, and the houses were moved to make room for the larger road.\(^{17}\) A barn on the Phillips’ site, according to Dorothy Wiggans, once housed a blacksmith shop.\(^{18}\) The Phillips family was probably living in this house by 1856, when Emily Howland visited with her friend, Caroline Putnam, on Christmas Day. In an article for the *Liberator*, Caroline Putnam reported that > On entering the house, I was struck with the air of contentment within, and the cheerful demeanor of the inmates. Their Christmas supper stood in bountiful readiness on the table—two nicely roasted chickens, and other dishes suitable for the occasion. The father seemed of the hopeful, good-feeling African temperament, while the mother, a quiet, sensitive woman...they now live in a snug little house built with their own earnings and the older children’s, enjoying confidence and respect, and finding employment in the community....A little baby, a few weeks old, was in the arms of its eldest sister, while the mother was intent on the arrangements for the supper. The neat and tidy housekeeping, the holiday happiness, and, above all, the sacred endearments of the family relation, touched my heart with the effect of a sweet and eloquent picture.\(^{19}\) The Phillips house has always remained a residence. Its unusual shape suggests that it may indeed have been constructed from two older houses, put together to make one building. **Significance:** In 1888, Emily Howland--abolitionist, teacher, woman’s rights advocate and daughter of Quaker abolitionist and storekeeper Slocum Howland of Sherwood, New York, wrote --- \(^{16}\) Dorothy Wiggans, *Historic Homes of Sherwood* (Auburn: Cayuga County Arts Council, 1989), 13. \(^{17}\) Austin Comstock, *Early History of the Town of Scipio*, Cayuga County, Mimeographed typescript (1940), 8. \(^{18}\) Dorothy Wiggans, *History of Sherwood. New York* (Auburn: Cayuga County Arts Council, 1989), 13. \(^{19}\) Caroline Putnam, *The Liberator*, XXVII:3 (January 16, 1857), as noted in Joseph McCaffery, “Slocum Howland, Herman Phillips, and the Underground Railroad,” paper completed for Milton Sernett, Syracuse University, [2002]. a brief essay about her life for Indian woman’s rights activist Pandita Ramabai. In it, she recalled scenes from her abolitionist childhood, including the story of one family of freedom seekers from Maryland: Once a man and his wife and four children, the youngest being an infant, carried in a bag slung on its father’s back, who escaped from Maryland, settled under my father’s protection for some time. But one hapless day a lady came to visit in the neighborhood who recognized them at once, having visited at their master’s house. She promised not to betray them to the slave holder, but they could not thus risk the liberty for which they had dared and suffered, to an uncertainty, and fled in terror to the Queens’ dominions where they suffered so much from the more rigorous climate and from other causes that they returned, and the parents ended their days where they began their life of freedom. They were both worthy and industrious, and earned a comfortable home, as well as the respect of those who knew them.\(^{20}\) On October 8, 1928, Emily Howland wrote to Leonard Searing, President of the Cayuga County Historical Society, giving more clues about this family, including their name, date of arrival, and possible routes of travel, as well as indicating her own family’s work on the Underground Railroad: My father’s house was the station for those who fled from slavery. I can remember several arrivals from what was called the patriarchal institution. There was Herman Phillips, his wife and four children, coming about 1843. At another time two young men, all from Maryland. Another man came from West Virginia. Footsore and weary they reached here, having walked all the way. They were usually sent forward from a station in Pennsylvania, by John Mann, a Friend who was head of a school. Some came from another station farther south, the home of Dr. Fussell. All of these stations were the homes of Friends. The fugitives whom I have mentioned felt so safe that they made their home here. The family of one of them went to Canada but suffered so from cold that they returned. Just after their return the Fugitive Slave law was passed but they decided to take the risk of remaining here, which they did unimpeded [?] to the end of their lives. Two of their sons served in the Civil War. Later Harriet Tubman had a station and was the leader of many of her people to freedom. This was a very important station on the road, which was traveled without line or compass.\(^{21}\) In a second letter to Searing, March 19, 1929, when she was 102 years old but still of sound mind, she amplified her story about the Phillips’ family. Most refugees “came, rested, and then passed on to Canada,” she recalled, “with the exception of one family having four small children, the parents settled down here, and were contented in their new estate of freedom, until a Lady from the South on a visit to friends here recognized them. Tho’ she promised not to reveal here knowledge to their former master—they felt their freedom so uncertain that they sought refuge in \(^{20}\) Emily Howland to “My dear Ramabai,” Bermuda, April 1888, typescript in collections of Howland Stone Store Museum, Sherwood, New York; original in Phebe King Papers, Emily Howland Collection, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore. \(^{21}\) Emily Howland to Leonard Searing, October 8, 1928. Copy in Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Canada—They found their lot there so hard that they returned here. Not long after[,] the fugitive slave law was passed making their freedom more perilous but they decided to take the risk and were unmolested, passing their lives in this place.”\textsuperscript{22} If this family did indeed come to Sherwood, flee to Canada, return to Sherwood before the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act, and live the rest of their lives in this small county, would their lives then be documented in local records, beginning with the U.S. census for 1850? Such indeed is the case. By 1850, Herman (or Harmon) Phillips, laborer, listed wrongly in the census as aged 26 (he was actually 44); his wife, Hannah Phillips, listed wrongly as aged 28 (she was actually 49); and five children (Martha, William, John, Harriet, and James, aged 19, 14, 12, 9, and 1) lived in the Town of Scipio (where the village of Sherwood is located). All listed their birthplaces as Maryland, except James, the youngest, who had been born in Canada, confirming Emily Howland’s story about the family’s flight to and return from the “Queen’s dominions” just prior to the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act.\textsuperscript{23} But when did this family first arrive in Sherwood? The 1855 New York State census included a question about length of residence in the town. The family noted they had arrived nine years earlier, which would date their arrival as 1846. But Emily Howland had reported that “four children, the youngest being an infant, carried in a bag slung on its father’s back” had walked from Maryland in 1843. Unless one child had died, that “infant” would have been Harriet, somewhere between four and six years old, at the time of their escape. More likely, however, the 1855 census date is wrong. The image of an infant carried in a bag on her father’s back is a powerful one, unlikely to be confused with that of a four-year-old, riding on her father’s shoulders.\textsuperscript{24} When this family first arrived in Sherwood, they most likely worked on one of Slocum Howland’s farms and lived in one of his tenant houses. Two such houses are noted on Samuel Geil’s 1853 Cayuga County map, one on the Sherwood-Aurora Road, the third house east of the corner on the north side of the road, and one on what is now Route 34B, the third house south of the intersection on the west side of the road.\textsuperscript{25} We do not know where the Phillips’ family actually lived, but it was quite likely in one of these two houses. Both houses are still standing. This is the house on the Sherwood-Aurora Road, two doors east of Howland’s stone store. Austin Comstock, who knew the Phillips family in their later years, remembered that “Herman was unable to read and so he decided to attend school and learn to read his Bible. He went to school with his own children in the 50s, he in the primer and they in the 3rd and 4th grade \textsuperscript{22} Emily Howland to Leonard Searing, March 19, 1929. Photocopy in Cayuga County Historian’s Office. \textsuperscript{23} For more information, see chart See chart of census data from 1850, 1855, 1860, 1865, and 1870 census records. Many thanks to Mary Loe and Tanya Warren for preparing this data. \textsuperscript{24} The 1850 census noted Harriet’s age as nine; the 1855 census identified her as 15. \textsuperscript{25} Samuel Geil, \textit{Map of Cayuga County} (Philadelphia: Samuel Geil, 1853). reader.\textsuperscript{26} If so, Herman probably attended this school house No. 2. Though the 1865 census listed Hannah as able to read but not write, none of the census records suggested that Herman Phillips was illiterate, so his quest for learning must have been successful.\textsuperscript{27} Although the Phillips family returned to Sherwood before 1850, passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 surely made them uneasy. In October 1851, just after the rescue of William “Jerry” Henry in Syracuse, New York, when African Americans in central New York, especially those born in slavery, feared capture, both Slocum and Emily Howland made inquiries with Underground Railroad contacts farther north about possibilities for employment and safe living conditions for a fugitive family. As Joseph McCaffery has argued in his careful study, these letters may relate to efforts by the Phillips family to find alternative places to live, in case they needed to leave Sherwood quickly. One letter was to William O. Duvall, whose father (also named W.O. Duvall) had been an antislavery agent in the 1830s. Duvall lived on a swampy point, almost an island, in the Seneca River near the village of Port Byron, Town of Mentz. Locals called his place “Hayti,” a spelling still retained today, pronounced with a long “I,” because Duvall hired African Americans rather than European Americans on his farm. Duvall replied, somewhat brashly, since he was writing to a Quaker, Respected Friend Howland \textsuperscript{26} Austin Comstock, “Some of the Early History of the Town of Scipio, Cayuga County, New York,” Typescript, Mimeographed., 1940, 10. \textsuperscript{27} Howland Stone Store Museum, “Sherwood and the Underground Railroad: What Do We Know???” Typescript available through the Howland Stone Store Museum. Morning of the 14th, just received and hasten to answer it. It strikes me I would not go to Canada. The winter will soon be upon us. And doubly there are more there now that can maintain themselves with any degree of comfort. If he were to come to my place I would protect him to the last drop of blood in my veins, and I think that our location is such that it would be hard to get him. My own opinion is that he and his family will b safe here and I will give him employment. If he is a fugitive slave, of course, he is not without a good, loaded revolver and ? constantly in his pocket. If he has not these weapons let him sell his coat and get them forthwith, and then in case of an arrest let him defend himself like a man who loves freedom better than life even though the blood flows to the horse bits. Friend Slocum, you know my location and its facilities for escape if necessary, and the pretty healthy sentiment here about on the subject if you and him think it is a good plan, fetch him out and I will do the best I can. Ever and Truly Yours, W.O. Duvall.\footnote{28} About the same time, Emily Howland wrote to Samuel C. Cuyler, then living in Pulneyville, New York. Cuyler had been a leading abolitionist in Scipio in the late 1830s, hosting a meeting with Samuel R. Ward in Aurora in 1837, acting as Secretary and Treasurer of the Scipio Antislavery meeting in September 1839 and also as a delegate to the New York State Antislavery Society meeting that fall, and promoting a Cayuga County abolitionist meeting in 1841.\footnote{29} He kept a very active Underground Railroad station in Pulneyville, and on October 31, 1851, he described his situation to Emily Howland: I rec’d yours making enquiries in reference to the facilities for the escape of Fugitives to Canada from this place. In Answer, I would say, that the opportunities at this season of the year are not good at all but in the Summer pretty good. . . . As to the situation for a man to labor, it is the same with us probably as with you, not much needed at present, and I do not now know of a house. As to the AntiSlavery Sentiment it is as good as the average of this thrice guilty people. As to advising the Fugitive to remain or go, it is difficult to determine. I do not \textit{think however} there is much danger in your community or ours. They will not come in the country for fugitives. . . . Yours for Freedom S.C. Cuyler \footnote{28}{W.O. Duvall to Slocum Howland, October 16, 1851, Howland Papers, Cornell University. I am indebted to Jim Driscoll of the Queens Historical for finding and transcribing this letter. Many thanks to Penny Hevell and Michael Riley of Port Byron and the Town of Mentz for locating W.O. Duvall’s house and for historical information about the Duvall family.} \footnote{29}{Charles T. Porter to John and Abigail Porter, [October 18, 1841]. Village of Aurora Archives, Transcribed by Sheila Edmunds. Many thanks to Sheila Edmunds, Historian, Village of Aurora, for sharing this reference. \textit{Friend of Man}, September 25, 1839; August 17, 1841.} By the mid-1850s, freedom seekers in central New York were much more confident about their safety. In Syracuse, Rev. Jermain Loguen, himself once enslaved in Tennessee, advertised in the newspapers that his home was available to help others escaping from slavery. In this more open atmosphere, Herman and Hannah Phillips decided to stay in Sherwood permanently. Beginning in 1852, they celebrated their new-found stability by having three more children, Hannah, born in 1852; Octavia (or Octavius), born in 1853; and Mary, born in 1857. By 1855, Herman was working as a farmer. He was 49 years old, and Hannah was 48. They had six children, all living at home, ranging in age from 21-year old William to Martha (18), John (17), Harriet (15), Canadian-born James (6), and little Hannah (Jeremiah?) (4). To celebrate their new-found freedom, the Phillips family also acquired a house. In 1854, they purchased one-half acre of land from Slocum and Hannah Howland on the east side of what is now State Route 34B, half mile north of the center of the village.\(^{30}\) The Phillips family was probably living in this house by 1856, when Emily Howland visited with her friend, Caroline Putnam, on Christmas Day. In an article for the *Liberator*, Caroline Putnam reported that On entering the house, I was struck with the air of contentment within, and the cheerful demeanor of the inmates. Their Christmas supper stood in bountiful readiness on the table—two nicely roasted chickens, and other dishes suitable for the occasion. The father seemed of the hopeful, good-feeling African temperament, while the mother, a quiet, sensitive woman...they now live in a snug little house built with their own earnings and the older children’s, enjoying confidence and respect, and finding employment in the community....A little baby, a few weeks old, was in the arms of its eldest sister, while the mother was intent on the arrangements for the supper. The neat and tidy housekeeping, the holiday happiness, and, above all, the sacred endearments of the family relation, touched my heart with the effect of a sweet and eloquent picture.\(^{31}\) Certainly this house was standing by 1859, when a structure appeared on this site in Ormando Willis Gray’s *Map of Cayuga and Seneca Counties, New York* (Philadelphia: A.R.Z. Dawson, 1859). In 1860, the federal census listed the Phillips family as Herman Phillips, farmer, aged 48, with real property worth $500 and personal property worth $30, living with his wife Hannah, aged 50, housekeeper, living with all eight of their children aged 24 to 3. Interestingly, none of the family was listed as black or mulatto. \(^{30}\) Slocum and Hannah Howland to Herman Phillips, October 10, 1854, Deeds, Liber 95, page 105, Cayuga County Clerk’s Office. Samuel Geil’s 1853 map of Cayuga County shows no house on this land, but Ormando Willis Gray, *Map of Cauga and Seneca Counties, New York* (Philadelphia: A.R.Z. Dawson, 1859) clearly shows a building at this location. \(^{31}\) Caroline Putnam, *The Liberator*, XXVII:3 (January 16, 1857), vertical files, Hazard Library, Poplar Ridge. Austin Comstock, a Sherwood resident who knew the Phillips family when he was growing up. When the Civil War began, the Phillips sons all joined the Union army. According to one local resident, Herman said that, “if they failed ‘he would go down and do his duty.’”\textsuperscript{32} William and John, both born in slavery, and James, born in freedom in Canada—all served. All are listed in the 1865 New York State census as “now in army.” James Phillips’ regiment is listed on his gravestone: “Co. F 39 Reg. N.[U.] S. Colored Vol. Inft., 1845-1896.”\textsuperscript{33} By 1870, the family had begun to scatter, leaving only James, Mary, and perhaps daughter Hannah still at home to care for their aging parents. On June 1, 1873, Hannah Phillips died, aged 72. Her husband followed her two years later, on September 2, 1875, aged 69. They are buried together under one stone in the Sherwood community cemetery, across the road from their home. \textsuperscript{32} Austin Comstock, “Some of the Early History of the Town of Scipio, Cayuga County, New York,” Typescript, Mimeographed, 1940, 10. \textsuperscript{33} Manuscript New York State Census, 1865, noted that William, John, and James were “now in army.” Austin Comstock, a Sherwood resident who knew the Phillips family personally, recalled the Herman “was one of the most highly respected citizens in the community and a true Christian gentleman.” We do not know what happened to most of the Phillips children, once so close, after their parents’ death. Harriet A. Phillips died January 30, 1886, and is buried in the Sherwood Cemetery. At least one child remained in Sherwood. James Phillips married Rose E. Gaskin (1858-1915), daughter of Richard Gaskin, another freedom seeker from Maryland. They probably continued to live in their parents’ home, since title to the home in 1910 went to Rose E. Gaskin and Estella Phillips, probably a daughter of James and Rose Phillips. Estella Phillips, known locally as Stella, became a friend, confidant, and employee of Emily Howland’s niece, Isabel Howland (Miss Isabel) who lived next door to the Phillips family and who continued Miss Emily’s tradition of community service, abolitionism, education, and woman’s rights. Local historian Dorothy Wiggans suggested that she worked in Isabel Howland’s home “from 1909 until Isabel’s death, except for the years Isabel was in France.” Pauline Copes Johnson, descendent of four families of freedom seekers, remembered coming to help Cousin Estelle at the Howland house when Isabel Howland died in 1942. “My cousin Estelle Phillips came from the Howland house,” Mrs. Johnson recalled in October 2004. “She lived on Fitch Avenue [in Auburn]. I helped Cousin Estelle out in the kitchen at Isabel Howland’s funeral. I have a book at my house Miss Howland gave to Estelle.” Estelle Phillips is buried near her parents in the Sherwood cemetery. --- 34 Austin Comstock, “Some of the Early History of the Town of Scipio, Cayuga County, New York,” Typescript, Mimeographed, 1940, 10. 35 Dorothy Wiggans, *History of Sherwood. New York* (Auburn: Cayuga County Arts Council, 1989), 13. 36 Notes on Isabel Howland taken by Mildred Myers, in Howland Stone Store collections. n.d., mention Estelle Phillips employment by Isabel Howland; Recollections by Pauline Copes Johnson at a meeting of Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Schoolhouse No. 2 Sherwood, New York Significance: School probably attended by freedom seeker Herman Phillips Description: A typical frame gable-end-to-the street schoolhouse, with a small twentieth century addition on the west side, new siding, and some changed windows. Significance: Herman and Hannah Phillips and their four children arrived in Sherwood from Maryland in 1843. Austin Comstock, who knew the Phillips family in their later years, remembered that “Herman was unable to read and so he decided to attend school and learn to read his Bible. He went to school with his own children in the 50s, he in the primer and they in the 3rd and 4th grade reader.” If so, Herman probably attended this schoolhouse No. 2. Though the 1865 census listed Hannah as able to read but not write, none of the census records suggested that Herman Phillips was illiterate, so his quest for learning must have been successful. For more on the Phillips family, see the description for the Phillips house. 37 Austin Comstock, “Some of the Early History of the Town of Scipio, Cayuga County, New York,” Typescript, Mimeographed, 1940, 10. 38 Howland Stone Store Museum, “Sherwood and the Underground Railroad: What Do We Know???” Typescrpt available through the Howland Stone Store Museum. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Cayuga County: South Locke Fillmore Birthplace Moravia Cady House Dubois House, Site of Congregational (Methodist) Church Stoyell House Sempronius Glen Haven Millard Fillmore Log Cabin—Purported Birthplace Building (actual birthplace is in Town of Locke, off Route 90) Fillmore Glen Moravia, New York Significance: Millard Fillmore, President of the U.S., 1849-52, signed the Fugitive Slave Law, September 17, 1850. Represents anti-abolitionist sentiment in central New York and the nation February 2005 Looking east Even in central New York, many people opposed the abolitionist movement, fearing it would lead to Civil War. President Millard Fillmore was one of these. Born nearby in Locke, New York, Fillmore married Abigail Powers from Moravia; moved to Buffalo, New York, to practice law; and in 1848 was elected Vice-president of the United States. When President Zachary Taylor died shortly after taking office, Millard Fillmore became President. On September 18, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, President Fillmore signed into law the Fugitive Slave Act. By the terms of this Act, Congress used the power of the federal government to maintain slavery wherever it existed. Those who helped people escape from slavery faced heavy fines—up to $1000 for each offense plus six months in jail. Federal marshals must assist slave-catchers to capture accused runaways wherever they were found. Federal commissioners would hear each case, but an accused person could not testify in his or her own behalf. If the marshal found in favor of the slave catcher, he would receive $10.00. If he ruled in favor of the accused, he would receive only $5.00. Abolitionists called this a bribe. And it was. As a result of the Fugitive Slave Act, African Americans throughout the North, whether officially free or not, feared for their safety. Many fled to Canada. Only after the successful rescue of William “Jerry” Henry in Syracuse in October 1851, and the subsequent trials of his accused rescuers—the first of which were held in the Cayuga County courthouse in Auburn—did many African Americans feel comfortable about returning to their homes in central New York. Fillmore’s Birthplace Town of Locke Looking northeast Isaac Cady Tavern, c. 1807 33 Main Street Moravia, New York Moravia Historic District—National Register Significance: Underground Railroad safe house February 2005 Looking NE Description: This tavern was built by Isaac Cady’s father, Zadoc Cady, in place of the original log cabin, built in 1801. It was originally a five-bay central hallway Federal building, with twelve-over-eight windows and chimneys at either end of the building. Significance: With John Stoyell, Isaac Cady represents the core of the Underground Railroad and abolitionist movement in Moravia, centered in the Congregational Church. Cady kept a tavern here, which was headquarters for a stage line between Ithaca and Auburn. From here, according to James A. Wright, *Moravia, 1791-1918*, James Stoyell and Isaac Cady took freedom seekers to Skaneateles.\textsuperscript{1} They may have taken people to the home of James Canning Fuller and Lydia Fuller, noted Underground Railroad agents in Skaneateles.\textsuperscript{2} In 1908, Sophia Wright Cady, Isaac Cady’s widow, celebrated her 94\textsuperscript{th} birthday. A report of the party in the \textit{Auburn Citizen} noted that “many an evening a wagon left this place in the darkness with a negro hidden [?] beneath the blankets, bound for Skaneateles, whence the trip to Canada was made in safety. The punishment for aiding the colored man was very severe, but the work was regularly carried on and more than one colored man received his liberty.”\textsuperscript{3} Both Sophia and Isaac Cady were members of the Congregational Church, where Isaac Cady was a leader of the choir and “stood side by side with Deacon John Stoyell on questions of church polity.” Church members erected a memorial window to his memory. In 1840, the tavern was the headquarters for the Whig Party’s local campaign for “Tippecanoe and Tyler, Too.” After Zadoc’s death in 1846, Isaac Cady took over the business and ran the tavern as a temperance hotel.\textsuperscript{4} \textbf{Research by Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian.} \begin{footnotesize} \textsuperscript{1} James A. Wright, \textit{Moravia, 1791-1918}, 54-55; Robert Scarry, “Cady Tavern: Building Inventory Structure Form.” Copy in Cayuga County Historian’s Office. \textsuperscript{2} The Fuller home is on the National Register as part of the Historic Resources Related to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Central New York. \textsuperscript{3} \textit{Auburn Citizen}, March 7, 1908. \textsuperscript{4} \textit{[Auburn Citizen]}, June 8, 1872. Copy in Cayuga County Historian’s Office; Richard Palmer, “Taverns Dotted the Road West,” and “History on tap at old tavern,” May 7, 1978, [newspaper articles, unknown newspaper], in vertical file, Cayuga County Historian’s Office Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 \end{footnotesize} Site of Store of Caesar Dubois Corner Church and Main Streets Moravia, New York Significance: Family born in slavery who became independent free people of color and property owners February 2005 Looking SE Caeser Dubois of Sempronius (later Moravia) was most likely born in slavery. In deeds dated April 15, 1826, and August 13, 1832, he purchased part of Lot 83 in the Town of Sempronius (later Moravia), and then bought a second lot in 1833, valued at $300 in the 1850 census.\(^5\) When his will was recorded in 1857, he left his real and personal estate to Leonard Aiken of Moravia and listed the following heirs: Hannah Taylor of Auburn, Diana Prime of Owasco, Susan Van \(^5\) Deed, Dudley Loomis to Caeser Dubois of Sempronius, 15 April 1826: Part of Lot # 83, in actual possession (of Dubois), beg at SW corner of Aspah Leonards west to Asa Little’s, N to creek, SE along creek bank to West line of Asaph Leonard’s to beginning.. 32 rods; Deed, Caeser Dubois to Lorenzo Little, 13 August 1832: Same 32 rods as above described. Signed by Caeser’s mark. 1850 U.S. census. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Schaik of Skaneateles, and two nieces, with no surviving widow.\textsuperscript{6} He was buried at Moravia Dry Creek Cemetery. Caesar Dubois’s daughter Diana Dubois married Richard Prime of Auburn. His daughter, Hannah, married James Taylor, and also moved to Auburn.\textsuperscript{7} Diana Prime listed herself as “Washerwoman” in 1859-60 city directory, living on Miller St. near the mill dam.\textsuperscript{8} \textsuperscript{6} Will recorded in County Records Book 32, p. 254, 29 Dec 1857. \textsuperscript{7} Dubois Will. \textsuperscript{8} \textit{Boyd’s Directory}, 1859-60. Deed: Dudley Loomis to Caeser Dubois, both of Sempronius Book P P, p. 345 15 April 1826 $16.00 In the actual possession of Caeser Dubois, part of Lot # 83. Beginning at the southwest corner of Asaph Leonards (John Leonard), west 1 chain, 79 links to Asa Little’s west along Little’s land 6 ½ rods to the creek, southeast along the creek bank to the west line of Asaph Leonard’s land then southwest along Leonard’s land to place of beginning. Recorded 19 September 1832 Deed: Caeser Dubois to Lorenzo Little Book P P, p. 346 13 August 1832 $35.00 Part of Lot # 83. Beginning at the southwest corner of Asaph Leonards (John Leonard), west 1 chain, 79 links to Asa Little’s west along Little’s land 6 ½ rods to the creek, southeast along the creek bank to the west line of Asaph Leonard’s land then southwest along Leonard’s land to place of beginning. Witness: Ebenezer Smith Signed Caeser X Dubois-his mark Recorded 19 September 1832 Deed: Elias Branch to Caeser Dubois, both of Moravia Book V V, p. 356 14 September 1833 $150.00 In the Town of Moravia, part of Lot #83 of Sempronius, now Moravia, it being a village lot. Beginning at the northeast corner of the village lot of Rowland Day on the south side of the highway and then running east to Henry Cutler’s village lot, to the south to Isaac Cady’s land thence west to the village lot of Rowland Day, then north on Day’s east line to the place of beginning, being 59 rods of land, with appurtenances. Witness: Ebenezer Smith Recorded 11 May 1835 Will: Caeser Duboise of Moravia Petitioner: Leonard Aiken of Moravia, executor Heirs: 1. Hannah Taylor of Auburn* 2. Diana Prime of Owasco* 3. Susan Van Schaik of Skaneateles* 4. Isabel Thorn & Catherine (illegible) of Oswego-nieces of the deceased. He left no widow. Will, dated 29 December 1857: Proved, 5 February 1858 "I, Caeser Duboise of Moravia...being of sound mind and memory...do make this my last will and testimony. 1. I give all my real and personal estate to Leonard Aiken, executor, with full power to sell and dispose of same at private or public sale. 2. I direct my executor to purchase and erect at my grave, suitable grave stones. 3. Lastly, I direct him to pay over to Mrs. Sarah Wright*, wife of Justus Wright, the rest and residue of my estate. Witness: Henry B. Hewitt of Moravia. "I witnessed the deceased making his mark to the will. Deceased requested me to become a subscribing witness to its execution, said deceased being under no restraint that he knew of." Witness: Samuel E. Day, with similar claim. Notes: *Diana Prime* is the wife of Richard Prime of Owasco. They appear in the 1840 (Genoa), 1850, (Owasco) and 1860-1870 census of Auburn. *Sarah Wright*, wife of Justus Wright of Moravia. Justus Wright, son of Luther and Loraine Gibbs Wright, born 15 May 1798. No further information can be found other than an entry in the 1830 African-American census of Cayuga County showing a white family of Luther Wright possibly having 1 African-American girl under 10 living with them. *Hannah Taylor* is likely the wife of Henry Taylor, freedom seeker born in Virginia. See the 1850 and 1855 census entry for Auburn in the African American census. *Susan Van Schaik* is likely the wife of William Van Schaik of Skaneateles, (see 1850 census) Research: Tanya Warren, Auburn, NY Congregational Church (now Methodist) Church Street Moravia, New York Moravia Historic District (National Register) Significance: Strong abolitionist church February 2005 Looking southwest Description: This Federal frame church with an octagonal double-tiered bell tower and delicate round-topped windows may have been patterned after a design in Asher Benjamin’s *American Builder’s Companion* (1827), which has a parapet evocative of the one on the façade of this church. Originally Congregational, this church is now a Methodist Church. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Significance: Like many Congregational churches in upstate New York, this one in Moravia became a center of abolitionist and Underground Railroad activity. According to James A. Wright, *Moravia, 1791-1918*. Deacon John Stoyell and choirmaster Isaac Cady were the most active members of the local Underground Railroad network. Cady kept a temperance tavern in Moravia, which was headquarters for a stage line between Ithaca and Auburn. From here, Stoyell and Cady took freedom seekers to Skaneateles.\(^9\) A memorial window in this church is dedicated to Cady’s memory.\(^10\) The first abolitionist meeting in Moravia may have been held in February 1840 by William O. Duvall of Port Byron, who reported to the *Friend of Man* on March 12, 1840 that Our next meeting was at Moravia, in the south-east part of the county, about 15 miles from Auburn. The audience here was large, attentive and respectable and though there are but a very few real, thorough abolitionists (and ours was the first meeting of the kind ever held in the town,) yet there are a good many who begin to “apologize” for abolitionism.\(^11\) In 1853, William Harned, antislavery agent who was collecting bail for William Chaplin, (jailed in Maryland for attempting to free about 50 slaves from Washington, D.C.), reported that he had collected $7.00 from Moravia. William J. Watkins, Assistant Editor of *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, spoke in Moravia, on Mary 14, 1854.\(^12\) Research in Congregational Church records for Moravia might well reveal more information about abolitionism in Moravia. --- \(^9\) James A. Wright, *Moravia, 1791-1918*, 54-55; Robert Scarry, “Cady Tavern: Building Inventory Structure Form,” Copy in Cayuga County Historian’s Office. \(^10\) *Auburn Citizen*, March 7, 1908. \(^11\) W.O. Duvall to *Friend of Man*, Seneca Falls, March 12, 1840, printed in *Friend of Man*, April 1, 1840. \(^12\) *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, January 25, 1852; January 13, 1854; March 11, 1853; May 5, 1854; *The National Era*, May 5, 1853. John Stoyell House North Main Street Moravia, New York Part of Moravia Historic District—National Register [?] Significance: Underground Railroad safe house February 2005 Looking northeast Description: The Stoyell house is Federal house with central doorway flanked by two six-over-six windows on each side. It has two large chimneys that appear to serve two rooms on each side. Significance: John Stoyell and his fellow church member Isaac Cady represent strong Congregationalists who committed their lives to abolitionism and the Underground Railroad. In the case of John Stoyell, his abolitionist commitment led him, at age 61, to join the Union Army and to die in Louisiana. One clue to the Underground Railroad activity of both John Stoyell and Isaac Cady appeared in James A. Wright, *Moravia, 1791-1918*: These were Abolitionist, [wrote Wright], known as John Stoyell and Isaac Cady, both prominent members of the Congregational Church. These men sheltered the slave by day and fed him by night and by private conveyance conveyed him to the next station, Skaneateles. These men drove their own teams. Sometimes concealing the fugitive under hay in the bottom of the wagon, and even the driver hiding his identity in various ways. from any chance acquaintances who might happen to be on the road. John Stoyell upon one occasion in the night time, near Kelloggsville with a fugitive concealed under hay in the wagon, actually passed a United State marshal and his assistant who were on the watch for this particular slave, and were really close upon his trail, without knowing it, but did not succeed, as the man reached Canada in safety. These two citizens of Moravia kept their own counsel, were fearless, conscientious and intelligent, and in argument as well as action had few equals in Southern Cayuga. John Stoyell proved himself fearless in time of peril.\(^{13}\) They may have taken people to the home of James Canning Fuller and Lydia Fuller, noted Underground Railroad agents in Skaneateles.\(^{14}\) Born December 20, 1801, John Stoyell, Jr., was the son of John Stoyell, Sr, and his wife, the first white settlers in the Owasco Valley. Both father and son were deacons in the local Congregational Church. Local traditions about his abolitionist and Underground Railroad activity received support from several contemporary sources. Abolitionist agent J.R. Johnson confirmed Stoyell’s abolitionist sympathies in newspaper references in 1852, when he noted that “Deacon John Stoyell of Morvaia, may appoint a meeting for me at Milan, Thursday evening, January 29\(^{\text{th}}\), and at Morvaia, Friday evening, 30\(^{\text{th}}\).” In 1854, Frederick Douglass noted that Stoyell sent him a contribution of $3.00. In 1853, William Harned, antislavery agent who was collecting bail for William Chaplin, (jailed in Maryland for attempting to free about 50 slaves from Washington, D.C.), reported that he had collected $7.00 from Moravia. William J. Watkins, Assistant Editor of *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, spoke in Moravia, on Mary 14, 1854.\(^{15}\) Although Stoyell was sixty years old when the Civil War broke out, after McClellan had been driven back from Richmond, Stoyell joined Captain Jewett’s Co. F of the 160\(^{\text{th}}\) Regiment, New York State Volunteers as a common soldier. Supposedly, he walked all the way to Auburn to join his regiment, refusing a ride. His obituary noted that, “when asked by one of his friends if he would like a commission, he very quietly answered, ‘I can accomplish more with a gun.’” He was sent with his company to New Orleans, where he died on July 5, 1863, of dysentery, aged sixty-one. “While with the Co.” noted his obituary, “was looked upon by his Officers as a father, and loved by the men as a friend.” For years he was known throughout the country as man of strong anti-slavery sentiments and his house was literally a refuge for the down trodden and oppressed as they journeyed from the bondage of Virginia and farther south to the freedom of Canada. He showered his blessing alike upon the white man and the black, and reaped his reward in the sweet consciousness that he had ‘done unto others as he would that they should do unto him.’ He had grown up with the country, helped establish its institutions, and had been protected by its laws, and when the attempt was made to destroy it and wipe out --- \(^{13}\) James A. Wright, *Moravia, 1791-1918*, 54-55. \(^{14}\) The Fuller home is on the National Register as part of the Historic Resources Related to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life in Central New York. \(^{15}\) *Frederick Douglass’ Paper*, January 25, 1852; January 13, 1854; March 11, 1853; May 5, 1854; *The National Era*, May 5, 1853. forever from the earth the liberties established by the fathers, he contributed liberally of his means to aid the cause.\textsuperscript{16} Ultimately, he gave his life. “He was,” read his obituary, “one of the last links between the present and the past of our Valley.” Robert Scarry identified this house on North Main Street as the John Stoyell house.\textsuperscript{17} Research by Sheila Tucker, Cayuga County Historian. \textsuperscript{16}“Died.”[Obituary, John Stoyell, Auburn Advertiser, 1863]. Found by Sheila Tucker. \textsuperscript{17} Robert Scarry, “Building Structure Inventory Form,” Owasco Lake Historical Society, copy in Cayuga County Historian’s Office. Site of Glen Haven Water Cure North Glen Haven Road Southwest end of Skaneateles Lake Town of Sempronius Significance: Water Cure operated by James C. Jackson, Lucretia Jackson, William C. Chaplin, and Theodosia Gilbert, abolitionists. Chaplin was involved in at least two nationally-publicized Underground Railroad events. Southwest corner of Skaneateles Lake, looking southwest Approximate site of Glen Haven Water Cure, south of current sign Photo by Paul Malo, July 2005 Sign in front of 1822 North Glen Haven Road Signs reads: “New York. Site of Glen Haven house which in 1945 was converted to Glen Haven Sanitarium. Destroyed to protect Syracuse Water Supply. State Education Department. 19??” GLEASON’S PICTORIAL DRAWING ROOM COMPANION. GLENHAVEN WATER CURE, SKANEATELES LAKE, N. Y. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05 Glen Haven Water Cure, although today only a wooded site along the west shore of Skaneateles Lake, was in the 1850s a major center for alternative medical treatment, frequented by abolitionists, woman’s rights activists, and dress reformers, and operated by two noted abolitionist and Underground Railroad families: James C. Jackson was former abolitionist lecturer and editor of the *Liberty Press*, and William Chaplin was lecturer, editor of the *Albany Patriot*, jailed in Maryland for his Underground Railroad activities. They operated Glen Haven as a water cure, the nineteenth century equivalent of a spa, with their wives Lucretia Brewster Jackson and Theodosia Gilbert Chaplin. James C. Jackson, known as the “farm boy speaker,” abolitionized his section of Oswego County before Gerrit Smith brought him to Peterboro as lecturer and editor of the *Liberty Press*. He later became an antislavery lecturer in Massachusetts before turning to medicine, operating first the Glen Haven Water Cure and then the nationally-famous Dansville Water Cure. William Chaplin, also part of Gerrit Smith’s circle, became a member of the Albany Vigilance Committee. After Charles Torrey, editor of the *Albany Patriot*, died in a Maryland prison in 1846 for his Underground Railroad work, Chaplin took his place, both as editor and as Underground Railroad operative in the Washington, D.C. area. In 1848, Chaplin helped organize the famous attempt to free 77 people from slavery in Washington, D.C., on a ship called the *Pearl*. Becalmed by a storm, they were all caught and returned to slavery. Among them were two sisters, Mary and Emily Edmondson, whose plight attracted the attention of abolitionists throughout the North. Freed with the help of their father, Paul Edmondson, and donations from northern abolitionists, especially those from Plymouth Church in Brooklyn, they attended New York Central College before going on to Oberlin in Ohio. Attempting to free two more people from slavery in 1850, Chaplin was caught in an unexpected gun battle and jailed in Maryland with bail set at $20,000. A convention met in August 1850 in Cazenovia, New York, to protest the Fugitive Slave Act. They heard a report from Theodosia Gilbert, Chaplin’s fiancé, and J.C. Hathaway, Quaker abolitionist from Farmington, who had visited Chaplin in jail, and they took steps to raise money for Chaplin’s bail. Chair of the committee was James C. Jackson of Glen Haven. Jackson wrote an impassioned plea, printed in the *North Star* the following month: Glorious man! faithful Christian! noble representative of freedom! Yours shall be a prophecy that shall have speedy fulfillment, if the spirit of liberty and justice among the abolitionists and in our court of law has not utterly perished. Come, then, men, women, and children! Come Whig, come Democrat, come all, without reference to sect, sex, or party, come to this noble man’s defence and deliverance, open your purses and pour out your money. He is the impersonation of this Cause, its most prominent representative. In him, Slavery strikes at all of us. In him it maddens our cause. At the Cazenovia Convention a Committee of twenty-five was chosen, consisting of prominent men over the Free States. James C. Jackson, of Glen Haven Water Cure is Chairman; Samuel J. May and Charles A. Wheaton, of Syracuse, Secretaries; Gerrit Smith, of Peterboro, Treasurer. Persons are appointed to visit different sections of the Free States, and collect the sum of $20,000, to protect him. This money must be had in thirty days. Will you not bestow your silver? Oh, you will I know, or freedom is but a name and your love for it a shadow. Small sums, and when the sums are large certificates of deposit may be transmitted either to Gerrit Smith, Peterboro, or to James C. Jackson, Samuel J. May, or Clarke A. Wheaton, Syracuse, N.Y.\(^{18}\) Ezra Greenleaf Weld, brother of noted abolitionist Theodore Weld, took a famous daguerreotype, perhaps to send to William Chaplin in his jail cell as a remembrance. Only two copies are known to exist, one in the Madison County Historical Society and one in the Getty Museum. Gerrit Smith stands tall in the center of the photo, flanked by Frederick Douglass and the Edmondson sisters (in plaid dresses), with Theodosia Gilbert sitting in the center.\(^{19}\) Sympathizers everywhere across the North collected money for the Chaplin bail fund. In Cayuga County, Wm. R. Smith, E. M. K. Glen, E. W. Clark, Ames Baker, Samuel J. May, George Bradburn and the Edmundson sisters held meetings in Port Byron, Auburn, Ledyard, Northville, \(^{18}\) *North Star*, September 5, 1850. \(^{19}\) Hugh Humphreys, *Agitate! Agitate! Agitate!: The Great Fugitive Slave Law Convention and Its Rare Daguerreotype* (Madison County Historical Society: Madison County Heritage, 1994). Scipio, and Union Springs. Emily Howland remembered that she was in charge of collecting funds in the North Street Meetinghouse in Sherwood, New York. Gerrit Smith donated the last several thousand dollars so that Chaplin could go free.\footnote{The \textit{North Star}, September 5, 1850; Emily Howland to Caroline Putnam, 1908.} Everyone expected that Chaplin would quickly raise funds on the lecture circuit to pay back at least his largest contributors, but his health seemed broken by his experience. He joined the Jacksons and Theodosia Gilbert at Glen Haven Water Cure, where he and Theodosia were married in 1851. A guest at the hotel, who signed her/his name only “Undine,” wrote an account of the ceremony for \textit{Frederick Douglass’ Paper}: From a conversation which I accidentally overheard, I learned these facts. It was the wish of Mr. Chaplin and Miss Gilbert to have all their friends present on this occasion, especially those whom Mr. Chaplin has been the instrument of delivering from a worse than Egyptian bondage. But their name is Legion, and as the house is full of patients, it was impossible to entertain these and others whose long-tried affections gave them a sort of right to witness a ceremony in which Mr. Chaplin had so deep an interest. It became necessary, therefore, to give no invitations. At two o’clock the large family of Dr. Jackson assembled in the parlor, and in a few moments the groom and bride presented themselves. When they had taken their places, Mr. Chaplin said: “My friends, we have come before you today to celebrate the marriage rite. In all civilized communities, the outward ceremony is recognized, and it is fit and proper that it should be so, but this ceremonial does not of itself constitute true marriage; if there were nothing more, the outward form would be a mere dead letter. There is a marriage of the soul which must be consummated before these vows are publicly assumed. That marriage we have already realized in some degree by anticipation, and we stand before you now, to take upon ourselves these vows, and solemnly to promise, in the presence of God, that we will perform the duties and meet the responsibilities which they impose with unchanging fidelity and love towards each other.” When Mr. Chaplin had ended, prayer was offered by Mr. Joy of Ludlowville. Immediately after, Miss Elizabeth J. Smith, on behalf of the “Chaplin Pitcher Committee,” presented to Mr. Chaplin a silver pitcher, with these words: “Mr. Chaplin, it gives me great pleasure to have the honor of presenting to you this pitcher, in the name of one thousand of your friends. Accept it with the congratulations and blessings of all who are present, as well as of those who are absent. And let it ever be a memorial of their confidence and their gratitude to your devotions to the cause of God and of humanity. In the accompanying book you will find recorded the names and residences of the donors.” – Mr. Chaplin responded very handsomely, though briefly: “He could not but feel unworthy of such a testimonial; but coming as it did from one thousand of his friends, who thereby signified their approval of an act which had left him in a small minority of his countrymen, he could not express the deep gratitude which he felt towards them. He would make no attempt to justify the act, but he would say that were he placed again in the same circumstances, he would not hesitate a moment to repeat it, though life in the Penitentiary, or death itself were to be the consequence.” Mr. and Mrs. Chaplin then received the congratulations of their friends, and the bell of the steamer “Homer,” which lay puffing at the wharf, giving the signal for departure, farewells were spoken, and they left the Glen. I have given you but a faint idea of the impressiveness and beauty of this marriage scene. Its solemnity affected the hearts of all present, and many afterwards remarked that the simple eloquence of Mr. Chaplin would linger in their memory forever. UNDINE.\textsuperscript{21} Glen Haven Water Cure proved to be a major success. It was advertised widely, particularly in reform newspapers. Typical descriptions included those such as C.W. G.’s in May 1852: DEAR FRIEND: - Many of your readers have heard of Glen Haven, the beautiful site of the successful Water Cure Establishment of Dr. J.C. Jackson & Co. The very name is pleasant to the ear, and suggests thoughts of shady walks, cool retreats, and running waters. Nor does the reality in any respect disappoint the anticipation. Nature did her best when she made this delightful retreat for invalids. The forests are so cool and shady, the air so pure, the water so soft, the sunshine so bright, the lake so lovely, the hills so smiling, the "Cure" so comfortable, the "treatment" so agreeable, and Dr. and Mrs. Jackson so kind and attentive, that one might almost be willing to be ill for the sake of being ministered to under such favorable circumstances. The Cure, this spring has undergone thorough repairs. The rooms are all newly papered, painted and carpeted, and are as neat and inviting in appearance as an invalid could desire to see. Two boats are furnished for the use of the patients upon the lake. – The steamboat, Homer, will, in a week, commence its daily trips from Skaneateles to the Glen. The reputation of the Glen Haven Water Cure was never higher than now. Patients come from the east and the west, from the north and the south to bathe in its purifying waters and be healed of their diseases, and none come wholly in vain. During the entire winter, there were between twenty and thirty patients, to whom the treatment proved quite as agreeable and beneficial as during the warm season, though the prevalent opinion is that one must necessarily find it disagreeable in cold weather. The prospects for the coming season are very fair, at no time since the cure first opened have they been more so.\textsuperscript{22} Theodosia Gilbert and William Chaplin had two children before Theodosia’s death, perhaps in childbirth, in 1855. The site of the arrest of William Chaplin in 1850 in Montgomery, Maryland, has recently been listed on the NPS’s Network to Freedom trail. For more information on the Jacksons and the Gilberts, see: Stanley Harrold, \textit{Subversives: Antislavery Community in Washington, D.C., 1828-1865}, Antislavery, Abolition, and the Atlantic World Series. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003. Milton Sernett, \textit{North Star Country}. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2003. \textsuperscript{21} Undine, \textit{Frederick Douglass’ Paper}, Coral Grove, August 13, 1851. \textsuperscript{22} C.W.G., May 5, 1852, \textit{Frederick Douglass’ Paper}, May 27, 1852. Sites Relating to the Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, African American Life Sponsored by Auburn Historic Resources Review Board Cayuga County Historian’s Office Funded by Preserve New York (Preservation League of NYS and NYS Council on the Arts) Coordinated by Historical New York Research Associates 2004-05
c8c80e27-39ec-417b-b5d4-3e76d1836bb5
CC-MAIN-2019-51
http://www.cayugacounty.us/DocumentCenter/View/9012/Uncovering-the-Freedom-Trail-PDF?bidId=
2019-12-09T10:59:53
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-51/segments/1575540518627.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20191209093227-20191209121227-00386.warc.gz
170,312,383
191,076
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.948841
eng_Latn
0.989711
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "pol_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 313, 955, 2935, 3469, 3574, 3708, 4015, 4952, 5983, 6766, 7633, 11079, 14912, 18456, 22461, 26668, 30131, 33886, 37271, 40492, 43955, 46291, 48965, 51596, 53997, 57085, 58757, 59108, 59609, 61494, 61995, 62122, 62706, 63474, 63702, 64189, 67509, 67963, 69427, 70911, 72216, 75677, 79183, 81851, 82823, 83137, 83280, 83859, 84361, 84853, 87049, 87882, 89827, 93499, 95276, 98846, 102758, 106264, 108450, 109726, 113047, 114572, 114800, 115542, 119109, 122374, 125779, 127345, 128001, 129138, 130081, 133421, 136294, 137152, 137315, 137382, 137549, 140516, 141953, 145190, 148633, 151546, 153678, 155181, 158969, 163136, 166756, 167287, 171627, 172739, 173146, 173586, 175489, 177249, 177612, 179343, 181219, 181816, 182856, 186011, 189145, 190959, 192248, 192682, 193095, 196466, 198309, 199724, 200860, 201409, 205409, 207677, 209964, 212598, 215138, 217944, 219470, 223187, 225145, 228663, 229648, 230449, 233842, 236635, 236938, 237440, 238566, 238919, 240349, 241524, 241754, 242805, 244390, 245334, 249038, 252358, 256587, 257650, 258110, 258564, 258877, 259827, 260574, 261571, 262687, 263708, 264942, 268528, 272340, 275231, 278821, 280778, 283400, 284397, 284754, 285930, 286284, 286937, 288115, 291215, 292427, 293363, 294749, 295803, 297412, 301342, 304841, 305580, 309031, 312339, 315843, 316399, 316602, 317917, 319383, 320113, 323674, 325638, 329046, 331360, 331731, 332737, 336285, 337641, 339373, 342872, 346510, 347594, 349556, 351830, 352762, 357007, 360629, 364719, 367080, 369213, 370354, 373538, 374912, 375789, 376703, 377192, 377730, 378675, 382141, 385171, 386694, 386924, 388622, 391835, 395323, 395829, 396924, 397865, 399955, 403506, 405861, 406802, 409473, 411348, 413521, 416313, 419518, 420770, 422178, 423667, 425155, 427412, 427729, 428018, 428369, 429037, 430165, 432007, 433090, 434303, 434397, 435043, 435193, 435852, 436311, 437216, 438857, 439191, 439547, 440299, 441749, 442069, 444714, 449246, 452660, 453323, 454596, 455777, 457599, 458811, 459401, 461012, 461605, 462062, 463830, 468050, 471629, 475692, 480049, 483547, 486914, 490534, 493492, 496647, 497359, 498290, 501929, 502944, 503134, 504428, 507900, 510162, 511172, 514539, 518233, 522130, 525756, 529396, 533315, 537024, 539596, 540391, 543557, 545800, 545976, 546917, 547825, 548226, 548435, 550242, 550601, 551487, 552067, 554008, 556088, 557219, 559147, 560490, 561335, 564435, 567390, 569829, 570198, 571531, 575091, 578445, 582163, 584190, 586043, 588053, 588458, 591441, 592909, 594713, 596618, 597271, 597730, 599604, 602674, 605113, 608312, 609952, 610303, 610335, 611607, 613151, 613927, 614366, 614774, 615094, 615465, 618969, 620438, 620795, 621146, 623551, 624511, 625095, 626673, 628690, 629211, 630184, 633860, 634430, 634933, 638061, 638452, 640971, 643239, 645813, 647336, 648454, 652731, 655699, 657392, 659405, 660128, 661121, 662536, 665215, 668749, 670043, 672748, 676248, 679574, 683509, 686979, 690077, 693597, 696097, 697672, 698628, 699622, 700664, 701441, 701959, 702258, 702664, 704970, 705182, 706087, 706450, 706662, 706838, 708294, 709185, 709747, 710175, 712720, 714708, 719034, 722804, 726684, 727961, 728573, 729212, 729470, 731176, 731528, 732155, 732616, 734253, 735483, 736422, 739684, 743106, 746536, 748354, 751434, 754556, 755773, 758209, 759492, 759806, 759968, 761135, 762034, 762851, 765171, 766568, 767160, 768676, 770497, 771355, 773386, 774630, 778155, 778838, 779316, 779949, 781338, 784793, 788585, 791537, 791851 ]
[ 2.328125, 1.875 ]
2
0
Carl Manuel Vallelonga was born September 12, 1923, to Domenico Vallelonga and Mary Richison Vallelonga. Carl Vallelonga was raised in Anmoore located in Harrison County, West Virginia, alongside his four siblings: Dominick “Fred,” Margaret, Rose, and Joe Vallelonga. Carl’s father Domenico arrived in the United States in 1914 from Italy and joined his brother Cosimo in West Virginia. The Vallelonga family was one of thousands of Italian immigrant families arriving in the northcentral region of the state at the time. Harrison, Marion, and Monongalia counties saw a particularly large influx of Italians. Between 1910 and 1920, Harrison County alone received between 5,000-6,000 immigrants, with a majority arriving from Italy, Poland, Spain, Belgium, Hungary, Greece, and Austria. The Italians of northcentral West Virginia primarily found employment as coal miners, glass workers and stonemasons. These families were largely drawn from the southern regions of the Italian peninsula, including Caulonia where Domenico was raised. They brought with them longstanding culinary traditions (which soon birthed the pepperoni roll favored by Italian miners), cultural practices, and Roman Catholic faith, the impression of which are still felt today in numerous heritage organizations and festivals, as well as surviving churches. The Vallelonga brothers were both eventually employed as chemical workers. Life during the Great Depression was difficult for many families across the United States, including the Vallelongas. Young Carl Vallelonga went to grammar school in West Virginia up until the fourth grade before ultimately dropping out. During his difficult teenage years, Carl Vallelonga found himself at the National Training School for Boys beginning in 1940. The National Training School for Boys was a federal juvenile detention center located in Washington, DC for boys under the age of 17. In 1941, around 400 boys occupied the school, all of whom shared the experience of having “violated the laws of the United States,” according to an informational pamphlet from the era. “They are, almost without exception, products of disrupting experience, of neglect...of absence of parental affection,” and other forms of “maladjustment,” claimed the school. It is unclear what transgression landed Carl Valleslonga at the school, but juvenile offenders there appear to have been charged with federal crimes such as transporting a stolen car across state lines. The boys seem to have been well provided for. They were housed in three-story “cottages” for three- to four-dozen boys, “furnished and arranged to provide a pleasant, congenial atmosphere,” equipped with bathrooms, showers, games, recreation rooms, and ping pong tables. The school had recently been provided with new athletic fields by the Works Progress Administration, and possessed modern cafeterias and medical facilities. Juvenile inmates received vocational training in trades such as agriculture, woodworking, construction, or plumbing. After at least a year receiving the “steadying hand in [his] perilous climb to manhood” at the School for Boys, Carl found himself looking for employment and searching for his next step in life. He found it in 1942 in another government program, this time with the Civilian Conservation Corps. As part of the New Deal, President Franklin D. Roosevelt created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in 1933 to mitigate high unemployment rates. As a result, hundreds of thousands of young American men found jobs working on environmental conservation projects—including Carl Valleslonga. Those who enrolled in the CCC had to meet certain requirements including being between the ages of 18 and 25 years old and unmarried. Beginning in 1942, Carl enrolled in the CCC Company 560 in Downey, Idaho, before the company moved to occupy western Yellowstone National Park. At Yellowstone, Carl and his company worked on various projects, including wildfire prevention and campground maintenance in the Lake and Fishing Bridge cabin areas. By late 1942, however, the Yellowstone CCC camps were shrinking rapidly, as many of the enrollees left to enlist in the military. A Civilian Conservation Corps work crew at Yellowstone in the 1930s. Wyoming State Archives When the United States entered World War II, many young men took up the call to serve their country, including Carl Vallelonga and his brothers, Joe and Dominick. On October 14, 1942, Carl Vallelonga volunteered for the U.S. Army cavalry. Unlike their forebears from time immemorial to World War I, who rode on horseback, “cavalry” in World War II charged into battle in armored vehicles. Vallelonga likely went to Fort Bliss, Texas, where he joined the 1st Cavalry Division. Vallelonga likely spent much of 1942 and 1943 training for this new kind of warfare as the unit prepared to embark for the Pacific Theatre of war. In June 1943 the 1st Cavalry arrived in Australia, after a month-long trip from Fort Bliss. The division joined other Allied forces assembling to protect the southwest Pacific region from the Imperial Japanese advance. During the next few months, the 1st Cavalry continued training and practiced conducting amphibious landings along the Australian coast. On February 29th, 1944, General Douglas MacArthur launched Operation Brewer to seize Japanese airfields in the Admiralty Islands and strategically isolate Papua New Guinea, paving the way for an advance on the large Japanese base at Rabaul. The 1st Cavalry spearheaded the assault, progressing after four days from the island of Los Negros to the islands of Butjo Mokau, then Hauwei. By March 15, 1st Cavalry moved on to assault Manus, the largest of the Admiralty Islands, which they declared secure on March 25th. Fighting was heavy throughout the campaign. A correspondent for *Yank Magazine* wrote of his experience riding in a landing craft during an assault on Los Negros: Up front a hole gaped in the middle of the landing ramp and there were no men where there had been four. Our barge headed back toward the destroyer that had carried us to the Admiralties. White splashes of water were plunging through the six-inch gap in the wooden gate. William Siebieda, [Seaman First Class] of Wheeling, West Virginia, ducked from his position at the starboard gun and slammed his hip against the hole to plug it. He was firing a tommy gun at the shore as fast as wounded soldiers could pass him loaded clips. The water sloshed around him, running down his legs and washing the blood of the wounded into a pink frappe. Early in the fighting, 1st Cavalry men on Los Negros were outnumbered four to one, but Allied air and naval superiority allowed them to hold their beachhead against fierce resistance. Combat in the Admiralty Islands was often brutal and close-range, and the cavalry’s tanks were hampered by the dense jungle and rough terrain. Nevertheless, the success of the campaign is credited with saving countless American lives by isolating larger, better defended Japanese bases so they did not have to be attacked. Three hundred twenty-six Americans were killed and 1,189 wounded during Operation Brewer. Valletonga was among the latter, receiving a bullet wound in his forearm which necessitated evacuation. Valletonga’s recovery process proved arduous as it led him to various hospitals around the country for treatment. The arm did not have to be amputated, but medical records suggest he may have suffered considerable nerve damage, which may have severely limited the limb’s mobility and required extensive physical therapy. On February 14, 1946, Valletonga was discharged from Percy Jones Hospital Center at Fort Custer, Michigan, almost two years after he was initially wounded. Carl was awarded a Purple Heart. His brother Dominick was also placed in the same hospital after a combat injury, and likely spent time with Carl while they were recuperating. Following his service in the war, Carl met Rose Marie Mazza who was also a native of West Virginia and member of an Italian immigrant family. They married on May 3, 1947, in the town of Harrison, West Virginia. Carl and Rose Valletonga remained in West Virginia for the remainder of their lives and had one daughter together, Brenda Valletonga. Both were active participants in the Immaculate Conception Catholic Church and continued to celebrate their Italian heritage through events like the Italian Heritage Festival and Pasta Cook-off. Rose won the People’s Choice and Best Red Sauce awards at the latter event. Carl Manuel Valletonga passed away March 7, 2008. He is interred at the West Virginia National Cemetery alongside his loving wife Rose, who died on May 19, 2021. Carl Valletonga, along with his two brothers who also served, is also remembered at the World War II Memorial in Anmoore, Harrison County. A ward in Percy Jones Hospital, a converted sanitarium in Battle Creek, Michigan where Valletonga spent months recovering from his wound. Defense Logistics Agency Sources Barkey, Fred A. “Italians.” e-WV: The West Virginia Encyclopedia. March 29, 2011. Accessed March 28, 2023. https://www.wvencyclopedia.org/articles/924 “Buck Jones Luncheon.” The Evening Star. November 25, 1942. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1942-11-25/ed-1/seq-12/?date1=1941&sort=relevance&rows=20&words=Boys+National+School+Training&searchType=basic&sequence=0&index=0&state=&date2=1947&proxtext=national+training+school+for+boys&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=2 “CCC Brief History.” CCC Legacy. Accessed March 17, 2023. https://ccclegacy.org/CCC_Brief_History.html “Dominick C. “Fred” Vallelonga.” Find a Grave. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/135968783/dominick-c.-vallelonga “Extra Teachers Urged for Boys’ Training School.” Evening Star. May 27, 1945. Records of the Office of the Surgeon General Army. 1970. “Hospital Admission Card Files.” Record Group 112. The National Archives at College Park, MD. USA. https://catalog.archives.gov/id/441 “Immigrants.” Harrison County Historical Society. Accessed March 12, 2023. http://www.harrisoncowhistsoricalsociety.org/immigrants.html. “In Memory of Carl Manuel Vallelonga, 1923-2008.” Davis-Weaver Funeral Home. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://memorials.davisweaverfuneralhome.com/carl-vallelonga/1976454/obituary.php. “National Training School for Boys (Former) Improvements- Washington DC.” The Living New Deal. Accessed March 15, 2023. https://livingnewdeal.org/projects/national-training-school-for-boys-former-improvements-washington-dc/. Records of the U.S. Customs Service. “Passenger Lists of Vessels Arriving at New York, New York, 1820-1897”. Microfilm Publication M237, 675 rolls. Record Group 36. National Archives at Washington, D.C. Records of District Courts of the United States. “Petitions For Naturalization, 1904-1952.” Record Group Number 21. The National Archives at Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. https://www.ancestry.com/discoveryui-content/view/18475:61337. “Rose Marie Mazza Vallelonga.” Find a Grave. Accessed March 8, 2023. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/227913853/rose-marie-vallelonga “The Pacific War Strategy, 1941-1944.” The National WWII Museum. Accessed March 7, 2023. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/pacific-strategy-1941-1944 “World War II Memorial.” The Historical Marker Database. Accessed March 15, 2023. https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=197795. Yellowstone National Park. Annual Reports of the Superintendents of Yellowstone National Park. Accessed March 29, 2023. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsof3947unse/page/n149/mode/2up Resting Place West Virginia National Cemetery 42 Veterans Memorial Lane, Grafton, WV 26354 (304) 265-2044 Section 5 Site 404 Date of interment: March 10, 2008 About the West Virginia National Cemeteries Project The West Virginia National Cemeteries Project is a program of the West Virginia Humanities Council, funded in part by the Veterans Legacy Program of the Department of Veteran Affairs and initiated in 2021. All biographies produced as part of this program are composed by West Virginia high school students, who conduct original research on veterans interred at the Grafton National Cemetery or the West Virginia National Cemetery, both of which are located in or near Grafton, Taylor County, West Virginia. As home to one of the nation’s earliest National Cemeteries, the community of Grafton has longstanding traditions of honoring America’s veterans, including the longest continuously celebrated Memorial Day parade in the United States. The Grafton National Cemetery, located in the heart of the city and founded in 1867, is typically the endpoint of each year’s parade. When the Grafton National Cemetery began to run short of space during the 1960s, the West Virginia National Cemetery was dedicated in 1987, just a few miles outside of Grafton in the community of Pruntytown. The same National Cemetery Administration staff cares for both facilities. The West Virginia Humanities Council is proud to thank the following organizations for their participation in the West Virginia National Cemeteries Project: West Virginia Archives and History, the West Virginia University history department, Taylor County Historical and Genealogical Society, Taylor County Public Library, and Grafton High School. Please refer comments or questions to the West Virginia Humanities Council 1310 Kanawha Blvd E, Charleston, WV 25301 firstname.lastname@example.org www.wvhumanities.org 304.346.8500
3e07c7b4-ad9e-45e7-9be1-135f7b93ad1b
CC-MAIN-2023-40
https://wvhumanities.org/wp-content/national_cemeteries/Vallelonga_Carl_Manuel-USA.pdf
2023-09-21T21:10:25+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506045.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20230921210007-20230922000007-00000.warc.gz
692,709,472
3,044
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.900372
eng_Latn
0.992654
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1971, 4271, 6863, 9012, 11649, 13552 ]
[ 2.40625 ]
1
0
Sawflies of Trees and Shrubs Sawflies are a group of insects related to wasps and bees. Their name is derived from the saw-like ovipositor the adult female uses to lay eggs. Adult sawflies are inconspicuous wasp-like insects that do not sting. The larval or immature stage of sawflies are plant feeders and look like hairless caterpillars (the immature stage of butterflies and moths). The most distinguishing character between sawflies and caterpillars is the number of prolegs (fleshy, leg-like projections) on the abdomen. Caterpillars have 2-5 prolegs on the abdomen, while sawflies have 6 or more. Sawflies often feed in groups and can quickly defoliate portions of their host plant. There are many different species of sawflies, and each prefers specific plants or groups of related plants. Some of the more common sawflies that feed on trees and shrubs in Minnesota are described in this publication. Evergreen Plants European Pine Sawfly, *Neodiprion sertifer* **Appearance:** Larvae are gray-green with a black head and legs. They have a single, light longitudinal stripe down the back, two light green stripes and one dark green or black stripe on each side, and are 18-25 mm (3/4 - 1") when full grown. *European pine sawfly larvae (Jim Occi, insectimages.org).* *European sawfly adult (Louis-Michel Nageleisen, insectimages.org).* **Hosts:** Mugo, Scot's, red, and jack pines are preferred; eastern white, Austrian, and ponderosa pines may also be fed on if they occur near a preferred host. **Damage:** Larvae feed in groups on the previous year’s needles and eat all previous-season needles on a single branch before moving to another branch to continue feeding. They will vacate a tree for a new host once all previous-season needles have been eaten. Larvae never eat new needles, but may feed on the bark of new shoots. European pine sawfly seldom kills trees since new foliage is never eaten; however, repeated defoliations can slow growth. Feeding on bark of new shoots may cause twig mortality but it is rarely serious. Life History and Habits: Overwinter as eggs in the previous season’s needles. Larvae begin feeding around mid-May and continue through June. After feeding, larvae pupate in the soil or on the tree and adults begin appearing in early September through late fall. Adults lay eggs in the current season’s needles near the ends of branches where they overwinter. There is one generation per year. Introduced Pine Sawfly, *Diprion similis* Appearance: Larvae have black heads, a yellow-green body with a black double stripe and many yellow and black spots; they are 20-25 mm (3/4 - 1”) when full grown. Hosts: White pine is preferred, but they will also feed on Scot’s, jack, and red pines. Damage: First generation larvae eat the previous year’s needles; second generation larvae feed on both new and old needles. Young larvae feed in groups and eat only the outer, tender parts of the needle while older larvae feed singly and eat entire needles and bark if foliage is absent. Defoliation is usually most severe in the upper half of trees, but entire trees can be defoliated if populations are high. Life History and Habits: Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. First generation larvae begin feeding from late May/early June to early July; second generation larvae feed from late July through early September. Redheaded Pine Sawfly, *Neodiprion lecontei* Appearance: Full-grown larvae have reddish brown heads and yellow bodies, with six rows of irregular black spots and are 20-30 mm (3/4 - 1”) long. Redheaded pine sawfly larvae (Steven Katovich, bugwood.org). Redheaded pine sawfly adult (Lacy L. Hyche, Auburn Univ., bugwood.org). **Hosts:** Many species of pines; however, red and jack pines that are less than 15 feet tall are preferred. **Damage:** Larvae feed in groups and can completely defoliate a tree from the top down. Young trees are preferred and stressed trees are especially vulnerable to damage. **Life History and Habits:** Winter is spent as a pupa in the soil. First generation larvae feed between mid-June and late July; second generation larvae feed between mid-August and late September. **White Pine Sawfly, Neodiprion pinetum** **Appearance:** Larvae are pale yellow with black heads and have four rows of black spots from the head to their posterior end; they are about 25 mm (1") when full grown. White pine sawfly larva (James B. Hanson, USDA Forest Service, bugwood.org). White pine sawfly adult (USDA Forest Service, bugwood.org). **Hosts:** Eastern white pine is preferred, but they will also feed on red pine. **Damage:** Larvae feed in groups on both new and old needles, generally defoliating one branch before moving to another. Larvae attack trees of all sizes and because they feed on both new and old needles, trees can be completely defoliated. **Life History and Habits:** Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. Adult females lay eggs in needles in the spring. Larvae feed from late June to early August. After feeding, larvae drop to the ground and pupate. There is usually one generation per year. **Larch Sawfly, *Pristiphora erichsonii*** **Appearance:** Larvae have black heads, gray-green bodies with white undersides, and are 16 mm (1/2") long when full grown. **Hosts:** Tamarack and various larch species. **Damage:** Adult egg-laying activity in new shoots can cause shoots to become curved or curled as they grow. These curved shoots are an indicator of impending larval feeding. Larvae feed in groups on tufts of needles found on short shoots of older twigs. Because larvae don't feed on the single needles of elongating shoots, 100% defoliation seldom takes place. Trees usually refoliate but repeated, heavy feeding can cause thin foliage and reduced growth. **Life History and Habits:** Winter is spent in the soil as a prepupa. Adults emerge and lay eggs on currently elongating shoots on branches. Larvae then move to feed on tufts of needles (beginning around early June) found on short shoots of older twigs; they feed for about three weeks. All stages of this insect may be found at once due to the long period of emergence by the adults; larval feeding may continue into September. There is one generation per year. Yellowheaded Spruce Sawfly, *Pikonema alaskensis* **Appearance:** Full-grown larvae have yellow or reddish-brown heads and olive-green bodies with six gray-green stripes. They are 18 mm (3/4") in length. **Hosts:** Isolated white, black, and blue spruce such as those found in most landscapes are preferred. **Damage:** Larvae prefer new needles, but older larvae will eat previous season's needles when new foliage is scarce. Three or four years of consecutive defoliations can kill a tree. **Life History and Habits:** Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. Adult females deposit eggs in the current year's needles and larvae appear and begin feeding in late May to mid-June; larvae feed from four to six weeks and complete development by late July. There is one generation per year. Yellowheaded spruce sawfly should not be confused with the spruce budworm caterpillar that also feeds on white spruce in the spring. Spruce budworm occurs very early in the spring feeding on newly emerging foliage. Webbed foliage is also common with spruce budworm. **Deciduous Plants** **Blackheaded Ash Sawfly, *Tethida cordigera*** **Brownheaded Ash Sawfly, *Tomostethus multicinctus*** **Appearance:** Blackheaded larvae have black heads and legs, are white/yellow and about 18 mm (3/4") when full grown. Brownheaded larvae are green/yellow-white, have a brown head capsule, and are 14-20 mm (1/2 - 3/4") in length. **Hosts:** Ash. **Damage:** Larvae are voracious feeders. They consume entire leaves, and heavily infested trees may be completely defoliated in a very short time. **Life History and Habits:** Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. Adults emerge, lay eggs in leaves, and larvae begin feeding in early May through June. There is one generation per year. **Dusky Birch Sawfly, *Croesus latitarsus*** **Appearance:** Larvae are yellow-green with black blotches on their sides and have a black head; they are about 24 mm (1") long when full grown. *Dusky birch sawfly larvae (Lacy L. Hyche, Auburn Univ., bugwood.org).* *Dusky birch sawfly adult (Lacy L. Hyche, Auburn Univ., bugwood.org).* **Hosts:** Birch. **Damage:** Larvae feed in groups around the edges of leaves. Heavy defoliation by this insect is rare. **Life History and Habits:** Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. First generation larvae feed from May to early July. A second, overlapping generation may occur and feed through September. **Mountain Ash Sawfly, *Pristiphora geniculata*** **Appearance:** Larvae are a pale green-yellow with black spots and 16-20 mm (1/2 - 3/4") long when full grown. The head may be either black or orange. Mountain ash sawfly larva (James B. Hanson, USDA Forest Service, bugwood.org). **Hosts:** Mountain ash. **Damage:** Larvae feed in groups and eat entire leaves, leaving only the mid-veins. They defoliate an entire branch before moving to another. Trees usually survive even when completely defoliated. However, repeated heavy defoliations will reduce tree vitality and could cause death. **Life History and Habits:** Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. Adults emerge to lay eggs over about a 6-week period beginning around early June. First generation larvae are active from mid-June through early August. Second generation larvae are usually found in late August or September. **Willow Sawfly, Nematus ventralis** **Appearance:** Larvae are black or greenish black with large yellow spots along their sides. They have black heads and are 18 mm (3/4") when full grown. **Hosts:** Willow and to a lesser extent poplar. **Damage:** Larvae feed in groups, initially eating small holes in leaves and eventually consuming entire leaves. Occasionally, heavy defoliation takes place, but this is uncommon. **Life History and Habits:** Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. Larvae first appear in May and feed through June. A second generation occurs in July, feeding until the end of the summer. Willow sawfly may be confused with the imported willow leaf beetle which also defoliates willows (see Leaf Beetles in Urban Landscapes FS-6342-A). **Pear Sawfly (Pear Slug), *Caliroa cerasi*** **Appearance:** Larvae are slimy and slug-like, and shiny olive green in color. They are 12 mm (1/2") when full grown. *Pear sawfly larva (Cheryl Moorehead, bugwood.org).* *Pear sawfly adult (Cheryl Moorehead, bugwood.org).* **Hosts:** Plum, cherry, cotoneaster, pear, mountain ash, and hawthorn. **Damage:** Larvae feed on the upper leaf surface, leaving only the leaf veins. Heavy defoliation gives the tree a scorched appearance and leaves may drop prematurely. Severe defoliation can adversely affect tree health. **Life History and Habits:** Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. Larvae begin appearing in early June and feed for about 1 month, then drop to the soil to pupate. A second generation can begin in early August. **Roseslug Sawfly, *Endelomyia aethiops*** **Appearance:** Larvae are light green with orange heads and are about 13 mm (1/2") when full grown. *Roseslug sawfly larva (John A. Weidhass, VA Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., bugwood.org).* **Hosts:** Rose. **Damage:** Larvae feed on the upper leaf surface, leaving only the leaf veins. Populations of this insect are generally low, so severe defoliation is rare. Life History and Habits: Overwinter as prepupae in the soil. Adults emerge, lay eggs in the leaves, and larvae appear and feed from mid-May through June. There is one generation per year. Management It is important to regularly inspect plants that you suspect may encounter sawfly damage. Early detection of a sawfly population will allow for easier control and reduced damage to the host plant. The average dates listed in this publication for sawfly occurrence should be used as guides for determining when to begin looking for a particular sawfly species. However, variation will occur from season to season so adjustments may be necessary. The decision of whether to attempt control for a sawfly population will depend on the following - consider all factors before making a final decision. 1. **Plant Condition:** Healthy, mature plants are better able to withstand defoliation damage from sawflies. Plants that are newly planted/transplanted or that are in poor health have the potential to suffer more severe injury. 2. **Sawfly Population:** The size and distribution of the sawfly population will also aid in determining if control measures should be taken. Large, widespread populations have the potential to produce more severe defoliation. Smaller, more restricted populations (i.e. sawflies occurring on only a single branch) are less threatening and should be monitored to determine if damage is increasing or remaining static. 3. **Sawfly Age:** Treatments should be attempted only if sawflies are 1/2 full-grown size or less. If sawflies are full grown, treatment is not necessary since they are finishing or have finished feeding; most damage to the plant has already taken place by this time. 4. **Time of Year:** For deciduous plants, late season defoliations (i.e. late August - September) usually have little effect on tree health, as the plant will not try to produce new leaves and it has stored most of the reserves it needs for the following season. Defoliations at other times of the year may present problems for health and/or aesthetic reasons. Evergreen plants typically keep their needles for several years (depending on species) so defoliation time may be less important here as anytime of the year could produce health-threatening damage. 5. **Sawfly Species:** Severity of defoliation will vary depending on the life history and habits (i.e. number of generations, feeding on new or old growth, etc.) of the specific sawfly species in question. The individual descriptions in this publication should aid in determining the defoliation potential. 6. **Host:** Because most evergreens keep their needles for several seasons, losing some or all of their needles in one year may present problems in future seasons. For this reason, in general, defoliation on evergreens should be taken more seriously than on deciduous plants. If it is determined that control measures are needed, use the following as a guide for selecting the best method: 1. **Mechanical Control:** Examples here include methods such as hand-picking larvae from plants, physically dislodging them by using forceful water sprays, or other means of nonchemical control. Population size and distribution will determine the effectiveness or suitability of the chosen method. 2. **Biorational Insecticides:** Insecticidal soap-best for low populations of young larvae. A note here - Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) will not control sawflies. Strains of this biological insecticide are effective against various caterpillar pests (larvae of butterflies and moths) but will not control sawfly larvae. 3. **Conventional Insecticides:** Any of the insecticides listed in Table 1 will provide good control of sawflies. These products should be considered only after all other management tactics have been explored. If it is determined that chemical control measures are needed, they should be directed toward the young larvae. Young larvae are much more susceptible to chemical applications than larger, more mature larvae. This is especially true when using biorational products such as insecticidal soap. If larvae are nearly full grown, control measures should not be attempted as chemicals will not be as effective, and most of the damage that the plant will sustain has already been done. Finally, because sawflies often feed in groups, chemical applications should be directed only to the areas they are feeding on; entire tree sprays are unnecessary unless populations are widespread throughout the plant. A list of some insecticide options for sawfly control is given in Table 1. A final note on control. The best control for sawflies or any other pests is preventive measures related to plant health. Correct plant selection, proper site selection when planting, and then continued recommended cultural care will ensure that plants are in excellent health. The better condition a plant is in, the more damage it can tolerate without affecting its health status. **Table 1.** Insecticide options for sawfly control. | Insecticide | |----------------------| | acephate (Orthene) | | bifenthrin | | carbaryl (Sevin) | | insecticidal soap (M-Pede) | | malathion (Malathion) | | permethrin |
3be6d4c0-c424-416a-bbab-31d4bf751fb9
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://pesticidecert.cfans.umn.edu/sites/pesticidecert.cfans.umn.edu/files/2022-04/11.Sawflies_of_Trees%26Shrubs.pdf
2024-11-14T10:43:09+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477028558.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20241114094851-20241114124851-00117.warc.gz
397,921,181
3,829
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.993078
eng_Latn
0.996326
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2049, 3555, 4525, 6246, 7657, 8869, 10179, 11521, 15121, 16753 ]
[ 3.71875 ]
1
0
The numbers are staggering: 600,000 homes destroyed, 20,000 schools in ruins, government buildings reduced to rubble, dozens of bazar towns that look like they were carpet bombed. And yet this comes Tuesday’s 7.3 aftershock which finished off the houses that were left standing. No one has even bothered to revise the figure. The work ahead to provide emergency and long-term shelter for 4 million people is going to be overwhelming. Future reconstruction of devastated Kathmandu Valley towns, urban centres and district headquarters will need a different focus: how to begin non-engineered temporary buildings. The fact that so many of the reinforced concrete houses are standing and traditional clay-mortar brick houses crumbled after the earthquakes has bolstered public perception that concrete is good. But given shortcuts used in reinforced concrete construction, this may only give us a false sense of security. Most rural rebuilding will have to be (and should be) handshakelift. Promoting housing types should be specific to each community and use existing local materials and skills. Unless families have a sense of ownership the new construction will not be maintained and looked after. **Homeless in Nepal** **EDITORIAL PAGE 2-3** **A concrete future** **BY SONIA AWALE** **PAGE 14-15** **LANGTANG LAMENT** The scenic village as it was before, during and after the earthquake that obliterated it. With the eyewitness account of a survivor. **PAGE 10-11** **nepalitimes.com** Special Online Package on the Langtang Tragedy --- **TIPS TO ASSESS YOUR DAMAGED HOUSE BY YOURSELF** **Minor crack/Damage conditions** 1. No cracks on pillar or beam, but straight or diagonal cracks of 1mm gap on walls. 2. Any crack of 1mm on walls. 3. Hairline cracks on beams and pillars. 4. Cracks of 5mm or more on walls but no cracks on beams and pillars, then only such walls are unsafe but won’t affect the building. 5. Horizontal cracks of 1-2mm gap between beam and wall. **Major crack/Damage condition** 1. Diagonal crack of 1mm or more on pillar or beam. 2. Cracks on most of the beams and pillars of ground floor. 3. Continuous cracks of more than 1mm gap from wall through pillar. 4. Visible rods in cracked pillar or beam. 5. Diagonal or straight cracks of 1-2mm gap on corner pillar. 6. Tilting of any part of the building. **PILLAR SYSTEM BUILDING** For more information on Earthquake Safety National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET) Ward No. 1, Bhaneswati Residential Area, Lalitpur, Tel: (977-1) 5591000, 5592522, 5593000, Fax: (977-1) 5592692, 5592693 E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org Website: www.nset.org.np An initiative under NSET implemented program “Promoting Public Private Partnership for Earthquake Risk Management (3PERM)” supported by USAID/OFDA. This statement do not replace detail assessment by engineers. The numbers are staggering: 600,000 homes destroyed, 20,000 schools in ruins, government buildings reduced to rubble, dozens of bazar towns that look like they are carpet bombed. And that was before Tuesday’s 7.3 aftershock which finished off what little there was left. No one has even bothered to revise the figures. As logistical hurdles and bureaucratic delays overcome to get more emergency shelter, medicine and food to the affected areas, attention has started turning to the enormous task of reconstruction and rehabilitation. As we report in this edition of *Nepali Times*, there is the urgent need for short-term emergency shelter so families can tide over the approaching monsoon and winter. Then there is the longer-term need for massive reconstruction which could be funded by remittances, government grants, subsidies and soft loans – all with the intention of creating jobs at home to stem the expected exodus of even more Nepalis going abroad to work (See Om Astha Rai’s report on page 16). Short-term shelter requires coordination between government agencies like UN-HABITAT as well as smaller relief groups in order to quickly cover the sheer geographical scale of the affected area. It is important that these temporary shelters not become permanent homes, and that people are given the financial and technical assistance necessary to rebuild in the longer-term. Future reconstruction of the devastated Kathmandu Valley towns, urban centres and district headquarters will need a different kind of focus: how to brace ‘non-engineered’ unreinforced masonry buildings. There is no strict code for these kinds of houses, but there are ‘rules of thumb’ that need to be followed and monitored. As Sonia Awale reports (page 14-15) the fact that so many of the reinforced concrete buildings are standing and the traditional clay-mortar brick houses crumbled after the earthquakes has bolstered public perception that concrete is good. That would be fine, except that reinforced concrete construction demand that rules about preparing and using cement are strictly followed. So, like everything else in Nepal, it comes down to implementation. The 1990 building code needs to be updated and enforced, masons must be trained in reinforcing brick and their work monitored, safer and cheaper designs need propagation. There many alternative housing solutions (some of which we have listed on page 15) but the problem with alternatives is that they are difficult to scale-up at a national level and be accepted by the mainstream. The lesson from Haiti is not to have grandiose and expensive government housing projects. Efforts by individual families to rebuild on their own should not be derided, and government should not bypassed. However, caution must be put on notice that it can both reconstruction assistance like it messed up the distribution of compensation for conflict victims in which many genuine families never got help. Most importantly, we have to (and should be) household-led under better but vigilant state regulation. The role of local government in the districts should be to provide financial support, enforce technical standards, monitor reconstruction without actually building houses. Proposed housing types should be specific to each community and use existing local materials and skills. A lot of this is already starting to happen, and much of the reconstruction will by default use local materials. However, many will opt for reinforced concrete which needs training and oversight. Unless locals have a sense of ownership (of both private houses and civic buildings like schools) the new construction will not be maintained and looked after. --- **MARSHALL PLAN** I hope the remaining natural forests will not be destroyed or degraded during the reconstruction process ('Needed: A Marshall Plan', Editorial, #757). Reconstruction must be planned prudently with environmental sustainability and efficiency in mind, and without seriously impacting the ecology. This is an opportunity to make things right from the 'word go', and I hope politicians, government officials, planners, citizens, and the donor community will behave rationally and with farsightedness. **ANepali** - Fire Bam Dev Gautam. The man has no experience in disaster management, people died due to his ineptness. **GOPAL** - This editorial is spot on, but can be summarised in one sentence: "Incompetence is a general state and non-specific." Why assume that a government incompetent at education, health care, and constitution writing would suddenly display competence in disaster management? **SOCRATES** - We should take this earthquake as an opportunity to think ahead and find new ways to face challenges surrounding us. **KETAN DULAI** - Disaster is an understatement. Has the current government got the mandate to govern Nepal? I think with this situation they are way over their heads now and bigots wake up call does Nepal public need? **SAMYEK SHRESTHA** - This is exactly right. Incompetence is a general state of being, and those in politics in Nepal are completely and utterly incompetent. Not fit for purpose whether that purpose relates to disaster management, healthcare, power supply, job creation, education, infrastructure, the economy. They operate a complete, extractive system and until they are completely removed and replaced Nepal will remain one of the poorest and least developed countries. The tragedy of this is that the country is full of resilient, hard working, caring people but who seem content to be led over the cliff time after time. **BRIAN METTERS** - Thanks for this well-articulated masterpiece of an editorial, and an inspiring note to the youth to return and participate in rebuilding their nation. By then, the senile beings squatting on the high seats will remove themselves and go on a pilgrimage. **KESANG** - Our governments did not work for the good of all in the past. It does not at present. And I see no chances of it working out in the future. We should put one of the most red dangerously building tags on Balkwatar and Sincha Darbar -- they should be condemned. We don't need a plan like a Marshall Plan, we need implementation of the plans we have. **NARENDRA TAMANG** - Excellent editorial. However, in Nepali right now I don’t see a leader who can handle a Marshall Plan type of work. **NETRA THAPA** **SINDHUPALCHOK’S SORROW** Lack of efficient access to aid, combined with little political transparency or information can mean things spiral out of control ("Sindhupalchok's sorrow", Binkhus Rai, #757). These local communities do matter. **KRISTINE HILDEBRANDT** - Most of the time, our leaders are busy enjoying salakas, drinking whiskey, jet-setting around the world and robbing us blind. Then, they were hiding in their rat holes when the people needed them the most. **CHITRA BAHADUR KC** **THE SORRY STATE OF THE NEPAli GOVERNMENT EXPOSED.** **ANITA GURUNG** - Thanks again for your moving reportage of villagers' suffering ("Life after deaths", Om Astha Rai, #757). Hope the Nepal government does not have deaf ears. **FRANCESCA COLES** **DISASTER LESSONS** While I applaud Virod Thomas' views and visions in the article relating to disasters in Nepal ("Learning from disasters", Virod Thomas, #757), I would emphasise foremost the importance to ensuring good governance in the country, which is unfortunately severely lacking. When governance system is largely in the grips of corrupt cronies, no means and measures whatsoever of mitigating disasters could be effective. After all, bad governance itself is a disaster. **DR EK RAJ OJHA** - You can have the best response teams, best disaster planning, etc., but when a national leader (Ram Sharan Mahat in this instance) says that "MegQuake is a manageable event" you know the level of mendacity which has pervaded our society. **NAM** - A new Nepal has to be born for young open-minded and good motivated leaders to rule ("Earning back the people's trust", Teering Dolker Gurung, #757). **TASHI LAMA** - A good name lost can never be retrieved. **GAURI NATH RIMAL** - Even as we yearn for them to lead us and rebuild our country, we can be sure that these thugs will once again loot the people of aid money and relief goods. I will never trust them. They do not deserve our trust. **BAIRAGI KHUKURI** In some places most families can only afford and understand local construction practices (Tsun. Langtang and other remote areas). In others there will be even stronger aspiration to rebuild concrete houses, especially in urban centres like Dhaingdhesi, Charikot, Gorkha or Chautara. Traditional masonry buildings, whether made of stone or mud-brick, can be repaired with the use of beams and steel reinforcement. This is neither feasible nor desirable in many contexts. There will be a need to promote earthquake-resistant building methods and planning strategies that are appropriate to particular communities. Schools and homes that are intact or only slightly damaged need to be retained. Following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the local practice of using timber bracing (dhanji dewari) was widely adopted and over 120,000 houses were rebuilt using this technique in Pakistan. Similar methods have been adopted in Turkey, Italy, and Indonesia after major earthquakes. There are other ways to build stronger houses using locally available materials, and this knowledge needs to be shared widely and conveyed to people engaged in reconstruction so that they can choose for themselves. Transportation planning needs to be considered alongside housing reconstruction. The network of roads on a mountain landscape already prone to landslides. The survival of our towns and villages depends not just on their reconstruction but also on their ability to tread the ground lightly, respecting an unstable geology and climate. In urban centres, there must be improved settlement planning that incorporates new open public spaces, earthquake-resistant community centres, and evacuation routes. Rebuilding of towns and urban centres must strengthen both community-level and government institutions—not undermine them. The idea to limit the height of buildings in the Kathmandu Valley may be misplaced since this can create other problems such as sprawl, which is disastrous in itself. So far, there is little reason to hope that our elected leaders have either the understanding or the willingness to learn. The best evidence of this was on full display on Wednesday as CA members scrambled shamelessly to hoard tents for themselves in the full glare of the media. However, we do have a savvy Minister of Urban Planning and officials with experience in relief and reconstruction in other parts of the world. They should be more assertive and proactively overcome the state’s paralysing inertia and ignorance. Well said, social capital in its enhanced form can help in reconstruction and building of resilient societies (“A more responsive state”, David Seddon, #757). Ramjee Bhandari AFTERSHOCK While I truly appreciate the selfless work done by our soldiers since the 25 April quake, a few questions have been bothering me (“A state in aftershock”, #757 by Victor Rana). Perhaps the general would like to respond why we have to import hundreds of rescue and relief workers from abroad when we have a 90,000 strong army and tens of thousands more in the APF and police? Even the rescue dogs were bidshe. Now I’m not being a zealous patriot and I understand that the international teams have more experience and better resources. But why aren’t our security forces equally well-equipped and trained given that our military budget is pretty large for a small-sized country? Post the 10-year conflict, we have become a state where rather than the role of the security forces in Nepal should be limited to protecting wildlife and forests, responding to threats from natural disasters and taking part in peacekeeping missions abroad. Therefore, going forward I think our Army should try to achieve international standards and must set an example in the region for disaster preparedness. Alas wide-spread corruption within our government and security forces will prove to be an obstacle yet again. Liza Shrestha BY THE WAY Anurag Acharya One of the nightmare scenarios for Kathmandu was that transportation and communication lines would be cut and the capital would be cut off. That did not happen. Roads and the only international airport suffered minimum damage; electricity and phones were restored surprisingly swiftly. However, the most encouraging sign was the sight of Nepal’s young population rushing to deliver emergency aid — filling a gaping gap left by the government. In the strong aftershocks still rocking the Valley and adjoining districts, young Nepalis were volunteering to collect relief and transporting it to where they were needed the most, sometimes at their own cost. Imagine what the demographic dividend Nepal would reap if we could channel that pent-up energy and commitment to nation-building. At a time when a large swathe of country’s rural population is toiling in foreign lands, the spontaneous self-mobilisation of urban youth eased the pressure on state agencies. The government and the bureaucracy got a lot of flak for being late and disorganised with response. However, the scale of the disaster was such that it would have challenged even well-governed states. Nepal’s security forces deserve a lot of praise for the way they responded to knit save lives. The country has been fortunate to receive immediate help from governments around the world, which have sent in their disaster relief teams to aid search and rescue operations in the remote districts of the Himalayas. But the last three weeks have proven that Nepal needs to strengthen its capacity for disaster preparedness and response. After Tuesday’s 7.3 magnitude aftershock triggered fresh landslides and destruction in Dolakha, Sindhupalchok, Rasuwa we have had to suddenly revamp our search and rescue, while continuing relief and relief efforts. It is important that both go in tandem as we care against time to provide shelters to millions of people before the rains and ahead of winter. Most families in Kare and Sindhupalchok have already started building temporary shelters for the winter using local materials and salvaged timber and bricks. The only stumbling block the government must start delivering on a floodproof mechanism for subsiding home rebuilding. Populations in landslide prone areas must be identified, and relocated before the monsoon when slope failure is going to be a constant danger. For the district capitals and Kathmandu Valley the government must finally start strictly enforcing its 25-year-old building code. Large sections of the population in the affected areas outside Kathmandu Valley are subsistence farmers, they need help with seeds for the paddy planting season, otherwise they will go hungry for the rest of the year. In many ways, the monsoon season will seriously test us again. So far, the amount pledged by the donors for reconstruction may be encouraging, but the actual amount received in the PM’s relief fund is disappointing to say the least. Part of the fault is with the PMO which sent conflicting signals and confused signals to potential donors and delayed some of the donations in aid disbursement. The international community also has an opportunity to clean up its act, and not make the same mistakes it was severely criticised for in Haiti. The inflow of aid money is making some politicians very happy, calling for revival of their discredited all-party mechanism at the local level which was a cartel to share the loot. Others are also demanding immediate local elections, while some want a national government. In 2010, when a massive 8.8 magnitude quake hit Chile, only 525 people lost their lives and less than 9 percent of the affected population lost their homes. The same year, a 7.0 magnitude quake in Haiti killed over 100,000 people reducing the capital city to a rubble. Experts credit strict building codes and swift rescue for saving lives in Chile. So, an earthquake doesn’t kill people, lack of preparedness does. CHENGDU – The epicentre of the 7.9 magnitude earthquake was 80km to the north-west, and everything swayed in the capital. Some older buildings crumbled. The tremors were felt 1,000km away in neighbouring countries. The airport was closed for a day, and then became the staging area for a massive relief operation. Highways were blocked by landslides, hampering emergency rescue and relief to the mountain villages. Up to 80 per cent of the buildings in poorer rural areas near the epicentre were destroyed. UNESCO World Heritage Site was severely damaged. Strong aftershocks, some above 6 magnitude, kept hitting the area for weeks afterwards. Sound familiar? That isn’t a description of the 25 April Nepal Earthquake, but the one that struck China’s Sichuan Province exactly seven years ago this week at 11:30 AM on 12 May 2008. The earthquake hit scattered communities in a remote part of China that was largely untouched by the country’s economic boom, and killed about 100,000 people, injuring nearly 400,000. An estimated 7 million people were left homeless. The most tragic part of the Sichuan earthquake was that it struck during school hours killing thousands of teachers and students. Some 1,100 schools were destroyed, killing 5,500 children. In school after school in Wenchuan and Beichuan, teachers and students were crushed or trapped under shoddily-built school buildings. Another 1,700 were killed in just one school in Mianyang. The loss of children was so serious in a country with a strict one-child policy that the government made an exception for many families, allowing them to reverse their vasectomies. Even though some 25,000 classrooms were destroyed in Nepal on 25 April, a similar catastrophe was averted here only because the earthquake struck on a Saturday. Still, about 1 million school-going children will be affected and may be attending classes in Temporary Learning Centres from next month. China’s emergency response, led by Premier Wen Jiabao himself and was internationally praised for its prompt deployment. More than 3,000 people were rescued from the rubble in the immediate aftermath, and 10 helicopters were used in search, rescue and relief. Many who took part in the Sichuan relief work were part of the China International Rescue Team that was dispatched to Kathmandu on 28 April. “We learnt many lessons from the earthquake, and some of them will be relevant for Nepal as it tries to deal with the aftermath of its disaster,” said Dai Xianglong of Sichuan University Institute of South Asian Studies. “The top agenda now should be economic transformation to build a beautiful Nepal in the future again.” Indeed, China’s central government and Sichuan Province turned the crisis into an opportunity to invest $150 billion for reconstruction, rehabilitation and relocation of some townships like Wenchuan and Beichuan. An investigation into collapsed schools revealed that contractors cut corners and did not follow building codes. A unique aspect of the reconstruction work is that Chinese cities on the western seaboard were encouraged to ‘adopt’ individual towns in Sichuan affected by the earthquake and invest in their reconstruction. For example, Guangzhou adopted Wenchuan. “We utilised the power of the whole country to help the reconstruction,” said Zhihui Song of Sichuan University. At a India-China-Nepal trilateral cooperation conference hosted by the China West Normal University this weekend in Nanchong, the discussions were dominated by how Nepal’s neighbours could help in Nepal’s reconstruction. Participants felt that India’s advantage was its proximity, and China would help with technical expertise from Sichuan in rebuilding homes, with construction equipment and financial assistance. Rupan Sapkota, who is doing a PhD at Beijing’s Renmin University, said China should “think big” in Nepal’s hour of need. “Post-earthquake reconstruction of Nepal could be the first big project that the China-led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and its support of China’s Silk Road Economic Belt policy are steps in the right direction. But Nepal has had earthquakes every 100 years or so. The government had legislated a new building code in 1996 but the code was poorly implemented because of poverty and bad governance. An important lesson for other countries prone to natural disasters from Nepal’s experience is that there is no option but to be prepared. It is not good enough just to have laws and codes, they should be enforced.” Pradumna R. Rana is associate professor and coordinator of the International Political Economy Program in the Centre for Multilateralism Studies at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. BURIED: Sichuan 12 May 2008 (left) and Nepal 25 April 2015. NEARLY three weeks after the 25 April earthquake and the massive aftershock on 12 May, Nepal is entering the second phase of its recovery and reconstruction. The government has established a National Reconstruction Fund to which it has allocated $200 million, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) has pledged another $300 million and Japan has proposed to convene a donor group meeting. Despite this generous support from the outside world, the country’s recovery will take many years. There is no harm in hoping. Policy actions are required immediately on four fronts: 1. Since the government lacks credibility, there must be monitoring systems to oversee the newly-established National Reconstruction Fund. Watchdog bodies and community-based organisations should be in place to ensure transparency and accountability in the use of resources. Nepal has been in political turmoil since 2006 and the end of the conflict. Local government elections have not been held since 1999; instead, civil servants run the system from the capital. Corruption is prevalent in all levels. The Prime Minister’s speech to the nation a few days after the quake disappointed many, and several top political leaders were conspicuous by their absence in the early days of the crisis. Could this disaster lead to improved governance? Perhaps. Such devastating disasters can shake up a society so much that seemingly intractable problems can be resolved. 2. To rebuild the 600,000 damaged and destroyed homes innovative solutions like the Habitat Building System developed by the Bangkok-based Asian Institute of Technology and others could be considered. These houses should be designed to complement and blend with the village scenery in Nepal, which attracts over 800,000 tourists every year. 3. Nepal has become one of the most remittance-dependent economies in the world. Before the earthquake 1,500 abled-bodied workers were sent everyday for work in India. This flow has now ceased and some have, in fact, returned home to help out their families. Without jobs in the country to keep them in Nepal, they will surely leave again, perhaps in even larger numbers. Innovative income-generating schemes like the ‘cash for work’ programs which were used by Mercy Corps in Aceh after the tsunami and in the Philippines after Super Typhoon Haiyan, potentially it means reconstruction itself creates jobs in rebuilding schools and infrastructure. Simply doling out money for rehabilitation is not a good idea as it will have adverse budgetary and monetary impacts. 4. Finally, in a study prepared for the ADB last year, a co-author and I have argued that Nepal should strive to become a land link between China and India, as it was centuries before by improving connectivity both within the country as well as cross-border. Such a strategy would result in a more rapid development of the country, Nepal’s founding member status in the China-initiated Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and its support of China’s Silk Road Economic Belt policy are steps in the right direction. But Nepal has had earthquakes every 100 years or so. The government had legislated a new building code in 1996 but the code was poorly implemented because of poverty and bad governance. An important lesson for other countries prone to natural disasters from Nepal’s experience is that there is no option but to be prepared. It is not good enough just to have laws and codes, they should be enforced. Pradumna R. Rana is associate professor and coordinator of the International Political Economy Program in the Centre for Multilateralism Studies at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Bibeksheel Nepali shows how it is done A party of youthful citizens shows what it means to be committed to the country above self Nobody expected the landslide victory that propelled the Aan Aadmi Party (AAP) led by Arvind Kejriwal to the state Assembly in elections in February on an anti-corruption platform. He had failed his voters once before, resigning abruptly after only 46 days in office. But the AAP garnered a willing support from the working class and protest voters and defeated the ruling Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP), winning an astonishing 67 out of 70 assembly seats. It’s a different story that post-victory the AAP’s intra-party squabbles have made more news than its achievements in curbing endemic graft or following through on its election promise of reducing the cost of utilities in the Indian capital. But the AAP’s win shows that voters do not shy from giving a chance to new and inexperienced political force that promises to undo the wrongs of previous governments. It was with a similar kind of hope for a more inclusive Nepal that thousands of young Nepalis took up arms against the state 20 years ago. Millions more turned out to vote in 2008 for the rebel Maoist party as a mainstream political party. The Maoist party subsequently failed on many fronts: failure to draft a new constitution, letting down the Nepali people, and indulging in the same kind of greed and graft that they were purportedly against. But the Maoist party’s biggest failure was to lose its connection with the poor and marginalised that had elected it to power. The foot soldiers saw no difference between their idols who had now taken up the ways of the elite and the corrupt elite themselves. The result in the ascendency of a new force in Nepal much like India’s AAP. The group that comes closest to pulling it off may be the Bibeksheel Nepali party which like its Indian counterpart started out as a protest movement. Led by young activists and professionals, they were first took to streets to campaign against national shutdowns foisted on the people by the mainstream parties. It took up the cause of exploited migrant workers, violence against women, corruption in public offices and advocate for citizenship for new comers through the very popular ‘Omnipresent’ movement, ‘Nepal Unites’, and ‘Nepal is Open’ campaigns. These drives gained wide support via social media and became a magnet for disillusioned youth who though politically conscious weren’t involved in the system. In 2013, the party registered itself as a party and four of its members [pic. above] including party chair Ujjwal Thapa filed candidacies from Kathmandu’s most-competitive constituencies for the CA-2 elections. Thapa, a US-educated IT entrepreneur ran against two veteran leaders (Narathari Acharya from the Nepali Congress Party and UML’s Ishwor Pokharel) in Kathmandu-5 and lost. Bibeksheel’s other three members also lost with him. Undeterred by the loss, the group has spent the last two years building its image as an alternative political force, a people’s party that’s not made up of politicians, but rather, Nepalis who have been affected by Nepal’s bureaucracy as much as you and I. Its extensive use of social media to circulate information about relief activities, solicit donations, recruit more members and recently to update about rescue and relief efforts has not only increased its presence but bolstered its support base. Youngsters who had no idea about the group before the earthquake are now spending their time and resources volunteering for the party. A friend’s brother who stepped in to transport relief supplies for Bibeksheel Nepali in the SWV tells me: “I don’t know how committed these are. It’s not just for social media. There are volunteers who don’t sleep at night and spent hours packaging supplies because they have to be delivered in the morning.” Another declared that this was the group to recommend to eager donors in Nepal and abroad. “They are completely transparent about their finances,” she explained. Inside the party office at Maharajgunj any day and you will meet hundreds of young volunteers, all doing their bid to help fellow Nepalis in need. They resumed relief work from the third day of the 25 April earthquake. We are now planning to move towards rehabilitation work,” said Jeevan Shrestha who has been coordinating the party’s relief distribution. It may be too early to tout the party as one that’ll uproot the dominance of three major parties but one thing’s certain – they are being noticed. the beams and pillars are still intact, but Principal Anamika Nyachyup says the school halls are now too unsafe to use. She is unsure how to restart classes for the 1,000 students enrolled here. The government had said schools would restart on Friday, but have been delayed by two more weeks after the aftershock on Tuesday. Even so, there will be many schools in Sindhupalchok, Gorkha, Nuwakot that will not be able to open because 90 per cent of them have been completely destroyed. Eighty per cent of local partners are working to replenish these and restart classes as soon as possible in Temporary Learning Centres and child-friendly spaces in 14 districts, most affected by the quake. “In these safe spaces children have an opportunity to come and be children. They can play and interact with their friends and peers. These spaces also give us an opportunity to provide key messages to children as well as caregivers,” says Marilyn Hoar, UNICEF’s Education Chief. Child friendly spaces set up in Kathmandu and Lalitpur offer children a chance to be involved in colouring, playing games, singing songs and engaging in activities where they can have fun together. After the government announces date for reopening schools, these spaces will transition into learning centres where classes will come together with their teachers. “It also allows caregivers to have a place where they know their children are safe and looked after, and that they can go deal with other needs including food and in some cases finding missing family members,” says Hoar. “It will take time to rebuild and repair the buildings, but more than that it will take time to get the fear out of children’s mind and get them back to school,” says Nivashaya. My niece’s school has already reopened but she refuses to go back out of fear and parents are also unsure whether their children will be safe. UNICEF Nepal estimates that almost a million children will not be able to return to school immediately, but says going back to class and meeting friends again is important for children to overcome their fears. “Going back to school will help children cope better,” says Tomoko Hozumi, Nepal Country Representative of UNICEF. “It also helps them recover from stress, which when left unattended can lead to trauma in children.” Since most of the learning materials at home and school are gone, UNICEF and its --- **Learning inside camps** The 25 April earthquake has damaged over 24,000 classrooms and UNICEF Nepal estimates a million children won’t be able to return to schools immediately. With schools set to reopen only beginning of June, local initiatives like the Kabi Gajra Nepal Trust, a non-profit organisation, which provides necessary supplies to students of public schools, have set up temporary learning camps. Last Monday the organisation started an activity camp at Kanya Mandir School where 66 children, between the ages of seven and 14, participated on the first day. Reetesh Acharya, coordinator of the camp says activities are aimed at fun learning. “Children will still be taught mathematics but in a lullaby way,” she explains. Priya Regmi, 18, an undergraduate student, one of the 19 volunteers running different workshops at the camp. “It’s important that students of government schools still receive education,” she tells *Nepal Times*. The project is called Resuming School Learning and currently also helps people rebuild their lives. “Adults who have to take care of children cannot look for new jobs or look after the replacement needed in their houses,” says Acharya. Another purpose of the camp is to help children with trauma, as Urmanga Pandey, chairperson of KG Nepal explains. “Students can decide what activity they want to do,” he says. “We don’t force them to traumatised children by forcing them to do something they don’t.” KG Nepal’s camp is open to all students in the district. The group had initially planned to run the camp for only a month but will now continue for as long as possible. They plan to open similar centres outside Kathmandu. “We understand that the hardly-hit regions have other priorities now, but in time they will need education” says Acharya. Skiphane Huiri It was Saturday and Kali Bahadur Pahari (pic. right) was at his home in Badikhel when a 7.8 magnitude earthquake shook Central Nepal. The first floor of his two-storey house was badly damaged. Luckily, his family escaped unharmed. A long time employee of Everest Pashmina Knitting and Weaving Industry in Jharuwabasi, Pahari came back to work a few days after the earthquake. With him, there were many employees eager to get back to work even though the back wall of the building where the sewing stations were located had collapsed and the main office and warehouse were damaged. Fifty employees worked together to clean up the mess and get the factory up and running. An engineer was called who assessed the buildings and supervised the reconstruction of the back wall. Three weeks after the earthquake half of the 300 employees are back at work, producing handcrafted pashmina products. Reopening the factory so soon wasn’t an easy decision for Santosh Gurung, owner of the small family-owned business in the south-west corner of the Valley. One-third of the workers have lost their homes and a someone lost their life. But seeing that his employees were eager to be back at work, he decided to go ahead with the production. “Opening the factory was important not only for employees who depend on us for livelihood but also because we owe it to our customers to deliver the products on time,” says Gurung. “It is also the best way to begin the recovery process.” Products made at Everest Pashmina are exclusively exported to countries like Spain and Italy. “It will still take a few weeks to go into full production but at least we have started work for now,” says Gurung, who is currently busy rectifying the buildings. “Come end of the year the buildings will have been rectified to withstand earthquakes up to 9 magnitude,” he adds. He is also collecting funds to help employees whose homes have been damaged or rebuilt. “My customers have extended their help and for that I am forever grateful,” he says. Robin Boustead, a customer of Everest Pashmina for nearly two years has launched a campaign in Indiegogo, a crowdfunding and fundraising website, to collect relief funds for earthquake victims in Nepal. His brand Mirror in the Sky caters to large multinational companies to small boutiques and will be donating 10 per cent of all sales to disaster relief programs in Nepal. Boustead believes that combining emergency aid with long-term business partnerships is the best combination of immediate assistance and helping people to rebuild their lives. “We had planned to launch our Indiegogo campaign for our Signature Designs, but then the earthquake happened and really it became more important to raise relief funds and highlight the need for business partners to stick by Nepal,” says Boustead. “The situation will deteriorate further if the overseas communities desert Nepal and we want to keep it as a very local point about loyalty and support.” Amidst the ruins of what used to be their homes, Kathmandu residents sifted through the rubble to salvage belongings and raw materials to reconstruct new ones. Neighbours helped neighbours, even the youngest members of families lent a helping hand. Sometimes complete strangers stopped by for support. Children helped their parents and siblings to clear sites of what used to be their homes. And in the midst of it all, people who lost everything had time to pause and smile and offer visitors tea. The earthquake may have devastated Central Nepal, spreading death and destruction, but it also brought out the resilient and self-reliant spirit of the Nepali people to restore their homes, their heritage, the culture and identity of Nepal. The international goodwill and support was overwhelming. Nepal has lots of friends. nepalitimes.com For more pictures STRONG READY TO FACE ADVERSITY (clockwise from top, left): Father and son arrive in Bhaktapur, fleeing earthquake damage in their district to the east. A woman in Bungamati smiles amidst the ruins of her house. Two young women at the town square in Bungamati, which was severely damaged by the first earthquake on 25 April. Children help parents remove debris and rubble from what used to be their home in Bungamati. Mother and daughter clean up the rubble of their home in Bungamati. Husband and wife with their baby at a shelter in Bungamati. Their home was completely destroyed. This boy has been living in a temple courtyard in Bungamati under a plastic sheet with his family after their home was destroyed. The Swiss have always had a great affinity for Langtang, ever since a yak cheese factory was established there in 1955, which is still running. I first travelled to Langtang via Darjeeling and Gorkha Valley in 1975 when I came to Nepal to work for Swiss Development Cooperation. Langtang Village with its stone houses, carved wooden windows and shingle roofs was bucolic, the villagers had all taken their yaks to high pasture since it was summer. In Kyangjung the cheesemaker prudishly gave me a sample of hard yak cheese to taste cut from a disc that would be carried over Ganja La to Kathmandu. That night we set up our tents on a flat meadow, the mountains glowed in starlight. When I went back there in 2013, there were 40 new lodges in Kyangjung and many more in Langtang Village. There were more than 300 trekkers in Langtang that autumn, and the locals were busy, and the cheesemaker was happy to announce that there was shortage of cheese. I appreciated Langtang not just for the scenery and the warm hospitality of the people but also for the magnificent biodiversity of the pristine Langtang National Park that goes from sub-tropical to bamboo groves, the birch and rhododendron trees alive with red pandas, and then the coniferous forests, the alpine meadows and the Arctic desert of the mountains. Few visitors see the other side of Langtang River from Kyangjung to observe the small lakes with crystal blue water reflecting the fluted ridges of Gang Chhenpo in the distance. I still cannot believe that the village is gone, but Langtang is still there and so is the indomitable spirit of the people of this incredible holy valley who will rebuild their lives and heritage. Fritz Berger birthday and we were together with our little family, waiting for the fourth one to come. My friend Colin and I put on our cross-country skis and left the lodge owned by my Nepali friend, Gyalbu. We crossed Kyangjin Gompa (3,860m) and went down the bridge leading to Ganja La on the other side. The weather wasn’t that great, the snow hadn’t frozen enough, and I hadn’t slept well. So we went back to our rooms. Around 11:30AM Margaux pranced up to her mum a bracelet we had bought together in the village. She’s only two and we were at 3800m. I’m proud of my daughter. A few minutes later, Colin joined us in the main room of the lodge. It was great to start an expedition in Nepal in such a serene environment. A friend and my family all welcomed into Gyalbu’s lodge. Just before noon, the ground started shaking. We had enough time to understand that it was an earthquake. “Everybody out!” I greeted Margaux and rushed outside. The quake became stronger, and we jumped over the terrace to get away from everything that could crumble upon us. Stones were falling from the walls and we wondered which building was going to collapse first. All the villagers were out, there was a terrible commotion. As the shaking stopped, we heard a loud scream. A monstrous snow cloud burst out of the fog from above the moraine. We were already sprinting in the opposite direction. I looked back, the avalanche was already upon us. We couldn’t race it. I took shelter behind a house and protected my daughter. Dirty snow was falling on me, and Margaux started to cry. The walls were not able to resist the shockwave. I put my polar fleece over Margaux’s head so she wouldn’t catch the blowing snow. I was wondering where Pauline and Colin were. The snow stopped blowing. I have seen avalanches before but nothing as big and powerful as this one. Margaux has ‘snow dreadlocks’ in her hair, I got rid of the snow so she wouldn’t get sick. Pauline came out of the crowd, she was safe but she was confused in the snow. I wanted to take Pauline and Margaux to a safe area so they would be protected from another avalanche. There was still snow all around us. We were above the cliffs below Langtang Lirung, and I hoped Kyangjin Ri should have protected us, but it was hard to tell where it would be the safest. Colin was still missing, and I went to look for him leaving Pauline and Margaux sheltered under a makeshift tent made of plastic tarps, wood and covers from a devastated hotel. Colin had apparently ran towards the slope below the village. I reached the edge of the slope but the fog prevented me from seeing below. I think I called out to Colin. I found Neophis helping each other climb up the slope. There was one with a bleeding head due to a scalp wound. Another one was lying with his arms contorted and head down, no one was helping him. He was unconscious, and moaning when I tried to wake him. He seemed to be in pain. Then I saw Colin slowly walking towards us painfully climbing up the slope. We carried the wounded back to the village. I couldn’t believe what was happening. It took a few minutes for me to turn a genius day into pure terror. We reached the ledge overlooking Langtang Village, and couldn’t believe our eyes. The village was not there anymore, most of the houses had disappeared. The ground was still shaking, and we were worried that there could be another avalanche. What had happened at night? We wouldn’t be able to see anything. The aftershocks came through the night, but no avalanche. The village lasted three days but it seemed to eternity. We left, but many of our Nepali friends are still there. There were more landslides and avalanches, and the February aftershock must have made it worse. While waiting for rescuers we learnt that Langtang Village, only two hours from Kathmandu, had been wiped off the map. All those living in Kyangjin are originally from Langtang, many of their families were perished. After travelling for 24 hours, we found ourselves safe and sound in our own house in France. The memories make it hard to sleep. Our only wish is to try to help the people of Nepal as much as we can. Asymetric Clover Afters “I had never seen an avalanche like this” For details of the full horror of the avalanche in Langtang, started trickling out a few days after the 25 April earthquake, a specialised team of Spanish mountain rescues with sniffer dogs and forensic experts arrived in Kathmandu, and immediately took helicopters to this scenic valley 40km north of the capital. “What they saw on 2 May was a scene of utter devastation, and they found about 500 people had been buried under 100m of boulders, mud and ice. A huge chunk of the Langtang Lirung Glacier had broken off at 4,000m, bulldozing through the moraines and tumbling over a cliff to the settlement below. “Shock waves preceding the avalanche of the combination of ice and rock falling 3km straight down had blown away dozens of houses with people in them. Such was the force of the blast that it flattened a forest on the other side of the Valley. “I thought I had seen everything everywhere. I have seen a lot of disasters, but I have never seen an avalanche like this,” Fernando Rierro Diaz of the mountain rescue team of the Spanish Guardia Civil told us on Saturday before flying back home. The team made 12 sorties from Kathmandu in dawn-to-dusk search and rescue, but it was obvious that the village with everyone in it had been wiped off the map. The mission ended into retrieving the identification cards of some of the hundreds of hikers and trekkers. Some 50 tourists are still missing; and the Spanish team could find only two of the bodies of the eight Spanish trekkers in Langtang. Many of the photographs taken by the Spanish team are too gruesome to be shown, and there is a void in the list of the dead. Among the buried roof of what used to be a climbing lodge. Some of the victims had been blown right across to the opposite mountainside, the shock waves having torn the flesh away leaving only skeletal remains. “This was a multidimensional crisis, we had to search and rescue, do the identification, evacuate the wounded and the survivors and get them on flights out of Kathmandu,” explained Spain’s ambassador to India and Nepal, Gustavo de Arrieta who was in Kathmandu for the past two weeks to direct the operation. “We are grateful to the Nepali Army, the Indians and the Chinese. We are just saddened that it wasn’t possible to find all the victims.” This week, the Nepal Army evacuated remaining families from Kyangjin, which is threatened by more landslides and avalanches following aftershocks. Settlements along the narrow gorges of the Langtang River near Ghodha Tabela and Lama hotel, which were hit by avalanches and rockfalls have also been taken to Dhunche. Kunda Dixit Hi all, It has almost been 3 weeks since the big earthquake and the strong aftershock last Tuesday, we are slowly starting to get back into our usual routines, while there are still plenty of people who are concerned with how they will shelter themselves during the upcoming monsoon season, because they have lost their homes. In such tragedies, we have philanthropists and helpful individuals out there, spending hours of their days calling, coordinating and delivering relief aid where in need, because of the capital. Altruism is an admirable quality in humans when we work to help others, it is something people do to benefit others without expecting anything in return. However, it is rare for individuals or groups to help without seeking any validation for what they have done. There is definitely more of ‘look at how I am helping’ than ‘look at how s/he is helping’. It hard to find those who will help without seeking any credit and that is just how it works. Helping others is a very noble thing, though at times some get so busy promoting themselves that they forget the main purpose of the help. “I just donated Rs 100,000 to a cause” status update or posting pictures of self holding the edge of a sack of rice while giving it away is probably not the most modest way to go. But right now, some help is better than no help at all. Please send me more questions to: email@example.com or @MsKay Hello Anjana, I respect individuals who are going out of their way to help the earthquake victims and their families. But it annoys me to see so many of them posting pictures on social media about the help they are providing to the survivors – as if it was a competition. I feel they are more concerned with showing off what they are doing than actually helping others. I hate this cheesy atmosphere. Some say I’m cynical or insensitive, others say I’m in complete denial. But I feel I’m just trying to move ahead. What is wrong with me? -FT AR: I think I understand what you are saying. It is natural for you to feel frustrated. It is great to see so many individuals and organisations helping. I also believe that when you help, it is not necessary to announce to everyone what you have done because it defeats the purpose of altruism. Nowadays, self-promotion has become a socially acceptable behavior. Social media has given rise to a vain generation who are self-exalted and need to show others what they have done for validation. Also, there are some international donors who donate to charities and are not present at location, they want to see how much money is being spent. That’s the current world for you. Very few people will go out of their way to help others without expecting anything back. That being said in the current situation, victims need help and it is definitely better that people help than not at all, even if they want to be temporary ‘mini-celebrities’. But, there are good people out there who are silently doing more, proving that selfless people still exist. Anjana is a certified mental health rehabilitation technician and has four years of experience in adult mental health in Maine, USA. Searching for a heart of gold Dambar Krishna Shrestha in Himal Khabarapatroka, 10-16 May Ten days after the earthquake, my colleagues and I headed to parts of Rasuwa, Makawanpur and Nuwakot that hadn’t received any relief at that time. We went there as both journalists and relief workers, carrying supplies bought with funds collected from friends and families. As we drove into Gerkhu village of Nuwakot in the afternoon of 15 May, we saw an elderly woman (see pic). “I have no one left in the world,” she said, her face at the window of the car. Although our initial plan was to eat first, and then begin distributing the supplies we had brought, our hunger was soon seen off. Handing her a packet of instant noodles and two packs of biscuits, I told her: “Eat these for now, we will come back to you later.” “Why are you giving me so much, please give these to others,” she said and returned the biscuits. When the driver Sama Kancha Tamang tried to give her money, the woman initially refused to accept saying, “Why do you have to give me money when I don’t even have a purse.” She later accepted the money, tucking the notes inside her patuka. Himal’s photographer Dinesh Bista tried to help her but the woman threw her hands away saying, “What have you done, girl? Don’t you know that I am an untouchable Dalit?” “Aama, what is your name? How old are you?” I asked. “I don’t remember my name. I was four during the 1934 earthquake,” she replied. My eyes welled up. Dinesh was also tearing up. Sitting behind us, stand-up comedian Manoj Gajurel looked sombre. Never had I seen the man who is always making others laugh so serious. The great earthquake has brought Nepalis together. A lot of individual Nepalis not affiliated to any charity or the government have come forward to help with rescue and relief. Thousands of Nepalis living abroad have returned home with supplies, while those who are still outside continue to send money. Amongst the sense of shared humanity in the aftermath of the earthquake there are, however, some who are so greedy they see the tragedy as an opportunity to profit. They are usually the ones who are already well off. In Kathmandu we saw people with luxurious apartments and bungalows fight with homeless people over tents. A well-to-do store owner in Nuwakot had no shame telling us to leave our supply of mosquito nets with him because there were no mosquitoes high up the mountains in Rasuwa. Relief materials collected by a group of young entrepreneurs from Pokhara meant for distribution to remote villages in Rasuwa was seized by those who didn’t need it. In Sindupalchok looting relief supplies like blankets and utensils common items are also popular who claim they haven’t received any help and continue to take packages meant for those in need. In Gerkhu too there were people who had already received tents, and food rations—they be given as much as the other villagers who had received nothing so far. People were selling gold and silver, gold necklaces and rings were giving relief workers a list of things they needed. I kept searching for the elderly woman in the crowd. But I didn’t find her. We set aside food supplies and a blanket for her and left them with a local youth, Damidar Ghimire. We didn’t want to take her in tent because we heard she lived with whoever gave her a place to sleep for the night. When the angry crowd started getting unruly, we took the remaining supplies back to the car. As our car drove back to Kathmandu, I kept thinking of the grandmother with a heart of gold who despite being in need herself thought of others first. Relief superstar Annapurna Post, 12 May Under the initiative of Nepali actor Rajesh Hamal, relief materials worth Rs 1.6 billion was brought to Nepal on two American FedEx Express aircrafts, first of which landed on Saturday and the second on Monday. The relief materials which contained large volumes of IV solutions, medicines, surgical supplies and other medical essentials was flown by American non-profit medical organisation, Direct Relief. The medical supplies will be handed to Nepali NGO Possible that has been working to provide free quality healthcare to people in far-west Nepal. Tears of joy Sudeep Shrestha in Wagonik, 11 May They say the earthquake that struck Nepal on 25 April was 7.8 magnitude, but what Rasmila Awal felt on that fateful afternoon cannot be measured on any scale. Rasmila had gone to a nearby shop before the noon, leaving her two children—10-year-old Sonia and three-year-old Sonit—a house. Sonia was watching a Hindi serial on the tv and baby Sonit was asleep. Suddenly the home started swaying violently and cracks started to appear on the walls. Sonia ran outside, but realised that her brother was still inside. She returned to the house and started running outside. But the house had started to crumble by then, and she could not move her trapped feet. She held her brother tightly against her chest. A wooden cupboard fell over Sonia and she lost hold of her brother, and she doesn’t remember what happened after that. Rasmila rushed back to see her house coming down, her feet trembled and she wanted to cry but no sound came out. Rasmila’s neighbours started digging through the debris to rescue the children. Half an hour later, they found a little leg covered with dust. As they dug deeper, they found Sonit who was alive but unconscious. Sonit was still missing, and although the neighbours dug furiously they couldn’t find him, and assumed the worst. They comforted Rasmila, saying at least one of her children survived. Rasmila had no more tears left. She could not utter a word, and stood frozen. It was 9PM, and the survivors were preparing to sleep out in the open. Just then, they heard a baby crying from under the ruin of the house. Rasmila knew that it was her baby. Nepal Army personnel arrived and searched. Rasmila’s newfound hope slowly ebbed as the soldiers couldn’t find her baby. She could not sleep all night, every second was like a year. Before dawn the next morning, neighbours started digging again and the soldiers arrived. They could now hear the baby’s cry. It was 10AM. Bhupen Bikap Rai of the Nepal Army found Sonit cut off the rubble. He was covered in dirt and was not able to open his eyes, but he was alive and surprisingly unhurt. Rai cleaned Sonit’s eyes, and dusted his clothes. Sonit was perhaps hungry and was suddenly very hungry when Raisaw took him in her arms and held him tightly. Suddenly, Rasmila could cry again, but these were tears of joy. Two weeks later, moments after a 7.1 magnitude aftershock rattled Kathmandu yet again, I reached Bhaktapur. Everyone looked scared about the new shaking, but Rasmila was unfazed. She had gone through worse than a mere aftershock. She was breastfeeding Sonit who was snuggled in her mother’s lap. Among all these pain and worry, she smiles, comically and says: “I don’t care what the earthquake damaged. That can be rebuilt again. What couldn’t have been rebuilt was not damaged by the earthquake.” Sonit Awal’s rescue on the front page of Nepali Times #756, 1-7 May, and Bijaya Rai’s photograph of Rasmila with her baby on the front page of Nagarik, 12 May. A CONCRETE FUTURE SONIA AWALE In a narrow alleyway deep in the heart of Patan adjacent to the ruins of a clay-mortar house, a four-storey concrete block stands tall, unscathed except for some mirror cracks. In street after street of the ancient towns of the Valley, centuries-old temples and ancestral homes have been reduced to rubble right next to buildings made of concrete. On another narrow lane near Mangal Bazar there is now a pile of bricks where there used to be a house with its first two floors made of bricks and clay. The owner had added three concrete floors and seven of his family of seven lived there, and four of them were killed when the entire structure collapsed during the earthquake on 25 April. On either side of the house, two five-storey buildings made of reinforced concrete are still standing. “We learnt during this earthquake that cement houses are stronger,” said 41-year-old mother of two, Mira Maharjan, who is afraid that her own brick-and-mud house may not withstand another quake. “But my parents live in a cement house so I am not worried.” Maharjan works in Patan Museum and was lucky to survive the collapse of the east wing of Sundari Chok. Because so many of Kathmandu’s pre-earthquake structures survived, it has confirmed public perception that these are structurally safer than traditional clay-mortar brick buildings. However, engineers specialising in seismic-resistant housing in Nepal may have been lulled into a false sense of security with this renewed trust in concrete. They say the way moulds for reinforced concrete beams and slabs are prepared and the use of substandard raw materials may make these houses less safe in future quakes. Reinforced concrete in Nepal isn’t bad, but it needs kitchens and bathrooms for the buildings to be durable. “The only reason reinforced concrete structures survived this time was that the intensity and duration of the earthquake was not as bad as predicted,” said Padma Sundar Joshi of the United Nations Human Settlements Program (HABITAT). “If the intensity was a notch higher and if the shaking had gone on for 10 seconds longer, reinforced concrete structures would have also come down.” The 7.3 magnitude aftershock on 16 May brought down concrete buildings already weakened by the main quake three weeks ago, and forced people back to shelters in open spaces. Maharjan had already gone back to her house, but returned to her shelter at the royal garden of Patan Darbar. “I was taking pictures of this damage of my brick house when an earthquake hit,” said Maharjan. “I don’t know when I’ll go back to my own house.” The problem lies with traditional masons who lack the training to prepare moulds to ready concrete moulds, and often do not know how to prepare joints for iron rods, they do not follow time limits on mixing cement, and design buildings with unsafe cantilevers and unnecessary decorations, Joshi warned. “If we don’t change the way we work with cement in Nepal, building more reinforced concrete houses will lead to disaster.” Bijay Karnacharya is a Nepali engineer currently working for post-disaster housing in Burma, and likens building homes to visiting a doctor. “If you need an operation, you go to a qualified surgeon. But if you want to make a house, why don’t you go to a qualified engineer? After all, both professions are essentially about saving lives.” Nepal already has a strict urban building code prepared in 1993 containing specific guidelines for the design, construction and mandatory rule of thumb (MRU) for buildings up to three floors. The code now needs to be revised and enforced. Bijay Krishna Upadhyay of the National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET) advised the Pakistan government after the 2005 earthquake, and said disasters offer an opportunity to reform housing criteria and enforce safety guidelines. “In Pakistan, reinforced concrete buildings collapsed even though it was an earthquake of much lower intensity because required procedures for concrete were not followed. The same could happen here next time,” he said. RURAL RECONSTRUCTION Seismologists have been surprised by the minimal destruction in the mountain districts north of Kathmandu because they had expected much more devastation in the Valley. Now, they worry that local families will build reinforced concrete houses in district headquarters or in villages where engineering norms are even less strictly followed than in the city. Upadhyay said: “If new reinforced concrete houses are not properly made, you don’t even need a 7 magnitude earthquake to bring them down.” The big challenge for rehabilitation in rural Nepal now will be to make sure that people have emergency shelters for the coming rainy season, and then build safe permanent houses for the winter (see box). “We shouldn’t just be promoting emergency shelters for the monsoon, they should also be warm enough for the coming winter,” Joshi said. At present, NSET experts believe that the next phase after emergency tent and tarpaulin is for the mass distribution of corrugated sheets which can be used for making of improvised houses made from salvaged bricks which can be recycled for building permanent homes later. Nepal currently produces 80,000 tin sheets every day, and this production capacity is enough to meet demand. The Nepal Engineering Association (NEA) has deployed 3,000 engineers to go house-to-house for a quick assessment of buildings to categorise them as liveable, repairable and ones that need to be demolished. After the earthquake and aftershocks, many families haven’t gone back to their homes, even though they are safe or can be retrofitted. MUD VS CEMENT: Mira Maharjan prays at her parent’s reinforced concrete house in Patan that withstood the earthquake (right) and a brick and clay-mortar house that is in danger of collapsing (left). Nepalis may have been lulled into a false sense of security about the strength of reinforced concrete structures. Cheap, light, quick Two weeks after the 7.8 magnitude earthquake rattled central Nepal, attention is now turning to reconstruction of the estimated 600,000 homes that have been damaged or destroyed. The government and relief agencies are struggling to provide emergency shelters suitable for both the approaching monsoon and winter, while trying to decide how best to ensure cheap, easy-to-make and safe permanent homes for the 8 million people in Central Nepal who are affected. The scale of the need is overwhelming, and many survivors who have tents are now demanding that they be either be already started to rebuild destroyed homes with salvaged material, while some are using local bamboo and thatch to make temporary housing. City-based groups also offer a range of options for cheap, easy-to-build homes that can be mass produced. Bamboo Bamboo is perceived as a poor man’s building material, and is still not widely used. However, it is plentiful, strong and can be turned into light, cheap and attractive homes. There are many options available depending on the size of the family and can be constructed in three months, and can last at least 25 years. While a concrete building can cost Rs 3.5 million and nine months to build, a bamboo home with basic amenities will cost only Rs 500,000 and can be put up in three months after workers are trained. www.abari.org Adobe Mud has got a bad reputation after this earthquake because so many clay-mortar brick buildings could not withstand the shaking. Even though there are many other construction options to go for mud, adobe housing can be buttressed, made earthquake resistant and can be quite attractive. Mud construction is also light, and has better insulation properties. It just needs to be protected from rain and moisture. www.abari.org Resilient Homes ‘Resilient Homes’ is promoted by Himalayan Climate Initiative (HCI) with steel frames as an option for rebuilding homes and schools. These low cost, quick-to-construct modular prototypes can convert into permanent structures later. They are replicable and expandable meaning the owners can improve it when they can afford the time and money. The budget is comparable to the market prices for houses with the same floor area. www.himalayancimate.org Earthbag This method evolved from military bunker construction techniques is inexpensive and quick to put up. Earthbag schools in eastern Nepal were built after the 25 April earthquake, and temporary shelters made of earthbags have been used extensively in Pakistan after the Kashmir Earthquake of 2005. Plastic bags are filled with sand, stone dust, gravel and moulded into modular shape for stacking into walls. The roof can be made of bamboo, thatch or corrugated tin at the site itself. www.unhabitat.org.np Transitional hut Everything Organic Nursery located in Kavre has come up with a design for transitional homes for families of five to six that could be used for a year or more until a permanent house can be built. They are expandable and the design is based on the traditional thulit hut (clapboard and thatch) with a simple pole frame and corrugated metal roof. The walls are made of bamboo strips and are plastered with a clay/fresh cow dung plaster. www.facebook.com/pages/Everything-Organic-Nursery Prefab Possibly the easiest and fastest to build, there were several Nepali companies offering this method of construction even before the earthquake struck citing the seismic resistant properties of their homes in their websites. Pre-built wall panels can be transported and quickly assembled at the site with corrugated sheets for roofing. It doesn’t require water, bricks, cement, iron rods, sand or stone to construct. A typical two-room, one-bathroom home costs Rs 600,000. www.prefabnepal.com nepalitimes.com ■ Must, glorious must #14 by Niraj Adhikary PICS: KUNCA SRIW When he went to work in Bahrain five months ago, Ram Hari Katwal had everything most Nepali men dream of: a house, a wife and two little children. Today, he has almost everything. His wife Himu and one-year-old son Bikram are dead, his house is gone. But his five-year-old Biraj survived. “I could not see my wife and son die so I had them cremated,” said Katwal with a distant look. “I wanted to return home immediately but it took me two weeks to get permission from my company.” Katwal, 26, is now with his son in a temporary shelter made of timber and tin he salvaged from the ruins of his house in Melamchi of Sindhupalchok. He has decided not to return to Malaysia. It was only last year that Katwal built a house with a bank loan and he went to Malaysia to pay it off. “I have not paid off my loan yet,” he says. “And now, I have to take more loans out to rebuild my house, the government is never going to give us enough.” One silver lining about the fact that more than two million Nepalis like Katwal are working abroad means that their families can use the money they send home to rebuild damaged houses. Many Nepali young men also survived because they were not here when the earthquake struck. However, the absence of able-bodied men in the villages was acutely felt during the rescue of people trapped under the rubble on the first few days after the quake struck. Now, there may be cash but there is a shortage of men for reconstruction. In village after village, women and children and elderly are left to fend for themselves. This week at Kathmandu airport, every flight from the gulf and Malaysia was full of migrant workers returning home. Among them was Krishna Silwal, 40, who had planned to return at Dasain but decided to come early after the earthquake damaged his house in Salang of Dhadhung district. His own company finally gave Silwal a 38-day leave, but he had to pay for his own roundtrip ticket. He is using his savings to rebuild the family home. “I want to finish the new house before I go back, but I don’t know if that is possible in a month,” he says. Silwal says many Nepalis are not coming back because they can’t afford air tickets, or can’t get permission from employers. After the earthquake, some companies, mostly Malaysian, have offered Nepali migrant workers flight tickets and leave. Migration expert Ganesh Gurung says remittance money will make reconstruction easier. “Nepali migrant workers send home nearly Rs 1.5 billion every day and this is the only reason houses damaged by the earthquake will be rebuilt soon,” he says. “Government contribution amount is too little to rebuild.” Gurung says the earthquake will change the pattern of use of remittances, and lead to a surge in the number of migrant workers. At present nearly 80 per cent of remittance income is used for household necessities. “Now, a large portion will go for reconstruction of houses,” says Gurung. Although Sindhupalchok is the district with the highest number of women migrant workers, none of the 14 affected districts are on the list of top districts in terms of migration. But this may now change.
eb9c07ab-c166-4513-bd86-a7f8631f5a24
CC-MAIN-2022-27
http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/nepalitimes/pdf/Nepali_Times_758.pdf
2022-06-29T04:32:59+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103620968.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20220629024217-20220629054217-00658.warc.gz
26,274,051
15,336
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998658
eng_Latn
0.998806
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2852, 11218, 19116, 27662, 32216, 36431, 39403, 40267, 40987, 42693, 49535, 52686, 59918, 65799, 69798, 72939 ]
[ 1.5859375, 2.09375 ]
1
0
Background It is vital that our gardens are managed in a way that creates an environment that is unfavourable for pests and diseases should they appear. The following measures will help reduce the risk of gardens and plant collections becoming infected and the subsequent spread of pests and diseases from infected gardens via our visitors. These guidelines supplement the National Trust’s new biosecurity measures (e.g. sourcing plants and quarantine) aimed at excluding pests and diseases from our gardens. 1.0 Husbandry - A healthy plant is one that is less likely to succumb to disease, therefore, try to match a plant to its preferred location, soil type and watering regime. - Application at planting of a mycorrhizal fungi planting treatment, such as “Root Grow” (available from PlantWorks), may aid establishment and encourage growth. - Wherever possible, avoid previously infected areas. - For some pathogens such as *Phytophthora ramorum*, this is essential because plants can become infected by spores remaining in the soil. - Where there is a need to replant an area with the same plant e.g. a rose bed, try to minimise the effects of rose decline by using a mycorrhizal fungi planting treatment or invigorate the bed with organic matter. - Lower leaves in contact with soil are at risk of picking up disease from the soil, therefore, when planting take measures to prevent lower leaves coming into contact with soil either by: - removing the lower leaves or - Mulching around the plant to prevent soil splashing on to leaves with for example composted bark chips (composted to cook out any pets and diseases) or with coir discs. 1.1 Nutrition - Plant growth and soils should be monitored for nutrient deficiencies. - Fertilisers or foliar feeds should be applied to correct significant deficiencies but taking care to avoid over-use that can lead to soft growth which is more susceptible to infection. 1.2 Spacing - When planting shrubs, in particular, space them as widely as possible to ensure good air movement so that humidity is reduced. 1.3 Pruning - For shrubs, adopt a programme of ‘formative’ pruning to remove dead and disease branches and to keep plants “in check”. This is especially relevant to plants, such as rhododendron which can become invasive. - **Example of best practice:** - Tatton Park have kept their rhododendrons compact and vigorous by a strict pruning regime, which has had the added benefits of preventing uncontrolled colonisation, increasing general air movement and reducing humidity. - Staff prune the side of plant away from public view one year, and then to prune the side facing public view the next year when the other side has leafed-up. - Experience has shown that ‘rough-barked’ rhododendrons respond better to pruning than ‘smooth-barked’ species. 1.4 Fallen leaves and plant debris - Whilst fallen leaves are often beneficial because they produce a leaf mould and are thought to encourage mycorrhizal fungi, for specific plants, collect and burn all fallen leaves because they can harbour harmful pests and diseases. Examples include: - Horse chestnuts (*Aesculus hippocastanum*) - The horse chestnut leaf mining moth (*Cameraria ohridella*) (see further information here: [http://intranet/intranet/horse-chesnut_leaf_mining_moth_cameraria_ohridella_doc](http://intranet/intranet/horse-chesnut_leaf_mining_moth_cameraria_ohridella_doc)) - Winter’s bark (*Drimys winteri*) - *Phytophthora kernoviae* - Camellias (*Camellia spp.*) – Camellia flower blight (*Ciborinia camelliae*) - Peaches (*Prunus persica*) – Peach leaf curl (*Taphrina deformans*). 1.5 *Rhododendron ponticum* A separate section on wild *Rhododendron ponticum* is included because it harbours and spreads two pathogens, *Phytophthora ramorum* and *Phytophthora kernoviae*, which pose a serious risk to many ornamental plants and trees in National Trust gardens. The following recommendation is relevant to **all** gardens, not just to those currently affected by these diseases. In fact, it is probably more important to those gardens that are currently not affected by either disease. - Preferably, all gardens should develop a programme for the complete removal of wild *R. ponticum*. - Consult with your Garden Adviser and Curator, and survey the garden to identify and map all areas of wild *Rhododendron ponticum*. **Note:** this is vital because there are important collections of *R. ponticum* cultivars and hybrids which must be marked clearly so as to exclude them from any clearance programme. • Woodland sites may qualify for some support under various grant schemes e.g., Forestry Commission Woodland Improvement Grant in England and Wales and the Better Woodland for Wales in Wales. • All re-growth will need to be controlled. • If complete removal of wild *R. ponticum* is not possible, o Clear all wild *R. ponticum* away from the trunks of susceptible trees, especially from beech. Make sure that no foliage or branches are touching the tree by clearing a radius of at least 2 m around the trunk. o Prune any remaining areas of *R. ponticum* e.g. hedges or windbreaks immediately after flowering to prevent seed production. o Any seedlings should be either physically removed each winter or are strimmed to ground level. The Forestry Commission publish guidance on methods of clearance of *R. ponticum* (see link below). 1.6 Hygiene Pests and pathogens are readily spread around a garden on soil and plant debris attached to footwear, tools (e.g. pruning knives, secateurs, saws etc.) or on tractors and other vehicles or machinery. The following measures will help to prevent this: • General “non-outbreak” situations: o Regularly wash all organic matter from footwear e.g. at the end of each day, and back in the yard. o Regularly clean and disinfect tools. o For any contractors conducting major landscaping work, tree felling etc., require that their vehicles and equipment are clean before they enter the garden. • In on-going outbreaks of pests or diseases, the risk is higher and the measures should be increased o Wash all organic matter from footwear and disinfect at the outbreak area and before moving to uninfected areas of the garden. o Consider using dedicated tools in outbreak areas or clean and disinfect them at the outbreak area and before moving to uninfected areas of the garden. o Require contractors conducting major landscaping work, tree felling etc., to clean their vehicles and equipment before entering and before leaving the garden. o Where clearance work has obviously contaminated paths, they should be swept clean of all soil and plant debris, and should be disinfected. • Disinfectant o “Jet 5” is recommended for general purpose. o “Cleankill Sanitising Spray” is recommended specifically against pathogens such as *Phytophthora ramorum* that produce difficult to kill thick-walled resting spores; “Jet 5” is recommended when disinfecting paths following clearance work associated with *P. ramorum*. 2.0 Infrastructure 2.1 Paths - Wet, muddy areas are likely to harbour diseases such as *Phytophthora* and *Pythium*, and people walking through such areas will pick up the pathogens on their footwear. - Keep the surface of paths in a state of good repair, in particular to avoid puddling of water. If this is not possible, it may be necessary to restrict access in wet conditions. - Ensure that the path camber deflects rain water to gullies and drains, and regularly inspect the gullies/drains to ensure that they are clear. - Alternatively, consider raising the height of the bed above that of the adjacent path. - Practice a regular programme of clearing leaves, other plant debris and soil from paths - Generally, leaves can be blown onto borders. - In known outbreak areas (e.g. *Phytophthora ramorum*) and for some plants (e.g. horse chestnuts), leaves should be collected and destroyed. - Wherever possible, try to ensure that there is a gap between plants in the border and the adjacent path to minimise debris falling on paths. 2.2 Fencing/signs - Where necessary erect signs and fencing to restrict access to high risk areas, such as those with a known pest or disease problem, areas under development or areas known to suffer from waterlogging. 3.0 Water 3.1 Irrigation - Use a source of water that is free from pests and diseases. - Mains and bore hole water will be clean but may not be an option due to cost or abstraction limitations. - If water collected on-site is used, it should be treated in some way to destroy pathogens. Methods include: - Slow sand filtration – this has been proved to be completely effective at removing pathogens such as *Phytophthora* species (including *P. ramorum*) from water. However, it is expensive (around £10k) and is most likely to be appropriate to nurseries. An excellent system is in operation at Killerton. - Alternative cheaper systems include ultra-violet light, chlorination or ozone. - Water should be tested at least annually to check for pathogens. Spring and autumn are the best times to test. For example, Defra’s Central Science Laboratory will provide and test bait bags at a cost of around £80 + VAT per sample. 3.2 Drainage Pathogens, such as *Phytophthora* and *Pythium* are spread in water, therefore, poor drainage or flooding can lead to infection and plant death. - Regularly maintain any existing drainage system to ensure that it works effectively. - For gardens that are prone to flooding or flash flooding, consider ways to keep the flood water from valued plants: - Deflect flood water along gullies. - Use large lawns to act as ‘flood plains’ to catch and act as temporary stores of water during floods/heavy down pours. - General access and public events can lead to soil compaction and poor drainage – try to site paths/events away from vulnerable areas, and repair promptly any damaged areas after an event. - For sites where there is a risk of farm fertilisers washing into gardens, consider entering into an upstream catchment management agreement to prevent the problem. 4.0 Waste disposal - All organic waste (e.g. dead plants, prunings, fallen leaves, other plant debris etc.) must be disposed of safely because of the potential that it harbours pests and pathogens, which can spread into gardens either in water or on the wind. - Ideally, plant waste should be collected and kept secure prior to disposal. - Non-diseased waste may be collected temporarily in an uncovered site, which preferably should be sited well away from public access, any glasshouses and important garden plants, and should be both downhill and downwind of the garden (to prevent water running from the storage area into the garden or debris blowing on to the garden). - Diseased plant waste should be collected and covered securely e.g. in a covered skip until disposal. - Acceptable methods of disposal include composting, burning and deep burial at an approved landfill site. 4.1 Composting - If done correctly, composting will also kill most pests and pathogens. - Methods include: - “Hot composting” See Appendix 1/link to intranet page for a protocol that has been developed and used successfully at NT Nyman’s. - “In vessel composting” using a machine such as “The Rocket” (available from Accelerate Composting Limited; cost £6k; [http://www.quickcompost.co.uk/](http://www.quickcompost.co.uk/)) or a “Jura 270” and “Scotty’s hot box” (available from SmartSoil Limited; cost less than £1k; [http://www.smartsoil.co.uk](http://www.smartsoil.co.uk)). - An Environment Agency exemption, allows composting of up to 1,000 cubic metres at any one time. There is no minimum size, which means that all compost sites need to be registered. There is currently no charge for the compost exemption. • Ensure every compost site has a Paragraph 12 exemption from the Environmental Permitting Regulations. This is a legal requirement and further information and links to the Environment Agency guidance and forms are available on the intranet - see http://intranet/intranet/i-con-feature/i-env-feature/i-env-waste_feature/i-env-wmchecklist.htm • The Environment Agency also prescribes the base needed for the composting area, which is dependent on the types of materials being composted. These requirements are set out on the guidance page linked to from the intranet site above. • Note: These regulations will be changing in October 2009, with the limits for an exemption reducing to 40 tonnes per site. A separate exemption exists for using the compost, and this will allow up to 200 tonnes of compost to be kept on site prior to spreading on land (with a limit of 50 tonnes per hectare per year.) The new exemptions will be chargeable and time limited, however, the Trust is negotiating a blanket exemption for Trust sites. More guidance will follow in the autumn 2009. 4.2 Burning • Burning either *in situ* (under an Environment Agency exemption, which allows a total quantity not exceeding 10 tonnes to be burned in any period of 24 hours) or at a commercial incinerator. • The Trust holds an exemption for burning on site (see the conditions of paragraph 30 exemption.) 4.3 Deep burial • Deep burial as non-hazardous waste at a local authority approved landfill site. **Note:** burial on Trust land is NOT permitted. 5.0 Monitoring • Garden staff (gardeners, volunteers) should receive basic training in the main pests and diseases of plants relevant to their garden. • The general condition and health of plants should be monitored regular so as to spot problems early and enable prompt remedial action to be taken. • Report all suspicious symptoms to your Garden Adviser - remember that it is a legal requirement to notify all suspect findings of quarantine pests and pathogens to Defra. 6.0 Links for further information • Central Science Laboratory – water testing. CSL provide and test bait bags to test water for the presence of *Phytophthora* spp. at a cost of around £80 + VAT per sample. Also CSL can test water samples for the presence of bacterial pathogens and results are typically available in 5-10 days. Water samples should consist of 500ml taken sub-surface from tanks or lagoons or mid-flow from taps or hoses. Samples should be kept cool and dark, and be sent by courier to arrive at CSL by 9.30am. Testing will be done same day as receipt. http://www.csl.gov.uk/contactUs/ • Forestry Commission – Practical Guide – Managing and controlling invasive rhododendron. Available as a downloadable pdf from http://www.forestry.gov.uk/website/publications.nsf/searchpub/?SearchView&Query=(rhododendron)&SearchOrder=4&SearchMax=0&SearchWV=TRUE&SearchThesaurus=TRUE • Source for Rootgrow, UK-provenance mycorrhizal product :- PlantWorks UK, 1-19 Innovation Buildings, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne, Kent ME9 8HL; Tel 01795 411527; FAX 01795 411529; e-mail and website: firstname.lastname@example.org; www.friendlyfungi.co.uk Appendices Appendix 1 - Hot Composting at Nymans Appendix 2 - Photo Supplement Appendix 1 Hot Composting at Nymans At Nymans Garden we turn our weeds, grass clippings, pruned branches and discarded plants into hot compost. Our compost is weed-free, rich in organic matter and easy to work with- a fantastic use for garden rubbish! This is how we do it: - We collect and store two types of garden waste: woody (branches and hedge cuttings) and green (weeds, grass clippings and herbaceous material). - When we have enough waste we make hot compost in a large load. Woody waste is chipped into a large hot compost bay and watered. A layer of green waste is added, followed by another layer of woodchips and the process is repeated until all the material has been used. The ideal ratio is 1 part green to 2 parts woody. - The heap is regularly irrigated and will hold 50% water when finished. - The hot compost heap is covered to maintain the correct moisture level and left to break down. - After 4-5 days the composting process has started. Bacteria and fungi start to decompose the woody and green material and this generates intense levels of heat. - The decomposition heats the compost heap to temperatures as high as 80°C. This creates amazing amounts of steam and kills any weed seeds in the compost. - After 6-8 weeks the heap is turned into an empty compost bay using a loader tractor. Turning mixes the heap and distributes heat- speeding up the composting process. - Once the compost has been turned 3 times it is ready to use, approximately 6 months after first being made. - Our compost is used as mulch and a soil improver. When dug into the ground it adds bulk to the soil and increase the retention of water and nutrients. We hope to use our compost for propagation in the future. - We make two other types of compost: leaf mould and bracken. Stored leaves break down to a dark crumbly compost which is good for trees, shrubs and potting bulbs. Bracken compost rots down to a dark, slightly acidic substance with similar qualities to peat. It’s particularly good for Rhododendrons and our Chilean plants. Appendix 2 Photo Supplement Planting – avoid previously infected areas and mulch to prevent plant picking up infection from the soil Prune to keep plants vigorous and avoid garden becoming overgrown Implement a programme of clearance of *Rhododendron ponticum* For specific pests, collect and destroy infested fallen leaves Use clean water for irrigation Hygiene – clean footwear Hygiene – clean contractors equipment Paths – try to keep plants from overhanging paths to reduce the chances of them picking up and spreading infection Paths – maintain to avoid puddling Have a regular programme of sweeping/ blowing to keep paths free from fallen leaves and other plant debris Signs – erect signs to inform visitors of work and to restrict access from infected areas Restrict visitor access from infected areas Waste – don’t leave waste lying around Waste – keep waste secure prior to disposal e.g. in a covered skip Waste disposal - composting Waste disposal - burning Keep up to date with the latest information. Monitor health of plants regularly **Conservation Directorate Guidance Note Information** **Authors:** Dr David Slawson FERA Head of Pest and Disease identification programme The Food and Environment Research Agency **Guidance Note No.** **Date of issue:** December 2008
48b6c980-2f0a-48a5-9d02-47f80f65805d
CC-MAIN-2021-25
https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/410/2015/03/Paper-2-NT-Plant-Quarantine-Biosecurity-Guidance-Note-5.pdf
2021-06-12T14:37:13+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487584018.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20210612132637-20210612162637-00060.warc.gz
442,044,325
4,106
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.937454
eng_Latn
0.995815
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2070, 4564, 7043, 9246, 11841, 14453, 15074, 17118, 17506, 17941, 18432 ]
[ 2.203125 ]
1
0
GOOD PRACTICES IN THE WORKPLACE ENERGY 01. SOLAR POWER The sun provides electricity by photovoltaic solar panels and can heat water via solar collectors. 02. WIND POWER Thanks to wind turbines, kinetic energy from the wind can be transformed into electricity. 03. HYDRAULIC POWER With the help of hydraulic power plants, kinetic energy from water can be transformed into electricity. 04. BIOMASS ENERGY Composed of biological waste, the combustion of biomass or biogas obtained from fermentation can create heat or electricity. 05. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Thanks to heat produced underground, and lower temperatures above ground, circuits of water that connect the two can create electricity and heat energy. RENEWABLE ENERGY 01. SOLAR PANELS ON ROOFTOPS Install solar panels on rooftops. 02. INSTALL MOTION DETECTORS FOR LIGHTING Install motion detectors for lighting. 03. INSTALL THERMAL INSULATION IN BUILDINGS Install thermal insulation in buildings. 04. CAREFULLY CHOOSE THE EXPOSURE AND HEATING SYSTEMS OF NEW BUILDINGS Carefully choose the exposure and heating systems of new buildings. 05. STORE AND USE DATA LOCALLY AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE (EXTERNAL HARD DRIVE...) Store and use data locally as much as possible (external hard drive...). 06. LOWER SCREEN BRIGHTNESS Lower screen brightness. 07. CLOSE THE DOORS AND WINDOWS OF HEATED OR COOLER PREMISES Close the doors and windows of heated or cooler premises. 08. USE WINDOW BLINDS IN THE SUMMER TO PREVENT HEAT FROM ENTERING Use window blinds in the summer to prevent heat from entering. 09. PRODUCE ENERGY VIA METHANATION OR INCINERATION OF WASTE Produce energy via methanation or incineration of waste. 10. CHOOSE LAPTOP COMPUTERS THAT CONSUME FIVE TIMES LESS ENERGY THAN DESKTOP COMPUTERS Choose laptop computers that consume five times less energy than desktop computers. 11. INSTALL METERS IN ORDER TO TRACK ENERGY CONSUMPTION Install meters in order to track energy consumption. 12. CHOOSE COLLABORATIVE WORK PLATFORMS RATHER THAN SENDING EMAILS Choose collaborative work platforms rather than sending emails. 13. LIMIT USE OF AIR CONDITIONING, USE FANS INSTEAD Limit use of air conditioning, use fans instead. 14. MAKE PHOTOCOPIES RATHER THAN USING PRINTERS TO MAKE COPIES Make photocopies rather than using printers to make copies. 15. CONSOLIDATE THE USE OF PRINTERS Consolidate the use of printers. 16. LIMIT THE NUMBER OF UNUSED PROGRAMMES OR TABS OPEN Limit the number of unused programmes or tabs open. 17. USE LOW ENERGY LIGHT BULBS, LED LAMPS OR NATURAL LIGHT Use low energy light bulbs, LED lamps or natural light. 18. TURN OFF SCREENS DURING BREAKS Turn screens off during breaks. 19. TAKE THE STAIRS RATHER THAN THE ELEVATOR Take the stairs rather than the elevator. 20. REGULATE HEATING AND AIR CONDITIONING VIA FIXED SETTINGS AND WEEKLY PROGRAMMING Regulate heating and air conditioning via fixed settings and weekly programming. 21. ECO-DESIGN WEBSITES FOLLOWING ADVICE FROM GREENCODELAB.ORG Eco-design websites following advice from GreenCodeLab.org. 22. READ ON-LINE TO AVOID PRINTING Read on-line to avoid printing. 23. CARFULLY CHOOSE THE TYPE OF CAR AND ENGINE WHEN PURCHASING FLEETS OF VEHICLES Carfully choose the type of car and engine when purchasing fleets of vehicles.
5e21649e-1925-4b64-8989-e3466c9e0bc0
CC-MAIN-2025-08
https://www.cc.lu/de/saemtliche-informationen/publikationen/infografiken?tx_ccpublications_publications%5Baction%5D=download&tx_ccpublications_publications%5Bcontroller%5D=Publication&tx_ccpublications_publications%5Bfile%5D=3449753&tx_ccpublications_publications%5Bpublication%5D=500&cHash=fd3bd466ec2a64b7d5c94c7e31133b0d
2025-02-16T16:14:39+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831952586.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20250216135951-20250216165951-00371.warc.gz
632,014,760
767
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.95234
eng_Latn
0.95234
[ "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3280 ]
[ 3.421875 ]
1
0
Plants are the most accessible means for people to manipulate the biological world. They have few defenses, stay put, and are relatively easy to propagate, develop, and multiply. Besides providing the bulk of food and materials for insects, people, and animals, they process nutrients for rivers and lakes that feed the estuaries that breed so much marine life. The ocean in turn processes 80% of the oxygen in the atmosphere, mostly along coastlines. Learn to manipulate plants and one can indeed hold sway over every bird of the air, fish of the water, and insect crawling on the earth, for better or for worse. Native plants, and especially post-disturbance annuals, are like the foundation of a house in that they set up the soil for the perennial systems that succeed them. Insects and animals need them for food while the plants need the bugs for pollination and animals for soil fertility. Many of these host/consumer relationships among insects and plants are symbiotic: pollination in return for food for insect larvae accustomed to the toxins the host plant produces. Soil bacteria upon which we depend for processing nitrogen also have specific relationships with various native hosts, and not their exotic counterparts. Migratory birds not only consume insects, but many require plants that produce the fruits or seeds for which they are suited. Hence, if that botanical foundation changes composition, the basis of the food pyramid will be disrupted significantly over the long run, particularly if non-native plants take over after a disturbance such as a major flood or fire. This *Ceanothus papillosus* (a.k.a. “tick bush”) is a fruit-bearing shrub popular with birds during the fall migration. When we bought our place, between overcrowded forests and weeds, it had been suppressed so completely that none were left alive. They came back when we thinned the forest, removed the non-native brush, and burned the piles. The *Ceanothus* came up and I transplanted them. The bugs seem to like the idea. People often ask me how we even know whether or not a plant is native. In some cases the determinants are easy: Some plants, such as redwoods, occur without human propagation in only one region of the world. Some evidences are more subtle but still definitive, such as fossils or pollen in annual mud strata found in stable ponds and lakes. A few cases are not much more than educated guesses; in fact, I have identified a couple of possible errors in the botanical record. Still, I would hazard that the determination of whether a species is native or not is probably over 99% accurate overall. Unfortunately, that less than 1% was nearly disastrous for us and continues to be an annoyance. As an extension of that question, it is certain that we do *not* know how native plant systems were configured before European colonization. We do know which plants we tend to find together, but as regards how they might have appeared under aboriginal management, there is very little data beyond archaeological analyses and oral traditions. The records of first encounters by the Spanish are very sketchy but do offer inferences I will discuss. *Brewer’s diary* of the 1860’s US Geological Survey was more detailed but by that time the system had already changed radically. Upon those and similar bases, how *could* we reconstruct whole systems, much less assess their value, given the many unknowns and the degree to which these lands have been converted by numerous species of obviously dominant exotic plants? We are addressing that latter question. By ridding so much of the property of introduced plants, we not only get to witness how natives congregate, but how they colonize an open niche or develop associations with fungi and microflora. In many cases, the native seed bank had long been exhausted and we had to wait for birds and animals to bring something in. In most cases, those “somethings” had long been known to be local natives. The associations they form are quite different from what you see with exotic plants. There are two ways to amend a soil: chemical and biological. Chemical amendment denotes mining, which is finite. Biological sources regenerate from plentiful atmospheric gases but still require trace minerals to work. However, even native species vary considerably in their productivity with site conditions and over time. Improving our understanding and our results then requires having the genetic raw material with which to research site-specific behavior. That means somebody has to have a place to do that research with full compliments of native plants with minimal disruption from exotics. In this region of California, the Wildergarten is as close as it gets. As you look at these photographs, you will see that native plants usually form complex arrays of numerous species, whereas non-native plants tend toward monocultures. Diverse systems are thought to be more adaptive, as with many elements there is a higher probability that some will be more suited to respond to a change in environmental conditions, whether light and soil chemistry after a fire, inundation by flood, pathogen, or pest attack. For multiple species to get along in one spot, no one native can be exclusive in its niche (there are exceptions). It is that lack of dominance leaves them wide open to invasion. Non-native plants, by contrast, are hardy and do form stable systems, but they are also more subject to the risk of catastrophic failure because their lack of variants leaves them less adaptive to a significant change in external conditions. Most of them wreck soil productivity. First among native successional systems are post-disturbance annual forbs. These are among the most genetically adaptive elements of these systems. They prepare the chemical, bacterial, and mechanical conditions for the perennials to succeed them. Unfortunately, post-disturbance annuals are also the most likely to be displaced by exotic species. Cat's ear was such a disaster that I wanted you to appreciate this mess. 25-50 seeds per head. Imagine acres of it. It's toxic too. Besides, I just like the grand mountain dandelion better. I guess I'm just prejudiced. Our property is amazingly varietal even for this region, and especially for a parcel this small. It is home to five distinct types of habitat: redwood conifer forest, oak and madrone woodland, native meadows of several types, scrub/chaparral, and the unique “Santa Cruz Sand Hill” habitat. It is a wonderful laboratory for observing dynamic behaviors among these plant communities over long periods of time. The only thing we’re missing is a pond or running stream. All told, as of 2014 we manage 351 observed plant species, of which 227 are native, an impressive degree of “species richness” for only 14 acres. According to at least seven local botanists and restoration experts (three of whom had been presidents of the Northern California Chapter of the California Native Plant Society), the Wildergarten now has the purest collections of native plants to be found anywhere on the Central Coast of California and perhaps in North America. Virtually every park, preserve, or “pristine area” in the region is significantly infested with exotic plants by comparison. Much of this book centers upon what it took to achieve these results. Not surprisingly, it has demanded a huge investment of time, money, and labor that is not over by any means. Consider this little meadow close-up. Within ten feet, I have counted over twenty species (there are seven in the photo; several more have been weeded out). When I started the project, there were four species in this area, total. Now, imagine looking for 10-15 different target weeds amid this tangle, as fast as you can go. Hour after hour, day after day, year after year. The goal here is simply to see how full compliments of native plants behave with minimal exotic intrusion. It has never been done on this scale before. What we have learned is that this system is quite different than the usual landscape in California. These plants exhibit complex interactions with each other and soil that are not described in the literature. Another typical question is if there is anything intrinsically superior about native plants. To the surprise of many, I would argue that, on an individual basis, in most cases the answer is no. However, when one looks at how individuals behave within total systems, I would argue natives are generally better. The reasons are subtle and demand some explanation. There are but two ways to provide the material with which to produce the physical products you buy: agriculture and mining. The first is in some respects the second, in that whatever soil minerals leave the site as products are also effectively mined. So, any process that tends to increase the productivity of soils or makes them more resistant to problems would seem to be a good thing. Consider the verbena at left (top). Although it is a perennial, it has the property of dying back every winter, leaving massive amounts of soil organic matter in the form of decaying roots and vegetation. Every spring, annual forbs germinate in that soil and die, leaving processed nitrogen, then to be covered over by the verbena. It then becomes a powerful moisture-retention blanket during the summer while providing an important source of pollen to hordes of bees for months. It is however not a palatable forage or competitive with weeds. Consider hedge nettle (*Stachys bullata*). This genus is known to have associations with nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root zone (rhizosphere). It too makes beautiful soil and doesn’t sting. Such relationships may explain why we see so much growth here despite the fact that our nitrate numbers are pitifully low and the soil lacks sufficient molybdenum for those nitrogen fixing bacteria (diazotrophs) commonly found in legumes. There is a lot of research to do, yet these and similar plants are in trouble. If you now realize that we do not know much about them, more significant is that we know a lot less about how they interact with each other without weeds and especially in soil where microbial associations are very poorly understood. So, do I think non-native plants always bad? Well, of the 124 exotic species we have seen here, I have classified only ten (10) as benign, meaning that they do not displace natives and tend to stay put within the system; in the vernacular, “they know how to get along.” Examples are relic landscaping plants on the property: oleanders, a mission olive tree, a periwinkle years or two, a juniper shrub, and a patch of “naked ladies” (*Amaryllis belladonna*). The rest of the non-native plants we have here universally crowd out natives, in part because they can tolerate a far broader range of habitat conditions than the natives seek to colonize. A good example is at left. Obviously, *Filago californica* (native, top) and *Filago gallica* (endemic to France, below) are related. The former lives only in sand hills. The latter lives anywhere there is full sun and bare soil. The non-native almost fully displaces the native, but it also displaces native clovers, lotuses, and navarretias elsewhere too. The non-native once outnumbered the native in its preferred habitat, 50:1. After eight years of weeding, that ratio is now even. There is currently no way to separate the two other than by hand. But, don’t we want plants that are widely adaptable? Well, not necessarily: - If we want systems capable of sustaining numerous species of insects and birds, the answer is no. - If we do not want to displace numerous native plants in the wild, the answer is no. - If we want varietal cohort species (such as soil bacteria) with which they are symbiotes, no. - If we want the plants to get along with each other such that systems can perform multiple functions in the same spot, no. - If we want adaptable systems as a whole, probably not. As a final element to this, “Are non-natives always bad?” question, almost all of the plants we *are* talking about are those that people have already found to be undesirable for residential or agricultural use. In fact, most would be considered bad plants just about anywhere. They are: - Inedible to humans, beasts, or insects, - Allergenic irritants, - They displace forbs that produce protein in forage, - Many are toxic, - Very destructive to soil fungi and microflora, - Many cause mechanical injury to animals, - Most have poor forage value, - Many produce irritating burs, - Most are water hogs, - They are all virtually uncontrollable, and - Most are fire hazards (at least they are here). This does not mean that they have no *potential* use, as the examples of various vetches and poison hemlock (to come) demonstrate. One can make honey from star thistle. However, in this region, I really don’t know why anybody would *want* large amounts of them given their native alternatives. Most people find exotics undesirable, but would seem equally unwilling to do what it takes to bring them under control. In general, most people either do not know or care what is native versus exotic or do not possess the means to exercise their preferences. As a special subset of “bad plants,” invasive exotics build massive monocultures, meaning that they tend to exclude all other plants. These pests are displacing native plants, worldwide. The US Soils Conservation Service introduced kudzu as an erosion control… Well, it certainly worked for that. Star thistle came to the US from Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1930s in bales of alfalfa. ... but other invasive exotics came in accidentally, facilitated at an increasing rate by global trade with neither inspections nor treatment. Some are subtle because we are so accustomed to their presence. “The Golden Hills of California” may be beautiful, but neither are these grasses native nor are they as productive for forage as others could be. Twenty-two million acres of annual grasses, particularly slender oat (*Avena barbata*), “poverty grass,” (*Vulpia spp.*), and several exotic bromes such as rip-gut and Spanish brome (*B. diandrus* & *B. madritensis*) have displaced the perennials that would do as well or better here. There now very few annual forbs.
8e202fff-c21c-4b04-88af-904366dd2a06
CC-MAIN-2023-40
https://www.wildergarten.org/w-pb/oldrevs/1.0/2trp-intro-native.pdf
2023-09-28T18:09:55+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510427.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20230928162907-20230928192907-00796.warc.gz
1,155,329,380
2,972
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998317
eng_Latn
0.998627
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2017, 4045, 5968, 6101, 6160, 6190, 8176, 10221, 11965, 13222, 13520, 13750, 14279 ]
[ 2.765625 ]
4
0
Kirsten is a new arrival to Warrensburgh. She and her family moved here in August 2000. They own and operate the Cornerstone Victorian Bed & Breakfast, an historic architectural gem built for Lewis Thomson. Kirsten is a Junior at Mountainside Christian Academy in Schroon Lake. She told the editor that she enjoyed writing the entry since it helped her to learn about her new home. Following is her submission for the scholarship. Sit back and enjoy reading her history of Warrensburgh. Congratulations Kirsten! Though Warrensburg is a small obscure town in the Adirondack Mountains, it is rich with history. Its forefathers have influenced its economy, architecture, and industry. Warrensburg holds such titles as “The Gateway to the Adirondacks” and “The Queen Village of the Adirondacks.” (Winner – continued on page 3) DOLLAR BILL DOES GOOD WORK AT HOME Traveling in Warrensburgh Passes Through Hands of Twenty-five Persons BUYS SERVICE AND GOODS Demonstrates Benefit of Keeping Money in Circulation Among Our Own People Where Many May Get the Use of It (From The Warrensburgh News – June 1931. Identifying comments in brackets are from a Warrensburg Directory of 1940) A dollar bill put in circulation in Warrensburgh by The News at noon on Saturday, June 13, [1931] with a paper attached to it asking every person who received it to use it as soon as convenient for some legitimate purpose and keep it in circulation in Warrensburgh for a period of one week, was returned to this office at the end of the period specified with twenty-five names on the list of persons who had possessed and used it during that time. A representative of the paper was sent to interview each person and ascertain the use he made of the bill and their replies, as we had anticipated, made a very interesting story, and demonstrated what benefits a large number of people may receive from a small amount of money kept in town and spent with our local merchants. We have no means of knowing where this dollar came from when it found a place in the cash register an our office, but we will assume that it came here from some other town. Under ordinary circumstances it might have gone out of town without passing through other hands in this village, possibly to pay for printing material which is not sold here, but for the sake of an experiment we asked that it be kept in town during that one week, and for compliance with this request we thank all who handled it. Had this dollar been paid to some out of town concern it would have passed, probably, forever, from any future connection with local business. Spent here, twenty-five different persons received some benefit from it and with it many dollars worth of goods were bought and paid for and the dollar came back to its original starting place, the same old dollar. We trust that this demonstration will not go unheeded here and that it will prove the greater value of a dollar spent at home and circulation among our own people where it will help all. This does not mean that we should shut ourselves in from the outside world, but only that if we do not look out for ourselves no one will do it for us, and Warrensburgh first should be our policy. If we get our money here let’s spend it here so far as we can with justice to ourselves and to others. The story of Dollar Bill’s travels about town is told as follows: Mr. Hall in being the first one to exchange the dollar for local merchandise, went to Dickinson & Bertrand’s Rexall drug store [Music Hall Block – current location of L.D.’s], where he purchased an atomizer. Mr. [Henry S.] Bertrand [living at 43 Elm Street with wife Mabel D.] used the dollar in paying for a pair of shoes he purchased at Rist’s boot shop [146 Main St. – now Art Brown’s], while Mr. (continued on page 3) From the President Here it is summer again and the time has come to start thinking Sticky Wicket. The event will be August 25th at the Warren County Fish Hatchery, and is expected to be our biggest yet. I hope everyone can attend. As most of you know The Warrensburgh Historical Society sponsored a scholarship in conjunction with Glens Falls National Bank, for the 2nd year in a row. The first year there were no submissions. This year, we had one of the best essays submitted and have declared a winner, Kirsten Goetsche (see article in this issue). The Society is very proud of Kirsten, and we are encouraged that a young person of this apparent caliber is from our town. Remember her name, you might see it some day printed next to the title Senator, or Mayor or even President, (of Warrensburgh Historical Society...Hey, you never know...) Please Enjoy the summer, see ya at Sticky Wicket. Tony Fidd, President ********** New Members Edna Brown Bruce Cole George Rohrwasser Editor’s Note I just picked up a copy of “Reflections and Recollections of the Town with a Past – Warrensburgh, New York” By Bea Greenwood, niece of Mabel Tucker. It is available through the Warren County Historical Society, PO Box 769, Lake George, NY 12845. If you don’t know about Ching Sing’s Laundry or never heard Mabel’s version of “I’m so glad to Live in Warrensburg”, sung to the tune of Yankee Doodle Dandy, then I suggest you run out and get a copy of the book. Board of Directors Anthony Fidd, Jr. - President John Cleveland - Vice President Eldon Hall - Treasurer Brenda Cleveland, Secretary Mildred Fish Jean Hadden Joyce Harvey LeeAnn Rafferty Committee Chairpersons Acquisitions–John Cleveland Grants - Theresa Whalen Membership – Brenda Cleveland Programs - John Cleveland Quarterly - Sandi Parisi Scholarship – Delbert Chambers The Board of Directors will meet at the Glens Falls National Bank meeting room at 7 PM on the following dates. Members welcome. July 2, 2002 August 6, 2002 September 3, 2002 We welcome comments, corrections, articles, pictures, reminiscences, and letters to the editor Send submissions to: Warrensburgh Historical Society Post Office Box 441 Warrensburgh, NY 12885 or e-mail email@example.com Quarterly Deadlines February 1 May 1 August 1 November 1 Warrensburgh Historical Society Quarterly Copyright 2002. All rights reserved Membership Information Membership Classifications Individual $12.00 Student $8.00 Family $25.00 Senior $8.00 Contributing $50.00 Corporate $75.00 Instructional $100.00 Life* $250.00 *Individual Only Membership is on a calendar year basis If you would like to join and receive the Quarterly by mail, please send check for amount of membership classification, with name, address and phone number to: Warrensburgh Historical Society PO Box 441, Warrensburgh, NY 12885 REMEMBER! STICKY WICKET AUGUST 25, 2002 Society Information, call Tony Fidd - 668-3004 John Cleveland – 623-9450 Contributors to this issue: Brenda Cleveland Sarah Farrar Kirsten Goetsche – WHS 2002 Scholarship Winner Sandi Parisi, Quarterly Editor NOTICE The recording of history is an interpretive and ever changing study. Therefore, the Warrensburgh Historical Society or its Board of Directors or members shall not be held liable for the accuracy or authenticity of the material herein. [Dollar Bill – continued from Page 1] [Ernest G.] Rist [living at 37 King Street with wife Francis A.] exchanged the money for some gasoline at the Adirondack Garage [143 Main Street]. B. [Benedict] C. Gurney [living at 66 Elm Street was Superintendent of Public Highway], proprietor of the garage, purchased some window curtains at Woodward's Furniture Store [164 Main Street], while Mr. [Berry] Woodward [living on Hudson Street with wife Susie E.] used the bank note in purchasing medicine at the Crystal Pharmacy [now the parking lot in front of IGA]. In paying for two dinners at the Adirondack Hotel [147 Main Street], C. H. Gans used The News' dollar. John O'Connor [living on 25 Oak Street with wife Sarah K. later was employed in North Creek], one of the proprietors of the hotel, purchased some paint at R B. Lewis hardware store [17 Oak Street]. The money had not yet been in circulation a day. Saturday night, Mr.[Richard B.] Lewis [living at 12 Thomson with wife Mary F.] had a haircut and shave at E. C. Manzer's barber shop and paid for the service with the dollar. From Mr. [Ernest C.] Manzer [living at 208 1/2 Main Street], the money went for expenses of his household and Mrs. Manzer spent it early the next week for some breakfast food at the Grand Union store, uptown. To keep the dollar in circulation, Manager Walter E. Combs [of River Street who later worked at the Schroon River Pulp and Paper Mill], of the Grand Union store, took it to the Adirondack Candy Kitchen [157 Main Street, now Jacobs & Toney] and gave it to Louis Jacobs when he purchased an ice cream soda. Mr. Jacobs [wife Anna] purchased some postage stamps with the money, but shortly afterward received it from the post office in change, and, this time it went toward insurance he carried with Scott B. Smith & Co. [1 Hudson Street]. Having circulated freely about the uptown business section, Mr. [Scott B.] Smith [living at 41 Elm Street with wife Helen V.] decided to give the dollar a try at the downtown section, so went to Kugel's department store [60 Main Street] and purchased some merchandise, paying for it with the marked dollar. Again the dollar went to the Grand Union store, but this time it was in the other end of the town and bought: fruit for the [Oscar and Dora] Kugel home. Manager Henry O. Fassett [living at 8 James Street with wife Jessie who was a clerk in the Grand Union] kept the money on the move when he paid it to Jay D. Enich for a package of medicine. Mrs. Enich used it toward the purchase of some butter and other groceries at G. Dickinson's market. Fred Howe [living at 5 Terrace with wife Mary D.] received the money in change at the market and paid it to William Matthews for some pastry for his diner [Howe's – currently Potter's Diner] downtown. Mr. Matthews [living at 66 Hudson Street with wife Blanche] purchased some yeast cakes at J. K. Heffron's [John K. married to Marge C.] store [34 Main Street], and then the dollar again went in change, this time to Harry R. Bennett. Gasoline purchased at the Au-Kum-On garage [current location of D&G Hardware] was paid for with the dollar by Mr. Bennett, and C. C. Klemm, proprietor of the garage, speeded the paper money on its journey by giving it to W. C. Langworthy for change when he purchased some cigars. Groceries were again bought with the money, Mr. Langworthy paying it to Samuel Heitner [52 Main Street], who gave it in change to Harry Matteson. Mr. Matteson gave it in payment for some shoes and clothing at Kugel's store. The week being ended, Harry Rosen then returned the dollar to The News office. Editor's Note: Perhaps someone would be willing to try this today. (Winner – continued from Page 1) The town of Warrensburg was originally part of the Queensbury patent. On February 12, 1813 Warrensburg was established as a town. The first town meeting was held on April 4, 1813. Settlers began to establish local ordinances and were elected to a variety of posts, which included; supervisor, town clerk, commissioner of highways, fence viewer, and overseer of the poor. "The first town meeting was very productive." Warrensburg is located in the central southeastern section of Warren County, five miles northeast of Lake George, a hundred and six miles south of Montreal and two hundred miles north of New York City. The town of Warrensburg is bounded on the north by Chester, on the east by Caldwell (Lake George) and Bolton, on the south by Luzerne, and on the west by Thurman. Warrensburg is an approximate sixty-eight square miles, and the Schroon River forms a natural boundary on the east. The first settler was William Bond who arrived in 1786. His residence was near Bond’s Pond, which is now called Echo Lake. Other early settlers include James Warren and Kitchell Bishop. This town attracted many to build and settle here. “Warrensburg has many attractions as a place of residence. It is pleasantly situated, healthful and free from discomforts and annoyances of any kind. The streets are well laid out and shaded by beautiful trees. Most houses are built in the 1800’s style and neat and attractive.” The first activities of the settlers were agriculture, saw milling and grist milling. Joseph Hutchinson, an early settler, soon built a gristmill, and in the 1790’s the first church, schoolhouse, and blacksmith shop were constructed. Around the early 1800’s there was also an inn, store, and post office. Warrensburg continued to grow and prosper throughout the years. “There is a home-like air throughout Warrensburg that is recognized by any visitor. It is this that makes the old residents loyal and attracts strangers.” In the 19th century Warrensburg was considered one of the most progressive and enterprising country villages in this area because of its many businesses and factories. The gristmill was one of the first businesses in Warrensburg. One belonged to Delbert H. Pasco. The gristmill was able to grind fifteen tons of produce in twelve hours. The sawmill was another early business. It was owned by Dudley Farlin and was known as “an old English mill”. It contained seventy saws, set in gangs, which operated with an up and down motion. The Empire Shirt Factory was established in 1879. It manufactured ladies shirtdaists and night robes. They made over five hundred dozen ladies shirtdaists and two hundred dozen night robes daily. The quality of their goods was first class. The Warrensburg News office was built in 1877. The first newspaper was issued on January 30, 1878. The newspaper was four pages long, with seven columns per page. The Warrensburg Post Office was established in 1806 by Kitchell Bishop. It was initially at the Warren House (a hotel), but after the hotel was destroyed by a fire the post office was relocated to Main Street. House-to-house delivery was established after the post office moved to Main Street. Warrensburg also had a reputation as a resort town, due to its many hotels. Henry Ashe bought the Agriculture Hotel in 1888. It was located near the famous Warrensburg Fairgrounds. In 1922, a radio-telephone set was installed in the hotel. This was the second set in Warrensburg. The Grand Army House was another hotel that was renovated in 1893 in order to enlarge it. All the rooms had electricity and there were several baths in the hotel. Hetty Green, one of the wealthiest women at that time, was once a guest at this hotel. This hotel was considered a great luxury and was well known. Other hotels include the Adirondack Hotel, The Warren House, and The Riverside Hotel. Many of these hotels were built in the Queen Anne Victorian Style. During the early 20th century over half a dozen of these hotels were destroyed by fire. None of these hotels exist today. Warrensburg is very rich with architecture. Many houses are elaborately styled because most people that lived in Warrensburg at that time were very wealthy. South Main Street of Warrensburg includes some of the best examples of different styles of architecture. The Queen Anne Victorian Style was mostly used between 1885 to 1905. It is characterized by highly decorative, non-classical and vaguely medieval designs. Stained windows and wooden ornaments were usually used in this style. The Presbyterian Church, The Adirondack House, and the Lewis Thomson home are good examples of this style, the most used style in Warrensburg. The Federal Style was widely used for building during America’s Post-Revolutionary years, from 1780 to 1835. This style was found initially in the large economic and political centers of that time but eventually was disseminated to the more remote rural areas, including Warrensburg. The main emphasis of this style is on symmetrical massing and the arrangements of openings in the facades of the houses. The Greek Revival Style is the most popular style of the 19th century in America. It was most popular during 1825 to 1860, which was a period of great growth and expansion in America. The bold, symmetrical and orderly forms of this style was adopted by American architects as the ideal symbol for our country’s newly-won freedom and democracy. Good examples of this style is the 1840 Crandall-Howard House and the 1840 Russell-Cunningham House which are both in Warrensburg. The Italianate Style was used for both residential and commercial buildings during the 3rd quarter of the 19th century, most often by wealthy people. In residential design, this style took on the forms of elegant 17th century Italianate country houses. Late 19th century Main Streets across the country took their detailing from this style. Public buildings began taking shape in 1802, which includes the early churches. Kitchell Bishop donated land for the erection of the first church. It was the Methodist church. The next church to be built was the Baptist Church. The Baptist Church was built in 1825. Originally, the church had a steeple, but in 1917, during a severe electrical storm, the steeple was badly damaged and when repairs were made it was decided to replace the steeple with a dome. The first Presbyterian Church was built in Athol in 1806, but shortly after 1830 the Athol society combined with the Warrensburg society, and the original church was closed. The church moved to a farm in Warrensburg, which was used later as a carriage house. Next to this farm they built the church, which still remains today. A local builder, Albert Alden, a descendant of the famous John and Priscilla Alden, erected the Church of the Holy Cross in 1864. The stone that was used for its construction was quarried from Hackensack Mountain, located in Warrensburg. Colonel Burhans, the church’s warden, presented the bell, weighing six hundred and twenty-seven pounds, to the parish. Saint Cecilia’s Catholic Church was built in 1874. The bell, weighing nearly one thousand pounds, was cast in the famous Meneely Foundry, at West Troy. At present time, one may worship in one of the nine different churches in Warrensburg. Warrensburg has had many means of transportation throughout the years. In the 19th century Warrensburg was known as “The Bridge” because it was the site of the only bridge crossing of the Schroon River in the entire section of Warren County. The word, scaroon, or Schroon, originated with the Mohawk word for large lake, sea-ni-a-dar-oon, Schroon Lake, from whence the river flows. This bridge made Warrensburg an important regional travel route. This bridge is part of an international highway running from New York City to Montreal, Canada. The first turnpike was constructed in 1849. It went from Glens Falls to Warrensburg. This turnpike made easy access for people from Warrensburg to travel to Glens Falls or vice versa. This made tourism popular in Warrensburg. The improved roads made stage travel possible, and by 1856 stages were regularly carrying passengers from Glens Falls to Warrensburg. In the following years turnpikes from Warrensburg to Caldwell (Lake George) and Warrensburg to Chester were constructed. These turnpikes were very beneficial to business interests by making it easy to travel to the villages. These three turnpikes are twenty-seven miles in length. Rail service directly to Warrensburg was established between the late 19th century and the early 20th century. Its two forms were the railroad and the electric trolley. The rail transportation to this region helped Warrensburg continue to grow and prosper. The Adirondacks branch of the Delaware & Hudson Railroad, completed to the Thurman Station in 1869, allowed shipment of lumber and other products from Warrensburg to Albany, Troy, and New York City markets. Before the railroads exports had to be drawn with teams a distance of fifteen miles to Glens Falls and then shipped. In 1902, an electric trolley line was built in Warrensburg. Although the trolley has been removed recent Department of Transportation excavation along Main Street has revealed evidence of trolley tracks. By the second decade of the 20th century, transportation resources at Warrensburg included brick, concrete, and asphalt roads. These roads were constructed for a new type of transportation: the automobile. By 1924, resources at Warrensburg included a Town Highway Storehouse, which is now the Town of Warrensburg Highway Department. In 1800 there was only one small schoolhouse in Warrensburg. Being the only school within a circle of a number of miles, it was well attended. The first religious meetings were held in this schoolhouse. By 1858 a second district school was built. There were as many as sixty to seventy pupils that attended this school at one time. The Warrensburg Academy was constructed in 1854. It provided a private school education for young men. The building was erected at a cost of four thousand, five hundred dollars, and could accommodate between seventy to a hundred and thirty students who paid tuition to attend. In 1899 the Warrensburg Union Free School replaced the earlier Academy, providing a centrally located educational facility to students regardless of their financial status. Warrensburg has some very interesting history that contributed to its background. It has been, and still is, a great and prosperous town. Some interesting facts include the story that it is where James Fenimore Cooper wrote the final chapter of “The Last of the Mohicans”. Also during the 1860’s Warrensburg had three churches, an academy, a telegraph office, two hotels and a dozen stores. The town of Warrensburg is also the home of Floyd Bennett, the man who made a historic flight across the North Pole on May 9, 1926. For this he was awarded the “Distinguished Service Medal” by President Coolidge. Warrensburg was also visited by the famous Hetty Green, the richest lady in the late 1800’s. Hetty Green was a guest at the Grand Army House. In conclusion, the town of Warrensburg has proven its historical importance in the history of the Adirondacks. The town’s small population and obscure location belie its great history. Throughout the years it has produced many buildings and homes with architectural grandeur. Its forefathers have left an impact, and their influences can still be felt today. Having stepped back in Warrensburg’s past our lives are richer today. Dennis Martinez, Manager of the Warrensburg Branch of the Glens Falls National Bank & Trust and John Cleveland, Vice President of the Warrensburgh Historical Society presenting Kirsten Goetsche with the 2002 WHS Scholarship Award. The Bank and the Historical Society are equal contributors to the Scholarship Award. Photo by --- **Diary of Grace Noyes** (18 January 1825 – 5 January 1881) Transcribed by Sarah Farrar exactly as Grace wrote it, spelling, punctuation, etc. The notes in parenthesis are Sarah’s notes explaining who and what Grace was talking about. Continued from previous Quarterly Tuesday, October 1, 1878 Plesent & warm Mrs Ray came to day in the P.M. Wednesday 2 Plesent & warm I did not go any where Mrs King very sick Mrs Ray left to day fore Glens Falls Thursday 3 Plesent & warm Mrs King sick Jim threshing Friday 4 Plesent & warm I went out to ride Mrs King not well Jim drawing in corn Started in the night fore Fort Edward Saturday 5 Plesent & warm Jim & Frank went to Fort Edward I bukeing and lotes to do Sunday 6 Plesent & warm I went out to church MacBeth Preached John (?) Burnson and (Burneson) his mother came to day Monday 7 Plesent day Mrs Rockwell and Mary June & Mrs Goodsell & Katie Clear came to day Jim on the road drawing gravel Thursday 10 Plesent & warm Jim on the road at work a House full here and lotts to do Friday 11 Plesent & warm Saturday 12 Plesent & warm a house full here and lotts to do I was bakeing and got fear full tired Sunday 13 Warm & Plesent I went to church Miss Clear here Mac Beth here Monday 14 Plesent & warm Biddie washing Jim went to the Falls for Emerson Mrs King went to Lecture to night at the church Mrs King & myself went to Aunt Abbie's Place Tuesday 15 Mild & warm I went out to Austoins Entertainment at the Academy Jim to Minnie(?) and Fan to the Falls this AM Sold to day to Farmer Wednesday 16 Very plesent & warm just like summer Warren Potter daughter died to day. Mrs Boyer came to day Rev Mr Olin Lectured to night Thursday 17 Warm & plesent Jim & Frank and Jones diging potatoes Friday 18 Teachers Institute closed to day fear full rainy Jennie & Magpie & Satie & Ida & Emet & Walter & Emma Hall all went to day and Miss Clear. Potters daughter Buried this PM Saturday 19 Fearfull rainy puling up stones Marie here I Bakeing Callie and Minnes came in & Hesden came Sunday 20 Plesent but cold Could have went to church. But did not feel well Monday 21 Plesent & warm Jim diging potatoes I went to ride and made some calls Biddie washed Callie & Minnie called here Mrs Heffern died (Heffron) to day Tuesday 22 Plesent & warm I went up to Ransoms to ride Callie & Minnie left this AM fore New York Jim diging potatoes Wednesday 23 Rainy Conklin spoke at the Falls Mac Beth & Austoin went also Miss Freeman & Miss Rose Thursday 24 Plesent Windy Cider came Boiling all day did not go out Friday 25 Plesent & warm Bakeing and Went to the Lake with Marie Saturday 26 Plesent & warm Went up the River to ride with MacBeth Bakeing in fore noon Sunday 27 Plesent I went to church Mac Beth Preached Crosbys came up in the Eve Mac Went down with them Monday 28 Plesent But Cold I did not go out Jim Husking corn Biddie Washing Tuesday 29 Cold & Windy I could not go out Wednesday 30 Plesent But Cold Mrs King & Marie Sewing Thursday 31 Cold so I could not go out Marie & Mrs King at Work on dress 2 tsp. Cinnamon Boil 3 minutes and add drained cucumbers, simmer til very hot. Pack in sterilized jars and seal. Who, What, Where and When Garry Grant was the first to call in with his reply that it was Warrensburg Garage, in the early 1900’s and the location is where his office currently is, at Warren Ford. Warrensburg Historical Society’s Sixth Annual Sticky Wicket Croquet Games & Picnic Sunday, August 25, 2002 at the Warren County Fish Hatchery beginning at eleven o’clock and continuing through the afternoon. In this beautiful setting on the Hudson River, we will turn back time and invite you to an “old fashioned” affair. Free admission to picnic Bring a dish to share, chicken and beverages will be provided. $5 entry fee for croquet tournament. For further information or sponsorship, contact any Board Member. Recipe Corner By Brenda Cleveland Bread & Butter Pickles 6 qts cucumbers, sliced thin 10 onions sliced thin 1 cup salt Cover with water and let stand over night or at least 4 hours, then drain off liquid 5 cups sugar 3 cups vinegar 2 cups water 2 tsp. Turmeric 1 tsp. Cloves 2 Tbsp. Mustard seed 2 Tbsp. Celery seed
60641d03-9c48-4109-9685-9dcb09efbbe9
CC-MAIN-2023-40
https://www.whs12885.org/uploads/5/8/4/4/58449449/summer_2002_final.pdf
2023-09-21T08:42:00+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233505362.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20230921073711-20230921103711-00899.warc.gz
1,190,625,213
6,127
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.994461
eng_Latn
0.998425
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3797, 7146, 11698, 18319, 23354, 26949 ]
[ 1.3828125, 2.421875 ]
2
0
learning focus: - locate and plot ordered pairs on the coordinate plane - reflect points on the coordinate plane - find distance between points and create figures on the coordinate plane COORDINATE PLANE UNIT 8 DAY CCSS-ALIGNED UNIT COORDINATE PLANE an 8 day CCSS-aligned unit CCSS: 6.NS.6, 6.NS.6a, 6.NS.6b, 6.NS.6c, 6.NS.8 ready-to-go, scaffolded student materials COORDINATE PLANE UNIT Table of Contents | PAGE | TOPIC | RESOURCE | |------|--------------------------------------------|----------------| | 4 | Sample Pacing Guide | | | 5-6 | Ideas for Implementation & Helpful Hints | | | 7-16 | Binder Covers, Dividers, and Spine Labels | | | 17-18| Graphing in Quadrant One | Student Handout 1 | | 19 | Graphing in Quadrant One | Homework 1 | | 21-22| Graphing on the Coordinate Plane | Student Handout 2 | | 23 | Graphing on the Coordinate Plane | Homework 2 | | 25-26| Reflections | Student Handout 3 | | 27 | Reflections | Homework 3 | | 29 | Mini Quiz 1 | Mini Quiz 1 | | 31-32| Graphing Rational Numbers | Student Handout 4 | | 33 | Graphing Rational Numbers | Homework 4 | | 35-36| Distance Between Points | Student Handout 5 | | 37 | Distance Between Points | Homework 5 | | 39-40| Creating Figures on the Coordinate Plane | Student Handout 6 | | 41 | Creating Figures on the Coordinate Plane | Homework 6 | | 43 | Mini Quiz 2 | Mini Quiz 2 | | 45-48| Coordinate Plane Unit Study Guide | Study Guide | | 49-51| Coordinate Plane Test | Test | COORDINATE PLANE an 8 day CCSS-aligned unit CCSS: 6.NS.6, 6.NS.6a, 6.NS.6b, 6.NS.6c, 6.NS.8 student friendly + real-world application interactive practice scaffolded concepts COORDINATE PLANE an 8 day CCSS-aligned unit CCSS: 6.NS.6, 6.NS.6a, 6.NS.6b, 6.NS.6c, 6.NS.8 streamline your planning process with unit overviews COORDINATE PLANE OVERVIEW STANDARDS 6.NS.6 Understand a rational number as a point on the number line. Extend number line diagrams and coordinate axes familiar from previous grades to represent points on the line and in the plane with negative number coordinates. 6.NS.6a Recognize opposite signs of numbers as indicating locations on opposite sides of the number line. Recognize that the opposite of the opposite of a number is the number itself. 6.NS.6b Understand signs of numbers in ordered pairs as indicating locations in quadrants of the coordinate plane, and recognize that when two ordered pairs differ only by signs, the locations of the points are related by reflections across one or both axes. 6.NS.6c Find and position integers and other rational numbers on a horizontal or vertical number line diagram; find and position pairs of integers and other rational numbers on a coordinate plane. 6.NS.8 Solve real-world and mathematical problems by graphing points in all four quadrants of the coordinate plane. Include use of coordinates and absolute value to find distances between points with the same first coordinate or the same second coordinate. BIG IDEAS • The coordinate plane is an important tool for representing and solving problems. • The coordinate plane is used to locate points in space. ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How does a reflection across the x-axis affect the y-coordinate? • What pattern do you notice? • How would a point with the same x-coordinate but different y-coordinates be reflected? COORDINATE PLANE PACING GUIDE | DAY 1 | DAY 2 | DAY 3 | DAY 4 | DAY 5 | |-------|-------|-------|-------|-------| | Graphing in Quadrant One | Graphing on the Coordinate Plane | Reflections | Graphing Rational Numbers | Distance Between Points | Student Handout 1 Homework 1 Student Handout 2 Homework 2 COORDINATE PLANE OVERVIEW | TOPIC | TEACHING TIPS | |-------|---------------| | The Coordinate Plane | • This will be students’ first experience with all four quadrants of the coordinate plane. Students are now putting both the vertical number line and the horizontal number line together to form a coordinate plane. • Consider pulling up Google Maps or Google Earth and putting in intersections of streets near you. Ask students to explain why this is important and how it applies to the coordinate plane. • If you have a large space outside, use masking tape to mark off a basic coordinate plane. Ask students to place various objects at specific ordered pairs. • Note: A strategy for helping students remember is to draw the letter “C” on the coordinate plane. | | Absolute Value and Reflections | • Students must be confident in their placement of the x- and y-axes in this lesson. The most common mistake is reflecting over the incorrect axis. • The biggest takeaway is that students should be able to observe the change in the x- and y-values when reflected over each axis. • Note: It might be a good idea to use one color to show reflections over x and another color over y. | | Determining Scale | • Project a picture that has been zoomed in. Then, ask students to guess the picture. After much discussion, zoom out to fully reveal the photo. Explain that the coordinate plane can also be “zoomed in.” Show a coordinate plane where each line does not represent 1 and help students to make connections as to the scale of the axis. • Note: It might be a good idea to use one color to show reflections over x and another color over y. | | Distance Between Points | • Go back to the Google Maps example and ask students to provide directions from one well-known location to another (simple is best). Ask students to then take these skills and transfer them to the coordinate plane. Students can practice “giving directions” to a partner and then checking to see if they followed them correctly. • Consider projecting a simple map on top of a coordinate plane, if possible. | ✓ key vocabulary ✓ vertical alignment sample pacing calendar teaching ideas COORDINATE PLANE an 8 day CCSS-aligned unit CCSS: 6.NS.6, 6.NS.6a, 6.NS.6b, 6.NS.6c, 6.NS.8 unit study guide + assessments ✓ quizzes ✓ editable unit test answer keys included
3280e60c-1b48-45d5-ad72-00d3a64807f2
CC-MAIN-2022-49
https://resources.maneuveringthemiddle.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/31130740/6thCCSSCoordinate-Plane-Preview.pdf
2022-12-08T17:31:16+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711344.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20221208150643-20221208180643-00592.warc.gz
508,437,017
1,523
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.956631
eng_Latn
0.997182
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 234, 1918, 2097, 6240, 6419 ]
[ 4.34375 ]
1
0
The Visual History Archive® is the Institute’s collection of audiovisual interviews with witnesses and survivors of the Holocaust and other genocides. It is the reason USC Shoah Foundation was originally founded, and continues to be the basis for its educational and scholarly programs today. **Enriching the Future with Testimony** With a current collection of more than 55,000 eyewitness testimonies, the Visual History Archive is the largest digital collection of its kind in the world. It preserves history as told by the people who lived it. Each testimony is a unique source of insight and knowledge, offering powerful stories from history that demand to be explored and shared. In this way we will be able to see their faces and hear their voices, allowing them to teach and inspire action against intolerance. To ensure the testimonies stored in the Visual History Archive are accessible worldwide, every testimony is digitized and fully searchable to the minute via indexing. This means a scholar, researcher, or student can instantly access the exact point within the 115,000 hours of testimony in the Archive that matches their query. This is made possible by the use of more than 64,000 keywords that have been assigned directly to digital time codes within testimonies where the specific topics are discussed. Indexing involves the Institute’s proprietary software for which it was awarded 11 patents. Keywords cover geographic and experiential indexing terms, about 1.8 million names of people mentioned in the testimonies or recorded in pre-interview questionnaires, and biographical information for each interviewee, including city and country of birth; religious identity; places of incarceration (e.g., camps and ghettos) and hiding, flight or resistance details. Similar to the index of a book, indexing terms point directly to specific points of interest. But instead of taking users to pages, the Archive’s terms lead to digital time codes (one-minute segments) within the testimonies. “No matter how our civilization advances, there are certain values that define us as individuals and as a society … The content of the Visual History Archive is priceless material to teach those core values to our students.” C. L. Max Nikias, president, University of Southern California Testimony in the Visual History Archive has been taken in 62 countries and recorded in 41 languages. Originally, the Institute collected testimony from Jewish survivors, political prisoners, Sinti and Roma (Gypsy) survivors, Jehovah’s Witness survivors, survivors of eugenics policies and homosexual survivors, as well as rescuers and aid providers, liberators, and participants in war crimes trials. Testimony Collections Since 2006 the Institute has partnered with other organizations to expand the Visual History Archive to include testimony from other genocides: - The 1937 Nanjing Massacre, which were collected in partnership with the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall to preserve the testimonies of the last survivors of the 1937 Nanjing Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanjing, in which 300,000 civilians and unarmed soldiers were killed over the course of two months. - The 1994 Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda, collected in partnership with Aegis Trust and the Kigali Genocide Memorial Centre. The Rwandan Testimony Collection presents survivor, eyewitness, and soon a few perpetrator accounts of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsis that claimed as many as one million lives over the course of approximately 100 days. - The 1915 Armenian Genocide, which were presented to the Institute by the Armenian Film Foundation. With over 370 interviews conducted by genocide survivor and documentary filmmaker Dr. J. Michael Hagopian, the Armenian Genocide Collection explores the WWI-era massacres and deportations in the Ottoman Empire that claimed the lives of an estimated 1.5 million Armenians. - The 1981 Guatemalan Genocide, collected in partnership with La Fundación de Antropología Forense de Guatemala (FAFG). - The 1975 Cambodian Genocide, begun with assistance from the Documentation Center of Cambodia. Each collection adds context for the other, providing multiple pathways for students, educators and scholars to learn from the eyewitnesses of history across time, locations, cultures and social-political circumstances. Plans to add collections from other genocides are in development. The Visual History Archive is also integrating additional Holocaust testimonies through a program called Preserving the Legacy, which uses the Institute’s state-of-the-art infrastructure to digitize, index and integrate testimony taken and owned by other organizations to make them more accessible to scholars, students, educators, and the general public. Some of the partner groups’ testimonies will also be incorporated into IWitness, the Institute’s award-winning online education website designed for students in grades 6–12. These collections include: - Jewish Family and Children’s Services (JFCS) of San Francisco Bay Area. JFCS, which runs the JFCS Holocaust Center, began recording its nearly 1,400 oral history interviews of Holocaust survivors, witnesses, and liberators in the early 1980s. - The Montreal Holocaust Memorial Centre and Sarah and Chaim Neuberger Holocaust Education Center in Toronto. These 1,250 Holocaust testimonies, which include small collections from several Canadian cities were integrated into the Visual History Archive in September 2016. - The Houston Holocaust Museum collection, which contains 300 testimonies. New Dimensions in Testimony and testimonies from Middle East and North Africa (MENA) are two additional collections being integrated into the Visual History Archive under the main Holocaust collection. New Dimensions in Testimony is developing new technology that will enable students – now and far into the future – to be able to ask any question to the survivor about their life experiences. Over a dozen Holocaust survivors who previously sat before cameras to give their testimony to the Visual History Archive are again sitting in front of cameras to give their testimonies for New Dimensions in Testimony. The project delivers a learning environment in which a survivor answers questions as if he or she were in the room. Testimony from the Middle East and North Africa will include the testimonies of Jews who were living in North Africa and the Middle East during World War II and witnessed the destruction created by the Nazi occupiers or governments that were Nazi sympathizers. These stories are important to capture because North Africa and the Middle East, though far from the Holocaust in Europe, were an important part of Hitler’s Final Solution. Hitler intended to exterminate all Jews, not just those in Europe, and, according to Holocaust scholars, the persecution of the Jews in French North Africa was an integral part of the Holocaust in France. For example, Nazis occupied Tunisia from November 1942 until May 1943, and Jews throughout this part of the world were subjected to deportation, imprisonment in concentration camps, and the destruction of their homes, as well as severe anti-Semitism and anti-Jewish laws from their own governments. Ultimately, the Visual History Archive forever preserves the faces and voices of the people who witnessed history, allowing their firsthand stories to enlighten and inspire action against intolerance for generations to come. There are several ways to access the Visual History Archive. The full collection is available by subscription at USC and 79 other institutions around the world. In March of 2016 USC Shoah Foundation announced a landmark partnership with ProQuest to quadruple that number within two years and project a 10-fold increase by the Institute’s 25th anniversary in 2019. There are also over 220 institutes in 36 countries that have smaller collections of curated testimonies. A limited collection is also available on the public Internet at vhonline.usc.edu. This site features over 1,600 fully accessible testimonies, and has full search capabilities for the remaining testimonies, as well as biographical and other information collected from the survivors. Many testimonies are also available on the Institute’s YouTube channel. The Institute also posts a clip of testimony on its website every weekday as a way of highlighting how testimony influences the work of Institute.
<urn:uuid:5e14631c-e608-4461-82e6-51f3e120f154>
CC-MAIN-2019-04
https://sfi.usc.edu/sites/default/files/docfiles/uscsf_vha_4_17.pdf
2019-01-19T16:52:38Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583671342.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20190119160425-20190119182425-00073.warc.gz
627,023,125
1,627
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.996171
eng_Latn
0.996192
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2701, 8442 ]
[ 3.09375 ]
2
0
Jeopardy | Household Waste | Earth Day 101 | 3 Rs | The Bay | Learn All About It | |-----------------|--------------|------|--------|-------------------| | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | What percent of food is never eaten when it is ready to harvest? What is 40 to 50% How much trash does an average American dispose each day? What is 5 lbs. How many pounds of trash is dumped into the ocean every year? What is 14 billion lbs. Question 1 - 40 What is nature’s recycling? (Hint think food waste!) What is composting. How many tons of waste is kept out of landfills every year thanks to recycling? What is 57 million tons. The location of the 2013 Severna Park Earth Day Festival. What is Severna Park Middle School? Name a group or activity at the Earth Day Festival from SPMS. • SGA – rain barrel sales • Youth Rise Leo – water bottle sales • Environmental Science Club – info display & plants • Black Saga – Life on the Chesapeake and the Underground Railroad • Girl Scout Troop – recycle t-shirt bags • NJHS – info display • Art – water bottle flowers Question 2 - 30 Something you will find at the Earth Day Festival every year (a display, activity, etc.) • Something for everyone! So much to see and do! • All Severna Park schools – it’s a cluster event! • Gardening, recycle bins, composting tools, information, puppies and goats The number of years the Greater Severna Park Earth Day Festival has taken place. This year will be the 10th festival! The name of the group – a local environmental organization – that sponsors & coordinates the festival. What is W.A.G. Watershed Action Group Question 3 - 10 Name the 3 Rs of the “green” program Reduce Re-use Recycle Bonus: Why this order? The number of times an aluminum can can be recycled. What is INFINITE? • Making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy and 20 recycled cans can be made with the energy needed to produce one can using virgin ore. • Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to keep a 100-watt bulb burning for almost four hours or run your television for three hours. • Tossing away an aluminum can wastes as much energy as pouring out half of that can's volume of gasoline. • The average employee consumes 2.5 beverages a day while at work. In the lifetime of the average American, the number of times his or her adult weight will be thrown away in garbage? a) 150 times b) 300 times c) 600 times The average adult will leave behind as much as 100,000 pounds of trash during his or her lifetime because we throw away 600 times our adult weight in garbage. The number of plastic water bottles used EVERY SECOND in the United States. Out of the 50 billion bottles of water being bought each year, 80% end up in a landfill, even though recycling programs exist. 17 million barrels of oil are used in producing bottled water each year. Question 3 - 50 Paper or Plastic? Neither, of course. Bring your own reusable bags to the store. It takes about 12 million barrels of oil annually to meet the demand for petroleum-based plastic bags. And paper bags take four times as much energy to produce as their plastic counterparts ...and generate air pollution as well. In today's society we use over 500 billion plastic bags annually or approximately 1 million per minute. True or False: The Chesapeake Bay is the largest and most valuable estuary in the US. Length of 200 miles, covers watershed area of 64,000 sq miles, more blue crabs than anywhere else, employs about 15,000 watermen. A symbol of hope for the Bay’s restoration because of its comeback after being nearly eradicated by pesticides in the 1970s. What is the Osprey? Of the 6 states that comprise the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, which is NOT one of them? a) New York b) Delaware c) New Jersey d) West Virginia e) Pennsylvania c) New Jersey MD, NY, VA, WVA, PA, DE and Washington DC NJ is in Atlantic Watershed The Bay got its name from: a) Native American word meaning “Great Shellfish Bay” b) Native American Word meaning “Peak Bay” c) Spanish word meaning “Beautiful Scenery” a) Native American word for “Great Shellfish Bay” Bonus: what tribe? The number of people who live in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed: a) 15 million b) 1 million c) 750,000 d) 120 million a) 15 million Everyone plays apart in keeping it healthy. Just think if EACH person put 1 piece of trash in the Bay; that’s 15 MILLION pieces of trash! Question 5 - 10 AACPS resource for outdoor and environmental learning. What is Arlington Echo? These 2 teams are planning outdoor lessons and a planting activity to address storm water management at SPMS. Question 5 - 30 A “green” lesson, program or activity already in place at SPMS. Hint: MANY possible answers TOO MANY TO LIST Maryland is the first state to create this graduation requirement. What is Environmental Literacy? Question 5 - 50 An outdoor “green” lesson you plan on doing or want to do? Hint: MANY possible answers YOU NAME IT!
c705a4e2-d257-4398-952d-9e28491d6a91
CC-MAIN-2020-40
http://www.spmsgreenschool.com/uploads/4/7/4/2/47427113/spms_green_jeopardy.pdf
2020-09-20T06:33:11+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400196999.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200920062737-20200920092737-00356.warc.gz
219,929,554
1,270
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.906631
eng_Latn
0.995784
[ "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "nld_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 8, 509, 575, 594, 653, 669, 732, 757, 829, 850, 931, 957, 1016, 1053, 1116, 1394, 1501, 1680, 1762, 1800, 1904, 1944, 1999, 2046, 2100, 2604, 2762, 2922, 2999, 3201, 3237, 3635, 3722, 3853, 3979, 4000, 4167, 4254, 4426, 4497, 4615, 4769, 4842, 4867, 4978, 5089, 5107, 5175, 5208, 5314, 5328 ]
[ 3.078125 ]
1
0
Today, fifty-seven million children and young people are denied the right to education. World leaders, governments, civil society and the global community must take decisive action on education now or the results will be devastating: the largest generation of young people in human history will be exposed to unemployment, poor health, civil unrest and increased vulnerability. If world leaders do not take urgent action, we will break the Millennium Development Goal promise of universal education by 2015. We will fail children and young people. Education is not only a fundamental human right, but the most effective way to alleviate poverty. The world cannot afford the repercussions of failing to educate future generations. Education is an entitlement for all young people – and a sound investment, too. Malala Yousafzai, the fearless Pakistani schoolgirl has come to symbolize the campaign for universal education. THE YOUNG PEOPLE OF THE WORLD CALL ON ALL GOVERNMENTS, INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS THAT PLAN, DELIVER EDUCATION TO: 1. Pass a Security Council resolution that recognizes the global education crisis and its link to the rights of children, and outlines concrete steps to address education and security, particularly for girls and in emergency contexts. 2. Put EVERY child in school. - Work urgently and collaborate with partners to ensure all children have access to quality education, including the 57 million excluded from primary school, the 69 million shut out of secondary school, and the hundreds of millions more who are in school but not learning. - Provide at least nine years of quality education for every child, and equip all young people with the resources, infrastructure, environment and professional support they need to learn and thrive. 3. Address the special situations of girls and other marginalized groups. - Guarantee gender equality by recognizing and respecting the equal rights and potential of all girls and boys. Take concrete steps to enable and support girls as active, educated and productive citizens of their countries and of the world. - Create environments that cater to the unique needs of girls, and tackle social barriers and gender expectations which prevent girls from confidently and safely participating in school. - Place particular emphasis on education for marginalized children, whose absence from the classroom has not yet been effectively addressed. Governments must remove barriers to education and address the needs of the most marginalized. Poorer children; orphans; child labourers and slaves; those living in disadvantaged areas, in informal settlements or on the street; pregnant girls and girls with their own children; children with disabilities; indigenous children; those with HIV/AIDS; lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgendered young people; and those affected by emergencies and conflict, are as entitled to a quality and inclusive education as every other child. 4. Ensure young people learn and are prepared for life and the workforce. - Develop and promote non-formal and citizenship education to encourage life-long learning to develop life skills and values. Education should focus on the important realities of life, aim to reduce extremism and encourage political participation, as well as promote equality, intercultural learning and respect. Connect learning more directly with the labor market to ensure that all children and young people can seek employment after education. To close the youth unemployment gap, internships, volunteering and mentorships – as well as ways to gain formal accreditation and qualifications through work programs – should be put into place by all governments. Support the availability and improvement of vocational education and training. Governments must recognize the benefits of practical training and ensure it complements academic education to sustain existing industries and foster innovation. Vocational education should be worthwhile, conducted safely and properly documented. Recruit and rigorously train teachers, whose work should be of the highest standards and professionalism. Teachers should be in attendance and available to all of their students, and protect their rights. Teachers must be adequately paid, to encourage more people to enter the profession and close the trained-teacher gap. Ensure young people transition from primary and secondary education, so that their ambitions can flourish and their potential be fulfilled. Increase education funding and ensure accountability. National governments and donor countries must invest more in education. All governments should target funding to close spending gaps and counter disadvantages for the most marginalized. Governments must prevent financial wastage through inefficiency or corruption. Ensure sustainable investment in infrastructure, facilities and resources for learning, including books, new technologies and the Internet. Implement monitoring programs which evaluate the standard of education, promote consistency and quality, and identify areas where teachers and schools can improve. Schools must respond quickly, and must also review their own performance and improve services. There must be data to show that children are making progress. Guarantee the voice of young people in shaping education. Engage young people through processes that allow them to influence the direction of their own education, school culture and curriculum. Students must have a way to raise concerns, report inappropriate behavior or seek a resolution to a grievance without prejudice and in confidence. These steps will immensely improve the quality of the world’s education systems and increase the number of young people who can access the right to learn. These steps will make the world a more just, educated and productive place – one where no child is left behind. We, the young people of the world, call on all governments to deliver. This youth resolution was written by the Youth Advocacy Group. This is a group of 15 young people from around the world who strengthen momentum and increase support for the United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon’s Global Education First Initiative, launched in September 2012. The drafting of the resolution included consultation both on and offline with young people from more than 45 countries. It will be circulated to all Member States of the United Nations after Malala Day on July 12th 2013. The future is theirs: members of the Youth Advocacy Group meet UN Special Envoy for Global Education Gordon Brown (centre) in London, December 2012 (Plan/ Geoff Caddick/ PA)
6df197c0-4e1b-408e-8797-13b89bbb8275
CC-MAIN-2025-08
https://www.youthpolicy.org/uploads/documents/2013_Education_We_Want_Eng.pdf
2025-02-11T09:35:37+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831951699.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20250211072351-20250211102351-00629.warc.gz
969,012,782
1,189
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997334
eng_Latn
0.997513
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 925, 3346, 5615, 6636 ]
[ 2.46875 ]
1
0
Khu Klaw Reh is the son of poor farmers in Kayah State, in wild and rural eastern Myanmar. His family could not afford school fees until he was eight years old, but being bright and keen to learn, eventually he secured a place in a local Catholic boarding school. But Khu Klaw Reh is one of the Karenni people – also known as the ‘Red Karen’. His thirst for education came with a high cost. A government soldier, suspicious of him for leaving his village of Pukaraku, near Hpruso in the north west of the state, accused Khu of being a Karen rebel – and had him arrested, interrogated, and threatened with violence. The Karenni have been in conflict with the Burmese state since independence in 1948 - having experienced and been promised forms of sovereignty at various times in their history. They have suffered, and continue to suffer, particularly badly at the hands of Myanmar’s military. Khu Klaw Reh was forced to flee his village in 2004 and made his way to a refugee camp on the Thai-Myanmar border. Once safe, he had trouble imagining how to remedy the kinds of injustice he and his people routinely faced. “People were always saying ‘democracy, democracy,’” he says, “but what it meant I did not know.” It was to answer questions such as these that the Karenni Social Development Centre (SDC) was founded in the camps on the Thai-Myanmar border in 2002 – its main tools being pens, pencils, books, and a makeshift classroom. The SDC school in Refugee Camp Number 1 is the Karenni’s response to an ongoing human rights struggle. During the decades-long rule of the oppressive and abusive Burmese military regime, an estimated 200,000 members of the Karenni were driven from their homes in Eastern Myanmar. The area has suffered greatly from rampant resource exploitation and land-grabbing by the Burmese military. Over 22,000 Karenni people have fled to Thailand, where they live in two refugee camps in Mae Hong Son province. Though there are many young people in the camps, schooling ends at around age 15. Few can access further education. Against this background, SDC was created to teach future potential leaders of the Karenni, like Khu Klaw Reh, about their rights. So far SDC has trained over 290 students to become human rights and environmental activists. The SDC school principal, Khu Myar Reh, sees this work as “building the capacity of the Karenni community to identify and challenge violations of their environmental and human rights.” He is equipping community members to take charge of their future while living under legal constraints. Though SDC students may initially lack the vocabulary and skills to work as social activists, they bring to the classroom a direct awareness of the political struggle. Many have suffered human rights abuses, had their family land stolen, or been affected by environmental destruction. They have witnessed violence, and in some cases experienced it directly. Given this background, these students want to learn about human rights and non-violent methods of social change, and they desperately want to share this knowledge with their communities. “Honestly, before attending this course I didn’t know anything about human rights,” says Nga Meh, who grew up in the Karenni refugee camps and studied at SDC. “After attending this course I have learnt a lot about this subject. If people like me become lawyers, this will be very beneficial to building a peaceful future.” She currently serves as an office worker for Karenni education, and expects to do even more for her community. “I am now trying to improve myself every day,” she says. Not all of the legal problems the Karenni exiles face are external. The refugee camps, like so many around the globe, breed problems related to powerlessness: domestic violence, divorce and family law problems, property claims and refugee-on-refugee assaults. The camps have also suffered a brain-drain – many of the best-educated have resettled to other countries, and community judges had little experience of human rights. SDC decided to tackle this issue head-on, by having students research and write yearly reports on the camps’ legal system, having them compare their reports with other human rights situations, and organize trainings for local judges. The students set up a Moot Court, to gain hands-on experience with all sides of a legal situation, and organized a human rights day celebration to share legal awareness with all members of the community. According to SDC, citizens have become more satisfied with the camps’ legal system, and at least eight former SDC students have served as judges. Other former students are serving as teachers, directors of vocational training, and human rights monitors. Because the organization is unregistered and situated in a refugee camp, it faces particular challenges. On the Thai side of the border, members of the Karenni community are deemed illegal migrants, unrecognized as refugees. As such, their movements are heavily restricted. “We cannot go everywhere we wish,” the principal, Khu, says, “and we cannot do the things we would like to implement easily or properly.” Nevertheless, he is optimistic about the project’s continued success: “I strongly believe that by providing an education in human rights, environment, the rule of law and democracy, many people have better knowledge of their own rights and understand how to respect others’ rights. The judicial system practiced by our community in the camp is better, fairer and more effective. Also, today more and more members of our community are aware of how to protect and maintain the environment.” The education delivered by SDC is designed to reverberate well beyond the classroom. This past year, a group of SDC alumni created the Peace Initiative Program, with the goal of helping students and disadvantaged youth engage more directly with the democratic process. Their first two workshops focused on drug and alcohol awareness, and equipped participants with the knowledge to teach their families about the dangers of addiction – another issue faced by long-term refugees. SDC students are being taught the basic definition of “democracy,” but also given the tools to negotiate for fairer treatment in everyday interactions, and— they hope eventually—on the national level. **Key Lessons** 1. **Education arouses interest:** People struggling for their lives did not have much interest in legal-political issues. However, after conducting trainings and workshops in Karenni State, many young people and women became more interested in justice issues inside the country. 2. **Collaboration is key 1:** Every year SDC recruits more students and continually plans to implement more mobile trainings, workshops and campaigns inside Burma. However, SDC is an unregistered organization in Myanmar and when it conducts trainings or workshops, the military and Myanmar authorities interrupt its activities. For this reason, SDC is collaborating more with Myanmar CBOs and organizations to implement its projects without hindrance. 3. **Collaboration is key 2:** SDC is also trying to communicate and collaborate with more and more organizations that are related to human rights, environment and law. This is to accumulate more experience and knowledge from others and be able to apply these skills to change to a genuine democratic government system and maintain the rule of law in Burma. 4. **Staff sustainability is crucial:** SDC has replaced brought-in trainers with long-term volunteers with the necessary skills. And in the last two years, our training course has run much more smoothly. It has allowed our staff more time to prepare their lessons and it has allowed us to continually expand our SDC course and increase the benefits for our students.
82a35b22-45ac-4f06-a837-7aa2c62b84e0
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://namati.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/10.-Karenni-SDC-Spotlight-Final.pdf
2024-07-16T20:18:22+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763514789.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20240716183855-20240716213855-00751.warc.gz
369,550,254
1,567
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998616
eng_Latn
0.998817
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1552, 5474, 7794 ]
[ 3.21875 ]
1
0
Citizen Voice and Action for Disability Practice Notes Acknowledgements The development of this publication was led by Edward Winter, Senior Technical Advisor for Social Inclusion at World Vision U.S., with the support of the Gender Equality and Social Inclusion team at World Vision U.S and the Disability Inclusion Leadership team and Social Accountability team at World Vision International. For more information, please contact email@example.com. Cover photo: Noor Omar Mohammed, a Somali refugee living with a disability in Kakuma, Kenya, is a small enterprise business owner and member of a CVA working group in Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya. He is also a member of the Voice of Disabled Peoples Association in the camp. ©2020 World Vision, Inc. World Vision is a Christian humanitarian organization dedicated to working with children, families, and their communities worldwide to reach their full potential by tackling the causes of poverty and injustice. World Vision serves all people, regardless of religion, race, ethnicity, or gender. Introduction Citizen Voice and Action (CVA) is a local level advocacy methodology that transforms the dialogue between communities and government in order to improve services, like health care and education, which impact the daily lives of children and their families. The goal of Citizen Voice and Action is to improve the accessibility and quality of public services. Through collaborative, non-confrontational dialogue between service users, government and providers, users are empowered to monitor and seek accountability for service delivery and to take collective responsibility for services. CVA is based on the view that each citizen has the right to hold to account his or her government for fulfilling its commitments. This field guide is intended to help you to use CVA to address issues related to disability, as a supplement to existing resources on CVA implementation that can be found on WVCentral. Why is it important to address issues around disability using CVA? Persons with disability, who make up to 15% of the world’s population, have rights that need to be protected | Persons with disability in most countries are protected by legislation that has been developed in response to the country’s ratification and signing of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD). The UNCRPD guarantees equal access to education, health, social and other services for persons with disability. The UNCRPD also mandates governments to provide services that meet the specific needs of persons with disability including rehabilitation services and assistive technology. Governments have also been encouraged to commit to providing assistive technology such as wheelchairs, hearing aids, prosthetics and crutches as listed on the World Health Organization priority assistive products list on assistive technology provision. Children and other persons with disability in communities where WV works are often excluded from decision-making and advocacy efforts | Persons with disability are stigmatized in most countries, even if they are wealthy. This means that their needs are often ignored in the development of legislation, policy, budgets and in the provision of services. Even services designed for persons with disability are often designed without their engagement. Citizen Voice and Action (CVA), World Vision’s proven approach to social accountability, provides a structure to support the engagement of persons with disability to take a leadership role. CVA also provides a way to collect data on issues of persons with disability’s access to rights and services that isn’t typically available from government data. This data can then inform better decision-making. 1 https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities-2.html 2 https://www.who.int/phi/implementation/assistive_technology/EMP_PHI_2016.01/en/ Who should be engaged in CVA for disability? This will depend on your target level, from community up to national level. Generally, CVA should bring together people, service providers and government decision-makers who can make changes to budgets and plans. Three groups are essential: 1. Persons with disabilities (PwD) – with representatives of different types – those who have problems seeing, hearing, communicating and with mobility, mental health or intellectual disability. 2. Disabled person organizations (DPO) – organizations run by persons with disability, with organizations representing different types of disabilities. 3. Service providers (governmental, non-governmental, private) – those responsible for providing disability services including local and national representatives of Ministries of Health, Education, Social Protection as well as any cross-cutting disability committees that oversee the local or national level implementation of the UNCRPD-related legislation across different ministries; Additionally, these other groups can be engaged: - Disability-focused organizations – these are run by persons who don’t have a disability but are focused on disability issues such as Humanity and Inclusion, CBM, Leonard Cheshire, Light for the World, Sightsavers - Human rights protectors – government (ombudsman) and non-government organizations that focus on protecting citizens’ rights that can be engaged to support disability rights. In El Salvador, persons with disability were paired with existing CVA groups that had been focused on youth issues. The existing groups were passionate advocates and helped empower members who have a disability. In Kenya, Nicaragua, and Romania, groups included a range of participants, with people with disabilities and their families taking priority along with community members who had previously worked on CVA initiatives. Other group members included teachers, administrators, church leaders, government officials, and social workers. In India and Georgia, the CVA groups consisted entirely of persons with different disabilities and disabled person organization (DPO) representatives. This had the benefit of facilitating the formation of a local DPOs, or capacitating existing DPOs, but did not provide the contact with service providers or other community members. How can you integrate disability within CVA? There are two main ways: 1. **Integrated into existing CVA programs** by making sure that any CVA action related to a particular sector (health, education, WASH, etc.) ensures that persons with disabilities’ rights and access to services is incorporated into the CVA process. Persons with disabilities, disabled person organizations and disability service providers would need to be included in this process. In order to do this, you should: - Integrate government standards for services for persons with disability and their application within the ‘Monitoring Standards’ tool in CVA – See detailed CVA Guidance and shorter field guide at (https://www.wvi.org/local-advocacy/publication/citizen-voice-and-action-field-guide and http://www.kwantu.net/resources-1/2015/11/25/citizen-voice-and-action-guidance-notes) b. disaggregate data on access and quality of services to ensure that the views of persons with disability are identified c. organize a sub-group on disability that could report back to the main group within the scorecard process d. ensure representation of persons with a disability, their representative advocacy groups as well as any government officials with responsibilities for disability within ‘community gatherings’. 2. As a standalone CVA and disability program that brings together groups focused on disability, persons with disabilities, DPOs, disability service providers, and potentially disability-focused organizations and human rights protectors. This program would focus exclusively on services and rights for persons with disability across different sector areas. In either case, there are some main steps to take: 1. Identify a disabled person’s organization who can work with you to define: a. if your country has signed and ratified the UNCRPD and the optional protocol b. if government legislation has been developed in line with the UNCRPD c. the rights and services outlined for children and adults with disabilities d. any gaps in the rights and services compared to the legislation or to the UNCRPRD e. existing priorities for advocacy among DPOs and persons with different kinds of disability (as wheelchair users may have very different priorities for example, to persons who are deaf) f. existing data on access to services and rights for persons with disability 2. Develop a set of accessible information materials with DPOs that can inform communication around rights and services for persons with disabilities 3. Test those materials with communities to ensure that the language used is understandable and is positive about persons with disability (many cultures have very negative words for persons with disabilities). 4. Identify relevant indicators to support consistent monitoring (see Annex 3) What changes do you need to make to existing CVA programming to make it more accessible for persons with disabilities? The following steps are key to ensuring your program is accessible: - **Engaging persons with different types of disability in the planning and implementation processes** – this will make sure that you can understand and address all barriers to participation for persons with different types of disability - **Communication in accessible formats** – conducting home visits to those who can’t access community venues, producing braille materials, providing information in sign language, using simplified language versions with images • **Adapting the workshops** – please see Annex 1 for details on how to do this • **Enhancing the image of persons with disabilities** – In El Salvador and Nicaragua, CVA groups used inclusion festivals and International Disability Day (December 3) to raise awareness of disability rights and show persons with disability in a positive way. • **Challenging staff, service provider and community attitudes to disability** – using activities to challenge negative attitudes as outlined in Annex 2. **Tip:** Involving children in CVA efforts can be an effective way to break down attitudinal barriers to disability inclusion. In Romania, World Vision’s registered children brought awareness messages back to their friends and families, acting as a catalyst for change. **How has CVA been used to address disability issues in our programs?** CVA has been used extensively in two standalone programs but has had limited use within mainstream CVA programs: The USAID-funded *Training, Economic Empowerment, Assistive Technology and Medical/Physical Rehabilitation Services (TEAM)* project engaged 2,749 persons with disability in CVA processes in Colombia. The project and the disability officer from the Municipal Health Secretariat informed PwD and service providers about relevant legislation and national service delivery standards relating to health. By using the disability officer as a trainer, this strengthened the officer’s position as a bridge between service providers (many of which were located outside the municipality) and community members and their role in guaranteeing the quality of service provision. The 18 CVA groups each produced an action framework. They prioritized the most frequently violated rights for people with disabilities including delays in receiving care, the shortage of available appointments with health specialists, limited accessibility in parks and other community settings, and the limited opportunities for employment and income generation. Local authorities listened to CVA groups and expressed verbal commitment to addressing the issues raised. A total of 175 actions were directly attributed as responses to CVA processes. Groups then monitored progress towards these commitments. Perhaps the greatest impact of the CVA groups, was the strengthening of relationships around disability, resulting in greater solidarity, understanding and support. Within the *ACCESS Wheelchair program*, that covered India, Romania, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Kenya, each CVA group developed a community action plan and use community scorecards. Common themes across communities included: - Access to Disability Certification: Kenya, India, and Romania - Accessible Infrastructure: El Salvador, Nicaragua, Kenya, and Romania “The TEAM project and CVA helped a lot of people to understand, and to energize and gather people through the Local Action Boards. I think it was a success.” —Jorge, project participant, Barranquilla • Accessible Education: El Salvador, Kenya, and Nicaragua • Accessible Transportation: India and Nicaragua • Access to Medicines: Kenya and Nicaragua The program achieved the following notable results: | Country | Results | |----------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------| | El Salvador | Municipal ordinances on disability inclusion developed in 4 municipalities: Armenia, Santa Elena, San Vicente and Ozatán. These municipal ordinances were the first in El Salvador, and addressed employability, rights promotion, accessibility, access to education and quality health care. | | India | 100 people obtained disability certificates. Two people with disabilities obtained train passes and 22 enrolled for bus passes. 250 people with disabilities enrolled in health insurance. New DPOs were created by CVA groups. National findings on needs of persons with disabilities were published and disseminated. | | Kenya | In Kiambogoko, the sub county administrator pledged to reserve 5% of all jobs for qualified PWDs. In Osiligi, administrators reserved market stalls for PWDs and included accessibility in infrastructure budgets. Ramps and accessible toilets were constructed in schools, medical facilities, and government offices including Nakuru County Hospital, Chiefs’ offices in Kiambogoko, Osiligi, and Katito, Olepolos Primary School, and A.I.C. Birsil Health Centers. | | Nicaragua | Wheelchair ramps built at public institutions and in public parks. Anti-bullying campaign held in 26 schools. 410 health workers, mayoral representatives, municipal court authorities, education officials, and academics trained in disability inclusion. Ministry of Education committed to training 500 teachers in disability inclusion. | | Romania | Local authorities built 24 ramps and access routes to make beneficiaries’ homes accessible, made one bathroom and one public recreational area accessible, facilitated transport to specialized medical services, and protected clients’ legal rights. Communities demonstrated a more positive attitude to persons with disabilities and wheelchair users increased their social interactions. | Annex 1 | Pointers for facilitators of focus groups/group interviews to include children and adults with disabilities Facilitators are key to enabling a safe, friendly and inclusive environment for focus group/group interviews and meetings. However, not all facilitators are trained or confident in dealing with participants with disabilities. This supplementary guidance may be helpful in building facilitators’ confidence to turn the workshop into a more meaningful learning experience for everyone. BEFORE THE WORKSHOP - Provide participants with a list of accommodations that can be made available and ask them to identify which they might require. These could include: sign language interpretation, wheelchair accessible venue and toilets, adapted transport, captioning, enlarged text on printed material, electronic versions of materials to support screen readers, being accompanied by an aide or family member, allergy free food; vegan/vegetarian diet; fasting diet etc. This could be accompanied by a prior assessment of participants (see below). 1. Do you have difficulty seeing, even if wearing glasses? 2. Do you have difficulty hearing, even if using a hearing aid? 3. Do you have difficulty walking or climbing steps? 4. Do you have difficulty remembering or concentrating? 5. Do you have difficulty (with self-care such as) washing all over or dressing? 6. Using your usual (customary) language, do you have difficulty communicating, for example understanding or being understood? Response category: a. No – no difficulty b. Yes – some difficulty c. Yes – a lot of difficulty d. Cannot do at all - Do a prior assessment of participants to determine their unique needs including those with disability. Below is a simple checklist of what could be considered in the pre-workshop participant assessment (Adapted from Light for the World, 2017): - Determine what are the most important difficulties that people encounter? (The Washington Group Short Set of questions below may be helpful) - What are people able to do, what not? - Discussions with staff (individuals/groups, all levels) and other people who have engaged in similar workshops - Learning/evaluation reports from previous trainings/workshops - Observation of people (individuals/groups, all levels), and of their situation • Adjust the pace, length/duration of the workshop. Ensure there are regular breaks. • It is important that people who are less literate or those with mild to moderate intellectual impairments can catch up with the sessions. The key is using simple language, short messages, repetition and visual aids. o Make reasonable accommodations (arrange sign language interpreter, easy read/big print materials, audio, pictures, role play, etc.) to increase ease of learning for participants with different abilities. An accompanying person may be needed to assist a participant with disability. o Plan for a suitable venue that is accessible to participants, including travel arrangements and support. Appropriate signages, lighting, seating and room layout are also important to consider. o Commission DPOs (Disabled persons’ organisation) as a resource/trainer if possible as they will ensure the workshops are more accessible for all participants DURING THE WORKSHOP • Establish ground rules among participants to ensure participation is meaningful, inclusive, safe and fun • Ensure that persons who are blind or have visual impairment receive a tour of the venue • Reserve seats for persons with reduced mobility closer to doors and those with hearing and visual impairments closer to the facilitators • Build the confidence of participants • Be aware of non-verbal cues. This is very important especially when working cross culturally since gestures and expressions can be understood differently. • Use appropriate ways of getting feedback during the activity – graffiti walls (where people can write their comments), parking lot (for people to place sticky notes), ‘moodometer’ (using emojis to express how they feel), blogs, journals • Conduct quick post-session debriefs with participants to monitor and solicit feedback to improve sessions. Coaching participants with disabilities Participants with disability may require extra support as they learn from the sessions. If you are unsure about how you can support someone, speak to them informally at the end of the first session and ask them if there’s anything that you can do to improve their learning or participation. Each person has their own specific needs. Below are some tips for communicating with persons with different impairments. Communicating with persons with different impairment (Adapted from Bridging the Gap: Inclusive and Accessible Communication Guidelines 2018) Persons who are deaf or hard of hearing o To get the attention of a person, wave your hand or tap on the person’s shoulder lightly when culturally appropriate. o Follow the person’s cues to find out if she/he prefers sign language, gesturing, writing or speaking. Look directly at the person and speak clearly, slowly and expressively without overreacting/overemoting to establish if the person can read your lips Speak in a normal tone of voice Keep your hands and food away from your mouth when speaking Try to eliminate background noise Use written notes to facilitate communication if the person is literate Encourage feedback to assess clear understanding. If you have trouble understanding the speech of a person who is deaf or hard of hearing, let her/him know politely Learn some basic signs yourself and encourage the group to practice them and use for direct communication with participant) Persons who are blind or partially sighted / with visual impairment Always identify yourself and others who may be with you. When conversing in a group, remember to say the name of the person to whom you are speaking to give vocal cues Speak in a normal tone of voice Indicate when you move from one place to another and if you leave or return to a room. Let the person know when the conversation is at an end When you offer to assist someone with a vision loss, allow the person to take your arm to better guide this person When directing, use specifics such as “left at 2 meters” or “take three steps to your right” When offering seating, place the person’s hand on the back or arm of the seat Read anything that is written, this will also help those participants who are not literate Persons with speech impairment Give whole, unhurried attention when talking to a person who has difficulty speaking Allow extra time for communication rather than correcting. Be patient, do not speak for the person If necessary, ask short questions that require short answers or a nod or shake of the head Keep your manner encouraging Persons with intellectual disabilities Take the time necessary to ensure clear understanding and give time to put the thoughts into words, especially when responding to a question Formulate simple sentences and repeat as necessary Use precise language incorporating simple words. Avoid the use of directional terms like right-left, east-west, etc. Use pictures and visuals When asking questions, phrase them to get accurate information. Verify responses by repeating each question in a different way Give exact instructions: for example, “Be back from lunch at 12:30,” not “Be back in 30 minutes” Do not give too many directions at one time Persons with reduced mobility/wheelchair users Talk directly to the person and try to be at his/her eye level, but do not kneel. If you must stand, step back slightly so the person doesn’t have to strain his/her neck to see you. When giving directions to people with mobility limitations, consider distance, weather conditions and physical obstacles such as stairs, steep hills, road condition Always ask before you move a person in a wheelchair If a person transfers from a wheelchair to a vehicle, toilet, etc., leave the wheelchair within easy reach. Always make sure that a chair is locked before helping a person transfer. AFTER THE WORKSHOP As you finish the workshop, remember to appreciate everyone’s participation and contribution. Seeking their feedback on the overall aspects of the workshop will also help to improve future sessions. - Conduct a post-workshop evaluation, including questions about the ease of participation for persons with disability - Consider working with organizations (e.g., DPOs) with specific skills on working with people with disability in future activities Annex 2 | Suggested activity to challenge negative attitudes Research\(^3\) suggests that it is hard to completely change negative attitudes toward disability in just one intervention as they stem from different sources. These negative attitudes vary according to context and are generally less severe towards persons with minor or moderate impairments and include: - A belief that a disability results from sin by the parent or the individual and that persons with disability are dangerous - Inherent discrimination towards minority groups - Socio-cultural norms that say that people need to be physically “whole” and value wealth and status (which are often unattainable for persons with disability) - A conflict or uncomfortable situation resulting from the person’s inaccurate expectations of persons with disability (they will be passive, because they can’t do one thing (hear, see) they must be stupid and can’t do anything, they shouldn’t have sexual relationships or get married, they shouldn’t have opinions) and the reaction of the person with disability to that expectation. This conflict may lead to a person seeing persons with disability as ungrateful or aggressive. - Being revolted or shocked by the disability – an amputation, skin condition or difference in body from the ‘norm’ - Fears around an individual’s mortality and health that may stem from being around someone with a disability We therefore recommend a combination of interventions to address attitudes: I. Behaviour change messaging – by informing and persuading a. **Inform** – provide information about persons with disabilities, that they have rights as outlined in your country’s legislation - to go to school, access services, get married; and about the different causes of disability to clarify that sin is not a cause. b. **Persuade** – persuade people to see that persons with disability are persons that have rights and are valuable members of the community. It is helpful here to include passages from religious texts that provide a positive view of persons with disability and to help people to understand the barriers towards persons with disability. A great tool for identifying barriers are the Wall and Game of Life\(^4\) activities that are part of WV’s Travelling Together – a one-day training on disability issues. The games are attached at the end of this document. Ideally, messaging should be developed based on barrier analysis.\(^5\) --- \(^3\)https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232586909_Societal_attitudes_toward_disability_Concepts_measurements_and_interventions \(^4\)https://www.wvi.org/disability-inclusion/publication/travelling-together \(^5\)https://coregroup.org/resource-library/a-practical-guide-to-conducting-a-barrier-analysis/ 2. Facilitate Contact in a meal or collective task such as the CVA process of developing joint plans – bringing persons without disability who have received behaviour change messaging together with persons with disability. Research has shown that this is easier when: a. The persons with disability have a higher status, potentially resulting from the research they have conducted as part of the CVA process b. The activity is facilitated by World Vision or other respected group, such as within a CVA training program c. The activity is voluntary, enjoyable, and benefits everyone Annex 3 | Suggested indicators The following indicators could be monitored in either integrated or standalone disability and CVA programs. Indicators will need to vary depending on the rights and services for each country. All existing CVA indicators can be assessed by persons with disability and compared to other groups to identify differences in access to services and outcomes of services. To identify the numbers of persons with disability accurately, the Washington Group short set of questions\(^6\) should be used for adults, these are: 1. Do you have difficulty seeing, even if wearing glasses? a. No - no difficulty b. Yes – some difficulty c. Yes – a lot of difficulty d. Cannot do at all 2. Do you have difficulty hearing, even if using a hearing aid? a. No- no difficulty b. Yes – some difficulty c. Yes – a lot of difficulty d. Cannot do at all 3. Do you have difficulty walking or climbing steps? a. No- no difficulty b. Yes – some difficulty c. Yes – a lot of difficulty d. Cannot do at all 4. Do you have difficulty remembering or concentrating? a. No – no difficulty b. Yes – some difficulty c. Yes – a lot of difficulty d. Cannot do at all 5. Do you have difficulty (with self-care such as) washing all over or dressing? a. No – no difficulty b. Yes – some difficulty c. Yes – a lot of difficulty d. Cannot do at all 6. Using your usual (customary) language, do you have difficulty communicating, for example understanding or being understood? a. No – no difficulty b. Yes – some difficulty c. Yes – a lot of difficulty d. Cannot do at all For children, the UNICEF/Washington Group Measurement of Child Functioning module\(^7\) should be used. Indicative Indicators are outlined by sector. **Education** - # or % of children with disabilities attending school - # teachers trained in special education or to support inclusive education - # schools with wheelchair accessible latrines - Blind children can learn braille in the school and access braille learning materials - Deaf children can learn sign language and can receive instruction in sign language in school - Parents of children with disabilities participate in parent teacher association meetings - Schools or communities provide unpaid additional support for learners who need it **Health** - Availability of rehabilitation services – physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy --- \(^6\) http://www.washingtongroup-disability.com/washington-group-question-sets/short-set-of-disability-questions/ \(^7\) https://data.unicef.org/resources/module-child-functioning/ • Availability of assistive devices – wheelchairs, hearing aids, glasses, crutches and others • Health information is accessible to the blind and visually impaired, the deaf and hearing impaired and in simple language for persons with intellectual impairments • General health services including reproductive health services are available to persons with disability **Child protection** • Mechanisms are in place to identify children with disabilities who are vulnerable • Mechanisms are in place to refer children with disabilities to service providers that can meet their needs **Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene** • Latrines are accessible to wheelchair users • Water access points are accessible to wheelchair users • Provision is made so families of persons with disabilities can access water
ac7fce51-477f-4a45-9dae-8d9100f66908
CC-MAIN-2023-40
https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/2022-11/Citizen%20Voice%20and%20Action%20for%20Disability%20-%20Practice%20Notes.pdf
2023-09-26T03:05:55+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510130.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20230926011608-20230926041608-00506.warc.gz
1,176,648,910
5,822
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.971233
eng_Latn
0.995247
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 55, 1056, 4015, 7010, 9837, 12798, 15031, 17367, 20080, 23113, 23584, 26348, 26934, 29502, 30308 ]
[ 1.7265625, 3.6875 ]
1
0
Identity theft is big business! Personal and financial data stolen online is sold in the underground economy, and is misused by criminal organisations all over the world. Protecting your data doesn’t just save you the inconvenience of having to change your passwords and credit cards, by making it more difficult for criminals to obtain your details you can help in the fight against organized crime and terrorism. **DOS** - **BE AWARE.** Treat unsolicited emails or pages asking for personal information with suspicion, particularly those claiming to be from banks and credit card companies. A quick web search can tell you if the email you’ve received is a known scam. Remember that you can always check with your bank or credit card company if the email you received is really from them. - **UPDATE YOUR SOFTWARE REGULARLY.** Many malware infections are the result of criminals exploiting bugs in software (web browsers, operating systems, common tools, etc.). Keeping these up to date can help to keep you safe. - **USE ANTI-VIRUS SOFTWARE.** Anti-virus (AV) software can help keep your computer free of the most common malware. You can easily find many free options of such software. Always check downloaded files with AV software. Do not install programs or applications on your computer if you don’t know where they have come from. - **RESTRICT ACCESS TO YOUR PERSONAL DETAILS ON SOCIAL MEDIA.** The more information criminals have access to, the more effectively they can target you. Limiting the amount you share and with whom makes their job harder. - **ALWAYS USE STRONG PASSWORDS.** Computers can crack most common passwords very quickly. Make sure that your password is strong - above 8 characters and using numbers, letters and symbols can help. - **REPORT IT.** If you are a victim of ID theft, report it immediately to your local police and the company affected (bank, online service, etc.). Law enforcement agencies throughout the EU and around the world work together to disrupt the activities of identity fraudsters and bring scammers to justice. The more information you give to the authorities, the more effectively they can target the most dangerous criminal organisations. **DON’TS** - **CLICK ON ATTACHMENTS AND LINKS WITHOUT KNOWING THEIR TRUE ORIGIN.** What looks like a harmless video or image can actually be malicious software designed to steal your data. Even opening a spam email can put your address on a spammer’s future hit list. - **GIVE AWAY MORE INFORMATION THAN NECESSARY.** Your bank and credit card provider already know your PIN number and address. They don’t need you to tell them via email, phone or a web page. - **ACCESS ONLINE BANKING FROM SHARED OR PUBLIC COMPUTERS.** You never know what might be lurking on their hard drives. - **SHARE PASSWORDS, EMAIL ACCOUNTS, OR ANY OTHER ONLINE PERSONAL DATA WITH OTHER PEOPLE.** It’s so much harder to protect when more than one person has access. - **SAVE CREDENTIALS IN BROWSERS.** Would you store your password on a sticky note? Saving them in a browser is just as dangerous. - **TAKE ANYTHING FOR GRANTED.** If an offer in an email or on social media sounds too good to be true, it probably is. It’s also really easy for criminals to fake company logos and the identity of senders.
7b2a2824-e656-45dc-a387-32a38c204b5e
CC-MAIN-2021-10
https://www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/infographic_-_id_theft_0.pdf
2021-02-25T16:17:14+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178351374.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20210225153633-20210225183633-00171.warc.gz
785,713,107
688
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998451
eng_Latn
0.998451
[ "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3287 ]
[ 2.15625 ]
1
0
Olympus Mons is the largest volcano discovered so far in our solar system. It is 26 kilometers (16 miles) tall and measures 600 kilometers (370 miles) in diameter — five times larger than Mauna Loa, the largest volcano on Earth. Olympus Mons appears to be inactive. A mixture of glowing hot rock, already cooled rock ash, and water vapor rises high up into the atmosphere. The eruption cloud can be many kilometers high. Erupted open by the volcano’s eruption, the crater is where the rising magma and gases spew out of the volcano. After the eruption, the lava cools down and seals the volcanic vent, often leaving a bowl-shaped depression. Powdery ash and small fragments of rock and volcanic glass are propelled many kilometers into the air raining down around the volcano. The smallest particles can be carried around the entire planet! Magma that exits the volcano is called lava. This viscous molten rock flows down the sides of the volcano. Magma and gases rise through the volcanic conduit, or pipe, up to the vent. Some volcanoes also have side vents branching off from the main conduit. Many animals have a built-in early warning sense and flee before a volcanic eruption has even occurred. During each eruption, lava flows out of the volcano, cools down, and ash falls and settles on the ground. In this way, the volcanic mountain builds up layer by layer, eruption after eruption. The magma chamber is kilometers below the surface. Molten rock and volcanic gases build up here over time. When it gets too full and the pressure gets too great, its contents rise up through the volcanic conduit. Earth's crust 0–35 km (0–22 mi) Upper mantle 35–410 km (22–410 mi) Transition zone 410–660 km (250–410 mi) Lower mantle 660–2,900 km (410–1,800 mi) Outer core 2,900–5,100 km (1,800–3,200 mi) Inner core 5,100–6,371 km (3,200–3,958 mi) **Massive Erupting Volcano** Instructions for building, painting, and erupting --- **WARNING** — Not suitable for children under 8 years. For use under adult supervision. Contains some chemicals which present a hazard to health. Read the instructions before use, follow them and keep them for reference. Do not allow chemicals to come into contact with any part of the body, particularly the mouth and eyes. Keep small children and animals away from experiments. Keep the experimental set out of reach of children under 8 years old. --- **CHECK IT OUT** **Keyword: Lava** There are volcanoes all around the world. Mostly they look like big, harmless mountains. But when a volcano erupts, that’s when we get a better idea of what is happening inside. Underneath the earth below the surface, there is molten rock, called magma. As the magma rises up through the ground, it explodes, unbearably hot lava flows out of the mountain. Some volcanoes even explode and spew lava and rocks (called volcanic bombs) far and wide. Mere minutes after a particularly big eruption occurs, the living things around the volcano are destroyed by the heat and ash. What remains behind is a huge, destructive natural phenomenon, on the other hand enables new life: new plants grow on the scorched earth over time and animals repopulate the area. It is quite possible that without these eruptions, the different environments such as volcanic eruptions resulted in life being regenerated again and again. The molten rock that is found in Earth’s interior is called magma. As soon as it reaches the surface and flows out of the volcano, it is called lava. At Earth’s surface, the lava cools down and becomes solid rock again. A large portion of Earth’s surface consists of lava. The lava is formed during an eruption or lava flow. Lava erupts from the thick crust and could even be molten like clay – if it wasn’t so incredibly hot (between 500 °C and 1300 °C). --- **Types of Volcanoes** The cinder cone volcano can be identified by the fact that it is often surrounded by a few hundred meters. To form these beautiful cones, a few hundred meters. To form these beautiful cones, lava is hurled into the air and lands on the ground around the volcanic vent and builds up. The composite volcano (or stratovolcano) consists of alternating layers of cooled lava and volcanic ash, which form a cone-shaped shape of the stratovolcanic topography. Some of these are among the highest mountains in the world. The shield volcano is flat and wide; like a warrior’s shield lying on the ground. It is often very large and has flowing lava streams spreading out over a large area. Some of the largest volcanoes in the world are shield volcanoes. The lava dome is a steep mountain created by very viscous lava, which oozes down the mountain and spreads around the mountain. It looks a bit like a cake, often making the next eruption even more dangerous. --- **Dear parents and adults,** This is a follow-up to your child’s experience a volcano eruption on class and safety. Please supervise and assist your child when he or she is experimenting. Before starting the experiment, read the instructions together and follow all of the steps. Your child should work carefully and slowly. Pay particular attention to the following safety precautions: - Read and follow these instructions, the safety rules and the first aid information, and keep them for reference. - The incorrect use of chemicals can cause injury and damage to health. Only follow those experiments which are listed in this manual! - This experimental set is not for use only by children over 8 years. For use under adult supervision. Keep the experimental set out of reach of children under 8 years old. - Because children’s abilities vary so much, within age groups, and because children have a wide variety of interests, abilities and experiences, you should supervise your child at all times when he or she is performing experiments. You should consider whether your child is ready for a particular experiment and use your own discretion in evaluating whether your child is ready. In some cases, it may be advisable to consult additional sources of information. - The supervising adult should discuss the warnings and safety information with the child before beginning the experiment. - The area surrounding the experimental setup should be kept clear of any obstructions and away from the reach of children. - All chemicals should be clearly labeled. Avoid cross-contamination of chemicals. - Substances in non-resealable packaging (chemical pocketbox) should be used up completely during the course of one experiment, i.e. after opening the package. --- **ADVICE FOR SUPERVISING ADULTS** - Read these instructions before use, follow them and keep them for reference. Please read the warnings and the sequence of the experiments. Only carry out the experiments described. - Keep young children and animals away from the experimental area. - Ensure that all empty containers and non-resealable packaging (chemical pocketbox) are disposed of properly. - Wash hands after carrying out experiments. Clean your work area. Do not use any equipment which has not been supplied with the set or recommended in the instructions for use. - Do not eat or drink in the experimental area. - Do not allow chemicals to come into contact with the eyes or mouth. In case of accidental contact with chemicals, rinse immediately under running water. --- **INFORMATION ON HANDLING CHEMICALS** **WARNING!** The following applies to all chemicals: Store locked up. Keep out of reach of children. This primarily applies to young children, but also to older children who — unlike the experimenter — have not been appropriately instructed by adults. Also follow this precautionary statement: IF SWALLOWED: Get immediate medical advice/attention. Read product container or label for chemical substance at hand. **Safety tips for handling plaster (from the plaster bandages):** - Do not place the plaster in the mouth. - Do not inhale dust or powder. - Do not apply to the body. Avoid the formation of dust by carefully cutting the plaster bandages. When building the volcano, quickly place the plaster bandages on the volcano and then wash your hands thoroughly. **Waste disposal:** You can pour the residues of the chemicals used into the sink with plenty of water and rinse well afterwards. Use leftovers, such as plaster cushions, plaster bandages, and plaster strips, to create a decorative volcano decoration. You can wipe up spills with paper towels and dispose of them in the household waste. Pour the colored water carefully down the drain; it could stain the sink. --- **BUILDING THE VOLCANO** **You will need** - Cardboard volcano frame pieces - Plaster bandages - Dark gray and orange paint - This kit’s box - Paint brush - Large shallow bowl - Scissors - Tablespoon - Water - Newspaper **Here’s how** 1. Decide on a shape for your volcano. If you leave the cardboard frame pieces as they are, you will build a wider, more dome-like volcano. For a narrower volcano with conical sides, cut off part of the frame pieces (shaded in the illustration) along the perforated line and use the remaining pieces. 2. Insert the 12 long, matching frame pieces into the way notches in the round center piece, as shown. Glue the frame pieces horizontally and the side pieces vertically. Once you have inserted all 12 vertical pieces, your volcano frame is ready. 3. Cover your work area with newspaper and place the volcano frame on it. Now you must cut the plaster bandages into strips. The individual pieces should be long enough to stretch around the entire volcano. Cut the frame pieces longer — longer at the bottom and shorter at the top. Put some strips aside — you will need them for the volcanic bombs (rocks ejected from the volcano). 4. Fill a large shallow bowl with water. Dip a plaster bandage stripe into the water so that it gets completely wet. Remove it and let it drip off briefly. Note: Refill the bowl whenever necessary, the plaster bandages absorb a lot of water. 5. Place the moist plaster strip on the volcano frame and smooth it down so that the pores (the small holes in the plaster bandage close). Make sure that the plaster bandage does not hang between the edges of the volcano. It should be stretched tightly over the cardboard frame. 6. Distribute the wet plaster strips evenly over the entire volcano frame. This works best if two plaster strip-wrappers work together, one lies above halfway. They should not overlap more than halfway, so that the plaster bandages included are sufficient to cover the entire volcano. Do not forget to cut the top of the volcano! Let the volcano dry overnight. 7. Now it’s time to paint your volcano. Start with the dark gray paint. Add a tablespoon of water to the paint and stir it carefully with a brush. By adding water, you dilute the paint so that it is easier to paint the entire volcano. 8. Cover the volcano with the diluted dark gray paint. Apply the paint so that it is darker in some places and lighter in others, creating a real stone look. Keep some of the dark gray paint you will need it for step 10. 9. Mix the orange paint with a little water. This will allow it to flow onto the volcano better. Dip the brush into the paint and press it to the top of the volcano. Repeat this procedure until enough paint has come off the brush and dripped down the volcano. Paint in the same way around the top of the volcano. 10. Instead of orange, use dark gray paint in between. The dark gray paint covering the orange paint gives the illusion of cooling lava. Once the finished painting the volcano, let the paint dry. 11. This volcano is a prehistoric wonder! On the bottom side of the box, write the volcano’s name. You will find the volcano name and plant name a gray background. Cut the gray areas out of the sides of the box, making sure that the bottom edge remains intact. 12. Now cut out the figures and trees from the box, following the dotted line and stick them together. Arrange the dinosaurs, plants, and volcanic bombs around your volcano before its first eruption. --- **PRACTICAL TIPS FOR THE VOLCANIC ERUPTION** Set up your work area in an out-of-the-way spot. The room should be inaccessible to small children and animals. The kitchen is a suitable place for experimentation. There is too great a risk of chemicals being confused with food. Work on a surface that can get a little messy, for example a wipeable table. Cover the table with newspaper. If you are using a kitchen, be careful that the table can fall off during the construction of the volcano. Put on old clothes and make sure that there are no delicate objects nearby, such as carpets, rugs, curtains, and so on. The dyed plaster is porous and can contain stains that are hard to clean. Choose a surface for the finished volcano, that is accessible to small children and animals, because chemical residues remain on the volcano. You can use newspapers or a large garbage bag underneath it, as some pieces may come loose during the eruption. Open the chemical packets at one corner using scissors. Never use your teeth. The label should remain legible. For additional volcano eruptions, ask your parents or other adults for baking soda and flour. Store them in separate, designated containers with these substances before experimenting with them. Do not return foodstuffs to their original containers. Dispose of them immediately (in household waste or drain). --- **FIRST AID INFORMATION** - **In case of eye contact:** Wash out eye with plenty of water, holding eye open. Seek immediate medical advice. - **In swallowed:** Rinse mouth with water, drink some fresh water. Do not induce vomiting. Seek immediate medical advice. - **In case of inhalation:** Remove person to fresh air. - **In case of skin contact and burn:** Wash affected area with plenty of water for at least 10 minutes. - **In case of ingestion:** Call a local advice without delay. Take the chemical and/or product together with the container with you. In case of any difficulties, take the retail packaging with you. - **In case of injury always seek medical advice.** --- **SAFETY RULES** - Read these instructions before use, follow them and keep them for reference. Please read the warnings and the sequence of the experiments. Only carry out the experiments described. - Keep young children and animals away from the experimental area. - Ensure that all empty containers and non-resealable packaging (chemical pocketbox) are disposed of properly. - Wash hands after carrying out experiments. Clean your work area. Do not use any equipment which has not been supplied with the set or recommended in the instructions for use. - Do not eat or drink in the experimental area. - Do not allow chemicals to come into contact with the eyes or mouth. In case of accidental contact with chemicals, rinse immediately under running water. --- **WHERE CAN VOLCANOES BE FOUND?** Volcanoes are found all over the world, but as you can see on the map (red marking), they are more common in some parts of the world. To understand why this is so, it is best to remember what a volcano is: a hole in Earth’s crust through which the magma in Earth’s interior can escape. Earth’s crust, however, is not like a continuous blanket that wraps itself entirely around the planet, but rather consists of seven major tectonic plates and about 50 minor plates. A tectonic plate usually consists of solid land and the surrounding sea bed. These plates do not lie there static and uniform. If you look at the big picture, humans are just tiny creatures that are curling around on gigantic tectonic plates over a very hot ball of molten rock. The tectonic plates are solid, but the layers of rock below them are many hundreds of degrees in temperature and thus they are fluid. The slabs of crust float on the hot rock, and when their edges meet, earthquakes and volcanoes are pushed upward. But normally, this movement of the plates is so small that we cannot feel it. Because Earth’s crust is constantly moving, it has many cracks and crevices through which the magma can rise and form volcanoes. Some locations are known as “hot spots.” This means that there is a magma bubble under a plate. Over millions of years, the plate moves over this hot spot, creating one volcano after another — like a string of pearls. --- **VESUVIUS** One of the most famous volcanoes in the world, in 79 A.D. Vesuvius buried the city of Pompeii, Italy under ashes and lava. In addition, a widespread shock wave raced over the surrounding area, destroying people and the environment. The victims of the city of Pompeii are still there today — some are still there as they were when the volcano erupted. A volcano is only considered extinct if it has not erupted for about 10,000 years! --- **PREHISTORIC PLANTS** The dinosaurs are extinct, but here are many plants that are very closely related to those that grew on Earth in the days of the dinosaurs. These plants sprouted from conifers and ferns, followed shortly afterwards by palms and figs. Today, many of the original plant species have been found, some of which are very well preserved. --- **ETNA** Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world today. It is located in the U.S. state of Washington. It is not only an eruption from Earth’s surface, gas builds up in the magma chamber and is released through openings like volcanoes, otherwise known as pressure is created inside the planet and it bursts out. Etna is the volcano that keeps this phenomenon at home. If you shake a bottle of soda, the heady and then unscrew the lid, the gas escapes explosively. --- **DILOPHOSAURUS** Movement: on two feet Diet: meat Height: 3.5 meters (9 feet) Length: 6 meters (20 feet) Weight: 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds) Dilophosaurus lived in the Jurassic period, about 195 million years ago. What is particularly striking is the double comb on its skull, which could have had a defensive function, a display function, or means of communication for mating rituals. Fossils of this dinosaur have been found in the deserts of Argentina in northern Italy suggest that it also lived in Europe. --- **MASS EXTINCTION** The reason dinosaurs became extinct is still not completely clear today, but it is certain that many dinosaurs and a good three-quarters of all animal species disappeared about 66 million years ago. The outer space, struck Earth. However, volcanic activity has also been proposed to be involved in the extinction of the dinosaurs. This theory is based on the fact that threatened not only the living beings in the vicinity of the volcano, but also changed the climate worldwide. The extreme changes in temperature coincided with many fossil discoveries. The dinosaurs could no longer adapt to the climate, especially when the high temperatures were followed by a sudden, much colder period.
c3617f62-f33c-4802-aa5b-82eefb1f2f73
CC-MAIN-2021-49
https://www.thamesandkosmos.com/manuals/full/642116_MassiveEruptingVolcano_Poster.pdf
2021-12-02T07:25:21+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964361169.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20211202054457-20211202084457-00545.warc.gz
1,061,740,341
3,994
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997168
eng_Latn
0.998716
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1848, 18869 ]
[ 4.125 ]
1
0
The Lonely Dog Facilitation Guide The Lonely Dog - a Forever Forward Project LLC Production Written and Directed by Jacob Seltzer Produced by Kathleen Sheridan Russell Starring Brady Gentry as Connor Facilitation Guide created by the University of Virginia’s Gordie Center with assistance from Kathleen Sheridan Russell. # TABLE OF CONTENTS - Alasdair's Story ................................................................. 2 - Before You Press Play ......................................................... 3 - Guide: Hour-Long Presentation ........................................... 4 - Tips for Promoting Discussion ............................................. 5 - Discussion Questions ......................................................... 6-13 - Introductory Discussion Questions (select 1 or 2) .................. 6 - Hazing Discussion Questions (select 3) ............................... 7-8 - Alcohol Discussion Question (select 1) ............................... 9 - Bystander Engagement Discussion Questions (select 2) .......... 10-11 - Changing Hazing Cultures Discussion Questions (select 3) .... 11-13 - Hazing Teaching Points ...................................................... 14 - Alcohol Teaching Points .................................................... 15-17 - Bystander Engagement Teaching Points .............................. 18 - Film Credit List .................................................................. 19 Copyright © 2024 Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia and its Gordie Center. The content of this guide is the copyrighted work of the Gordie Center, and is restricted solely for use by facilitators of *The Lonely Dog* film. Any reproduction or redistribution of the guide for commercial or personal gain is prohibited. Copying or reproduction of the guide, in whole or in part, aside from the approved facilitation of *The Lonely Dog*, is prohibited without the written permission of the Gordie Center. When Alasdair patted his beloved dog Obi on the morning that he left for his freshman year at the University of Southern California (USC), no one would have guessed that would be the last time he rubbed his Golden Retriever’s tummy. Alasdair was a bright, charismatic, athletic freshman when he eagerly joined a fraternity at USC. But being a pledge was not what he expected. He spent countless hours engaged in demeaning pledge tasks such as unclogging toilets, doing laundry, and cleaning brothers’ rooms. He was sleep deprived, missed numerous classes, suffered academically, and went to basement lineups where pledges were ranked. Alasdair then sustained a severe head injury at a fraternity event that went unreported and untreated. This led to his tragic and untimely death. The Lonely Dog is a 15-minute film inspired by Alasdair’s story and is intended to generate discussion about what constitutes hazing, why members feel so much pressure to participate, what makes it so difficult to challenge “tradition,” and how to take positive steps to make the pledging process a true bonding experience. Request the free viewing link here: www.gordie.org/form/the-lonely-dog. In the film, Connor and his roommate Roshan, two relatable and enthusiastic young men, excitedly join a fraternity with high hopes and expectations. In the beginning, they laugh and joke about the activities they are expected to participate in but over time, the constant chores and tasks start to take a toll on them mentally, academically, physically, and ultimately, tragically. The events shown in this film reflect activities expected of members of many types of student organizations, ranging from fraternities and sororities to athletics teams to marching bands and other organizations. New members nationwide feel obligated to engage in these demeaning acts as the price they have to pay for membership. By showing relatable, realistic characters, the film drives home the message that hazing can happen to anyone, and hazing has consequences. BEFORE YOU PRESS PLAY - Request the free link to view/show the film here: www.gordie.org/form/the-lonely-dog. - Watch *The Lonely Dog* before showing it to your audience and review the background information on page 2. - For virtual showings: prepare interactive components using an anonymous online audience response platform (e.g., Mentimeter). - Review the discussion questions in this guide to help you feel more confident in leading a discussion. Pre-select questions based on your audience. In an hour-long presentation, you will not be able to discuss all the questions if your audience is engaged. - Think about how you will lead the discussion after the film. Options include: - Conduct open discussion with the entire audience, using your chosen prompt questions. - Break the audience into small groups for discussion, using your prompt questions, and report back to the larger group. - Use an online audience response platform (e.g., Mentimeter) to poll the audience. The software aggregates responses anonymously and displays a summary onscreen. This serves as a prompt for further open discussion and is ideal for virtual screenings. - Prepare any supplemental materials for your presentation, such as school/community resources for support after viewing the film. GUIDE: HOUR-LONG PRESENTATION 1. Introduce yourself and the purpose of this presentation. (1 minute) - “We are watching the film *The Lonely Dog* today and discussing hazing and its consequences.” 2. Introduce the film, emphasizing that some scenes may be disturbing to audience members: (2 minutes) - “The film is inspired by true events and includes degrading and dangerous acts, including overconsumption of alcohol and bodily harm.” - “If at any point in the program, you need to take a break/step out, please do so. We’re happy to talk with you privately at the end of the program.” - “The film focuses on fraternities and is just one person’s story. Hazing can occur in many organizations, such as athletic teams, bands, student groups, and workplaces — anywhere a hierarchy is present.” - “What questions do you have before I play the film?” 3. Show *The Lonely Dog*. (15 minutes) 4. Lead a discussion using the prompt questions in this guide. (30 - 40 minutes) 5. Wrap up. (2 minutes) - End on a positive note: “I hope that the film and our discussion will spark further conversations on how to look out for each other and prevent a similar tragedy.” - Direct audience members to resources at your school or campus and within your community. Hand out any support/educational materials. TIPS FOR PROMOTING DISCUSSION PROMOTING DISCUSSION - **Anonymous audience feedback tools.** Use anonymous interactive software tools (e.g., Mentimeter, Poll Everywhere, etc.) that provide real-time audiences responses to gain greater engagement. Audience members can participate from their phones and you can set responses to display word clouds, charts, and scroll through open-ended responses. These platforms work well for in-person and virtual programs. - **Virtual presentation break out rooms.** Participants may be more willing to discuss the film in a small group first, followed by large group discussion. - **Virtual presentation polling.** Anonymous polls can gather quick responses to close-ended questions and are available in most virtual platforms. - **Virtual presentation chat.** Encourage individuals to use the chat if they do not wish to share their ideas vocally. HELPFUL HINTS - **Set a positive tone.** Your response to the first answers can set the tone for the rest of the conversation. Vocalize potential responses to prompt answers if there is lack of participation (“Some people might think…”). - **Thank people for their participation.** Use verbal and non-verbal cues, like eye contact, nodding, and repeating questions and responses. This encourages continual sharing, especially for the more difficult questions. - **Affirm** the barriers to intervention and changing culture. - **Know available resources on campus and in your community.** Consider contacting potential resource centers in advance to learn more about what types of services and support they can provide. INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS (SELECT 1 OR 2) Option 1: In one or two words, what is your reaction to the film? - Potential responses: Emotional, sad, scary, heartbreaking, preventable, tragic. - Discussion point: Students can identify how easily the situation got out of control with a terrible outcome when no one deliberately wanted to hurt Connor, they just didn’t think about or understand the possible consequences of their actions. Option 2: What struck you most in this film? - Potential responses: How much the guys had to endure. How they wanted to leave, but didn’t feel like they could. You could predict something bad was going to happen. - Discussion points: - The situation got way out of control with a terrible outcome when no one wanted to deliberately hurt Connor. - The current members didn’t think or understand the possible consequences of their actions. Option 3: Which character in the film did you most relate to? What about them made them relatable? - Potential responses: Connor, Roshan, the mom, the dog (Buddy). - Discussion points: - Both Connor and Roshan seem like typical college guys who were looking for a place to belong. They knew that their situation was becoming intolerable, but they didn’t know how to get out of it. - Students may empathize with Roshan and consider how devastated they would be if a friend was injured because they didn’t speak out. - Students may say they hadn’t considered how their death or a life-changing injury would impact their family or their pets. HAZING DISCUSSION QUESTIONS (SELECT 3) See hazing teaching points on page 15. Question 1: What in this film would you describe as “hazing”? - Potential responses: Forced activity (drinking too much, eating non-foods or spoiled foods), being forced to engage in embarrassing public activity like walking around campus in your underwear. - Discussion point: Hazing includes a spectrum of behaviors, from intimidation to harassment to violence. It’s much more than you may initially have thought. Question 2: The definition of hazing is “any activity expected of someone joining or participating in a group that humiliates, degrades, abuses, or endangers them, regardless of a person’s willingness to participate” (Allan & Madden, 2008). With this definition in mind, what other activities that you saw in the film would be considered hazing? - Potential responses: Sleep deprivation like staying up all night to watch the fire, demeaning activities, forced servitude such as having to clean gross bathrooms and do other people’s laundry, doing countless pushups, or encouraging students to miss class to engage in the group’s activities. - Discussion points: - Other forms of hazing that are not depicted in the film include scavenger hunts where trespassing is required, embarrassing costumes, degrading skit nights, or carrying “pledge packs” with random and sometimes illegal items that must be shown to current members at any time. - Hazing activities often develop and perpetuate because the planners don’t think about the hidden harms inherent in some activities. Some of these activities might seem harmless, but could cause emotional harm for some people, especially when experienced over time. Question 3: Why do you think Connor felt so much pressure to engage in all the activities? Why do you think that he didn’t quit? - **Potential responses:** He had put too much time in already. He was too invested in the group to quit. He wouldn’t be able to join another group. He knew they were almost done with the process. - **Discussion points:** - Hazing is about coercion and power dynamics. Members of any organization with a new member process feel like they don’t have the power to say no to the active members. - New members feel pressure to engage in servitude activities like doing laundry or washing dishes, which is a form of coercion that de-sensitizes them and can lead to more dangerous activities. - A student-athlete being hazed by their team may worry how they will pay for school if they leave the team and lose their scholarship. Question 1: Connor, Roshan, and the other pledges were very intoxicated. At what point should someone call 911 for a potential overdose? - **Potential responses:** Won’t wake up, blue skin, not breathing, etc. - **Discussion points:** - Review the PUBS Signs of Alcohol Overdose and show the Gordie Center’s [PUBS video](#) (1 minute). Alcohol overdose can have any of these four PUBS signs: **PUKING** while passed out **UNRESPONSIVE** to pinching or shaking **BREATHING** is noisy, slow, shallow, or has stopped **SKIN** is blue, cold, or clammy See even one? Save a life. Call 911! *UNSURE? Call Poison Center 1-800-222-1222* - For people with darker skin tones, check for pale/blue lips or nail beds. - While you’re waiting for help to arrive: - Stay and monitor closely. If the person has passed out, position them onto their left side and prop up their head. Never put a backpack on someone who has passed out. The [National Poison Center Hotline](#) provides free, confidential medical advice 24/7/365. BYSTANDER ENGAGEMENT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS (SELECT 2) See bystander engagement teaching points on page 19. Option 1: What are the barriers to intervention in a situation like Connor’s? • Potential responses: You don’t want the group to get in trouble, you don’t want to be a snitch, you’re afraid you’ll be punished by the group. • Discussion points: ◦ Conformity: If no one else seems to be concerned, it can be difficult to be the first person to bring attention to the problem. If other new members are hiding their distress to look “strong,” this can add social pressure to conform. If other new members are required to take on additional tasks when one member opts out, the pressure to conform increases. ◦ Obedience to authority: Group leaders may forbid new members from choosing not to drink or for not completing mindless tasks like tending the fire all night. Many students fear punishment as a result of going against group leaders. ◦ Ambiguity: If you’re not sure it’s really a problem, it’s hard to speak up. People are afraid of being wrong and it is often unclear if events have gone too far once you have been desensitized to abusive behavior. Option 2: What can groups do to create a culture where everyone looks out for each other? • Potential responses: Have sober monitors, reduce the number of potential problem events, focus on responsibility to make members’ experiences positive. • Discussion points: ◦ Leaders should discuss their expectations for membership, when to intervene, and how to get support when there is a problem. ◦ Discuss group expectations ahead of time around cutting off a drunk member or other behaviors that require intervention. This makes it easier to follow through in the moment. Some groups have a subtle system, like a shoulder tap. BYSTANDER ENGAGEMENT QUESTIONS CONTINUED Option 3: What can you do if you suspect a friend is being hazed? - Potential responses: Share why you’re worried about them, tell them it’s not ok to be treated that way, focus on what you’ve noticed about their physical or mental health. - Discussion points: - Encourage open conversation. - Remind the friend of your support. - Encourage them to reach out to parents and other friends. - Provide information about counseling and reporting resources on campus. - Continue to check back in with them. - Show the Gordie Center’s bystander intervention video. (1 minute) CHANGING HAZING CULTURES DISCUSSION QUESTIONS (SELECT 3) See hazing teaching points on page 15. Option 1: How do the issues raised in the film relate to your school's student culture? Alternate wording: How is this relevant to you and your friends? - Potential responses: Students may know someone who has been injured or hospitalized due to hazing or alcohol misuse, students may report being bothered by hazing but not knowing how to respond. - Discussion points: - About half of high school students experience hazing and over half of college students in student organizations have been hazed. It is all too common and not fully recognized until a tragedy occurs. - Students may be concerned about friends or their own mental health, but are not sure where to turn for help. Option 2: How could Connor’s tragic fall and aftermath have been prevented? - **Potential responses**: Not having alcohol be the center of activities, not having activities that involve sleep deprivation, have a sober monitor. - **Discussion points**: - Alcohol always adds risk to any activity. - The new members were sleep deprived and not able to make good decisions about how much to drink or to recognize how much balance was impaired. - There was no sober monitor to keep the guys from drinking too much or being injured. - The new members were de-sensitized to abuse from weeks of meaningless tasks. Option 3: How could you break a questionable, long-standing “tradition”? - **Potential responses**: Share your concerns with other members you trust, suggest other activities that could promote group bonding safely, discuss the potential negative impacts of the tradition and whether the tradition exemplifies group values. - **Discussion points**: - Do any of your group activities focus on shame, isolation, fear, secrecy, or create pressure to participate? Focus on the events with the greatest risk of harm first. Start conversations with those you think may also be concerned. There is strength in numbers. - It may be easier to convince the group to change an activity rather than to discontinue it. For example, tending the bonfire could be changed to an event on a weekend where a new member is paired with a current member and each shift is a shorter period of time. In the morning, the group celebrates 24 hours of tending the fire with breakfast. This change would create a safer environment to foster unity while still keeping important, recognizable elements from the original unsafe event. Option 4: What was your response when Elijah said to Connor that they could do the same thing to the next pledge class? - **Potential responses**: Disgust, sad, it’s tradition, some things are just hard to change, Elijah wanted the next group to prove themselves like he had to do. - **Discussion points**: - Some people rationalize the abuse of hazing by focusing on the positives of membership. - Some people are just glad to be on the other side and forget how bad it was during the process. - It’s a myth that hazing helps a group bond and forms unity. The research is clear that most people who were hazed did not find the activities to bring the group together and did not feel stronger. Option 5: Connor said that he didn’t want to “do this to other pledges.” What activities focused on healthy bonding would you want your group to do more of or start doing? - **Potential responses**: Events that don’t have alcohol, hiking, bowling, attending sports events together. - **Discussion points**: - A healthy organization does not subject their new members to demeaning activities. - Focus on activities that are fun, create belonging, show respect, and foster trust and honesty. - Consider activities for the entire group, not just new members: service projects, roadside cleanup, mentorship programs, athletic competitions within the group, cooking classes, learning a new sport, etc. Your school has resources through campus rec and student engagement/student activities offices. - Show the Gordie Center’s [planning meaningful new member programs video](#). (1 minute) HAZING TEACHING POINTS Hazing is not just physical abuse. Violent hazing is the most easily recognized form of hazing, but happens less frequently than intimidation hazing (i.e., social isolation, deception, demerits, etc.) and harassment hazing (i.e., verbal abuse, threats, sleep deprivation, etc.). All forms of hazing can result in Hidden Harm: the mental and emotional scars that result from being hazed and even from hazing others. Hazing can be the trigger that pushes someone past their breaking point regardless of whether they have an underlying mental disorder. You don’t know what might break someone. Hazing can happen to anyone, and can happen in any organization in which there is a hierarchy, including academic clubs, fraternities and sororities, marching bands, and athletic teams. - 48% of high school students report being hazed and, as a result, many students expect to be hazed in college (Hoover & Pollard, 2000). You can’t consent to hazing. Hazers know what will happen and hide information from new members. Those being hazed are blind to the actual risks and can’t give informed consent. Listen to your gut feeling. If you think an activity is problematic, find a way to speak up. If it’s an emergency, call 911. Report hazing to your school or to the National Anti-Hazing Hotline: (888) NOT-HAZE (668-4293). Ready to change your group’s practices? Talk about your new membership goals (i.e., learn group history, have fun, bonding), then assess if activities meet those goals. See the Gordie Center website for ideas on healthy programs to replace dangerous ones. Save a Life. Make the Call. Tips for a Lower Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC): - **Pace and space.** Sip instead of chugging, alternate with water, and have no more than 1 standard drink per hour. On average, it takes about 3 hours for most people to eliminate the alcohol in 2 standard drinks from their system. - **Eat before and while drinking.** Alcohol is absorbed into the bloodstream more slowly when food (especially protein) is in your stomach. - **Avoid mixing alcohol with other drugs.** Some prescription, over-the-counter, and street drugs (e.g., antihistamines and narcotics) can increase alcohol’s effects. Caffeine and other stimulants can trick you into feeling less impaired. - **Use caution when sick or tired.** Alcohol enters the bloodstream more quickly when you are sleep deprived or ill. - **Be aware of your environment.** Drinking different beverages or at locations that are not typical for you can cause greater impairment due to the loss of situational tolerance. Helping an Intoxicated Friend: - If you have any doubt about an intoxicated person’s safety, err on the side of caution and call 911. - If you have been drinking, your judgment may be impaired, so enlist the help of a sober friend to ensure good decision-making. - An intoxicated person is not rational, so do not try to reason with the person. - **Avoid being confrontational or aggressive.** Joking, bargaining, and enlisting the help of friends can be more effective. Try to remain calm and quiet. - If the intoxicated person becomes violent or uncooperative, your first priority is your own safety and the safety of those around you. Call for assistance, up to and including 911. - An intoxicated person who is staggering, vomiting, or passed out may require emergency care. While you are waiting for help or determining the need for emergency services, get the individual to a safe, comfortable place, such as a bed, and follow the guidelines listed on the next page. When someone passes out: - BAC can continue to rise even after alcohol intake stops. **Never leave an intoxicated person alone to “sleep it off.”** - Once you can help the intoxicated person to a safe place to rest, use the **Bacchus Maneuver** to reduce the risk of aspiration should the person vomit while passed out. - **Stay with the intoxicated person**, monitoring them every 10-15 minutes for any sign of alcohol overdose (PUBS). - **Never** put a backpack on someone who has passed out. - If you see even one sign of alcohol overdose at any time, **call 911 immediately**. - If you or another sober friend cannot stay and monitor the person, or if you feel uncomfortable with that responsibility, **call 911**. - Still not sure if you should call 911? The **National Poison Center Hotline** (1-800-222-1222) provides free, confidential medical advice 24/7/365. *If you observe any ONE of these signs, call 911 immediately.* - PUKING while passed out - UNRESPONSIVE to pinching or shaking - BREATHING is noisy, slow, shallow, or has stopped - SKIN is blue, cold, or clammy ALCOHOL TEACHING POINTS CONTINUED DO NOT: - Encourage the person to eat or drink anything, as muscle relaxation can cause them to choke and it may induce vomiting (which also can result in choking). - Give the intoxicated person a cold shower. The resulting shock could cause the person to pass out and be injured. - Try to exercise the intoxicated person, which could cause falls and injuries. - Attach a backpack or any other weights to an intoxicated person; this can pin them down and unintentionally suffocate them. - Try to restrain the intoxicated person. States With Medical Amnesty Laws: Medical Amnesty: Never let the fear of legal consequences prevent you from calling 911. Many states have Medical Amnesty laws that provide limited legal immunity for seeking help for yourself or someone else who requires immediate medical attention. Know if your state has a medical amnesty law, and check your campus policies (visit www.medicalamnesty.org to check your state’s law). Obtaining Medical Assistance: - Call 911 and identify yourself to the operator. State your problem and what support you require. - Give the specific location of the incident and the phone number. - Stay with the intoxicated person until help arrives. - Have someone else meet the emergency personnel outside and guide them to your location. Bystander Effect: Research has shown that people are less likely to help when in a group setting compared to when they are alone. Even if those around you seem comfortable with an activity, chances are, if you are feeling uncomfortable, so are others. If one person speaks up, others will be more likely to take action. Step UP! 5 Decision Making Steps to Intervention (www.stepupprogram.org): - Notice the event. - Interpret the event as a problem — investigate. - Assume personal responsibility. - Know how to help. - Implement the help: Step UP! Bystander Intervention: The 5 Ds - **Direct**: Tell hazers to stop what they are doing. - **Distract**: Interrupt what is happening by talking about an unrelated topic. - **Delegate**: Ask a friend to step in or report the incident to your school. - **Delay**: Check in with the victim afterwards and see what you can do to help. - **Document**: Record any evidence for reporting purposes. Do NOT share on social media without the hazed person’s consent. Affirm positive actions students are already taking to look out for each other. When students talk about barriers (like getting in trouble), ask them to weigh the consequences of intervening. Short-term consequences, such as having a friend be upset with you, are more easily overcome than long-term consequences, such as preventable injury or death. FILM CREDIT LIST A Forever Forward Project Production in collaboration with the University of Virginia’s Gordie Center. Cast: - Connor: Brady Gentry - Roshan: Ameer Ali - Elijah: Evan Adams - Mother: Jessica Goldapple - Buddy: Coral Written and Directed by: Jacob Seltzer Produced by: Kathleen Sheridan Russell Executive Producer: Flash Sheridan Executive Producer: Bonnie Padwa Executive Producers: - Susan Poppy Luchars - Nancy Goldsborough Hurt - H. James A. Atwood Executive Producer: Mary Dwyer Executive Producer: Kathy Eldon Director of Photography: Matt Kleppner First Assistant Camera: Max Riley Second Assistant Camera/DIT: Francesca Dimarzio Best Electric: Quinn Thomashow Assistant Director: Aspen Miller Co-Producer: Shannon Kummer Production Designer: Emily Henninger Truck Driver/Lead: Juan Carlos Del Rio Cabral Set Dresser: Jose Daniel Sound Editor: Jared Fellows Key Grip: Hye Young Ra Best Grip: Kevin Shum Gaffer: Sam Shang Editor: Ellie Zarr Postproduction Mixing and Editing: Jared Fellows Hair and Makeup: Madison Federico Costume Design: Julia Abramova Music Composer: David Deutsch Set Photographer: Janelle Smith Dog Trainer: Joel Norton - Hollywood Paws Location: Soyhome A Creative Visions Foundation Fiscally Sponsored Project American Humane monitored the animal action. No animals were harmed® (AH 12665)
a38cda24-4724-4ca6-9603-844c548e27f1
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://gordie.studenthealth.virginia.edu/sites/gordie/files/2024-09/The%20Lonely%20Dog%20Facilitation%20Guide_2.pdf
2024-11-09T00:27:30+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477028106.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20241108231327-20241109021327-00676.warc.gz
252,921,678
6,072
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.974129
eng_Latn
0.997504
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 323, 1984, 4017, 5308, 6632, 8247, 9782, 11491, 12352, 13380, 15177, 16587, 18316, 19913, 21543, 23495, 24579, 25910, 27271, 28619 ]
[ 1.796875, 3.421875 ]
2
0
US LAW AND POLITICS: CLASS ACTIVITIES* Class 1. Sep. 9: Introduction and Orientation Discussion questions: - What do you know about the 2020 presidential election? Do you follow US politics? Who would you vote for? - What is your opinion of Donald Trump? - What is your opinion of Joe Biden? - What are some of the differences between the Canadian and the American legal system? What are some of the differences between the Canadian and the American political system? - Analyze the following cartoons: Class 2 Sep. 16 Free Speech Watch President Trump’s speech of July 4, 2020 available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FzYHiRNvD5Q 1) What is cancel culture? How does it work? 2) Give examples from the United States. 3) What is the connection between free speech and cancel culture? Is cancel culture a violation of Free Speech rights under the First Amendment of the US Constitution? Why or why not? 4) What is President Trump’s position on cancel culture? Do an online search of Trump’s speeches and Tweets and give specific examples of President Trump’s arguments about cancel culture. How about Joe Biden’s position on cancel culture? 5) Read the following open letter from Bari Weiss. Why did the New York Times hire her? What happened in the 2016 campaign that led to her hiring? What does she mean by the Times “didn’t have a firm grasp of the country it covers”? 6) Why did she resign? What does she mean when she says that Twitter is the ultimate editor of the New York Times? 7) Read the Open Letter on Justice and Debate. What is the main point of the letter? Do an online search of the background of this letter. What is the purpose of the letter? What do the authors mean by “the exchange of information and ideas, the lifeblood of a liberal society, is daily becoming more constricted”? Give examples not mentioned in the letter that illustrate this argument. Do you agree with this argument? Why or why not? 8) Discuss the following quote from an article published in 2016 before the presidential election. Judges have interpreted the First Amendment broadly, giving Americans some of the most expansive rights of speech in the world. But over the past two decades, and especially the past few years, American college administrators and many students have sought to confine speech to special zones and agitated for restrictions on language in classrooms as well. To protect undergrads from the discomfort of having to hear disagreeable ideas and opinions, administrators and students—and the U.S. Department of Education—have been reframing speech as “verbal conduct” that potentially violates the civil rights of minorities and women. --- Dear A.G., It is with sadness that I write to tell you that I am resigning from The New York Times. I joined the paper with gratitude and optimism three years ago. I was hired with the goal of bringing in voices that would not otherwise appear in your pages: first-time writers, centrists, conservatives and others who would not naturally think of The Times as their home. The reason for this effort was clear: The paper’s failure to anticipate the outcome of the 2016 election meant that it didn’t have a firm grasp of the country it covers. Dean Baquet and others have admitted as much on various occasions. The priority in Opinion was to help redress that critical shortcoming. I was honored to be part of that effort, led by James Bennet. I am proud of my work as a writer and as an editor. Among those I helped bring to our pages: the Venezuelan dissident Wully Arteaga; the Iranian chess champion Dorsa Derakhshani; and the Hong Kong Christian democrat Derek Lam. Also: Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Masih Alinejad, Zaina Arafat, Elna Baker, Rachael Denhollander, Matti Friedman, Nick Gillespie, Heather Heying, Randall Kennedy, Julius Krein, Monica Lewinsky, Glenn Loury, Jesse Singal, Ali Soufan, Chloe Valdary, Thomas Chatterton Williams, Wesley Yang, and many others. But the lessons that ought to have followed the election—lessons about the importance of understanding other Americans, the necessity of resisting tribalism, and the centrality of the free exchange of ideas to a democratic society—have not been learned. Instead, a new consensus has emerged in the press, but perhaps especially at this paper: that truth isn’t a process of collective discovery, but an orthodoxy already known to an enlightened few whose job is to inform everyone else. Twitter is not on the masthead of The New York Times. But Twitter has become its ultimate editor. As the ethics and mores of that platform have become those of the paper, the paper itself has increasingly become a kind of performance space. Stories are chosen and told in a way to satisfy the narrowest of audiences, rather than to allow a curious public to read about the world and then draw their own conclusions. I was always taught that journalists were charged with writing the first rough draft of history. Now, history itself is one more ephemeral thing molded to fit the needs of a predetermined narrative. My own forays into Wrongthink have made me the subject of constant bullying by colleagues who disagree with my views. They have called me a Nazi and a racist; I have learned to brush off comments about how I’m “writing about the Jews again.” Several colleagues perceived to be friendly with me were badgered by coworkers. My work and my character are openly demeaned on company-wide Slack channels where masthead editors regularly weigh in. There, some coworkers insist I need to be rooted out if this company is to be a truly “inclusive” one, while others post ax emojis next to my name. Still other New York Times employees publicly smear me as a liar and a bigot on Twitter with no fear that harassing me will be met with appropriate action. They never are. There are terms for all of this: unlawful discrimination, hostile work environment, and constructive discharge. I’m no legal expert. But I know that this is wrong. I do not understand how you have allowed this kind of behavior to go on inside your company in full view of the paper’s entire staff and the public. And I certainly can’t square how you and other Times leaders have stood by while simultaneously praising me in private for my courage. Showing up for work as a centrist at an American newspaper should not require bravery. Part of me wishes I could say that my experience was unique. But the truth is that intellectual curiosity—let alone risk-taking—is now a liability at The Times. Why edit something challenging to our readers, or write something bold only to go through the numbing process of making it ideologically kosher, when we can assure ourselves of job security (and clicks) by publishing our 4000th op-ed arguing that Donald Trump is a unique danger to the country and the world? And so self-censorship has become the norm. What rules that remain at The Times are applied with extreme selectivity. If a person’s ideology is in keeping with the new orthodoxy, they and their work remain unscrutinized. Everyone else lives in fear of the digital thunderdome. Online venom is excused so long as it is directed at the proper targets. Op-eds that would have easily been published just two years ago would now get an editor or a writer in serious trouble, if not fired. If a piece is perceived as likely to inspire backlash internally or on social media, the editor or writer avoids pitching it. If she feels strongly enough to suggest it, she is quickly steered to safer ground. And if, every now and then, she succeeds in getting a piece published that does not explicitly promote progressive causes, it happens only after every line is carefully massaged, negotiated and caveated. It took the paper two days and two jobs to say that the Tom Cotton op-ed “fell short of our standards.” We attached an editor’s note on a travel story about Jaffa shortly after it was published because it “failed to touch on important aspects of Jaffa’s makeup and its history.” But there is still none appended to Cheryl Strayed’s fawning interview with the writer Alice Walker, a proud anti-Semite who believes in lizard Illuminati. The paper of record is, more and more, the record of those living in a distant galaxy, one whose concerns are profoundly removed from the lives of most people. This is a galaxy in which, to choose just a few recent examples, the Soviet space program is lauded for its “diversity”; the doxxing of teenagers in the name of justice is condoned; and the worst caste systems in human history includes the United States alongside Nazi Germany. Even now, I am confident that most people at The Times do not hold these views. Yet they are cowed by those who do. Why? Perhaps because they believe the ultimate goal is righteous. Perhaps because they believe that they will be granted protection if they nod along as the coin of our realm—language—is degraded in service to an ever-shifting laundry list of right causes. Perhaps because there are millions of unemployed people in this country and they feel lucky to have a job in a contracting industry. Or perhaps it is because they know that, nowadays, standing up for principle at the paper does not win plaudits. It puts a target on your back. Too wise to post on Slack, they write to me privately about the “new McCarthyism” that has taken root at the paper of record. All this bodes ill, especially for independent-minded young writers and editors paying close attention to what they’ll have to do to advance in their careers. Rule One: Speak your mind at your own peril. Rule Two: Never risk commissioning a story that goes against the narrative. Rule Three: Never believe an editor or publisher who urges you to go against the grain. Eventually, the publisher will cave to the mob, the editor will get fired or reassigned, and you’ll be hung out to dry. For these young writers and editors, there is one consolation. As places like The Times and other once-great journalistic institutions betray their standards and lose sight of their principles, Americans still hunger for news that is accurate, opinions that are vital, and debate that is sincere. I hear from these people every day. “An independent press is not a liberal ideal or a progressive ideal or a democratic ideal. It’s an American ideal,” you said a few years ago. I couldn’t agree more. America is a great country that deserves a great newspaper. None of this means that some of the most talented journalists in the world don’t still labor for this newspaper. They do, which is what makes the illiberal environment especially heartbreaking. I will be, as ever, a dedicated reader of their work. But I can no longer do the work that you brought me here to do—the work that Adolph Ochs described in that famous 1896 statement: “to make of the columns of The New York Times a forum for the consideration of all questions of public importance, and to that end to invite intelligent discussion from all shades of opinion.” Ochs’s idea is one of the best I’ve encountered. And I’ve always comforted myself with the notion that the best ideas win out. But ideas cannot win on their own. They need a voice. They need a hearing. Above all, they must be backed by people willing to live by them. Sincerely, Bari A Letter on Justice and Open Debate July 7, 2020 The below letter will be appearing in the Letters section of the magazine’s October issue. We welcome responses at firstname.lastname@example.org Our cultural institutions are facing a moment of trial. Powerful protests for racial and social justice are leading to overdue demands for police reform, along with wider calls for greater equality and inclusion across our society, not least in higher education, journalism, philanthropy, and the arts. But this needed reckoning has also intensified a new set of moral attitudes and political commitments that tend to weaken our norms of open debate and toleration of differences in favor of ideological conformity. As we applaud the first development, we also raise our voices against the second. The forces of illiberalism are gaining strength throughout the world and have a powerful ally in Donald Trump, who represents a real threat to democracy. But resistance must not be allowed to harden into its own brand of dogma or coercion—which right-wing demagogues are already exploiting. The democratic inclusion we want can be achieved only if we speak out against the intolerant climate that has set in on all sides. The free exchange of information and ideas, the lifeblood of a liberal society, is daily becoming more constricted. While we have come to expect this on the radical right, censoriousness is also spreading more widely in our culture: an intolerance of opposing views, a vogue for public shaming and ostracism, and the tendency to dissolve complex policy issues in a blinding moral certainty. We uphold the value of robust and even caustic counter-speech from all quarters. But it is now all too common to hear calls for swift and severe retribution in response to perceived transgressions of speech and thought. More troubling still, institutional leaders, in a spirit of panicked damage control, are delivering hasty and disproportionate punishments instead of considered reforms. Editors are fired for running controversial pieces; books are withdrawn for alleged inauthenticity; journalists are barred from writing on certain topics; professors are investigated for quoting works of literature in class; a researcher is fired for circulating a peer-reviewed academic study; and the heads of organizations are ousted for what are sometimes just clumsy mistakes. Whatever the arguments around each particular incident, the result has been to steadily narrow the boundaries of what can be said without the threat of reprisal. We are already paying the price in greater risk aversion among writers, artists, and journalists who fear for their livelihoods if they depart from the consensus, or even lack sufficient zeal in agreement. This stifling atmosphere will ultimately harm the most vital causes of our time. The restriction of debate, whether by a repressive government or an intolerant society, invariably hurts those who lack power and makes everyone less capable of democratic participation. The way to defeat bad ideas is by exposure, argument, and persuasion, not by trying to silence or wish them away. We refuse any false choice between justice and freedom, which cannot exist without each other. As writers we need a culture that leaves us room for experimentation, risk taking, and even mistakes. We need to preserve the possibility of good-faith disagreement without dire professional consequences. If we won’t defend the very thing on which our work depends, we shouldn’t expect the public or the state to defend it for us. Class 3 September 23 Current issues 1) Who was Ruth Bader Ginsburg? Briefly discuss her life and her achievements in the US Supreme Court (SCOTUS). 2) What does RBG vacancy mean for US politics? 3) How are Supreme Court vacancies filled in the US? 4) Why does POTUS want to fill the vacancy? Who are the main candidates to replace RBG? 5) Why does the Democratic Party oppose to the filling of the vacancy in SCOTUS? 6) What is the Democratic Party threatening to do if Donald Trump goes ahead with the nomination? 7) What happened to then President Barack Obama’s nomination of Merrick Garland? 8) What is the current ideological/political composition of SCOTUS? **The US and the Founding Myth** - Read the article “*The Use of Myth in History: Many Myths Are Designed to Explain Us as We Wish to See Ourselves*” by Gil Klein (Excerpts. Published in CW Journal: Summer 2012). - What purpose do myths have in politics? - Based on the article by Gil Klein, analyze the following dialogue from Bertolt Brecht’s play “Galileo”: Andrea: “Pity the land that has no hero.” Galileo: “No, Andrea: Pity the land that needs a hero.” - From YouTube or a similar site, find examples of popular culture that illustrate the mythical founding of the United States. These may portray a historical or contemporary figure as a hero or historical or contemporary events where the United States is shown as having a special world leadership role. - Do a brief search of the US-Mexican War (1846-1848). What is the Manifest Destiny doctrine? How can this war be explained in light of the mythical foundation of the United States? Watch the video where Joe Biden makes a comparison between the Latino and the African American communities in the US. Discuss. Are his remarks racist? Why or why not? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5F9ZupZx-n8 In an interview with members of the national associations of Black and Hispanic journalists, former Vice President Joe Biden said with reference to Cubans that the Hispanic community is much more "diverse" that the Black community in the U.S. Biden told NPR’s Lulu Garcia-Navarro: “Unlike the African-American community, with notable exceptions, the Latino community is an incredibly diverse community with incredibly different attitudes about different things. You go to Florida, and you find a very different attitude about immigration in certain places than you do when you’re in Arizona.” Watch the video where Joe Biden asks whether the interviewer took a cocaine test. Discuss. Are his remarks racist? Why or why not? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-l2eXZ28Mk Class 4 Sep 30: Presidential debate Analyze the presidential debate Here is a link to the transcript: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8788571/Full-transcript-Donald-Trump-Joe-Biden-debate.html 1) What message did Biden want to convey to the audience? Was he successful? Why or why not? 2) What message did Trump want to convey to the audience? Was he successful? Why or why not? 3) What tone did Trump use in the debate? What about his body language? 4) What tone did Biden use in the debate? What about his body language? 5) What do you think of Trump’s nomination of Amy Coney Barrett to the Supreme Court? What did Biden say about this in the debate? 6) What strategies did the candidates use in the debate? Give specific examples. Were they effective? Why or why not? 7) Did Biden have any Freudian slips? If so, what were they? 8) Discuss the following exchange. What implications can Biden’s assertion have within Democratic voters, particularly those who support Bernie Sanders, AOC, and other left wing politicians, what Donald Trump refers to as the [Democratic Party] Radical Left? DONALD TRUMP: Listen, you agreed with Bernie Sanders and the manifesto. JOE BIDEN: There is no manifesto, number one. CHRIS WALLACE: Please let him speak, Mr. President. JOE BIDEN: Number two. DONALD TRUMP: He just lost the left. JOE BIDEN: Number two. DONALD TRUMP: You just lost the left. You agreed with Bernie Sanders on a plan that you absolutely agreed to and under that plan [crosstalk], they call it socialized medicine. DONALD TRUMP: Your party doesn’t say it. Your party wants to go socialist medicine and socialist healthcare. JOE BIDEN: The party is me. Right now, I am the Democratic Party. DONALD TRUMP: And they’re going to dominate you, Joe. You know that. JOE BIDEN: I am the Democratic Party right now. DONALD TRUMP: Not according to Harris. JOE BIDEN: The platform of the Democratic Party is what I, in fact, approved of, what I approved of. 9) Who is Chris Wallace? How do you assess his job as moderator? 10) What phrase or argument resonates the most with you? Why? 11) Why did Biden refuse to address Trump’s questions about law enforcement and Law and Order? 12) Who did Biden speak to? The “Radical Left”? More conservative Democrats? Republican supporters? Independent voters? Why? 13) Who did Trump speak to? 14) Did the debate sway undecided voters? Why or why not? 15) What is racial sensitivity training? Why did Trump end it? What did he say? 16) Why didn’t Trump condemn white supremacists and white militia? 17) What is Antifa? What is Trump’s position about Antifa? 18) What did Trump mean by “Okay, boys stand back and stand by.” 19) What happened in Charlottesville three years ago? What did Trump mean when he talked about very fine people on both sides? 20) Who is Hunter Biden? What did Trump accuse him of? How did Joe Biden defend his son? 21) Were there any cheap shots and low blows? If so, give examples. 22) What did the candidates say about the substantive issues such as the Supreme Court vacancy, the pandemic, climate change, and the economy? 23) Do an online search and describe and analyze your favourite memes, cartoons, and tweets about the debate. 24) Who won the debate? Why? Was it a win by –unanimous or split- decision? Or a knock out? Or perhaps a draw? 25) Suppose you are on Biden’s team, what advice would you give him for the next debate? What should he do differently in the next debate? How would you prep Biden? 26) Suppose you are on Trump’s team, what advice would you give him for the next debate? What should he do differently in the next debate? How would you prep Trump? The United States Constitution Choose one of the Constitutions amendments and do the following: 1) Transcribe and explain the selected amendment. 2) Find and discuss a US Supreme Court case dealing with the selected amendment. 3) Find and discuss a news article dealing with the selected amendment. Trump and Covid-19 • What happened to Trump? • How did he probably contract the virus? • How did the media treat Trump’s disease? Why? • Discuss some of the conspiracy theories related to Trump’s Covid-19. • Is it fair to treat Trump with experimental cocktail of monoclonal antibodies? • What are the chances of Trump’s complete recovery? • What has been Trump’s attitude toward his disease and Covid-19 in general? • What can Trump’s recovery mean in the fight against Covid-19? • How can his disease/recovery affect the presidential race? How will Trump’s diagnosis affect how Americans view the pandemic? • Discuss Trump’s tweet: Donald J. Trump @realDonaldTrump · 11h I will be leaving the great Walter Reed Medical Center today at 6:30 P.M. Feeling really good! Don’t be afraid of Covid. Don’t let it dominate your life. We have developed, under the Trump Administration, some really great drugs & knowledge. I feel better than I did 20 years ago! • What happened to Boris Johnson and Jair Bolsonaro? Compare these leaders’ approach to Covid-19 and Trump’s. • New York, whose governor is Democrat Andrew Cuomo, is still in lockdown, while Florida, whose governor is Republic Ron DeSantis, has fully opened and lifted most restrictions. Comment. • How has the US federal government handled the coronavirus pandemic? What about state and local governments? • What measures that governments have taken can be considered unconstitutional? • Discuss the article Covid-19 and the Constitution. 1) How has the US federal government handled the coronavirus pandemic? What about state and local governments? 2) What measures that governments have taken can be considered unconstitutional? 3) Read the following article and discuss it. COVID-19 and the Constitution April 27, 2020 Rob Natelson COVID-19 and the Constitution This article originally appeared in the April 7, 2020 issue of the Epoch Times. Americans’ constitutional rights are not luxuries to be thrown away in times of crisis. They are central to our economic and social system and key to our success. To discard them is to cut our own throats. First, the good news: Our constitutional system is flexible enough to allow government to respond to pandemics and other emergencies. Each state enjoys a vast reservoir of authority the courts call the police power. (The word “police” does not refer to the cop on the beat; it is an older usage meaning “governance.”) In responding to a pandemic, states and their local governments may employ the police power to quarantine the sick, close places of assembly such as theaters and churches, provide emergency care, and require testing and vaccination. States may impose health restrictions on businesses that remain open, such as reducing business hours and requiring masks. They may restrict mass transit or take special steps to ensure vehicles are well ventilated and not too crowded. They may declare tax holidays and repeal regulations so as to reduce the burden of government. The Spanish Flu pandemic of 1918-19 may have killed as many as 50 million people worldwide. It made COVID-19 look like a walk in the park. State and local government fought it with some of the tools I’ve just listed. All of those tools are perfectly constitutional. This flexibility in the face of emergency is why the late Justice Robert H. Jackson once said, “The Constitution is not a suicide pact.” On the other hand, emergencies do not cause the Constitution to vanish. The Supreme Law is flexible, but it is not dissolvable. Today, though, some state and local governments are acting as if it doesn’t exist. Although the state police power is extensive, it is still subject to the Constitution. Today, many state officials and bureaucrats are threatening constitutional rights as they never have before in time of peace. Most universally threatened is the right to travel. The Constitution does not mention the right to travel explicitly. But the Supreme Court has found its components in the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV and in the Equal Protection and Privileges or Immunities Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment. The court ranks it as a “fundamental right”—in the same category as freedom of speech and religion. In a series of cases the Supreme Court has protected the right to travel by striking down state laws that imposed only incidental burdens on interstate migration. I think it would act even more readily if faced with excessive direct bans on travel within state boundaries. Over the years, the Supreme Court has developed a test for measures (laws, regulations, and orders) that restrict fundamental rights. It is a two-part test: (1) To be constitutional, the measure must further not merely an ordinary government purpose, but a compelling one, such as national defense. (2) The government’s measure must be “narrowly tailored”—i.e., targeted closely at the problem. It can’t be over-broad: You can’t use a shotgun to kill an ant. Additionally, if the measure is filled with loop-holes, that’s a sign that it’s not “narrowly tailored.” A citizen suing to strike down the measure does not have to prove it is defective. The government must prove it is valid. I think the courts would find that fighting the Corona virus is a “compelling government purpose.” But they likely would find also that the states’ methods for doing so are too scattershot to be constitutional. One example is the statewide lock down order in Maryland. Because epidemics do not last forever, emergency orders should include a termination date. If the epidemic has not eased sufficiently by the termination date, the order can be extended. But Maryland’s state shutdown order has no termination date. As President Trump has suggested, a stay-at-home order appropriate in New York City would be excessive for Wyoming. The same flexibility should be observed within individual states. The governor of Pennsylvania formerly understood this and limited his state’s order to urban counties. But he has since extended it to his entire state, even the most profoundly rural areas. A court could find this to be over-broad. Colorado’s orders follow a template used in some other states. They are unconstitutional for several reasons: * They extend to all parts of the state, even though conditions differ radically between metropolitan Denver and the state’s nearly empty eastern plains. * The Colorado orders ban much automobile travel, although the virus is not communicated between cars. * They close down most of the economy rather than taking a more targeted approach. For example, it may be sufficient to allow businesses to function if they follow emergency health procedures, such social distancing and offering curb-side service. Anyway, destroying the economy is a sure way to hike the death toll from suicide, malnutrition, and other products of poverty. * The Colorado orders, like those of some other states, contain unexplained exemptions. For example, recreational marijuana stores may stay open, but tobacco shops must close. Clearly this is more about politics than health: In Colorado the marijuana lobby is stronger than the tobacco lobby. Some states are violating other constitutional rights as well. One of Colorado’s orders seems to ban most interstate freight hauling, in violation of the Supreme Court’s Dormant Commerce Clause rules. And in Montana the governor has issued a directive that probably violates the Constitution’s Contracts Clause. Class 5. Oct 7: The Executive Branch Impeachment 1) What is impeachment? 2) What is an impeachable offence? 3) Who can be impeached? 4) How does impeachment work as part of the system of checks and balances? 5) Discuss Donald Trump’s impeachment. What do you think happened? What did Trump do? What didn’t he do? 6) What do you think of Joe Biden’s behaviour in the Ukraine affair? 7) Were there any political reasons unrelated to the Ukraine’s affair behind the impeachment? 8) Briefly discuss Bill Clinton’s impeachment. **Trump impeachment: A very simple guide** **19 December 2019** US President Donald Trump has been impeached and now faces the next stage of a process that could, with enough support in Congress, see him removed from office. It all centres on whether or not he improperly sought help from Ukraine to boost his chances of re-election in 2020. Mr Trump became only the third president in US history to be impeached after two votes in the Democratic Party-controlled House of Representatives - but more on what that means below. President Trump, who is a Republican, strongly denies any wrongdoing. What is he accused of doing wrong? President Trump is accused of pressuring Ukraine to dig up damaging information on one of his main Democratic challengers for the presidency in 2020, Joe Biden, and his son Hunter. Hunter worked for a Ukrainian company when Joe Biden was US vice-president. The president is accused of dangling two things as bargaining chips to Ukraine - withholding $400m of military aid to Ukraine that had already been allocated by Congress, and a White House meeting for Ukraine's president. This, Democrats say, amounts to an abuse of presidential power, using the office for personal political gain and to the detriment of national security. Ukraine was using that money in its ongoing conflict with Russia. Mr Trump is also accused of obstructing Congress by refusing to co-operate with the congressional inquiry. What is the evidence against Trump? A formal complaint from a whistleblower - an unnamed intelligence official who wrote a letter expressing concern about Mr Trump's 25 July call with President Volodymyr Zelensky - kicked off the impeachment process in early September. A rough transcript of the call revealed that Mr Trump had urged President Zelensky to investigate discredited allegations against Joe and Hunter Biden. The call came shortly after Mr Trump had blocked the release of millions of dollars in US military aid to Ukraine. A senior official later testified that the president made clear the release of the aid was conditional on Mr Biden being investigated, but the White House denies this. In a series of public hearings, a procession of US officials have testified that there was a White House shadow foreign policy led by the president's personal lawyer, Rudy Giuliani. Its aim was to get Ukraine to open an investigation into the Bidens and declare as much publicly. What is his defence? Mr Trump denies using US military aid as a bargaining chip with Mr Zelensky and has repeatedly insisted his call with Ukraine's leader was "perfect". He has called the impeachment inquiry a "witch hunt" by Democrats and elements of the media. He also says it was appropriate to ask Ukraine to investigate "corruption", referring to the energy firm where Hunter Biden worked. The Republican defence comes in three parts: - Ukraine's president said he felt no pressure - The Ukrainians were unaware the aid was held back - US military aid was eventually released What is impeachment anyway? To impeach, in this context, means to bring charges in Congress that will form the basis for a trial. The US constitution states a president "shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes or misdemeanours". It's important to note this is a political process, rather than a criminal one. What is the process? It happens in two stages. The first stage is done now - two articles of impeachment (charges) were brought to the House of Representatives and passed in a vote along party lines. Next the process heads to the Senate where a trial will be held in January. But here, a two-thirds vote is necessary for a president's removal - and this milestone has never been reached in US history. The Senate is currently controlled by the Republican Party so conviction is considered unlikely in Trump's case. --- **Trump impeachment: president acquitted on both articles** President becomes third in US history to be impeached by the House and acquitted in Senate trial Tom McCarthy Wed 5 Feb 2020 Donald Trump has been acquitted in his Senate trial on both of the articles of impeachment he faced, ending the threat that he would be removed from office and concluding the impeachment process. Trump responds to impeachment acquittal with rambling, vitriolic speech – as it happened Voting largely along party lines, the senators found Trump not guilty of the first article of impeachment, abuse of power, by a 52-48 tally, and not guilty of the second article of impeachment, obstruction of Congress, by a 53-47 tally. Trump became the third president in US history to be impeached by the House of Representatives but acquitted in a Senate trial. A two-thirds majority of 67 senators would have been required to remove him. As the historic vote landed, Democrats protested that Trump had not won a true acquittal because, in the words of Senator Chris Murphy of Connecticut, the trial was “a show trial”. The acquittal votes came after the chamber’s Republican majority defeated an effort to call witnesses at the trial who could have testified directly to Trump’s alleged misconduct. Mitt Romney was the only Republican to vote in favor of convicting Trump – and he became the only senator in history to vote to remove a president from his own party in an impeachment trial. Romney voted “guilty” on article 1, for abuse of power, and “not guilty” on article 2, for obstruction of Congress. “I support a great deal of what the president has done,” Romney said on the Senate floor. “But my promise before God to apply impartial justice required that I put my personal feelings and political biases aside. “The president is guilty of a flagrant abuse of public trust. Corrupting an election to keep oneself in office is perhaps the most abusive and destructive violation of one’s oath of office that I can imagine.” Chief Justice John Roberts, who presided at the two-week trial, thanked the senators for their patience “as I attempted to carry out ill-defined responsibilities in an unfamiliar setting”. “You have been generous hosts, and I look forward to seeing you again under happier circumstances,” Roberts said as the trial concluded. Trump was impeached for conditioning military aid and a White House meeting for Ukraine on the announcement of a pair of investigations: one into his potential rival for the White House in the 2020 election, Joe Biden, and son Hunter; and a second into a conspiracy theory that Ukraine, instead of Russia, was behind foreign tampering in the 2016 US election. Democrats launched a formal impeachment inquiry in September, a month after an anonymous whistleblower filed a complaint accusing Trump of soliciting foreign interference in the upcoming 2020 election. A day after the impeachment inquiry was formalized, the White House released a partial transcript of a 25 July call between Trump and the Ukrainian president, Volodymyr Zelenskiy, in which Trump told Zelenskiy “the United States has been very, very good to Ukraine” and then asked for a “favor”. Two months of fact-finding and closed-door depositions were followed by public hearings in December in which multiple White House officials and federal employees defied Trump to testify before Congress. One witness, former national security council (NSC) official Fiona Hill, testified during public hearings that officials carrying out Trump’s Ukraine scheme were “being involved in a domestic political errand. And we [at NSC] were being involved in national security foreign policy, and those two things had just diverged”. Trump was impeached on 18 December 2019. In the Senate trial that followed, Republicans argued Trump’s removal would rob a decision from American voters of whether to return Trump to office in the November election. “Our founding documents provide for duly elected presidents who serve with ‘the consent of the governed’, not at the pleasure of the United States Congress,” said retiring Republican Lamar Alexander of Tennessee, once thought to be a potential defector. “Let the people decide.” But Democrats rejected the Republican defenses, arguing that, if left in office, Trump would continue to try to find a way to tamper in the 2020 election. “When the framers wrote the constitution, they didn’t think someone like me would serve as a United States senator,” said Democrat Kamala Harris of California, who is the first senator of Indian or Jamaican ancestry. “But they did envision someone like Donald Trump being president of the United States. Someone who thinks he is above the law and that rules don’t apply to him. So they made sure our democracy had the tool of impeachment to stop that kind of abuse of power.” As impeachment wound down, Trump was enjoying a streak of developments welcomed by the White House, from a Gallup poll this week pegging Trump’s approval rating at a personal-best 49% to a malfunction in the reporting in Monday’s Iowa caucuses, muddling the opposition race. Democratic senators held ranks in opposing Trump, however. Doug Jones of Alabama, who faces a difficult election in November in a heavily pro-Trump state, declared on the senate floor on Wednesday morning that he would vote to convict on both articles of impeachment. “I cannot and will not shrink from my duty to defend the constitution and to do impartial justice,” Jones said. “These actions were more than simply inappropriate, they were an abuse of power.” In speeches on the Senate floor on Wednesday, Democrat after Democrat portrayed the imminent acquittal not as a vindication for Trump, but as a condemnation for the Senate. “This is not an exoneration of Donald Trump,” said Tammy Baldwin of Wisconsin. “It is a failure to show moral courage and hold this president accountable.” Class 7. Oct 28: Congress - Describe the legislative process (from a bill to a law) - Find a newspaper cartoon dealing with Congress and analyze it. - Find a TV show or film with Congress and analyze it. - Find a newspaper article with Congress and analyze it. - Outline and analyze *McCulloch v. Maryland* (1819) and explain its importance. • Find another US Supreme Court case that relies on *McCulloch v. Maryland*. • What is the commerce clause? • Outline the 1825 *Gibbons v. Ogden* case. • Find another US Supreme Court case dealing with the commerce clause and briefly explain it. • Explain and find examples of reserved vs. concurrent powers. **Class 7, Oct 28:** **The United States Supreme Court** **The Supreme Court and the United States Constitution** Choose an article of the US Constitution and make a short video or a PowerPoint presentation to explain the article and its interpretation by the US Supreme Court in a leading case. Who do you think you are? Investigate the lives and judicial work of one of the following justices of the US Supreme Court: 1) John Roberts 2) Brett M. Kavanaugh 3) Neil M. Gorsuch 4) Sonia Sotomayor 5) Ruth Bader Ginsburg 6) Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr 7) Earl Warren 8) Benjamin Cardozo 9) Clarence Thomas Class 8. Nov. 4: Analysis of US elections - Briefly explain the 2020 election results. Are you surprised with the results? Happy? Disappointed? Why? - What does the presidential result mean for the US? Will there be any significant changes with respect to the last 4 years? - Why did he win? Why did he lose? Who voted for them? - What were the main campaign slogans? Discuss them. What role did they play in the election? - What statement/phrase/slogan during the presidential campaign resonated most with you? - What does the presidential election result mean for Canada? - What happened in the House? In the Senate? What does the new composition of Congress mean for the president? • California voted some propositions. What were some of the main propositions? What were the results? What do you make of these results? • Briefly explain the electoral process. What is the Electoral College? How is the president elected? What are swing states? What is split-ticket voting? • Do you think the election was rigged? Class 9. Nov. 11 US Foreign Policy Choose one of the following states or regions. Summarize and discuss the current US foreign policy with respect to the selected state or region. 1) US-Russia relations 2) US-China 3) US-Ukraine 4) US-Canada 5) US-Latin America 6) US-UK 7) US-European Union Class 10. Nov. 18 Analysis of media coverage of US presidential elections 1. Select a US TV network, radio station, or newspaper. 2. Describe and analyze the main characteristics of the selected media outlet’s coverage of US presidential elections. Give specific examples. 3. Write a short report. Include all the above tasks and your conclusions about the coverage of US presidential elections. Distribution of final take-home Class 11. Nov. 25 Submission of final take-home * TRIGGER WARNINGS Some materials in this course may be sensitive. Course materials, including lectures, class activities, hypotheticals, scenarios, examples, court cases, and films shown in class, may have mature content, including violent, sexual, and strong language content. Except for newspaper articles and court cases, all class activities are hypothetical and fictitious. Any resemblance to actual persons, institutions, or events is purely coincidental. The views and opinions expressed in the articles assigned for reading in this course are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of the course professor. Questions, follow-up questions, examples, and comments made within the context of class activities do not purport to reflect the opinions or views of the course professor. All such articles, comments, questions, examples, and activities are meant solely to facilitate the discussion and study of Law. They are not meant to advocate or promote any crime or unlawful action. Neither are they meant to advance any ideological perspective. Discretion advised before signing up for this course.
<urn:uuid:0eb4a71d-c176-4ef0-9003-a496d5ce2d0e>
CC-MAIN-2019-09
http://julianhermida.com/algoma/uslawactivities.pdf
2019-02-18T19:41:17Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247487624.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20190218175932-20190218201932-00193.warc.gz
141,112,224
9,025
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997375
eng_Latn
0.999117
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 504, 1679, 4129, 7454, 10877, 13245, 15430, 16450, 17434, 17640, 18720, 20342, 21110, 22033, 22925, 23916, 26040, 27913, 28976, 30789, 32772, 34172, 36083, 37765, 39314, 39659, 40453, 41267, 41895, 42377, 43511 ]
[ 1.3671875, 3.125 ]
1
0
Standard Operating Procedures for Seed Collection and Handling Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education (An autonomous body under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change) P.O. New Forest, Dehradun - 248006 (Uttarakhand) Standard Operating Procedures for Seed Collection and Handling 2023 Submitted To: Forest, Environment and Climate Change Department, Govt. of Odisha Dr. Manisha Thapliyal, Scientist-G ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun Sanjeev Kumar, Scientist-E ICFRE-Institute of Forest Productivity, Ranchi Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education (An autonomous body under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change) P.O. New Forest, Dehradun - 248006 (Uttarakhand) Funding Agency Forest, Environment and Climate Change Department, Govt. of Odisha Nodal Officer Sanjeev Kumar Scientist-E ICFRE-Institute of Forest Productivity, Ranchi Investigator Dr. Manisha Thapliyal Scientist-G ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun Dr Naseer Mohammad Scientist-E ICFRE-Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur Contributors Sh. Lokinder Sharma, Scientist-B, ICFRE-FRI, Dehradun Ms. Vaisakhy P Chand, Ph.D. Scholar, ICFRE-FRI, Dehradun Dr Karuna Phular, Junior Project Fellow, ICFRE-FRI, Dehradun Sh. Rajeev Ranjan, Senior Technical Officer, ICFRE-IFP, Ranchi Sh. Arvind Kumar, Senior Technical Officer, ICFRE-IFP, Ranchi Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education (An autonomous body under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change) P.O. New Forest, Dehradun - 248006 (Uttarakhand) Message I am pleased to present the long-awaited manual on Standard Operating Procedures (SOP’s) manuals for Seed Collection and Handling of Forestry Species. These SOPs are a key advancement in our mission to uphold the best procedures for seed collecting, processing, germination and storage in our forestry operations. A crucial step in the forestry cycle is seed gathering since it has a direct impact on the success and quality of succeeding plants. These painstakingly crafted instructions, which incorporate the most recent scientific findings and best practices, will help the field teams execute standardized and effective seed collection techniques across all of the forestry projects. The guidelines include thorough instructions on many different areas of seed harvesting, such as adopting the best collection methods, handling procedures, seed storage and viability testing. By following these SOPs, one can make sure that our seed stock has a diverse genetic makeup with better longevity, usage of which will result in healthier, more resilient forest ecosystems. Additionally, these instructions stress the significance of ethical harvesting methods, encouraging minimal ecological effect and preserving the long-term viability of our forestry resources. I wish to express my thanks to the ICFRE scientists and contributors who gave their time, knowledge and skill towards the creation of these guidelines. Their wisdom and dedication to quality have produced a priceless resource that will improve our seed collecting procedures and solidify our position as forestry sector pioneers in sustainable forestry management. I sincerely hope that the use these SOP guidelines would continuously improve our seed handling and collection procedures. By working together, we can significantly impact biodiversity conservation, ecosystem recovery, and the development of a greener future. Dated: 10 July, 2023 (Arun Singh Rawat) An Autonomous Body of the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Govt. of India रूपाय/Phone: 135-2759382 (O) EPABX: 0135-2224855, 2224333 (O) ई-मेल/e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org फैक्स/Fax:0091-135-2755353 Foreword I am delighted to announce the release of Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) manuals for Seed Collection and Handling of Forestry Species. This manual represents a significant step forward in our commitment to ensuring the highest standards of seed collection, storage, and handling practices in our forestry operations. A crucial step in the forestry cycle is seed gathering since it has a direct impact on the success and quality of succeeding plants. These painstakingly crafted instructions, which incorporate the most recent scientific findings and best practices, will help our teams execute standardized and effective seed collection techniques. The manual includes thorough instructions on many different areas of seed collecting, such as selecting the best collection methods, handling procedures, seed storage, and viability testing. By following these SOPs, we can make sure that our seed stock has a diverse genetic makeup and is viable, which will result in healthier, more resilient forest ecosystems. Additionally, these instructions stress the significance of ethical harvesting methods, encouraging minimal ecological effect and preserving the long-term viability of our forestry resources. This may place a strong emphasis on local community involvement, encouraging a participatory strategy that respects traditional knowledge and promotes social inclusivity. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the hardworking team of ICFRE who have prepared this manual. Dated: 10 July, 2023 (Debidutta Biswal) Preface The collecting and processing of seeds are essential to the success of forestry projects. The establishment and expansion of wholesome and resilient forests are directly impacted by the quality and viability of seeds. These SOP guides were painstakingly written to offer a thorough and systematic method to seed collecting and management, guaranteeing the finest quality seeds for our forestry activities. These guides include the most recent scientific information, best practices and priceless insights obtained through practical experience. They draw on the combined wisdom of our team of researchers, scientists and forestry experts. By offering precise instructions and defined practices, they perform as an essential resource for all parties involved in seed collection and handling operations. The SOP guidelines go through a lot of material, including choosing, collecting methods, handling procedures, storing strategies and viability tests. We can guarantee the genetic variety, viability and quality of our seed stock by following these codified methods, which will maximize the effectiveness of our reforestation operations. These guidelines are the value of sustainability, ethical harvesting methods and community involvement. They understand the need to strike a balance between ecological concerns and the socio-economic advantages brought about by our forestry activities. I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to the hardworking team of scientists and contributors of Forest Research Institute, Dehradun who contributed their knowledge and enthusiasm to the creation of this manual. A comprehensive resource that will direct us toward more responsible and sustainable forestry practices has been produced as a consequence of their combined efforts. Dated: 10, July, 2023 (Sanjeev Kumar) # Contents | Section | Page No | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------| | 1. Seed Collection and Handling | | | 1.1 Seed Collection | 1 | | 1. Seed Collection Methods | 5 | | 2.1 Collecting from Natural Seed Fall | 5 | | 2.2 Shaking the Tree | 6 | | 2.3 Pruning Off Seed Bearing Branches | 7 | | 2.4 Climbing Trees to Collect Seed | 9 | | 2.5 Collecting Seed from Felled Trees | 9 | | 3. Seed Processing | 13 | | 3.1 Pre-cleaning | 14 | | 3.2 Seed Extraction | 14 | | 3.3 Extraction of Seed from Dry Dehiscent Fruits | 14 | | 3.4 Extraction of Seed from Dry Indehiscent Fruits | 14 | | 3.5 Extraction of Seed from Fleshy Fruits | 15 | | 3.6 Mucilaginous Seeds | 16 | | 3.7 Pulpy Fruits | 16 | | 3.8 Stone Fruits | 16 | | 3.9 Dewinging | 16 | | 3.10 Seed Cleaning | 17 | | 3.11 Upgrading | 17 | | 4. Seed Dormancy and Pre-treatments | 21 | | 4.1 Types of Seed Dormancy | 21 | | 4.2 Causes of Seed Dormancy | 21 | | 4.3 Pre-treatments | 22 | | Acacia catechu | 26 | | Adina cordifolia | 28 | | Aegle marmelos | 30 | | Anogeissus acuminata | 32 | | Anogeissus latifolia | 33 | | Artocarpus heterophyllus | 35 | | Bridelia retusa | 37 | | Buchanania cochinchinensis | 39 | | Careya arborea | 41 | | Cleistanthus collinus | 43 | | Dalbergia sissoo | 45 | | Gmelina arborea | 47 | | Plant Name | Page No | |----------------------------------|---------| | Grewia tiliifolia | 49 | | Lagerstroemia parviflora | 51 | | Madhuca indica | 53 | | Mesua ferrea | 55 | | Michelia champaca | 57 | | Mitragyna parviflora | 59 | | Morinda tinctoria | 61 | | Phyllanthus emblica | 63 | | Pongamia pinnata | 65 | | Pterocarpus marsupium | 67 | | Pterocarpus santalinus | 69 | | Syzygium cumini | 71 | | Terminalia alata | 73 | | Terminalia arjuna | 75 | | Terminalia bellerica | 77 | | Terminalia chebula | 79 | | Xylia xylocarpa | 81 | | Literature Cited | 85 | ## List of Figures | Figure | Description | Page No | |----------|--------------------------------------------------|---------| | Figure 1 | Rake | 6 | | Figure 2 | Seed Container | 5 | | Figure 3 | Sieves | 5 | | Figure 4 | Seed Collection from Natural Seed Fall | 6 | | Figure 5 | Gathering Seeds with a Rake | 6 | | Figure 6 | Spreading and Folding the Canvas Sheet after Collection | 6 | | Figure 7 | When Pods of Fruits are Fully Mature and Near Ready to Fall | 6 | | Figure 8 | A Small Tree with Branches that Droop Low Enough for the Collector to Easily Reach Them | 6 | | Figure 9 | Use of a Hooked Branch to Collect Seed | 7 | | Figure 10| Use Of A Pole | 7 | | Figure 11| Seed Harvest by Using a Weighted Rope | 8 | | Figure 12| Pull Ends of Weighted Rope to Break Branches | 8 | | Figure 13| A Car with Strong Roof Provides a Quick and Easy Means to Reach Crown and Fruits of a Small Tree | 9 | | Figure 14| Climbing into the Crown of the Tree | 9 | | Figure 15| Using a Ladder for Climbing up the Tree | 9 | | Figure | Description | Page No | |--------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------| | 16 | Types of Materials Removed during Seed Processing | 13 | | 17 | Beat a Sack Full of Dry Pods or Fruits With a Stick to Thresh out the Seeds | 15 | | 18 | Use a Mortal and Pestle to Thresh Seeds which Area Strongly Attached to the Pods | 15 | | 19 | Fruit Extraction from Fleshy Fruits by Mashing the Pulp with Water | 16 | | 20 | Winnowing of Seeds | 17 | | 21 | Manual Scarification or Mechanical Scarification | 22 | | 22 | Soaking the Seed in Cold Water for 24 to 48 Hours | 23 | | 23 | Soaking the Seeds Overnight and Drying Seeds In Next Morning | 24 | | 24 | *Acacia catechu* flower | 26 | | 25 | *Acacia catechu* pods | 27 | | 26 | *Acacia catechu* seeds | 27 | | 27 | *Adina cordifolia* flowering | 28 | | 28 | *Adina cordifolia* fruit | 29 | | 29 | *Adina cordifolia* seeds | 29 | | 30 | *Aegle marmelos* tree bearing fruits | 30 | | 31 | *Aegle marmelos* fruit | 31 | | 32 | *Aegle marmelos* seeds | 31 | | 33 | *Anogeissus acuminata* flowering | 32 | | 34 | *Anogeissus latifolia* flowers | 33 | | 35 | *Anogeissus latifolia* from ripened fruits | 34 | | 36 | *Artocarpus heterophyllus* fruit | 35 | | 37 | *Artocarpus heterophyllus* seeds | 36 | | 38 | *Bridelia retusa* | 37 | | 39 | *Bridelia retusa* fruits | 38 | | 40 | Ripened fruits of *Bridelia retusa* | 38 | | 41 | Ripened fruits of *Buchnania cochinchinensis* | 39 | | 42 | Seeds of *Buchnania cochinchinensis* | 40 | | 43 | *Careya arborea* flowers | 41 | | 44 | Fruit of *Careya arborea* | 42 | | 45 | Seeds of *Careya arborea* | 42 | | 46 | *Cleistanthus collinus* fruits | 43 | | 47 | *Cleistanthus collinus* ripened fruit and seeds | 44 | | 48 | *Dalbergia sissoo* flower | 45 | | 49 | *Dalbergia sissoo* fruits | 46 | | 50 | *Dalbergia sissoo* seeds | 46 | | 51 | *Gmelina arborea* flowering | 47 | | 52 | *Gmelina arborea* seeds | 48 | | 53 | *Grewia tilifolia* flowers | 49 | | Figure | Description | Page No | |--------|--------------------------------------------------|---------| | 54 | Sidha fruits | 51 | | 55 | Dry capsules of *Lagerstromia parviflora* | 52 | | 56 | *Madhuca indica* flowers | 53 | | 57 | *Madhuca indica* tree bearing fruits | 54 | | 58 | *Madhuca indica* seeds | 54 | | 59 | *Mesua ferrea* flower | 55 | | 60 | Mature and dry fruits of *Mesua ferrea* | 56 | | 61 | *Michelia champaca* flowering | 57 | | 62 | *Michelia champaca* seeds | 58 | | 63 | *Mitragyna parviflora* tree bearing fruits | 59 | | 64 | *Mitragyna parviflora* ripened fruits | 60 | | 65 | *Morinda tinctoria* plant bearing fruits | 61 | | 66 | *Morinda tinctoria* seeds | 62 | | 67 | *Phyllanthus emblica* fruits | 63 | | 68 | *Phyllanthus emblica* seeds | 64 | | 69 | *Pongamia pinnata* flowers | 65 | | 70 | Un-ripened fruit of *Pongamia pinnata* | 66 | | 71 | Ripened fruit of *Pongamia pinnata* | 66 | | 72 | Seed of *Pongamia pinnata* | 66 | | 73 | Un-ripened fruits of *Pterocarpus marsupium* | 67 | | 74 | Ripened fruits of *Pterocarpus marsupium* | 68 | | 75 | *Pterocarpus santalinus* flowers | 69 | | 76 | *Pterocarpus santalinus* seeds | 70 | | 77 | *Syzygium cumini* tree bearing fruits | 71 | | 78 | *Syzygium cumini* fruits | 72 | | 79 | *Syzygium cumini* seeds | 72 | | 80 | *Terminalia alata* tree bearing fruits | 73 | | 81 | *Terminalia alata* tree bearing fruits | 74 | | 82 | Ripened fruits of *Terminalia alata* | 74 | | 83 | *Terminalia arjuna* tree flowering | 75 | | 84 | *Terminalia arjuna* fruits | 76 | | 85 | Ripened fruits of *Terminalia arjuna* | 76 | | 86 | *Terminalia bellirica* tree bearing fruits | 77 | | 87 | Ripened fruits of *Terminalia bellirica* | 78 | | 88 | *Terminalia chebula* fruits | 79 | | 89 | *Terminalia chebula* seeds | 80 | | 90 | *Xylia xylocarpa* flowering | 81 | | 91 | *Xylia xylocarpa* pod with seeds | 82 | | 92 | Pictorial representation of *Xylia xylocarpa* pods | 82 | CHAPTER 1 SEED COLLECTION AND HANDLING • Seed Collection We want standardized expectations, uniform nomenclature, and clear procedures to create native seed supply chains that are dependable, sustainable, and transparent. To make every seed count and to guarantee that seeds are transported to the proper site at the most suitable time, such seeds must reflect acceptable origin and variety with native seed batches that have been processed, stored, and treated (dormancy release, seed enhancement technologies). These factors are often unclear or poorly defined: 1. How can native seeds be collected and produced sustainably? 2. What are the most reliable methods for testing the quality of native seed batches and how should “quality” be defined for native seeds? 3. Which seed enhancement options are available, and what is the most appropriate or effective for the needs of a particular project? Hence to address these problems, standard operating systems for seed collection and handling will be prepared by involving the following information: 1.1 Seed Collection In general, collecting seeds from the superior parent stock has been practiced for thousands of years and has resulted in higher yields and environmentally durable plants. There are two approaches to assess seed quality. One by the seed’s physical quality, and two by the intended physical characteristics of the adult trees that will emerge from it. Utilizing higher-quality seeds from carefully chosen parent trees has advantages for improved survival and higher financial returns. The method of bringing new plant materials to solve particular resource concerns begins with the gathering of seeds. To address these resource issues, it is essential to take an effort to choose superior trees and gather the seed. Too often in large planting programs, the task of seed collection is an afterthought, typically left until the last minute and done hurriedly by unskilled or untrained labours and final nursery preparations are being made. Small-scale planters usually have access to leftovers from large programs. In either case, little consideration is given to seed the quality, form, or location of the parent stock. Sometimes, to satisfy the requisite seed volume, nursery managers purchase bulk seeds from the villagers. However, villagers tend to collect from the nearest trees or stands, which generally include immature, diseased, distressed, and otherwise inferior trees. Such trees would not normally be chosen as prime seed source candidates. Also in some species, a single tree will produce a large amount of seed in some years. Such a harvest may satisfy the bulk requirements but would be genetically dangerous because only one phenotype is represented. Such limited collections cause problems for both large and small-scale plantations. CHAPTER 2 SEED COLLECTION METHODS - Collecting from Natural Seed Fall - Shaking the Tree - Pruning off Seed Bearing Branches - Climbing Trees to Collect Seed - Collecting Seed from Felled Trees 2.1 Collecting from Natural Seed Fall This is the simplest way to collect seeds. It does not require skilled labor. Collection from natural seed fall is suitable for trees with large fruits, pods, and seeds e.g. *Aegle marmelos* and *Careya arborea* etc. The following Rake, sieve, seed container, large canvas, cloth or plastic, and sheet are very helpful for collecting the seed. **Steps for seed collection:** 1. Clear the ground beneath the tree of leaves, branches, and weeds before seeds begin to fall naturally. This will make seed collection easier. OR Spread plastic sheet, cloth or tarpaulin sheet under the mother trees so that the seeds will fall onto them. 2. Use a robe to gather the seeds and collect them daily. OR Fold sheets to collect seeds daily. Chances of insect attack and fungal infection which could occur if seeds are left on the ground for too long will be minimized. 3. Extract seeds from the litter by sieving. **Collecting seeds from the ground has some disadvantages:** 1. Some seeds may have fallen from the tree immaturely. 2. There is a great hazard for insect attack and fungal infection. 3. Actual date of collection is not known. 4. Seeds left on the ground for a long time often lose viability. 2.2 Shaking the Tree If natural seed fall is spread over a long period, manual shaking of the tree is a useful method to get seeds to fall to the ground at the same time. This makes their collection easier. In some cases, however, fruits or pods are strongly attached to the branches and will not drop off easily, even when the tree is shaken. If this is the case other methods will need to be used, and these will be discussed next. 1. Clean the ground, or lay down a plastic or canvas sheet. 2. Shake the trunks of trees or low branches by hand (Higher branches may be shaken using a stick, long pole, hook on rope) (Fig.7). 3. Separate seeds from the dry pods. Sometimes, seed-bearing branches will be low enough to allow the collector to bend branches over the collection sheet (Fig.8). (Use thick leather gloves when branches are thorny). Fig. 7: When pods or fruits are fully mature and near ready to fall (pods will be opening naturally) beat branches with a stick to shakedown seeds or dislodge fruits. Fig. 8: A small tree with branches that droop low enough for the collector to easily reach them. 2.3 Pruning off Seed Bearing Branches When the seed is out of reach for hand picking various pole implements may be used for pruning branches. 1. Select branches with a heavy load of good-looking fruits. 2. Carefully locate the ground sheets so that fruits and seeds will fall onto them from pruned branches. 3. If necessary, prune out the “window” so that the fruit-bearing branches can fall to the ground and not get entangled in the tree as they fall. 4. Cut the branches. 5. Collect the fruits. 6. Extract the seeds. To use this method, you will need: 1. A special pole pruner with shears attached or a tall tree branch lopper. 2. A long pole with a saw or hooked knife attached. Light, rigid bamboo aluminum or plastic poles 4-6 meters in length can also be used. A hooked branch can substitute if the other tools are unavailable (Fig. 9 and 10). Fig. 9: Use of a hooked branch to collect seed. Fig. 10: Use of a pole. For fruit trees: - Tie a basket near the pruning shears to catch the fruit as it drops. Seeds can then be collected without shattering and ruining the fruit. - Throwing a rope with a weighted end to break off seed-bearing branch: As the last possibility, this destructive method may be used to reach high seed-bearing branches from the ground, without having to climb the tree. Branches up to 12 meters from the ground can be reached. Skill is required to throw the rope over the selected branch and in the correct position for ease of breakage. You will need: - A strong 5 mm diameter rope about 25 meters in length. - A 400-gram stone or small bag of sand or soil; 1. Attach the weight at one end of the rope. 2. Throw the weight over the seed-bearing branch. 3. Break off the branch by holding the two ends of the rope, and pulling (Fig. 11 and 12). **Fig. 11:** Seed harvest by using a weighted rope. **Fig. 12:** Pull ends of weighted rope to break branches. 2.4 Climbing Trees to Collect Seed To use this method, you must have skill in climbing trees and using some specialized equipment. This is the method normally used to collect from standing dry zone trees as they are of open form and relatively small. Several methods can be used when collecting seeds from standing trees. The roof of a car may serve as a platform. Climb into the crown of the tree and use a saw, a large knife, or a similar implement to cut down seed-bearing branches (Fig. 13 and 14). Well-designed portable ladders provide a quick and safe means of reaching the live crowns of trees. Ladders may be made of light wood, metal, or bamboo 6-15 meters in length. For small trees a light wooden or aluminum ladder 6-8 meters long is appropriate (Fig. 15). 2.5 Collecting Seed from Felled Trees If a tree is to be felled, try to wait until its seed is ripe. Never fell trees just for seed collection. CHAPTER 3 SEED PROCESSING • Pre-cleaning • Seed Extraction • Extraction of Seed from Dry Dehiscent Fruits • Extraction of Seed from Dry Indehiscent Fruits • Extraction of Seed from Fleshy Fruits • Mucilaginous Seeds • Pulpy Fruits • Stone Fruits • Dewinging • Seed Cleaning • Upgrading A seed is a fertilized mature ovule consisting of an embryo, an endosperm with a protective seed coat. Seed is the basic input in seed collection. A good quality vigorous seed utilizes the resources and rises as a healthy seedling. Seeds also exhibit greater variation in shape, size, colour, and surface characteristics. To overcome all these problems, seeds have to be processed to achieve uniform and quality seeds. After harvesting, seeds are brought to the seed processing unit from the field, frequently at high moisture content. Seed lots also contain inert matter, damaged seeds, trash materials, deteriorated seeds, off-size seeds, etc. Seed processing is vital to bring the seeds to a safe moisture content level by drying the seeds and also to reduce undesirable materials to the maximum possible. Seed processing, objectives, materials to be removed during processing, and sequence of operations are explained as under. Seed processing is a fundamental practice for obtaining high-quality seeds. It guarantees the end clients, seeds of high quality with the least contamination. In general, the term seed handling incorporates cleaning, drying, seed treatment, packaging, and storage. Seed processing mainly targets boosting seed viability, vigour, and health. **Purpose of Seed Processing:** 1. To lower the expenses of additional processes like storage and transport. 2. This is accomplished by reducing the bulk of the seed lot by cleaning debris and by eliminating empty or fractured seeds (pre-cleaning). 3. To increase the life span of seeds; by drying seeds to safe moisture content using a desiccant. 4. To decrease the variability in vigour by strengthening the seeds and eliminating the low vigour seed. 5. To improve the uniformity in seed shape or size by grading or by pelleting. **Principles and Objectives:** The seed quality is improved in two ways during processing: By separation of inert matter, and by disposal of low-quality seeds. The maximum pure seed percentage with maximum germination capacity is acquired by seed processing. Harvested produce is heterogeneous in nature. By seed processing, we can get a product of homogeneous nature. This will help in getting uniformity in the field. Seed processing is an important process to achieve uniform seeds by using suitable processing methods. Inert materials, common weed seeds, noxious weed seeds, deteriorated and damaged seeds, other crop seeds, other variety seeds, and off-size seeds are those materials that are removed during seed processing. **The sequence of Operation in Seed Processing:** Each seed crop possesses a unique seed structure. Seed processing can be carried out based on seed shape, size, weight, length, surface characteristics, colour, and moisture content. Therefore, suitable operations carry out using suitable equipment. However, sequences of operation in seed processing are pre-cleaning, seed extraction, dewinging, and seed cleaning. ### 3.1 Pre-cleaning 1. Pre-cleaning is the removal of empty seeds, twigs, branches, leaves, soil particles, stones, and other materials present in the seed lot. 2. It is usually done after arrival at the seed processing depot. 3. Harvested fruits can be stored for short time before extraction if required. 4. Fruit can be stored in sufficient air-circulated containers such as trays, nylon net bags, etc. 5. Soft fruits should be stored at $10^\circ-15^\circ$C with adequate humidity and ventilation. Hard fruits can be stored in the shade in thin layers. ### 3.2 Seed Extraction Seed extraction is defined as the separation of seeds from their enclosing structures. Seeds extraction should be done from the ripened fruit and the seed should be mature before extraction to avoid rapid desiccation during extraction. ### 3.3 Extraction of Seed from Dry Dehiscent Fruits Normally dry dehiscent fruits dehiscse during drying when spread out in thin layers with sufficient air circulation. Some legumes require extraction by hand or by threshing due to the strong attachment of the seed to the funicle. Threshing by hand reduces the probability of damaging seeds. The strong attachment of seeds with pods can be removed by threshing by hand, beating the pods in the sack with sticks, or rubbing on a rough surface. Examples- *Lagerstromia parviflora*, *Acacia catechu*, *Xylia xylocarpa*. ### 3.4 Extraction of Seed from Dry Indehiscent Fruits Dry indehiscent fruits retain their seeds and do not crack open after ripening. Example-*Dalbergia sissoo*, *Pongamia pinnata*, *Pterocarpus marsupium*. Smaller indehiscent fruits can be broken by threshing by hand, rubbing on a rough surface, or beating with sticks. Seeds from larger fruits can be extracted by splitting mechanically or by hand. 3.5 Extraction of Seed from Fleshy Fruits In fleshy fruits, the pericarp becomes fleshy at maturity. Fleshy fruits are classified as: Berry, Drupe, Aggregation of Drupes, Pome, Hesperidium, Sorosis, Syconium, and Coenocarpium. Examples- *Careya arborea*, *Artocarpus heterophyllus*, *Syzygium cumini*, etc. Generally, seeds from fleshy fruits are removed by cutting the fruit in half or by cutting off the distal end and squeezing out the content into a container. Small seeds of pulpy fruits can be extracted by mashing the pulp, mixing it with water, allowing the seeds to settle, and then detaching off the pulp. Large seeds from pulp can be extracted by hands/forceps, or washing the seeds in sieves under running water, rubbing them with wire mesh. Extracted seeds should be dried in thin layers on absorbent sheets with circulating air in the shade and avoiding direct heat. 3.6 Mucilaginous Seeds Some seeds or fruits are remarkable for their abundance mucilage. The Mucilage in seeds is not easy to remove by washing with water. Some simple techniques to remove mucilage from seeds- - Rub the wet seeds on a wire mesh repeatedly with a gloved hand. - Rubbing with clean and coarse sand followed by proper removal of sand with water. - Dry the seeds first and then rub off the dry mucilage from the seeds. - Acid treatment methods can also be used for removing mucilage adhering to the seed. 3.7 Pulpy Fruits Soak the fruits in containers until they become soft and remove them when they start to ferment. Wash the pulped seeds under running water and thoroughly clean and dry them in thin layers on an absorbent sheet with circulating air. e.g., *Gmelina arborea*. 3.8 Stone Fruits Stone fruits are de-pulped manually with a sharp knife and washed with running water to remove the pulp. The seeds are then surface dried. e.g., *Terminalia bellirica*, *Terminalia chebula*. 3.9 Dewinging Wings and hair are essential appendages for wind-dispersed species mainly present in indehiscent fruits. Dewinging is the removal of wings, hairs, and spines from the seeds. Dewinging helps to ease handling during storage, pre-treatment, and sowing and reduces the probability to get fungal attacks due to moisture retention. Dewinging procedures are varied based on the structure, morphology, and strength of the wing. - Delicate seeds are dewinged by tumbling in closed drums. - Mechanical dewingers are used to dewing seeds where wings are scraped away between the brushes. - Papery wings, hairs, and spines are removed by tumbling in mixers together with some abrasive materials like sand or gravel. - Abundant hair in some seeds is removed by burning. **3.10 Seed Cleaning** Cleaning seed lots is the basic step; it is the removal of impure, inert material, debris, foreign materials, and damaged and infected seeds to improve the quality of the seeds. The seed should be cleaned immediately once it reaches the seed processing site. **3.11 Upgrading** Upgrading is the process of improving the potential performance of a seed lot by removing empty, damaged, weak, immature, or odd-sized seeds. Upgrading will reduce the storage space requirements, reduce costs, and improve uniformity in container operations, reduce planting time in the nursery, etc. Equipment used for upgrading - Air separators, Gravity Separator and Colour Separator. CHAPTER 4 SEED DORMANCY & PRE-TREATMENTS - Types of Seed Dormancy - Causes of Seed Dormancy - Pre-treatments Dormancy in seeds may be advantageous or problematic during seed handling. The advantage is that it prevents seeds from germination during storage and other handling procedures and induction of dormancy is complex and seeds need a very specific pre-treatment. In the majority of forestry species, there exists a lag period between the attainment of seed maturity and seed germination. Such seeds fail to germinate even if they are exposed to favourable environmental conditions which are generally conducive to germination. This process is called seed dormancy. Seeds can overcome dormancy and germinate when “triggered” by certain internal processes that are usually induced by environmental changes. Some seeds lie in the soil for years before germinating, whereas others are delayed for only a few weeks. 4.1 Types of Seed Dormancy a) **Innate dormancy** or **primary dormancy**: Seeds fail to germinate due to internal causes such as hard seedcoats which are impermeable to moisture even if environmental conditions are favourable for germination. b) **Induced dormancy** or **secondary dormancy**: Dormancy develops due to unfavourable environmental conditions such as excessive moisture or desiccation, extreme light, high temperature or chilling temperature, etc. c) **Enforced dormancy**: Germination is constrained due to external conditions. 4.2 Causes of Seed Dormancy a) **Impermeable seed coat**: Seeds of some families like Fabaceae, Verbenaceae, etc. contain thick waxy coating, cetin, lignin, etc. in their seed coat which prevents the permeability of water into seed coat and the seed remains dormant until this layer is removed by micro-organism or other external conditions. b) **Immature embryo**: The embryo is immature during seed shedding and remains dormant until the embryo becomes mature. e.g., *Terminalia chebula*, *Adina cordifolia* etc. c) **Embryo dormancy**: It is caused by the physiological deficiency in the embryonal axis or due to the existence of metabolic blocks within the cotyledons. e.g., *Adina cordifolia*, *Dalbergia spp.* etc. d) **After ripening**: A period of dry storage is required for the germination of seeds. It may vary from species to species. e) **Double dormancy**: It is a condition due to two or more dormancy in the same seed. f) **Germination inhibitors**: Abscisic acid, saponins, and coumarins are some of the germination inhibitors present in the seed. In this case, dormancy can be overcome by soaking the seeds in water (e.g. *Terminalia spp.*) 4.3 Pre-treatments 4.3.1 Mechanical Scarification Treatments are designed to breach the seed coat or other covering structures and remove barriers to moisture uptake, gas exchange, swelling of the embryo and radicle emergence. In selecting a scarification treatment, the gentlest method should be tested first; then increasingly severe treatments until the desired effect is obtained. Various seed treatment techniques accomplish seed coat scarification and ensure rapid and uniform germination of the seeds planted. e.g., *Terminalia* spp. ![Manual scarification](image) **Fig. 21: Manual scarification or mechanical** This involves any process of breaking, scratching, chipping, filing, piercing or burning with the aid of a hammer, knife, needle, abrasion paper, or mechanically altering the seed coat to make it permeable to water or gases. Manual scarification is effective at any site of the seed coat, but the micropylar region should be avoided as it is the most sensitive part of the seed where the radical is located. The main problem of manual scarification is its labour intensiveness. However, for the treatment of large quantities of seeds, mechanical scarification is more suitable. Seed may be tumbled in a concrete mixer drum lined with abrasive materials such as sandpaper, bricks, or cement mixed with sand or gravel or incorporated into an abrasive disk. e.g., *Terminalia chebula*, *Terminalia bellirica*. 4.3.2 Stratification Stratification is the arrangement of seeds in layers of moist substratum like sand, peat, etc. for exposure to low temperatures. 4.3.3 Soaking in Water This is the most widely used pre-germination treatment. It is used to tackle all the different types of dormancy. Modifying hard seeds in water from 12 to 24 hours in running or stagnant water renewed daily is effective for most species. Prolonged soaking in running water for one to several days also serves both to leach inhibitors and soften fruit or seed coat. 4.3.4 Cold Water Soaking In some hard-seeded species, the seed coats are not completely impermeable to water. Soaking such seeds in water at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours may be sufficient for full imbibition and subsequent germination. ![Soak the seed in cold water for 24 to 48 hours](image) Fig. 22: Soaking the seed in cold water for 24 to 48 hours. 4.3.5 Boiling Water/Hot Water Soaking Similar to cold water soaking, except that seeds are put into very hot or boiling and left there as the water cools. The hot water softens the seed coat or causes them to crack, and imbibition occurs as the water cools. Numerous leguminous species can be treated in this manner. 4.3.6 Dry Heat Burning Forest or plantation fire is an important powerful natural factor in the removal of seeds at dormancy. A fierce fire will kill the seeds but a light to moderate fire such as those associated with controlled burning will reduce seed coat impermeability and stimulate germination. Dry heat has a similar effect on seed-coat of dry fruits as boiling water, tension in the outer cells causes the formation of cracks through which gas and water can penetrate. The effectiveness of dry heat and burning is normally enhanced by rapid temperature change e.g., by rapidly pouring the seeds to cold water after heat pre-treatment. This also reduces the risk of heat damage to the embryo. Kiln drying for extraction of *Acacia* spp. may serve as an incidental pre-treatment, oven drying at 100°C for 10 minutes followed by cold water immersion was found to be effective as 83% of the seeds germinated after this treatment as compared to 3% for untreated. 4.3.7 Hot Wire This technique requires a heated needle or an electric wood-burning tool to burn holes through seed coats. 4.3.8 Alternate Soaking and Drying The seed of some species is difficult to scarify by soaking. Examples of alternate soaking and drying are *Terminalia chebula*, *Terminalia bellirica*, etc. 4.3.9 Treatment with Chemicals/Hormone Soaking in potassium nitrate (0.2%), gibberellic acid (200 to 500 ppm), or thiourea (0.2%) solution before sowing has been found to stimulate the germination of different kinds of seeds. ![Fig. 23: Soaking the seeds overnight and drying seeds in the next morning.](image) 4.3.10 Gibberellic Acid Treatment Dormancy with chilling and light requirements is often overcome by treatment with gibberellic acid. Soaking the seed in 0.2% of the gibberellic acid solution has been found to stimulate germination in many species. 4.3.11 Sulphuric Acid Treatment Soaking seeds in concentrated sulphuric acid is an effective and precise method for small lots of seeds use to break seed coat dormancy, but it requires training and laboratory facilities to be done safely. The acid causes some kind of wet combustion of the seed-coat and works equally in legumes and non-legumes. Duration of treatment varies according to the following factors: 1. Seed coat thickness (depending on species maturity, and age) 2. Temperature (longer treatment is required at low temperatures) 3. Strength of the acid (new acid is stronger than re-used one) 4. Stirring (stirring during treatment reduces the duration of treatment) 5. The relative volume of acid (a relatively large volume of acid as related to the volume of seed is likely to reduce the time required for treatment.) After soaking, the seed is removed from the acid and rinsed under running water for at least 10 minutes. The seeds can be sown possibly after soaking in water to enhance imbibition or re-dried and stored for a period. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. Family: Mimosaceae Common Name: Khair General: Khair is a small to moderate sized deciduous tree, 12-15 m in height, 0.6-0.9 m in girth. Bark is dark brown and red inside. Leaves bipinnate, 10 to 18 cm long with 20-40 pairs of pin nae. *Acacia catechu* var. *Catechu* is found chiefly in Ganjam district, Koraput district, Angul District, Cuttack District of Orissa. Flowering: Flowers pale yellow, sessile, in long solitary or in groups of 2-4 axillary spikes. Flowers appear in July-September. Fruiting: Pods ripen in December. Morphology of fruit/seed: Pod 10-15cm by 2-3 cm, thin, straight, flat, glabrous, dark-brown and shining when mature; seeds 3-8, about 5 mm diameter, ovate, dark-greenish, smooth, shining, moderately hard with a hard testa. Seed Collection Time: November-December or early January and even late February. Collection Method: Pods are collected off the trees or by lopping twigs. Extraction: The pods are dried in the sun and then threshed to separate seeds (Refer to page no. 14 (Extraction of seed from dry dehiscent fruits). Storage: Stored in air-tight containers for 1-2 year. Seed Biology: | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Time taken for germination in days | |----------------------|------------------------|-----------------------------------| | 40,000 | 70 to 80 | 7 to 15 | Pre-treatment: - Soaking in cooling boiled water for six hours is more effective. - For soaking in cold water, the time recommended is 24 hrs. - Acid treatment is reported to be the best treatment for germinating the seeds of *Acacia catechu*. **Adina cordifolia** (Roxb.) Benth (*Syn. Haldina cordifolia*) **Family:** Rubiaceae **Common Name:** Kurum, Haldu **General:** It is a species of deciduous forests, found throughout Odisha. It usually grows on sandy loam and clayey loam soils. Identified by greyish bark, interpetiolar stipules and cordate (Heart shaped shell), shortly acuminate leaves. ![Fig. 27: *A. cordifolia* flowering](image) **Flowering:** Yellow pedunculate globose heads appear from June to August. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from February to May. Heads turn yellowish-black when they are ripe. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Capsules in globose heads of 200 to 300, each splitting into 2 dehiscent cocci. Seeds about 6 in each cell, brown with numerous minute longitudinal wrinkles, one end tapering to a point and the other terminating in a pair of appendages. Seeds are extremely minute. **Collection Time:** February – March **Extraction:** Winnowing (Refer page. 16 (Dewinging)). **Storage:** Seeds can be stored for the second season. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings per kg of seeds | Time taken for germination in days | |----------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | 11000000 to 11800000 | 30 to 40 | 3300000 to 4720000 | 10 to 15 | **Pre-treatment:** No pre-treatment is required. **Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa.** **Family:** Rutaceae **Common Name:** Bel **General:** It is common in moist forests. It is characterized by a trifoliate leaf, the presence of axillary spines, and soft, grey bark exfoliating in irregular flakes. It is found typically on stiff, dry, clayey, and alluvial soils. ![Fig. 30: *A. marmelos* tree bearing fruits](image) **Flowering:** Dull white flowers appear in March-May. **Fruiting:** Fruits appear immediately but ripen in the summer of the following year. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Fruit is 5 to 18 cm dia., globose, grey or yellowish woody rind having a mass of orange-coloured sweet aromatic pulp. Seeds are numerous, oblong, compressed with a wooly mucous testa, embedded in clear mucilage. **Seed Collection Time:** April- May. **Extraction:** The ripened fruits are collected and the hard rind is broken to get the pulp which on continuous washing gives the seeds. **Storage:** The seeds lose viability after drying, and hence cannot be stored for a longer duration. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | Germination period in days | |----------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------| | 5300 | 56 | 2120 | 10 to 25 | **Pre-treatment:** No pre-treatment is required. For better germination soaking in cold water for 12 hours is recommended. **Anogeissus acuminata** (Roxb. Ex DC.) Guilum. & Perr. **Family:** Combretaceae **Common Name:** Passi, Phansi **General:** It is a deciduous tree with a narrow crown and can grow up to 40m. The long, straight bole is unbuttressed and can be 100 cm in diameter. A deciduous tree with rough dark grey bark and drooping branches. Leaves gland-dotted. The tree is harvested from the wild for timber. Its habitat is tropical lowland open forests or semi-deciduous forests at elevations below 700m. It is found particularly in deep, humus-rich, and loamy soils. ![Fig. 33: *A. acuminata* flowering](image) **Flowering:** Flowers are greenish yellow-white in solitary or rarely paired heads, heads 1.2-1.9cm dia. **Fruiting:** Fruits winged, brownish red, 6-8mm in diam. 2 wings, membranous. **Morphology of fruit/seeds:** **Seed collection, extraction, and storage:** Yet to be standardized **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Seedlings per Kg. of seed | Germination period in days | |----------------------|-----------------------|---------------------------|----------------------------| | Yet to be studied | | | | **Pretreatment:** Yet to be standardized **Anogeissus latifolia** (Roxb. Ex DC.) Guilum. & Perr. **Family:** Combretaceae **Common Name:** Dhaura, Axlewood **General:** It occurs widely throughout Odisha as a principal species of dry deciduous forest. Identified by greenish or greyish spotted white bark exfoliating in irregular rounded scales and copper red foliage in cold weather. The species is recommended for plantation in sandy loams, poor arid kankar soils, and alluvial soils. It avoids badly drained ground and soil with low pH and very little calcium. It is a light demander, fire resistant, and produces copious root suckers. ![Fig. 34: *A. latifolia* flowers](image) **Flowering:** Greenish-yellow flowers in small globose heads appear in December - January and June-July. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen in January-February and July-August. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** The fruit is a drupe, 0.85 cm across, compressed, nearly orbicular, narrowly 2 winged, imbricate arranged in a globose head, yellowish brown, crowned by persistent calyx tubes which are modified into a stiff beak. **Seed Collection Time:** January- February and July- August **Extraction:** Beating off the branches (Refer to page no. 14 (Extraction of seed from dry dehiscent fruits)) **Storage:** Seeds should be sown immediately after drying. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Seedlings per Kg. of seed | Germination period in days | |----------------------|------------------------|---------------------------|----------------------------| | 30000 to 40000 | 5 | 1500 | 2 to 15 | **Pre-treatment:** Seeds soaked in cold water for 48 hours give better germination. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Family: Moraceae Common Name: Panasa, Jack fruit General: It is grown by tribals and farmers for its fruits. It grows on a variety of soils. Identified by thickly coriaceous, dark green, shining leaves and fruits developing on the stem. Flowering: November to December. Fruiting: Fruit ripens from July to August. Morphology of the fruit/seed: Fruit is a large, fleshy, oblong, more or less globose or cylindric receptacle clothed with fleshy and enlarged perianths and carpels, the tips of which are hardened, appearing as conical spines. Seeds are reniform, greyish, and oily. Seed Collection Time: Rainy season **Extraction:** Ripe fruits are collected during rains and cut open for extraction of seed. **Storage:** Cannot be stored for long, as seeds lose viability very rapidly. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage (fresh seeds) | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|-------------------------------------|----------------------------------| | 45 to 96 | 75 | 30 to 70 | **Pre-treatment:** No pre-treatment is required as the seeds have a soft seed coat. Bridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss. Family: Phyllanthaceae Common Name: Kasi, Panikasi in Odiya General: Found in the forests throughout the state. Identified by rigid coriaceous leaves with straight parallel lateral veins and strong spines on the bark of young stems. It is a drought-hardy species, produces root suckers, and is a good coppicer. Flowering: The lateral clusters of small flowers appear from May to July. Fruiting: Fruit ripens from December to January. Morphology of the fruit/seed: Fruit is a globose, fleshy sweetish drupe, about the size of a pea, purple-black, seated on a hard enlarged calyx. 1 or 2 seeds with fairly thick bony shells. The seeds have brownish papery testa. Seed Collection time: December **Seed Extraction:** Depulping (Refer to page no. 16 (Pulpy fruit)) **Storage:** Cannot store the seeds for a longer duration. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------| | 16000 to 17000 | 60 | 9500 to 10,000 | **Pre-treatment:** Soaking the seeds in cold water for 24 hours. **Buchanania cochinchinensis** (Lour.) M.R. **Family:** Anacardiaceae **Common Name:** Chironji, Charo in Odia **General:** Common in our forests mostly in eroded ravine lands, and occurs with species like *Soyamida febrifuga*. It avoids waterlogged areas, but occurs locally in clay soils. Identified by dark grey crocodile bark with red blaze. A good species to plant on bare hill slopes. It has poor coppicing capacity and produces root suckers sparingly. ![Ripened fruits of B. cochinchinensis](image) *Fig. 41: Ripened fruits of B. cochinchinensis* **Flowering:** Pyramidal panicles of greenish-white flowers appear in January - March. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from April to May and remain on the tree for quite a long time. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Drupe, globose (0.8 to 1.3 cm dia.), black when ripe. Stones hard, 2-valved; seeds biconvex, oily; the fruits and kernels are edible. **Seed Collection Time:** April- May Fig. 42: Seeds of *B. cochinchinensis* **Extraction:** Depulping (Refer to page no. 15 (Extraction of seeds from fleshy fruits)). **Storage:** One year in sealed tins **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | No of seedlings per Kg. of seed | Germination period in days | |----------------------|------------------------|---------------------------------|----------------------------| | 3000 to 5000 | 70 | 2400 to 4250 | 15 to 25 | **Pre-treatment:** Overnight soaking in cold water. Careya arborea Roxb. Family: Lecythidaceae Common Name: Kumbhi, Wild guava General: Found throughout the State in the moister part, and the ravines and valleys. It is abundant in the Mayurbhanj district, Sambalpur district. It is identified by leaves turning red in the cold season, dark grey thick bark, and large slow flowers. It occurs both on alluvial soils and loams. It also occurs on lateritic soils. It is a fire-resistant species. It is a good coppicer. Flowering: Yellowish or greenish-white flowers which are large and emit a fetid smell appear in March and April when trees are without leaves. Fruiting: The fruits ripen in June to July. Morphology of the fruit /seed: Berry, globose, 5 to 6.5 cm in diameter, rind thick, crowned with the limb of the calyx. Seeds numerous, embedded in fleshy pulp, scattered. Fruits Collection Time: June-July Seed Extraction: Depulping is to be done to get the clean seed (Refer to page no. 16 (Pulpy fruits). Storage: Cannot be stored for more than 15 days. Seed Biology | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------| | 2822 | 30 | 800 (approx.) | Pre-treatment: Soaking seeds in 500ppm IBA for 10 minutes (Sharma and Krishnamurthy, 2016). **Cleistanthus collinus** (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook. f. **Family:** Phyllanthaceae **Common Name:** Karada **General:** It is a small tree with bright green foliage, reaching not more than 10 m in height. Bark dark brown, almost black, rough, exfoliating in small woody rectangular scale and red inside. It is one of the commonest trees in some of the dry types of mixed forests in the Indian peninsula up to the Ganges in the north and Chota Nagpur. It is a common tree in Singhbhum, Chanda, and Satpura ranges. ![Fig. 46: *C. collinus* fruits](image) **Flowering:** Flowers yellowish-green, in small axillary silky clusters, calyx lobes lanceolate. The new leaves and flowers appear in April-May. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen in October-April. **Morphology of fruit/seed:** Capsule woody, sessile, globose, 3 rarely 4-lobed, 1.8 cm diameter, dark brown, shining. Seeds three. **Seed Collection Time:** November-December **Extraction:** Yet to be standardized **Storage:** Yet to be standardized **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Seedlings per Kg. of seed | Germination period in days | |----------------------|------------------------|---------------------------|----------------------------| | Yet to be studied | | | | **Pre-treatment:** Soaking in cold water for 24 hrs or seeds can be treated with 500ppm GA₃ for 14 hours. **Dalbergia sissoo** Roxb. ex DC. **Family:** Fabaceae **Common Name:** Shisham, Bali sissoo **General:** It is not indigenous but is frequently planted on roadsides. Recommended for plantations on sandy and gravelly alluvium soils on the beds of the river. It avoids stiff clay, preferring porous soil of sand, pebbles, and boulders. It is identified by somewhat crooked bole acuminate leaves. ![Fig. 48: *D. sissoo* flower](image) **Flowering:** White flowers in short panicles appear from March to April. **Fruiting:** Although fruits are formed early, they mature from December to January. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Pods 5 to 7.5 cm long, strap-shaped, pale-brown, glabrous, indehiscent, 1 to 4 seeded. Seeds 6-8 mm by 4-5 mm in size, kidney-shaped, thin, flat, light brown with a papery testa. **Seed Collection Time:** November to March **Extraction:** By hand (Refer page no. 14 (Extraction of seed from dry dehiscent fruits)). **Storage:** Well-dried and moisture-protected pods can be kept for 3 years without much loss in viability. **Seed Biology:** | No. of pods per kg. | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Germination period in days | |---------------------|----------------------|-----------------------|----------------------------| | 16000 to 18000 | 50000 to 53000 | 90 to 100 | 8 to 20 | **Pre-treatment:** Not required. However, for hastening germination, soak the seeds in cold water for 24 hours. Gmelina arborea Roxb. Family: Lamiaceae Common Name: Gambhari, Beechwood, White Teak General: It is found throughout the state mainly in deciduous forests but never occurs gregariously. Identified by light grey bark, broad-ovate acuminate leaves with cordate base, and the presence of 2 to 4 shining prominent glands on the undersurface of the leaves between the primary nerves. It shows a preference for fertile, deep, well-drained, sandy loam soils in moist valleys. Flowering: The panicle of yellow tubular flowers appears from February to March when the tree is leafless. Fruiting: Fruits ripen from the end of April to June. Morphology of the fruit/seed: The fruit is an ovoid, yellow, succulent drupe, 1.8 to 2.5 cm long, having a sweetish pulp and enclosing a hard bony stone. The stone is 1.5 to 1.8 cm long, ovoid, pointed at one end, usually 2-seeded. Seed Collection Time: April to June. **Extraction:** Depulping (Refer to page no. 16 (Pulpy fruits)). **Storage:** Seeds can be stored for one year. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Plant percent | Period of germination in days | |----------------------|------------------------|---------------|------------------------------| | 4500-5000 | 70 to 80 | 60-70 | 10 to 15 | **Pre-treatment:** Pre-treatment of seeds is not necessary. Pre-germination in damp sand is sometimes practiced. Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. Family: Tiliaceae Common Name: Dhaman General: Dhaman is a moderate-sized to large tree, attaining a bole length of about 30 ft. and a girth of 7 ft. or more. Bark grey or dark brown. The leaves of dhaman are oblique heart-shaped. Flowering: Yellow flowers appear in April-June. Fruiting: Fruits ripen in September-October. Morphology of fruit/seeds: A drupe, globose two-lobed, slightly hairy, red when ripe. Each fruit contains 2-4 Seeds. Seed Collection Time: March to May. **Extraction:** By rubbing and washing (Refer to page no. 16 (Mucilaginous seeds)). **Storage:** Can be stored up to one year. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Time taken for germination in days | |----------------------|------------------------|-----------------------------------| | 12,000 to 15,000 | 65 to 85 | 15 to 20 | **Pre-treatment:** No pre-sowing treatment is necessary and untreated seeds are reported to give better germination than those treated in cold, hot, or boiling water. **Lagerstroemia parviflora** Roxb. **Family:** Lythraceae **Common Name:** Sidha **General:** It is a very common tree both in the moist and dry deciduous forest of Odisha. It is a light demander, drought resistant, good coppicer, non-browsable and fire-resistant species. It comes up in a variety of soils including black cotton. It thrives best on deep porous loam but does not stand water logging. ![Sidha fruits](image) *Fig. 54: Sidha fruits* **Flowering:** White flowers in panicles appear from April to June. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from December to February. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Fruit is a coriaceous capsule surrounded below by a persistent calyx; oblong, 2.0 to 3 cms long, 3 to 4 celled, 3 to 6 valved. Seeds are winged. **Seed Collection Time:** February Fig. 55: Dried capsules of *L. parviflora* **Extraction:** By beating and cleaning (Refer page no. 14 (Extraction of seed from dry dehiscent fruits)). **Storage:** Seed viability is very low. **Seed biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Time for germination in days | |----------------------|------------------------|------------------------------| | 28200 to 56400 | 2 | 10 to 15 | **Pre-treatment:** Soaking in cold water for 24 hours. **Madhuca indica** (Roxb.) A. Chev. **Family:** Sapotaceae **Common Name:** Mahua, Mahula, Butter tree **General:** It is found throughout Odisha, being a characteristic tree of moist dry mixed deciduous forest. It prefers sandy soil but also grows on shallow, boulder soils. Identified by the exudation of milky latex and clustering of leaves at the ends of the branches. It is a drought-hardy species. ![Fig. 56: *M. indica* flowers](image) **Flowering:** February to April. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from June to July. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** The fruit is a green egg-shaped fleshy berry, 2.5 to 5.0 cm long, containing 1 to 4 brown polished seeds 1 to 3 cm long. **Seed Collection Time:** Ripe fruits are collected by shaking the branches in July. **Extraction:** Depulping (Refer to page no. 16 (Pulpy fruits)). **Storage:** Seed loses its viability quickly on storage. **Seed biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | Time taken for germination in days | |----------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | 750 | 13 to 57 | 220 | 10 | **Pre-treatment:** No per-treatment is required. For better germination soaking in cold water for 12 hours is recommended. **Mesua ferrea L.** **Family:** Calophyllaceae **Common Name:** Nagkesar, Ceylon ironwood **General:** A medium-sized to large, handsome, evergreen tree, often buttressed at the base, usually attaining a height up to 24 m and a girth up to 2.4 m. Bark grey and smooth, warty in young trees, dark-brown in mature trees, exfoliating in large white flakes exposing the warty, reddish-brown inner surface. It is a common constituent of the tropical rain forests in the western ghats from S. Konkan downwards. In Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal it is found locally. ![Fig. 59: M. ferrea flower](image) **Flowering:** Flowers are white, hermaphrodite or polygamous, fragrant, 2 to 10 cm across axillary, solitary, or sometimes in pairs. Flowers appear in February - April. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen in August-October. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** The fruit is an ovoid to globose capsule with 1-4 seeds. Seeds up to 2.5 cm x 1.8 cm in size, with a dark brown shining testa, cotyledons fleshy, oily, and pale yellow. **Seed Collection Time:** Middle of July to the beginning of September. Mature fruits are collected from the ground. Fig. 60: a. & b. Mature and dry fruits, c. Close-up of dry fruits, d. 1-seeded fruit, e. 2-seeded fruit (Samareddy and Aluri, 2021) **Extraction:** By threshing. (Refer to page no. 14 (Extraction of seeds from dry indehiscent fruits)) **Storage:** 5 months to 1 year in gunny bags. **Seed biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Plant percentage | Time taken for germination in days | |---------------------|-----------------------|-----------------|-----------------------------------| | 239-270 | 70 to 95 | 46 to 70 | 21 days (3 weeks) | **Pre-treatment:** Seed soaked in cold water for 24 hours hastens germination. No treatment is given to propagules before planting (freshly collected seeds with dark brown colour give about 100% germination). Michelia champaca L. Family: Magnoliaceae Common Name: Champa General: A beautiful tree frequently cultivated around temples and gardens. It occurs on deep moist, well drained good quality soil. Identified by grey bark, straight bole, convolute bud, dark shining lanceolate leaves. Flowering: Yellow flowers appear from March-April and thereafter at intervals. Fruiting: Fruits ripen in July. Morphology of fruit/seeds: Fruit is borne on a spiral cluster (6-30cm long) that hangs down. Each cluster consists of 6-40 individual fruit. Each ripe fruit consists of 2-6 seeds. Seed is covered with red/pink flesh and hangs freely on a thin white thread. Seed Collection Time: August to September **Extraction:** Depulping (Refer to page no. 15 (Extraction of seed from fleshy fruits)). **Storage:** Seeds lose viability rapidly. **Seed biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage (fresh seeds) | Time taken for germination in days | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|-------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | 1000 | 70 to 80 | 10 to 14 | 700-800 | **Pre-treatment:** Soaking seeds in cold water for 12 hours gives better germination. **Mitragyna parvifolia** (Roxb.) Korth. **Family:** Rubiaceae **Common Name:** Mundi, Kaim, Ghorkaram **General:** It is widely occurring throughout Odisha. It is identified by grey bark with shallow depressions and smaller leaves compared to *Adina cordifolia*. It attains its best development on the well-drained ground with deep soils. It often grows more or less gregariously on low-lying ground with clayey soil, around the edges of tanks and swamps. It is also recommended for plantations in black cotton soils and on the alluvial ground near rivers. ![Fig. 63: *M. parvifolia* tree bearing fruits](image) **Flowering:** Flowers in capitates heads (2 cm diameter) appear in June and July. Flowers are white or pale yellow. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from November to January. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Capsules arranged in globose heads, each with 2-follicular cocci; seeds many, winged. **Seed Collection Time:** December to January **Extraction:** By winnowing. (Refer to page no. 16 (Dewinging). **Storage:** Low viability and should be sown immediately. **Seed biology:** | No. of seeds per gm. | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings/kg of seeds | Germination period in days | |----------------------|------------------------|------------------------------|----------------------------| | 10000 | 56 | 5600 | 30 to 130 | **Pre-treatment:** Seed germinates without any pre-treatment. **Morinda tinctoria** Roxb. **Family:** Rubiaceae **Common Name:** Aal **General:** It is a small evergreen shrub or tree growing to 5-10m tall throughout the tropics. The tree grows in shady forests as well as open rocky or sandy shores. The leaves are long, and oblong to lanceolate. ![Fig. 65: *M. tinctoria* plant bearing fruits](image) **Flowering:** Flowers are tubular, white, scented, and 2 cm long. **Fruiting:** The fruit, classified as a syncarp, is light green when unripe and yellowish-white when ripe; it is up to about 14 cm long, 8 cm in diameter, and is soft and fleshy, with a fetid odour. **Seed Collection Time:** Fallen fruit from the ground. **Extraction:** Depulping (Refer to page no. 15 (Extraction of seed from fleshy fruits)). Storage: Dried seeds can be stored for up to 6 months after which the viability of seeds declines rapidly. Seed Biology: | No. of seeds per kg | Germination percentage | Number of seedlings per kg of seed | |---------------------|------------------------|-----------------------------------| | 40000 (Approx.) | 90% | 36000 | Pre-treatment: Scarification is done to seeds to reduce the germination time and to increase germination percentage. Phyllanthus emblica L. Family: Phyllanthaceae Common Name: Amla General: It is a common species of dry deciduous forests. It is identified by greenish-grey bark exfoliating in small irregular patches and light green feathery foliage. Recommended for afforestation on dry rocky areas and refractory sites. It is a light demander and sensitive to drought. It coppices well and produces root suckers. Flowering: Greenish-yellow flowers in dense panicles develop along the leaf-bearing branchlets from March to May. Fruiting: Fruit ripens from October to February. Morphology of the fruit/seed: Fruit fleshy, globose, 1-2 cm in diameter, pale yellow, sometimes reddish when ripe, 3-celled, 6-seeded, Seeds reniform, shining, reddish brown, small. Seed Collection Time: January **Extraction:** Depulping (Refer page:16 (Pulpy fruits)). **Storage:** Cannot store the seeds, as viability decreases drastically with time. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per kg. | Germination percentage | Time taken for germination in days | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|------------------------|-----------------------------------|----------------------------------| | 8000-9000 | 40-50% | 25 to 30 | 3200 - 4500 | **Pre-treatment:** No pre-treatment is necessary. But it is better to put in cowdung slurry for 48 hours. **Pongamia pinnata** (L.) Pierre **Family:** Fabaceae **Common Name:** Karanja, Malapari **General:** *Pongamia pinnata* is a legume tree that grows to about 15-25 m in height with a large canopy that spreads equally wide. It may be deciduous for short periods. It has a straight 50-80 cm (20-30 in) diameter with grey-brown bark, which is smooth or vertically fissured. ![Fig. 69: *P. pinnata* flowers](image) **Flowering:** Flowering generally starts after 3-4 years with small clusters of white, purple, and pink flowers blossoming throughout the year. Flowers appear in May-June. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen in Dec-Jan. **Morphology of fruit and seed:** The brown seed pods appear immediately after flowering and mature in 10 to 11 months. The pods contain within them one or two bean-like brownish-red seeds. The seeds are about 1.5–2.5 cm (0.6–0.9 in) long with a brittle, oily coat, and are unpalatable in natural form to herbivores. **Seed Collection Time:** April to June Extraction: Threshing by hand (Refer page no. 14 (Extraction of seed from dry indehiscent fruits)). Storage: 6-12 months Seed Biology: | No. of seeds per kg | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings per kg of seeds | |---------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------| | 1500-1700 | 40 | 600-680 | Pre-treatment: Soaking of seeds in hot water at 60°C for 30 minutes increases the germination. **Pterocarpus marsupium** Roxb. **Family:** Fabaceae **Common Name:** Bijasal, Indian kino, Malabar kino **General:** It is a common tree of the moist and dry deciduous forests of Odisha. Identified by imparipinnate (5-7 leaflets), coriaceous, dark green, shining leaves, and exudation of red juice from the bark on incisions. It grows better on well-drained alluvial and sandy loam to loamy soils. ![Fig. 73: Unripened fruits of *P. marsupium*](image) **Flowering:** Golden yellow flowers with dark calyx in large panicles appear from June to October. The flowering season is short. **Fruiting:** Pods ripen from December to March and become dark reddish brown in colour and remain on the tree up to end of May. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Pods flat, orbicular, winged, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, 1-seeded, indehiscent. **Seed Collection Time:** February to May Fig. 74: Ripened fruits of *P. marsupium* **Extraction:** No extraction required, directly sown after drying. **Storage:** Pods are dried and stored in gunny bags. Viability is retained for one year. **Seed Biology:** | No. of pods per Kg. | Germination percentage | No. of days for germination | No. of seedlings per Kg. | |---------------------|------------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------| | 2000 | 45 to 50 | 30-40 | 1000 | **Pre-treatment:** Soaking the seeds for 72 hours in cold water or in cowdung slurry for 48 hours. **Pterocarpus santalinus** L.f. **Family:** Fabaceae **Common Name:** Rakta chandan, Red sander **General:** It is endemic to Koraput District of Odisha. Recommended for plantation on lateritic loam, quartzite shale and limestone. It requires perfect drainage and is found mainly on stony or gravelly soils. ![Fig.75: *P. santalinus* flowers](image) **Flowering:** Flowers in yellow terminal panicles appear in February-March. **Fruiting:** Pods are formed rapidly but get ripened in next March-April. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Pods obliquely orbicular, 3 to 4 cm in diam. Including the wing, gradually narrowed into a short stipe. Seeds one per pod, 1 to 1.5 cm long, reddish brown with a smooth leathery testa. **Seed Collection Time:** March to May. Collection is carried out from the tree or ground. Extraction: Extraction is not required, matured seeds are directly sown. Storage: Seeds are dried in the sun for 3 days, and stored in gunny bags. Seeds retain viability for a year easily. Seed Biology: | No. of pods per Kg. | Germination percentage | Plant percent | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |---------------------|------------------------|---------------|----------------------------------| | 900 to 1400 | 50 to 60 | 30 to 40 | 270 to 560 | Pre-treatment: Soaking in cold water for 72 hours or soaking in cowdung slurry for 72 hours. **Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels** **Family:** Myrtaceae **Common Name:** Jamun **General:** It is a large evergreen tree widely distributed in Odisha. Found along streams and in damp and even in marshy localities, where it is often gregarious. Identified by the fibrous red blaze, intramarginal venation, and channeled petiole. Recommended for plantation on alluvial soil of varying texture, clayey soils, and loamy sands. ![Fig. 77: S. cumini tree bearing fruits](image) **Flowering:** Dirty white fragrant flowers in trichotomous panicles appear in March-May. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from June to August. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Fruit is a drupe, variable in size, oblong or sub-globose, crowned with a persistent truncated calyx limb, first pink, then black with a pink juicy mesocarp. The seed is usually 1, which is 1 to 2 cm long. **Seeds Collection Time:** June – July **Extraction:** Depulping (Refer to page no. 16 (pulpy fruits)). **Storage:** Seed lose viability within 15 days, so it should be used immediately. **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Plant percent | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|------------------------|---------------|----------------------------------| | 1100 to 1300 | 90 | 56 | 640 | **Pre-treatment:** Soaking of seeds in warm water for 12 hours. **Terminalia alata** Heyne ex Roth. **Family:** Combretaceae **Common Name:** Asana **General:** It is the most common and most widely distributed. Identified by crocodile skin bark, red blaze, and stick-like glands at the base on the backside of the leaf. Development of the tree is best on deep, rich alluvial soils but it avoids sandy soil. Silviculturally, it is regarded as suitable for afforestation on clayey soils. ![Fig. 80: *T. alata* tree bearing fruits](image) **Flowering:** The panicle spikes of small whitish flowers appear from May to June. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from February to April. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Fruit is an indehiscent drupe, 3.5 to 5.0 by 1.3 to 2.5 cm in size with 5 coriaceous wings and marked with numerous horizontal lines running from the axis to the edges which are thin and irregularly crenulate. Fruits turn brown when ripe. **Seed Collection Time:** By lopping off branches, after the tree becomes leafless. **Extraction:** Matured fruits are sown directly; seed extraction is not required. **Storage:** Dried under the sun for 3-4 days and stored in gunny bags. **Viability:** One year **Seed Biology:** | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Time taken for germination in days | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|------------------------|-----------------------------------|----------------------------------| | 550 | 36 to 70 | 15 to 30 | 240 to 250 | **Pre-treatment:** Seeds are sometimes heaped together and watered daily; when the seeds begin to sprout, they are removed and sown. The fruits are soaked in cold water for 48 hours. **Terminalia arjuna** (Roxb. ex Dc.) Wight & Arn. **Family:** Combretaceae **Common Name:** Arjuna **General:** Distributed throughout Odisha, frequenting the banks of the water courses. Identified by thick grey smooth bark, exfoliating in large thin irregular sheets and buttressed trunk. It thrives best on loose moist, fertile alluvial loams and light deep sandy soils, often overlying more or less impervious rock. The soil should have ample water supplies but should normally be well-drained. The soil under this tree becomes rich in calcium as the leaves are rich in this element. ![Fig. 83: T. arjuna tree flowering](image) **Flowering:** The panicle spikes of white flowers appear from April to July. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from the following February to May. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** The fruit is a drupe, 2.5 cm long, ovate, thick with 5 rigid, longitudinal wings, 0.6 cm broad, the fruit is often notched near the top, marked with oblique upward curving striations. **Seed Collection Time:** Collection is done by lopping twigs/from ground in the month of March. Extraction: Seeds are sown directly and seed extraction is not required. Storage: Viable for one year and stored in sealed tins. Seed Biology: | No. of fruits per Kg. | Germination percentage (Untreated seeds) | Germination percentage (Treated seeds) | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|----------------------------------------|---------------------------------------|----------------------------------| | 175 to 1450 | 50 to 60 | 90 | 60 to255 | Pre-treatment: Soak the seeds in cool water for 48 hours; or cover the seeds with boiling water, allow them to cool, and soak for 24 hours. **Terminalia bellirica** (Gaertn.) Roxb. **Family:** Combretaceae **Common Name:** Baheda **General:** It is found in all dry deciduous forests of Odisha. Identified by bluish-grey or ash-coloured bark and leaves clustered towards the end of the branches. It is found in different types of soils. ![Fig. 86: *T. bellirica* tree bearing fruits](image) **Flowering:** Pale greenish, white flowers with a strong honey smell appear from April to June along with the new leaves. **Fruiting:** Fruits ripen from November to February. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Fruit is a dry fleshy drupe, 1.3 to 1.9 cm in diameter, globose or ovoid, covered with grey-velvety wooly hairs with a hard thick-walled light-yellow putamen, 1-seeded, surrounded by a green tissue. **Seed Collection Time:** February Collection: By lopping off branches or from the ground. Extraction: Depulping manually (Refer page no. 16, (Stone fruit)). Storage: Dried under sunlight before storage and can be stored for one year. Seed biology: | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seed | |----------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------| | 400 to 450 | 65 to 70 | 200 to 225 | Pre-treatment: To soften the hard seed coat, the seed is soaked in mild hot water for 24 hrs. Terminalia chebula Retz. Family: Combretaceae Common Name: Harada General: The tree is found mostly in mixed dry deciduous forests. It is capable of growing on different types of soils but attains best development on loose well-drained soils, such as sandy loam as well as clayey loam. Identified by dark brown bark exfoliating in irregular woody scales and the presence of pair of large glands at the top of the petiole. Flowering: Spikes of greenish-white flowers appear in April-June. Fruiting: Fruits ripen from January-March and fall soon after ripening. Morphology of the fruit/seed: The ovoid, yellow to orange-brown fruits are 2.5 to 4.0 cm long. Usually 5-angled when dry. Stone very thick, bony, obscurely angled, rough, and grooved, having gum vessels on the wall. Seed Collection Time: January to March Collection: Seeds are collected as soon as they fall on the ground. Extraction: By depulping manually (Refer to page. 16 (Stone fruits)). Storage: Seeds can be stored in gunny bags for one year Seed Biology: | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | No. of seedlings per Kg. of fruit | Period of germination in days | |----------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------------------| | 140 to 160 | 60 | 84 to 96 | 15 to 30 | Pre-treatment: The seeds should be either treated by fermentation process for a period of 15 to 20 days, or the seeds may be clipped at its broad end and then soaked in water for a period of 2 days and then sown in nursery beds. **Xylia xylocarpa** (Roxb.) Taub. **Family:** Fabaceae **Common Name:** Kangada **General:** It is one of the chief associates of teak and is found to the east of the Tel river and in the Sabari basin. It is identified by reddish-grey bark exfoliating in large irregular flakes, leaves with one pair of pinnae at the end of the common petiole with a gland at the apex. Recommended for plantations on shallow, rocky, laterite soils. It does not grow well on black cotton soil. ![Fig. 90: X. xylocarpa flowering](image) **Flowering:** Pale yellow-coloured, sweet-scented flowers in long pedunculate globose heads appear from March to April. **Fruiting:** The thick, flat pods ripen during the ensuing cold season and the seeds fall from March to April. **Morphology of the fruit/seed:** Pods 10 to 15 cm by 2.5 to 6.0 cm in size, flat, woody, falcate-oblong, light brown, globose, and elastically dehiscent. Seeds 6 to 10, ovoid, compressed, 1.3 to 1.6 cm by 0.5 to 10 cm in size, brown, polished. **Seed Collection Time:** March – April Extraction: The pods are dried in the sun to open and seeds are collected which are dried and stored. (Refer to page. 14 (Extraction of seed from dry dehiscent fruits)). Storage: Seeds can be stored up to one year. Seed Biology: | No. of seeds per Kg. | Germination percentage | Period of Germination in days | No. of seedlings per Kg. of seeds | |----------------------|------------------------|-------------------------------|----------------------------------| | 3350 | 90 | 7 to 15 | 2700 | Pre-treatment: Pre soaking of seeds in cold water for 12 hours. Literature cited Baadsgard, J. and F. Stubsgard (1989). Seed Collection. Lecture Notes No. C-4. Danida Forestry Service. Humlebak, Denmark. Briscoe, C.B. (1990). Field Trials Manual for Multipurpose Tree Species. No. 3, Second Edition. Winrock International. Arlington, USA. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Ford Foundation (1990). Agroforestry Technology Information Kit. IIRR. New York and Silang, The Philippines. ICFRE, 2019. Forest Seed Management, ICFRE Manual. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun. India. Malakand Social Forestry Project (1990). Nursery Techniques Training Manual. DHV Consultants. The Netherlands. Mbonye, Arsen and Kihisa Kiambe (1986). How to Collect, Handle, and Store Seeds. KENGO. Nairobi, Kenya. Phothai, Monthee 1985. Reforestation. Reforestation Unit, Forest Industries Organization. Bangkok, Thailand. Priyadarshani, N. D. N. & Kumarasinghe, H. K. M. S. 2013. Effect of different seed treatments and growing media on Cleistanthus collinus Roxb. (Gaja Mandara). Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Minor Fruits and Medicinal Plants for Better Lives (2nd ISMF & MP), University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka, 20 December 2013 pp. 219-223 ref. 2. Samareddy, S. N. and Aluri, J. S. N. (2021). Reproductive ecology of Mesua ferrea, a tropical evergreen tree species from India. Phytologia Balcanica. 27(1): 3-21. Sharma, A. and Krishnamurthy, G. (2016). Species conservation through applied seed research with special reference to Careya arborea (Kumbhi): A high value lesser known medicinal tree species of central India. International Journal of Advances in Sciences Engineering and Technology. 4(4): 62-66. United Nations International Labour Organization (1989). Tree Nurseries. Special Public Works Programme, Booklet No. 6. ILO. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.fao.org/3/ad226e/AD226E08.htm https://www.indiabiodiversity.org https://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/crop-production/package-of-practices/medicinal-and-aromatic-plants https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/horti_medicinal_crops.html Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education (An autonomous body under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change) P.O. New Forest, Dehradun - 248006 (Uttarakhand)
ff26f11d-404e-4901-b9dc-a52d161e466b
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://odishaforest.in/admin/data/documents/publication_file_1191526755.pdf
2024-07-23T10:56:44+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763518029.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20240723102757-20240723132757-00031.warc.gz
388,359,944
23,885
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.941859
eng_Latn
0.997739
[ "eng_Latn", "dag_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 238, 719, 1554, 3709, 5255, 7080, 10308, 12625, 16578, 19496, 19556, 22328, 22525, 23786, 24902, 25839, 26815, 27734, 28023, 30358, 32782, 33666, 34864, 36143, 36255, 38778, 40754, 42406, 43637, 44344, 45220, 46022, 46947, 47498, 48302, 49031, 50313, 51446, 52048, 52705, 53280, 54015, 54488, 55440, 56025, 56889, 57404, 58335, 58863, 59728, 60367, 61279, 61822, 62336, 62915, 63714, 64231, 65008, 65644, 66786, 67614, 68319, 68966, 69928, 70470, 71238, 71738, 72524, 73161, 74156, 74643, 75522, 76166, 76992, 77596, 78492, 79033, 80012, 80766, 81867, 82585, 83395, 83968, 84796, 85592, 86642, 87295, 87313, 89438, 89616 ]
[ 1.2890625, 2.21875 ]
1
0
School Science A Quarterly Journal of SCIENCE EDUCATION Vol. 58 No. 2 June 2020 TPACK with its Components © 2023. Copyright of the articles published in the Journal will vest with the NCERT and no matter may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of the NCERT. Editorial Advisory Board Sunita Farkya Professor, DESM, NCERT Ashok Kumar Shrivastava Professor and Head, Emeritus, Netaji Subhash University of Technology, Formerly NSIT, New Delhi Hukum Singh Professor (Retired), DESM, NCERT V.B. Bhatia Professor (Retired), Department of Physics, Delhi University Vinod Kumar Lecturer, Cranfield University, United Kingdom Vibha Bansal Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry University of Puerto Rico, Cayey, Puerto Rico Academic Editor C. V. Shimray Professor Associate, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi Editorial Group (Academic) Rachan Garg Professor, DESM, NCERT A. K. Wazalwar Professor, DESM, NCERT Anjni Koul Professor, DESM, NCERT Publication Team* A. K. Rajput Head, Publication Division Bijnan Sutar Chief Editor [In charge] Vipin Dewan Chief Business Manager Arun Chitkara Chief Production Officer Atul Saxena Production Officer Cover and Layout Design Ashwini Tyagi * This issue is printed in October 2023 | Page | Title | Authors | |------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------| | 3 | Editorial | | | 5 | Study of Effectiveness of the Argument-driven Inquiry Pedagogy in Science Classrooms of India | Anirban Mukherjee, Plaban Kumar Bhowmick, Saddam Khan and Chinmoy Kumar Ghosh | | 24 | Designing Lesson Plan in Science Based on TPACK Framework | K. V. Sridevi | | 35 | Gandhi and the Idea of Sustainability—Implications for Science Education | Astha Saxena | | 50 | Can Graphic Organisers Enhance Science Achievement in School Students? | M. Balamurugan | | 65 | A Study of School Students’ Knowledge about Climate Change Science in India | Chong Shimray and Shrishail E Shirol | | 79 | Commentary: Role of Science in Curriculum | P.C. Agarwal | | 81 | Commentary: Revisiting the Mental Health of School Students | A.S. Vishwanathan | | 83 | Commentary: Expectations in the New Science Curriculum | Jubilee Padmanabhan | | Page | Content | |------|--------------------------| | 85 | Interview with Rahul S. Chatterjee | | 89 | Book Review | | 91 | Science News | In this issue, we are excited to share with you five interesting articles which focus on different aspects of teaching-learning in science. The first article is a first-hand study that was conducted via workshops on Argument-Driven Inquiry (ADI) in physical and biological sciences in both rural and urban schools. This study, which modified the ADI pedagogy for the Indian context, found that it could be a very useful strategy if judiciously amalgamated with the ongoing pedagogy within the constraints of time, space, and infrastructure. The use of technology in the teaching-learning process cannot be overemphasised. However, the use of technology per se will not enhance learning. Therefore, several frameworks have been introduced, and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is one such conceptual framework conceived in order to make the classroom process interactive, and learning meaningful and effective. The second article presents a brief description of how to design and develop a lesson plan based on the TPACK framework. Sustainable development is a relatively new term that became popular more recently with the document “Our Common Future,” popularly known as the Brundtland Commission Report, which was brought out in 1987. However, the idea or the philosophy was already conceived and put into practice by none other than Mahatma Gandhi. The paper “Gandhi and the Idea of Sustainability—Implications for Science Education” elaborates on this and its implications in science education. The fourth article informs how students can use graphic organisers to prepare visual representations for the purpose of remembering, clarifying, and easily relating multiple aspects of concepts and how their achievements can be enhanced in science through this. These findings were based on a study conducted among 75 students studying in Class VIII. Last but not the least, the research paper on climate change presents a study that was conducted to find out school students’ knowledge about climate change science in India. The study also attempts to find out if students having the inclination to science or manifested interest in science subjects possess more knowledge about climate-change science compared to other students. In addition to the articles, the issue also features interesting commentaries, an interview with a remarkable teacher, a book review, and some fascinating news items from the world of science. We hope every section of this issue will be engaging and enriching, and at the same time, it will stimulate your minds and thoughts throughout. As always, being committed to improving the quality of the journal, we welcome any comments or suggestions for its improvement. Happy reading! The following are some of the important features of the Indian Constitution: 1. **Federalism**: The Constitution provides for a federal structure with a strong centre and weaker states. 2. **Unitary**: The Constitution also has unitary features, which means that the powers of the centre are greater than those of the states. 3. **Constitutional Monarchy**: India is a constitutional monarchy, where the king or queen is the head of state but does not have any real power. 4. **Parliamentary System**: The government is based on the parliamentary system, where the executive is responsible to the legislature. 5. **Supremacy of Law**: The Constitution establishes the supremacy of law over all other institutions. 6. **Basic Structure**: The Constitution has a basic structure, which means that certain fundamental rights cannot be amended by the legislature. 7. **Fundamental Rights**: The Constitution guarantees a number of fundamental rights to its citizens, including the right to life and liberty, freedom of speech and expression, and the right to education. 8. **Directive Principles**: The Constitution also includes directive principles, which are guidelines for the government to follow in order to promote social justice and equality. 9. **Amendment Process**: The Constitution can be amended through a special procedure, which requires the approval of both houses of Parliament and a majority of the states. 10. **Judicial Review**: The Supreme Court has the power to review the constitutionality of laws and actions taken by the government. These features make the Indian Constitution a unique and powerful document that has helped to shape the country's political and social landscape. STUDY OF EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ARGUMENT-DRIVEN INQUIRY PEDAGOGY IN SCIENCE CLASSROOMS OF INDIA Anirban Mukherjee*1, Plaban Kumar Bhowmick2, Saddam Khan2 and Chinmoy Kumar Ghosh2 1 National Digital Library of India, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India 2 Teaching Learning Centre, Centre for Educational Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India * Corresponding author email: email@example.com Implementation of Argument-driven Inquiry (ADI) pedagogy in India would face many impediments due to the detrimental alliance of the curricula with its transaction time, infrastructural limitations, and the evaluation system. The teaching-learning system with the sole aim of securing high marks is more prone to rote learning. Hence, we attempted to modify the ADI according to the Indian context, and try out the pedagogy for science classrooms in Indian schools. For this purpose, studies were conducted in the form of workshops for both Physical and Biological Sciences in schools of rural and urban sectors. We have narrated the experiences gathered from the Biological Science workshops in the form of a first-hand case study in this paper. It has been observed from the studies that notwithstanding the impediments, this pedagogy can be very useful for the teachers and the all-important students if it can be judiciously amalgamated with the ongoing teaching strategies within the constraints of time, space and infrastructure. Keywords: Argument, Inquiry, Pedagogy, Classroom, India, School, ADI Introduction Science is the process of generating knowledge thorough investigation into the natural world. Any investigation starts with a question. In finding a solution, we gather data, analyse, argue, and validate a hypothesis. Spirit of inquiry, collaborative work, argumentation, and communication are the fundamental forces driving the scientific community. Every school should bring these in regular practice for all its students from early childhood to develop a scientific temper. In India, the National Curriculum Framework has set the aim for Indian science education to develop creativity, flexibility, and inventiveness in every student of India (National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2005). However, still, we are far from achieving the goal (National University of Educational Planning and Administration, 2014). NCERT formed a “National Focus Group on Teaching of Science” according to their report published in 2006 “… science education, even at its best, develops competence but does not encourage inventiveness and creativity…” (Kumar, et al., 2006). In the last 40 years, lots of researches on science education have come up with the best possible recommendations (Driver, 1975; Fraser, 1998; Hoidn, 2017; Kremer, et al., 2013; Kumar, et al., 2006; K. Kumar, et al., 2001; Larkin, et al., 1980; Lederman, However, India’s real classroom situation remains largely unchanged [Chandran, 2014; Joy, 2014a; Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2016a; Sarangapani, 2014; Sarukkai, 2014; UNESCO Institute for Statistics Database. UIS. Stat., 2018]. Various science education researchers, including [Duschl, 2008; Duschl and Osborne, 2002], have argued for shifting the model of classroom instruction away from the one-way transmission of ideas to models that *inter alia* lay stress on knowledge construction and validation through inquiry, provide increased opportunities to perceive natural phenomena, inspire engagement in critical thinking, and involvement in sharing those ideas with groups. These group activities target creating a classroom community to help students understand scientific explanations. However, in reality, teachers in Indian schools very seldom conduct experiments in classrooms; and even if it is ever done, the experiments are found to emerge mainly from the textbooks overlooking the needs of students, who end up as mere followers [Chandran, 2014; Sarangapani, 2014]. They either follow or watch whatever they are shown. To conduct experiment-based learning in the classroom, the teachers and students need enough space and time to plan an experiment, design its structure, discuss the idea, record data, analyse; and all these pose significant problems [Chandran, 2014; Cheney, et al., 2006; Joy, 2014a; Kumar, et al., 2006; Muralidharan and Kremer, 2008; Sarangapani, 2014; Sarukkai, 2014] in case of overcrowded classrooms of Indian schools (Asian Development Bank, 2018; Cheney et al., 2006; Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2016b, 2016a; National University of Educational Planning and Administration, 2014; National University of Educational Planning and Administration, and Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, 2016; UNESCO Institute for Statistics Database. UIS.Stat., 2018). A well-known fact is, the practice of collaborative study, inquiry-based pedagogy, logical argumentation, and participation of students in setting goals to making decisions are a few of those crucial factors which play vital roles in gaining better student outcomes [Driver, 1975; Duschl, 2008; Duschl and Osborne, 2002; Kumar, et al., 2006; Lederman, 1992; Wellington, 1981]. The USA, UK, and other developing countries have already implemented “inquiry,” and “discovery” approaches in their curricula since the 1960s, but those also have their limitations. They faced logical, psychological, and logistical problems at the time of implementation [Driver, 1975; Kumar, et al., 2006; Wellington, 1981]. Overall, the nature of problems is uniform, with minor accompanying regional variations. Students are still facing problems in connecting observation with inference [Carey, et al., 1989; Sampson, et al., 2015], and this situation is much prevalent in Indian schools. Therefore, a socio-culturally diverse country like India needs a learner-centric pedagogy to sustain its education system. That pedagogy should comprise the essence of a logical blend of a fresh approach with several other inquiry-based pedagogical approaches [Joy, 2014b; Kumar, et al., 2006]. In this context, a pedagogy like Argument-Driven Inquiry or ADI [Sampson, et al., 2010] seems indispensable because it has an inherently balanced approach targeting the overall development of students. In recent days, several attempts are being made to write the textbooks with an inquiry-based approach, but ultimately the inclination remains towards problem-solving rather than creating inquisitiveness among the students [NCERT, n.d.]. A balanced pedagogy like Argument-Driven Inquiry (ADI) is still not practised in Indian classrooms. No research data are found claiming prior use of ADI pedagogy in the Indian education system. For the first time, we are customising the ADI pedagogy according to the Indian context. Many alternations and modifications have been made in this process but without affecting the essence established by Sampson et al., [2010]. This paper will delve into, - introduction of ADI and its contextualisation. - methodology for implementation of ADI in Indian classrooms. - a small-scale deployment of the pedagogy. - a forerunner initiative of a qualitative study of the effects of ADI based on that small-scale deployment in the real classroom of the Indian school. **Materials and Methods** Teaching-learning is a very complex and context-dependent process because of spatial and temporal differences in the condition of classrooms, the mindset of students and teachers, cultures and ethnicities, socio-economic structures, and the curricula too; so one needs to describe it adequately to develop the understanding [Kumar, et al., 2006]. Hence, a descriptive or qualitative approach might be the best way to deliver a comprehensive idea of the overall situation [Berliner, 2007]. **ADI and its Modification** The Argument-Driven Inquiry or ADI pedagogy was first developed and reported by Victor Sampson, et al. [Sampson, et al. 2010]; later, National Science Teaching Association (NSTA) published many books [Sampson, et al. 2015] which they are using as guides towards implementing the pedagogy in classrooms of USA. According to Sampson et al., [2010], this pedagogy was planned “…to change the nature of a traditional laboratory instruction, so students have an opportunity to learn how to develop a method to generate data, to carry out an investigation, use data to answer a research question, write, and be more reflective as they work…” In addition, it creates an opportunity for students to take part in scientific argumentation and peer review process during a lab. However, implementing the ADI pedagogy as it is, suggested by NSTA, might not befit the context of Indian classrooms because: 1. To date, there is very little provision for laboratory work in curricula of many Indian educational boards up to the 10th standard; even if it is there in some instances but rarely are brought into practice [Chandran, 2014; Sarangapani, 2014] due to several limitations discussed earlier in the introduction [Chandran, 2014; Cheney, et al., 2006; Joy, 2014a; Kumar, et al., 2006; Muralidharan and Kremer, 2008; Sarangapani, 2014; Sarukkai, 2014). 2. There is a vast difference prevailing between rural and urban schools. Students from rural schools have different natural, social, economic, and infrastructural experiences than their urban counterparts. 3. Only one-third of secondary schools have an organised science laboratory facility in India (The National University of Educational Planning and Administration and Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development Government of India, 2016). Science education in most Indian secondary schools is limited to what the teacher preaches and explains in the classroom and demonstrates by performing experimental activities using very inexpensive tools. In comparison, almost 70 per cent of Indian secondary schools have computer facilities and a good percentage of qualified teachers (National University of Educational Planning and Administration and Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, 2016). Considering these scenarios, at first, a few significant changes have been made to the basic structure of the pedagogy, such as: - We conceptualised the foundation of ADI on logical analysis of theories and left scopes for designing experiments using inexpensive devices in several cases. - Curriculum aligned probing questions were made by ensuring the following characteristics: 1. Neither the questions nor the answers are addressed directly in their textbooks. 2. The question must be devoid of any ambiguity. 3. The question should have a concrete answer. 4. The question should not lead to an erudite discussion. 5. To solve those problems, students have to develop a strong analytical ability; they have to go through a series of logical analyses by concatenating several concepts that remain fragmented during a one-way classroom transaction. - Further, those probing questions were presented in videos, graphics, or pictorial stories to the students. While doing so, our prime concern was to ensure the involvement of students. Therefore, the contents of videos and other forms of inputs were designed by aligning with their prior experiences and knowledge. - Omitted the last stage or stage 7, namely “Double-Blind Group Peer Review,” prescribed by NSTA at page number 13 of their guidebook by (Sampson, et al., 2015). Intentional omission of that peer review stage was done as we were faced with the stark reality that the students, the infrastructure, and the curriculum of Indian schools are not in conformity with the spirit behind handling the same unbiasedly. However, apart from this, it was strongly felt that if we had tried to introduce something very complex or any idea alien to them at the very beginning, then that would have been received with a strong inhibition, and there were chances of students getting intimidated. A complete outline of all the structural and instructional modifications that we made to ADI compared to the prescribed format by NSTA is presented in Fig. 1. The study was carried out in two separate locations involving two separate groups of pupils belonging to two discrete categories. Each group comprised 48 students from six separate schools and a few trainee-teachers for overall monitoring of the process. Programmes were conducted under the overall guidance of experts from the research team. For the ease of further communication, we will denote the groups as ‘SGp X’ and ‘SGp Y.’ All the participants willingly took part in this experiment. **SGp X** Participants of this group belonged to urban or semi-urban areas. They were from families with a decent economic background, had private tutors, and had easy access to modern technologies and gadgets like television, computer, the internet, smartphones, etc. Moreover, they were blessed with well-educated predecessors in their families. In addition, pupils of this group belonged to different private schools with developed infrastructure, organised laboratories, and adequate teachers. **SGp Y** Participants of this group hailed from remote villages. They were from families with extremely weak economic backgrounds, and could not afford the facilities like private tutors and other educational materials. They had minimal access to modern technologies and gadgets like television, computer, the internet, smartphones, etc. They rarely had any educated elder members in their families; most were first-generation learners. Students of this group came from different public schools with nominal infrastructures, lacking organised laboratory facilities and adequate number of teachers. Table 1 Selection criteria for experiment group SGp X and SGp Y | Groups | SGp X | SGp Y | |------------------------------|-------------|-------------| | Selection Criteria | | | | Place of living | Urban or Semi-urban | Rural | | Family income per year (INR) | ≥200000 | ≤200000 | | If having private tutors at home ≥2 | Yes | No | | If 1st or 2nd generation learner | No | Yes | | Having any of these two at home 1. Television, 2. Computer, 3. Smartphone | Yes | No | | Having any access to at least 14 hrs of internet facility | Yes | No | | Type of school | Private | Public | | School has more than 20 teachers | Yes | No | | Classrooms have audio-visual facilities like projector, etc. | Yes | No | | School has well-organised laboratory facilities | Yes | No | Sampling of the student population Forty-eight participants of each group were selected from Class IX. Initially, we prepared a list of schools from the district Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal, India. Schools were selected randomly from each of the categories. After contacting the schools, we randomly selected six willing schools for the study. Each school selected eight students of Class IX as participants. Then these 48 students, along with their respective class teachers, were invited to a venue selected for the study. After that, we again mixed them and randomly selected eight students to form one mixed population group. Thus, six groups of randomly selected populations were formed. Two separate studies were carried out in two separate locations for SGp X and SGp Y, respectively. Tasks At first, after psychological relaxation through a few fun activities, a video was played on the screen. - The video contained many interesting facts about Photosynthesis and its relation with the existing living world; how these complex aerobic multicellular organisms evolved because of Photosynthesis. - The visual had a subtle clue about the relationship between Photosynthesis, respiration, and growth. - The video ended with one probing question or guiding question on the screen, “Between Photosynthesis and Respiration, which one is a comparatively slower process in a plant?” which they had to solve in groups. Participants had to conclude, called the Claim, based on some evidence. Then, finally, they had to make an argumentation board putting their Claim, evidence, and justification of the evidence on it as prescribed by NSTA (Sampson, et al., 2015). The task was the same for both the SGp X and SGpY groups. Interestingly, there was a strong initial tendency of school-wise polarisation among the students, but it gradually subsided. We considered this tendency shift to be the first step towards imbibing ADI pedagogy by the students. **Data Acquisition and Analyses** Studies with SGp X and SGp Y were conducted in two separate locations and dates. First, the whole event was video-recorded. Later, those videos were analysed to gather every piece of important information. Finally, analyses were done in terms of their interaction and responses. The argumentation boards made by the groups were analysed. Each SGp X and SGp Y comprised six sub-groups, and each sub-group created an argumentation board. Evaluation of boards was done based on three criteria. **Criterion 1: Percentage of Clue-based evidence** We counted the total number of evidence (E) in each argumentation board, then counted the number of evidence established on the analytical base of the Clue (E_c), placed within the video, and converted the number in percentage (CE%). \[ CE\% = \frac{\sum E_c}{\sum E} \times 100 \ldots \ldots \ldots (1) \] **Criterion 2: Percentage of original evidence** Out of the total evidence (E), we identified those evidence representing an original thought and named those as Original Evidence (OE). This Original Evidence represented the ideas, which were neither a part of the video nor written in the books. Here we considered all the ideas that came from a unique analytical thought process, irrespective of themselves being conceptually correct, partially correct, or incorrect. We did so to understand their internal drive to find a unique solution to a problem. The reason behind the correctness of the idea might have depended on several factors, and we tried to address a few of these factors of interest with the qualitative approach later, but here Original Evidence (OE) had been converted to percentage using the following formula: \[ OE = \sum E - \sum E_c \] \[ OE\% = \frac{\sum OE}{\sum E} \times 100 \ldots \ldots \ldots (2) \] **Criterion 3: Graphical presentation of the idea (G)** The third criterion measured their ability to represent an idea or complex thought intuitively and simplified with graphs or diagrams. There we took a 3-point scale where one indicates “Bad or No Graphics,” two indicates “Moderate,” and three indicates “Good.” That means each group could have a score (G_s) out of 3 or maximum (G_{max}) based on this 3-point scale. Finally, the score was converted into a percentage (G%) using the following formula: \[ G_i\% = \frac{\sum G_s}{\sum G_{max}} \times 100 \ldots \ldots \ldots (3) \] Results and Discussion Focus areas of the experiment Metacognitive behaviour analysis The scope and practice of group activities are very limited in regular classrooms of Indian schools. Those are mostly practised in the playground or physical education classes but rarely in science classes, so the students are not familiar with the system [Chandran, 2014; Sarangapani, 2014]. From the video content analysis, it was clear that students initially felt very uneasy in SGp X and SGp Y. Initially, they started working individually or in tiny groups within the activity group of eight pupils. With time they got habituated and started working as a single complete group. During the practice of ADI pedagogy, over time, both the groups were found to open up and get involved in group activities overcoming all the intrinsic impediments. This could be sensed from one of the participant’s feedback items (transcribed from Online Resource 10R_Feedback: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.9995828) Participant 1: “Here, working in the group increased our team spirit. It is very new to us; we did not do this before.” Participant 2: “I not only learned Photosynthesis or respiration, but I have learned to bring scientific temper within me. I have also learned to write scientifically and to read scientifically.” Cognitive behaviour analysis A tool to identify the unaddressed learning gaps Claims made by all the groups of both SGp X and SGp Y were correct, and so we analysed every evidence [see Fig. 3; Fig. 4; Fig. 5; and Online Resource 20R_ADI_Boards: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12054090] put in the argumentation board by student groups and identified a few statements which were carrying signs of unique approaches towards the solution to the problem. We marked every piece of evidence with a unique approach, though that may be conceptually right or wrong. The key reason behind the consideration was to gauge their internal drive for taking a unique approach toward solving a problem. As an exhibit, the excerpt presented by Group 2 of SGp X is mentioned below (see Fig. 3) ![Argumentation board made by Group 2 of SGp X.](image) *Fig. 3. Argumentation board made by Group 2 of SGp X.* *(The board has been annotated, and the annotation legend is on the board)* Fig. 4. Argumentation board made by Group 6 of SGp Y. (The board is written in the Bengali language as participants were from Bengali medium schools. The board has been annotated, and the annotation legend is on the board) Fig. 5. Transcribed argumentation board made by Group 6 of SGp Y. This has been transcribed in English as the original board was made in Bengali. The transcript has been edited using Adobe Photoshop CS4 (The original board has been cited as Fig. 4.) "In Photosynthesis, covalent bonds are formed to produce glucose, but in respiration, these bonds are broken down, which requires more energy. This indicates that the process of Photosynthesis requires less energy and is a faster process." (Sic) This statement is evidence of their endeavour to keep no stone unturned within the limitations of their reach and exert maximum effort to analyse all the pieces of information they had gathered. Similarly, the statement has another exciting story to tell. The group had gone through ‘Bonds and their nature’ in the classroom, and they tried to use that knowledge to solve the problem. Nevertheless, it is evident from the statement that they had wrong concepts about the chemical reaction and interaction of bonds; otherwise, they could have understood that breaking of bond releases nearly the same amount of energy trapped during its formation. They also did not have a rational idea about the processes of making and breaking glucose in plants. These conceptual gaps remained unidentified and unaddressed, and might have continued to do so until they went through the process of ADI during this study. So, this pedagogy could be used frequently in classrooms as a formative assessment to identify the gaps of teaching-learning. According to one participant [transcribed from Online Resource 10R_Feedback: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.9995828]: "We had lots of misconceptions which cleared after exchanging our thoughts with other group members and participants, and getting proper criticism from them." (Sic). Again, this pedagogy could fill up those gaps. To do so, the teachers should move strategically with an element of creativity and modification of the system, as we know that erroneous learning could be turned into beneficial learning if followed by corrective feedback. For example, according to [Metcalfe 2017], the error committed with high confidence could be corrected more readily, and the lesson could be more permanent than low-confidence errors. Likewise, we did in the reflective discussion session. **First, the expert asked:** "What is being formed during Photosynthesis?" **Participants:** "Glucose" **Expert:** "What is being broken down in respiration to produce energy?" **Participants:** "Glucose" **Expert:** "That means both are the same, so the same bonds are being produced during Photosynthesis and are being broken down during respiration. Do you agree?" **Participants:** "Yes, we do." **Expert:** "How can you assume that the same product carrying the same bond will require a different amount of energy and time during formation and breaking down through reverse reactions? Is it possible? What do you think?" **Participants:** "No, it is not possible." **Expert:** "Now, do you agree with this statement of yours - 'in Photosynthesis, to produce glucose, covalent bonds are formed, but in respiration, these bonds are broken down, which requires more energy. This shows that the process of Photosynthesis requires less energy and is a faster process.'" (Sic) **Participants:** "No, that was a misconception." Not only could the students benefit from it, but the teachers would also gain valuable information from errors, and error tolerance encourages students to engage in exploratory activities. An essential lesson of ADI is that the students should not be discouraged from committing errors. On the contrary, they should realise that such errors are not mistakes, not to speak of blunders! **A tool to nurture the analytical and inquisitive skill** Curiosity is the ultimate drive behind every sort of knowledge. Curiosity generates question, and question generates knowledge. However, unfortunately, students are losing their habit of questioning. The practice of traditional one-way classroom transactions makes them mere passive listeners (Sarangapani, 2014). This study showed that ADI pedagogy could transform the current scenario of the classroom by transforming the students from passive listeners to active question raisers, and the fact was also admitted in her feedback by a teacher who took part in the study [see Online Resource 10R_Feedback: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.9995828]. Students made several errors in due course of practising ADI pedagogy during the study. By way of committing errors, they got a stimulus to learn more; and as they learned more, they gathered more experiences, got more raw materials to enhance their analytical ability. With deep understanding, when they tried to analyse, they came up with lots of queries, which started a healthy cyclic reaction. In our study, we came across an interesting statement put by Group 4 of SGp X on the argumentation board as evidence, and it was like (see Online Resource 3OR_ADI_Board: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12064314): “Respiration has greater numbers of steps, so phases are longer and slower than Photosynthesis.” At the Reflective Discussion session, we performed an elementary set of low-cost experiments on displacement reaction, using [a] CuSO$_4$ solution and iron nail [b] AgNO$_3$ (aq) and NaCl (aq), to show that not all the chemical reactions take an equal amount of time to complete. Therefore, the overall reaction time of a complex biochemical process does not depend on the number of steps it involves. We also demonstrated that a reaction does not take place at the same speed in-vivo and in-vitro with the help of another simple set of experiments of Oxygen Evolution Reaction (Ghosh and Rahaman, 2018). OER was demonstrated through in-vitro electrolysis of water and in-vivo photolysis of water within *Hydrilla sp.*. [detail description of all the previous experiment set up could be found here https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.17427407.v1]. Consequently, a question came from their end, and the question was, “What are the factors affecting this reaction speed in-vivo?” That is how ADI did its job. To get rid of the usual lecture method of teaching-learning, moreover making science classrooms interactive and vibrant space, schools need a pedagogy like Argument-Driven Inquiry as echoed in the feedback of participants (transcribed from Online Resource 10R_Feedback: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.9995828). “We get to learn how to reach the core of a topic. In schools, we study only theories in a straightforward way; that is how our teachers taught but did not get the opportunity to analyse and connect,” …Participant: 3. “I learned here how to ask questions and the importance of questioning. Previously I did not ask questions, or even if I asked, either the question or my way of asking was wrong. So I repent if I would have asked questions that came in my mind on those days, I would have learned more,”….Participant: 4. **Pedagogical implication** *A tool to identify the gaps in regular classroom teaching* Before this experiment, their respective class teachers in their schools taught students topics like Photosynthesis and Respiration as usual. After analysing the data obtained from the experiment, we found that ADI could be used to improve the quality of classroom teaching by applying it as a tool to find the gaps therein. In the argumentation boards of the groups SGp X and SGp Y, only 33.33 and 29.17 per cent of evidence respectively represented original evidence, and the rest of the part was based on the clue shown within the video of the probing question. Therefore, from Table 2, one could understand that students had a strong dependency on what they have seen or on the information that has been supplied to them, but they could not carry out critical analysis based on those pieces of information, and a similar view could be found in Joy (2014b). **Table 2** Quantitative analysis of the Argumentation Boards made by different groups of SGp X and SGp Y | Name of Groups/Subgroups | Evidence based on the clue (CE) | Original evidence (OE) | Total Evidence (E) | Graphical presentation of idea (GI) | SGp X | SGp Y | |--------------------------|---------------------------------|------------------------|--------------------|-------------------------------------|-------|-------| | | Gs | Gmax | | | | | | Group 1 | 05 | 00 | 05 | 01 | 03 | 04 | 00 | 04 | 01 | 03 | | Group 2 | 02 | 02 | 04 | 01 | 03 | 03 | 03 | 06 | 03 | 03 | | Group 3 | 02 | 02 | 04 | 03 | 03 | 05 | 00 | 05 | 01 | 03 | | Group 4 | 03 | 01 | 04 | 02 | 03 | 03 | 01 | 04 | 02 | 03 | | Group 5 | 01 | 03 | 04 | 03 | 03 | 01 | 03 | 04 | 01 | 03 | | Group 6 | 05 | 00 | 05 | 01 | 03 | 03 | 01 | 04 | 01 | 03 | | Total (Σ) | 18 | 08 | 26 | 11 | 18 | 19 | 08 | 27 | 09 | 18 | | Average ± SD | 3 ±1.67 | 1.33 ±1.21 | 4.33 ±0.52 | 1.83 ±0.98 | 3.00 ±0.00 | 3.16 ±1.33 | 1.33 ±1.36 | 4.50 ±0.84 | 1.50 ±0.84 | 3.00 ±0.00 | | Percentage (%) | 69.23 | 30.77 | 100 | 61.11 | 70.37 | 29.63 | 100 | 50 | With such analysis, teachers could identify the gaps in their regular teaching, and work on developing analytical ability and critical thinking among the students. In addition, the score of ‘Graphical presentation of the idea’ (Table 2) could help teachers understand the usability of the concept map and other forms of graphical presentation in the classroom. Unfortunately, the current curriculum structure and the Indian schools’ infrastructure have very little space for regular implementation of the Argument-Driven Inquiry pedagogy. Considering the above discussion, it can be suggested that ADI implementation can be considered intermittently for formative assessment in schools. One of the school teachers, who took part in this experimental process as a trainee, expressed a similar thought in his feedback [transcribed from Online Resource 10R_Feedback: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.9995828]: “We taught the meaning of Photosynthesis and the process, and we also taught respiration as another separate process in schools. However, I never thought to ask or think on such a thing that between Photosynthesis and respiration which one is slower or faster.” **Augmentative nature of this model of ADI** According to the report published by the National University of Educational Planning and Administration in 2015 [National University of Educational Planning and Administration and Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, 2016], only 33.89, 33.64, and 32.02 per cent of Indian higher secondary (10+2) schools have a separate room for the laboratory of physics, chemistry, and biology respectively, and the scenario must be worse in secondary schools (up to Class X) because there is minimal provision for laboratory work in the secondary curriculum throughout the nation [Joy, 2014b; Sarangapani, 2014]. Theoretical study, logical analysis, and some low-cost classroom experiments are the only means for studying science subjects in India, at least at the stage of secondary education. So, sticking with the current curriculum framework, the ADI pedagogy cannot be implemented to improve the quality of experimental science in laboratories as practised in the USA [Sampson et al., 2010, 2015]. Therefore, this model of ADI was designed for theory classes and from the above discussions that seemed befitting to the Indian context. Although this pedagogy could not replace the ongoing teaching process because initially, teachers have to teach the topics with the process they are used to, and then they could apply the ADI intermittently to strengthen the teaching-learning process. The teacher concerned, according to the necessity and demand of the situation, could determine the frequency of using the ADI. **A platform to introduce happiness in classroom learning** The most precious outcome of our experiment was the expression of happiness on students’ faces. During analysis, the videos showed reflections of surging enthusiasm and smiling faces in every frame, and that is one of the most crucial parts amidst the crowd of tangible outcomes [Online Resources 40R_SGp X: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.9995918 and 50R_SGp Y: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.9995921]. Another teacher, who took part as a trainee in one of these experimental workshops, shared one of his significant experiences after the first day of the workshop in his feedback (transcribed from Online Resource 10R_Feedback: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.9995828). "When we were returning from here to our places, students were asking me eagerly, sir, when are you going to start this in our classroom?" In every learner-centric model of education, the happiness of learners is the ultimate word. Any pedagogy or model of instruction cannot be effective if it fails to attract the learners so in this respect, the pilot run of the model of Argument-Driven Inquiry pedagogy, which has been designed for Indian schools, could be claimed as fruitful. **Conclusion** In this experiment, ADI pedagogy was redesigned to match the context of the Indian education system, and pilot runs were conducted to experience its effectiveness. Two groups of students, one from remote villages and another from urban areas, were selected to study the impact of this pedagogy on the teaching-learning process. The study found, albeit the vast difference in their experience, mindset, and institutional infrastructure, that both groups have similar gaps in understanding science. This can be attributed to the fact that they were being taught mainly through the exact traditional information-centred teaching mechanism. This ADI pedagogy was observed to bring some visible changes within their behaviour, such as they started to inquire spontaneously and analyse critically, they gradually opened up and started interacting with each other. They were observed to collaborate to find solutions through group activity. ADI was found to be effective in identifying gaps in learning and teaching. Above all, the pedagogy was observed to bring spontaneous involvement and happiness in the teaching-learning environment. Although the ADI pedagogy cannot replace the traditional teaching system in India’s science classrooms, it can be used effectively to augment the current system. However, we have a long way to go before implementing it at every school in India. The prominent impediments in this journey are an intrinsic inhibition within the teachers and school administrators to accept something new, lack of space and time for ADI within the current curricula, lack of infrastructural support in rural schools, and most importantly, the lack of awareness among the parents of the students. Based on the outcome of the Experimental Workshop, which *inter alia*, generated tremendous enthusiasm among the students and the teachers, our current strategy would be to strike a balance between ADI and the existing teaching-learning process in the schools. Acknowledgements The work is an outcome of the Teaching Learning Centre (TLC) project at Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur under the scheme Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya National Mission on Teachers and Teaching (PMMNMTT) funded by Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. We also acknowledge the support from schools participated in the studies. Declarations Funding The study was funded by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India under the scheme Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya National Mission on Teachers and Teaching (PMMNMTT). Sanction number F.No. 3-26/2015-PN.II. Conflicts of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. References Asian Development Bank. 2018. Key indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2018. In ADB Publications [49th ed., Issue September]. Asian Development Bank. https://doi.org/10.22617/FLS189512-3 Berliner, D. C. 2007. Comment: Educational Research: The Hardest Science of All. *Educational Researcher*. Vol. 31, No. 8. pp. 18–20. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x031008018 Carey, S., R. Evans, M. Honda, E. Jay, and C. Unger. 1989. An Experiment is When you Try it and See if it Works: a Study of Grade 7 Students’ Understanding of the Construction of Scientific Knowledge. *International Journal of Science Education*. Vol. 11, No. 5. pp. 514–529. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069890110504 Chandran, M. G. 2014. Breaking the Intellectual Isolation of the Science Teacher Reflections from Whole Class Technology Research in Government School Classrooms. In A. Joy [Ed.], Science Education Few Takers for Innovation [August, PP. 24–31]. IKF [IRIS Knowledge Foundation]. Cheney, G., B. Ruzzi, and K. Muralidharan. 2006. A Profile of the Indian Education System. In National Centre on Education and the Economy [Issue November 2005]. Driver, R. 1975. The Name of the Game. *School Science Review*. Vol. 56, No. 197. pp. 800–805. Duschl, R. 2008. Science Education in Three-Part Harmony: Balancing Conceptual, Epistemic, and Social Learning Goals. *Review of Research in Education*. Vol. 32, No. 1. pp. 268–291. https://doi.org/10.3108/0091732X07309371 Duschl, R. A., and J. Osborne. 2002. Supporting and Promoting Argumentation Discourse in Science Education. *Studies in Science Education*. Vol. 38, No. 1. pp. 39–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057260208560187 Fraser, B. J. 1998. Science Learning Environments: Assessment, Effects, and Determinants. In B. J. Fraser and K. G. Tobin (Eds.), *International Handbook of Science Teaching*, pp. 527–564. Kluwer Academic. Ghosh, S. K., and H. Rahaman. 2018. Noble Metal-Manganese Oxide Hybrid Nanocatalysts. Noble Metal-Metal Oxide Hybrid Nano-particles: Fundamentals and Applications, pp. 313–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-0-12-814134-2.00009-7 Hojjat, S. 2017. Student-Centered Learning Environments in Higher Education Classrooms. In *Student-Centered Learning Environments in Higher Education Classrooms*. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-94941-0 Joy, A. 2014a. Indian School Science Education. In A. Joy (Ed.), *Science Education FewTakers for Innovation* [August, pp. 1–7]. IKF (IRIS Knowledge Foundation). Joy, A. (Ed.). 2014b. *Science Education FewTakers for Innovation* [August]. IKF (IRIS Knowledge Foundation). Kremer, M., C. Brannen, and R. Glennyerster. 2013. The Challenge of Education and Learning in the Developing World. In *Science*. Vol. 340, No. 6130. pp. 297–300. American Association for the Advancement of Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1235350 Kumar, A., S. Singh, J. Chakrabarty, R.K.H. Roy, R.D. Rozario, S.C. Ratha, V.B. Kamble, N. Rathnasree, J.M. D’Souza, J. Ramadas, K. Mahendroo, R. Joshi, J.S. Gill., and H.L. Satish. 2006. National Focus Group on Science Teaching (B. Sutar, Ed.). National Council of Educational Research and Training. Kumar, K., M. Priyam, and S. Saxena. 2001. Looking Beyond the Smokescreen: DPEP and Primary Education in India. *Economic and Political Weekly*. Vol. 36, No. 7. pp. 560–568. Larkin, J., J. McDermott, D.P. Simon, and H.A. Simon. 1980. Expert and Novice Performances in Solving Physics Problems. *Science*. Vol. 208. pp. 1335–1342. Lederman, N. G. 1992. Students’ and Teachers’ Conceptions of the Nature of Science: A Review of the Research. *Journal of Research in Science Teaching*. Vol. 29, No. 4. pp. 331–359. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660290404 METCALFE, J. 2017. Learning from Errors. *Annual Review of Psychology*. Vol. 68, No.1. pp. 465–489. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044022 MINISTRY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT. 2016a. Statistics | Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development. NIC, Government of India. https://mhrd.gov.in/statistics-new?shs_term_node_tid_depth=378 ———. 2016b. Statistics | Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development. NIC, Government of India. https://mhrd.gov.in/statistics-new?shs_term_node_tid_depth=381 MURALIDHARAN, K., AND M. KREMER. 2008. Public-Private Schools in Rural India. In *School Choice International*. pp. 90–109). The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262033763.003.0005 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING. 2005. *National Curriculum Framework 2005*. https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/nc-framework/nf2005-english.pdf NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION. 2014. Education For All Towards Quality with Equity INDIA. https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/EFA-Review-Report-final.pdf NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION, AND DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL EDUCATION AND LITERACY, MINISTRY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 2016. Secondary Education in India Progress towards Universalisation. https://www.brlf.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Secondary-Education-in-India_2015-16.pdf NCERT. (n.d.). NCERT E-Books. Retrieved September 26, 2019, from http://ncert.nic.in/ebooks.html SAMPSON, V., P. ENDERLE, L. GLEIM, J. GROOMS, M. HESTER, S. SOUTHERLAND, AND K. WILSON. 2015. Argument-Driven Inquiry in Biology: Lab Investigations for Classes IX-XII. In *Argument-Driven Inquiry in Biology: Lab Investigations for Grades 9–12*. National Science Teachers Association. https://doi.org/10.2505/9781938946202 SAMPSON, V., J. GROOMS, AND J.P. WALKER. 2010. Argument-Driven Inquiry as a Way to Help Students Learn How to Participate in Scientific Argumentation and Craft Written Arguments: An Exploratory Study. 217–257. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20421 SARANGAPANI, P. M. 2014. Three Challenges Facing Indian School Science Education. In A. Joy (Ed.), *Science Education Few Takers for Innovation* [August, PP. 32–35]. IKF (IRIS Knowledge Foundation). SARUKKAI, S. 2014. Teaching Science: Content, Method, and More? In A. Joy (Ed.), *Science Education Few Takers for Innovation*. [August, PP. 1–56], IKF (IRIS Knowledge Foundation). SULLIVAN, S., D. GNESDILOW, S. PUNTAMBEKAR, AND J-S. Kim. 2017. Middle School Students’ Learning of Mechanics Concepts through Engagement in Different Sequences of Physical and Virtual Experiments. *International Journal of Science Education*. Vol. 39, No. 12. pp. 1573–1600. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2017.1341668 UNESCO INSTITUTE FOR STATISTICS DATABASE, UIS.Stat. 2018. Social Indicators: Table 2.1.13: Education Resources. In *Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2018* [49th ed., p. 90]. Asian Development Bank. https://doi.org/10.22617/FLS189512-3 WELLINGTON, J. 1981. What’s Supposed to Happen Sir? Some Problems with Discovery Learning. *School Science Review*. Vol. 63, No. 222. pp. 167–173. DESIGNING LESSON PLAN IN SCIENCE BASED ON TPACK FRAMEWORK K. V. Sridevi NCERT, New Delhi Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) has been introduced as a conceptual framework based on the notion that teachers need to align and integrate content, pedagogy, and technology in their teaching practice in order to make the classroom process interactive and learning meaningful and effective. This paper presents a brief description of how to design and develop a lesson plan based on the TPACK framework in teaching science with illustrations in a systematic manner. Keywords: TPACK, Lesson Plan, Education, Teaching Strategies. Introduction In traditional teaching, content and teacher played an important role, where textbooks were the only source of content. However, education in the digital era is more student-centred. Now education favours a curriculum that focuses on the enhancement of the competency of students. Although not previously considered among the traditional frameworks for research in education, in recent times, however, PCK offers a new perspective for science education research within teacher education. The notion of pedagogical content knowledge was first introduced by Shulman as a form of knowledge that connects a teacher’s cognitive understanding of subject matter content, and the relationships between such understandings with the instruction teachers provide for students (Shulman, 1986:25). Research has shown that in order to improve the quality of science education, science teachers need to possess knowledge of learners, content, pedagogy, and technology. Recently, considerable interest has surfaced in using the notion of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) (Mishra and Koehler, 2006; as a framework for the teacher knowledge required for effective technology integration because TPACK reconnects technology to curriculum content and specific pedagogical approaches. This paper discusses TPACK framework and designing a lesson plan in science based on it with an illustration. What is TPACK? Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge is a framework that tries to identify the nature of knowledge required by teachers to teach effectively with technology. The TPACK framework describes how teachers’ understandings of technology, pedagogy, and content can interact with one another to produce effective discipline-based teaching with educational technologies. In this framework, there are three interdependent components of teachers’ knowledge: Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), and Technological Knowledge (TK); when these (CK, PK, and TK) interact with each other, they form PCK, TPK, TCK, and TPACK (Fig. 1). That is, there are seven components in total. Effective integration of CK, PK, and TK by the teacher would help in meaningful classroom transactions. **Fig. 1. TPACK with its Components** **Content Knowledge (What to teach)** Teachers’ knowledge of the content or subject matter (components of scientific knowledge) that has to be transacted in the classroom is called content knowledge. It includes factual knowledge and procedural knowledge. The teacher needs to analyse the content to be taught in order to understand the nature of the content. **Fig. 2. Components of Knowledge** **Content Analysis** The subject matter or content has to be analysed in order to understand the nature of the content and identify content categories or components of scientific knowledge from the chosen content. After analysing the content, the teacher understands the nature and scope of the content—whether it is descriptive, exploratory, illustrative, procedural, etc. Content knowledge includes knowledge of facts, concepts, principles, laws, theories, generalisations, etc. (Fig. 2). **Example:** Content analysis of the topic Cell and its Types The content of the lesson is exploratory in nature, wherein students can be given an opportunity to explore different types of cells. The teacher can facilitate and orient the students in handling the microscope. The content is illustrative as there is the scope of giving examples of different shapes of cells, unicellular and multicellular organisms. The content contains facts, principles, theories, concepts, and generalisations. The content may be categorised as shown in Table 1. Table 1 Content categorisation of the topic Cell | Facts | Concepts | Theory | Generalisation | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | The Cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. | Cell | All plants and animals are composed of cells, and the Cell is the basic unit of life. | All living organisms are made up of cells | | The nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown. | Organelle | All cells come from the pre-existing cells | Each living cell has the capacity to perform certain basic functions that are characteristic of all living forms. | | Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory | Microscope | | Different kinds of cells perform different functions. | | The Cell is the structural and functional unit of life | Multicellular organisms | | | | | Unicellular organisms | | | Pedagogical Knowledge (How to teach) Teachers’ knowledge of the learning process, the context of learning, methods/approaches/strategies/processes involved in the teaching-learning process is called pedagogical knowledge. It also includes an understanding of how students learn, planning a lesson, classroom management, and continuous comprehensive assessment of students. Once the content is analysed, it is vital to decide how to teach students. Some of the teaching strategies are given in Fig. 3. ![Teaching Strategies](image) Fig. 3. Teaching strategies Pedagogical analysis Depending upon the age, maturity, and intelligence of the students, a stage has to be set in nurturing congenial learning environment by the teachers. The teacher has to make decisions regarding whether individual or group-based learning has to take place, the method/strategy/approach/technique to be adopted, and assessment techniques to be used before the commencement of classroom instruction. Example: Pedagogical analysis of the topic ‘Cell & Cell theory’ To teach ‘Cell & Cell’ theory, the following pedagogical processes can be taken up: - Concept attainment model to help the student attain the concept of Cell - Inductive method to arrive at the statements of Cell theory - Lab method to show the main parts of the Cell - Group work and Album making - Development of Rubric to assess the process of learning Technological Knowledge Teachers’ knowledge of tools, resources, teaching-learning materials, and their use contextually in the classroom is called technological knowledge. Understanding when, which and how, technology promotes the learning process among the students and would improve the teaching-learning process. Out of many technologies available, the teacher has to determine the ones for the lesson, keeping into consideration affordances and constraints. In addition, the teacher must understand the purpose of using or integrating technology while teaching, which includes: (a) **Substitution:** Instead of a chart, slides or documents may be shown. In other words, the technology here is not added on but is used as another medium of presentation. (b) **Modification:** Instead of using papers/letters, the ideas can be shared on google docs wherein there is a mutual exchange in different times and spaces. (c) **Augmentation:** In this case, the technology can enhance the concept, and augments learning among the students. (d) **Redefining:** This is the highest level of integration wherein technology is used for transforming learning. The exemplar resources/materials/tools that can be used in the teaching-learning process are given in Figs. 4 and 5. ![Fig. 4. Teaching-learning Aids](image) | Audio-Visual Aids | Visual Aids | Audio Aids | |-------------------|-------------|------------| | 1. Chart | 1. Radio | 1. Projector | | 2. Diagram | 2. Tape-recorder | 2. OHP | | 3. Flashcard | | 3. Television | | 4. Graph | | 4. Film | | 5. Map | | 5. Video | | 6. Picture | | | | 7. Poster | | | | 8. Model | | | | 9. Bulletin Board | | | | 10. Flip Chart | | | | 11. Puppet | | | | 12. Specimen | | | Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) According to Shulman (1986), PCK is the notion of transforming the subject matter for teaching. This occurs as the teacher interprets the subject matter, finds multiple ways to represent it, adapts, and tailors the instructional materials to alternative conceptions and students’ prior knowledge. In addition, PCK includes conditions that promote learning and links curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy (Koehler and Mishra, 2009). In other words, PCK is the specialised knowledge of a teacher that helps him/her decide how to teach the given topic to a group of students, and which materials to use to facilitate learning among the students. This knowledge is enhanced with the teaching experience of teachers. Example: Cell & its types An illustration of PCK is represented in Table 2. | Forms of knowledge | Pedagogical Intervention | |--------------------|--------------------------| | **Factual** | | | Recalls that cell is the structural and functional unit of life | Allows the students to explore the cells under the microscope (draw the diagram in their notebooks) | | **Conceptual** | | | Describes cell theory | Uses charts models and encourages the students to discuss the shape, size, and functions of the cells Using the inductive thinking model, the students may be encouraged to arrive at the concepts and differentiate them | | Generalises that each cell has the capacity to perform certain basic functions that are characteristics of all living forms | | | Differentiates unicellular and multicellular organisms | | | **Procedural** | | | Encourages the students to observe the cell under a microscope using core and fine adjustments | Encourages the students to observe and identify the organisms under the microscope | | **Meta Cognitive** | | | Analyses the relationship between the shape and size of the cell with that of function | Encourages students to observe the organisms under the microscope and discuss with one another | | Develops a rubric along with the students and assess the album | Motivates students to participate actively in their group work | | Prepares an album on the life history of scientists Robert Hooke and Schleiden and Schwann | | Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) Teachers’ knowledge of the application of technologies and their suitability for teaching the content chosen or subject matter constitutes Technological Content Knowledge. In other words, TCK is the teachers’ understanding of how the subject matter or knowledge is constructed and which technologies are best suited for addressing the same, and even understanding how the content dictates the use of technology. **Example:** Cell & its types - **Cells:** Observation of slides under a Microscope - **Shapes and sizes of the cells:** Using charts, models, slides - **Structure of a Cell:** Quiver colour sheets - **Rubric:** Rubistar - **Concept map on Cell:** VUE/Free mind - **Life history of the scientist:** Digital timeline, Digital storytelling - **Unicellular and multicellular organisms:** PowerPoint presentation, movie maker Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) TP describes teachers’ understanding of technologies and their use in the teaching-learning process, pedagogical affordances, and the challenges/constraints. With this knowledge, the teacher can choose the tools that match the students’ age, maturity, and other student-related aspects, along with pedagogical interventions that are developmentally appropriate. **Example:** Cell & its types. - **Cells:** Observation of slides under Microscope – Lab method - **Shapes and sizes of the cells:** Using charts, models, slides – Inductive method - **Structure of a Cell:** Quiver colour sheets – Group work - **Rubric:** Rubistar – Group work - **Concept map on Cell:** VUE/Free mind – The teacher can develop the map with the help of students or use a concept map while developing a lesson - **Life history of the scientist:** Digital timeline, Digital storytelling – Presentation - **Unicellular and multicellular organisms:** PowerPoint presentation, movie maker – Inductive thinking model / Concept attainment model of teaching Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is best explained in the following lines of Koehler and Mishra (2009): “Underlying truly meaningful and deeply skilled teaching with technology, TPACK is different from knowledge of all three concepts individually. Instead, TPACK is the basis of effective teaching with technology, requiring an understanding of the representation of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn, and how technology can help redress some of the problems that students face; knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones”. **Example:** Cell & its types. In an appropriate context for the students. Technology is integrated with content and pedagogy as it can be used for substitution, modification, augmentation, and redefining. In other words, the whole purpose of integration ### Table 3 TPACK format for the topic Cell and its types | Content | Pedagogical interventions | Technological interventions | Assessment | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|--------------------------| | The cell is the structural and functional unit of life | Allows the students to explore the cells under the Microscope (draw the diagram in their notebooks) | Uses Microscope Colour and scan Quiver colour sheets | Quiz [Hot potatoes] | | Associates the honeycomb compartments with the cells | | | | | Describes cell theory | Uses charts and models and encourages the students to discuss the shape, size, and functions of the cells | Charts, models, PPTs Freemind / VUE PPTs | Concept map for assessment | | Generalises that each Cell has the capacity to perform certain basic | Motivates the students to develop concept maps | | | | functions that are characteristics of all living forms, | Uses the Inductive Thinking Model to arrive at the concepts | | | | Differentiates unicellular and multicellular organisms | | | | | Life history of scientists | Group work Prepares an album on the life history of scientists Robert Hooke and Schleiden and Schwann Create Rubric for assessing the album | Digital storytelling/ timeline Rubistar | Presentation by students | To develop a lesson based on TPACK, one has to determine the context, content and pedagogy; reflect on PCK; determine technology; reflect on TCK and TPK; develop classroom processes based on TPACK in a sequential manner. An illustration is presented in Table 3. To sum up, it is necessary that the teacher needs to be resourceful in terms of content and pedagogy, and integrate technology is to enhance the quality of learning by making it enjoyable, meaningful, and outcome-based learning. ### An Exemplar Lesson **Class:** IX **Subject:** Science **Topic:** Cell and Cell theory Content: Cell, Cell theory, Microscope, Unicellular and Multicellular organisms, Life history of scientists Technology integration: Charts, Models, Videos, PPTs, Microscope, Rubistar, Quiver colour sheets, Hot potatoes, digital storytelling or timeline, Freemind or VUE Class demographics: Total no. 35, Boys: 20, Girls: 15; Students are from rural and urban areas; No CWSN Learning goals: At the end of the instruction, the students: - identify cells. - generalise that Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. - explain cell theory. - differentiate unicellular and multicellular organisms. - create an album on the contribution of the scientist. - design a rubric to assess the album. Pedagogical interventions/activities Filling quiver colour sheets, observing cells under Microscope, concept attainment model, group work for designing rubrics and developing an album, using charts and models are the pedagogical interventions or activities that can be carried out for teaching the selected content. Procedure After setting an ambiance for learning, the teacher may tap students’ previous knowledge of characteristics of living things and create readiness among them. For example, an activity may be conducted wherein students explore the structure of Cells by observing onion peel and cheek cells or any other under a microscope and draw a microscopic view of cells (Figs. 6 and 7). If that is not possible, the teacher can use quiver color sheets. The students may be encouraged to fill the quiver colour sheets of plant and animal cells, and scan and observe the cells. Further, they may be asked to describe the cells observed in their own words. Fig. 6. Cells of Onion peel Fig. 7. Parts of a Compound Microscope The teacher can further use videos to explain the concept of cell theory given by Schleiden and Schwann. Finally, a discussion can take place showing charts and models regarding the different shapes, sizes, and functions of the cell. Based on this discussion, the teacher can encourage the students to generalise that each cell has the capacity to perform certain essential functions that are characteristics of all living forms. The teacher may use open software like Freemind / VUE to show concept maps to students, for which a laptop or a PC with a projector will be required as shown in Fig. 8, the concept of unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms using PowerPoint presentations or pictures, or images. These teaching models help the students inform and attain concepts through a variety of examples. Group work can be carried out in which students need to prepare an album on the life history of scientists Robert Hooke and Schleiden and Schwann. For this work, students may take the help of digital storytelling/timeline. The album prepared in the group will be assessed with the rubrics developed in Rubistar. ![Fig. 8. Freemind software can be used to construct concept maps](image) Using hot potatoes, the quiz can be conducted in the class to recall the largest, longest, smallest cells, etc. Teachers may use the Reception or Selection strategy of the Concept Attainment Model of teaching so that students can attain **Conclusion** This framework considers the different types of knowledge needed; it becomes a great possibility of integrating technology into the teaching-learning process. It further impacts both teachers' professional development and students' learning. Because it considers the different types of knowledge needed and how teachers could cultivate this knowledge, the TPACK framework thus becomes a productive way to consider how teachers could integrate educational technology into the classroom. In other words, it is imperative that the teacher understands the aspects mentioned above and that the class is driven in an integrated way. Technology has become an increasingly important part of the teaching-learning process, especially in understanding complex concepts and helping in collaboration with peers. References Mishra, P., and M.J. Koehler. 2006. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. *Teachers College Record*. Vol. 108, No. 6. pp. 1017–1054. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x. Koehler, M.J., and P. Mishra. 2009. What is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge? *Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education*. Vol. 9, No. 1. pp. 60–70. GANDHI AND THE IDEA OF SUSTAINABILITY – IMPLICATIONS FOR SCIENCE EDUCATION Asthra Saxena University School of Education Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University New Delhi, India Email: email@example.com The principles of Sustainable Development (as highlighted in the Brundtland Commission*, 1987) entail the conservation of resources for the current and future generations without disturbing the ecological balance. The present paper discusses the role and relevance of Gandhian education philosophy and his vision of a School (at Sevagram Ashram) for sustainable living. The paper further delineates the scope of Gandhian education philosophy and ideals in the present-day context of school education and integrates his philosophy within the prescribed school curriculum. A case of a Class VI science textbook has been taken as an example to review and analyse the curriculum in the light of Gandhian principles and ideas of sustainability for school education. The paper also provides suggestions for further integration of Gandhian values of sustainability and sustainable development within the school curriculum. Educational implications can be drawn for science education in general, as well as for in-service and pre-service science teachers, teacher educators, and science curriculum developers. Keywords: Sustainable Development, Ecology, Science, Society, Science education, Sustainability. Introduction Gandhian Philosophy and principles have inspired millions across the ages, not just for nation-building and resilience but also in spheres such as Education, the employment sector, economy, and industry. However, thinking about the current pace and means of development in the country, it largely appears antithetical to the ideals and values embedded in Gandhian Philosophy and ideology. As a result of this, we are a witness to a development that is top-sided and focused mainly on economic and material gains rather than based on human values, conservation of the environment, and ethics. Such a model of development may be a boost for an economy but can never be long-lasting as it is detrimental to the health of our environment and the fabric of our society. Gandhian principles are based on self-sufficiency, non-violence, truth, and care, cutting across all organisms and the environment. The Gandhian idea of Education has always been inspirational and pragmatic not just for India but also for the World. Gandhian Philosophy and his ideology have been emulated in Education, development, nation-building, economics, societal fabric, lifestyle, and character building. The values inherent * The Brundtland Commission 1987 emphasised upon the judicious utilisation of environmental resources such that they fulfill the needs of the present generation and do not compromise on the needs of future generations as well. This is the principle of ‘sustainable development’ which was the major recommendation of this report. in Gandhian Philosophy have the power of transforming the World, which we have been a witness to, especially when it comes to the Indian Freedom Movement and the struggle for the rights of South African people. Gandhiji had never tried to influence or ask the people to follow him or his ideals; instead, the people themselves got motivated to adopt them. This is the sign of a true leader, who himself is a model of all the ideals he believes in rather than insisting others follow them. Gandhiji was an epitome of truth, ahimsa (non-violence), honesty, virtue, and peace, and he strived for these ideals for his entire life. In one of the books he wrote, 'my life is my message,' clearly depicts the thought process of his evolution from an ordinary human being to an extraordinary Mahatma. His experiments in Education are somewhat influenced and abridged from the socio-political turmoil that our country was going through during the freedom struggle. His principles in Education were primarily derived from his own experiments and thoughts, initially, at the Tolstoy's farm in South Africa, also known as the Satyagraha institution, where the inmates practiced Satyagraha, truth, and non-violence. Some of the inmates from the farm were Indians and hence returned to India, where Gandhiji established an Ashram at Kochrab, Ahmedabad, in 1915. The Ashram's life was not easy or leisurely as the inmates were expected to practice self-restraint, celibacy (Brahmacharya), truth, non-violence (love), peace, offer prayers, use swadeshi products, cleanliness, and kindness. Gandhian ideas are truly apt even today for building a peaceful and harmonious society and for establishing World religion. Gandhiji had always promoted village industries and propounded a 'craft-centred' Education System for a self-reliant society, and rejected the use of any foreign products as that would devalue our national products and labour. In Ashrams, spinning and weaving were among the chief activities that every ashramite was supposed to contribute. Spinning meant spinning the wheel (Charkha) for making cloth that is indigenous (Khadi). Besides, Charkha spinning was considered a meditative practice where 3H (head, heart and hand) are actively involved, unlike the English Education System, which aims to develop 'head' only. The significance of village industries in the context of India was put in a paragraph in Harijan. "I would say that if the village perishes, India will perish too. It will be no more India. Her mission in the World will get lost. The revival of the village is possible only when it is no more exploited. Industrialisation on a mass scale will necessarily lead to the passive or active exploitation of the villagers as the problems of competition and marketing come in. Therefore, we have to concentrate on the village being self-contained, manufacturing mainly for use. Provided this character of the village industry is maintained, there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others." (Harijan, 29-08-1936, p. 226) The National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) envisages the ideals of the Gandhian system of Education, taking as it is from Nai Talim (1937). Mahatma Gandhi visualised Education as a means to awaken the nation's conscience to injustice, violence, and inequality entrenched in the social order. Nai Talim emphasised the self-reliance and dignity of the individual, which would form the basis of social relations characterised by non-violence within and across society. Gandhiji recommended using the immediate environment (context of the learner), including the mother tongue (language) and work, as a resource for socialising the child into a transformative vision of society. He dreamt of an India where every individual discovers and realises her or his talents and potential by working with others towards restructuring the World, which continues to be plagued by conflicts between nations, within society, and between humanity and nature [NCF–2005]. The Idea of Sarvodaya propounded by Gandhiji is a sustainable ideal as it subsumes the welfare of all, including the environment, and shuns the role of any external power or discriminatory practice and self-centred pursuits for luxury and material gains. Gandhiji was a great environmentalist, too, as he always promoted homemade (nation-made) products as opposed to foreign products because they are not meant to suit our body, mind, and environment, and are bound to cause peril. He was against the idea of indiscriminate industrialisation and aping the west. He was also wary of the fact that injudicious use of resources would lead to their depletion and extinction, especially when he said, “The World has enough for everyone’s need but not for everyone’s greed,” pointing toward the exploitative tendency of human beings towards nature and its resources. This is the central idea of sustainable development, as stated in the Brundtland Conference report, “Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” [World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987] The NCF position paper on ‘Habitat and Learning’ also emphasises the role of Education in promoting sustainable development. “Education is becoming increasingly central to the development process. It has to help raise awareness and build the capacity of communities to elaborate a vision and participate in the pursuit of environmentally and socially sustainable development.” (NCERT, 2006). The present paper delves into Gandhian ideas and philosophy of a sustainable society and sustainable living. The paper also analyses the present NCERT Science textbooks at the upper primary level from the lens of the Gandhian idea of sustainability and provides suggestions for better integration within the subject and topics given in the textbook. **Gandhian Idea of Sustainable Development** Sustainable Development refers to the principle of meeting human development goals while simultaneously respecting, protecting, and sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide natural resources and ecosystem services to all the people indiscriminately and equitably. In such a society, the integrity of the natural systems is maintained and nurtured. Sustainable Development can be defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [Brundtland Report, 1987]. Gandhiji always advocated a minimalistic and straightforward lifestyle, which helped reduce waste and serve the poor in the country. He believed in equality and equitable distribution of resources. Gandhiji emphasised the idea of living in harmony with nature and that nature can provide for everyone’s needs but not for everyone’s greed (Vijayam, 2004). His idea of Sarvodaya emphasised welfare and self-sufficiency for each and every individual, for which he always promoted the idea of village and cottage industries. Besides generating employment for millions of workers, the village industries also promote the use and marketing of nation-based products as opposed to foreign materials. Gandhiji was wary and opposed to too much mechanisation by industries, as that would reduce the value of manual labour and affect the livelihood of many people (Gandhi, 1960). Instead, Gandhiji promoted the wielding of Charkha by every individual and every household as a symbol of peace, prosperity, freedom, and self-sufficiency. “… claim for the Charkha the honour of being able to solve the problem of economic distress in a most natural, simple, inexpensive, and businesslike manner. The Charkha, therefore, is not only not useless… but it is a useful and indispensable article for every home. It symbolises the nation’s prosperity and, therefore, freedom. It is a symbol not of commercial war but commercial peace. It bears not a message of ill-will towards the nations of the earth but of goodwill and self-help. It will not need the protection of a navy threatening a world’s peace and exploiting its resources, but it needs the religious determination of millions to spin their yarn in their own homes as today they cook their food in their own homes. I may deserve the curses of posterity for many mistakes of omission and commission, but I am confident of earning its blessings for suggesting a revival of the Charkha. I take my all on it. For every revolution of the wheel spins peace, goodwill, and love. Moreover, with all that, inasmuch as the loss of it brought about India’s slavery, its voluntary revival with all its implications must mean India’s freedom.” (Young India, 08-12-1921). The idea of the ‘Spinning Wheel’ and Khadi can also be understood as a means to generate self-employment and dignity of labour. It also helps in conserving a nation’s resources and builds cooperation among its people. Gandhiji compared the ‘Spinning Wheel’ to a life-giving Sun, a precursor to promoting and reviving other handicrafts. Gandhiji was a great supporter of ‘Vegetarianism,’ and a vegan diet excluding all animal flesh and animal products, and provided a moral basis for the same (Gandhi, 1959). He also argued for animal rights and taking good care of animals in the animal houses (Gowshalas). Looking at the current pace and means of development, adhering to Gandhian ideals and ways of living becomes indispensable and can only provide an alternative path that is less destructive to the environment. It is clear that environment and development can no more be viewed dialectically as both are deeply related to each other and are indispensable for sustainable living. Post-Independence development is often viewed from an anthropocentric viewpoint that needs to be realised in terms of a country’s material gains and economic growth, but less viewed from a holistic and integrated perspective, including the social, political, cultural, economic, environmental, and ethical standpoints. The recent environmental crises such as depletion of natural resources, global warming and climate change, dwindling biodiversity, soil erosion, and land desertification result from the lop-sided model of development that needs to be combated equally by developed and developing nations. The present Education System also contributes to harbouring a self-centred and competitive mindset of the people. Thus, there is a need to revamp our Education System and base it on the Gandhian values and ideals for a better tomorrow, and conserving our environment. **Methodology** The present paper involves a critical content analysis of the Class VI NCERT Science textbook with respect to the integration of Gandhian values of Sustainability. The textbook chapters have been analysed keeping in view the following parameters: - Topics/content in the textbook that caters to the idea of ‘sustainability’ or ‘sustainable development.’ - Integration of Gandhian values of Sustainability (refer to Table 1) within the Science Textbook of Class VI - Treatment/presentation of these values in the textbook - Pedagogical implications for transacting content/topics related to Sustainability in the classroom - Suggestions for further value addition in the textbook **Integration of Gandhian Ideals in School Curriculum — Content Analysis of Class VI NCERT Science Textbook** Sustainable living is one of the critical elements of the Gandhian philosophy that understands that all live in harmony with nature. Sustainability is also in each of the SDGs [Sustainable Development Goals] for a better world. The Gandhian idea, “Be the change you wish to see in the world,” emphasises the value of individual responsibility in changing the current world order and aiming for a better tomorrow. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 also emphasises instilling the value of sustainable development and living for global citizenship. The policy also reinstates the integration of environment awareness and principles of sustainable development within the teacher education curriculum to sensitise the pre-service teachers toward sustainable development (p. 23). In the light of the above framework, a case example of a Class VI NCERT Science textbook has been taken to understand the integration of the Gandhian idea of ‘sustainability’ within the curriculum. Class VI Science textbook has been selected as a sample for developing a framework to integrate Gandhian Philosophy and ideals at other levels. A critical analysis of NCERT Science textbooks from Classes VI – VIII was carried out to identify the topics and areas where Gandhian values and his idea of sustainable development can be integrated. The matrix (refer to Table 1) presents the Gandhian values found in the literature that can be mapped to the current science curriculum at the elementary school level. The matrix can help the teachers identify the Gandhian values and ideals that they can integrate with their science curriculum topics. For instance, when a teacher is teaching animal kingdoms and the classification of species, at the same time, she can also talk about taking care of animals, especially stray animals, by giving them food and comfort. This will help develop sensitivity among students toward animals in their neighbourhood and develop a feeling of care for them. A case of Class VI NCERT Science textbook is taken as a case example to explain the process of integrating Gandhian values and ideas within the curriculum (refer to Table 2). The pedagogy easily integrated with Gandhian values could role-play, storytelling approach, field study, watching documentaries and report writing, etc. In addition, Gandhiji emphasised the working of the head, heart, and hand for holistic learning and Education. Therefore, teachers need to integrate all the three elements (cognitive, affective and conative) into their teaching-learning processes. Table 1 Matrix representing Gandhian values mapped to curricular topics | Skill and manual labour (hands-on activities and Experiments) | Peace (collaborative work in doing science experiments and projects) | Harmony (group activities and Discussion) | Moral development (case studies and storytelling) | |-------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------| | Truth (reporting the results of experiments) | Animal care (Species diversity and animal classification) | Environment Ethics (air pollution, water pollution, use of plastics, e-waste, industrialisation) | Character development (helping others learn science concepts, scientific temper) | | Non-violence (tolerance for others’ views and opinions, animals’ rights, human rights) | Sustainability (conservation of resources) | Simplicity (polluting less, reducing carbon footprints) | Lifestyle (healthy diet, regular exercise, reliance on organic products) | | Charkha (hands-on science activities and experiments) | Employment (green economy and green jobs) | Self-sufficiency (training in skills such as coding, experimentation, artificial intelligence, etc.) | Equity (contribution of rich and poor in the share of Carbon footprints and Carbon emissions) | | Self-restraint (adopting a balanced and healthy lifestyle) | Equality (science education for all students irrespective of their caste, class, gender and socioeconomic status) | Freedom (conduct innovative science experiments and projects, report and share the findings) | Conservation of resources (judicious utilization of natural resources) | |----------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Sarvodaya or Social Welfare (science and scientific practices for community welfare) | Swaraj or decentralised power (democratic practice in science to arrive at logical solutions to given problems) | 3Rs - Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (waste management, conservation of resources) | Swadeshi or local goods (developing technology locally in the country and promoting skill development in the country) | **BOX 1: Classroom Discourse on Conservation of Resources** **Teacher:** Which is your favourite dish? **Student 1:** I like dal **Student 2:** I like rice with sambar **Student 3:** I like cauliflower vegetable **Student 4:** I like scrambled egg **Teacher:** Do you know from where these food items come? **Student 4:** From a poultry farm **Student 5:** From daily store **Student 6:** From the fields **Student 7:** From grocery shops **Teacher:** Yes, you are right; our food grains come from the fields while eggs come from the poultry farm. But, do you know who grows the food grains for us and takes care of the poultry? **Student 1:** The farmers grow the food grains for us **Student 3:** The animal breeders take care of the poultry farm in producing eggs **Teacher:** Do you know some people cannot get enough food? What could be the reasons for it? **Student 4:** Food items might be costlier for them to purchase **Student 6:** They might not be having jobs to earn money and buy food **Student 8:** They are not able to avail of the Government’s subsidized ration scheme **Student 10:** There might be too many members in a family to feed and not enough resources **Teacher:** Yes, you all are right; there could be different reasons for people not being able to feed themselves and their families adequately, but one of the primary reasons is ‘Poverty.’ This could lead to malnutrition and many deficiency diseases. However, is there any way through which we can help in reducing the shortage of food and solve the problem of hunger? **Student 2:** By reducing wastage of food **Student 4:** By buying food only as much as we want and not hoarding food items **Student 5:** By donating excess food to people who cannot afford **Teacher:** You are right! We should conserve the resources and utilise them judiciously to make them available and accessible to everyone. This is also known as the concept of Sustainability. While teaching about food and its sources, a teacher can refer to the NCERT Science textbook of Class VI (p. 2, Activity 3 and Table 1.3) and can initiate a discussion around the quality of food items, problem of food scarcity, and hunger in the country, working of the PDS (Public Distribution System), issue of access to quality food by the poor, and malnutrition. A discussion could be initiated in this regard [refer to Box 1]. Another example from the same textbook is the chapter ‘Fibre to Fabric’ and the importance of hand-woven fabrics and *Charkha*. Here, the teacher can discuss the process of making fabric from fibre and how *Charkha* became a national movement in India, leading the country toward self-sufficiency in terms of cloth making. The following excerpt from the Class VI NCERT textbook [refer to NCERT Science textbook for Class VI, p. 21] can be taken as a starting point for initiating the Discussion. “Use of *Charkha* was popularised by Mahatma Gandhi as part of the Independence movement. He encouraged people to wear clothes made of homespun yarn termed as *Khadi* and shun imported cloth made in the mills of Britain. To popularise and promote *Khadi*, the Government of India constituted a body called *Khadi* and Village Industries Commission in 1956.” (NCERT Science Textbook for Class VI, 2006) Here, teacher can actually begin with the activity of making a model of *Charkha* in the classroom and ask the students to do the same. This will help understand the working of *Charkha* and the coordination of their head, heart & hand (3 ‘H’). The storytelling method can also be integrated by narrating the story of *Charkha* [refer to Box 2] while teaching about the process of making fabric from fibre. Box 2: The Story of Charkha Charkha or the spinning wheel is one of the essential landmarks in India’s freedom struggle initiated by Mahatma Gandhi. During the rule of the East India Company, the British used to ship raw material (cotton) from India to England and then used to sell the finished products (fabric) in India at exorbitant prices that led to enormous losses for Indian farmers and commoners. At this time, Mahatma Gandhi introduced the ‘Swadeshi’ movement by taking up Charkha and asking Indians to weave their cloth. This cloth woven from the spinning wheel came to be known as Khadi or Khaddar. This marked the beginning of the Indian Spinning Industry. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Charkha_kept_at_Gandhi_Ashram.jpg In Mahatma Gandhi’s view, Charkha constitutes a movement that will revive the cottage industry in India, which will alleviate poverty. The message of the spinning wheel is to replace the spirit of exploitation with the spirit of service. Weaving Khadi, according to Gandhiji, is an honourable occupation to earn bread and has a far greater value as an instrument of winning Swaraj through non-violent means. There are many other chapters in the textbook where Gandhian values of Sustainability could be integrated (refer to Table 2). However, it is essential to note here that there could be varied pedagogical approaches to integrate the Gandhian values seamlessly within the curriculum. A teacher needs to be cognisant of the relevant examples, activities, and contexts for developing an integrated lesson plan with Gandhian values. Educators could be engaged with sustainability education much more by incorporating examples from local culture, natural resource issues, and economic possibilities for connecting their students more deeply with their community and place (Smith, 2010). Sustainability education needs to be dealt with holistically while adopting an interdisciplinary approach that includes concepts, evidence, controversy, values, and devising solutions to complex problems (Hill, 2005; Summers et al., 2005). Students can also be encouraged to take up short-term projects to deal with an issue related to sustainability. They can also document certain traditional practices and folklores that inherently promote sustainable development. Sustainability education should pervade all aspects of school education, be it curriculum, pedagogy, physical surroundings, and infrastructure, as well as partnerships with the local community. The approach to be adopted for integrating sustainability education includes intra-subject delivery, cross-curricular delivery, and the organization of special events (Buchanan, 2012). Table 2 Content Analysis of NCERT Science Textbook of Class VI for the integration of Gandhian Values | Chapter No. and Title | Topic/Task/Figure/Exercise (page no.) | Content/Theme | Gandhian Values Integrated | Suggestions for value addition (based on Gandhian idea of Sustainability) | |-----------------------|--------------------------------------|---------------|----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1. Food—where does it come from | Food materials and sources (p. 2) Table 1.3 Things to think about (p. 7) | Sources of different food materials, both plants and animals Does everyone around you get enough food to eat? If not, why? | Harmony & tolerance Equity and equality | The Gandhian value of giving importance to ‘vegetarianism’ and including more cereals and pulses in our diet can be integrated here. Likewise, the ethic of conservation of plants and animals can also be integrated here as the need to take care of animals in breeding houses. The question integrates the value of the equitable distribution of resources (food items) for sustainable living and eradicating hunger. | | 3. Fibre to Fabric | 3.4 (spinning cotton yarn) p 21 Project (p. 24) | Spinning of fibres into yarn Visit a nearby handloom or powerloom unit and observe the weaving or knitting of fabric. | Charkha and the value of self-sufficiency | The section talks about the Gandhian *Charkha* movement in India. He also emphasised the value of wearing homespun cloth *Khadi* and shunned the use and buying of foreign fabric. A field visit to a nearby *Khadi* Industry can be organised where the students get an idea about the process of spinning and the fabric of *Khadi*. | | 5. Separation of substances | 5.1 (Methods of separation) | Handpicking, threshing, winnowing, sieving, sedimentation | These manual methods generate employment for village people and help them attain self-sufficiency | The Dandi March (salt satyagraha) can be included under the evaporation/sedimentation of salt as a movement to make India self-sufficient and independent. | |-----------------------------|----------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 7. Getting to know plants | Fig. 7.13 (p. 57) | Watering and tending of plants | Taking care of plants | Students can be encouraged to plant more trees to preserve the environment and generate awareness about cutting down trees. | | 14. Water | Table 14.1 (p. 136) | Estimation of the amount of water used by a family in a day | Conservation of water Equitable distribution of resources Conservation of resources | The activity helps give an idea about the total water consumed and wasted in a day. It can help develop sensitivity among the learners towards the conservation of resources such as water. A discussion can be initiated on these points in the class to emphasise upon judicious utilisation of resources. | | | Boojho: Regions having a low supply of water [p. 137] | Unequal distribution and availability of water | | | | | Paheli: two glasses of water are required to make one page of a book [p. 137] | | | | | 16. Garbage in, garbage out | A step towards cleanliness (p. 155) Fig. 16.2 16.2 Vermicom posting [p. 158] | Government of India Swachh Bharat mission Managing garbage | Cleanliness and hygiene Value of manual labour and clean environment | The chapter emphasises the Gandhian ideal of cleanliness and how to make our surroundings clean. | Discussion The importance of sustainability in education and curriculum has been greatly emphasised (Worldover Jones, Selby, and Sterling, 2010; Ryan, Tilbury, Corcoran, Abe, and Nomura, 2010; Velazquez, Munguia, and Sanchez, 2005). The present study provides a perspective on Gandhian values of Sustainability and sustainable development. Gandhiji always emphasised a closer integration of schools and community to develop the sociological aspect of a child’s nature and encourage a cooperative mindset (Bala, 2005). Thus, teaching science integrated with Gandhian values for sustainable living will help mobilise the communities toward the idea of ‘sustainability’ and sustainable living. The Gandhian idea of sustainable development aims at reviving the traditional and indigenous knowledge systems such as cloth-making using Charkha, making ‘salt’ by using traditional methods of separation, which help generate employment opportunities for the rural poor. This helps in reducing the gap between the rich and the poor. There could be many such case examples and anecdotes from the Gandhian era that could be added to the textbook or curriculum to emphasise the idea of ‘sustainability.’ Gandhiji always stressed skill-based and experiential learning rather than rote memorisation of concepts (Sykes, 1988). Therefore, science teaching and learning in schools need to reorient itself toward skill-based learning and preparation for the nation’s future workforce. This has been highlighted by National Education Policy (NEP)-2020* and is one of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) for a self-reliant India. The Gandhian idea of sustainable development and value framework can be integrated into many topics of science and technology for developing an interdisciplinary perspective among learners as well as inculcating values through science. For instance, while teaching the topic, ‘Garbage in, Garbage out’, the values of cleanliness and hygiene can be integrated through various activities. Gandhian ideals, such as, democracy, equality, honesty, cooperation, and care for living beings constitute the core values for human beings and for building responsible citizenship. These ideals, when integrated with the curriculum through various activities and collaborative projects, help in nurturing such values among students. The Gandhian ideology of promoting the local handicrafts and cottage industries helps generate rural employment and sustainable living without polluting the environment. The skill of making cloth on a Charkha is a natural way of cloth weaving and fabric production and is sustainable too. Similarly, the value of conservation of natural resources such as water, coal, petroleum, etc., also helps build a sustainable future. Integrating the Gandhian idea of sustainability and sustainable development provides an interdisciplinary perspective to science teaching and learning. Science need not be taught as an objective and value-free subject; rather, values can form an integral part of science teaching and learning. Assessing the impact of new technology on society and the environment provides an interdisciplinary perspective to science teaching and learning; for instance, Genetically Modified crops and *The original reference was Draft NEP-2019 but by the time of publication of this issue, NEP-2020 was published and hence modified accordingly. their production in India have been a reason for great debate and furore owing to their unforeseen impact on the soil, environment and human body, and also being a reason for farmer distress in India. The present study highlighted the significance of Gandhian values in the science curriculum through science textbooks. A critical content analysis of the Class VI NCERT Science textbook revealed the integration of Gandhian values of Sustainability infused seamlessly in different chapters and topics. However, there is scope for further emphasis on these values and ideals in the science curriculum. The role of the teacher is also predominant in modeling such values for sustainability as well as in designing activities based on ‘sustainability’ and ‘sustainable development’. Some suggestions for additional activities within the science curriculum are provided in the paper (refer to Table 2). **Implications for Science Education** The analysis of the Class VI NCERT Science textbook reveals that the Gandhian idea of Sustainability has been integrated into a few chapters but can be emphasised more through additional activities and classroom discourses. A similar exercise can be carried out in other textbooks as well. This analysis has suggested that Gandhian ideas can be integrated into the science curriculum to provide a value-based framework and fulfil the sustainable development goals (SDGs) for Education. Gandhian Education is on the lines of sustainability education, which is also one of the essential recommendations of the National Education Policy (NEP)-2020*. The integration of Gandhian ideals within the science curriculum will not only inculcate the idea of sustainability among the young generation, but will also help in developing a value-framework for science teaching and learning. This would help in character development and nation building as emphasised by various national education policy documents such as National Education Commission (1964–66), National Education Policy (1986), etc. The students will be able to appreciate their own culture, its practices, and some sustainable traditional practices. Students and their teachers will also engage with the larger community outside their schools, which can benefit through certain co-designed activities and projects. The community-based approach as well as integration of head, heart, and hand envisaged by Gandhiji’s Basic Education Scheme (1937) is completely aligned with the activity-based approach and problem-solving approach practised in science teaching learning till date. The teachers need to adopt more collaborative pedagogical approaches in their teaching plan so as to instill among their students a spirit of cooperation, tolerance, and peace for building a sustainable society. References Bala, S. 2005, July-September. Gandhian Conception of Education — Its relevance in Present Times. *The Indian Journal of Political Science*. Vol. 66, No. 3. pp. 531—548. Buchanan, J. 2012. Sustainability Education and Teacher Education: Finding a Natural Habitat? *Australian Journal of Environmental Education*. Vol. 28, No. 2. pp. 108–124. Gandhi, M. K. 1959. The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism. Navajivan Mudranalaya. Ahmedabad. Jones, P., D. Selby, and S. Sterling, (Eds.). 2010. *Sustainability Education: Perspectives and Practice across Higher Education*. Earthscan. London. Kumarappa, B. (Ed.). 1953. Towards New Education. Navajivan Publishing House. Ahmedabad. NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework. NCERT. New Delhi. NCERT. 2006. Position Paper National Focus Group on Habitat and Learning. NCERT. New Delhi. Ryan, A., D. Tilbury, P. Corcoran, O. Abe, and K. Nomura. 2010. Sustainability in Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific: Developments, Challenges, and Prospects. *International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education*. Vol. 11, No. 2. pp. 106–119. Smith, G. 2010. Teaching about Sustainability. *Teacher Education Quarterly*. Vol. 37, No. 4. pp. 47–54. Summers, M., A. Childs, and G. Corney. 2005. Education for Sustainable Development in Initial Teacher Training: Issues for Interdisciplinary Collaboration. *Environmental Education Research*. Vol. 11, No. 5. pp. 623—647. Sykes, M. 1988. The Story of Nai Talim — Fifty years of Education at Sevagram Ashram. Nai Talim Samiti. Sevagram, Wardha. Velazquez, L., N. Munguia, and M. Sanchez. 2005. Deterring Sustainability in Higher Education Institutions: An Appraisal of the Factors which Influence Sustainability in Higher Education Institutions. *International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education*. Vol. 6 No. 4. pp 383–391. Vijayam, G. 2004. The Relevance of the Gandhian Approach. *Peace Research*. Vol. 36, No. 2. pp. 71–76. World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. *Our Common Future*. Oxford University Press. England. ———. 1960. Village Industries. Navajivan Publishing House. Ahmedabad. Websites https://www.mkgandhi.org/bk123.htm https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/environment/relevance-of-gandhian-environmentalism-56906 https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/gandhian-relevance-to-environmental-sustainability.html https://www.lfpsdelhi.com/gandhi-values/ https://www.jumaccans.com/blog/charkha-from-revolution-to-liberation/ https://www.mkgandhi.org/momgandhi/chap86.htm CAN GRAPHIC ORGANISERS ENHANCE SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL STUDENTS? M. Balamurugan DIET Aduthurai, Thanjavur District Tamil Nadu 612101 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Graphic organisers are teaching and learning tools that show the organisation of concepts as well as relationships between them in visual formats. The objective of the study was to find out the effectiveness of graphic organisers on science achievement. In this study, three groups pre-post test experimental design was adopted. Ten mini-lessons on the graphic organiser were conducted for the experimental group for 12 days. Science achievement test with four multiple-choice options was used. A total of 75 students was selected and divided into three groups of 25 each, viz., control, module, and experimental based on the group mean of the pretest. The t value calculated between the pre-test and post-test mean of the module group was found to be significant (5.97) and the effect size was found to be very large [1.716]. The t value calculated between the pre-test and post-test mean of the experimental group was found to be significant [21.64] and the effect size was found to be huge (4.866). Today, most of the concepts are overlapping and need multiple perspectives to understand but through graphic organisers, students can prepare visual representations that can be used for remembering, clarifying, and easily relating to multiple aspects of the concepts. Keywords: Learning strategy, visual representations, biology learning, Cohen’s d effect size, experimental design Introduction In today’s educational scenario, getting a job or cracking entrance exams is not as easy because the competition has become too high. The students have to learn a vast number of concepts. The teachers in that situation must orient students towards learning strategies to learn fast, accurately, and remember for a more extended period. One such way is through the usage of graphic organisers in learning. According to Ausubel’s theory, meaningful learning occurs when an individual’s existing knowledge interacts with new information in a non-arbitrary way. Ausubel (1960) found that meaningful learning of verbal material could be enhanced by using an advance organiser. An advance organiser is a tool that is presented prior to the material to be learned and that helps learners organise and interpret new incoming information. Advance organisers in cognitive instruction promote the learning and retention of new information. It is vital to link old information with something new. They help students recognise that the topic they are beginning to learn is not totally new and provide teaching explanations that include concepts. This study aims to develop a self-learning environment and retention of concepts using graphic organisers. In this study, the learners must be aware of graphic organisers. The learners should know the uses of graphic organisers; in turn, they should choose the correct graphic organisers for the concepts, prepare graphic organisers for the given concept in science, learn science concepts through prepared graphic organisers and score well on the achievement tests. Graphic organisers will help in learning as well as retention of science concepts. A graphic organiser is a strategy for science instruction that teachers can use to help students record information from direct observation as well as from reading to create a descriptive model of an organism or a phenomenon. Advance organisers have also been presented graphically. They are also called graphic advance organisers in some research. Graphic organisers are teaching and learning tools that show the organisation of concepts as well as relationships between them in a visual format. While advance organisers are being used at the beginning of the lesson, graphic organisers can be used in any process of the lesson with different aims. They can be used as a teaching tool throughout a lesson or for review at a later time. Being visual is so crucial in graphic organisers, but advance organisers can be visual or solely prose. Graphic organisers can help students organise their knowledge and encourage them to become actively engaged during the discussion of the topic and its concepts. Moreover, students will find it helpful in many competitive exams for jobs, entrance exams for higher education, etc. Therefore, using the graphic organiser can assist in making the topics more understandable for the students and retain concepts for a more extended period. The prevalent theory behind the use of graphic organisers comes from the cognitive psychology literature. Based upon research by Ausubel (1963, 1968) and Ausubel et al. (1978), cognitive psychology is the learning that takes place by the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing concepts and propositional frameworks. Ausubel’s theory of meaningful versus rote learning suggested that meaningful learning intentionally attempts to integrate new information, uses a more extensive network, and creates more means of recovery. Graphic organisers were first reported by David Ausubel in 1969 in his glossary; he states that graphic organisers are like a bridge that links the gap between the learner’s prior knowledge and what they have to learn (Culbert et al., 1998). Graphic organisers are an attribute of organising thoughts. The users may use graphic organisers to visually depict an idea through sequences or charts. Graphic organisers are the visual representation of knowledge that structures information by arranging important aspects of a concept or topic into a pattern using labels. Their primary function is to help present information in concise ways that highlight the organisation and relationships of concepts. Simply stated, a graphic organiser is a “visual representation of knowledge” regarding a certain concept (Bromley, DeVitis, and Modlo, 1999). More specifically, graphic organisers are arranged in a way that best shows the interrelatedness of pieces of information presented (Horton, Lovitt, and Bergerud, 1990). Graphic organisers are also known as key visuals, cognitive organisers, or advance organisers that are formatted for organising information and ideas graphically or visually. Just as cooperative learning groups make student thinking audible, graphic organisers make student thinking visible. Students can use graphic organisers to generate ideas, record and reorganise information, and see relationships. They demonstrate not only what students are thinking but also how they think as they work through learning tasks. Examples of graphic organisers include tree charts, fishbone charts, flow charts, T-charts, Venn diagrams, K–W–L charts, idea builders, and mind maps. Graphic organisers are visual depictions that resemble networks and allow students to add or modify their background knowledge by seeing the connections and contradictions between existing knowledge and new information. Graphic organisers serve as mental tools (Vygotsky, 1962) to help the students understand and retain important information and relationships. Graphic organisers provide an optional way of depicting knowledge and understanding (Sorenson, 1991), so it is particularly beneficial for students who have difficulty with expressing relationships among parts of science concepts in the written word. Students who use graphic organisers in the classroom develop their ability to use them independently as study tools for note-taking, planning, presentation, and review (Dunston, 1992). Tandog and Bucayong (2019) reported that the integration of effective study techniques could still be a relevant education research topic if we are to consider the changing demand for skills brought about by technological advancements. Thus, graphic organiser as a teaching tool was developed and implemented to promote conceptual understanding in the solution processes of algorithmic related topics in Physical Science. Iofciu, Miron and Antohe (2011), in a study entitled “Graphic Organiser for the constructivist approach of advanced science concepts.” The study revealed that retaining of information in extraordinary development of technical applications is a real challenge for science teachers and they wish to use graphic organisers to their interested students for grasping advanced science concepts. Fisher, Frey and Williams (2002) have observed positive reactions among students to the use of graphic organisers. Banikowski and Mehring (1999) highlighted that Teachers must introduce the use of a new graphic organiser to ensure its effectiveness in the classroom. Consistency across subject areas is another important element that ensures successful independent student practice of organising techniques in the classroom. The review of related literature demonstrates that graphical visualisation provides a framework to systematise ideas, facts, and concepts that promotes the development of higher-order thinking skills and facilitate effective student learning. **Objective of the study** To find out the effectiveness of graphic organisers on science achievement. **Hypotheses of the study** The following hypotheses were formulated in this research 1. There is no significant mean difference in pre-test scores of the control group, module group, and experimental group in science achievement. 2. There is a significant mean difference in post-test scores of the control group, module group, and experimental group in science achievement. There is a significant mean difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the control group, module group, and experimental groups in science achievement. **Experimental Research Design** To study the effectiveness of applying graphic organisers to the achievement of science, an experimental method was employed. Three groups, namely control, module and experimental groups were taken, and a pre-test was administered, followed by providing a module to the module group and treatment with a module to the experimental group, and a post-test was given to find out the effect of the module and treatment. In this study, the investigator adopted three groups — pre-test-post-test experimental design. The investigator had the study for a period of one week for the preparatory programme and 12 days for the intervention programme from January to March. As the researcher felt the urgent need for the improvement of science learning among elementary school students, the investigator prepared the module on graphic organisers that will enhance science learning among students. **Sample** Based on the group mean of the pre-test, three groups were formed, namely, the control, module, and experimental groups involving 25 students each. The study sample was the two sections of Class VIII students of Government High School, Thippirajapuram of Kumbakonam block in Thanjavur District of Tamil Nadu. The sample of the study is shown in Table 1. | S. No. | Sample groups | N | Graphic Organiser Module Provided | Intervention Given | |--------|---------------------|-----|-----------------------------------|--------------------| | 1. | Control group | 25 | No | No | | 2. | Module group | 25 | Yes | No | | 3. | Experimental group | 25 | Yes | Yes | **Delimitations of the study** 1. The study was restricted to both sections of Class VIII students of Government high school of Tamil Nadu Thippirajapuram from the Kumbakonam block of Thanjavur District. 2. Graphic organisers are limited to 10 in number. 3. The study only concerned 75 students in Class VIII students, which were classified into three groups. 4. The focus is to apply graphic organisers shown in the given module and not create a new one. 5. Only concepts given in the Class VIII term three Tamil Nadu Government science textbooks are selected for the study. 6. The intervention programme was carried out for 12 working days. Development and validation of science achievement test To find out the effect of the treatment, the investigator has framed a pre-test tool and a post-test tool in Tamil. Before administering the pre-test tool, it was given to the subject experts to identify the content validity, and the reliability was also established from Cronbach’s alpha. A pilot study has been conducted among 33 students of other schools Government Higher Secondary School-Aduthurai, Thiruvidaimarudur, Thanjavur district and Govt. Hr. Sec School Chettimandapam, Kumbakonam, Thanjavur district, where the intervention was not planned. Based on the students’ performance in the pilot study, item analysis was done, and the pre-test tool was developed. Initially, there were 60 items, but finally, 42 test items were selected for the study based on item analysis. Finally, Cronbach’s alpha was found to be 0.73, and thus the achievement test was considered reliable. Intervention The graphic organiser module developed by the investigator was administered in the treatment programme. The prepared module was given to the module and experimental groups except for the control group. One biology lesson was discussed and made to complete the graphic organisers for the experimental group only. The mini-lessons using graphic organisers were: Scanning, Science Vocabulary, Compare and Contrast, TimeLine, 5WH, Science Activity, Flow Chart, Tree Chart, Concept Map, and Fish-Bone as shown in Appendix 1 were implemented for the experimental group and insisted on completing all the ten graphic organisers for one lesson (No. 7), Crop Production and Management (Biology) as shown in appendix 2. One lesson each for Physics (Unit 1 Sound) and Chemistry (Unit 6 Chemistry in Everyday Life) was chosen and given a one-week duration to prepare the graphic organisers introduced by the investigator. The same three lessons were intimated to all three groups as the portion for the post-test. Results After the planned intervention towards using graphic organisers in the science concepts, the post-test was conducted. The results were analysed using SPSS version 21 and were tabulated and interpreted below: Table 2 Mean, Standard Deviation (SD), and t value of the pre-test scores in science achievement based on groups | Groups | Mean | SD | t value | df | t sig. | |-------------------------|--------|-------|---------|-----|--------| | Control Group Pre-test | 11.88 | 2.60 | 0.14 | 24 | 0.89 | | Module Group Pre-test | 11.76 | 2.68 | 0.10 | 24 | 0.92 | | Experimental Group Pre-test | 11.68 | 3.12 | 0.26 | 24 | 0.79 | Table 2 shows that there is no significant mean difference between pre-tests of the control and module group, module and experimental group, and control and experimental group. From Table 3, it can be inferred that the module group (15.84) scored higher than the control group (12.24) in the post-test, as the t value was determined to be 5.49, which was significant at a 0.01 level. The experimental group (26.96) scored higher than the module group (15.84) in the post-test, where the t value was estimated as 18.17, which was significant at a 0.01 level. The experimental group (26.69) scored higher than the control group (12.24) in the post-test, where the t value was estimated as 17.01, which was significant at a 0.01 level. A perusal of Table 4 shows that the t-value calculated between the mean scores of the pre-test and post-test of the control group is found to be 0.54, which is not significant even at a 0.05 level; thus, there is no need to calculate the effect size. The t-value calculated between the mean scores of the pre-test and post-test of the module group is found to be 5.97, which is significant at a 0.01 level. The post-test mean (15.84) is higher | Groups | Mean | S.D. | t value | df | t sig. | |-------------------------------|--------|-------|---------|-----|--------| | Control Group Post-test | 12.24 | 2.54 | | | | | Module Group Post-test | 15.84 | 2.03 | 5.49 | 24 | 0.00 | | Experimental Post-test | 26.96 | 3.16 | 18.17 | 24 | 0.00 | | Control Group Post-test | 12.24 | 2.54 | 17.01 | 24 | 0.00 | | Experimental Group Post-test | 26.96 | 3.16 | | | | | Groups | Test | Mean | S.D. | t value | df | t sig. | Cohen’s d | |-------------------------------|--------|--------|-------|---------|-----|--------|-----------| | Control Group (25) | Pre-test | 11.88 | 2.60 | 0.54 | 24 | 0.60 | – | | | Post-test | 12.24 | 2.54 | | | | | | Module Group (25) | Pre-test | 11.76 | 2.68 | 5.97 | 24 | 0.00 | 1.716 | | | Post-test | 15.84 | 2.03 | | | | | | Experimental Group (25) | Pre-test | 11.68 | 3.12 | 21.64 | 24 | 0.00 | 4.866 | | | Post-test | 26.96 | 3.16 | | | | | than the pre-test (11.76). The magnitude of the difference between the pre-test and post-test mean is estimated by Cohen’s d [1.716], which is found to be very large (Sawilowsky, 2009). The t-value calculated between the mean scores of the experimental group’s pre-test and post-test is 21.64, which is significant at a 0.01 level. The post-test mean [26.96] is higher than the pre-test (11.68). The magnitude of the difference between the pre-test and post-test mean is estimated through Cohen’s d [4.866], which is found to be huge (Sawilowsky, 2009). Therefore, it can be inferred that the intervention of graphic organisers had a significant effect on students’ achievement in science. The line graph of mean scores of pre-test and post-test in the control, module, and experimental group are shown in Fig. 1. **Educational implications** The graphic organiser is a self-learning strategy whereby students can learn independently with little guidance from the teacher. Through this, students will grasp the concepts and understand them deeply. Today, most of the concepts are overlapping and need multiple perspectives to understand. However, through the graphic organiser, students can prepare visual representations that can be used for remembering, clarifying, and easily relating to multiple aspects of the concepts they learn. The teachers just need to monitor the preparation of the visual forms by students; they have to simply monitor and guide the students wherever needed. However, once the students learn and apply graphic organisers in their academics, they can be helpful throughout their life. Many formats of graphic organisers are available on the internet; the teachers can adapt them according to their needs and modify them according to their concepts and students’ learning levels. This graphic organiser makes students learn concepts and remember them for a more extended period. Graphic organisers can be kept for a long time for any future exams and even it will be helpful for competitive exams. Even though we have efficient modules/books/booklets, still academicians/teachers must use graphic organisers efficiently for better student performance in academics. **Conclusion** This research takes the positive path in accordance with the review of related literature discussed. Graphic organisers are very effective self-learning strategies that could be used with little guidance from the teacher; the students can learn more profound concepts and remember them for a more extended period. Academicians should prepare and validate a standard module through SCERT or NCERT so that teachers can use that module in their teaching-learning process. Central and State governments should take steps to give orientation on graphic organisers to teachers. Teachers should implement these strategies in their teaching-learning process. Graphic organisers can be prepared for other subjects in other classes, and this would be helpful for competitive examinations while they are in the school itself. Teachers must implement these graphic organisers in their teaching-learning and feel the difference. This could even lessen their burden of teaching and make students remember and retain many complex or overlapping concepts for a more extended period. **Acknowledgments** I have immense pleasure to acknowledge R. Senkuttuvan, Principal, DIET, Aduthurai, Thanjavur District, for his academic and administrative support, P. Latha HM, Bharathi Selvan, AHM for their kind cooperation, and students of the Class VIII, GHS, Thippirajapuram, Thanjavur for their complete involvement during the interventions and evaluations for this research study. **References** Ausubel, D. P. 1960. The Use of Advance Organisers in Learning and Retention of Meaningful Material. *Journal of Educational Psychology*. 51, pp. 267–272. doi:10.1037/h0046669 ———. 1963. The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. Grune and Stratton. New York ——. 1968. Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. Ausubel, D. P., J. D. Novak, and H. Hanesian. 1978. Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View, 2nd Ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Reprinted, Warbel & Peck, 1986. New York. Banikowski, A. K., and T.A. Mehring. 1999. Strategies to Enhance Memory Based on Brain-Research. Focus on Exceptional Children. Vol. 32, No. 2. pp. 1-16. Bromley, K., L. I. DeVitis, and M. Modlo. 1999. 50 Graphic Organizers for Reading, Writing & More. Scholastic Professional Books. New York. Culbert, E., M. Flood, R. Windler, and D. Work. 1998. A Qualitative Investigation of the Use of Graphic Organisers. SUNY-Geneseo Annual Reading and Literacy Research Symposium, Geneseo, NY, 43. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED418381 Dunston, P.J. 1992. “A Critique of Graphic Organiser Research.” in Reading Research and Instruction. Vol. 31, No. 2. pp. 57-65. Fisher, D., N. Frey, and D. Williams. 2002. Seven Literacy Strategies That Work. Educational Leadership. Vol. 60, No. 3. pp. 70-73. Horton, S., T. Lovitt, and D. Bergerud. 1990, The Effectiveness of Graphic Organizers for Three Classifications of Secondary Students in Content Area Classes. Journal of Learning Disabilities. pp.12–29. Iofciu, F., C. Miron, and S. Antohe. 2011. Graphic Organiser for Constructivist Approach of Advanced Science Concepts: “Magnetorezistence.” Procedia—Social and Behavioural Sciences. Vol. 15. pp. 148–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SBSPRO.2011.03.065 Sawilowsky, S. 2009. “New effect size rules of thumb”. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods. Vol. 8, No. 2. pp. 467–474. doi:10.22237/jmasm/1257035100. http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/jmasm/vol8/iss2/26/ Sorenson, S. 1991. Working with Special Students in English Language Arts. TRIED, ED 336902, ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. Bloomington, IN. Tandog, O and C. Bucayong. 2019. Graphic Organiser: A Learning Tool in Teaching Physical Science. 379-393. 10.20319/pijss.2019.51.379393. Vygotsky, L. 1962. Thought and Language. MIT Press. Cambridge. Appendix 1: Graphic Organisers as per module prepared by the investigator 1. Scanning the Chapter Chapter: _______________________ I. Heading and Sub-heading | S. No. | Page No. | Word | Can I define it? | What is it related to? | Definition | Whether given in book back glossary? | |--------|----------|--------|------------------|------------------------|------------|--------------------------------------| | | | | | | | | II. Science Activity | S. No. | Page No. | Activity heading | Do you know? | Whether you can do | |--------|----------|------------------|-------------|--------------------| III. Tables | S. No. | Description of the table | |--------|--------------------------| IV. Figures | Fig. No | Description of the figure | Do you know | |---------|----------------------------|-------------| V. “Do you know?” Total numbers given in that chapter: _______ VI. “More to Know” Total numbers given in that chapter: _______ 3. 5WH - What? - Where? - When? - Why? - How? - Whom? 4. Time Line Chart Year Events 5. Flow Chart (Process) - Step 1 - Step 2 - Step 3 - Step 4 - Step 5 - Step 6 6. Tree Chart - LEVEL 1 - LEVEL 2 - LEVEL 3 - LEVEL 2 - LEVEL 3 - LEVEL 2 7. Concept Map Topic/Theme 8. Science Activity | Activity title: | Process: | |-----------------|----------| | | 1 | | | 2 | | | 3 | | | 4 | | | 5 | | | 6 | | Materials Required: | |---------------------| | 1 | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 | | 5 | | Questions: | |------------| | 1 | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 | | 5 | | Answers: | |----------| | 1 | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 | | 5 | Inference/Conclusion/Summary of the activity: 9. Compare and Contrast | S. No. | Subject 1 | Subject 2 | |--------|-----------|-----------| | 1 | | | | 2 | | | | 3 | | | 10. Fish Bone 1. Scanning 2. Science Vocabulary 3. 5W1H 4. Time Line 5. Flow Chart 6. Tree Chart 7. Concept Map 8. Science Activity 9. Compare and Contrast, and 10. Fish-Bone Appendix 2: Sample Graphic Organisers prepared by experimental group students as per module, and the instruction is given by the investigator ### Vocabulary | S. No. | Page No. | Words | You Know | Related | Meaning | Book back | |--------|----------|----------------|----------|--------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | 1. | 90 | Basal Manuring | ✓ | Irrigation | Manuring means adding manure to the Soil | × | | 2. | 90 | Ploughing | ✓ | Soil enrichment | The process of loosing and turning at the Soil | ✓ | | 3. | 93 | Sprinkler Irrigation | ✓ | Proper Irrigation System to Plants | Method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall | ✓ | | 4. | 97 | Mono-Culture | ✓ | Single pattern Crop Plantation | Planting of the same crop in the same field year after year | ✓ | | 5. | 91 | Dibbling | ✓ | Sowing in the Seed | Placement as seed material in a sarrow, pit or hole at predetermined spacing mined | ✓ | ### Concept Map - Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) - Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) - Agricultural Research Institutions - Krishvi Vigyan Kendral(KVK) - Agricultural Practices - Crop Production and Management - Soil Preparation - Ploughing - Leveling - Sowing Seeds - Sowing by hand - Seed Drill - Dibbling - Irrigation - Modern Method - Traditional Method - Harvesting of Crops - Machine Harvesting - Manual Harvesting - Threshing ## Compare and Contrast | **Kharid Crops** | **Rabi Crops** | **Zaid Crops** | |------------------|---------------|---------------| | The crops which are sown in the rainy season are called *kharid* crops | The crops grown in winter season are called *rabi* crops | The crops which are grown in summer season are called *zaid* crops | | Paddy, Maize, Soyabeen, groundnut and cotton. | Wheat, gram, ea, mustard, linseed | Watermelon cucumber. | ### Fish Bone - **Chemical Method** - Pesticide - Herbicide - Rodenticides - **Fertilisers** - Urea - Potassium - **Modern Irrigation** - Sprinkler System - Drip System - Tractor - **Mechanical Method** - **High Crop Yield** - Government Officers - Teachers - 869 Cotton - 969 Cotton - Quality Seed - Knowledge of the Farmer **Science Activity** | Activity | Required Things | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------| | Set up a compost pit within your school compound. Put all the organic | 1. Collected food waste | | wastes like food waste and plant leaf in your school campus, cover it | 2. plant leaf | | with soil. Wait for three weeks and then you can use this as manure for | 3. Crowbar | | the plants in your school. | | | Questions | Answers | |--------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------| | i) What constitutes organic from wastes? | Collecting food waste | | ii) Organic from wastes should be covered with? | Plants leaf | | iii) After how many months later does organic farm waste should be used. | It should be covered with soil. | | iv) How does organic farm waste can be used for plants. | Three months | | v) Where does the organic farm waste be used for plants. | As fertilizer. | | | Agriculture land open spaces, | | | and schools. | **Tree Chart** Basics of usage - Food crops - Fodder crops - Fibre crops - Oil crops - Ornamental crops A STUDY OF SCHOOL STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE SCIENCE IN INDIA Chong Shimray* Department of Education in Science and Mathematics National Council of Educational Research and Training New Delhi – 110016 Email: email@example.com Shrishail E Shirol Laxmi Nagar Bagaikot Karnataka 587101 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org *Corresponding author This paper can be considered a preliminary study to have an idea about the implementation of climate change education in India. An attempt was made to assess school students’ knowledge about climate change science based on ten closed statements, some of which were part of the curriculum in some way, while the rest of the statements were related to important climate change science concepts. A comparison was also made to determine if students who have manifested interest in science have more knowledge about climate change science than the rest. The findings of the study are expected to be useful for curriculum developers and other stakeholders of school education in India to prepare a robust curriculum on climate change. Keywords: Climate change education, climate change science, students’ knowledge, curriculum Introduction Climate change is one of the major crises the world is facing in the 21st century (Cohen and Waddell, 2009). The challenges it poses are daunting and will continue to be a threat in the coming years and decades. It is, therefore, pertinent for the world community to come together to take the right measures and initiatives to limit, if not undo, the damage that we have brought on ourselves. This is going to be a long-drawn battle that probably will not be settled in this generation, and the struggle will be carried forward for a few more generations. Indeed mitigating climate change will happen in decadal time scales (Corner et al., 2015). In such a scenario, it is imperative that we educate our children and teenagers and sensitise them towards climate change issues as they will be responsible for dealing with the environmental and societal consequences of climate change (Kuthe et al., 2019). Students do learn about climate change from their personal experiences, imbibe from parents, teachers, and peers. Apart from all these, formal education will play a crucial role in addressing a complex and complicated issue like climate change, which stretches beyond a single industry, region, culture, or field of study. It is through education that we can ensure that there is a sustainable future for us. Although in a different context, what the former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, said is very relevant to climate change, “Education is the most powerful weapon to change the world” (Ratcliffe, S., 2017). The goal of such an education is that it should aid students in engaging in critical and thoughtful enquiry about the information they receive. It should act as an enabler to communities and individuals in making informed decisions in mitigating the climate change problem and help in responding to its impeding effects (Chang and Pascua, 2017). Nobody could have put it better than UNESCO when it dubbed education as humanity’s best hope of achieving sustainable development (UNESCO, 2012). We are aware that curriculum is an important and integral part of education. The curriculum creates shared goals between teachers and students, standardises the learning for each grade, helps plan the education process or procedure, and provides a clear path for students to progress (Williams, 2019). Therefore, the quality of education imparted will depend on how robust the curriculum is. Further, Morgan and Moran (1995) elucidate that science education makes a significant difference in literacy on climate-related issues. Climate change is a buzzword today, and hence, as mentioned above, students are also informed about climate change from various sources. Keeping in view the urgency to address issues and problems related to climate change, it is necessary to prepare our students accordingly. The first and foremost task in this direction will be to provide appropriate knowledge about climate change science since this will drive students’ opinions about this phenomenon and subsequently act as a driver for climate change policy development through the expression of pro-environmental constituents and behaviours (Harker-Schuch and Bugge-Henriksen, 2013; Kuthe et al., 2019). Several studies have shown that climate change education has become part and parcel of the curriculum in schools throughout the world, in some form or other (Kastens and Turrins, 2008; Chang and Pascua, 2017), including India (NCERT, 2006; NCERT, 2007; NCERT, 2008). Comprehensive studies have been conducted in many countries on the implementation of climate change in schools, as the one for the US by Plutzer et al. (2016). This paper aims to explore how much students in India know about the science related to climate change. The findings of the study will provide some insights which will be valuable to curriculum developers, educators, and other stakeholders in devising better educational programmes for a more meaningful climate change education. **Objectives of the Study** The present study was undertaken with the following objectives: 1. To find out whether school students have the basic knowledge about climate change science 2. To find out whether students with a manifested interest in science have better knowledge about climate change compared to other students **Review of Literature** A review of the literature reveals that many of the studies undertaken have been found to be on what students know about climate change or how aware they are. For example, Kuthe et al. (2019) studied the level of awareness using questionnaires that were administered to 760 teenagers (13–16 years old) from Germany and Austria. Shepardson et al. (2011) investigated students’ conceptions of the greenhouse effect, global warming, and climate change by collecting qualitative data from 51 secondary students from three different schools in the midwest, USA. Further, Shepardson et al. (2012) also conducted a study on what secondary students should know and understand about a climate system. Other studies on this aspect were also done by Boon (2010) and Liarakou et al. (2011); what are they taught, such as a study conducted by Kastens and Turrin (2008) which identified different aspects of climate change that was included in the curriculum in 49 states in the US such as the mention of anthropogenic climate change in science education standards, burning of fossil fuels as a contributor of climate change, deforestation in the context of changes to climate or atmospheres, etc.; what they want to learn as in the case of a study undertaken by Tolppanen and Aksela (2018) wherein they conducted a qualitative content analysis to examine 355 open-ended questions which were provided by 16-19-year-olds in a study to find out what students want to learn about climate change. A study in Singapore by Chang and Pascua (2017) discussed what is taught in Economics, Social studies, and Science related to climate change. Specific to India, studies have been done on the views about global warming among secondary [Chhokar et al., 2011] and senior secondary students [Chhokar et al., 2012]. Many other studies point out the misconceptions (alternative conceptions) and confusions held by students on various concepts related to climate change, such as the greenhouse effect, global warming, ozone layer depletion, ozone hole, greenhouse gases, etc. (Boyes et al., 1993; Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1993; Harker-Schuch and Bugge-Henriksen, 2013; Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997; Papadimitriou, 2004; Sulistyawati et al., 2018; Bostrom et al., 1994; Read et al., 1994; Morgan and Moran, 1995; Kempton, 1991). **Methodology** **Tool used** A simple questionnaire was prepared which had besides general demographic items such as class and State/UT they belong to, ten closed items (statements) related to climate change science which are given below: 1. Global warming is caused due to increase in the size of the ozone hole. 2. The incoming solar radiation has a longer wavelength than the reflected solar radiation. 3. Carbon monoxide released from vehicular exhaust contributes to climate change. 4. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and water vapour are both greenhouse gases. 5. Oceans are important carbon sinks. 6. Changes in temperature over a week are due to climate change. 7. Increase in temperature contributes to sea level rise. 8. Position of Earth with respect to the Sun contributes to climate change. 9. Tsunamis are caused by climate change. 10. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb solar radiation and cause global warming. Considering the syllabus and textbooks prepared by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) as reference for this study, item Nos. 1, 3, 4, 6, and 10 are part of the curriculum till Class X in some form in the textbooks, or it is expected that teachers would introduce students to such concepts. Concepts related to item No. 1 are in Science textbooks of Class VII [NCERT, 2007, p. 216], Class VIII [NCERT, 2008, p. 61, p. 73, pp. 242–243], Class IX [NCERT, 2006, pp. 198–200] and Class X [NCERT, 2007a, p. 244, p. 249, p. 279]; Item No. 3 is in Science textbooks of Class VII [NCERT, 2007, p. 216], Class VIII [NCERT, 2008, p. 61, p. 73, pp. 242–243], Class IX [NCERT, 2006, pp. 198–200], and Class X [NCERT, 2007a, p. 249, p. 279]. Item No. 4 is in the Science textbooks of Class VII (NCERT, 2007, p. 216), Class VIII (NCERT, 2008, p. 61, p. 73, pp. 242–243), Class IX (NCERT, 2006, pp. 198–200), and Class X (NCERT, 2007a, p. 249, p. 279). Item No. 6 is in the Science textbook of Class VII [NCERT, 2007, pp. 68–79], and item no. 10 is in Science textbooks of Class VII [NCERT, 2007, p. 216], Class VIII [NCERT, 2008, p. 61, p. 73, pp. 242–243], Class IX [NCERT, 2006, pp. 198–200] and Class X [NCERT, 2007a, p. 244, p. 249, p. 279]. In addition, students also learn about such topics in Class XII Biology [NCERT, 2007, pp. 280–281] and in some form in Geography in different classes up to Class XII. Item Nos. 2, 5, 7, 8, and 9 have been included since these will help identify their basic understanding of climate change science. Many of the concepts related to the items have also been used by different researchers in their studies. For example, item Nos. 1 [Boyes et al., 1993; Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1993; Rajeev Gowda, et al., 1997; Papadimitriou, 2004; Harker-Schuch and Bugge-Henriksen, 2013]; Item No. 2 [Shepardson et al., 2011 and Shepardson et al., 2012]; Item No. 4 (Harker-Schuch and Bugge-Henriksen, 2013); Item No. 7 [Sulistyawati et al., 2018]; Item No. 10 [Papadimitriou, 2004]. In their study about elementary science methods, students’ understanding of global climate change in the US, Lambert et al. (2012) included questions related to item Nos. 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, and 8. Two options (Yes or No) were provided to choose their response to the items (statements). The questionnaire was anonymous. Student participation was voluntary, and consent was obtained from all participants in this research. **Sampling** Two groups of students were considered for this study. One group included 9% students who had attended Jawaharlal Nehru National Science, Mathematics and Environment Exhibition for Children (JNNSMEE) held in Ahmadabad, Gujarat, in 2018. They were grouped as “Science” for the purpose of this study. Due to their participation in this exhibition, they were considered to have manifested interest in science. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi, an apex body for school education in India, in collaboration with various state governments, organises this prestigious exhibition every year, where students showcase their talents in science and mathematics and their applications in different areas related to everyday life through their innovative models. However, this exhibition is open only to a select few students who have been screened from the cluster-level, block-level, district-level, and state-level exhibitions. These students answered the questionnaire in pen and paper mode. The demography of the students based on their class is provided in Table 1. The second group of participants included 1817 students from different schools located in different States and UTs. Since this population of 1817 was heterogenous, i.e., a different number of students in a different class, we first used stratified sampling to divide the heterogenous population into homogenous strata class-wise, and then by applying simple random sampling from these strata using Excel, we sampled 96 students to make the number of students equal in both the groups and also in terms of the number of students from a given class as listed in Table 1. This group of students was grouped as “Others” in the study. Their response was obtained online via the Survey Planet platform (149 students participated) as well as by offline mode, which was administered in schools through different state functionaries (1668 students participated) during 2018–19. **Analysis of data** Objective 1 was inspected within each group of students, and Objective 2 was examined between the two groups of students — “Science” and “Others.” A simple statistical analysis was done to find out the performance of students in terms of correct or incorrect responses, and a T-test was employed to compare the performance of the two groups of students in the study for which online tools available on different websites were used such as in easycalculation.com and graphpad.com. **Results and Discussions** I. Results and discussions are provided herewith based on objectives. The first objective of the study was to find out whether students have the basic knowledge related to climate change science. For this, we calculated the performance of the students in terms of the number of students whose responses were correct or incorrect, as provided in Table 2 and Fig. 1. As we can see in Table 2, except for items Nos. 2, 6, and 9, more than 50 per cent of students (Overall) responded correctly for all the items, with the percentage as high as 78.5, 80 and 78 for item nos. 3, 7 and 10, respectively. | Item No. | Correct response | Incorrect response | |----------|------------------|--------------------| | | Science (%) | Others (%) | Overall (%) | Science (%) | Others (%) | Overall (%) | | 1. | 80 (83) | 24 (25) | 104 (54) | 16 (17) | 72 (75) | 88 (46) | | 2. | 54 (52) | 30 (31) | 84 (41.5) | 42 (48) | 66 (69) | 108 (58.5) | The low percentage of the correct answer of Overall students for item no. 1 (54%) with an even lower percentage (25%) amongst “Others” is found to be in line with the previous studies (Boyes et al., 1993; Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1993; Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997, Leiserowitz, 2006; Grant and Featherstone, 2009; Boon, 2010; Liarakou et al., 2011; Shepardsen et al., 2012; Lambert et al., 2012; Harker-Schuch and Bugge-Henriksen, 2013; Tolppanen and Aksela, 2018). In most cases, this is largely attributed to the misconception held by students that the ozone hole lets more radiation from the sun to enter the atmosphere, thereby warming the Earth, or due to the trapping of solar radiation by the ozone layer, which causes global warming (Koulaidis and Christidou, 1999). Since the concept related to the item is expected to have been studied by students as part of their curriculum, a correct response would have been expected, which is not the case. However, the performance of the Science group was found to be very good, with 83 per cent having correctly answered. This could be due to a clearer understanding of the concept due to their natural inclination to Science. For item no. 2, only 41.5 per cent of students (Overall), 52 per cent (Science), and 31 per cent (Others) gave the correct answer. This could be because most students are unfamiliar with the concept since it is not part of their curriculum. A study conducted by Papadimitriou (2004) found that none of the students in his study made any connection with the long-wave radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface when describing the process of the greenhouse effect. This explains the importance of having a clear idea about various radiations in order to understand climate change. Shepardson et al. (2011, 2012) also found a lack of understanding about different radiations amongst secondary students in their study to prepare a climate system framework. Boyes and Stanisstreet (1997, 1998), in their studies among the 13-14-year-olds, also found a stark lack of clarity about UV-rays and heat rays. Koulaidis and Christidou (1999) also found a lack of clarity on the part of students about the nature of radiations, although the participants of their study belonged to 11-12 years. The lack of understanding about the types of radiations and their role in the greenhouse effect was also pointed out by Lambert et al. (2012) in their study about elementary science methods students’ understanding of global climate change in the US. This reveals the need to include basic concepts of the electromagnetic spectrum, their source (active and passive) as well as wavelength with more thrust in the curriculum. Students performed well for item no. 3 as we look at the number of students who responded correctly (Overall = 78.5%; Science = 90%; Others = 67%). This could be attributed to their exposure to this concept at some point in their curriculum. Earlier studies have not specifically focused on this concept while conducting studies on school students’ knowledge about climate change. For item no. 4, students were found to perform decently considering the number of students who responded correctly (Overall = 60.5%; Science = 60%; Others = 61%). Again, this could be attributed to their exposure to this concept at some point in their curriculum. Earlier studies [Harker–Schuch and Bugge-Henriksen, 2013; Boon, 2010; Lambert et al., 2012] have also included this aspect, and it was observed that students lacked clarity regarding the types of greenhouse gas and their role in the greenhouse effect or global warming. Similarly, students have performed well for item no. 5 with the correct response in the order of Overall = 68.5%; Science = 77%; Others = 60%). Although this is not directly part of their curriculum, it is likely that students have been exposed to this concept from other sources such as print and electronic media [Carbon Sources and Sinks, National Geographic Society, n.d.], talks by scientists, and public conversations. Item no. 6 is fundamental to understanding climate change. Yet it is discouraging to find that the least number of students responded correctly of all the items (Overall = 32.5%; Science = 36%; Others = 29%). As is evident from the result, Science students performed equally poorly. The result is more surprising because this concept is dealt with in detail in the curriculum in Class VII based on the NCERT syllabus and textbook. It is also disappointing because this concept is fundamental if one has to understand climate change. However, this confusion was also observed even amongst student-teachers (Lambert et al., 2012). Although item no. 7 is not directly part of the curriculum, most of the students responded correctly (Overall = 80%; Science = 84%; Others = 76%). Similar results are found in a study conducted amongst adolescents in Indonesia (Sulistyawati et al., 2018). Boon (2010), Shepardson et al. (2011), and Liarakou et al. (2011) also found similar results but with varying degrees. This could be because of the popularity of the idea of sea level rise with climate change. However, Lambert et al. (2012) found a lack of clarity amongst student-teachers on the cause of sea level rise. Most of the students responded correctly (Overall = 70%; Science = 68%; Others = 72%) for item no. 8. Although this is not directly part of the curriculum in terms of climate change, students study about the position of the sun, rotation, and revolution of the Earth in Geography through which they would have gained some idea. In one of their questions to find out the cause of changing seasons on Earth from student-teachers, Lambert et al. (2012) also found similar results (94%), indicating that natural reasons for climate change are a relatively easy concept to grasp. For item no. 9, less than 50 per cent of students responded correctly (Overall = 43.5%; Science = 44%; Others = 43%). This could be because the concept is not part of the curriculum. However, this observation to relate Tsunamis with climate change is not uncommon. Lambert et al. (2012) also found in their study that many student-teachers had also linked the two phenomena. That “Tsunamis are caused by climate change” could also be considered a misconception held by students. Of all the items in the questionnaire, maximum number of students responded correctly to item no. 10 (Overall = 78%; Science = 80%; Others = 76%). This could be because the concept is included at some stage in the curriculum. Whatever the reason for their knowledge, it is an important finding because at least we can conclude that students know that greenhouse gases are responsible for global warming. The concept related to this was also included by Papadimitriou (2004) in a study related to climate change. As we observed in the result, students generally have some knowledge about climate change science, although a much better performance would have been encouraging. The fact that students did not have extensive knowledge about climate change science could be because the existing curriculum is not robust enough to drive students to be climate literate. It is important to mention here that the existing NCERT syllabus (NCERT, 2005; NCERT, 2005a) and textbooks were prepared from 2006 to 2008 (NCERT, 2006; NCERT, 2007; NCERT, 2007a; NCERT, 2007b; NCERT, 2008). The focus on climate change then and now has changed drastically, with tremendous attention shifting towards climate change today. In addition, the major misconceptions that seem to exist among Indian students based on the result are a major concern. However, such misconceptions are commonly found to exist amongst students globally, as we have discussed in some cases earlier. Curriculum developers and other stakeholders may take note of such misconceptions so that the resources that are developed address those concerns or that teachers are prepared accordingly. Besides such items, which indicate misconceptions, the remaining items included in the questionnaire are equally important to be addressed in the curriculum since they are crucial for understanding climate change science. As mentioned earlier, appropriate knowledge and views about climate change are crucial for the expression of pro-environmental constituents and behaviours amongst students (Harker-Schuch and Bugge-Henriksen, 2013; Kuthe et al., 2019). II. The second objective was to find out whether students from "Science" (students with a manifested interest in Science) have better knowledge about climate change compared to "Others" [randomly selected students from different states and UTs]. For this, we performed a t-test to compare the response of the two groups of students—“Science” and “Others.” The null hypothesis for this study is that the two groups of students have equal knowledge about climate change science. The alternative hypothesis is that both groups of students have different knowledge about climate change science. Level of significance: $\alpha=0.05$ We found the p-value of the t-test to be 0.0501, which is slightly more than $\alpha=0.05$ (i.e., $p \rightarrow .05$) (Table 2). This means that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, i.e., the difference in the knowledge about climate change science in both the groups of students—"Science" and "Others" is not quite statistically significant. It can be concluded that "Science" students (students with a manifested interest in science) do not have better knowledge about climate change science compared to "Others" students. It was expected that the performance of "Science" students would be better and statistically significant compared to students from the group "Others" because "Science" students have manifested interest in science, and hence one would expect them also to show an inclination to learn about climate change science. However, the result from the study did not validate the same. This also indicates, to some extent, that the source of information whatsoever for all the students on climate change may be similar. Unfortunately, there are limited research on the sources of information from where students or teachers learn about climate change. Nevertheless, we can list some general sources of information such as the Internet; government sources; mass media (print and electronic); and professional development courses, and most importantly, for students, it is the teachers who serve as the major source of information. Therefore, teachers play an important role in transmitting information, knowledge, and skills related to climate change, and rightly so, teachers have been described as 'gatekeepers of information' (Kunkle and Monroe, 2019). Consequently, it becomes important to understand teachers' source of information since this will impact their interaction with students. It is also crucial for teachers to have expertise in the subject since this will help them filter information appropriately, which are available on different platforms or sources (McNeal et al., 2017). At the same time, there is a need to re-visit the curriculum content with regard to climate change. Table 2 T-test to compare the response of the two groups of students—"Science" and "Others" | Variable | Mean | Standard Deviation | SEM | 95% Conf. Interval | |----------|--------|--------------------|---------|--------------------------| | Science | 5.75 | 1.49385 | 0.1524654 | -0.0001999, 0.8335399 | | Others | 5.33333| 1.43392 | 0.1463488 | | Mean [diff] = Mean [Science – Others] = 0.4166700 t = 1.9716 Df = 190 Standard error of the difference of means of samples = 0.211 P value = 0.0501 Conclusion The present paper can be considered a preliminary study to assess the implementation of climate change education in India. From the study, we can conclude that climate change education is undoubtedly part of the curriculum, but much is wanting for its effective and meaningful implementation. The study also revealed that the greenhouse effect and global warming have been included in several places in the curriculum from Class VI to XII. However, the result revealed that inclusion of the concept did not lead to an understanding of the concept. This is despite the fact that most students who participated in the study belonged to higher classes (above Class VIII) and, therefore, have been introduced to climate change-related concepts over the years in their curriculum. It is worth mentioning here that in many instances, the concepts were merely included as a passing statement and, therefore, are left to the mercy of the teachers to teach the way she/he best perceives. In addition, many important concepts related to climate change that were included in the study are yet to find a place in the curriculum. Therefore, the first step in the direction of climate change education will begin with the systematic inclusion of appropriate concepts and contents in the curriculum in different classes and subjects. Towards this end, the development of appropriate resources which are contextualised, relevant and relatable to students will be crucial. Along with this, the preparation of teachers and their professional development must also be prioritised, which caters to climate change education. Moreover, the National Education Policy-2020* also focuses on, and is committed to, achieving the different targets of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), of which, climate is a major area with direct relation to Goal 13: Climate Action and also linked with all other SDGs as well. The role of curriculum developers, policymakers, teacher educators, teachers, and other stakeholders will be indispensable for its successful implementation. *The original reference was Draft NEP-2019 but by the time of publication of this issue, NEP-2020 was published and hence modified accordingly. Boon, H. J. 2010. Climate Change? Who Knows? A Comparison of Secondary Students and Preservice Teachers. *Australian Journal of Teacher Education*. Vol. 35, No. 1. pp. 104–120. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2010v35n1.9 Bostrom, A., M. G. Morgan, B. Fischhoff, and D. Read. 1994. What Do People Know About Global Climate Change? 1. Mental Models. *Risk Analysis*. Vol. 14, No. 6. pp. 959–970. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1994.tb00065.x Boyes, E., D. Chuckran, and M. Stanisstreet. 1993. How Do High School Students Perceive Global Climatic Change: What are its Manifestations? What are its Origins? What Corrective Action can be Taken? *Journal of Science Education and Technology*. Vol. 2, No. 2. pp. 541–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00695323 Boyes, E., and M. Stanisstreet. 1993. The ‘Greenhouse Effect’: Children’s Perceptions of Causes, Consequences and Cures. *International Journal of Science Education*. Vol. 5, No. 5. pp 531–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069930150507 _______. 1997. Children’s Models of Understanding of Two Major Global Environmental Issues [ozone layer and greenhouse effect]. *Research in Science and Technological Education*. Vol. 15, No. 1. pp. 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/0263514970150102 _______. 1998. High School Students’ Perceptions of How Major Global Environmental Effects Might Cause Skin Cancer. *Journal of Environmental Education*. Vol. 29, No. 2. pp. 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958969809599110 *Carbon Sources and Sinks*, National Geographic Society. [n.d.]. Retrieved July 28, 2022, from https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/carbon-sources-and-sinks Chang, C. H., and L. Pascua. 2017. The Curriculum of Climate Change Education: A Case for Singapore. *Journal of Environmental Education*. Vol. 48, No. 3. pp. 172–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2017.1289883 Chhokar, K., S. Dua, N. Taylor, E. Boyes, and M. Stanisstreet. 2011. Indian Secondary Students’ Views about Global Warming: Beliefs about the Usefulness of Actions and Willingness to Act. *International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education*. Vol. 9, No. 5. pp. 1167–1188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-010-9254-z Chhokar, K., S. Dua, N. Taylor, E. Boyes, and M. Stanisstreet. 2012. Senior Secondary Indian Students’ Views About Global Warming, and Their Implications for Education. *Science Education International*. Vol. 23, No. 2. pp. 133–149. Cohen, S. J., and M. W. Waddell. 2009. *Climate Change in the 21st Century*. McGill-Queen’s University Press. Corner, A., O. Roberts, S. Chiari, S. Völler, E.S. Mayrhuber, S. Mandl, and K. Monson. 2015. How do Young People Engage with Climate Change? The Role of Knowledge, Values, Message Framing, and Trusted Communicators. *Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change*. Vol. 6, No. 5. pp. 523–534. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.353 Grant, L., FeatherStone 2009. Students Lack Environmental Awareness, 60 per cent Mistaken About Causes of Global Warming. Green Power, *Press Release*. Retrieved on 15 July 2022, from. http://www.greenpower.org.hk/html/eng/job_press.shtml. Harker-Schuch, I., and C. Bugge-Henriksen. 2013. Opinions and Knowledge About Climate Change Science in High School Students. *Ambio*. Vol. 42, No. 6. pp. 755–766. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-013-0388-4 Kastens, K., and M. Turrin. 2008. What are Children being Taught in School about Anthropogenic Climate Change? in Bud Ward’s *Communicating on Climate Change: An Essential Resource for Journalists, Scientists, and Educators*. Metcalf Institute for Marine and Environmental Reporting. Kempton, W. 1991. Lay Perspectives on Global Climate Change. *Global Environmental Change*. Vol. 1, No. 3. pp. 183–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-3780(91)90042-R Koulaidis V, V. Christidou. 1999. Models of Students’ Thinking Concerning the Greenhouse Effect and Teaching Implications. *Sci Educ*. Vol. 83, No. 5. pp. 559–576 Kunkle, K., and M. Monroe. 2019. Cultural Cognition and Climate Change Education in the US: Why Consensus is not Enough. *Environmental Education Research*. Vol. 25, No. 5. pp. 327–344. https://www.d.umn.edu/~kgilbert/educ5165-731/Readings/Emmons - Perceptions of the Env While Exploring Outdoors.pdf Kuthe, A., L. Keller, A. Körfgen, H. Stötter, A. Oberrauch, and K. M. Höferl. 2019. How Many Young Generations are there? A Typology of Teenagers’ Climate Change Awareness in Germany and Austria. *Journal of Environmental Education*. Vol. 50, No. 3. 172–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2019.1598927 Lambert, J. L., J. Lindgren, and R. Bleicher. 2012. Assessing Elementary Science Methods Students’ Understanding About Global Climate Change. *International Journal of Science Education*. Vol. 34, No. 8. pp. 1167–1187. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2011.633938 Leiserowitz, A. 2006. Climate Change Risk Perception and Policy Preferences: The Role of Affect, Imagery, and Values. *Climatic Change*. Vol. 77, No. 1. pp. 45–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10584-006-9059-9 Liarakou, G., I. Athanasiadis, and C. Gavrilakis. 2011. What Greek Secondary School Students Believe about Climate Change? *International Journal of Environmental and Science Education*. Vol. 6, No. 1. pp. 79–98. McNeal, P., H. Petcovic, and P. Reeves. 2017. What is Motivating Middle-school Science Teachers to Teach Climate Change?. *International Journal of Science Education*. Vol. 39, No. 8. pp. 1069–1088. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2017.1315466 Morgan, M. D., and J. M. Moran. 1995. Understanding the Greenhouse Effect and the Ozone Shield: An Index of Scientific Literacy Among University Students. *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.* Vol. 76, pp. 1185–1190. NCERT. 2005. *Syllabus for Classes at the Elementary Level*. New Delhi. ———. 2005a. *Syllabus for Secondary and Higher Secondary Classes*, New Delhi: ———. 2006. *Science Textbook for Class IX*, New Delhi. ———. 2007. *Science Textbook for Class VII*, New Delhi. ———. 2007a. *Science Textbook for Class X*, New Delhi. ———. 2007b. *Biology Textbook for Class XII*, New Delhi. ———. 2008. *Science Textbook for Class VIII*, New Delhi. Papadimitriou, V. 2004. Prospective Primary Teachers’ Understanding of Climate Change, Greenhouse Effect, and Ozone Layer Depletion. *Journal of Science Education and Technology*. Vol. 13, No. 2. pp. 299–307. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jost.0000031268.72848.6d Plutzer, E., M. McCaffrey, A. L. Hannah, J. Rosenau, M. Berbeco, and A. H. Reid. 2016. Climate Confusion Among US Teachers. *Science*. Vol. 351, No. 6274. pp. 664–665. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab3907 Rajeev Gowda, M. V., J. C. Fox, and R. D. Magelky, 1997. Students’ Understanding of Climate Change: Insights for Scientists and Educators. *Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society*. Vol. 78, No. 10. pp. 2232–2240. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-78.10.2232 Ratcliffe S. 2017. *Oxford Essential Quotations (5 ed.)*. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780191843730.001.0001 Read, D., A. M. G. Bostrom, B. Morgan, Fischhoff, and T. Smuts. 1994. What do People Know About Global Climate Change?2. Survey Studies of Educated Laypeople. *Risk Anal*. Vol. 14, pp. 971–982 Shepardson, D. P., D. Niyogi, S. Choi, and U. Charusombat. 2011. Students, Conceptions About the Greenhouse Effect, Global Warming, and Climate Change. *Climatic Change*. Vol. 104, No. {3–4} pp. 481–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-009-9786-9 Shepardson, D. P., D. Niyogi, A. Roychoudhury, and A. Hirsch. 2012. Conceptualising Climate Change in the Context of a Climate System: Implications for Climate and Environmental Education. *Environmental Education Research*. Vol. 18, No. 3. pp 323–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2011.622839 Sulistyawati, S., S. A. Mulasari, and T. W. Sukesi. 2018. Assessment of Knowledge Regarding Climate Change and Health Among Adolescents in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. *Journal of Environmental and Public Health*. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9716831 Tolppanen, S., and M. Aksela. 2018. Identifying and Addressing Students’ Questions on Climate Change. *Journal of Environmental Education*. Vol. 49, No. 5. pp. 375–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2017.1417816 Williams, M. 2019. *Why is Curriculum Important?*—Classcraft Blog—Resource hub for schools and districts. https://www.classcraft.com/blog/why-is-curriculum-important/ United Nations Organisation for Education, Science and Culture (UNESCO). 2012. *Education for Sustainable Development*. NEP-2020* inculcates within the curriculum the very essence of toy-based pedagogy. Play, as an activity, has always been an essential and integral part of human culture. The child’s involvement with play is vital in early childhood as this has a significant bearing on the child’s physical, psycho-emotional, social, and cognitive development (Rensickand Ocko, 1990). In addition, toys are the carrier of the cultural heritage of any country, and the local heritage connects the student to their soil and thus induces the spirit of patriotism within. The role of introducing toy-based pedagogy in the upcoming NCF, as envisioned in NEP 2020, will change the way toys have been perceived and will find their proper place in the curricula. The teachers, by virtue of using the toys as learning resources and developing them into pedagogical practices, should slowly introduce the student to the ethos of Indian culture. The developmental level of the child, the interest the child has in the toy, the availability of the toy and the impact of cultural beliefs are key factors that aid in the selection of toys (DuBois, 1997). This, in turn, will inculcate creativity and problem-solving skills. Using analogy, puzzles, and games to teach science and mathematics are a few exemplars that should find their place within the lesson plan. The use of indigenous local toys will bring out the local traditions and essence of the background in which the student develops and will always reflect their personality. Play-based learning promotes academic readiness and outcomes (Hirsch-Pasek and Golinkoff, 2008). It also adds to sustainability as going local with crafted local toys will curtail the use of plastic toys and avoid adverse environmental repercussions. The development of toy-based pedagogy should be seen in all four aspects of science, social science, mathematics and language. In addition, one may embed it within the existing tools and techniques of delivery by inducing critical thinking, decision-making and problem-solving within them. However, research has shown that the traditional approaches to professional experience generally provide insufficient integration of theory and practice, and have been criticised for resulting in a lack of classroom readiness in early career teachers (Allen and Wright, 2014; Craven et al., 2014). Therefore, the *The original reference was Draft NEP-2019 but by the time of publication of this issue, NEP-2020 was published and hence modified accordingly. teacher Education Curriculum Framework must reframe itself to accommodate the vision of the upcoming NCF, and pre-service teachers must learn the art of embedding, which will allow rethinking, restructuring, and reimaging of the curricula through the created pedagogy. References Allen, J. M., and S.E. Wright. 2014. Integrating Theory and Practice in the Pre-service Teacher Education Practicum. *Teacher Teach.* Vol. 20. pp. 136–151. Craven, G., K. Beswick, J. Fleming, T. Fletcher, M. Green, B. Jensen. 2014. Action Now: Classroom Ready Teachers, Report of the Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (TEMAG), Department of Education, Australia. DuBois, S. A. 1997. Playthings: Toy Use, Accessibility, and Adaptation. In: B. Chandler [Ed.], The Essence of Play: A Child’s Occupation, (107–128). The American Occupational Therapy Association. Bethesda, MD. Hirsh-Pasek K, RM. Golinkoff. 2008. Why Play-Learning. In: Tremblay, R.E., Boivin, M., Peters RDeV, (Eds.). Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development and Strategic Knowledge Cluster on Early Child Development; 1-6. Montreal, Quebec. Available at: http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/documents/Hirsh-Pasek-GolinkoffANGxp.pdf Resnick, M.; S. Ocko. 1990. Learning Through and About Design; Vol. 8. pp. 1–10. Epistemology and Learning Group, MIT Media Laboratory: Cambridge, MA, USA. Students often consider the classroom as a site of intellectual competition, and every success fuels their drive to excel further. However, there have been mixed views regarding the role of competition in motivating students in the classroom (Cropper, 1998). Extrinsic motivation driven by a scheme of rewards and incentives can lead to mental stress and even be detrimental to the expression of ingenuity. Parents, in their quest for getting the best out of their children, generally resort to making comparisons, and unintentionally aggravate mental pressure in the process. Rather than merely egging students on to obtain higher grades than their peers, a shift to a more holistic approach involving all-round development of their personality is the need of the hour. In this context, it is very interesting to note that the National Education Policy-2020* emphasises on the adoption of alternate approaches to make the learning process “holistic, integrated, enjoyable, and engaging.” Research has shown that schools can be ideal sites for delivering mental health interventions (Shoshani and Steinmetz, 2014). The role of a teacher as a facilitator serves to kindle the intrinsic motivation of a student by involving them in activity-based and problem-solving approaches to learning. Additionally, participation in co-curricular activities can de-stress students to a great extent and make a positive contribution to their subjective well-being (Vetter et al., 2019). Rather than mechanically preparing students to secure high-paying jobs, thrust should also be given to imbibing and practising human values that would equip students with self-confidence and the capacity to manage themselves better. Striving to create intelligent students with a sound body and a sound mind would be a more sustainable roadmap towards a bright future for our country. There is a lot to ponder over the statement – ‘Education must be for life and not merely for a living.’ References CROPPER, C. 1998. Is Competition an Effective Classroom Tool for the Gifted Student?. *Gifted Child Today*. Vol. 21, No. 3. pp. 28–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/107621759802100309 Shoshani, A., and S. Steinmetz. 2014. Positive Psychology at School: A School-based Intervention to Promote Adolescents’ Mental Health and Well-being. *Journal of Happiness Studies*. Vol. 15, No. 6. pp. 1289–1311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9476-1 Vetter, M. K., L. A. Schreiner, E. J. McIntosh, and J. P. Dugan. 2019. Leveraging the Quantity and Quality of Co-curricular Involvement Experiences to promote student Thriving. *The Journal of Campus Activities Practice and Scholarship*. Vol. 1, No. 1. pp. 39–51. https://doi.org/10.52499/2019006 *The original reference was Draft NEP-2019 but by the time of publication of this issue, NEP-2020 was published and hence modified accordingly.* Science is a discipline that intends to develop scientific knowledge, scientific temper, and scientific attitude among all its stakeholders. In order to develop these, the Science curriculum should be such that the children are given ample scope to learn Science not only through textbooks but through the usage of various modes of classroom transaction focusing on activity-oriented experiential learning. It was found that ‘in order to help students learn science meaningfully, teachers should ensure that learning is constructive’ (Glynn and Duit, 1995) and different dimensions of constructivist teaching, learning, and supervisory practices have different effects on student achievement.’ (Zeigler, 2000). Science, being a dynamic and ever-changing one, the textbooks should have the scope for incorporating up-to-date concepts and contents. The textbook should have basic science contents along with advanced developments to make them prepared to face the world around them. The contents in Science textbooks should be such that they can be easily transacted by taking relevant examples from the context of the child and with ample scope for designing and using different improvised experimental apparatus and instruments. Apart from the textbooks, competencies of the teacher and their attitude toward Science play a very crucial role in imparting scientific temper and scientific attitude in students along with scientific knowledge. Science learning should be encouraged through the usage of different activity-oriented pedagogies focusing on constructivist pedagogy. The curriculum should have the scope for developing various process skills in Science along with values and ethics. Further, the assessment should primarily be formative and focus on learners’ needs and requirements. The Science curriculum should have mostly practical components in order to make Science learning joyful, meaningful, and interesting for the children. References Glynn, S.M., and R. Duit. 1995. Learning Science Meaningfully; Constructing Conceptual Models. In S.M. Glynn & R. Duit, eds, Learning Science in the Schools: Research Reforming Practice. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING. 2005. *National Curriculum Framework 2005*, New Delhi. NCERT. ZEIGLER AND F., John. 2000. Constructivist Views of Teaching and Learning and Supervising held by Public School Teachers and their Influence on Student Achievement in Mathematics. Dissertation Abstracts International. Vol. 61, No. 1. 54-A. What made you choose Physics as your subject? I was always interested in knowing the “why” and the “how” behind things. So, from a very young age, I would open up all kinds of mechanical things like toys and clocks, and try to figure out how they worked. Of course, I did not understand much, but the curiosity set in. My parents and my paternal uncle recognised this penchant and bought me toys that would help me understand the mechanics of things, like Mechanical Builder sets; sets that used the property of levers, etc. Added to this was the fact that I have two elder sisters, the first-born being five years older than me. When she would study, I would often go around to see what she was studying. The diagrams in her science book intrigued me. I would ask her about them, and she was the first to tell me about mirrors and lenses, light and sound! Those interactions opened a whole new world for me. I had started experimenting with mirrors and magnifying glasses. Later, when I was in Class IX, the bearer brought a notice to the class that in the evening, from 4 PM that day, a Geological Survey of India scientist, who had just returned from Antarctica, would give a popular talk and show his slides at a local college. (There were no computers in the ‘70s, and presentations were made with specially prepared slides from negatives of photographs, all stacked up one behind the other and then projected on a screen one after another). I still remember rushing home from school, taking permission from my mother and directions, pen and paper, and landing up at the place on time to be able to see the presentation from close quarters. The evening’s presentations started with a short presentation on Venus. That was the day, that was the moment I got hooked on astronomy and astrophysics, which remains my passion even up to today. The pictures from Antarctica were beautiful, but Venus was intriguing! An atmosphere of sulphur-dioxide; if it rains, it will rain sulphuric acid! This information was just too exciting to not follow up. However, back in the day, getting information was a challenge. The only reliable places were my school library and the State Library. Both became my treasure hunting places. So, either just the right events fell onto my platter and made me take up Physics or, among all the things that were happening around me, I naturally gravitated towards wanting to know more, understand more, and hence Physics. I think it was the latter more than the former. What and who motivated you to become a teacher? I realised I had a knack for teaching and that teaching helped me understand better when I started helping my younger sister. The more I taught, the more I began to enjoy it. Gradually, the neighbourhood children began coming to me for help, saying it helped them. That is when I realised teaching should be a career choice for me. According to you, what does it mean to be a teacher? Being a teacher is a whole lot of responsibility and challenge. It is not just about going to class and imparting a lesson. That even a robot would be able to do. A teacher is expected to understand every child individually and know their strengths and weaknesses. Understand that there are bad days for a child just as there are bad days for the teacher. This understanding of a child is pertinent because it is expected of a teacher to build the little soul into a confident, optimistic, honest, hardworking individual who will become an asset to society. Just think of the unsaid expectations from a teacher for a moment. They are huge! Teachers are expected to do things that parents cannot, yet teachers do. Moreover, teachers do it for not one or two children, but for a class full of students, year after year! Thus, to be a teacher, the individual must have various talents and qualities. A teacher has to be able to teach oration, drama, music, art, craft, sports, storytelling, and you name it! Can you show me another job that requires that many skills of any single individual? And all of this is beyond what is considered the core area, teaching the subject. How have you been able to bring about improvement in the teaching-learning of Physics? Kindly share some innovations that you have made in terms of teaching methods of teaching-learning materials. All I can say is I have tried. I realised that no one approach is the ideal approach. People learn differently. So there must be multiple ways of giving the same information. The different approaches I have taken are (a) designing new experiments and repeating standard experiments, to demonstrate a phenomenon or a concept, (b) showing pictures/videos again to illustrate a point, (c) making my own videos when I felt the necessity, (d) writing popular science articles for All India Radio and asking my students to tune in and also sharing the script later with the class, (e) delivering popular lectures, mainly on astronomy and astrophysics, and (f) inviting national level scientists to my school to deliver lectures. From your years of experience, what do you think is the best way to motivate students and nurture their talents to become their best version? Students are most motivated when they see a passionate teacher; a teacher who loves one’s subject, and the love is absolutely evident. Nothing great has ever been done in the world without passion. A teacher’s passion is infectious. It positively influences students like nothing else can. And if a teacher is not passionate about one’s subject, what is the person doing there? “A teacher is a student for life.” What have you learned from your students? The most valuable lesson for a teacher is ‘how do students learn?’ Among the many different things that I have learned, the most important is when and how do they learn best. The more I invest myself in them, the more they learn. Among the other things, the important lesson I have realised is that each student is different, with different talents, aspirations, and dreams. And a good teacher has to cater to each and every one of them. What has been your most touching experience so far as a teacher? I am most touched when old students get in touch after many years, and they say things like it was because of me that they have been able to do this or that, or when some students, who are now abroad, invite me to their homes and tell me that I am welcome to stay with them if I visit their country... Kindly suggest some areas where you think your district/ state/ country needs attention concerning science education, in general, and education in particular. The first and foremost thing to be done is to recruit teachers who are passionate about teaching. Secondly, improve the service conditions of teachers across the board so that better talent is attracted to the profession. Thirdly, the government must spend more on science education to be able to implement a more hands-on pragmatic approach, as is the requirement in National Education Policy 2020*. *The original reference was Draft NEP-2019 but by the time of publication of this issue, NEP-2020 was published and hence modified accordingly. Do you also make an effort to popularise physics or physics learning in your community? If so, kindly elaborate. Yes, I have been associated with science popularisation for over thirty years now. I have been a regular contributor to the Science Magazine Programme and Popular Science Programme of All India Radio [AIR] Shillong and North Eastern Service, AIR, Shillong. Other than that, I write freelance for different newspapers on popular science topics. I also have a blog on astronomy and astrophysics articles. In addition, I deliver popular lectures, mainly on Astronomy and Astrophysics, and have travelled to different parts of the country to deliver lectures. I also conduct science quizzes from time to time and hold hands-on sessions on teaching/learning physics through experiments. What are your top two regular practices that have helped you stay motivated? Starting the day by listening to or reading about a success story and choosing good friends who push me and keep me motivated. “Climbing the limitless ladder: A life in Chemistry” is a brutally honest autobiographical account of doing scientific research in India. It provides insight into the making of a scientist from a developing country. It narrates the author’s early years to his academic adventures, his journey from Bangalore to where he goes on a “pilgrimage for knowledge” to Banaras for Postgraduate studies, then to Purdue University, Indiana, USA, for a Doctoral research program to taking up a research associate position at the University of California, Berkeley, USA where he developed critical thinking and problem solving, honed his analytical and scientific skills, and evolved his writing and communication which matured and defined him as a scientist, and finally to his return to his country and his engagements thereafter. The book offers many lessons to young and aspiring scientists. The paramount lesson to draw from the life of C N Rao is that in Science, it is not enough if you are good at the subject and at the lab. To make a mark in research and academics, one should get many things right. Firstly, one should try to have the right mentor. Second, one should learn to collaborate. Third, one becomes visible in the community of scientists through research publications, reviews, and books—Roa has to his credit, a whopping 1400 research papers and 43 technical books on a wide range of topics. The book also includes a few of his select essays and papers. There is also a letter to a young scientist at the end. The book has also brought out a few more aspects of being a good scientist—be able to win grants, pitch for a cause to philanthropists, and try to be a member of the right platforms and academies. For an extremely focused scientist of his calibre, if you expect the book to be dull and dry, you are definitely mistaken. On the contrary, the book is as entertaining as educational. His uncanny ability to recollect does not fail when he brings to life many of the funny anecdotes at several sections in the book. Charismatic. Hard-working. Humble. Compassionate. Pioneer. Dedicated. Trailblazer Visionary. Poster Boy of Indian Science. This book has brought out all of these qualities and many more of C N Rao very nicely. This autobiography provides an insight into the feeling of how, in spite of the many limitations, one can try to climb the limitless ladder of excellence. This book is, therefore, a gift to humanity and a treasure for eternity. Exploring why males are larger than females among mammals Date: April 8, 2020 Source: Wiley Summary: In most animals, females are larger than males, but in most mammals, males are larger than females. A new analysis examines the potential drivers of these differences. In most animals, females are larger than males, but in most mammals, males are larger than females. A new analysis published in Mammal Review examines the potential drivers of these differences, calling into question the theory that only sexual selection is at play in mammals—that males compete to mate with females, and bigger males are more likely to win. The analysis suggests that, alongside sexual selection, natural selection may be an evolutionary driver of sexual size differences in mammals. Males and females may have evolved to differ in size so that they could exploit resources such as food. Warming climate is changing where birds breed Migratory behaviour and winter geography drive differential range shifts of eastern birds in response to recent climate change. Date: May 26, 2020 Source: S.J. and Jessie E. Quinney College of Natural Resources, Utah State University. Summary: Spring is in full swing. Trees are leafing out, flowers are blooming, bees are buzzing, and birds are singing. But a recent study found that those birds in your backyard may be changing right along with the climate. Spring is in full swing. Trees are leafing out, flowers are blooming, bees are buzzing, and birds are singing. But a recent study published in *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences* found that those birds in your backyard may be changing right along with the climate. Clark Rushing, Assistant Professor in the Department of Wildland Resources and Ecology Center, Quinney College of Natural Resources at Utah State University, and colleagues at the US Geological Survey wanted to know how climate change has already affected where birds breed. They used data from the Breeding Bird Survey — one of the oldest and longest citizen-science programs in the world — to conduct their research. “Thousands of devoted volunteers, cooperators, and a joint US-Canadian wildlife management team have contributed to the success of the surveys for the last 54 years,” said Andy Royle, a USGS senior scientist and co-author of the study. “The Breeding Bird Survey is fundamental to our understanding and management of wild bird populations in North America.” The research team combined Breeding Bird Survey data with powerful computer models to discover changes in breeding range for 32 species of birds found in eastern North America. What they found is surprising. Some birds’ ranges are expanding. Birds that both breed and winter in North America are extending their ranges north to take advantage of new, warm places to breed. These birds are also maintaining their southern ranges. These results bring hope that some bird populations such as Carolina wrens and red-bellied woodpeckers, may be resilient to future climate change. Some birds’ ranges are shrinking. Neotropical migratory birds breed in North America during the summer and migrate to the Caribbean, Central America, and South America for the winter. Neotropical migrants include many species that people love and look forward to seeing each spring such as buntings, warblers, orioles, and flycatchers. The team’s research shows that these birds are not expanding north, and their southern ranges are shrinking. To make matters worse, over the past 50 years, Neotropical bird populations have decreased by about 2.5 billion individuals. Rushing explained, “There’s a real risk that, if these declines continue at their current pace, many species could face extinction within this century. Neotropical migrants are vulnerable to future climate change, putting them at risk of greater declines.” Neotropical migrants already fly thousands of miles each year to breed, so why can’t they go just a bit farther as the climate warms? The researchers suspect the conditions where the birds live during the winter might make this impossible. Migrations require immense reserves of energy, so migratory birds need high-quality winter habitat with abundant food and moisture. Unfortunately, many habitats in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America are being degraded. It is possible that Neotropical birds can’t store enough energy during the winter, so they simply can’t extend their journeys any farther. “That’s just one explanation,” concluded Rushing, “and it highlights how little we know and how much more research is needed.” And what the team does know wouldn’t have been possible without the help of devoted citizen scientists. Healthy eating behaviours in childhood may reduce the risk of adult obesity and heart disease Date: May 11, 2020 Source: American Heart Association Summary: Encouraging children to make their own decisions about food, within a structured environment focused on healthy food choices, has been linked to better childhood nutrition and healthier lifelong eating behaviours. Parents and caregivers can play a significant role in creating an environment that helps children develop healthier eating behaviours early in life, which can reduce the risk for overweight, obesity and cardiovascular disease as adults. How children are fed may be just as important as what they are fed, according to a new scientific statement from the American Heart Association, "Caregiver Influences on Eating Behaviors in Young Children," published today in the Journal of the American Heart Association. The statement is the first from the Association focused on providing evidence-based strategies for parents and caregivers to create a healthy food environment for young children that supports the development of positive eating behaviours and the maintenance of a healthy weight in childhood, thereby reducing the risks of overweight, obesity and cardiovascular disease later in life. Although many children are born with an innate ability to stop eating when they are full, they are also influenced by the overall emotional atmosphere, including caregiver wishes and demands during mealtimes. If children feel under pressure to eat in response to caregiver wants, it may be harder for them to listen to their individual internal cues that tell them when they are full. Allowing children to choose what and especially how much to eat within an environment composed of healthy options encourages children to develop and eventually take ownership of their decisions about food and may help them develop eating patterns linked to a healthy weight for a lifetime, according to the statement authors. "Parents and caregivers should consider building a positive food environment centered on healthy eating habits, rather than focusing on rigid rules about what and how a child should eat," said Alexis C. Wood, PhD, the writing group chair for the scientific statement and assistant professor at the US Department of Agriculture/Agriculture Research Services Children's Nutrition Research Center and the Department of pediatrics (nutrition section) at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston. The statement suggests that parents and caregivers should be positive role models by creating an environment that demonstrates and supports healthy food choices, rather than an environment focused on controlling children’s choices or highlighting body weight. Parents and caregivers should encourage children to eat healthy foods by: - providing consistent timing for meals; - allowing children to select what foods they want to eat from a selection of healthy choices; - serving healthy or new foods alongside foods children already enjoy; - regularly eating new, healthy foods while eating with the child and demonstrating enjoyment of the food; • paying attention to a child’s verbal or non-verbal hunger and fullness cues; and • avoiding pressuring children to eat more than they wish to eat. Research does suggest that some strategies can increase children’s dietary variety during the early years if they are “picky” or “fussy” about foods. Repeatedly offering children a wide variety of healthy foods increases the likelihood they will accept them, particularly when served with foods they prefer. In addition, caregivers or parents who enthusiastically eat a food may also help a child accept this food. Modeling eating healthy foods – by caregivers, siblings and peers – is a good strategy for helping children to be open to a wider variety of food options. “Children’s eating behaviours are influenced by a lot of people in their lives, so ideally, we want the whole family to demonstrate healthy eating habits,” said Wood. It is important to note that not all strategies work for all children, and parents and caregivers should not feel undue stress or blame for children’s eating behaviours. “It is very clear that each child is an individual and differs in their tendency to make healthy decisions about food as they grow. This is why it is important to focus on creating an environment that encourages decision-making skills and provides exposure to a variety of healthy, nutritious foods throughout childhood, and not place undue attention on the child’s individual decisions,” concluded Wood. Caregivers can be a powerful force in helping children develop healthy eating habits, and yet their role is limited by other factors. The statement authors encourage policies that address barriers to implementing the statement’s recommendations within the wider socioeconomic context, including social determinants of health such as socio-economic status, food insecurity. and others. While efforts that encourage caregivers to provide a responsive, structured feeding environment could be an important component of reducing obesity and cardiometabolic risk across the lifespan, they note that they will be the most effective as part of a multi-level, multi-component prevention strategy. **More berries, apples and tea may have protective benefits against Alzheimer’s** Study shows low intake of flavonoid-rich foods linked with higher Alzheimer’s risk over 20 years. **Date:** May 5, 2020 **Source:** Tufts University, Health Sciences Campus **Summary:** Older adults with low intake of foods and drinks containing flavonoids such as berries, apples, and tea, were more likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias over 20 years, compared with people who consumed more of those items, according to a new study. Older adults who consumed small amounts of flavonoid-rich foods such as berries, apples and tea, were two to four times more likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias over 20 years compared with people whose intake was higher, according to a new study led by scientists at the Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging (USDA HNRCA) at Tufts University. The epidemiological study of 2,800 people aged 50 and older examined the long-term relationship between eating foods containing flavonoids and risk of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRD). While many studies have looked at associations between nutrition and dementias over short periods of time, the study published today in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition looked at exposure over 20 years. Flavonoids are natural substances found in plants, including fruits and vegetables such as pears, apples, berries, onions, and plant-based beverages like tea and wine. Flavonoids are associated with various health benefits, including reduced inflammation. Dark chocolate is another source of flavonoids. The research team determined that low intake of three flavonoid types was linked to higher risk of dementia when compared to the highest intake. Specifically: - Low intake of flavonols (apples, pears and tea) was associated with twice the risk of developing ADRD. - Low intake of anthocyanins (blueberries, strawberries, and red wine) was associated with a four-fold risk of developing ADRD. - Low intake of flavonoid polymers (apples, pears, and tea) was associated with twice the risk of developing ADRD. The results were similar for AD. “Our study gives us a picture of how diet over time might be related to a person’s cognitive decline, as we were able to look at flavonoid intake over many years prior to participants’ dementia diagnoses,” said Paul Jacques, senior author and nutritional epidemiologist at the USDA HNRCA. “With no effective drugs currently available for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, preventing disease through a healthy diet is an important consideration.” The researchers analysed six types of flavonoids and compared long-term intake levels with the number of AD and ADRD diagnoses later in life. They found that low intake (15th percentile or lower) of three flavonoid types was linked to higher risk of dementia when compared to the highest intake (greater than 60th percentile). Examples of the levels studied included: - Low intake (15th percentile or lower) was equal to no berries (anthocyanins) per month, roughly one-and-a-half apples per month (flavonols), and no tea (flavonoid polymers). - High intake (60th percentile or higher) was equal to roughly 7.5 cups of blueberries or strawberries (anthocyanins) per month, 8 apples and pears per month (flavonols), and 19 cups of tea per month (flavonoid polymers). “Tea, specifically green tea, and berries are good sources of flavonoids,” said first author Esra Shishtar, who at the time of the study, was a doctoral student at the Gerald J. and Dorothy R. Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy at Tufts University in the Nutritional Epidemiology Program at the USDA HNRCA. “When we look at the study results, we see that the people who may benefit the most from consuming more flavonoids are people at the lowest levels of intake, and it doesn’t take much to improve levels. A cup of tea a day or some berries two or three times a week would be adequate,” she said. Jacques also said 50, the approximate age at which data was first analysed for participants, is not too late to make positive dietary changes. “The risk of dementia really starts to increase over age 70, and the take home message is, when you are approaching 50 or just beyond, you should start thinking about a healthier diet if you haven’t already,” he said. **Methodology** To measure long-term flavonoid intake, the research team used dietary questionnaires, filled out at medical exams approximately every four years by participants in the Framingham Heart Study, a largely Caucasian group of people who have been studied over several generations for risk factors of heart disease. To increase the likelihood that dietary information was accurate, the researchers excluded questionnaires from the years leading up to the dementia diagnosis, based on the assumption that, as cognitive status declined, dietary behaviour may have changed, and food questionnaires were more likely to be inaccurate. The participants were from the Offspring Cohort (children of the original participants), and the data came from exams 5 through 9. At the start of the study, the participants were free of AD and ADRD, with a valid food frequency questionnaire at baseline. Flavonoid intakes were updated at each exam to represent cumulative average intake across the five exam cycles. Researchers categorised flavonoids into six types and created four intake levels based on percentiles: less than or equal to the 15th percentile, 15th–30th percentile, 30th–60th percentile, and greater than 60th percentile. They then compared flavonoid intake types and levels with new diagnoses of AD and ADRD. There are some limitations to the study, including the use of self-reported food data from food frequency questionnaires, which are subject to errors in recall. The findings are generalisable to middle-aged or older adults of European descent. Factors such as education level, smoking status, physical activity, body mass index and overall quality of the participants’ diets may have influenced the results, but researchers accounted for those factors in the statistical analysis. Due to its observational design, the study does not reflect a causal relationship between flavonoid intake and the development of AD and ADRD. **Today’s atmospheric carbon dioxide levels greater than 23 million-year record** *Date:* June 1, 2020 *Source:* Geological Society of America *Summary:* A common message in use to convey the seriousness of climate change to the public is: ‘Carbon dioxide levels are higher today than they have been for the past one million years!’ This new study used a novel method to conclude that today’s carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are actually higher than they have been for the past 23 million years. A common message in use to convey the seriousness of climate change to the public is: “Carbon dioxide levels are higher today than they have been for the past one million years!” This new study by Brian Schubert (University of Louisiana at Lafayette) and co-authors Ying Cui and A. Hope Jahren used a novel method to conclude that today’s carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are actually higher than they have been for the past 23 million years. The team used the fossilised remains of ancient plant tissues to produce a new record of atmospheric CO2 that spans 23 million years of uninterrupted Earth history. They have shown elsewhere that as plants grow, the relative amount of the two stable isotopes of carbon, carbon-12 and carbon-13 changes in response to the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. This research, published this week in *Geology*, is a next-level study measuring the relative amount of these carbon isotopes in fossil plant materials and calculating the CO2 concentration of the atmosphere under which the ancient plants grew. Furthermore, Schubert and colleagues’ new CO2 “timeline” revealed no evidence for any fluctuations in CO2 that might be comparable to the dramatic CO2 increase of the present day, which suggests today’s abrupt greenhouse disruption is unique across recent geologic history. Another point, important to geological readers, is that because major evolutionary changes over the past 23 million years were not accompanied by large changes in CO2, perhaps ecosystems and temperature might be more sensitive to smaller changes in CO2 than previously thought. As an example: The substantial global warmth of the middle Pliocene (5 to 3 million years ago) and middle Miocene (17 to 15 million years ago), which are sometimes studied as a comparison for current global warming, were associated with only modest increases in CO2. As many as six billion Earth-like planets in our galaxy, according to new estimates Date: June 16, 2020 Source: University of British Columbia Summary: There may be as many as one Earth-like planet for every five Sun-like stars in the Milky Way Galaxy, according to new estimates. There may be as many as one Earth-like planet for every five Sun-like stars in the Milky Way Galaxy, according to new estimates by University of British Columbia astronomers using data from NASA’s Kepler mission. To be considered Earth-like, a planet must be rocky, roughly Earth-sized and orbiting Sun-like (G-type) stars. It also has to orbit in the habitable zones of its star—the range of distances from a star in which a rocky planet could host liquid water, and potentially life, on its surface. “My calculations place an upper limit of 0.18 Earth-like planets per G-type star,” says UBC researcher Michelle Kunimoto, co-author of the new study in The Astronomical Journal. “Estimating how common different kinds of planets are around different stars can provide important constraints on planet formation and evolution theories, and help optimize future missions dedicated to finding exoplanets.” According to UBC astronomer Jaymie Matthews: “Our Milky Way has as many as 400 billion stars, with seven percent of them being G-type. That means less than six billion stars may have Earth-like planets in our Galaxy.” Previous estimates of the frequency of Earth-like planets range from roughly 0.02 potentially habitable planets per Sun-like star, to more than one per Sun-like star. Typically, planets like Earth are more likely to be missed by a planet search than other types, as they are so small and orbit so far from their stars. That means that a planet catalogue represents only a small subset of the planets that are actually in orbit around the stars searched. Kunimoto used a technique known as ‘forward modelling’ to overcome these challenges. “I started by simulating the full population of exoplanets around the stars Kepler searched,” she explained. “I marked each planet as ‘detected’ or ‘missed’ depending on how likely it was my planet search algorithm would have found them. Then, I compared the detected planets to my actual catalogue of planets. If the simulation produced a close match, then the initial population was likely a good representation of the actual population of planets orbiting those stars.” Kunimoto’s research also shed more light on one of the most outstanding questions in exoplanet science today: the ‘radius gap’ of planets. The radius gap demonstrates that it is uncommon for planets with orbital periods less than 100 days to have a size between 1.5 and two times that of Earth. She found that the radius gap exists over a much narrower range of orbital periods than previously thought. Her observational results can provide constraints on planet evolution models that explain the radius gap’s characteristics. Previously, Kunimoto searched archival data from 200,000 stars of NASA’s Kepler mission. She discovered 17 new planets outside of the Solar System, or exoplanets, in addition to recovering thousands of already known planets. Breakthrough discovery to transform prostate cancer treatment Date: June 20, 2020 Source: University of South Australia Summary: A novel formulation of the prostate cancer drug abiraterone acetate—currently marketed as Zytiga—will dramatically improve the quality of life for people suffering from prostate cancer, as pre-clinical trials show the new formulation improves the drug’s effectiveness by 40 per cent. A novel formulation of the prostate cancer drug abiraterone acetate—currently marketed as Zytiga—will dramatically improve the quality of life for people suffering from prostate cancer, as pre-clinical trials by the University of South Australia show the new formulation improves the drug’s effectiveness by 40 per cent. Developed by Professor Clive Prestidge’s Nanostructure and Drug Delivery research group at UniSA’s Cancer Research Institute, the breakthrough discovery uses an oil-based oral formulation that not only enables a smaller dose of the drug to be effective, but also has the potential to dramatically reduce possible side effects such as joint swelling and diarrhea. Despite Zytiga being the leading formulation to treat prostate cancer, lead researcher, Dr Hayley Schultz says the new formulation will ultimately provide a better treatment for patients with prostate cancer. Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in men, with one in six at risk of diagnosis before the age of 85. In 2019, more than 19,500 cases of prostate cancer were diagnosed in Australia. Globally, prostate cancer cases reached 1.28 million in 2018. “Many drugs are poorly water soluble, so when they’re ingested, they enter the gut but don’t dissolve, which means that their therapeutic effect is limited,” Dr Schultz says. “This is the case for Zytiga. Here, only 10 per cent of the dose is absorbed, leaving the other 90 per cent undissolved, where it simply passes through the body as waste. “On top of this, patients taking Zytiga must fast for two hours prior to taking the drug, and another hour after taking the drug to achieve predictable absorption. And as you can imagine, this can be painstakingly inconvenient. “Our new formulation changes this. By using oils to mimic pharmaceutical food effects, we’re able to significantly increase the drug’s solubilisation and absorption, making it more effective and a far less invasive treatment for patients.” The new formulation uses very high levels of abiraterone acetate dissolved within a specific oil and encapsulated within porous silica microparticles to form a powder that can be made into tablets or filled into capsules. Applied to human treatment, it could reduce the dose from 1000mg to 700mg per day, without the need for fasting. Professor Prestidge says if the team can secure funding, clinical trials in humans could be just two years away. “Based on our knowledge of this drug’s pharmaceutical food effect, we hypothesise its absorption in humans will be extensively improved using this technology,” Professor Prestidge says. Anything we can do to contribute to the development of a commercialised product to improve the lives of patients, is invaluable. “This novel formulation is flexible enough to be adopted by thousands of different medicines; its potential to help patients of all kinds is exponential.” Earlier studies showed that short, light-touch interventions at the beginning of a few select courses can increase persistence and completion rates,” he said. “But when scaled up to over 250 different courses and a quarter of a million students, the intervention effects were an order of magnitude smaller.” The study was co-led by Justin Reich of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Michael Yeomans of Imperial College London. The research was conducted on the edX and Open edX platforms, and edX has engaged in work to make the data available to institutional researchers to advance educational science at scale. The 250 courses the researchers studied came from Harvard University, MIT and Stanford University. Failure to complete online courses is a well-known and long-standing obstacle to virtual learning, particularly among disadvantaged communities and in developing nations - where online education can be a key path to social advancement. The findings have added relevance with so much education around the world taking place online during the COVID-19 pandemic. “My advice to instructors is to understand and address the specific challenges in their learning environment,” Kizilcec said. “If students have issues with their internet connection, you can’t help them overcome them with a self-regulation intervention. But if students need to go to bed on time in order to be awake for a morning lecture, or they need to plan ahead for when to start working on homework in order to have it ready to hand in, then a brief self-regulation intervention can in fact helps students overcome these obstacles.” Previous, smaller-scale research, performed by Kizilcec and his co-authors as well as other scholars, found that goal-setting interventions such as writing out a list of intentions at the start of the class improved students’ course completion rates. In this study, the researchers explored the effects of four interventions: - plan-making, where students are prompted to develop detailed plans for when, where, and how they complete coursework; - a related activity in which students reflect on the benefits and barriers of achieving their goal, and plan ahead about how to respond to challenges; - social accountability, where they pick someone to hold them accountable for their progress in the course, and plan when and what to tell them; and - value-relevance, where they write about how completing the course reflects and reinforces their most important values. For the first three interventions, involving planning ahead, the researchers found that the approach was effective in boosting engagement for the first few weeks of the course, but the impact dwindled as the course progressed. The value-relevance intervention was effective in developing countries where student outcomes were significantly worse than others, but only in courses with a global achievement gap; in other courses, it actually had a negative impact in developing countries. The researchers tested whether they could predict in which courses an achievement gap would occur, in order to decide where the extremely difficult to predict intervention should be added, but found it “Not knowing if it will help or hurt students in a given course is a big issue,” he said. The researchers attempted to use machine learning to predict which interventions might help which students, but found the algorithm was no better than assigning the same intervention to all students. “It calls into question the potential of AI to provide personalised interventions to struggling students,” Kizilcec said. “Approaches that focus on understanding what works best in individual environments and then tailoring interventions to those environments might be more effective.” The researchers said their findings suggest that future studies should be designed to consider and reveal the differences among students, in addition to studies assessing overall effects. The paper was co-authored by Christopher Dann of Carnegie Mellon University, Emma Brunskill of Stanford University, Glenn Lopez and Dustin Tingley of Harvard, Selen Turkay of the Queensland University of Technology and Joseph J. Williams of the University of Toronto. The research was partly funded by the National Science Foundation, a Stanford Interdisciplinary Graduate Fellowship and a Microsoft Faculty Fellowship. **Survey finds large increase in psychological distress reported among US adults during the COVID-19 pandemic** *Date:* June 3, 2020 *Source:* Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health Summary: A new survey conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic found a more-than-threefold increase in the percentage of US adults who reported symptoms of psychological distress—from 3.9 per cent in 2018 to 13.6 per cent in April 2020. A new survey conducted by researchers at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health during the COVID-19 pandemic found a more-than-threefold increase in the percentage of US adults who reported symptoms of psychological distress—from 3.9 per cent in 2018 to 13.6 per cent in April 2020. The percentage of adults ages 18–29 in the U.S. who reported psychological distress increased from 3.7 percent in 2018 to 24 percent in 2020. The survey, fielded online April 7 to 13, found that 19.3 per cent of adults with annual household incomes less than $35,000 reported psychological distress in 2020 compared to 7.9 per cent in 2018, an increase of 11.4 percentage points. Nearly one-fifth, or 18.3 per cent, of Hispanic adults reported psychological distress in 2020 compared to 4.4 per cent in 2018, a more than four-fold increase of 13.9 percentage points. The researchers also found that psychological distress in adults age 55 and older almost doubled from 3.8 per cent in 2018 to 7.3 percent in 2020. The survey found only a slight increase in feelings of loneliness, from 11 per cent in 2018 to 13.8 per cent in 2020, suggesting that loneliness is not driving increased psychological distress. The findings were published online June 3 in a research letter in JAMA. The disruptions of the COVID-19 pandemic—social distancing, fear of contracting the disease, economic uncertainty, including high unemployment—have negatively affected mental health. The pandemic has also disrupted access to mental health services. "We need to prepare for higher rates of mental illness among US adults post-COVID," says McGinty. "It is especially important to identify mental illness treatment needs, and connect people to services, with a focus on groups with high psychological distress, including young adults, adults in low-income households, and Hispanics." The survey used a scale to assess feelings of emotional suffering and symptoms of anxiety and depression in the past 30 days. The survey questions included in this analysis did not ask specifically about COVID-19. The scale, a validated measure of psychological distress, has been shown to accurately predict clinical diagnoses of serious mental illness. Using NORC AmeriSpeak, a nationally representative online survey panel, the researchers analysed survey responses of 1,468 adults age 18 and older. They compared the measure of psychological distress in this survey sample from April 2020 to an identical measure from the 2018 National Health Interview Survey. "The study suggests that the distress experienced during COVID-19 may transfer to longer-term psychiatric disorders requiring clinical care," says McGinty. "Healthcare providers, educators, social workers, and other front-line providers can help promote mental wellness and support." "Psychological distress and loneliness reported by US adults in 2018 and April, 2020" Bat 'super immunity' may explain how bats carry coronaviruses, study finds Bat-virus adaptation may explain species spillover, researchers say Date: May 6, 2020 Source: University of Saskatchewan Summary: Researchers have uncovered how bats can carry the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus without getting sick—research that could shed light on how coronaviruses make the jump to humans and other animals. A University of Saskatchewan [USask] research team has uncovered how bats can carry the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus without getting sick—research that could shed light on how coronaviruses make the jump to humans and other animals. Coronaviruses such as MERS, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome [SARS], and more recently the COVID19-causing SARS-CoV-2 virus, are thought to have originated in bats. While these viruses can cause serious and often fatal disease in people, for reasons not previously well understood, bats seem unharmed. "The bats don't get rid of the virus and yet don't get sick. We wanted to understand why the MERS virus doesn't shut down the bat immune responses as it does in humans," said USask microbiologist Vikram Misra. In research just published in Scientific Reports, the team has demonstrated, for the first time, that cells from an insect-eating brown bat can be persistently infected with MERS coronavirus for months, due to important adaptations from both the bat and the virus working together. "Instead of killing bat cells as the virus does with human cells, the MERS coronavirus enters a long-term relationship with the host, maintained by the bat's unique 'super' immune system," said Misra, corresponding author on the paper. "SARS-CoV-2 is thought to operate in the same way." Misra says the team's work suggests that stresses on bats—such as wet markets, other diseases, and possibly habitat loss—may have a role in coronavirus spilling over to other species. "When a bat experiences stress to their immune system, it disrupts this immune system-virus balance and allows the virus to multiply," he said. The research was carried out at USask's Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre [VIDO-InterVac], one of the world's largest containment level 3 research facilities, by a team of researchers from USask's Western College of Veterinary Medicine and VIDO-InterVac. "We see that the MERS coronavirus can very quickly adapt itself to a particular niche, and although we do not completely understand what is going on, this demonstrates how coronaviruses are able to jump from species to species so effortlessly," said VIDO-InterVac scientist Darryl Falzarano, who co-led the bat study, developed the first potential treatment for MERS-CoV, and is leading VIDO-InterVac’s efforts to develop a vaccine against COVID-19. So far, the SARS-CoV-2 virus has infected more than 3.5 million people worldwide and killed 7 per cent of those infected. In contrast, the MERS virus infected nearly 2,500 people in 2012 but killed one in every three people infected. There is no vaccine for either SARS-CoV-2 or MERS. While camels are the known intermediate hosts of MERS-CoV, bats are suspected to be the ancestral host. Coronaviruses rapidly adapt to the species they infect, Misra said, but little is known on the molecular interactions of these viruses with their natural bat hosts. A 2017 USask-led study showed that bat coronaviruses can persist in their natural bat host for at least four months of hibernation. When exposed to the MERS virus, bat cells adapt—not by producing inflammation-causing proteins that are hallmarks of getting sick, but rather by maintaining a natural antiviral response, a function which shuts down in other species, including humans. Simultaneously, the MERS virus also adapts to the bat host cells by very rapidly mutating one specific gene, he said. Operating together, these adaptations result in the virus remaining long-term in the bat but being rendered harmless until something—such as disease or other stressors—upsets this delicate equilibrium. Next, the team will turn its focus to understanding how the bat-borne MERS virus adapts to infection and replication in camelid (a group of even-toed ungulates that includes camels) and human cells. “This information may be critical for predicting the next bat virus that will cause a pandemic,” said Misra. Lead researchers on the paper were Misra’s former PhD students Arinjay Banerjee and Sonu Subudhi who are now at McMaster University and Massachusetts General Hospital respectively. Other team members included researchers Noreen Rapin and Jocelyne Lew, as well as summer student Richa Jain. **Why COVID-19 may be less common in children than adults** Findings could lead to potential biomarker of susceptibility **Date:** May 22, 2020 **Source:** The Mount Sinai Hospital / Mount Sinai School of Medicine **Summary:** Researchers have found that children have lower levels of ACE2 gene expression than adults, which may explain children’s lower risk of COVID-19 infection and mortality. The virus that causes COVID-19 uses a receptor known as ACE2, found on the surface of certain cells in the human body, to enter its victims. Now, Mount Sinai researchers have found that children have lower levels of ACE2 gene expression than adults, which may explain children’s lower risk of COVID-19 infection and mortality. Gene expression is a measure of how much a gene is transcribed. These results, published in *JAMA* on Wednesday, May 20, may point to a potential biomarker of susceptibility to the virus, known as SARS-CoV-2. “ACE2 expression may be linked to our susceptibility to COVID-19,” says lead author Supinda Bunyavanich, MD, MPH, Professor of Genetics and Genomic Sciences and... Pediatrics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. "ACE2, which stands for angiotensin converting enzyme 2, is a receptor that some might be familiar with because of its role in blood pressure regulation. The coronavirus uses ACE2 to enter the human body, where it spreads. ACE2 is known to be present in our airway, kidneys, heart, and gut. In our study, we took this knowledge a step further, finding that there are low levels of ACE2 expression in the nasal passages of younger children, and this ACE2 level increases with age into adulthood. This might explain why children have been largely spared in the pandemic." The research focused on ACE2 due to its significance in COVID-19 infection. The nasal passages are usually the first point of contact for SARS-CoV-2 and the human body. Dr. Bunyavanich's study is one of only a few examining the relationship between ACE2 in the airway and age. The retrospective analysis, led by Dr. Bunyavanich, examined nasal passages epithelium from Mount Sinai Health System patients aged 4 to 60. The researchers found ACE2 gene expression in nasal epithelium was age-dependent, lowest in younger children and increasing with age into adulthood. Wearing surgical masks in public could help slow COVID-19 pandemic's advance Masks may limit the spread diseases, including influenza, rhinoviruses and coronaviruses Date: April 3, 2020 Source: University of Maryland Summary: Surgical masks may help prevent infected people from making others sick with seasonal viruses, including coronaviruses, according to new research. In laboratory experiments, the masks significantly reduced the amounts of various airborne viruses coming from infected patients, measured using the breath-capturing 'Gesundheit II machine.' Surgical masks may help prevent infected people from making others sick with seasonal viruses, including coronaviruses, according to new research that could help settle a fierce debate spanning clinical and cultural norms. In laboratory experiments, the masks significantly reduced the amounts of various airborne viruses coming from infected patients, measured using the breath-capturing "Gesundheit II machine" developed by Dr. Don Milton, a professor of applied environmental health and a senior author of the study published April 3 in the journal Nature Medicine. Milton has already conferred with federal and White House health officials on the findings, which closely follow statements this week from the head of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention saying the agency was reconsidering oft-stated advice that surgical masks aren't a useful precaution outside of medical settings. (The debate takes place at a time when clinicians themselves face dangerously inadequate supplies of masks—a shortfall other UMD researchers are scrambling to help solve). The question of masks has roiled society as well, with some retailers refusing to let employees wear them for fear of sending negative signals to customers, and cases of slurs and even physical attacks in the United States and elsewhere against Asians or Asian Americans who were wearing masks, a measure some consider a necessity during a disease outbreak. The study, conducted prior to the current pandemic with a student of Milton’s colleagues on the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Hong Kong, does not address the question of whether surgical masks protect wearers from infection. It does suggest that masks may limit how much the infected—who in the case of the novel coronavirus often don’t have symptoms—spread diseases including influenza, rhinoviruses and coronaviruses. Milton, who runs the Public Health Aerobiology, Virology, and Exhaled Biomarker Laboratory in the School of Public Health, demonstrated in a 2013 study that surgical masks could help limit flu transmission. However, he cautions that the effect may not be as great outside of controlled settings. Nevertheless, he said, the chance they could help justifies taking a new look at whether all people should be encouraged to wear them when they venture out of their houses to stores or other populated locations during the current COVID-19 lockdown. “In normal times, we’d say that if it wasn’t shown statistically significant or the effective in real-world studies, we don’t recommend it,” he said. “But in the middle of a pandemic, we’re desperate. The thinking is that even if it cuts down transmission a little bit, it’s worth trying.” Previous studies have shown that coronavirus and other respiratory infections are mostly spread during close contact, which has been interpreted by some infectious disease specialists to mean that the disease could spread only through contact and large droplets, such as from a cough or sneeze—a message that has often been shared with the public. “What they don’t understand is that is merely a hypothesis,” Milton said. The current study (along with earlier ones) shows, by contrast, that tiny, aerosolised droplets can indeed diffuse through the air. That means it may be possible to contract COVID-19 not only by being coughed on, but by simply inhaling the breath of someone nearby who has it, whether they have symptoms or not. Surgical masks, however, catch a lot of the aerosolized virus as it’s exhaled, he said. The study was conducted at the University of Hong Kong as part of the dissertation research of the lead author, Dr. Nancy Leung, who, under the supervision of the co-senior authors Drs. Cowling and Milton, recruited 246 people with suspected respiratory viral infections. Milton’s Gesundheit machine compared how much virus they exhaled with and without a surgical mask. “In 111 people infected by either coronavirus, influenza virus or rhinovirus, masks reduced detectable virus in respiratory droplets and aerosols for seasonal coronaviruses, and in respiratory droplets for influenza virus,” Leung said. “In contrast, masks did not reduce the emission of rhinoviruses.” Although the experiment took place before the current pandemic, COVID-19 and seasonal coronaviruses are closely related and may be of similar particle size. The report’s other senior author, Professor Benjamin Cowling, division head of epidemiology and biostatistics, School of Public Health, HKUMed, and co-director of the World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Control, said, "The ability of surgical masks to reduce seasonal coronavirus in respiratory droplets and aerosols implies that such masks can contribute to slowing the spread of [COVID-19] when worn by infected people." Milton pointed to other measures his research has found is even more effective than masks, such as improving ventilation in public places like grocery stores, or installing UV-C lights near the ceiling that works in conjunction with ceiling fans to pull air upwards and destroy viruses and bacteria. "Personal protective equipment like N95 masks are not our first line of defense," Milton said. "They are our last desperate thing that we do." **Crises are no excuses for lowering scientific standards, say ethicists** *Date:* April 23, 2020 *Source:* Carnegie Mellon University *Summary:* Ethicists are calling on the global research community to resist treating the urgency of the current COVID-19 outbreak as grounds for making exceptions to rigorous research standards in pursuit of treatments and vaccines. Ethicists from Carnegie Mellon and McGill Universities are calling on the global research community to resist treating the urgency of the current COVID-19 outbreak as grounds for making exceptions to rigorous research standards in pursuit of treatments and vaccines. With hundreds of clinical studies registered on ClinicalTrials.gov, Alex John London, the Clara L. West Professor of Ethics and Philosophy and director of the Center for Ethics and Policy at Carnegie Mellon, and Jonathan Kimmelman, James McGill Professor and director of the Biomedical Ethics Unit at McGill University, caution that urgency should not be used as an excuse for lowering scientific standards. They argue that many of the deficiencies in the way medical research is conducted under normal circumstances seem to be amplified in this pandemic. Their paper, published online April 23 by the journal Science, provides recommendations for conducting clinical research during times of crises. "Although crises present major logistical and practical challenges, the moral mission of research remains the same: to reduce uncertainty and enable care givers, health systems and policy makers to better address individual and public health," London and Kimmelman said. Many of the first studies out of the gate in this pandemic have been poorly designed, not well justified, or reported in a biased manner. The deluge of studies registered in their wake threaten to duplicate efforts, concentrate resources on strategies that have received outsized media attention and increase the potential of generating false positive results purely by chance. "All crises present exceptional situations in terms of the challenges they pose to health and welfare. But the idea that crises present an exception to the challenges of evaluating the effects drugs and vaccines is a mistake," London and Kimmelman said. "Rather than generating permission to carry out low-quality investigations, the urgency and scarcity of pandemics heighten the responsibility of key actors in the research enterprise to coordinate their activities to uphold the standards necessary to advance this mission." The ethicists provide recommendations for multiple stakeholder groups involved in clinical trials: - Sponsors, research consortia and health agencies should prioritise research approaches that test multiple treatments side by side. The authors argue that “master protocols” enable multiple treatments to be tested under a common statistical framework. - Individual clinicians should avoid off-label use of unvalidated interventions that might interfere with trial recruitment and resist the urge to carry out small studies with no control groups. Instead, they should seek out opportunities to join larger, carefully orchestrated studies. - Regulatory agencies and public health authorities should play a leading role in identifying studies that meet rigorous standards and in fostering collaboration among a sufficient number of centers to ensure adequate recruitment and timely results. Rather than making public recommendations about interventions whose clinical merits remain to be established, health authorities can point stakeholders to recruitment milestones to elevate the profile and progress of high-quality studies. “Rigorous research practices can’t eliminate all uncertainty from medicine,” London and Kimmelman said, “but they can represent the most efficient way to clarify the causal relationships clinicians hope to exploit in decisions with momentous consequences for patients and health systems.” Scientists unveil how general anesthesia works Date: April 27, 2020 Source: Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) Graduate University Summary: The discovery of general anesthetics—compounds which induce unconsciousness, prevent control of movement and block pain—helped transform dangerous operations into safe surgery. But scientists still don’t understand exactly how general anesthetics work. Now, researchers have revealed how a general anesthetic called isoflurane weakens the transmission of electrical signals between neurons, at junctions called synapses. Hailed as one of the most important medical advances, the discovery of general anesthetics—compounds which induce unconsciousness, prevent control of movement and block pain—helped transform dangerous and traumatic operations into safe and routine surgery. But despite their importance, scientists still don’t understand exactly how general anesthetics work. Now, in a study published this week in the Journal of Neuroscience, researchers from the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) Graduate University and Nagoya University have revealed how a commonly used general anesthetic called isoflurane weakens the transmission of electrical signals between neurons, at junctions called synapses. “Importantly, we found that isoflurane did not block the transmission of all electrical signals equally; the anesthetic had the strongest effect on higher frequency impulses that are required for functions such as cognition or movement, whilst it had minimal effect on low frequency impulses that control life-supporting functions, such as breathing," said Professor Tomoyuki Takahashi, who leads the Cellular and Molecular Synaptic Function [CMSF] Unit at OIST. "This explains how isoflurane is able to cause anesthesia, by preferentially blocking the high frequency signals." At synapses, signals are sent by presynaptic neurons and received by postsynaptic neurons. At most synapses, communication occurs via chemical messengers— or neurotransmitters. When an electrical nerve impulse, or action potential, arrives at the end of the presynaptic neuron, this causes synaptic vesicles— tiny membrane 'packets' that contain neurotransmitters— to fuse with the terminal membrane, releasing the neurotransmitters into the gap between neurons. When enough neurotransmitters are sensed by the postsynaptic neuron, this triggers a new action potential in the post-synaptic neuron. The CMSF unit used rat brain slices to study a giant synapse called the calyx of Held. The scientists induced electrical signals at different frequencies and then detected the action potentials generated in the postsynaptic neuron. They found that as they increased the frequency of electrical signals, isoflurane had a stronger effect on blocking transmission. To corroborate his unit's findings, Takahashi reached out to Dr. Takayuki Yamashita, a researcher from Nagoya University who conducted experiments on synapses, called cortico-cortical synapses, in the brains of living mice. Yamashita found that the anesthetic affected cortico-cortical synapses in a similar way to the calyx of Held. When the mice were anesthetised using isoflurane, high frequency transmission was strongly reduced whilst there was less effect on low frequency transmission. "These experiments both confirmed how isoflurane acts as a general anesthetic," said Takahashi. "But we wanted to understand what underlying mechanisms isoflurane targets to weaken synapses in this frequency-dependent manner." **Tracking down the targets** With further research, the researchers found that isoflurane reduced the amount of neurotransmitter released, by both lowering the probability of the vesicles being released and by reducing the maximum number of vesicles able to be released at a time. The scientists therefore examined whether isoflurane affected calcium ion channels, which are key in the process of vesicle release. When action potentials arrive at the presynaptic terminal, calcium ion channels in the membrane open, allowing calcium ions to flood in. Synaptic vesicles then detect this rise in calcium, and they fuse with the membrane. The researchers found that isoflurane lowered calcium influx by blocking calcium ion channels, which, in turn, reduced the probability of vesicle release. "However, this mechanism alone could not explain how isoflurane reduces the number of releasable vesicles, or the frequency-dependent nature of isoflurane's effect," said Takahashi. The scientists hypothesized that isoflurane could reduce the number of releasable vesicles by either directly blocking the process of vesicle release by exocytosis, or by indirectly blocking vesicle recycling, where vesicles are reformed by endocytosis and then refilled with neurotransmitter, ready to be released again. By electrically measuring the changes in the surface area of the presynaptic terminal membrane, which is increased by exocytosis and decreased by endocytosis, the scientists concluded that isoflurane only affected vesicle release by exocytosis, likely by blocking exocytic machinery. "Crucially, we found that this block only had a major effect on high frequency signals, suggesting that this block on exocytic machinery is the key to isoflurane's anesthetizing effect," said Takahashi. The scientists proposed that high frequency action potentials trigger such a massive influx of calcium into the presynaptic terminal that isoflurane cannot effectively reduce the calcium concentration. Synaptic strength is therefore weakened predominantly by the direct block of exocytic machinery rather than a reduced probability of vesicle release. Meanwhile, low frequency impulses trigger less exocytosis, so isoflurane’s block on exocytic machinery has little effect. Although isoflurane effectively reduces entry of calcium into the presynaptic terminal, lowering the probability of vesicle release, by itself, is not powerful enough to block postsynaptic action potentials at the calyx of Held and has only a minor effect in cortico-cortical synapses. Low frequency transmission is therefore maintained. Overall, the series of experiments provide compelling evidence to how isoflurane weakens synapses to induce anesthesia. "Now that we have established techniques of manipulating and deciphering presynaptic mechanisms, we are ready to apply these techniques to tougher questions, such as presynaptic mechanisms underlying symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases," said Takahashi. "That will be our next challenge." **Replacing time spent sitting with sleep or light activity may improve your mood** *Date:* May 20, 2020 *Source:* Iowa State University *Summary:* New research found that substituting prolonged sedentary time with sleep was associated with lower stress, better mood and lower body mass index (BMI), and substituting light physical activity was associated with improved mood and lower BMI across the next year. Moving more and sitting less was a challenge for many of us, even before states started issuing stay-at-home orders. Despite disruptions to our daily work and exercise routines, there are some subtle changes we can make at home to help improve our mental health. New research, published by the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, found that substituting prolonged sedentary time with sleep was associated with lower stress, better mood and lower body mass index (BMI), and substituting light physical activity was associated with improved mood and lower BMI across the next year. Jacob Meyer, lead author and Assistant Professor of kinesiology at Iowa State University, says, “light activity can include walking around your home office while talking on the phone or standing while preparing dinner.” “People may not even think about some of these activities as physical activity,” Meyer said. “Light activity is much lower intensity than going to the gym or walking to work, but taking these steps to break up long periods of sitting may have an impact.” Meyer and colleagues used data collected as part of the Energy Balance Study at the University of South Carolina. For 10 days, study participants, ranging in age from 21 to 35, wore an armband that tracked their energy expenditure. Meyer, director of the Wellbeing and Exercise Lab at Iowa State, says the data allowed researchers to objectively measure sleep, physical activity and sedentary time, rather than relying on self-reports. In addition to the benefits of sleep and light physical activity, the researchers found moderate to vigorous activity was associated with lower body fat and BMI. Given the negative health effects of prolonged sedentary time, Meyer says the findings may encourage people to make small changes that are sustainable. “It may be easier for people to change their behaviour if they feel it’s doable and doesn’t require a major change,” Meyer said. “Replacing sedentary time with housework or other light activities is something they may be able to do more consistently than going for an hour-long run.” Getting more sleep is another relatively simple change to make. Instead of staying up late watching TV, going to bed earlier and getting up at a consistent time provides multiple benefits and allows your body to recover, Meyer said. Sleeping is also unique in that it is time you’re not engaging in other potentially problematic behaviors, such as eating junk food while sitting in front of a screen. **Something we can control** Making these subtle changes was associated with better current mood, but light physical activity also provided benefits for up to a year, the study found. While the research was conducted prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, Meyer says the results are timely given the growing mental health concerns during this time of physical distancing. “With everything happening right now, this is one thing we can control or manage, and it has the potential to help our mental health,” Meyer said. As the states start to ease stay-at-home restrictions, Meyer is looking at changes in physical activity and sitting time with potentially interesting results for those who regularly worked out prior to the pandemic. Preliminary data from a separate study show a 32 per cent reduction in physical activity. The question he and colleagues hope to answer is how current changes in activity interact with mental health and how our behaviours will continue to change over time. Control over work-life boundaries creates crucial buffer to manage after-hours work stress Date: June 25, 2020 Source: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, News Bureau Summary: Workers with greater boundary control over their work and personal lives were better at creating a stress buffer to prevent them from falling into a negative rumination trap, says a new study by experts who study occupational stress and employee well-being. When work intrudes after hours in the form of pings and buzzes from smartphone alerts, it can cause spikes of stress that lead to a host of adverse effects for workers, including negative work rumination, poor affect and insomnia. But according to research co-written by a team of researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign who study occupational stress and employee well-being, those who have greater “boundary control” over their work and personal lives were better at creating a stress buffer that helped protect them from falling into a negative-rumination trap. Information communication technologies such as smartphones and tablets enable employees to work anywhere and anytime, thereby blurring work and non work boundaries. But that convenience comes at the expense of increased stress and mental health woes for workers unless they have control over the boundaries between work and non work life, said YoungAh Park, a professor of labor and employment relations at Illinois. “Most people simply can’t work without a smartphone, tablet or laptop computer,” she said. “These technologies are so ubiquitous and convenient that it can lead some people to think that employees have to be always on or always available. Clearly, this kind of after-hours intrusion into the home or personal life domain is unhealthy, and our research shows that an always-on mentality has a big downside in the form of increased job stress.” In the study, Park and co-authors surveyed more than 500 full-time public school teachers in grades K–6 to measure their off-the-clock work intrusion via technologies on a weekly basis for five consecutive weeks. “We asked about their weekly work intrusion involving technology, specifically their after-hours work— whether they were expected to respond to work-related messages and emails immediately, and whether they were contacted about work-related issues after hours,” she said. The researchers found that teachers’ adoption of technological boundary tactics such as keeping work email alerts turned off on smartphones was related to lower perceptions of the weekly work intrusion. The study builds on recent scholarship on how coping with off-hours occupational demands is becoming an increasingly important issue for workers, said Yihao Liu, a professor of labor and employment relations at Illinois and a co-author of the study. “Managing your work-life balance through boundary control is not only helpful for you and your family, it also could be a benefit for your co-workers, because they also have to potentially read and respond to the back-and-forth messages that people are sending after the workday is done," he said. "Setting a good boundary between work and regular life is going to help more people and more stakeholders. Overall, it's critical that individuals manage their work-life boundaries for their own health and well-being, but also for their own productivity and their colleagues' productivity." Moreover, the researchers found that teachers' boundary control softened the work intrusion-negative rumination link and that this boundary control was an important mechanism by which two "border keepers"—principals, who effectively functioned as supervisors in the study; and parents, who could be thought of as clientele—can affect teachers' weekly stress experiences. In other words, the weekly strain symptoms involving work intrusion can be alleviated by a supervisor who supports employees' work-life balance, Park said. Or conversely, it can be aggravated by clientele who expect employees to be always accessible and available. "A really important point around the sense of boundary control is that stakeholders can influence employees' control," she said. "Our study suggests that school principals can play a positive role in that their support for work-life balance was associated with the teachers' greater sense of boundary control. When you have supportive leaders who model behaviors for work-life balance and work effectively with employees to creatively solve work-life conflicts, that translates into less stress for teachers through boundary control." Although the study only included elementary school teachers in its sample, the findings about drawing clear boundaries after work ought to apply to most workers, especially now that more are working remotely due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the researchers said. "Our initial motivation was to study teachers because we tend to assume that their work and nonwork lives are separate and distinct," Park said. "Teachers have set schedules in a physical building, along with discrete blocks of free time over the weekends. But even with this working population, we found that after-hours work intrusion via technology can be really stressful for them. So although this finding is particular to teachers, a class of employees who we tend to assume have clear work-life boundaries, it's now an issue for everyone who is electronically tethered to their work after regular hours." **Drinking sugary drinks daily may be linked to higher risk of CVD in women** **Date:** May 13, 2020 **Source:** American Heart Association **Summary:** In a study of female California teachers, drinking one or more sugary beverages daily was associated with nearly a 20 per cent higher risk of having cardiovascular disease (CVD) when compared to those who rarely or never drank sugary beverages. Daily consumption of fruit drinks with added sugars was associated with a 42 per cent greater likelihood of having cardiovascular disease when compared to those who rarely or never drank sugary beverages. Drinking one or more sugary beverages a day was associated with a nearly 20 per cent greater likelihood of women having a cardiovascular disease compared to women who rarely or never drank sugary beverages, according to new research published today in the *Journal of the American Heart Association*, an open access journal of the American Heart Association. In the large, ongoing California Teacher’s Study, which began in 1995, drinking one or more of any type of sugary beverage daily was associated with a 26 per cent higher likelihood of needing a revascularization procedure, such as angioplasty to open clogged arteries and a 21 per cent higher likelihood of having a stroke compared to women who rarely or never drank sugary beverages. Sugary beverages in this study were defined as caloric soft drinks, sweetened bottled waters or teas and sugar–added fruit drinks, not 100 per cent fruit juices. There were also differences based on the type of beverage women consumed. Drinking one or more sugar–added fruit drinks daily was associated with a 42 per cent greater likelihood of having cardiovascular disease. Drinking soft drinks such as sodas daily was associated with a 23 per cent higher risk of cardiovascular disease overall, compared to those who rarely or never drank sugary beverages. The study included more than 106,000 women, with an average age of 52, who had not been diagnosed with heart disease, stroke or diabetes when they were enrolled in the study. The women reported how much and what they drank via a food questionnaire. Statewide inpatient hospitalisation records were used to determine whether a woman had experienced a heart attack, stroke or surgery to open clogged arteries. Women with the highest sugar–sweetened beverage intake were younger, more likely to be current smokers, obese and less likely to eat healthy foods, among other things. "Although the study is observational and does not prove cause and effect, we hypothesize that sugar may increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases in several ways. It raises glucose levels and insulin concentrations in the blood, which may increase appetite and lead to obesity, a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease," said lead study author Cheryl Anderson, Ph.D., M.P.H., M.S., professor and interim chair of Family and Public Health, University of California San Diego, and chair of the American Heart Association’s Nutrition Committee. "In addition, too much sugar in the blood is associated with oxidative stress and inflammation, insulin resistance, unhealthy cholesterol profiles and type 2 diabetes, conditions that are strongly linked to the development of atherosclerosis, the slow narrowing of the arteries that underlies most cardiovascular disease," said Anderson. Strengths of the study included its large sample size, extensive follow-up time and prospective data collection on sugar–sweetened beverages and lifestyle characteristics. In addition, the ability to annually link to statewide hospitalisation and procedure records resulted in accurate endpoints. Limitations of the study included having only one measurement of sugar–sweetened beverage intake. The study was also unable to evaluate consumption of artificially sweetened beverages and/or sweetened hot beverages. The American Heart Association recommends limiting added sugar to no more than 100 calories a day (6 teaspoons of sugar or 25 grams) for most women, and no more than 150 calories a day (9 teaspoons of sugar or 38 grams) for most men. Sugar-sweetened beverages are the biggest source of added sugars in the American diet; a typical 12-ounce can of regular soda has 130 calories and 8 teaspoons (34 grams) of sugar. Although diet soda may provide an alternative for some people who are trying to reduce the amount of sugary drinks in their diet, they do include artificial sweeteners such as saccharin, aspartame, sucralose and others. Water remains the most accessible and healthy beverage to drink regularly -- water has no sugar, no artificial sweeteners and no calories. Compiled from Science Daily.com (https://www.sciencedaily.com) Handbook on Understanding Science Through Activities, Games and Toys Rs.110/ pp.140 Code— 13178 ISBN— 978-93-5292-093-8 Handbook on Understanding Science Through Activities, Games, Toys and Art From Rs200/ pp242 Code13201 ISBN— 978-93-5292-208-6 To Our Contributors School Science is a peer-reviewed journal published quarterly by the National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi. It aims to bring within easy reach of teachers and students the recent developments in the areas of science, mathematics, and environment and their teaching, and serves as a useful forum for the exchange of readers’ views and experiences in science, mathematics, and environmental education. Articles suitable to the objectives mentioned above are invited for publication. The initial submission of articles sent for publication should not exceed (excluding references)—6000 words for research papers; 4000 words for analytical, interpretive and persuasive essays and theoretical papers; 1000 words for short popular articles. Photographs included in the article should be of high resolution. The publisher will not take any responsibility or liability for copyright infringement. The contributors, therefore, should provide copyright permission, wherever applicable and submit the same along with the article. Manuscripts with illustrations, charts, graphs, photographs, etc., along with legends, should be submitted in editable Word 2007 or higher version (normal, plain font, 10-point Times New Roman, Single Line spacing); headings not more than three levels; abbreviations defined at first mention and used consistently thereafter; footnotes wherever relevant. The soft copy of the same should be emailed addressed to the Executive Editor, School Science, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi- 110016 at email@example.com Published by the Head, Publication Division, National Council of Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 and printed at Chaar Dishayen Printers (P.) Ltd., G-39-40, Sector-3, Noida- 201 301 (U.P.). ## Subscription Rates for NCERT Journals | Title | Single Copy | Annual Subscription | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|--------------------| | School Science<br>A Quarterly Journal of Science Education | ₹55.00 | 220.00 | | Indian Educational Review<br>A Half-yearly Research Journal | ₹50.00 | 100.00 | | Journal of Indian Education<br>A Quarterly Journal of Education | ₹45.00 | 180.00 | | भारतीय आधुनिक शिक्षा (त्रैमासिक)<br>[Bhartiya Aadhunik Shiksha]<br>A Quarterly Journal in Hindi | ₹50.00 | 200.00 | | Primary Teacher<br>A Quarterly Journal for Primary Teachers | ₹65.00 | 260.00 | | प्राथमिक शिक्षक (त्रैमासिक)<br>[Prathmik Shikshak] A Quarterly Journal in Hindi for Primary Teachers | ₹65.00 | 260.00 | | फिरकी बच्चों की (अर्ध-वार्षिक)<br>(Firkee Bachchon Ki) Half-yearly | ₹35.00 | 70.00 | Subscriptions are invited from educationists, institutions, research scholars, teachers and students for the journals published by the NCERT. For further enquiries, please write to: Chief Business Manager, Publication Division National Council of Educational Research and Training Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 E-mail : firstname.lastname@example.org, Phone : 011-26562708 Fax : 011-26851070
5b3ae3bf-b9e1-4bb7-b05b-f7ab3908a7a2
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/publication/journalsandperiodicals/schoolscience/SchoolSciencejune2020.pdf
2024-07-19T09:12:47+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763514900.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20240719074314-20240719104314-00822.warc.gz
361,407,975
58,318
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.900774
eng_Latn
0.996687
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "dag_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 108, 1669, 3141, 3332, 6071, 7784, 10686, 13983, 16954, 19736, 21651, 24389, 27033, 28517, 29324, 29799, 33002, 36271, 40073, 43335, 45912, 47792, 50354, 52848, 53562, 55984, 57926, 60380, 63225, 64052, 65561, 68232, 71575, 73318, 74943, 75984, 78945, 82498, 85627, 89180, 91790, 94513, 96607, 99366, 101564, 103795, 106488, 109880, 112669, 114793, 115183, 118160, 121667, 124795, 127294, 129940, 132445, 134065, 136397, 138494, 139646, 140529, 140925, 142799, 143589, 145398, 148383, 151498, 154358, 157712, 160157, 161332, 164811, 168159, 171293, 174069, 176587, 179272, 181777, 182528, 185036, 186450, 188607, 189308, 191455, 191814, 192657, 195926, 198963, 199966, 201347, 202441, 203960, 207140, 210262, 212102, 214939, 218031, 221149, 224326, 227356, 229270, 232226, 235364, 238118, 241179, 244308, 247560, 250741, 253589, 256695, 259673, 262644, 265734, 268971, 272018, 272857, 273107, 274983, 276452 ]
[ 2.546875, 1.359375 ]
2
0
Context Madagascar is among the five countries most affected by chronic malnutrition and the ten countries most vulnerable to climate change. Antananarivo has experienced an increase in the rate of malnutrition caused by the rapid growth in the urban population in extreme poverty. Children’s food and nutrition security continues to require urgent action. The World Food Programme (WFP) and the Ministry of National Education (MINE) operate a programme to improve school children’s food security by providing food for school canteens in Antananarivo. The food from this programme do not include fresh vegetables, however Antananarivo is also extremely vulnerable to natural disasters linked to climate change. The City Council of Antananarivo, the Institute for City Trades (IMV/Insee France) and WFP have collaborated to respond to the challenges of both food security and nutrition as well as climate change through urban agriculture involving schools. Overview of the food practice In 2015 the city of Antananarivo launched an “Urban Agriculture Programme” which promotes the installation of micro-vegetable gardens in the city’s low-income neighborhoods to improve food security and create income-generating activities for the sale of locally produced fresh vegetables. In just three years, the Urban Agriculture Programme has spread to 24 districts, 21 training centers and 15 000 beneficiaries. The School Gardens Project links urban micro-vegetable gardens to 21 school canteens. There are two objectives: (1) improving the food and nutritional security of children and their school performance through food diversification via vegetable gardens, and (2) popularizing urban agriculture practices among students so they can transform their parents the possibility of having a vegetable garden at home. Demonstration sites and training courses helped raise awareness of the project, and gardens were stocked with materials for above-ground vegetable production. By 2017 the school gardens reached 15 000 students in the 24 districts and provided diversification of children’s diets two to three times per week. The process used to implement the school gardens were: 1. Identification of schools 2. Preliminary diagnosis of beneficiaries in the field 3. Sensitization of beneficiaries to the implementation of urban agriculture schemes, such as bags of rice transformed into cultivation containers or “agrisacs” 4. Agreement between the main actors of the programme 5. Start of the training at the municipal nursery 6. Installation of the production site (vegetable garden) 7. Follow-up of beneficiaries for 18 months with intermediate training sessions as required (maintenance, disease control, fertilization) 8. Support for beneficiaries until autonomy has been reached Results and lessons learned A key benefit of the School Gardens Project is that the area and resources required are very modest. Water requirements are low and the micro-gardens can be managed by men, women, children and elderly. Ninety percent of the beneficiaries are women who are recognized as local producers of quality food. Both the school gardens and micro-gardens in neighborhoods can be adapted for diverse contexts, including disadvantaged neighborhoods where space is limited. The City of Antananarivo today supports urban agriculture as it is a major source of urban food supply and a promising form of implementation of Sustainable Development Goals and targets. Furthermore the school canteens are seen as platforms for exchange, innovation and environmental awareness. The integration of urban agriculture into school curricula is taking place through collaboration between schools, parents’ associations and local neighborhood authorities.
9761ef97-713f-4531-bcb5-e82aa4fb4eb7
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://www.milanurbanfoodpolicypact.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Antananarivo.-Vetegable-gardens-for-school-canteens-MPA17.pdf
2024-07-20T22:47:14+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763517541.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20240720205244-20240720235244-00727.warc.gz
772,941,505
696
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997093
eng_Latn
0.997093
[ "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3741 ]
[ 3.140625 ]
1
0
The question paper is divided into Sections A and B. All answers should be written in the answer sheet booklet only which will be collected at the end of the examination. The question paper need not be submitted to the examiner. **Section A** - Section A consists of 20 questions carrying 1 point each. - All 20 questions are of multiple choice type, with only one correct answer for each question. - Mark the correct answer with ‘✓’ in the answer sheet provided. The correct way of marking is shown below. Use a pen to mark your answer. | Q. No. | a | b | c | d | |--------|---|---|---|---| | | | ✓ | | | - Each wrong answer will have negative marking as indicated in the scoring key. **Section B** - Section B consists of 33 questions with a total of 80 points. - The points for the questions in Section B vary depending on the number of answers and the complexity of the question. These points have been indicated along with the question. - Contradictory answers will not be considered for marking. --- **SCORING KEY** NO. OF CORRECT ANSWERS: X NO. OF INCORRECT ANSWERS: Y SCORE INBO (THEORY): SECTION A: 3X – Y SECTION B: 3X ********* 1. (1 point) The beaded string in the diagram represents a protein backbone. The protein is divided into regions (i) – (iv). Within each region, some side chain interactions are shown. In which region of the protein, both ‘Van der Waals interactions’ and ‘hydrophobic interactions’ are depicted? a. i b. ii c. iii d. iv 2. (1 point) Bacteriophages take control of the host transcription machinery and sequentially express different groups of phage genes. A, B, C and D are four groups of phage genes expressed in the order A, B, C, D. Each group of genes has a specific type of promoter, each of which requires a specific sigma factor to initiate transcription. The genes encoding sigma factors to transcribe group A and group D genes are located in: a. bacterial genome and phage genome respectively. b. bacterial genome. c. phage genome. d. phage genome and bacterial genome respectively. 3. (1 point) Following is a DNA profile of five individuals of which two are parents. Which of the remaining profiles belong to children of these parents? | | A | B | C | D | E | |---|----|----|----|----|----| | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | | 3 | - | - | - | - | - | | 4 | - | - | - | - | - | | 5 | - | - | - | - | - | | 6 | - | - | - | - | - | | 7 | - | - | - | - | - | | 8 | - | - | - | - | - | | 9 | - | - | - | - | - | | 10| - | - | - | - | - | a. A and D b. C and E c. B and C d. C and D 4. (1 point) Which one of the following molecules is least likely to pass through the plasma membrane? a. CO₂ b. CH₃-CH₂-OH c. NaHCO₃ d. CH₃-CO-CH₃ 5. (1 point) Bacterial core RNA Polymerase (RNAP) can bind to DNA. However, in order to initiate transcription from specific promoter sequences, it needs to associate with a sigma factor to form the holo-enzyme. Study the table below and choose the correct explanation for this phenomenon. (The numbers in the table are arbitrary.) | | Association Constant | Half life of complex (in seconds) | |----------------|----------------------|----------------------------------| | | with non-specific DNA | with promoter DNA | with non-specific DNA | with promoter DNA | | Core RNAP | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Holo RNAP | 0.001 | 100 | 0.1 | 1000 | a. Sigma factor provides catalytic site essential for transcription. b. Holo RNAP is able to bind to a longer stretch of DNA sequence thus increasing the probability of binding to a promoter sequence. c. Binding of sigma factor increases the catalytic efficiency of core RNAP. d. Sigma factor destabilizes the non-specific RNAP-DNA complex and strengthens the RNAP-promoter complex. **PLANT SCIENCES (4 points)** 6. (1 point) Which of the following adaptations help plants grow under a canopy? I. Increasing the specific leaf area (ratio of leaf area to dry mass). II. Increase in the chlorophyll a/b ratio in the light harvesting complex. III. Reduced tillering (production of lateral shoots) if the plants belong to grass species. IV. Elongation of petioles to enhance access to sunlight. a. II and IV only b. I, II, and III only c. I, III and IV only d. I, II, III and IV 7. (1 point) The following characters are found in many trees that grow in temperate forests. i. Pollen are shed at the beginning of growing season before the leaves develop. ii. Shedding of pollen is timed to avoid high humidity and rain. In such trees, the type of pollination is most likely to be: a. entomophilic. b. anemophilic. c. ornithophilic. d. chiropterophilic. 8. (1 point) In an experiment, water potentials of soil and a plant growing in the soil were measured for 8 days. The results are shown below. Mark the correct interpretation. (White and black boxes on the X-axis indicate day and night respectively.) a. The plant is growing in a soil that is watered optimally throughout the experimental period. b. Graph P indicates the transient wilting of the plant up to 6 days. c. The plant is most likely to be a xerophyte. d. Later days represent the wilting of younger leaves of the plant. 9. (1 point) Cross sections of two leaves (P and Q) are shown. P and Q respectively most likely belong to: a. a xerophyte and a hydrophyte. b. a mesophyte and a halophyte. c. a mesophyte and a hydrophyte. d. a hydrophyte and a mesophyte. ANIMAL SCIENCES (2 points) 10. (1 point) Oxygen content of tissues/organs of Australian sea lion at two developmental stages is shown in the bar graph. Three tissues represented by X, Y and Z are respectively: a. Brain, heart and lungs. b. Lungs, blood and muscles. c. Lungs, heart and brain. d. Blood, muscles and lungs. 11. (1 point) During the growth of marine fish, initially, yolk sac and skin are the principal sites where transport protein "X" is located. Later, skin and gills become principal sites and finally 'X' becomes localized to gills. The protein "X" is: a. glycogen synthase. b. glucokinase. c. Na⁺ K⁺ ATPase. d. glucose permease. GENETICS & EVOLUTION (5 points) 12. (1 point) Consider a case where a mutation ‘R’ occurred in some prairie moles influencing their behavior/physiology. In which of the following cases, it can be asserted that the mutant allele frequency will increase in the population? i. The mutation results in enhanced monogamy. ii. The mutation results in greater average number of surviving offspring as compared to the wild type population. iii. The mutation results in longevity in the mole population. iv. The mutation results in greater average time spent together by paired male and female moles compared to the wild type population. a. i and ii only b. iii and iv only c. ii only d. iii only 13. (1 point) The wild type lac operon is inducible. Mutations in the operator region ($O^C$) can make the operon constitutive, i.e. the operon is active even in the absence of the inducer such as lactose. Constitutive expression can also be observed if the lac repressor is not synthesized. Partial diploids (merodiploids) can be developed in *E. coli* by transforming *E. coli* with a plasmid carrying a genomic DNA fragment. Of the following genotypes of merodiploids which one of them would show constitutive expression of the lac operon resulting in synthesis of functional proteins? \[ \Delta l : \text{deletion of } lacI \text{ gene}, \ l^* : \text{Wild type } lacI \text{ gene, } lacZ, Y & A^+ : \text{mutated } lacZ, Y & A \text{ genes, } lacZ^*Y^*A^+ : \text{wild type } lacZ, Y & A \text{ genes, } O^C : \text{operator constitutive mutant, } O^+: \text{wild type operator} \] a. $\Delta l O^+ Z^*Y^*A^+/l^* O^+ Z^*Y^*A^+$ b. $\Delta l O^+ ZY^*A^+/l^* O^+ Z^*Y^*A^+$ c. $l^* O^C Z^*Y^*A^+/l^* O^+ Z^*Y^*A^+$ d. $l^* O^+ Z^*Y^*A^+/l^* O^C ZY^*A^+$ 14. (1 point) A set of genes that are linked to one another is called as a linkage group. The minimum number of linkage groups in an organism is equal to its haploid number of chromosomes. Which of the following events can change the linkage group of a given gene? a. Paracentric inversion b. Chromosomal translocation c. Meiotic recombination d. Pericentric inversion 15. (1 point) Graph below depicts the relationship of fitness with the body size for a population. The type of selection occurring and the most probable future trend for average body size for this population will be: (Choose from the graphs P-S and I–IV): a. P and IV b. Q and II c. R and III d. S and I 16. (1 point) One can observe three phenotypic variants in the 4 o’clock plant, *Mirabilis jalapa*, namely, variegated leaves, green leaves and yellow leaves. If pollen from a branch that bore only variegated leaves fertilize ovules from a branch that had only green leaves, the leaves of the plantlets will be: a. only green. b. only yellow. c. either green or yellow. d. only variegated. **ECOLOGY (1 point)** 17. (1 point) Predator-prey relationships observed in nature can also be studied in the laboratory using controlled experimental conditions. The results often vary depending on the choice of experimental conditions, namely homogeneous or heterogeneous environment (microcosm). All the parameters in homogenous microcosm are uniform while in heterogeneous system, they can vary and can have varied impact on the populations studied. Following graphs (A, B and C) depict three predator-prey interactions. Match the correct interpretation to each of the graphs and choose from the option. I. The microcosm is homogeneous. II. After introduction of predator, both the predator and prey eventually die out. III. The microcosm is heterogenous. IV. Prey can hide in some kind of refuge where predator cannot enter. V. There is intermittent immigration of prey and predator. a. A: I, II B: III, IV C: I, V b. A: II, III B: I, II C: III, V c. A: I, II B: IV C: I, II d. A: II, IV B: I, II C: I, IV ETHOLOGY (2 points) 18. (1 point) Great tits are passerine birds found in Europe as well as Asia. Along with forests, they also live in densely inhabited urban regions. The following graphs depict the frequencies and durations of songs of birds adapted to forest and urban environments. Which of the following statements is correct? a. As compared to urban great tits, forest tits are required to spend more energy towards foraging and protecting the territory and hence have evolved low frequency songs which are energetically less demanding. b. Noise made by vehicles bustling through cities occupy lower frequency channels hence only great tits that sing high-pitched songs can be clearly heard. c. Short-note and high-pitched songs by urban tits require more energy and thus urban tits declare their greater relative fitness to other members of the species. d. Songs by forest tits have longer notes with lower frequencies and can reach much longer distances in forest ecosystem. 19. (1 point) Migratory hummingbirds often guard winter territories to maintain exclusive access to nectar produced by certain flowers during their migration. This behavior depends on a number of factors including flower density, nectar yields of individual flowers, hummingbird density and ambient environmental conditions, which, in turn, would influence the metabolic costs incurred by the bird during foraging, territorial defence and other activities. Suggest the parameters that may have been plotted on the X-axis and Y-axis respectively in the following graph. ![Graph](image) a. X-axis: Hummingbird density; Y-axis: Flower density b. X-axis: Flower density; Y-axis: Hummingbird density c. X-axis: Territory size; Y-axis: Flower density d. X-axis: Flower density; Y-axis: Territory size **BIOSYSTEMATICS (1 point)** 20. (1 point) Which of the following support/s common ancestry of Humans, Cheetah, Whale and Bat? i. Homologous organs ii. Analogous organs iii. Vestigial organs a. ii and iii only b. i and ii only c. i and iii only d. i only ******** END OF SECTION A ******** 21. (2 points) Distribution of kinetic energy of a population of substrate molecules is depicted in the graphs in two different situations (I and II). Bold arrows in the graphs indicate the minimum energy required for the reaction to take place. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). A. In situation (I) reaction can proceed from P to Q while in situation (II), the reaction cannot proceed from R to S. _____ B. It is likely that reaction (II) is enzyme-driven. ______ C. Reaction cannot proceed in both (I) and (II) as most of the molecules are at a lower energy level than required. ______ D. Temperature of molecules in Qin situation (I) is likely to be higher than that in P. ______ 22. (2 points) Proteins and lipids are the main components of biological membranes. Membrane proteins can be present either in the form of peripheral or integral proteins. A few statements about these proteins are made. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. Peripheral proteins are more soluble in aqueous solutions than integral proteins. ____ b. In the peripheral proteins, non-polar amino acids predominate at the surface. ____ c. Peripheral proteins can be solubilized by treating the cell membrane with salt solution but this treatment is unlikely to remove transmembrane proteins. ____ d. Hormone receptor is an example of peripheral protein. ____ 23. (2 points) Four sedimentation coefficients (S) are given below and four molecules/particles are listed. a. Cytochrome C b. tRNA c. Influenza virus d. Lysosomes (I) $4 \times 10^3$ S (II) 4 S (III) 700 S (IV) 1.7 S Match the appropriate coefficient to each molecule/particle and fill the correct number (I-IV) in each blank. a. ________ b. ________ c. ________ d. ________ 24. (4 points) Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay (EMSA) or “Gel Shift Assay” is a technique that is based on the observation that migration of protein-DNA complexes is retarded as compared to free DNA fragments when subjected to non-denaturing Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis. In the following experiment, five reaction mixtures (I to V) are prepared as follows: | Contents | I | II | III | IV | V | |--------------------------------|----|----|-----|----|---| | Radio labeled Lac gene | + | + | + | + | + | | containing only regulatory | | | | | | | sequence | | | | | | | Lac repressor | - | + | + | + | + | | Lactose | - | - | + | - | - | | Glucose | - | - | - | + | - | | Antibody to Lac repressor | - | - | - | - | + | The samples are loaded in the non-denaturing Polyacrylamide gel of 5% concentration. Indicate the prominent band pattern that will be observed on auto radiography of the gel in wells II to V. 25. (2 points) If there are 12 centromeres in a cell during anaphase, the number of chromosomes in each daughter cell after cytokinesis is: Answer: _______ 26. (2 points) Carbonic anhydrase forms a family of enzymes that catalyses rapid interconversion of CO₂ and water to bicarbonate and proton. Its role in kidney excretory function is shown in the diagram. Acetazolamide is an inhibitor of the enzyme. Mark whether each of the following statements regarding acetazolamide is true (T) or false (F). a. It will decrease renal excretion of Na⁺, bicarbonate and water. ____ b. It can be used to release excessive pressure built in the aqueous humor. ____ c. It can be used to relieve metabolic alkalosis as it will prevent secretion of H⁺ across the renal tubule. ____ d. It can aggravate high altitude sickness as it will lead to rise in blood CO₂ concentration. ____ PLANT SCIENCES (10 points) 27. (2 points) Plants use phytochromes and cryptochromes to detect characteristic differences in the composition of light under shade and unfiltered daylight. The effect of canopy-shade can be described in terms of the ratio of red to far-red fluence rate [R/FR or ζ (Zeta)]. Match the given values of ζ in the table below with the locations at which these readings were taken and mark the correct option by putting a tick mark (✔) in the appropriate box. | Location of Readings | Values of ζ | |----------------------|-------------| | a. Under Maize Canopy | i. 0.5 | | b. Under woodland community | ii. 0.12 | | c. Unfiltered daylight | iii. 1.2 | | d. Under Wheat canopy | iv. 0.2 | 28. (2 points) *Arabidopsis* is a typical dicot in which growth in white light shows the following responses. (i) arrested hypocotyl elongation, (ii) straightening of the hypocotyl or plumular hook, (iii) unfolding of the cotyledons and (iv) expansion of the cotyledons. Experiments with phytochrome and cryptochrome deficient mutants showed results which have been depicted in the diagram below. Based on the above results, mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). A. The phyA-deficient single mutant (*phyA*) had little effect on hypocotyl elongation. ____ B. Light suppresses hypocotyl elongation by more than 50% in wildtype plants. ______ C. phyB is the principal phytochrome affecting hypocotyl elongation in *Arabidopsis*. ____ D. Any one of the photoreceptors is required for cotyledon opening. ____ 2. Receptor conformation changes. 3. Guanylate cyclase activated. 4. Binding of Gibberellic Acid to the membrane receptor present on extracellular face of aleurone cell. 5. Myb RNA exits nucleus. 6. Ligand receptor complex interacts with G protein. 7. *myb* gene activated to transcribe RNA. 8. cGMP enters nucleus and binds to repressor protein for *myb* gene. 9. Transcription factor MYB synthesized on 80S ribosome in cytoplasm. 10. Vesicles release the enzyme in endosperm. 11. α-amylase synthesis on rough endoplasmic reticulum. 12. MYB enters nucleus and binds to promoter of α-amylase gene. 30. (2 points) Plants can be classified according to their photoperiodic responses. In the early twentieth century, it was shown that biochemical signals from photoperiodically induced leaves can be transported to a distant target tissue where it can stimulate a response. The transmitted substance is termed as hormone Florigen. Flowering in three plants (I, II, III) is shown in the graph. Indicate in which of the following situations the grafted plants would / would not show flowering. Put a tick mark (✔) for flowering and a (✗) mark for no flowering. a. Plant I kept in short day environment and grafted with a leaf from plant II kept in long day regime. b. Plant III kept in long day regime and grafted with a leaf from plant I kept in short day regime. c. Plant II kept in short day regime and grafted with a leaf from plant I kept in short day regime. __ d. Plant III kept in short day regime and grafted with a leaf from plant I kept in short day regime. __ **ANIMAL SCIENCES (11.5 points)** 31. (2 points) Research in animals has offered hope for the prevention of diseases via Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) involving micromanipulation. One such technique is described below. **Step I:** Donor oocyte $\rightarrow$ fertilized with intended parent sperm $\rightarrow$ removal of pronuclei $\rightarrow$ oocyte without pronuclei **Step II:** Intended parent oocyte $\rightarrow$ fertilized with intended parent sperm $\rightarrow$ pronuclei transferred to donor oocyte without pronuclei. Mark whether each statement is true (T) or false (F). a. ART described above will result in an offspring having three parents. __ b. This technique has offered a hope for the cure of all mitochondrial diseases. __ c. The technique will be mainly useful when the intended male parent has mitochondria with mutant DNA. __ d. This technique will be suitable even if the intended female parent has 50% of the mitochondrial copies mutated. __ 32. (5 points) As blood flows from arterial end of capillaries to venous end of capillaries, several components are exchanged across the capillary lining. Various kinds of pressures existing at these two ends are listed below. (All pressures indicated as mm of Hg). i. Hydrostatic pressure: 17 mm ii. Osmotic pressure: 26 mm iii. Hydrostatic pressure: 35 mm iv. Osmotic pressure: 1 mm v. Hydrostatic pressure: 0 mm (A). Match the pressure values to the correct structures / components (a-c) and fill in the blanks with the appropriate number/s: a. Interstitial fluid: ________________ b. Blood at arterial end of capillary: ________________ c. Blood at venous end of capillary: ________________ (B). What will be the net value of pressure from: a. arterial end of capillary to interstitial fluid? ________ mm b. venous end of capillary to interstitial fluid? ________ mm 33. (2.5 points) Phylogenetic classification of 7 species of fish found in Arabian sea and 9 species of fish found in Antarctic sea is given. Some data about these fishes is provided in the table. | Species | Habitat | Blood color | Heart Muscle color | Heart size | Rate of blood circulation | |---------|---------------|-------------|--------------------|------------|--------------------------| | 1 | Temperate sea | Red | Red | Normal | Normal | | 2 | Temperate sea | Red | Red | Normal | Normal | | 3 | Temperate sea | Red | Red | Normal | Normal | | 4 | Temperate sea | Red | Red | Normal | Normal | | 5 | Temperate sea | Red | Red | Normal | Normal | | 6 | Temperate sea | Red | Red | Normal | Normal | | 7 | Temperate sea | Red | Red | Normal | Normal | | 8 | Antarctic sea | White | Red | Large | High | | 9 | Antarctic sea | White | Red | Large | High | | 10 | Antarctic sea | White | Red | Large | High | | 11 | Antarctic sea | White | White | Large | High | | 12 | Antarctic sea | White | White | Large | High | | 13 | Antarctic sea | White | Red | Large | High | | 14 | Antarctic sea | White | White | Large | High | | 15 | Antarctic sea | White | Red | Large | High | | 16 | Antarctic sea | White | Red | Large | High | Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. Lesser dissolved oxygen most probably led to the loss of hemoglobin gene in Antarctic fishes. b. White colour of heart muscles in Antarctic fish indicates reduced blood volume in their bodies. ____ c. Loss of functional hemoglobin gene most probably occurred only once in the course of evolution while loss of functional myoglobin gene has occurred several times. ____ d. Loss of functional hemoglobin gene had more profound effect on the fish physiology than the loss of functional myoglobin gene. ____ e. Myoglobin, having oxygen storage function due to its high affinity, is more crucial in habitats such as Antarctic sea. ____ 34. (2 points) A student wanted to measure metabolic heat of a mouse using a calorimeter. For this, she designed a calorimeter made up of two containers, one fitting into the other. She placed a mouse (weight 5 gm) into the inner container and the space between the two containers was fully packed with ice. The outlet from the external container allowed the water to be collected into a jar. Knowing the amount of heat required to melt each gram of ice, she would calculate heat production by the mouse. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. The measurement will be an underestimate of the metabolic heat produced because the animal will be less active under the experimental conditions. ____ b. The measurement will be an overestimate of the metabolic heat produced because the body will produce more heat in order to maintain constant body temperature. ____ c. The readings will be higher than the true value because the environmental temperature will affect the melting of ice. ____ d. The readings will be lower if mouse is replaced by an animal of higher body weight. ____ 35. (2 points) A cross is made in *Drosophila melanogaster* between genotypes $a^+a^+$, $b^+b^+$ and $aabb$. The F$_1$ progeny is sib-mated to obtain the F$_2$ progeny. The two genes are located on the 2nd chromosome and are 60cM apart. Further, in case of *D. melanogaster* there is no crossing over in the males. What percentage of the progeny will have the genotype $aabb$? (Indicate the answer upto one decimal place.) Answer: ______ % 36. (2 points) Komodo dragon (*Varanus komodoensis*) is a large species of lizard found in Indonesia. A pedigree for a particular trait in Komodo dragon is shown below. Circles and squares represent females and males, respectively. The filled circles represent females showing the phenotype under study. From molecular studies it is known that the allele responsible for the phenotype is present in all the three generations. A few statements regarding the possible modes of inheritance of the trait are given below. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. The mode of inheritance can be autosomal dominant with the mutation arising in the second generation. ____ b. The mode of inheritance can be autosomal recessive with the male in second generation being a carrier. ____ c. The mode of inheritance can be sex-linked recessive with an XX-XY sex chromosome system in Komodo dragon. ____ d. The mode of inheritance can be sex-linked recessive with an ZZ-ZW sex chromosome system in Komodo dragon. ____ 37. (2 points) The activity of an enzyme ‘X’ in wild type *E. coli* cells was studied when the cells were grown in the presence or absence of a compound ‘A’. Similar studies were also carried out with two independent mutants (mutant 1 and 2) that were isolated. The results are summarized in the graph below. Further, experiments were carried out to analyze the levels of transcript of the gene encoding enzyme ‘X’ by Northern hybridizations, results of which are presented below. On analysis of the data obtained, the following conclusions were made. Mark whether each of the following statements is correct (✓) or incorrect (✗). I. This is an example of an inducible system. ____ II. Compound ‘A’ represses the transcription of the gene encoding enzyme ‘X’. ____ III. In ‘mutant 1’ the gene encoding enzyme ‘X’ is likely to be mutated. ____ IV. In ‘mutant 2’, the mutation probably lies in a regulatory DNA element. ____ 38. (2 points) In a given population the frequency of individuals with the genotype $aa$ is 0.01 and that of $Aa$ is 0.20. If two individuals randomly mated, what is the probability that the child will have the genotype $aa$? Answer: __________ 39. (2 points) When frequencies of alleles $a$ and $b$ of a gene encoding lactate dehydrogenase enzyme in killifish were studied along the costal line from Georgia to Maine (two states located on the east coast of America), a trend as shown in the figure was obtained. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. The data suggests that killifish are a freely interbreeding population that can travel substantial distances. ____ b. It is likely that alleles ‘a’ and ‘b’ vary in their functional properties, \(a\) having greater functional advantage at higher temperatures as compared to \(b\). ____ c. The data indicates that disruptive selection has occurred along the coastal line of Georgia to Maine. ____ d. The data indicates that population at Maine is a founder population and allele \(b\) has evolved later during the course of evolution. ____ 40. (2 points) The pedigree below represents the inheritance of an autosomal recessive disorder. The DNA of the individuals (1 - 11) was isolated and amplified using a set of primers. The primers amplify a 5kb (U) as well as a 2kb (L) DNA fragment, which is linked to the gene controlling the trait. ``` 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 U - - - - - - - - - - L - - - - - - - - - - ``` Based on the available information in the pedigree and DNA profile, what is the probability that a child of individuals 10 and 11 will be a girl without the disorder? (Express your answer in a fraction.) Answer: __________ 41. (3 points) You are familiar with the famous Darwinian finches. A lot research is still being carried out on understanding the mechanism of evolution of these finches. Rosemary and Peter Grant have studied the change in the population structure, beak shape and body size of two types of Finches in one of the islands, Daphne major in the Galapagos islands over a period of 40 years. One of the species they studied was the medium ground finch (*Geospiza fortis*) that possesses short, blunt beak, and is adapted to picking up seeds from the ground. They observed that in 1976, there was plenty of diverse type of seeds. But in 1977, due to a drought, seeds become scarce. Since there were not enough of small and medium size seeds, Finches had to turn to larger seeds with hard shells which could be broken only by those possessing harder beaks. The graphs below show the distribution of beak depths (in mm) in the breeding population of *Geospiza fortis* on the island of Daphne Major in 1976 (white bars) and of the survivors of the 1977 drought (black bars). The means of the two populations are indicated by the arrows. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. This is a classic example of macroevolution. ____ b. Significant variation in the beak-depth eventually leads to speciation. ____ c. The offsprings of the next generation (1978) will all most likely have beaks with greater depth. ____ d. The changes observed over a period of just one year has no influence on evolution of finches as it takes millions of years for fixing a particular trait. ____ e. This is an example of disruptive selection. ____ f. Because the beak depth size distribution will be stabilized in the next generation, this could be considered as a stabilizing selection. 42. (2 points) A number of diseases have genetic basis. Even though the disease-causing alleles have detrimental effects on the affected individual, they seem to persist in the population. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. A disease allele is likely to persist in a population if the disease adversely affects neurons during old age. _____ b. A disease allele is likely to persist in a population if the disease allele is harmless in the heterozygous form. ______ c. A disease allele is likely to persist in a population if the disease adversely affects the reproductive system during puberty. ______ d. A disease allele is likely to persist in a population if the disease allele is located very close to an allele of an essential gene. ______ ECOLOGY (15 points) 43. (2 points) Snowshoe hares are found in northern part of the north hemisphere. They mostly live in forests, fields and forage on different types of grasses. They show many peculiar features. Just like hares and rabbits found in other parts of the world, their hind limbs are stronger and much longer than the forelimbs. In the summer months, they have reddish brown fur while in winter it is snowy white. It has been found that daylight length is the determining factor for the synthesis of melanin pigment responsible for brown fur. However, global warming has posed a threat to the very existence of these animals. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. The phenomenon of change in fur color of a snowshoe hare in response to seasons is an example of disruptive selection. ____ b. The longer hind limbs prove advantageous for fast running and running uphill. Thus this trait is under directional selection. ____ c. Increase of carbon dioxide concentration in the earth’s atmosphere causes respiratory distress to homeothermic animals which can prove lethal. ____ d. Rise in temperature due to global warming delays snowing in winter which makes the hare more visible to the predators. ____ 44. (4 points) *Potentilla glandulosa*, sticky cinquefoil, grows from sea level to over 3,000 m elevation and shows height variation along this elevational gradient. In a study, plants naturally growing at three different elevations (lowland, mid-elevation and alpine) were transplanted and grown in gardens at other two elevations along with the native plants. The height of the transplanted as well as the native plants was measured. The null hypothesis of the study predicted the following results. The actual results of the study are as shown below. (A) What was the null hypothesis of the study? Choose the correct answer and put a tick mark (✓) in the appropriate box. a. Height of the plants is determined only by genetic factors. b. Height of the plants is determined only by environmental conditions. c. Height of the plants is determined by the combination of genetic factors and environmental conditions. d. Height of the plants is determined by genetic factors but only under specific environmental conditions. | | | | | |---|---|---|---| | a. | b. | c. | d. | (B) Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. Individuals native to the alpine elevation grow to their maximum possible height at alpine elevation. ________ b. Mid-elevation is the optimum for the plants to reach the maximum height. ______ c. The height of plants from lowland population decreases as the elevation increases. ______ d. The alpine elevation is the harshest environment for the plants to grow in height. ______ 45. (2 points) Five warbler species, Cape May (*Dendroica tigrina*), yellow-rumped (*D. coronata*), black-throated green (*D. virens*), blackburnian (*D. fusca*), and bay-breasted (*D. castanea*), are about the same size and shape and all feed on insects. Robert MacArthur in his study found that each species of the warblers predominantly feed in different zones in spruce trees. This way of foraging reduces competition among the five species. If another study finds that the number of individuals of each warbler species found in the forest is the same, which of the following can be predicted based on this new finding? Choose the correct answer and put a tick mark (✔) in the appropriate box. a. The diversity of insects found on spruce trees is evenly distributed across feeding zones of the warblers. b. The biomass of insects found in different feeding zones of the warblers is approximately the same. c. The total number of insects found on a spruce tree remains approximately the same across different trees. d. The density of insects found in the forest is evenly distributed across spruce trees. | a. | b. | c. | d. | |----|----|----|----| | | | | | 46. (3 points) Given is the relative fitness (performance) of insects at different temperatures. $CT_{\text{min}}$, $CT_{\text{max}}$ and $T_{\text{opt}}$ stand for minimum critical temperature, maximum critical temperature and optimal temperature, respectively. The vertical line represents the current average temperature in the different regions. By the end of the 21st century, average temperatures are predicted to increase by 5°C. Based on the above information, mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). A) Relative fitness of temperate insects is predicted to be negatively affected by increase in temperature by the end of the 21st century. ______ B) Temperate insect species are more likely to survive at temperatures lower than 10°C than tropical species. ______ C) Tropical insect species at its current optimum temperature is more likely to die-off than temperate insect species at its optimum temperature by the end of the 21st century. ______ 47. (4 points) One of the key questions studied in ecology is how does biodiversity affect the functioning of an ecosystem. Based on the contribution of any given species towards the functioning of the ecosystem, several hypotheses are put forth such as: 1. Redundancy hypothesis 2. Linear hypothesis 3. Keystone hypothesis 4. Idiosyncratic hypothesis The graphs given below represent possible effects of removal of species from an ecosystem on its overall functioning. Note: The initial level of biodiversity is indicated by $\star$ and the end result by $\bullet$. Against each statement, fill in the appropriate hypothesis (1 – 2) and graph (P – S) in the table. a. Every species makes a contribution (smaller or larger) to the process, so if it is removed, that contribution is subtracted from the process. b. Many species in the ecosystem are at least partly substitutable while their contribution to the ecosystem process can be taken over by other, functionally similar species. c. Singular species with disproportionate effect on ecosystem relative to its abundance by modifying the resource availability for other members of the community. d. The impact of loss or addition of species depends on environmental conditions so that a species makes different contributions to ecosystems depending on conditions. 48. (2 points) The age/sex composition of a population of bonnet macaques over the years is given below. Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). | Estimated Population Size | 2005 | 2009 | 2013 | |---------------------------|------|------|------| | Adult Male | 6.67 | 13.11| 20.00| | Adult Female | 10.00| 13.56| 32.50| | Subadult Male | 20.00| 13.67| 25.00| | Subadult Female | 16.67| 17.33| 10.00| | Juvenile Male | 22.33| 19.67| 5.00 | | Juvenile Female | 24.33| 22.67| 7.50 | a. The macaque population was growing relatively faster in 2013 when, despite its relatively smaller population size, it had the highest proportion of adults. ____ b. The relatively more equable adult male-to-female ratio in 2009 may have been responsible for the overall smaller population size in 2013. ____ c. An expansive population pyramid, as shown by the population in 2005, is characterised by a high birth rate and relatively lower life expectancy. ____ d. The subadult male-to-female ratio reflects that of the juveniles in this population. ____ 49. (2 points) Holmes and Sherman (1982) studied kin recognition in Belding’s ground squirrels. They captured pregnant females and used their pups to create four kinds of experimental rearing groups: siblings reared by one mother (their own or a foster mother, S.RT), siblings reared apart by different mothers (S.RA), non-siblings reared as a single litter (NS.RT) and non-siblings reared apart (NS.RA). When they were older, animals from the four groups were placed in pairs in arenas and their agonistic interactions were observed, the results of which are shown below (a). Field observations were also made on aggression and cooperation among yearling females which were full- or half-sisters (b and c). Mark whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F). a. Non-siblings reared together are no more aggressive than siblings reared together. ____ b. Full-sisters are more aggressive to and less cooperative with one another. ____ c. Genetic relatedness does not influence in any way the development of close cooperative relationships between females. ____ d. Association in early life is important for individuals to treat other individuals as their kin. ____ 50. (2 points) The diploblastic radially symmetrical cnidarians are shown to possess most genes implicated in development of mesoderm in bilaterally symmetrical triploblastic animals suggesting different evolutionary hypotheses for a Cnidarian-Bilaterian Ancestor: A. Mesodermal genes originated before actual origin of mesoderm and played no role in germ layer specifications in Cnidaria. B. Mesodermal genes played a role in specification of ectoderm and endoderm in Cnidaria but with the evolution of Bilateria they consequently got associated with mesoderm. C. Cnidaria evolved by reduction of germ layers or fusion of mesoderm and endoderm from a triploblastic bilateria ancestor therefore, the genes for mesoderm were already present. Among these hypotheses, evidences have supported hypothesis B only. In view of this, mark whether each of the following statements is true or false by putting tick marks (✓) in the appropriate boxes in the table. | Statements | Possible Explanation | True | False | |------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|-------| | a. | Pre-existing genes were silenced during early stages of evolution in Cnidaria. | | | | b. | Cnidaria are most probably the degenerative forms of Acoelomates with knockdown of mesoderm genes. | | | | c. | The Cnidarian genes possibly duplicated, mutated and later were switched on for new functions in Bilateria. | | | | d. | The genes pre-existed in Cnidaria-Acoela ancestor but, the expression was delayed till evolution of mesoderm. | | | 51. (3 points) Following diagram is an unrooted tree showing phylogenetic relationships. Loci 1 to 5 are probable roots to establish the relationship. These are: 1: Radial, indeterminate cleavage, 2: Deuterostomia, 3: Notochord, 4: Spiral cleavage, 5: Ecdysis Chordata Hemichordata Echinodermata Cnidaria Mollusca Arthropoda Annelida It is based upon following assumptions: A. Radial cleavage evolved earlier to spiral cleavage. B. Cnideria is closer to Deuterostomia as its gastral pouches are comparable to archenteric pouches forming true coelom in deuterostomes. Protostomes are thus on a different lineage. C. Mollusca are partially / preliminarily segmented while Annelids and Arthropods have true metameric segmentation. In view of the above, which of the following cladograms exhibit correct phylogeny? Indicate your answers by putting tick marks (✓) in the appropriate boxes. | Cladogram | Correct | Incorrect | |-----------|---------|-----------| | P | | | | Q | | | | R | | | 52. (2 points) In the following diagram, relationship among species A to J is shown where 1, 2, 3 and 4 are the distinctive characters of the respective group of species. None of the characters is symplesiomorphic for all the species. State which of the cladograms P, Q, R, S correctly represent the relationships considering character advancement from 1 → 2 → 3 → 4. Indicate your answers by putting tick marks (✓) in the appropriate boxes. | Cladogram | Correct | Incorrect | |-----------|---------|-----------| | P | | | | Q | | | | R | | | | S | | | 53. (1.5 points) Five peptides (P - T) of a part of a structure of enzyme protein found in five vertebrates are given. Each bead represents an amino acid. Different amino acids are indicated by different patterns of beads. Based on the data given, draw the most parsimonious cladogram for the five species. (Only an entirely correct cladogram will be given points.) P ○○○○○○●○○ Q ○○○○○○●○○ R ○○○○○○○○○ S ○○○○○○●○○ T ○○○○○○○○○○ Answer: ******** END OF SECTION B ********
7ba5c00a-e606-4f5b-9a41-6b952722100e
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://www.pdfquestion.in/uploads/INBO2018.pdf
2024-07-24T03:31:53+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763518154.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20240724014956-20240724044956-00017.warc.gz
787,136,943
10,585
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.961834
eng_Latn
0.994567
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "swe_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1166, 2061, 3117, 4925, 5706, 6859, 8585, 9579, 10497, 12174, 12298, 13215, 14482, 15370, 16817, 17662, 19028, 20924, 23328, 24990, 26958, 27919, 28975, 30858, 33347, 34326, 35779, 37098, 38099, 39246, 40433, 42495, 43468, 44381 ]
[ 2.53125, 2.59375 ]
1
0
Myths About Homelessness Myths About the Homeless - They’re all Lazy and Unemployed - They’re all Drunks and Drug Addicts - It’s Their Fault - There’s Nothing I Can Do What is Homelessness? What is Homelessness? People Living on the Streets What is Homelessness? People Without a Place of Their Own - Friends’ Homes - Shelters Who is Homeless? Who Is Homeless? Who Is Homeless? 15% of Local Homeless are Children 14% of Local Homeless are Veterans Who Is Homeless? Who Is Homeless? 9% of Homeless are in College 17% of Homeless are Over 50 Who Is Homeless? - People who are Disabled - 39% are physically or developmentally Disabled - People with Mental Disorders - 24% suffer from treatable mental illnesses - People who Work - Over 40% of the Homeless nationwide have Jobs Alcohol, Drugs and the Homeless Drugs and the Homeless Myth “All Homeless People are Alcoholics, or Drug Addicts” Drug and Alcohol abuse actually increases with income Drugs and the Homeless Myth “They can Quit at Anytime” Price of Rehabilitation $10,000 - $32,000 Why do you believe people become homeless? Why are People Homeless? It’s a Thin Line - Experts agree people need to save enough money to cover at least 3-6 months of expenses (Food, Rent, Gas, Bills) Stories of the Homeless Dr. Phil - During his teenage years, he lived in a car with his dad - YMCA and a college scholarship helped him out Frederick Jefferson (Local) - Didn’t know he had traffic fines, and lost his license and job - Recent California law allowed him to get his license and job back Simple Acts of Kindness We Can All Do Simple Things We Can Do: Water - Hard to find water without a house - Water is healthier, and better for people trying to stay hydrated - Keep water in your car and give when you can Simple Things We Can Do: Food Fruit Snacks and granola bars are small yet effective items. Trying keeping these in the same place as the water bottles! Simple Things We Can Do: Socks Socks are rarely donated, but are an important part of staying healthy, especially in cold weather. Simple Things We Can Do: Shelters For the Riverside Area: Path of Life Ministries: Shelter for single men and women (951)683-4101 Riverside Men and Family Shelter: Shelter for single men and Shelter for single women or single parents with children (909) 386-0787 We also have additional resources for shelters outside of Riverside. Please let us know if you are interested. Simple Things We Can Do: Vote Local laws can be the difference between giving someone a shot at a job, or staying on the streets. - California passed a law allowing people to lower traffic ticket prices and keep driving. - One South Dakota city attempted to ban temporary job placement offices, making it harder to find work. Simple Things We Can Do: Compassion
<urn:uuid:c9c1091f-2c8d-49e1-849d-0292baf566d8>
CC-MAIN-2017-26
http://mms.ucr.edu/pdf/homelessness.pdf
2017-06-24T12:00:04Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128320261.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20170624115542-20170624135542-00255.warc.gz
264,672,766
679
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.99519
eng_Latn
0.998091
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 24, 169, 192, 244, 333, 351, 369, 459, 477, 555, 799, 832, 972, 1074, 1118, 1278, 1584, 1623, 1808, 1963, 2096, 2475, 2804, 2842 ]
[ 2.640625 ]
1
0
Kumbaya my Lord, kumbaya. Kumbaya my Lord, kumba - - ya. Kumbaya my Lord, kumbaya; Oh Lord, kumbaya. Someone's crying, Lord, come by here. Someone's crying, Lord, come by here. Someone's crying, Lord, come by here; Oh Lord, come by here; Someone's praying, Lord, kumbaya. Someone's praying, Lord, kumbaya. Someone's praying, Lord, kumbaya; Oh Lord, kumbaya. Someone's singing Lord, come by here. Someone's singing Lord, come by here. Someone's singing Lord, come by here; Oh Lord, come by here. Someone's laughing, Lord, kumbaya. Someone's laughing, Lord, kumbaya. Someone's laughing, Lord, kumbaya; Oh Lord, kumbaya. Kumbaya my Lord, come by here. Kumbaya my Lord, come by here. Kumbaya my Lord, come by here; Oh Lord, come by here. History “Oh Lord, Kumbaya” Also spelled *kum ba yah*, *cumbayah*, *kumbaya*, and probably a few other ways. If you look in a good songbook you’ll find the word helpfully translated as “come by here”. Kumbaya apparently originated with the Gullah, Americans living on the Sea Islands and adjacent coastal regions of South Carolina and Georgia. The best known Sea Island is Hilton Head, the resort area. Having lived in isolation for hundreds of years, the Gullah speak a dialect that most native speakers of English find unintelligible on first hearing but that turns out to be heavily accented English with other stuff mixed in. The dialect appears in Joel Chandler Harris’s “Uncle Remus” stories, to give you an idea what it sounds like. In the 1940s the pioneering linguist Lorenzo Turner showed that the Gullah language was actually a creole consisting of English plus a lot of words and constructions from the languages of west Africa, the Gullahs’ homeland. Although long scorned as an ignorant caricature of English, Gullah is actually a language of considerable charm, with expressions like (forgive my poor attempt at expressing these phonetically) *deh clin*, dawn (literally “day clean”); *troot mout*, truthful person (“truth mouth”), and *tebble tappuh*, preacher (“table tapper”). And of course there’s *kumbaya*. According to ethnomusicologist Thomas Miller, the song we know began as a Gullah spiritual. Some recordings of it were made in the 1920s, but no doubt it goes back earlier. Published versions began appearing in the 1930s. It’s believed an American missionary couple taught the song to the locals in Angola, where its origins were forgotten. The song was then rediscovered in Angola and brought back here in time for the folksinging revival of the 50s and 60s. People might have thought the Gullahs talked funny, but we owe them a vote of thanks. Can you imagine sitting around the campfire singing, “Oh, Lord, come by here”? *Cecil Adams, September 1998* *and http://www.africanamericancharleston.com/gullah.html*
e47c51d9-4fc3-4367-acbf-1ce7d3b12287
CC-MAIN-2022-21
https://www.asyougosongs.com/_files/ugd/055bba_f806c058e4af4ff9802c2aa1cd33e689.pdf?index=true
2022-05-21T23:18:12+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662541747.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20220521205757-20220521235757-00594.warc.gz
726,885,746
690
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.995091
eng_Latn
0.997411
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 741, 2788 ]
[ 2.21875 ]
2
0
Clarendon Early Education Services, Inc. Special Preschool STEM Edition! BUILDING THINGS! Greetings! Clarendon is very pleased to present another special Preschool STEM edition of LEARN. This project is made possible through generous grant funding from the Massachusetts Department of Early Education and Care. This month we hope that you will enjoy building things with the children in your program, and we encourage you to use both traditional materials like blocks as well as recycled, natural, and non-traditional materials. Through open and focused explorations you can help children gain experience in basic construction concepts and promote growth across developmental domains. By engaging children in these investigations, helping them to explore and encouraging them to talk about and reflect on their work, your young scientists will be learning about important physical science concepts: - Forces: gravity, tension, compression - Planning: design, balance, supports, stability - Materials: shape, size, weight, texture, strength, natural or man-made Most importantly, please remember these words written by Rachel Carson in 1965... *If a child is to keep alive his inborn sense of wonder, he needs the companionship of at least one adult who can share it, rediscovering with him the joy, the excitement, and the mystery of the world.* Involving children in planning projects is a wonderful way to engage or expand on their interests and deepen their understanding of the world around them. This process usually begins with a discussion about what children already know, their own experiences and what they want to learn about a topic. You might ask children to draw pictures, tell a story or you might read a related book to spark discussion or gather information. Plan on spending at least a few days on this process. - Document children’s thoughts and questions on chart paper, making a web if you like. - Take photos or collect drawings to add to your plans. - Help children develop questions and write them down. *What do you wonder about that building? Why does that bridge stay up?* Ask them to predict the answers to their questions. - Tell parents about what you’re doing and ask them to talk about the topic at home. See if they have any experience with the topic. - Ask the children how you might find answers to their questions. Where could you go? Could someone come to visit the program? Please see Resources for great information about The Project Approach and tips for planning with young children. Have fun and enjoy the surprises that children bring to your work! *The U.S. Department of Agriculture prohibits discrimination against its customers, employees, and applicants for employment on the bases of race, color, national origin, age, disability, sex, gender identity, religion, reprisal, and where applicable, political beliefs, marital status, familial or parental status, sexual orientation, or all or part of an individual's income is derived from any public assistance program, or protected genetic information in employment or in any program or activity conducted or funded by the Department. (Not all prohibited bases will apply to all programs and/or employment activities.)* *If you wish to file a Civil Rights program complaint of discrimination, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, found online at [http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html](http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html), or at any USDA office, or call (866) 632-9992 to request the form. You may also write a letter containing all of the information requested in the form. Send your completed complaint form or letter to us by mail at U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director, Office of Adjudication, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, by fax (202) 690-7442 or email at [email@example.com](mailto:firstname.lastname@example.org). Individuals who are deaf, hard of hearing or have speech disabilities may contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339; or (800) 845-6136 (Spanish). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.* LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND INVESTIGATIONS OUR PHILOSOPHY Children learn through positive interactions with caring adults who understand how children develop and provide opportunities for meaningful hands-on learning experiences. They learn best through engaging their senses and need individual support as they explore and discover themselves, others and the world around them in the context of their families and cultures. ART Recycled Buildings Materials: Cereal and other clean boxes, paper towel rolls, plastic bottles, bottle caps, straws, scissors, tape, hole punch, paint and brushes, markers, collage materials Procedure: Provide a variety of materials and talk with the children about what they would like to build. Use vocabulary like tower and bridge, etc. Ask questions to help them plan. Allow children to build whatever they like, from an abstract sculpture to a castle or doll house. Support their ideas by adding materials or helping if they want to cut plastic bottles (cover sharp edges with tape) or need ideas for connecting items or making them stand up. Adaptations: Help younger children to stack boxes and paper towel rolls. Take photos of their creations. Goals: Encourage problem solving and exploration of construction techniques and art materials. Objectives for Development and Learning: 7. Demonstrates fine-motor strength and coordination 21. Explores and describes spatial relationships and shapes. Aligns with: Visual Arts 20-Explore and experiment with wet and dry media in a variety of colors including black and white. Cognitive Development 66-The younger toddler explores with sensory art materials and uses them to create visual effects. Physical Health and Well-Being 10– The older infant demonstrates strength and coordination of small motor muscles. BLOCKS Building Inspiration Materials: Blocks, Legos or other building materials, accessories (people, animals, vehicles), photos and books about structures Procedure: Provide photos and books with pictures of structures like tunnels, bridges, skyscrapers, houses around the world, etc. Be sure to include buildings that will be interesting to girls. Talk with the children about how they think the structures were built and what materials were used. What shapes/patterns do you see in that building? Encourage the children to select materials and build their own versions of the structures. How did you make that tunnel? Why did you choose those blocks? Photograph their constructions for a display to share with families. Adaptations: Help infants and young toddlers to stack soft or foam blocks and knock them down! Goals: Provide an opportunity to explore a variety of structures, homes from other cultures, building materials and concepts of balance and stability. Objectives for Development and Learning: 21. Explores and describes spatial relationships and shapes. 26. Demonstrates knowledge of the physical properties of objects and materials. Aligns with: Mathematics 9-Recognize, describe, reproduce, extend, create and compare repeating patterns of concrete materials. 11-Explore and identify space, direction, movement, relative position and size using body movement and concrete objects. Physical Health and Well-Being 22-The older infant develops eye-hand coordination and more intentional hand control. TOYS AND GAMES **Natural or Man-Made?** Materials: Samples of wood, stone, metal, sticks, wallboard, Styrofoam, Plexiglass, PVC, tile, rubber, etc. (or photos, but real items are better!) Procedure: Ask the children to examine and describe the building material samples. *Which one do you think is strongest? What would be the best thing for a roof?* Encourage the children to sort natural materials from materials made by people. *Where do you think it comes from?* Help them to use books or the Internet for research if they need more information. Adaptations: Encourage younger children to explore textures. Goals: Provide opportunities for exploring building materials and comparing natural and man-made items. Objectives for Development and Learning: 13. Uses classification skills. 26. Demonstrates knowledge of the physical properties of objects and materials. Aligns with: 23. Explore and describe a wide variety of natural and man-made materials through sensory experiences. MUSIC **Rhythms with Tools and Wood** Materials: Wood scraps, blocks, hammers Procedure: Encourage children to create and follow simple rhythmic patterns by hitting two wood scraps or blocks together, or by banging wood with a hammer! Add music for inspiration. Adaptations: Help infants to bang blocks on the floor or other surface. Goals: Promote creative physical activity and awareness of rhythmic patterns. Objectives for Development and Learning: 23. Demonstrates knowledge of patterns. 34. Explores musical concepts and expression. Aligns with: The Arts 13-Listen to, imitate and improvise sounds, patterns or songs.. STORIES AND BOOKS **Changes, Changes** Materials: *Changes, Changes* by Pat Hutchins, blocks, block play people Procedure: Ask children to tell the story in this wordless book. Encourage questions and comments. Talk about shape, size and balance. Provide blocks and people and ask the children to recreate the story. Take photos or videos of the process to create a class book. Adaptations: Help younger children to create one or two of the structures in the book. Encourage older children to create their own stories with blocks. Goals: Relate children’s building experiences to a book while encouraging understanding of math and science concepts during dramatic play. Objectives for Development and Learning: 18. Comprehends and responds to books and other texts. 36. Explores drama through actions and language. Aligns with: History and Social Science 4-Engage in activities that build understanding of words for location and direction. Mathematics 10-Investigate and identify materials of various shapes, using appropriate language. Suggested books: Arches to Zigzags—Michael Crosbie-T/PS/SA How a House is Built—Gail Gibbons-T/PS/SA The Three Little Pigs—James Marshall-T/A When I Build with Blocks—Niki Alling-I/T/PS/SA Goodnight, Goodnight Construction Site—Sherri Rinker-I/T/PS Building a House—Byron Barton-PS/SA Wonderful Houses Around the World—Akira Nishiyama-PS/SA A Year at a Construction Site—Franklyn Branly-PS/SA This House is Made of Mud—Ken Buchanan-PS/SA Three Little Javelinas—Susan Lowell-T/PS/SA Dreaming Up—Christy Hale-T/PS/SA Iggy Peck, Architect—Patricia Beaty-PS/SA Rosie Revere, Engineer—Patricia Beaty-PS/SA Science and Engineering Practices Engage in discussion before, during and after investigations. Support thinking with evidence. Apply their ideas to new situations. Observe and ask questions about observable phenomena. Use their senses and simple tools to observe, gather and record data. Plan and implement investigations using simple equipment, designing/building a solution to a problem. Construct theories based in experience about what might be going on. Look for and describe patterns and relationships. FOCUS ON SCIENCE: Exploring Building Materials: Variety of natural and man-made materials, including different kinds of blocks, wood scraps, boxes, paper towel or gift wrap rolls, plastic cups, plastic bottles, sticks, clay, rocks, straws, string, newspaper, magazines, tape, wire. Please ask the children for ideas and add things! Use goggles as needed. Procedure: Consider using the KWL model while exploring building (what the children Know, what they Want to know and what they Learned). In other words, help them to plan, do and reflect on what they discover. Over time, provide a variety of building materials and help them to plan their constructions. Write their ideas and questions on a large sheet of paper to revisit and discuss later. Encourage children to think about strength of materials, combining and connecting things, stability of structures and which materials work best for which purposes. Encourage discussion and sharing of ideas through conversation and asking questions. Tell me about your building. What did you try to make it balance? Why do you think it fell down? What else could you try? Can you think of another way to make the pieces stay together? Be sure to engage girls by providing materials that interest them (see Resources). Encourage creativity and help the children to document their work. Allow time for them to reflect on what they have discovered. Adaptations: Help non-mobile children to build with smaller or softer items and explore texture. Goals: Encourage science inquiry skills, investigation of materials, cooperation and sharing of ideas, exploration of basic science and engineering concepts including balance and forces, interest in math concepts like shape, pattern and measurement and curiosity about construction techniques, structures and homes around the world. Aligns with MA Preschool Guidelines: Inquiry Skills 1-Ask and seek out answers to questions about objects and events with the assistance of interested adults. Mathematics 7-Explore and describe a wide variety of concrete objects by their attributes. 11-Explore and identify space, direction, movement, relative position, and size using body movement and concrete objects. Physical Sciences 22-Experiment with a variety of objects to determine when the objects can stand and ways that objects can be balanced. Aligns with PreK STE Standards: PreK-PS1-2. Investigate natural and human-made objects, describe, compare, sort and classify objects based on observable physical characteristics, uses, and whether something is manufactured or occurs in nature. PreK-PS2-2. Through experience, develop awareness of factors that influence whether things stand or fall. **FOCUS ON TECHNOLOGY:** **Building Bridges** Materials: Boxes or blocks, paper, cardboard, pennies or pebbles, tape, paper tubes, small plastic animals Procedure: Show children photos of bridges (or take a walk to see bridges) and talk about how they are built, including materials and tools. Space two boxes or large blocks about 6” apart and ask the children to make a bridge using paper. Experiment to see how many pennies or pebbles can be added before it falls. *How could you make the bridge stronger? I wonder if folding the paper would help. What could you use to make a longer bridge?* Encourage children to try using paper tubes for support. *What could we try to make a bridge for the animals?* Adaptations: Encourage younger children to make bridges with blocks. Goals: Provide an opportunity to explore the strength of materials and test ideas while building something to meet a need. **Construction in Progress** Materials: Computer with Internet access Procedure: Watch this video of a house being built: [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yERpT-4o9wY](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yERpT-4o9wY). Call attention to the tools used and materials used. Introduce new vocabulary and discuss how tools and machines make work easier for people. Talk about how the builders make the house stand up, and encourage the children to build their own houses. *How did you make the walls? What would be a good thing to use for the roof? If you were building a real house, what tools would you need?* Adaptations: Watch the video of *Goodnight, Goodnight Construction Site* (see Resources) and provide play construction machines to use with blocks. Goals: Develop awareness of the purposes of tools and machines as well as construction techniques. --- **Aligns with PreK STE Standards:** PreK-PS1-4. Recognize through investigation that physical objects and materials can change under different circumstances. PreK-PS2-2. Through experience, develop awareness of factors that influence whether things stand or fall. **Aligns with MA Preschool Guidelines:** Inquiry Skills 1-Ask and seek out answers to questions about objects and events with the assistance of interested adults. 2-Make predictions about changes in materials or objects based on past experience. Technology and Engineering 23-Explore and describe a wide variety of natural and man-made materials through sensory experiences. 24-Demonstrate and explain the proper use of tools and materials. **Aligns with MA Preschool Guidelines:** Inquiry Skills 1-Ask and seek out answers to questions about objects and events with the assistance of interested adults. Physical Sciences 22-Experiment with a variety of objects to determine when the objects can stand and ways that objects can be balanced. Technology and Engineering 23-Explore and describe a wide variety of natural and man-made materials through sensory experiences. 24-Demonstrate and explain the proper use of tools and materials. **FOCUS ON ENGINEERING** **Floor Plans for Block Buildings** Materials: Blocks, pencils, paper, blue crayons or markers, large sheets of paper Procedure: Talk with the children about people who create buildings (carpenters, electricians, etc.) Discuss what architects do and show them a picture of a floor plan, blueprint, or building model. Ask them to think about something they would like to build. Encourage the children to trace on paper around the blocks they use for the base of the building. *What shapes do you see? Do you see any patterns on your plan?* Allow children to complete their constructions and ask them to draw it from the side and the top. Talk about how architects use drawings and models to plan buildings. Adaptations: Trace blocks with different shapes and encourage younger children to match the blocks with the shapes. Goals: Provide an opportunity to engage in design and construction, investigating math and science concepts, and learn about jobs people do. **Aligns with PreK STE Standards:** PreK-PS2-2. Through experience, develop awareness of factors that influence whether things stand or fall. PreK-PS1-1. Investigate the natural and human-made objects, describe, compare, sort and classify objects based on observable physical characteristics, uses, and whether something is manufactured or occurs in nature. **Aligns with MA Preschool Guidelines:** Technology and Engineering 23-Explore and describe a wide variety of natural and man-made materials through sensory experiences. Mathematics 9-Recognize, describe, reproduce, extend, create and compare repeating patterns of concrete materials. 10-Investigate and identify materials of various shapes, using appropriate language. History and Social Science 10-Observe and discuss the various kinds of work people do outside and inside their homes. --- **When the Wind Blows** Materials: Paper or plastic cups, cardboard Procedure: Provide different kinds of cups and pieces of cardboard. Ask the children to build the tallest structure they can. *What is the best way to stack the cups? Why did your building fall down? Which cups work best? I wonder if you could use the cardboard to make it stronger.* When the children are done, talk about what would happen to their building if the wind blew. Ask them to create wind by waving a book or piece of cardboard. *What could you try to keep the wind from blowing your building down? Which buildings were the strongest? Why do you think that one stood up?* Adaptations: Help younger children with stacking cups or soft blocks, and creating wind to knock them down. Goals: Encourage the use of simple materials to explore balance, strength and stability. Help children learn to reflect on their investigations and draw conclusions. **Aligns with PreK STE Standards:** PreK-PS1-4. Recognize through investigation that physical objects and materials can change under different circumstances. PreK-PS2-2. Through experience, develop awareness of factors that influence whether things stand or fall. **Aligns with MA Preschool Guidelines:** Inquiry Skills 1-Ask and seek out answers to questions about objects and events with the assistance of interested adults. 2-Make predictions about changes in materials or objects based on past experience. Physical Sciences 22-Experiment with a variety of objects to determine when the objects can stand and ways that objects can be balanced. Technology and Engineering 24-Demonstrate and explain the safe and proper use of tools and materials. **FOCUS ON MATHEMATICS: Building Towers** Materials: Blocks or other building materials, paper and markers, camera, string Procedure: Talk with children about their experiences building towers. *What did you use?* Show pictures of tall buildings and encourage the children to build the tallest tower they can. Teach them to put on a hard hat if the tower is above their head to protect from falling blocks. Ask questions about balance and stability and use comparative words. *How did you get that to balance? What could you try to make your tower less wobbly?* Take photos and talk about how they built their towers. *How many blocks did you use? Is there a pattern in your tower?* Help them to measure their towers with string and graph results. Adaptations: Provide stacking cups or blocks for younger children. Goals: Provide an opportunity to explore building materials and concepts of balance and stability. Encourage understanding of shapes, patterns, counting and measuring with hands-on experiences. --- **Aligns with MA Preschool Guidelines:** Mathematics 3-Use positional language and ordinal numbers in everyday activities. 9-Recognize, describe, reproduce, extend, create and compare repeating patterns of concrete materials. 11-Explore and identify space, direction, movement, relative position and size using body movement and concrete objects. 15-Organize and draw conclusions from facts they have collected. --- **Patterns in Building** Materials: Paper, pencils, blocks or other building materials, books about buildings or photos Procedure: Ask children to look for patterns in buildings indoors and/or outdoors (windows, floors, structures, columns, etc.) and draw what they see. *Tell me about the pattern you found in the floor. Do you see a pattern in the shapes or the colors? How is that different from the pattern we saw on the roof?* Provide a variety of building materials and encourage the children to reproduce the patterns they observed in their own constructions and compare with their drawings. Use words like short, wide, thick, heavy, flat, etc. to describe properties of the objects they use. Adaptations: Try using cut paper to reproduce patterns, encouraging the children to extend the patterns. Goals: Promote careful observation, awareness of characteristics of materials and recognition of patterns, encouraging comparison of concrete materials and reflection. --- **Aligns with MA Preschool Guidelines:** Mathematics 7-Explore and describe a wide variety of concrete objects by their attributes. 9-Recognize, describe, reproduce, extend, create and compare repeating patterns of concrete materials. 10-Investigate and identify materials of various shapes, using appropriate language. 12-Listen to and use comparative words to describe the relationships of objects to one another. DRAMATIC PLAY Architects and Builders Materials: Large paper bags, real or play tools, scissors, markers, collage items, paper, pencils, rulers, toy construction vehicles, hard hats (optional) Procedure: Read a story or talk about architects and builders and how they work together to make buildings. Help children to make dress-ups using paper bags and to work as teams to design and build! Remember to plan and document. Adaptations: Offer design challenges like building a house for an elephant or a dinosaur! Goals: Engage children in creative dramatic play and enhance understanding of jobs people do and building techniques and tools. Objectives for Development and Learning: 36. Explores drama through actions and knowledge. Aligns with: Theatre Arts 17-Create scenarios, props and settings for dramatizations and dramatic play. Cognitive Development 70– The older toddler expands on pretend play and recreates familiar settings through the imaginative use of props and clothing. SENSORY Building with Sand and Water Materials: Sand, water, plastic containers, sand shovels, sticks, toy vehicles, straw if available Procedure: Read *This House Is Made of Mud*. Allow children to mix sand and water and experiment with the best mixes for building. Adaptations: Try building with play dough! Goals: Use sensory materials to encourage creativity and awareness of the properties of materials. Objectives for Development and Learning 11e. Shows flexibility and inventiveness in thinking. 26. Demonstrates knowledge of the physical properties of objects and materials. Aligns with: Earth and Space Sciences 5-Compare and contrast natural materials such as water, rocks, soil and living organisms using descriptive language. OUTDOOR PLAY Fairy Houses! Materials: Sticks, leaves, bark, rocks, moss, etc. Procedure: Read a story about fairies and/or talk about where the children think fairies might live. Photos can be found online if they need ideas. Take a walk to a place where you can find the natural materials listed above. Encourage the children to gather materials, talk about where the items come from and plan what they want to build. What could you use to keep the rain out? Do you think fairies need stairs? Where will the fairies sleep? Adaptations: Provide containers for younger children to fill and dump materials while talking about texture. Build indoors using natural materials. Goals: Encourage exploration of natural materials and imaginative play. Objectives for Development and Learning: 14b. Engages in sociodramatic play. 26. Demonstrates knowledge of the physical properties of objects and materials. Aligns with: Technology and Engineering 23-Explore and describe a wide variety of natural and man-made materials through sensory experiences. Approaches to Learning 2-The older infant shows curiosity by exploring with the senses. Building with Fruit! Suggested ingredients: Toothpicks or straws Melon Pineapple Strawberries Blueberries Kiwi Bananas Provide each child with a paper plate, plastic knife and variety of cut up fruit. Encourage them to build with the fruit, using the toothpicks as connectors. Try using straws cut into thirds for younger children. Tell me about your building. What did you do first? What kind of fruit did you use the most? Why? Encourage children to share their ideas and talk about the different colors, textures and shapes of the fruit, as well as how and where the fruit is grown. What do you think those black spots in the kiwi are? Try making a graph of children’s likes and dislikes of different kinds of fruits, or a graph of how many of each kind they used in their tasty creations! Math in the Kitchen The kitchen gives us many opportunities to expose children to different math concepts, including numbers, quantity, order, size, shape, comparison, classification, estimation, measurement, and data collection. Children love cooking and math in the kitchen is fun! - Write a simple recipe on chart paper and show children each step as you go. What should we do first? Second? How many teaspoons do we need next? - Allow children to help you measure. Talk about half and whole. Can you add a half a cup of milk? - Encourage comparison. Do we need more milk or more flour? Which cup holds the most? What feels heavier? Compare wet and dry ingredients. - Ask children to count as they add teaspoons of ingredients. - Talk about the shapes of pans, containers and food items. Encourage children to cut foods into different shapes. - Engage children in estimating. How many muffin tins can we fill with this batter? How many berries do you think are in this cup? - Help children to create surveys about food preferences and put marks on a chart to record results and discuss. Beware of choking hazards and food allergies when planning any cooking project! Field Trip Ideas - The Discovery Museums, Boston Children’s Museum, and the Springfield Museums have exhibits and programs about building. - Take a neighborhood walk to look at different kinds of structures (bridges, towers, etc.), building materials and building components. - Visit a construction site. Stay safe! - Take an elevator ride in a tall building! - Go to a hardware store. Look at different tools and materials. Help the children to prepare questions in advance. RESOURCES http://www.mass.gov/edu/docs/eec/2013/20131008-prek-ste-standards.pdf – Find the new Massachusetts Preschool STE Standards here. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yERpT-4o9wy - This is a time-lapse video of a house being built. http://archkidecture.org/ - This site is more appropriate for older children but has some great ideas for projects! https://www.naeyc.org/files/tyc/file/TYC_V3N3_StrasserandKoeppel.pdf - This article from TYC describes strategies for engaging girls in block play. http://www.bostonchildrensmuseum.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/STEMGuide.pdf - This guide includes great information about building with young children. http://www.resourcesforearlylearning.org/educators/ - Click on Building Structures for a comprehensive curriculum about construction for preschoolers. http://www.emporis.com/images - Find photos of a multitude of buildings. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/ - This PBS website includes challenges for school age children and a databank of wonderful buildings around the world. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OoBLhG1erjg - Watch a video of Goodnight, Goodnight Construction Site. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CDqhttp://mSBKTX5o - Here is a video of the Three Little Javelinas. fairydustteaching.com/2011/03/developmental-stages-of-block-play/ - This article describes the developmental stages of block play. http://illinoisearlylearning.org/tipsheets/blocks.htm - This tip sheet has ideas for block play. http://illinoisearlylearning.org/tipsheets/projects-questions.htm - Here is information about helping children develop questions. http://constructingmodernknowledge.com/cmk08/?p=1557 - Many excellent handouts describing components of Lillian Katz’ work on The Project Approach can be found on this site. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SwhO_gnJlhE - This is a video of This House Is Made of Mud read in Spanish. Building Structures with Young Children, Ingrid Chalufour and Karen Worth, EDC, 2004 Hello! Young children love building things and this month Clarendon educators are helping your child to learn while having fun building. We are using all kinds of things for building, including blocks, boxes, sticks and cups. We will also be looking at a variety of buildings and talking about parts of buildings and materials. Here are some examples of the learning opportunities your child experiences when building things! - Children are exploring math concepts like size, weight, pattern, position and number as they build and look at other constructions. - Building allows children to develop awareness of science concepts like balance and force while encouraging comparison of different materials. These experiences allow them to investigate the uses of simple tools and compare to determine which works best. - Children of all ages are practicing and refining physical skills as they build with large and small items. - Through related books and stories, writing and dictation, children are strengthening literacy skills. - Clarendon educators always support the development of self-esteem, social skills and creativity, and building things provides many unique opportunities for children to be successful, work with others and unleash their inner creative spirit! **Ask me about:** - The things I like to use for building. - How I built a bridge. - What I built with blocks. - How I made music with blocks! - A story I liked about building. - How tall a tower I can build. - Different kinds of tools I tried. - How I made a fairy house! - Different types of buildings I saw. **INTERNET RESOURCES** [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OoBLhG1erig](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OoBLhG1erig) - Watch a video of *Goodnight, Goodnight Construction Site*. [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/](http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/) - This PBS website includes challenges for school age children and a databank of wonderful buildings around the world. [http://illinoisearlylearning.org/tipsheets/blocks.htm](http://illinoisearlylearning.org/tipsheets/blocks.htm) - This tip sheet has great ideas for block play. [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yERpT-4o9wY](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yERpT-4o9wY) - This is a time-lapse video of a house being built. [http://brainbuildinginprogress.org/](http://brainbuildinginprogress.org/) - The *Brain Building in Progress* website has wonderful ideas to try with your child. **BUILDING THINGS** **SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL** Provide a space for children to display their constructions. Photograph children’s projects to create a display or photo album. Talk with children about the kinds of buildings they live in. Encourage children to compare their own size with other structures. Make a cozy spot with couch cushions! **LANGUAGE** Have examples of tools used for building for children to explore and discuss their names and uses. Use photos to introduce the names of different structures like bridges, tunnels, skyscrapers, etc. Reinforce simple language such as “children are building.” Show the book *Caves, Caves, Caves* and *Shyvers* and introduce the names of the forms as children are ready. Encourage children to name and label their constructions. Provide examples of building materials and label them. **COGNITIVE** Provide a variety of blocks for children to sort and categorize by shape, color, material, or size. Include tools about blocks or legos in your building area for children to use to help build. Make a “city” memory game with pictures of tools or different kinds of structures like tunnels, towers, bridges, etc. Challenge children to make a bridge for a dinosaur or stuffed animal. Sort natural and man-made building materials. **HEALTH EDUCATION/PHYSICAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING** Make a nailing board for children to practice using a hammer with supervision. Children must wear goggles. Stack blocks and encourage children to jump back and forth over them. Talk about how to build tall towers safely. Create a “walk” blocks like stepping stones for children to follow. **THE ARTS** Provide newspaper and tape for children to create sculpture. Gather a variety of recycled materials (paper tubes, cardboard, plastic bottles, wood scraps, etc.) and provide tape, glue, paper clips and string for connectors. Allow children to build and decorate as desired. Use playdough to create small apartment buildings and provide accessories and art materials. Create rhythms using blocks or sticks. Move like different construction vehicles. Build with natural materials like sticks and rocks. Make a fairy house or dinosaur cave! **SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY/ENGINEERING** Encourage children to create structures with rolled newspaper. Challenge children to create towers with straws and tape and to blow on them to see which is strongest. Talk about why. Use many kinds of blocks: boxes, Styrofoam, sticks, tubes, etc. for construction and encourage children to experiment with strength and balance. Use toothpicks or use masking tape to make blueprints for buildings. Help children construct with toothpicks and Styrofoam packing peanuts. Help children identify building materials like wood, stone and brick. **FAMILY ENGAGEMENT** Ask families to contribute recycled materials. Invite family members to build with the children. Find out if any family members work in the construction industry and invite them to visit. Send information home about what children build and what they are learning. Text photos of children at work. **MATHEMATICS** Encourage children to build two towers the same height and count how many blocks or items they used. Trace blocks on large paper and encourage children to match the patterns. Encourage children to compare blocks by width and length. Use Styrofoam and craft sticks and encourage children to order the sticks by height. Make shapes with string and straws. Compare the sizes of structures in your neighborhood. **HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE** Take a walk to look for different kinds of buildings and structures. Provide children with paper and pencils to draw what they see. Discuss different building materials and where they come from. Encourage children to create endorses for animals with blocks or boxes. Read a book about famous people and discuss the names of famous people. Introduce what architects do and talk about planning constructions. Invite a visitor! Visit a construction site and encourage children to draw what they observe. Clarendon Early Education Services, Inc.
<urn:uuid:d8a23599-b535-4160-872d-30b617b0b95f>
CC-MAIN-2018-51
http://www.mass.edu/stem/documents/preschoolcurricular/CEES%20Curriculum%20Building%20Things.pdf
2018-12-19T09:57:21Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376831933.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20181219090209-20181219112209-00493.warc.gz
413,265,879
7,652
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.978505
eng_Latn
0.995426
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 91, 4140, 7453, 10729, 13929, 16887, 20408, 23247, 26124, 28096, 30547, 32977, 37001, 37043 ]
[ 4.46875, 4.53125 ]
1
0
Renewal: Ruth Knutson THE FORGIVENESS FACTOR Take Lessons From Tulips The Way to Wellness: Together Merle Bennett, The Monarch Man Inspired Woman magazine is printed in Bismarck, North Dakota and is published six times a year by Inspired Woman, LLC. Copies are available by subscription. Mail a check for $27 to Inspired Woman, 3801 Memorial Hwy, Suite A #108, Mandan, ND 58554. Or subscribe online at InspiredWomanOnline.com. Contact the publisher at firstname.lastname@example.org All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without written permission from the publisher. Inspired Woman assumes no responsibility for unsolicited manuscripts or photographs. Find submission guidelines on our website. Inspired Woman does not necessarily endorse or agree with content of articles or advertising presented. PUBLISHER Inspired Woman, LLC EDITOR Marci Narum ASSISTANT EDITOR Nicole Thom-Arens DESIGNER Blue Eyed Marketing & Media — Amy Steinert PHOTOGRAPHY Photos by Jacy — Jacy Voglewede Rachael Neva Photo — Rachael Neva SOCIAL MEDIA MANAGER Amber Schatz VIDEO FEATURE STORIES Amber Schatz CINEMATOGRAPHER & DIGITAL CONTENT PRODUCER Quantum Productions — Nolan Johnson WRITING TEAM Beth Anderson, Bismarck Carrie Bentley, Bottineau Tracie Bettenhausen, Bismarck Kylie Blanchard, Bismarck Melanie Carvell, Bismarck Stephanie Fong, Dickinson Betty Mills, Bismarck Marci Narum, Mandan Paula Redmann, Bismarck Amber Schatz, Mandan Jan Schultz, Bismarck Nicole Thom-Arens, Minot Pam Vukelic, Bismarck CONTRIBUTING WRITERS David Borlaug, Bismarck Sandy Thompson, Bismarck KINGDOM BUSINESS Pastors & Leadership Conference April 14-15-16, 2019 Bismarck Civic Center Bismarck, North Dakota, USA SPEAKERS HEATH ADAMSON Missouri, USA LENNY HERNANDEZ Connecticut, USA DAVE JONES United Kingdom DR. CLEDDIE KEITH Kentucky, USA DR. RUSSELL STANDS OVER BULL Montana, USA SCOTT WILLIS Ohio, USA DEAN NIFORATOS Colorado, USA HOSTED BY KINGDOM BUSINESS FELLOWSHIP LOCATION: BISMARCK CIVIC CENTER HOST HOTEL: RADISSON HOTEL FOR INFORMATION: 1.701.751.0608 REGISTRATION: EVENTBRITE - Online & Onsite NO REGISTRATION FEE! MUST BE REGISTERED TO ATTEND www.KINGDOMBUSINESSCONFERENCE.com My brother Jeff is nearing retirement from the military, but he already has a hobby to fill his extra time when he joins the civilian sector: antique restoration. Jeff has an eye for heirloom treasures — furniture pieces once well-loved, now relics in need of renewal. When Jeff finds a table, armoire, or chairs worth saving, he will spend weeks and even months reclaiming their beauty. He strips down each piece to its natural wood. He repairs damaged areas or parts if possible, sands the wood, and applies fresh stain and sealer. The renewed piece is always stunning and something new to treasure. You might consider this issue of Inspired Woman a restoration project. Treasures await you on the pages ahead — stories of renewal to go with the changing season. Beth Anderson reflects on images of the prairie and the search for new life emerging from the ground. Her thoughts about tulips and what they teach us prompts one to think about what’s next — when the snow finally does melt! Our cover story sheds light on the beauty and renewing power of forgiveness. And there are beautiful images of renewal and restoration on the pages of Inspired Woman this month including mosaic artwork and butterflies. And just like holidays, funerals have their traditional foods, as Pam Vukelic shares with us. There is much more to come this month beyond the magazine. You will find even more at InspiredWomanOnline.com — podcasts and additional content, including a new video feature story with Amber Schatz. It’s not quite like one of Jeff’s antique restoration projects, but I hope this new issue of Inspired Woman magazine is something you treasure for the stories of renewal you read here. May they give you hope and inspiration. The Lord, your God, is in your midst, a warrior who gives victory; He will rejoice over you with gladness, He will renew you in His love; He will exult over you with loud singing as on a day of festival. Zephaniah 3:17 | Page | Title | |------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | 7 | Fresh Look | | 8 | Renewal: Take Lessons From Tulips | | 10 | Life After a Stillborn | | 12 | Cover Story — Ruth Knutson | | | Renewal: The Forgiveness Factor | | 18 | Women of Meodra: Emily Walter | | 20 | Comfort Food | | 23 | Myths About Recovery | | | Peanut Butter & Jelly vs Steak and Lobster | | 24 | A Journalist’s Flair Turns to Cut Glass Mosaic Art | | 26 | When a Snowy Day Becomes a Winter Stanza | | 28 | Look What She Did | | 30 | The Way to Wellness: Together | | 32 | Oh Man! Because Guys Inspire Too | | | Merle Bennett: Monarch Man | | 34 | The Inspired Woman Scholarship: The Story Behind It | She believed she could, so she did. CONNECT WITH US AT THESE UPCOMING EVENTS. HEALTHY LIVING LUNCH AND LEARN Thursday, March 28, 2019 FREE DOCUMENT SHREDDING Saturday, April 13, 2019 PASSPORT TO HEALTHY LIVING KICK-OFF AND DANCING FUNDAMENTALS Wednesday, April 24, 2019 DRIVER SAFETY CLASS Monday, March 25, 2019 Thursday, April 25, 2019 Learn more at aarp.org/bismarck SAY GOODBYE TO TWEEZERS AND CHIN HAIR FOREVER! Nancy’s Electrolysis PERMANENT HAIR REMOVAL | PROFESSIONAL | AFFORDABLE 1022 East Divide Ave. Suite M | 701.388.4818 Welcome to the fresh look of Inspired Woman! The magazine is the same — but it’s also new in many ways: **THE VISION** Inspired Woman will reach multitudes of women — across North Dakota and beyond. **THE MISSION** The mission of Inspired Woman has always been to celebrate, encourage, empower, educate, and entertain women. In 2019, we are adding the word “connect” to our mission statement. We connect when we find common ground. Our hope is that you will do more than read the magazine — that you will identify with the stories and find hope, possibilities, strength, and encouragement in them. And, we will connect women again at the second annual ELEVATE Women’s Conference this fall. **PUBLICATION** Find six printed issues on newsstands in March, May, July, September, October, and December. Subscribe for $27 at InspiredWomanOnline.Com or mail a check to 3801 Memorial Highway, Suite A, #108, Mandan, ND 58554. You will find extra stories online and on our social media every month — plus a new cover girl and all new stories in April, June, August, and November. And watch exclusive video feature stories! **THE INSPIRED WOMAN PODCAST** Enjoy interviews with people featured in the magazine, cover girls, Inspired Woman team members, and guests who discuss topics of interest that fit the IW mission. Get a preview of what the IW team is working on each month — themes, articles, topics — plus insights from writers. The 30-minute show is available at InspiredWomanOnline.Com, the Inspired Woman YouTube channel, iTunes, and Soundcloud beginning March 6. It’s more than a magazine. The mission of Inspired Woman holds great possibilities. Thank you for being one of them. Enjoy, subscribe, and share! My calendar says it’s March. To “march” conveys purpose — a marching toward something. Imagine a marching band, stepping in crisp syncopation, knees lifted high, the drum major’s baton keeping perfect time. There’s energy in a march. In our little corner of geography, however, the month of March rarely lives up to its name. We are still trudging through snow as the calendar announces the first day of spring. The yellow snouts of daffodils and colorful shouts of tulips are nowhere to be seen. Winter may stubbornly hold its grip, but it can’t stop our hearts from reaching toward the promise of renewal that comes with spring. This time of year, I start scanning melting snow drifts for any sign of emerging green. As a kid, I scoured the pastures in search of the very first crocus, one brave enough to defiantly proclaim spring’s arrival. This issue of Inspired Woman is much like that crocus, breaking through with stories of renewal that are just what our souls need. Whether spiritual renewal, urban renewal, or renewal of relationships, witnessing the energy, change, momentum, and blossoming of renewal inspires. Renewal conveys a NEW new — a sloughing off of what has died away and a reemergence into a revised and hope-filled future. Part of the power of renewal, though, is the blossoming contrasts so much with what comes before. Renewal often follows what seems to be a period of inactivity or even decline. We forget that a field must lay fallow in order to bring forth a new crop. The grain must rest deep in the darkness of the ground before bursting forth. Renewal is always the end result of a much longer process. When I was young, I never understood why we planted the tulip bulbs in the fall. All the other seeds were planted in the spring with results just a few weeks later. Why did tulips take so long? Seeing their joyful early spring bloom was always something to celebrate, but then I wanted to prune away the boring leaves as soon as the flowers had faded to make room for flowers of other kinds. The wise women in my life always made me wait. They reminded me that the leaves were busy working, soaking up the sun, nourishing the bulb hidden beneath the surface. The tulip bulb needed both this time of nourishment and the season of rest so it could bloom again the next spring. What kind of renewal are you hoping to see in your life this spring? Are you hoping for a renewed relationship? Are you ready to make a renewed commitment to a personal or professional goal? Are you praying for a renewed spirit? A renewed outlook? Renewed energy? Or perhaps renewed passion for your work? Whatever renewal you are hoping for, this is the perfect time to take a few lessons from the tulips: **Soak up the sun.** Take time to identify the bright spots in your life. What activities fill your soul and give you the energy to move forward? Who are the people who not only affirm you, but inspire you and challenge you to grow? Make time for these people and activities. Remember, it is only when the earth soaks up the warmth and energy of the sun that beauty blooms forth. **Nourish the seed.** What new ideas or learnings might help bring about the renewal you hope for? Take time now to absorb the knowledge or skills you might need. Read a book. Listen to a podcast. Take a class. Talk with others. Take time to learn, rest, reflect, and process life. We all need nourishment so growth can happen. **Keep what’s necessary. Prune what’s not.** Renewal isn’t starting from scratch. Renewal involves making choices about what is worthy of being carried forward and what needs to be laid aside to make space for something new. **Prepare to sprout.** Plan your strategy for renewal. What results do you want to see? Set a goal and list the steps you need to take to get there. Then, start working your plan step by step, looking forward to the change ahead. The work we put in now makes the blossoming to come all the more reason to celebrate. Maybe March will live up to its name after all. By the time spring really arrives, we inspired women may have moved from trudging through snow to high kicks in the name of renewal! Beth Anderson is a deacon in the ELCA (Evangelical Lutheran Church in America). The joys in her life include her husband, Dallas, and their two beautiful girls. Beth loves cooking and getting lost in a good novel. Many pregnant women get to 37 weeks and can feel the finish line ahead. They’ve gone so long carrying their baby and can only imagine how amazing it will be to meet the little bundle that’s been rolling and kicking around inside them. Elijah is a Hebrew name for “prophet,” but there was no predicting what would happen before Katie and James could celebrate their first child. “This name is perfect for our baby boy up in heaven,” Katie says. In April 2016, at 37 weeks pregnant, Katie became concerned that she hadn’t felt Elijah moving around like usual. “James tried to reassure me that Elijah’s probably just sleeping, and everything is probably just fine,” Katie remembers. But Katie knew something wasn’t right. The couple went to the hospital. A nurse tried to find Elijah’s heartbeat, but she couldn’t. The nurse got the doctor. “When the doctor couldn’t find a heartbeat, she ordered an ultrasound. It was determined during the ultrasound that Elijah’s heart was no longer beating,” Katie says. “They induced me that night. On April 13, 2016, I gave birth to our stillborn little angel. After many tests, the doctors could not come up with an explanation of what happened.” “James and I were so excited to meet our little man, and we loved him more and more every day,” first-time mom Katie Thiele recalls. She and her husband, James, had found out they were having a boy and named him Elijah. “James and I chose the name Elijah when I was about 23 or 24 weeks pregnant,” Katie shares. “We both love the name; it is such a powerful name.” According to the March of Dimes, stillbirth is when a baby dies in the womb after 20 weeks of pregnancy. Stillbirth affects about one in 100 pregnancies — about 24,000 babies — each year in the United States. “The most difficult part of losing Elijah is simply the fact that he is not here,” Katie shares. “I just want so badly to see him smile, to show him my love, to take care of him and to watch him grow. But I know he’s in a better place with Jesus in heaven, and I will see him again someday; that is what has helped me cope.” Katie says her faith has helped her the most during recovery. She was also overwhelmed by families and loved ones sending texts, delivering flowers, gifts, meals, and groceries. She says exercising with earphones helped keep any negative thoughts at bay, and she and James have leaned on each other to get through the heartache. “When a couple has to go through the pain of losing a child, I think it’s very important for him and for her to know that the grief process of their partner may not be the same as their own grief process and to keep in mind that they are both hurting,” Katie says. “James was so good about this and so compassionate and caring through this whole process of recovery. Our relationship grew stronger. “This might sound crazy, but talking to Elijah has helped me as well. James and I have always loved to be outdoors, so we would try to get outdoors a lot which was helpful. We went camping, just him and I for a couple of days, and that was true therapy for both of us.” A woman’s postpartum care is essential after childbirth. The new mom is advised to check in regularly as her body heals. It’s true when a woman has experienced a stillbirth too. **GOOD RESOURCES:** - National Stillbirth Society - March of Dimes - Pregnancy and Infant Loss Support, Inc. **HONORING ELIJAH’S MEMORY** “To honor Elijah’s memory, James and I have a blooming tree in our front yard. We also have a bench in front of our house that we received from our families as a gift. It says ‘Elijah James Thiele’ with some cute little woodland animals on it which was going to be the theme for his room,” Katie says. “We also like to go to visit his grave and stop by a nearby lake on our way home and fish and just spend peaceful time outdoors. “There is also a plant that we have in our house that we got at his funeral. I love to watch it grow and think about how far we have come since that day. We also buy a Christmas ornament every year for Elijah, and someday we will have a whole tree with just Elijah ornaments for Christmas. And most importantly, we think about him, how special he is, and how much we love him every day.” Katie’s motherly love has since doubled. The couple welcomed new baby boy, Wyatt James Thiele February 22, 2017. “Wyatt has helped so much in our recovery,” Katie says. “He has brought so much joy to James’ and my life. Wyatt did not replace Elijah, but he has brought so much happiness to our lives. We love both of our sons unconditionally.” Amber Schatz is the executive director of the Bismarck Library Foundation. She has more than 11 years experience working in broadcast news and is excited to utilize her storytelling skills for Inspired Woman magazine! Ruth Knutson RENEWAL THE FORGIVENESS FACTOR If you met Ruth Knutson for coffee and sat across the table from her, you would see a calm, beautiful woman with soulful eyes. Within moments, after just a few sips, you would feel her sense of peace and grace, and would never know she came from — and came through — a very unsettling past, and that she is living proof of the power of forgiveness. Ruth grew up in an alcoholic home with five siblings in a small North Dakota town. Her mother had four of her siblings with different fathers who were not present in their lives. When Ruth was 4 years old, her mother married an alcoholic who was extremely violent. As children, they experienced physical, emotional, verbal, and sexual abuse. Their home life was complete chaos. Heat got turned off, neither clothes nor children were washed, strangers arrived in the middle of the night for parties, and moving was common since rent didn’t get paid. During one period without heat in their home, Ruth and her siblings stayed with their grandmother. It was here that Ruth began to going to church every Sunday. “I enjoyed the feeling I felt being at church. I could talk to Jesus, and I felt safe and loved,” she says. There was no steady income or sense of order for Ruth and her siblings. They didn’t know a schedule, bedtime, nap time, meal time, or peace. Neglect was the norm. Any financial assistance received went to purchase alcohol; food stamps were abused. Ruth became the parent and caregiver for her siblings. As a second grader, she did the cooking and cleaning, and her mother called her “Cinderella.” Ruth worked hard to please her mother and stepfather, hoping her efforts would make them happy and the abuse would stop. It didn’t. Another place of refuge, besides church, was school. Ruth could have a hot meal, be with friends, and be a child. She hoped for a Saturday sleepover with a friend because she knew it was bath night and she could not only have a bath, but there would be a meal. She could also wear her friend’s clean clothes and go to church with them on Sunday. She looked at the families in church and prayed that she could one day have such peace and such a family. Refuge finally came in the form of law enforcement when in a drunken rage, Ruth’s stepfather threatened Ruth’s grandmother with a knife and the police were called. As a Canadian citizen, he was forced to leave the United States for five years. Ruth was 7 years old the last time she saw him. **FINDING A NORMAL LIFE** Ruth’s mother’s priority was not her children; it was alcohol. The family was certainly familiar to the social services system, and between first and fourth grades, Ruth lived in three different foster homes. One of the homes was that of her aunt and uncle in Williston, North Dakota. Ruth thrived. “I loved the schedule, the boundaries, the rules, and the proper way of doing things. We learned table manners and respect and kindness. We went to church on Sundays. I could play outside like all the other kids and not have a care in the world. I was filled with gratitude and thanked Jesus that I could finally be a normal kid and have a normal life,” she explains. Ruth’s mother went through treatment, and when Ruth was in the sixth grade, she and her siblings had an opportunity to move back home. Ruth told the social worker she never wanted to go back. “I wanted out, I got out, and I never wanted to return,” Ruth says. Her taste of a happy life with order and church and school had filled her, for the first time, with hope for the future. She stayed away from her mother, kept in touch with her siblings — who were in and out of foster care — as best as she could, and Ruth was happy. “I’m forever grateful to the foster families that took me in. I learned a lot about life and have incorporated that into my own family,” Ruth says. **FORGIVING vs FIXING** During her senior year of high school, Ruth married Ron. They moved to Grand Forks where Ron started college and the two of them started a family. While Ron and Ruth raised their five children and made a life together in Bismarck, Ruth was ever the student. “I read books on alcoholism and families and dysfunction. I wanted so much to try to understand where the road could have been different. I learned about shame and vulnerability and that if you can’t forgive, you’re already dying. I learned that it wasn’t my fault and that I couldn’t “fix” my mother. I absorbed everything I read, and when my youngest son started kindergarten, I went to school to realize my dream of a college education.” Ruth graduated from the University of Mary with a social work degree. She became a licensed addiction counselor and learned again and again how addiction can ravage individuals and rob families. INCREDIBLE PEACE Ruth has experienced several “light bulb moments” in her life. A big one was when an aunt told her that her mother was dying of lung cancer and was only given months to live. This aunt knew Ruth wanted to reconnect with her mother one day in the hope of working toward forgiveness. Ruth volunteered to drive her mother to a doctor’s appointment. She envisioned the drive with her mother and the BIG apology; the one where her mother would ask Ruth to forgive her for all the terrible things that had happened to Ruth and her siblings. The apology never came. Ruth asked her mother about those years of her childhood, but her mother had no recollection of the horrors that Ruth and her siblings went through. “She had no clue. Her alcoholism had robbed her of the ability to be present in my life. She didn’t know the traumatic affect her actions had on me and my siblings,” Ruth says. “And suddenly, I felt this incredible peace.” It was then that Ruth realized her mother was never really her mother, but she had a very short period of time where she could be a daughter. “From that moment on, I told her I loved her every time we talked, and after a while, she started saying it back. By this time, my mom had been in recovery for 10 years and had completed her college degree. I had so hoped that being sober would bring an apology, but it didn’t happen. I realized then that hurting people hurt [other people], and I had no idea of what her childhood was like, and I didn’t know her full story,” Ruth says. Ruth’s mother died a few months later. Her stepfather attended the funeral, and Ruth told him she forgave him. “I realized I was finally grieving for this little girl that wasn’t allowed a childhood. Ironically, this took place in the same church where I first accepted Jesus in my life.” THE FORGIVENESS FACTOR Looking at her own story of loss, fear, and pain, Ruth could be consumed by anger or resentment, but she is filled only with gratitude and grace. “I’ve been so blessed to have this lesson that showed me the power of forgiveness. It’s important to know that no one plans on having addiction problems. I’ve worked with amazing, beautiful people who found themselves in the grips of addiction who, through treatment and recovery, have been able to get back to rediscovering themselves. Forgiveness is a major factor in recovery.” Having compassion for the other person is a key component to forgiveness, Ruth says. “I know that by showing my mother kindness and compassion, I was able to understand that forgiveness is part of my story and it is my privilege to share. I’m forever an optimist. I know that everything in life is beautifully weaved with lessons and learning. I have the power to resolve the things that have happened so that the hurting stops with me. I want to love freely and understand the power of forgiveness. The story is the easy part, and the story gets embellished along the way because we’ve told it repeatedly. It’s like a tape in our heads that we continue to play. Stop telling the story of helplessness and tell the story of recovery. The hardest thing to acknowledge is that we betrayed ourselves by holding on to the hurt. “Being angry wastes so much time. We spend so much time on the past, on the transgression and hurt, that it prevents us from enjoying the present. It’s like the hurt takes up rental space in your brain. How long do you want that hurt to stay there, rent free? Well, the rent is up, and it’s time for the hurt to get out. Anger and resentment can become all consuming. I used to ask myself, ‘Couldn’t my mother see the terrible things happening in our home?’ No, she couldn’t. “It’s like we have life backwards. We don’t spend time thinking about all the good people in our lives and all the impact they’ve had. We dwell on anger and resentment and not all the beautiful pieces and people around us. I feel so blessed to have the life I’ve been given. I tell my husband and children and grandchildren how much I love them. There are lots of hugs and kisses. The peace I’ve given myself has allowed me to love generously and live freely. What a gift.” Paula Redmann is the community relations manager for Bismarck Parks and Recreation District. She married her high school sweetheart, Tom. They have two grown sons, Alex and Max. bridge between hurting and healing Tips from Ruth Knutson, based on “Forgive for Good,” by Dr. Fred Luskin What Forgiveness Is Forgiveness is the peace you learn to feel when you can let go of past hurts. Forgiveness is for you and not the offender. Forgiveness is taking back your power. Forgiveness is taking responsibility for how you feel. Forgiveness is about your healing and not about the people who hurt you. Forgiveness is a trainable skill. Forgiveness helps you get control over your feelings. Forgiveness is becoming a hero instead of a victim. Forgiveness is a choice. Everyone can learn to forgive. What Forgiveness is Not Forgiveness is not condoning an unkindness. Forgiveness is not forgetting that something painful happened. Forgiveness is not excusing poor behavior. Forgiveness is not denying or minimizing your hurt. Forgiveness does not mean reconciling with the offender. Forgiveness does not mean you give up having feelings. Helpful Steps in the Process of Forgiveness • Tell the story one last time to a trusted confidant. • Recognize that the event may not have been a deliberate attempt to hurt you. It could have simply been circumstances. • Give the grievance story a new ending — one where you choose peace and move on from carrying the grievance with you all the time. • Find the door that lets you out of the room where you have kept yourself. That room is called hurt. The room may not have been started by you, but it’s maintained by you. • Ask yourself, “How is holding on to this story serving me?” Emily Walter has spent a three-decade career traveling the world as a professional vocalist and actor. She’s served as a singer in the U.S. Air Force Band, entertained in shows on cruise ships, and —among many other things—has personified the title of Medora’s “Queen of the West.” Her first professional job in music materialized after enlisting in the United States Air Force. “My position as a vocalist with The Strategic Air Command Band was my first full-time singing job. I was just out of college and I never dreamed that I would become a veteran of The Desert Band, performing for the troops in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. It was an incredible honor and my training in the SAC Band critically developed the musical, professional, and disciplinary skills I have to this day. I couldn’t have had better training,” Emily says. Fast forward to the early 1990s, when Emily wowed fans of the Medora Musical as a Burning Hills Singer best known for crooning Patsy Cline tunes each night under a starry Western sky. “I sang my first Patsy Cline song on the Burning Hills Amphitheatre stage in 1993. It was ‘Sweet Dreams.’ The response was so overwhelming that the following year, the producer gave me a choice between ‘Crazy’ and ‘She’s Got You.’ I chose the latter,” Emily recalls. Women of Medora features inspiring women who have made an impact on the world through their time living and working in Medora, North Dakota. Those successful summers singing Patsy Cline in Medora led to something bigger that holds a major place on Emily’s resume — the Patsy Cline estate named her one of the few entertainers approved to portray Patsy Cline, leading to performance tours across the country and internationally. She continued to perform in a variety of genres and locations, adhering to her personal formula for success: hard work, dedication to her craft, and willingness to travel. **SHE CAME HOME TO NORTH DAKOTA** Emily returned to Medora in 2010 to host the Medora Musical, and the character she portrayed that year soon became a part of her identity for years to come. “When I returned to Medora nearly two decades after my time as a Burning Hills singer, the producer Curt Wollan and I were talking about me taking the host position in the Medora Musical, and he popped out with, ‘Emily Walter; Queen of the West!’ I loved it from that very moment,” Emily says. Emily’s “Queen of the West” character combined the elegance of a pageant queen — complete with tiara-clad cowgirl hat and sequined gowns — with the strength of an Air Force veteran and the voice of a Broadway star. Little girls attending the Medora Musical soon started buying and wearing pink cowgirl hats with tiaras, becoming Queens of the West in their own right. “That was my favorite tie to the show... seeing a child walking downtown in their ‘Queen of the West’ hat! I can’t tell you how many photos were taken in those hats. Sometimes they would show up with one they’d had for five years, and it looked so loved,” Emily says. **HER OWN LOVE STORY** And at the current point in her incredible journey, Emily has found herself planting deeper roots in Medora, explaining: “I fell in love with Medora in 1993. I fell in love in Medora in 2011.” Of her own Medora love story, Emily puts it simply. “I enjoyed (the traveling performer) life very much, and it enabled me to see the entire world doing what I loved, but when I met Rolf (Sletten) in 2011, I was ready to slow down. The result was that I truly ‘came home to Medora;’” Emily says. After hosting the Medora Musical for several seasons, Emily took on new challenges as part of the Medora team — helping launch and grow Medora’s popular Gospel Brunch and the Magical Medora Christmas Tour. In addition these popular Medora productions, Emily continues to pursue other favorite projects including Patsy Cline and Karen Carpenter Tribute shows and performances with the Bismarck/Mandan and Bemidji (Minnesota) Symphony Orchestras. Whatever musical project she is dedicated to, and wherever travels with Rolf take her, Emily continues to embody the Queen of West role. “It’s just me, that Queen of the West persona,” Emily says. “Me, with close ties to the town, the music, the people, the history, and the legacy that Harold and Sheila Schafer built. Rolf wrote two books about Medora and Theodore Roosevelt. This stunning place is deeply embedded in both of us and it’s great to share that passion together.” Stephanie (Tinjum) Fong had the privilege to work as the personnel manager for the Theodore Roosevelt Medora Foundation for seven years. She now lives in Dickinson with her husband and two children, and they love to visit Medora several times each summer. Comfort Food By Pam Vukelic Part of the recovery process after the death of a loved one involves the gathering of friends and family for a meal. This is a time for people to reminisce and share stories, and it is a healthy step in moving forward. Religion and ethnicity impact the process. For some, a wake is held before the funeral — wakes are generally joyful occasions. Jewish people sit shiva for seven days after the burial, usually in the home of the deceased. Visitors bring food and will probably find family members sitting on less-than-comfortable seats in a home where mirrors are covered. This is no time for comfort or vanity. Food has been associated with funerals for thousands of years. In ancient Greece and Egypt, eating utensils were found on many grave sites. They believed that the journey to a final resting place might take some time so food was left for travel. Some coffins were fixed with a feeding tube so food could be delivered to the deceased from above-ground. The practice I am most familiar with involves a reception at the church following the service. After the deaths of my parents, the women of the church did a phenomenal job of feeding all guests and accommodating our requests. The ladies’ circles at North Viking Lutheran Church took turns shouldering the responsibility. Researchers have found that much more food is consumed at funeral receptions than at wedding receptions. Perhaps the desire to eat after a funeral is a subconscious display of gratitude for our own survival. And then there is the practice of bringing prepared food to the home of the family. At a time when family members find their energy sapped and are sometimes overwhelmed by the many visitors, gifts of food (and also some non-food items) from friends and neighbors are most welcome. After research and discussion with friends, Pam recommends sharing these items to support those who are grieving: - Comfort foods such as casseroles, soups, and potato dishes - Mac and cheese, chicken nuggets, and small applesauce cups for children - Substantial salads, such as potato salad, that will keep for several days - Dried fruit, chocolate, nuts, and raw vegetables - Cold cuts such as meat and cheese with crackers and bread, or maybe a nice ham - Deviled eggs would go well with the cold cuts - Beverages, such as sodas, iced tea, and milk to stock the refrigerator, and maybe a bag of ice - Coffee with creamer and sugar - A basket of bagels, cream cheese, and orange juice brought to the front step for breakfast - An item that was a favorite of the loved one - Freezer containers to help ensure food doesn’t go to waste and perhaps offer freezer space - Disposable utensils and paper plates as well as other consumables the extra guests are using - Food delivered in disposable containers or clearly labeled if you want an item returned - A note with your food to help people remember who brought what - Although not food, a roll of stamps, to defray the expense of sending thank you notes To prevent overburdening a family with too much food at one time, work with someone close to the family to develop a schedule for delivery and to learn the likes and dislikes of the people involved. If you are a member of the family who lost a loved one, please don’t hesitate to accept offers of help. It is a gift to the giver when you welcome their contribution. Some cultures have a specific dish that is typically part of the funeral food ritual. I found recipes for Funeral Pie (Amish), Funeral Cake (Norwegian), Funeral Jambalaya (New Orleans), Funeral Goulash (Hungary), and Funeral Potatoes (Colonial America). These comfort foods travel easily and take little or no preparation to serve. “Death Warmed Over” by Lisa Rogak (2004) includes many recipes and descriptions of rituals around the world. On another note not related to food, when we were planning my dad’s funeral, I arranged to have men’s handkerchiefs embroidered with a monogram of his initials and the years of his birth and death. I distributed them to all family members gathered for prayers prior to the service. Each time that hanky comes through the laundry it offers me another occasion to reminisce about my wonderful father. One of Pam’s New Year’s resolutions was to spend time learning. She recently had the opportunity to learn to Zentangle (art form) from a certified instructor. There is way more to it than she expected! Polished Dental 1700 E Interstate Ave Bismarck, ND www.polished-dental.net Now offering Botox and Dermal Fillers to enhance your smile! 701.222.4746 Dakota Serenity Nutrition “Peace of Mind” Created for, and Exclusively Available at www.dakotarx.com (800) 290-7028 XS AND OS SWEETHEARTS OLD AND NEW An exclusive collection of vintage & contemporary Walter Piehl rodeo art The Capital Gallery 109 N 4th St Bismarck www.thecapitalgallery.com The words “alcoholic” or “drug addict” can conjure images of a person who is scruffy looking, poor, underemployed, homeless, or in poor health. I have worked with hundreds of people in recovery and their family members, and very few individuals I have assisted fit that description. Those who don’t understand the dynamics of addiction may ask, “So why doesn’t he or she just quit?” or “Can’t they see what their alcohol or drug use is doing to their relationships, career, health, etc.?” Not one person who is addicted intended to have an addiction. Re-read that statement. It’s that important! **PB & J RECOVERY** Recovering from an addiction is as simple and as complex as stopping the use of the substance causing the problems. Most individuals find that stopping the use is the easy part. Staying stopped is what those in recovery find the most difficult. People who are in recovery will say when they initially got sober they felt great! Physically they felt better, brighter, and younger. They no longer had hangovers or wondered what they actually did or said or how they got home the night before. They had a new found sense of freedom! These same individuals will then say that once that honeymoon phase ends (and it will) the hard work begins. When a person enters into recovery, he or she discovers that he or she can either have a peanut butter and jelly kind of recovery or a steak and lobster kind of recovery. The PB & J kind of recovery means no drinking or using; maybe the person improves a few relationships, takes a little better care of his or her health, or maybe gets a little better paying job. **STEAK & LOBSTER RECOVERY** If the individual sets out to have the steak and lobster kind of recovery, which everyone deserves, he or she puts the quality of sobriety before anything or anyone else. Meaning, he or she does whatever it takes to protect his or her sobriety because without it, the person ain’t got nothing. For some, that may mean getting a recovery coach, regularly going to support group meetings, taking medication, and getting involved in the community. It may also mean going to school, improving their skills to land a new job, making amends to the important people in their life, and on a daily basis, checking in with themselves to see where they did their best and where they could do better. Being in recovery for an alcoholic or addict or a family member of one is HARD WORK. Recovery is not just the absence of the alcohol or the drug. It is hard work, but not impossible! Sandy Thompson is a ND licensed addiction counselor, Connecticut Community for Addiction Recovery trained family recovery coach, and owner of Path to Pono, specializing in business consulting and family recovery coaching. She has a passion for helping others, dreams of one day living in a tropical climate, and loves all German food. For most of her life, Lauren Donovan informed and entertained newspaper readers as a journalist and editor. After a stint as editor of The Hazen Star, she spent a long career covering stories outside of Bismarck for The Bismarck Tribune. Now semi-retired, readers miss her lively writing — each turn of a phrase not only enlightening but entertaining with its eloquence. During her newspaper career, she often thought of writing as an art form. “I wanted to be that kind of a writer,” she says, which showed in the pages of the daily newspaper. Before she cut back on her daily routine of newspaper writing, Lauren had a chance encounter with the art of cut glass mosaic and was immediately taken by the art form. “I started out simply but soon wanted to move from flat, one-dimensional to multidimensional work,” she says. Rummaging through antique stores and garage sales, Lauren gathered interesting objects from chicken feeders to old light fixtures, transforming them with vivid colored glass, often lit from within, and grouted for drama and emphasis. “I especially enjoy finding old light fixtures from country schools or courthouses, flipping them upside down, and giving them life.” Lauren’s newfound artistry quickly caught on with admirers at art shows and displays, with one of her early works selected as a Governor’s Choice award, displayed in the Governor’s Residence. That got her the attention of The Capital Gallery, which has showcased her work since opening two and a half years ago. “An artist is lonely at times and filled with self-doubt,” Lauren says, “The story of any art only becomes complete through the eyes of others, so the gallery gives me that affirmation and I’m so thankful for it.” And with that validation, through sales in the gallery, comes an energy and more creativity. “Being self-taught, I have no boundaries and so I’m not afraid of trying new approaches. If it means tearing it all apart, so be it,” Lauren says. Her current interest has been using actual cowboy hats, Justin brand, for example, and covering them with a variety of colored cut glass. “I’ve grown to have a good eye for color,” she says, which shows in the masculine brown and black tones of “Roughstock Rider” and the femininity of the hues of blue, green, pink, and red in “Rodeo Rose,” both currently on exhibit in The Capital Gallery. The hats are mounted on Missouri River driftwood. Since retirement, Lauren is spending more time finding the right objects for her mosaic art and enjoys traveling to seek them out in her old school camper van. A native of Mott, she graduated from the University of North Dakota. She and her husband “Pat” continue to live in Hazen, where she is active in a variety of civic and cultural organizations. David Borlaug is president and director of The Capital Gallery in downtown Bismarck. After a long career in newspaper and magazine publishing, he has devoted himself to nonprofit work the past 20 years. When confined by the frigid weather to home and hearth, I decided to reorganize my bookcase containing a lifelong accumulation of poetry, and I stumbled upon two volumes purchased but never read. They are collections of poetry subtitled with amazing accuracy, “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud . . . and Other Poems You Half Remember From School,” and “Tyger Tyger Burning Bright: Much-Loved Poems You Half Remember.” Coupled with another volume I owned on how to read poetry (from one punctuation point to the next and reading out loud), it seemed the perfect antidote to what was going on outside my windows. The books were published in Great Britain, and the editor, Ana Sampson, includes a very brief biography for each poet. So, I learned such disparate facts as that Robert Frost suffered from poor health and shyness, but he was a popular figure on the lecture circuit, which he did to pay the bills. He won the Pulitzer Prize four times, and by request, wrote a poem to deliver at the inauguration of John F. Kennedy. When the wind blew away his copy, he recited another poem, “The Gift Outright,” from memory. He was 86 years old. Emma Lazarus, in 1883, wrote the poem inscribed on the Statue of Liberty. She wrote it as a fundraiser to build a pedestal under the statue, but it has a timely message for 2019: “Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free . . . send these, the tempest tossed to me. I lift my lamp beside the golden door.” Poetry often gets an unfair negative vote; I suspect because of how it is originally encountered. There’s nothing like a boring piece of poetry required to be memorized to plant in a student’s mind a life-long aversion. But, I was lucky. I had several poetry-loving teachers who made the words come alive by reading them to us. Both of my parents loved poetry, and my mother wrote a few, long ago lost in the confusion which can follow major moves. My father, with his fifth grade education, memorized many poems with me, and I was transported readily down memory lane by several quoted in the books, including Rudyard Kipling’s “If,” which for a lovely monetary stretch, he paid me one dollar if I could recite the whole thing. Presumably, he hoped some of Kipling’s admonitions would stick in my memory, too. Admittedly, with the snow piling up on my balcony and highways closed due to the bad weather, it was fun to come upon a bit of nonsense verse by Thomas Grey, who is associated usually with the somber “Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard” — “The curfew tolls the knell of parting day . . .” So I was suitably surprised to discover he also wrote “Ode on the Death of a Favorite Cat, Drowned in a Tub of Gold Fishes.” The final line warns, “Know one false step is ne’er retrieved . . . / Nor all that glisters, gold.” The cat belonged to his best friend who one presumes approved. Then there’s a short bit by Oliver Goldsmith entitled “When Lovely Woman Stoops to Folly,” a piece of literature much parodied in its day with such lines as “The evening can be awf’ly jolly.” Perhaps most surprising was the number of familiar lines I discovered, many of them not necessarily associated in my mind any longer with poetry: “April is the cruelest month . . .” “Two roads diverged in a wood, and I — / I took the one less travelled by.” “Yet each man kills the thing he loves.” “Laugh and the world laughs with you; / Weep and you weep alone;” “Gather ye rosebuds while ye may.” “When you are old and grey and full of sleep.” “If I should die, think only this of me: / That there’s some corner of a foreign field / That is forever England.” In retrospect, I realize that those lines were not connected in my mind with a particular piece of poetry but stood in their own right for a memory, a philosophy, an admonition. They were like old friends I hadn’t thought of for a while. Perhaps I shouldn’t wait for another day of bad weather to revisit the poetry that has become part of my life. Betty Mills is the granddaughter of Morton county homesteaders. An avid reader, Betty’s home is filled with books, and she belongs to three book clubs. She was a political columnist for the Bismarck Tribune for 25 years and active on numerous boards and councils. At the age of 92, Betty still finds joy in writing. Cara Currie-Hall Cara Currie-Hall is an international advocate for women. She’s fought for the rights of indigenous people for 30 years. The Bismarck woman’s current endeavor was inspired by God during a conversation with her husband, Ken Hall, and pastor Bob Grey Eagle. “We said, ‘We’re people of faith. We need to do something…God is stirring,’” Cara recalls. “‘We needed to have a conversation right away about the condition of the country and the role of the Church. Where does it lead people and how can we participate as people of faith?’ Doing nothing was not an option.” That conversation led to the creation of the Kingdom Business Conference for Pastors and Leadership which Cara helps organize. After the conference, Cara helped incorporate the Kingdom Business Fellowship. “In everything we’re doing, we are leaders. You’re a mother — you’re raising the next generation. You’re a father, an educator; in all of our capacities, we’re all leading something. We wanted everybody to be part of this and we continuously invite everyone to be part of this,” Cara says. The free event was live-streamed in 2018, and 50,000 people from 14 countries tuned in to watch and listen to the high-calibre speakers during the two-day event. Even more are expected this year. “People will be transformed,” Cara says. “I met a woman recently who told me she attended the conference last year. She told me, ‘My life has never been the same since then.’ That makes me glad. That’s what is supposed to happen.” The conference is April 14-16 at the Bismarck Event Center. Visit KingdomBusinessConference.com for details and registration. Heidi Engen A batch of Heidi Engen’s handmade gifts sprouted into a full-blown business. Therapy packs filled with flax seed — designed and sewn by Heidi — were such a hit that she began getting orders; so many orders that in February 2017, while working a part-time job, she started her own business, The Smart Seed. Interest and demand for the therapy packs exploded. The Smart Seed became Heidi’s full-time gig in June 2018. “The packs are helping a lot of people who struggle with headaches, migraines, and sinus problems,” Heidi explains. “Moms have told me they love the hot and cold pack because their kids will use it as an ice pack; the fabric feels good. You can use the packs on any part of the body to ease aches and pains.” Each pack contains 100 percent flax seed produced in North Dakota. Heidi says flax seed has different qualities than other therapy pack fillers such as rice, corn, or wheat. “Flax doesn’t have a food smell; it’s a smaller, smoother seed, so it conforms to the body better, and because it has a higher oil content, it will stay warm longer and retain its heat over time.” Heidi says adding essential oils to the therapy packs is an option. They come in four sizes, and Heidi makes them at her kitchen counter in Lincoln, North Dakota. You can find them at PrideOfDakota.ND.gov, select retails stores, and on Etsy and Facebook; search The Smart Seed. Mary Logan When Mary Logan and her husband, Jesse, decided to move from Midland, Texas, back home to Bismarck, North Dakota, Mary joked that she would only move if a Pure Barre studio was available. “It’s a low impact workout that I describe as using the muscles from the inside out. It’s a mix of ballet, Pilates, and yoga where you work the body to fatigue and then stretch the muscles,” Mary explains. “I fell in love with it in 2012 when was living in Bozeman, Montana. I was going regularly for six to eight months, and it literally changed the way I thought about fitness; how it should be and could be.” It also changed how Jesse convinced Mary to move back home to North Dakota. “When I told him there isn’t a Pure Barre studio in Bismarck, he said, ‘Let’s open one!’” Mary opened her studio in north Bismarck November 12, 2018. “The workouts are hard, but if you can hold onto a ballet bar, you can absolutely do it. And you see results in a short time. It’s a great culture, too — welcoming, inviting, and lots of encouragement. You will feel elated about what you accomplished after your workout,” Mary says. Classes can be scheduled online at PureBarre.com/ND-Bismarck, or call 701-751-0528. You can also follow the studio on Facebook; search Pure Barre Bismarck. What began as an idea to foster relationships and promote health and wellness among the staff at one elementary school blossomed into a journey of comradery and growth between participants at Bismarck’s Miller Elementary School (Miller) and Proximal 50 Life Center (P50). “It started out with trying to find a way to help our staff connect,” Kelly Suchy, third grade teacher at Miller and member of the school’s engagement committee, says. “One way we did this was by starting an exercise group once a week. With that idea in mind, we decided to create a wellness experience that looked at different parts of a healthy lifestyle.” Kelly decided to reach out to the experts for additional guidance. “We wanted to give the program some legitimacy,” she says. “We reached out to Katie Kost and Tana Trotter from P50, and they were filled with ideas.” Katie says hearing the school’s plan for a wellness program inspired the life center’s staff. “Initially, Kelly was looking for exercise equipment, but after listening to her explain why they wanted to do a wellness program, we quickly realized we had so much more we could offer. “Wellness is much more than just exercise, and for true change and total health you need to look at nutrition, stress, and sleep,” Katie continues. “We are passionate about showing people that healthy doesn’t have to involve strict diets, crazy workouts, or expensive supplements and products.” Thirty-six Miller staff members signed up for the program, with a $10 buy-in going toward weekly and grand prizes. “It says a lot when half your staff wants to take the time to better their health,” Kelly notes. The life center provided a pre-assessment for each participant, and staff members Jamison Gray and Lex Hubbard led group fitness classes at the school and the facility’s downtown location. “They opened their doors to us in a big way,” Kelly says. Participants were also given access to Reset30, the center’s new online program. “It is so cool to have this knowledge at our fingertips,” Kelly adds. “Our Reset 30 education talked about looking forward and making goals that are realistic.” and measurable. It’s about a growth mindset, which is perfect because that is what we try to emphasize with our students.” Many additional activities rounded out the Miller wellness program. “We have one weekly workout after school, a walking group on Wednesday morning, and we have attended Pulse classes at P50,” Kelly says. “We also have six weeks of challenges set up with three challenges each week. Two remain the same: seven to nine hours of sleep a night and 30 minutes of activity three times a week. One goal changes each week. Each time you complete a challenge, you get your name in a drawing for a weekly prize.” Participants can also earn a continuing education credit through Bismarck Public Schools and the University of Mary. “There is a lot of our own time going into this for the online education piece and sharing our learning with our students and staff members,” Kelly says. Andrea Carson, second grade teacher at Miller, says her favorite part of the program is the comradery between the participants and trainers. “It’s great to see people working out, smiling, laughing, and having fun. We can lean on each other for support and encourage each other.” Andrea says she decided to participate in the wellness program to connect with her colleagues. “One of my favorite activities is Wednesday mornings. We ‘mall walk’ Miller for 45 minutes before school. It’s a fun way to start the day and to socialize with teachers you won’t get to see that day. “This whole process has really strengthened Miller as a school,” Andrea continues. “It’s a common thread people share.” “Simply put, healthy employees are happy employees,” Katie says of the importance of workplace wellness. “They are more engaged in their work, they miss less work due to illness, they are more efficient and better at what they do. But doing it [working out] together as a staff also builds stronger teams.” Kelly says there is already talk of continuing the program’s activities beyond its six-week timeline. “People want to walk together in the mornings. We enjoy working out together after school. It helps us see each other outside of our role as teachers,” she notes. “It would be really fun to make this a yearly tradition to remind each other to take care of our needs and to practice wellness.” Merle Bennett: Monarch Man Article & photos by Marci Narum On a warm, sunny Saturday afternoon in early September 2018, Merle Bennett catches the last monarch butterflies of the summer. His backyard in north Bismarck is a choice stop for the beautiful creatures; it’s filled with an assortment of plants and flowers to attract birds and butterflies, including the butterfly bush, which isn’t even meant to withstand North Dakota’s cold climate. It survives because of the tender care Merle gives it. With his butterfly net in the ready-to-swing position, he moves stealth-like toward some flowers where monarchs have stopped to rest, but even a veteran butterfly catcher like Merle misses from time to time. “Oh shoot, I missed ‘em. I wasn’t fast enough,” Merle chuckles. Merle is catching the butterflies for research. The 87-year-old retiree once worked for conservation organizations but never had much interest in butterflies — until his grandson Lucas found the larvae on some milkweed growing near his front porch. “I knew I had some monarchs around but I didn’t pay much attention. Lucas would be out on the front step playing with the larvae, letting them crawl on his arms, and then one day he was sitting out there and he watched two adult monarch hatch from their cocoons. So, I decided to just keep the milkweed there,” Merle says. As Merle explains, milkweed is critical to the survival of the monarch. The larvae eat the plant exclusively and monarchs lay their eggs only on milkweed. For several years, Merle has enjoyed a close-up experience of the monarch’s entire lifecycle. “The female lays 100 to 200 eggs, but usually only one or two eggs on any given plant,” Merle explains. “When the egg is laid, it’s just a speck — smaller than a pinpoint, like an olive-colored dot. The egg hatches after about four to six days to become the larvae and feasts on milkweed leaves for about 10-14 days, growing rapidly to almost the size of a child’s little finger.” Merle sees the larvae spin its web, attach itself to a leaf or other object for protection, and then transform into the bright green chrysalis. “The chrysalis hangs for another 10-14 days and then the brightly-colored adult monarch butterfly emerges. When they first hatch, their wings are like wet noodles. After a few hours in the sun and wind, the wings harden and the butterfly is on its way.” **TAG AND RELEASE** Catching monarchs is part of a tagging program borne over concerns about the declining monarch population. When Merle learned about the Monarch Watch research project at the University of Kansas, he signed up. That was seven years ago. “I get more than 100 through here in a day during the peak migration period in late August and early September. It goes on all day,” Merle explains. “I tag for a couple hours after lunch and catch maybe 10 or 15 in a day. I don’t disturb them that long. I just let them go.” But not before he attaches a tiny button-like tag to their wings. Merle determines whether the monarch is male or female (the male has two black dots on its hind wings while the female has none) and then he turns them loose. “The tagging determines the migration routes,” Merle explains. “There are two population of monarchs. The western population is found west of the Rocky Mountains, and they winter along the coast of California. This eastern population is found east of the Rocky Mountains and covers all of central and eastern United States and southern Canada.” Merle says the monarchs winter in a forested mountain area west of Mexico City where the Mexican government has set aside several sanctuaries just for the monarchs. “A lot of them die right there,” Merle says. “When [the people] are cleaning things up after the migration has left, Mexican children go looking for the monarchs with tags, and if they find one, they get a reward. So, that’s how the university gets most of their tags back. Other people are tagging in South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, and Oklahoma, and they might catch one that I have tagged.” An ID number and the phone number of Monarch Watch are printed on the tag, so if someone finds one of those monarchs, Merle will be notified. He hasn’t been notified yet, but he’s not discouraged. **HEADING NORTH** In February, the monarchs start the migration back north. The monarchs in Merle’s yard — any that we see in the Northern Plains in the summer — are a generation of butterflies that live the longest. “They will start slowly moving back to northern Mexico and southern Texas. And then they mate and lay eggs down there because the milkweed is already growing there. The ones I’ve tagged die,” Merle says. “They just hatched here in the last month. They fly to Mexico, spend the winter, start back, lay their eggs, and then they die. “And then the next generation moves back up through Oklahoma and Kansas. They mate, lay their eggs on a bunch of milkweed and then they die. And then that next generation comes up here, and we get them in the middle of summer — mating, hatching. Several generations live for only about a month and this generation that we tag lives for about seven or eight months. “How every one of those monarchs traveling to the sanctuary areas in Mexico — having never been there before — are able to make that long migration to the same areas every year is a scientific puzzle.” Merle says even he doesn’t know the answer to why he’s still catching monarchs after all these years. He says it started “by accident.” But, considering the butterfly often represents resurrection and new life, it’s evident there is purpose in what Merle is doing. He tenderly cares for his plants and flowers, making his backyard a welcoming sanctuary to new life every summer. There’s often a story or purpose behind new ideas. It’s true for the inaugural Inspired Woman Scholarship, which will be awarded later this spring. The financial aid will assist students of higher education who are pursuing careers in print, broadcast, online, and visual journalism. The idea for starting the fund was inspired during a conversation with members of the Inspired Woman advisory board. While brainstorming ways to give back to the community, the ladies suggested many worthy ideas, but we didn’t settle on anything final. Jody Kerzman and I were co-owners of the magazine at the time, and in the days that followed the advisory board meeting, we continued to toss around ideas. During one conversation, Jody wondered out loud, “What if it could be a scholarship?” We were both college journalism students once upon a time, so that made it an obvious choice. But more than anything, a scholarship fits the mission of the magazine perfectly. We agreed — it was the best idea, and we established the Inspired Woman Scholarship Fund. Inspired Woman magazine contributed to the fund, we held a fundraiser, and we invited readers to help build the fund through subscription options. Some subscribers paid $75 or $100 and received their magazine for the subscription price of $37. The remaining funds went into the scholarship fund. The North Dakota Community Foundation (a non-profit tax-exempt corporation) manages the money, and the first scholarship will be awarded this spring. The intent is to continue growing the fund and supporting future journalism students. Second year college undergraduates through graduate students with a GPA of 3.0 or higher are eligible to apply. Preference will be given to students who exhibit leadership, steadfast work ethic, desire and willingness to learn and grow personally and professionally, creativity in writing, journalistic integrity, and involvement with journalism activities that are collegiate or community based. Inspired Woman has assembled a committee of professionals who will review the applications, determine the finalists, and choose the scholarship recipients. The application deadline is April 1. Eligible students should apply online at NDCF.com. Click “Receive” and choose Inspired Woman Scholarship. I look forward to seeing the talent and work of the next generation of journalists, and I’m happy Inspired Woman can play a part. Donations to the Inspired Woman Scholarship fund are tax-deductible and can be made online at ndcf.net or mail a check to: NDCF PO Box 387 711 Riverwood Dr, Suite 2 Bismarck, ND 58502-0387 Experience a More Beautiful You Dr. Steven Yearsley and the plastic surgery team at Mid Dakota Clinic in Bismarck are dedicated to delivering beautiful results for every patient we serve. Whether it’s smoother skin with a healthy glow, a more youthful appearance, reshaping of facial or body contours, or reconstructive surgery, we really listen to your wants and needs. We’ll recommend the best options for the results you’ve been dreaming of, for a more attractive, more confident you. Get confidential online answers about cosmetic surgery at middakotaclinic.com/plasticsurgery Steven G. Yearsley, MD Board-certified plastic surgeon (701) 530-5850 1-800-472-2113 ext. 5850 MID DAKOTA CLINIC | MDC The doctors you know and trust.™ Bismarck, ND WHEN REFLECTING ON YOUR RELATIONSHIP WITH MONEY, WHAT DO YOU SEE? For over 100 years, Thrivent has helped Christians see money for what it really is—a tool that can help you lead a more content, confident and generous life. Wherever you are on your lifelong journey, we can help. THRIVENT® Be Wise With Money ADVICE | INSURANCE | INVESTMENTS | BANKING | GENEROSITY Learn more about making progress on your Wise With Money Journey at Thrivent.com.
<urn:uuid:387fd9fd-da0e-40da-85e1-f6ea89ddac3c>
CC-MAIN-2019-13
https://inspiredwomanonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/MarchWeb.pdf
2019-03-22T10:31:55Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912202642.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20190322094932-20190322120932-00046.warc.gz
525,139,690
14,356
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.948731
eng_Latn
0.998544
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 131, 1600, 2205, 4160, 5644, 6153, 7872, 9512, 12248, 13807, 17051, 17098, 18799, 21842, 24219, 26176, 27719, 29153, 32440, 34251, 36872, 37320, 40187, 41251, 43157, 46373, 47464, 49101, 51777, 53916, 56223, 58464, 61975, 64575, 65329, 65781 ]
[ 0.765625, 2.109375 ]
1
0
Badger Creek Opened to Further Fish Passage! Elizabeth Brosig, JCWC Restoration Project Manager Johnson Creek is home to a variety of wildlife, including migratory fish that travel from the ocean to the Johnson Creek watershed to spawn. Each year Chinook salmon, Coho salmon, steelhead/rainbow trout, and Pacific lamprey visit Johnson Creek and its tributaries. On multiple occasions since 2010, Coho salmon have been documented spawning over 15 miles up Johnson Creek near Gresham! Culverts, deteriorating bridges, and other barriers in streams block the movement of fish up Johnson Creek and tributaries. In 2013 and 2014 Johnson Creek Watershed Council (JCWC) surveyed and prioritized 275 fish passage barriers in the Johnson Creek watershed. Since then, the Council has completed nine fish passage projects, including culvert replacements and retrofits, and a dam removal. Fish passage projects often yield immediate results, with salmon observed upstream of former barriers within a few years. One of those projects was the removal of a full barrier on Badger Creek at the Springwater Trail crossing in 2016, opening Badger Creek to fish passage up to a degraded culvert on private property just 0.7 miles upstream. Badger Creek is a cold water tributary of Johnson Creek in Boring, Oregon. Cold water tributaries are significantly important to salmon, especially with climate change impacts continuing to increase. Since resolving the barrier at the Springwater Trail crossing, the Council has conducted environmental DNA (eDNA) testing in Badger Creek at that location and found the presence of steelhead/rainbow trout, Coho salmon, and Pacific lamprey. Additionally, in the summer of 2016 during construction at the site, an adult 12” Pacific lamprey and several small lamprey were captured and later released during the fish salvage operation with Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW). —(Continued on page 3) Mud, Sweat, and Trash: Another Year of the Johnson Creek Clean-Up Monica Heschelis, JCWC Volunteer Program Manager The Johnson Creek Clean-Up is one of the most exciting stewardship events on JCWC’s calendar. We’ve been hosting the Clean-Up since 2008 and each year has been a huge success—due entirely to the amazing volunteers who turn out to clean up their local waterway. This year, over 150 volunteers collected almost 400 bags of trash—yes, you read that right, FOUR HUNDRED BAGS—along with many other items too big to fit in a garbage bag, including a dozen shopping carts, seven mattresses, eight tires, and six electric scooters. The total? 5.9 tons of trash! Our volunteers are what make the Clean-Up a success, but our many partners and funders are what make it possible. Clackamas Water Environment Services, Metro, and the Mintkeski Family Fund of the Oregon Community Foundation all provided generous funding for the event. Portland Parks and Recreation, Lents Youth Initiative, and North Clackamas Parks and Recreation District all helped with planning, site support, and trash hauling. SOLVE provided supplies and outreach. Ground Score provided outreach to the houseless —(Continued on page 3) How Can We Impact Riparian Sheltering? Daniel Newberry, JCWC Executive Director There are few issues that generate as much passionate discussion in our watershed community than that of impacts caused by people living in greenspaces on the banks of Johnson Creek. For the eight years I’ve been in my current role, it seems that someone contacts the Council about this every few weeks, usually about garbage at camps by the Creek. The Johnson Creek Watershed Council Board and Staff have struggled for years to find a response we can agree on that acknowledges both our concern for the humanitarian needs of our houseless neighbors looking for a place to live and also recognizes that there are negative impacts from continuous sheltering in sensitive riparian areas. We have created a page on our website that outlines our thoughts on this important issue. This page also gives links to government websites and phone numbers for people to call, organized by the city or county in the watershed where the concern rests. That web page is: https://www.jcwc.org/equity/sheltering-in-riparian-areas/ Our message begins with a request to our city and county governments to provide housing and sanitary services to our most vulnerable population. Perhaps then, next to Johnson Creek will not be seen as the best temporary housing option. As permanent housing will take time to secure and/or build, we ask the public sector to allocate spaces for temporary outdoor sheltering areas that are in areas less sensitive than the stream corridors. As we reflect on these issues, it’s important to remember that all of us, through our lifestyle, contribute to negative impacts on Johnson Creek, whether it be the salmon-killing chemicals in tires, the scouring flood flows that are caused by paving over natural areas and piping the runoff, or the erosion and sedimentation caused by intensive development. The impacts made by those sheltering next to the stream are more visible. As a science-based organization, the Council wants to understand more about these impacts, so we ask our governments to learn more about impacts from all sources. All manner of impacts are attributed to sheltering in riparian areas, but few are backed by scientific studies. Let’s learn together. Daniel Newberry, Executive Director New Grants & Contracts **East Multnomah SWCD** $85,000 This helps to support these program areas: Riparian, Instream, Community Science, and Equity and General Support. **Clackamas Water Environment Services** $28,620 Partially funds our Watershed Wide Event, Creek Clean-Up, CreekCare, and Educational events like Science in the Park. **City of Portland Bureau of Environmental Services (BES)** *This year’s amount: $90,000* Funding for Watershed Protection and Restoration, Volunteer & Community Science, and Diversity and Inclusion program, plus a large wood project nearby Leach Botanical Garden. **The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife** $56,650 Funding for a fish passage culvert removal on Badger Creek. **Clackamas Soil and Water Conservation District** $5,000 Helps to fund a CreekCare program for residents in the upper Johnson Creek watershed. **City of Milwaukie** *This year’s amount: $7,500* Funding for a CreekCare program for residents along Johnson Creek in the City of Milwaukie for a six-year period. **Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board** $82,732 Second year of funding for general council capacity. **City of Gresham** $35,000 General funding that supports our volunteer stewardship, Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI), education, and outreach work, in addition to specific funding for our riparian and community science efforts in the City of Gresham. **Metro** $56,519 Supports our ongoing Leach Back 5 project which focuses on community involvement to provide a long-term living laboratory for education and environmental workforce development that serves the needs of multiple diverse partners. **Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ)** $20,950 Supports riparian restoration in Gresham on four properties. On September 21, 2022 we removed the degraded culvert upstream of the Springwater Trail crossing in Boring Oregon, opening up Badger Creek for another 0.7 miles to fish passage. This corrugated steel round culvert was 67% passable to adult fish and likely a complete barrier to juvenile fish due to a water surface drop at the outlet. The culvert was in very poor condition, the sides had completely rusted out throughout the culvert. The culvert broke into pieces as it was removed because it was in such bad condition. The streambanks were graded at an incline to create a natural channel shape and to allow the stream room to adjust. Riparian work is underway to remove invasive species along the stream and this winter native shrubs and trees will be planted in their place. Native vegetation is vital to a healthy stream environment, benefiting insects, birds, and other wildlife, while additionally shading the creek to conserve cold water. JCWC is planning on installing a small bridge soon to allow landowner access across the creek, while also allowing the stream to be fully passable for salmonids and lamprey alike. We want to thank ODFW for their support in funding this project. A Day with Students in the Back 5 Monica Heschales, JCWC Volunteer Program Manager On a cool day in November, the sun shines through the golden changing leaves of fall. Students and staff from The Blueprint Foundation (TBF) meet staff from Leach Garden Friends (LGF) and JCWC to learn about and search for amphibians. JCWC staff had the opportunity to speak with seven students from TBF to hear about their experiences at the Back 5 Project. We asked students why they think access to an outdoor classroom is important. Ja’Siah, who has been to Leach Botanical Garden (LBG) “too many times to count” explained that, “when you are in person you can enjoy a lot more and see how it actually works.” Mariah agreed that it is “important to actually see and feel what you are learning”. Ari, a first timer at LBG said, “I feel like it gives you a better chance to explore and get out and do things you haven’t done before.” Students recognized the benefit of their work in the Back 5. Harmony explained, “you are getting information about the population of what type of species is here and what lets that species thrive here”. What do they like about being at the Back 5 and Leach Botanical Garden? “I love it here because if you listen you can hear birds and nature sounds” (Charles). “If you are quiet enough.. I have seen a deer and a fox” (TC). “I love the garden because it is nice and quiet… and it has beautiful plants and animals” (Treazure). To learn more about the Back 5 project, email firstname.lastname@example.org and keep an eye out for the Back 5 Project website coming in 2023. New Grants & Contracts City of Portland Bureau of Environmental Services (BES) Percent for Green $116,342 Funding for a stormwater retrofit project at Stonebridge apartments, a low income seniors housing complex in Lentz. Project aims to reduce stormwater flooding and improve runoff water quality through removal of pavement and installation of stormwater facilities such as rain gardens. Meyer Memorial Trust $89,650 Funding a large wood habitat enhancement project at the confluence of Johnson Creek at the Willamette River, which aims to enhance stream complexity and improve habitat for migrating salmonids. Johnson Creek Clean-Up (Cont.) (Johnson Creek Clean-Up — continued from page 1) community prior to the event. Central City Concern went above and beyond while helping to collect and haul trash. Hoodview Disposal and Recycling, and Sunset Garbage Collection donated dumpsters and hauling services. Rebel Cricket Screen Prints produced the t-shirts our volunteers got muddy, and Juliet Maggi created the beautiful design that graced those t-shirts. And last but not least, Casa de Tamales provided delicious catering for the after-party at Mill Park. We are incredibly grateful to everyone who contributed to such a fun and impactful event. The Willamette Upstream team poses with a mountain of trash. Including multiple shopping carts, bike tires, and a lounge chair. The Willamette Upstream reach is often one of the most challenging stretches of the creek. Picture taken by Sharon Klein. There’s been a lot of chatter around the Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) since their arrival in Forest Grove, Oregon this past summer. Previously, the furthest west they had been spotted was Colorado. Native to Asia, the EAB targets stressed ash trees (and a few closely related trees, such as olives) to lay their eggs on. As a result, the larvae girdle the tree by boring throughout the cambium layer under the bark in “S”-shaped “galleries”. Girdling disrupts water and nutrient transportation within the tree, leading to tree mortality. Without its natural predators, the EAB has spread throughout North America since their first sighting in 2002, shifting from only preying on stressed trees in their native range to now targeting over 100 million stressed and healthy trees in North America. Spotting the EAB is difficult because of its size - smaller than a penny - and similarities to other beetle species. However, the ash tree, including the native Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia), has distinctive characteristics that are easier to recognize once you become familiar with them. These ecologically important trees are found within the riparian area in addition to their widespread range throughout the Pacific Northwest (PNW). The compound leaf has 5-7 oval to egg-shaped leaflets positioned opposite to each other, in addition to the leaves being opposite. The fruits/seeds, called samaras, are double winged, 1-2 inches long, and grow in clusters. Mature bark will have a diamond or lattice pattern. There are several copycat trees in our area, such as walnut or tree of heaven, so looking for all the characteristics is important for correct identification. The metallic-green color of the ½-inch long adult EAB is similar to many beetles that are found in the PNW. If you find a small, metallic green beetle, look for a body that is slender with a solid color and no lines. Taking a photo can be helpful for verifying identification and needed for reporting. Unfortunately, tree stress will probably be what you notice before finding any beetles. Tree stress may include thinning crown or topkill, epicormic shoots (shoots/leaves growing from side of trunk), bark splits, and/or woodpecker flecking near the top. After the larvae pupate, their exit tunnel leaves a distinct D-shaped hole in the bark. If you see signs or symptoms of EAB infestation, note the location by longitude and latitude or other specific markers, take pictures, and report potential EAB insects or infestations to the Oregon Invasive Species Online Hotline https://oregoninvasiveshotline.org/. Potential impacts to watershed health include loss of habitat and a decrease in canopy cover in the riparian area. During our 7th Annual Science Symposium, we learned from a City of Portland study that approximately 16% of the studied areas adjacent to Johnson Creek contained ash trees, with areas closest to the creek being the most dense (24-26%). A total ash loss could create a possible 5-10% increase in solar loading to the creek. Johnson Creek Watershed Council has been proactive at protecting the integrity of the creek by altering restoration practices using alternative trees other than ash for current and future plantings and monitoring tree health throughout the watershed. You can help slow the spread of EAB by monitoring ash trees for health in your yard or other natural areas, avoid planting ash trees, and by not moving firewood more than 10 miles from any destination. Photo credits clockwise from upper-left: Emerald ash borer by Leah Bauer, USDA FS Northern Research Station, Bugwood.org/CC; Exit tunnels by Daniel Herms, The Ohio State University/CC; Emerald ash borer by Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources – Forestry Archive/CC; Penny from USMint.gov. Mad Science at Mill Park Sara Volk, JCWC Confluence AmeriCorps Member We were lucky to get a sunny day as we closed out summer with a mad day of fun at Mill Park in Clackamas County. Kids and adults gathered near Johnson Creek to learn from the local Science Technology Engineering and Math (STEM) program, Mad Science, about H2O and how we can use water wisely. Hands-on science allowed for experimenting with mixing oil and water to understand the importance of the message “only rain down the drain” and the life cycles and habitats of fish and insects. When not interacting at the Mad Science tables, families explored the park trying to find items on the scavenger hunt from North Clackamas Parks & Recreation District, while frisbees from Clackamas County Children’s Commission flew through the air. With their interactive model, Depave demonstrated how green spaces filter pollution from rainwater runoff before entering waterways. To round out the different elements within a watershed, bird and small mammal skulls, pelts, and containers filled with aquatic macroinvertebrates were at the JCWC table. Many thanks to our partners, including North Clackamas Parks & Recreation District for co-hosting, Clackamas Water Environmental Services for funding this great event, and to those that attended to make this year’s Science in the Park a success. Brookside Apartments Revegetation is Underway! Noah Jenkins, JCWC Riparian Program Manager It’s rather rare to be able to work on more than 300 meters (1000 ft) of Johnson Creek on a single property, and even rarer for that property to be in an urban area. The Brookside Apartments complex, in Milwaukie, presents just such an opportunity, so when the owner of the complex was willing to engage with JCWC’s CreekCare program to revegetate the banks on their property, you can bet we jumped at the chance! With funding from both the City of Milwaukie and the Portland General Electric (PGE) Habitat Support Fund (via Confluence Environmental Center), we’re working with residents of the apartments and contract crews to remove non-native English ivy, blackberry, and other problematic weeds. Big swaths of ivy on trees were cut this spring, so the site looks very different already! Planting of native trees, shrubs and ground covers will begin this winter. We look forward to a long, fruitful partnership with the owner and residents at Brookside! Welcome Monica! Monica Hescheles, started as the Volunteer Program Manager at JCWC in September 2022. She manages the outreach and volunteer program, including volunteer sign-ups, workforce development, and the implementation of the Equity Action Plan. Since earning her B.A. in Environmental Education from Western Washington University she has been working in outdoor education and volunteer management. Some of her recent positions include a forest school teacher, restoration and garden educator, and administrator for organizations in and around Portland, OR and Bellingham, WA. Monica is passionate about growing, cooking, and eating local and seasonal food. She enjoys hiking and exploring the lush forest, abundant waters, and diverse ecosystems of the Northwest where the smallest details hint at seasonal changes. She also enjoys bird watching, city walks with her partner Matthew, and supervised outings with her two cats, Haley and Bengy. Welcome New Board Members! Please welcome Kathy Dang and Damon Schrosk to the JCWC Board. Kathy is excited to join the City of Portland Bureau of Environmental Services (BES) Community Engagement Team and support Johnson Creek and Eastside partnerships, community grants, and planning projects. She recently worked with Portland Parks and Recreation (PPR) in their Equity and Inclusion Team, supporting language access for the Bureau. Her work included developing a translation glossary in collaboration with community liaisons and staff from PPR, Portland Water Bureau, and BES. Outside of work, she enjoys tending her own garden, growing food and flowers, and exploring nature with her family and two kids, ages 7 and 11. Kathy considers herself a plant and people person and is excited to dig into this work! Damon Schrosk is an International Society of Arboriculture Board Certified Master Arborist, owner of JCWC Rifle Award winning Treecology Inc, and partner in Treecology Consulting Group LLC. He has been actively involved with arboriculture, urban forestry, wildlife biology, and restoration ecology in the Portland area for 25 years. Damon has served on numerous non-profit and advisory boards and has been volunteering with JCWC since 2018. We’re so grateful to have Kathy and Damon join our dedicated board, supporting the Council. A Warm Farewell From Gwyn It has been a real pleasure to spend the past year working at the Johnson Creek Watershed Council. When I signed on as JCWC’s latest AmeriCorps member I didn’t know what to expect, I only knew it would be like nothing I had done before. It was a year of staff changes, and transition for the wider community, which was slowly emerging from the pandemic lockdown. Despite these challenges I found it to be a rewarding twelve months. The staff at JCWC are warm, welcoming, and a delight to work with – as you will know if you have ever had the pleasure of doing so. But the greatest pleasure was working with you – the JCWC community. From our government partners to our fellow community organizations, to our many volunteers, it was an honor to work with each and every one of you. I was continually humbled by the passion and dedication you brought to the task of caring for your creek and for each other. As I leave my AmeriCorps term behind, I take with me many fond memories of the wonderful people and places that make Johnson Creek Watershed Council what it is. Thank you! - Gwyn Welcome Sara! Sara Volk will be serving as the Confluence AmeriCorps member for the 2022-23 term. Living in multiple states from the midwest to the east coast helped foster her love of the outdoors even before finding the beauty of the Pacific Northwest. Her move from New York City to Portland eight years ago opened opportunities to earn an undergraduate degree in Environmental Science from Portland State University. After several years in the education field, she is excited to bring her combined experience into the Riparian and Outreach Specialist role through environmental education and volunteer events. When not on the trail or in her native garden, Sara enjoys reading, camping, and doing puzzles with her partner, their three kids and two dogs, Stella and Professor Cheese. Upcoming Events See our website at JCWC.org/events-calendar or Facebook for links to the following events! **Amphibian Egg Mass Survey** Sat., February 25th, 9:30AM-12PM Powell Butte Nature Park **Watershed Wide Event** Sat., March 4th, 8:45AM-12PM 10 projects in 1 day at various locations! **Habitat Enhancement** Wed., March 8th, 9AM-12PM Leach Botanical Garden **JCWC Board Meeting** Mon., March 13th, 5:30PM-7:00PM Zoom **Park After Dark** Thu., March 16th, 5:45PM-6:45PM Scouters Mountain Park **Habitat Enhancement** Sat., April 1st, 9AM-12PM Tideman Johnson Park **Habitat Enhancement** Wed., April 12th, 9AM-12PM Leach Botanical Garden **Habitat Enhancement** Wed., April 12th, 9AM-12PM Leach Botanical Garden **Earth Day** Sat., April 22nd, 9AM-12PM Mulching & invasive species removal in Gresham **Warbler Walk** Sat., May 6th, 7:30AM-9:00AM Scouters Mountain Park Thank you Moda! We would like to express our gratitude to Moda for printing our newsletters. --- Elizabeth Brosig Restoration Project Manager Marlee Eckman Community Outreach Coordinator Cathy Geiger Finance & Operations Coordinator Monica Hescheles Volunteer Program Manager Noah Jenkins Riparian Program Manager Daniel Newberry Executive Director Sara Volk Confluence AmeriCorps Member Newsletter design by Kyung Lee - email@example.com
d9082ae1-2863-4761-baba-8d213ddae5fb
CC-MAIN-2024-10
https://www.jcwc.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/JCWCNews_Win23_Final_Web.pdf
2024-03-02T07:48:06+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947475757.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20240302052634-20240302082634-00433.warc.gz
839,221,078
4,964
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.973168
eng_Latn
0.996963
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3147, 7216, 11503, 15292, 17705, 20009, 21916, 23257 ]
[ 2.609375, 1.5625 ]
1
0
BEST OF BOTH WORLDS: ISSUES OF STRUCTURE AND AGENCY IN COMPUTATIONAL CREATION, IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL Karen A. Brennan B.Sc. Computer Science and Mathematics (2003) B.Ed. Computer Science and Mathematics (2005) M.A. Curriculum Studies (2007) The University of British Columbia Submitted to the Program in Media Arts and Sciences, School of Architecture and Planning, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Media Arts and Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. February 2013 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created. AUTHOR Karen A. Brennan Program in Media Arts and Sciences October 29, 2012 CERTIFIED BY Mitchel Resnick LEGO Papert Professor of Learning Research Program in Media Arts and Sciences Thesis Supervisor ACCEPTED BY Patricia Maes Associate Academic Head Program in Media Arts and Sciences BEST OF BOTH WORLDS: ISSUES OF STRUCTURE AND AGENCY IN COMPUTATIONAL CREATION, IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL Karen A. Brennan Submitted to the Program in Media Arts and Sciences, School of Architecture and Planning, on October 29, 2012, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Media Arts and Sciences. ABSTRACT We live in a computational culture – a culture in which we are surrounded by computational systems and interfaces, from social networks to banking infrastructure, to entertainment platforms, to transportation systems. This culture introduces new expectations and new opportunities for learning, creating new demands for what to learn and offering new possibilities for how to learn. In this dissertation, I adopt a predominantly qualitative approach to exploring learning in computational culture, studying how the Scratch programming environment and online community are employed to support learning both in and out of school. To this end, I conducted interviews with 30 kids working with Scratch at home and 30 teachers working with Scratch in K-12 classrooms to develop descriptions of computational creation in these two settings. Using a theoretical framework of agency and structure, I analyze how the at-home and school-classroom contexts enable – or constrain – young people’s agency in computational creation. Despite common assumptions that at-home learning is necessarily low-structure/high-agency and that at-school learning is necessarily high-structure/low-agency, I argue that structure and agency need not be in opposition. Designers of learning environments should explore intermediate possibilities, finding ways to employ structure in the service of learner agency. THESIS SUPERVISOR Mitchel Resnick LEGO Papert Professor of Learning Research Program in Media Arts and Sciences BEST OF BOTH WORLDS: ISSUES OF STRUCTURE AND AGENCY IN COMPUTATIONAL CREATION, IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL Karen A. Brennan THESIS READER Barry J. Fishman Associate Professor of Educational Studies and Learning Technologies The University of Michigan School of Education and School of Information BEST OF BOTH WORLDS: ISSUES OF STRUCTURE AND AGENCY IN COMPUTATIONAL CREATION, IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL Karen A. Brennan THESIS READER Ethan Zuckerman Principal Research Scientist Director of the MIT Center for Civic Media MIT Media Lab This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1019396. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Acknowledgements On my last day of kindergarten, I refused to get on the bus that was to take me home. The thought of summer break, away from the exciting activities in this magical place, made me indescribably sad. I was inconsolable, crying and clinging to the leg of my kindergarten teacher, Mrs. Marshall, until my mother (who had been called by the school principal) arrived to take me home. Now, almost 30 years later, I approach another last day of kindergarten, having nearly completed my time as a graduate student in the Lifelong Kindergarten research group at the MIT Media Lab. I am again filled with the sadness of leaving a magical place. But this sadness is easily surpassed by the gratitude and appreciation that I feel for the many people who have contributed to the work described here and to the wonder that I have experienced in the past five years. I would like to begin by thanking my advisor, Mitch Resnick. Mitch – I would not be here without you. I cannot sufficiently express my gratitude for having had the opportunity to be your student. I can only hope that I am able to support others in the ways you have supported me. I would also like to extend my most sincere appreciation to my readers, Barry Fishman and Ethan Zuckerman. Both Barry and Ethan are an amazing combination of always-encouraging and always-provoking – a combination that is disarmingly productive. Barry – thank you for your incredible generosity over the past five years. You are so giving with your time, advice, opportunities, and beignets. And thank you for being the first to ask me the question that has shaped my work in every way: “Why Scratch in schools?” Ethan – thank you for always being such a careful and thoughtful reader, highlighting areas to pursue in greater depth and encouraging criticality (an image of you reading with Wolverine claws is now deeply embedded in my imagination). The magic of the Media Lab has been central to my work – I couldn’t have done this work, in this way, anywhere else. I’ve had the opportunity to meet some of my closest collaborators and friends: Stephanie Gayle, Shani Daily, and Sajid Sadi. I’ve had the opportunity to work with inspiring faculty members, including Sherry Turkle and Judith Donath. I’ve had the opportunity to belong to an amazing research group, learning and playing alongside my Lifelong Kindergarten colleagues, and a wonderful community of Media Lab students, staff, and faculty. A special thanks to Linda Peterson and to Kevin Davis, Cornelle King, Ryan Walsh, Bill Lombardi, and Greg Tucker – thank you for your constant support and help in navigating all things Media Lab. I will miss seeing you each day. Numerous interns have contributed to my research over the past five years. Thanks to my Harvard graduate student interns – Jeanne Wellings, Robyn Bykofsky, Michelle Chung, Ashley Lee, Amanda Valverde, Joe Prempeh, Linda Qian, Anushka Paul, Krista Shapton, Mydhili Bayyapunedi, Gracie Elqura, Mylo Lam, Aaron Morris, Vanessa Gennarelli, Jen Lavalle, Alex Schoenfeld, and Vanity Gee – as well as my MIT and Yale undergraduate interns – Monica Oliver, Laura Wacker, Crystal Noel, and Jane Long. You have contributed to every aspect of this research. It would not have happened without your hard work, persistence, passion, and endless enthusiasm. A special thank-you to Michelle, who started as an intern in 2009 and joined Team ScratchEd full-time as research staff in 2010. It has been a pleasure developing the ScratchEd research program with you. I don’t express it often enough, but I deeply appreciate the time, energy, and kindness that you dedicate to the work. There is life beyond the Lab, however, and I’d like to thank my family for reminding me of that. In particular, my sister, Shannon Brennan, and my brother-in-law, Dan Montsion, have been constantly supportive, providing much-needed fun and offering their understanding when life was too hectic. Finally, I would like to thank my partner, Jeff Hawson. Jeff – I really wanted this big fish and you helped me catch it. I love you so much for never questioning why this fish might be important, and for reminding me why I was so excited about the fish when things were hard and I doubted that it could be caught. We did it! To all of the young Scratchers and Scratch educators, who were so generous in sharing their time and their ideas. ## Contents Chapter 1 **COMPUTATIONAL CULTURE** - What To Learn - How To Learn - Studying Learning In Computational Culture Chapter 2 **CONTEXTS** - Scratch - ScratchEd - Constructionist Aspirations Chapter 3 **CONVERSATIONS** - Collecting - Analyzing Chapter 4 **KIDS** - Enjoying Freedom - Getting Stuck - Making Progress - Finding Audience Chapter 5 **TEACHERS** - Supporting Problem-Solvers - Negotiating Open-Endedness - Building Culture - Legitimizing Learning Chapter 6 **AGENCY/STRUCTURE** - In The Wild - In Classrooms Chapter 7 **THE BEST OF BOTH WORLDS** - Either-Or - Intermediate Possibilities Epilogue **LIFE AFTER SCRATCH** REFERENCES APPENDIX A: QUANTITATIVE PARTICIPATION DATA APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW THEMES In this chapter, I describe the new demands on and new opportunities for learners in a computation-centric culture. I introduce my research questions, which focus on the role of structure in supporting the agency of computational creators, in both out-of-school and in-school settings. We live in a computational culture – a culture in which we are surrounded by computational systems and interfaces, from social networks to banking infrastructure, to entertainment platforms, to transportation systems. This culture introduces new expectations and new opportunities for learning, creating new demands for *what* to learn and offering new possibilities for *how* to learn. Two recent events illustrate these expectations and opportunities. **WHAT TO LEARN** On June 21, 2012, the microblogging platform Twitter was unavailable for several hours. Twitter’s Vice-President of Engineering, Mazen Rawashdeh, posted an event report and apology on the company’s blog, with the title “Today’s turbulence explained”. Not how we wanted today to go. At approximately 9:00am PDT, we discovered that Twitter was inaccessible for all web users, and mobile clients were not showing new Tweets. We immediately began to investigate the issue and found that there was a cascading bug in one of our infrastructure components. This wasn’t due to a hack or our new office or Euro 2012 or GIF avatars, as some have speculated today. A “cascading bug” is a bug with an effect that isn’t confined to a particular software element, but rather its effect “cascades” into other elements as well. One of the characteristics of such a bug is that it can have a significant impact on all users, worldwide, which was the case today. As soon as we discovered it, we took corrective actions, which included rolling back to a previous stable version of Twitter. We began recovery at around 10:10am PDT, dropped again around 10:40am PDT, and then began full recovery at 11:08am PDT. We are currently conducting a comprehensive review to ensure that we can avoid this chain of events in the future. For the past six months, we’ve enjoyed our highest marks for site reliability and stability ever: at least 99.96% and often 99.99%. In simpler terms, this means that in an average 24-hour period, --- 1 http://blog.twitter.com/2012/06/todays-turbulence-explained.html twitter.com has been stable and available to everyone for roughly 23 hours, 59 minutes and 40-ish seconds. Not today though. We know how critical Twitter has become for you – for many of us. Every day, we bring people closer to their heroes, causes, political movements, and much more. One user, Arghya Roychowdhury, put it this way: “OMG…twitter was down….closest thing to living without oxygen for most of us…” It’s imperative that we remain available around the world, and today we stumbled. For that we offer our most sincere apologies and hope you’ll be able to breathe easier now. In the hours and days following the service interruption, the media coverage of the event demonstrated both the dependence that many people have on Twitter – as evidenced by articles titled *Twitter users frantic as site crashes for hours* (Telegraph), *A rough day for Twitter addicts* (CNET), *Outage hurts Twitter more than it hurts you* (Wired News), *Twitter crashes hard, Internet freaks out* (CNNMoney) – and a lack of understanding about how the service functions, in general, and what caused this particular period of disruption – as evidenced by articles such as *Twitter suffers sustained outage in hacker attack* (Reuters), *Twitter says outage wasn’t hackers or Euro 2012, but a software fault* (The Guardian), *Twitter says bug caused site to crash but was it really a hacker attack?* (Daily Mail), *Twitter blames ‘bug’ for outage* (Wall Street Journal), *Twitter had to use older version of site to function Thursday* (Los Angeles Times). I learned about the Twitter disruption the day after it occurred, while watching four morning-show hosts on CNN. Their exchange illustrated that not everyone was satisfied with Twitter’s “explanation”: We know there are some serious things facing this nation. We have high unemployment numbers, people losing homes. There is one bright spot in the world, though – Twitter’s back, thank god. --- 2 http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/bestoftv/2012/06/22/exp-point-get-real-twitter-crash.cnn 11:59am, just before noon yesterday, the microblogging site crashed. It was so bad that they never even put up the little “failwhale” that you get. Twitter returned around 1pm, less than an hour later, though, crashed again. Around 3 in the afternoon, Twitter’s PR account tweeted that the issue was caused by a “cascading bug” – whatever that means. (Co-host) I know – that’s my new excuse for anything now. Oh, [with mock exasperation] it’s a cascading bug… The host’s “whatever that means” response to Twitter’s “cascading bug” explanation was striking. The tone was ostensibly playful, a metaphoric eye-roll in response to yet more of the computational jargon that increasingly seeps into everyday conversation. But just underneath the playfulness, it wasn’t hard to sense some frustration, dismissiveness, and resignation – the expressions of a helplessness often felt in our technologically saturated world, that if only we had greater command of and fluency with computation, all of the promises made about technology improving our personal, professional, and public lives could be fulfilled. Most people, confronted daily by computational culture, experience some degree of this helplessness. This reality has given rise to a sense of urgency – expressed by a variety of sources from computer science education researchers (e.g., Guzdial & Forte, 2005) to literary theorists (e.g., Hayles, 2005) to government agencies (e.g., Chopra, 2012) – that everyone should be able to fully participate in computational culture. The urgency stems, in part, from a concern that unless we understand how to actively participate in computational culture, we risk being controlled by it. Everyday life is increasingly regulated by complex technologies that most people neither understand nor believe they can do much to influence. The very technologies they create to control their life environment paradoxically can become a constraining force that, in turn, controls how they think and behave. (Bandura, 2001, p. 17) As Appadurai (1996) observed (about the world of advertising, though it applies equally well to the culture of computation), we will find that we are no longer “actors”, if we ever were, and that we have become “choosers” instead (p. 42). There is significant debate about what constitutes an acceptable standard of participation in computational culture. For example, does participation require only that one is able to use computational applications? Further, the name given to this participation and knowing varies, having taken on several different forms over the past decade – “21st century skills”, “IT fluency”, “technological literacy”, “digital literacy”, and more recently “computational thinking” (Hargittai, 2009; ITEA, 2007; National Research Council, 1999; National Research Council, 2010; The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009; Wing, 2006). The position I adopt is that to fully participate in computational culture, one needs to develop as a computational creator, and that learning how to program is a particularly rich activity for supporting this development and ensuring participation. Computational creators are familiar with certain computational concepts, such as sequences, loops, and variables. Computational creators are also familiar with computational practices, such as being able to remix and reuse others’ code, or being able to abstract and modularize ideas. Furthermore, and perhaps most importantly, computational creators develop new perspectives on computation, “certain ways of understanding the world, … kinds of knowing that derive from a computer culture” (Papert, 1993, p. 51). With these new perspectives, an individual can see how computation can be used to express ideas and solve problems, to enable new connections between people, and to empower people to ask questions about computational culture. Knowing how to program empowers people to participate as creators – not just consumers – in computational culture. We take computational culture for granted at the Media Lab, a place where people are able to participate as sophisticated readers and writers of computation. But most people do not participate as writers in computational culture (or even understand what that might imply) and often even struggle as readers. This gap between reading and writing is often compounded for young people, with narratives of young people as “digital natives” leading to expectations about assumed-to-exist abilities that are, in fact, unfulfilled (Selwyn, 2009). Understanding programming and understanding code is a critical layer of modern culture – and should not “remain the exclusive concern of computer programmers and engineers” (Hayles, 2005, p. 61). As Rushkoff (2010) argued, if we leave programming to a select group, “we risk being programmed ourselves” (p. 133). **HOW TO LEARN** On May 2, 2012, Director of MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Anant Agarwal, MIT President Susan Hockfield, Harvard President Drew Gilpin Faust, MIT Provost Rafael Reif, and Harvard Provost Alan Garber met with members of the media to announce edX, a new Harvard-MIT venture in online education. Agarwal welcomed the group and began his remarks by talking about a “revolution” in education, made possible by computational culture.\(^3\) There is a revolution brewing in Boston and beyond. It does not have to do with tea. It does not have to do with the Boston Harbor. It does not have to do with guns and it does not have to do with the sword. Instead, this revolution has to do with the pen and the mouse. Online education, it is revolutionary. Online education will change the world. In a prototype course that we’re offering as we speak, the number of students around the world that are taking it is insane, 120,000 students around the world. Online education is disruptive. It will completely change the world. Students from Tunisia, Pakistan, India, New Zealand, Australia, Colombia, the USA, Canada, all working on learning, all collaborating and working together. Students creating small groups in Cairo, meeting in tea shops and discussing, guess what, technology and education and learning, humanities, sciences. \(^3\) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7pYwGpKMXuA It is unbelievable. Online education truly has the potential to change the world. Modern technology such as the Internet, cloud computing, computing, machine learning, and so on are really coming together to make it possible for us to offer online education at a massive scale around the world. The idea of learning online was not what I found to be the most interesting or novel aspect of the edX announcement, yet another in a seeming multitude of similar announcements and initiatives. Rather, it was that two of the world’s most highly-esteemed, traditional educational institutions were significantly investing in these online activities and in the new opportunities for learning made possible by computational culture – activities and opportunities that have the potential to fundamentally disrupt the centrality of the “school” and traditional educational settings. For the past hundred years, school has been assumed to be the primary site of learning. But increasingly, as evidenced by the edX announcement, school is no longer the only place of learning, a trend particularly supported by the use of computer networks (Collins & Halverson, 2009; Ito et al., 2009; Thomas & Brown, 2011). Learners have new control and new responsibilities in these new places of learning. We grew up with the idea that learning means taking courses in school. … [T]he identification of education with schooling is slowly unraveling, as new technologies move learning outside of school’s walls. In some sense, the divorce of schooling and learning may take us back to an era where individuals negotiate their own learning experiences. (Collins & Halverson, 2009, p. 129) Computational culture moves beyond needing to “funnel all educational programs through the teacher” to “provid[ing] the learner with new links to the world” (Illich, 1971, p. 73). Learning – whether it happens in school, at work, at home, with friends, family, colleagues, or strangers – should situate the learner at the center of the process, participating in a way that respects and supports their *agency* as learners. Agency is multiply defined, and has been associated with a wide variety of ideas, including “self-hood, motivation, will, purposiveness, intentionality, choice, initiative, freedom, and creativity” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, p. 962). Here, following Bandura (2001) and Martin (2004), my working definition of learner agency is *a learner’s ability to define and pursue learning goals*, which enables him or her “to play a part in their self-development, adaptation, and self-renewal with changing times” (Bandura, 2001, p. 2). Being actively involved in defining and pursuing one’s learning goals, rather than as passive consumer of externally-imposed educational objectives, is simultaneously an *independent* role and a *connected* role for learners. It is an independent role in that learners have the freedom and responsibility to identify what they care about, what they are interested in, and what they will need to achieve their goals. It is a connected role in that learners, enabled by network technologies in computational culture, have the opportunity and expectation to form links to resources and with other learners, to seek out particular structures for support and scaffolding of their learning. But although we are entering an era in which learner agency is of particular importance, there is uncertainty about the processes involved in fostering young people’s agency as learners. In particular, a central question about supporting learner agency is the role of *structure*. Like agency, structure is a word that, despite its pervasiveness, eludes crisp definition, appearing “in social scientific discourse as a powerful metonymic device, identifying some part of a complex social reality as explaining the whole” (Sewell, 1992, p. 2). Following Sewell’s (1992) theorization (based on the work of Giddens and Bourdieu), structure is manifested through *rules, roles, and resources, both explicit and assumed*. In a classroom, for example, a lesson plan is a resource that serves as explicit structure and the teacher as expert is an often-enacted assumed role. The tension between agency and structure – and the implications for the design of learning environments – has been an ongoing discussion in educational research (e.g., Craig, 1956; Anthony, 1973; Perkins, 1991). One extreme reaction to the history of learning environments with low learner agency has been to completely remove any structure, as it might unduly impinge on the agency of the learner (Kafai, 2006). In the context of digital media and learning, this reaction against structure is fueled by assumptions about digital natives (presumed to already know everything or to be able to learn it independently) and by assumptions about schools (seemingly unchanged in the past 100 years and ill-equipped to support the agency-centered learning necessary in the 21st century). But eliminating structure does not ideally support learning, as structure can benefit learners in their development as individuals capable of defining and pursuing learning goals. Scardamalia and Bereiter (1991), while supporting environments of high learner agency, highlighted the value provided by the structure of other learners and of tools for identifying what is known and not known, and cautioned against “romanticizing the idea of the child as independent knowledge builder” (p. 40). Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) argued that a lack of structure disadvantages novice learners, who benefit from “direct, strong instructional guidance” in defining and achieving their learning goals (p. 83). Mayer (2004), in examining the particular context of how young people develop as computational creators, argued that a review of the youth computer programming literature of the mid-1980s (mostly connected to the low-structure aspirations of the Logo programming movement) illustrated “the failure of pure discovery as an effective instructional method” (p. 17). Further, aspirations for removing all structure are misplaced, as they confuse the fundamental relationship between agency and structure. A “structureless” environment is not actually an option, because it does not exist – agency and structure are not in opposition, they mutually constitute each other (Bandura, 2001; Buckingham & Sefton-Green, 2003; Emirbayer & Mische, 1998; Freeman, 1972; Giddens, 1984; Schwartz & Okita, 2009). The connections between agency and structure are elaborated in Giddens’ (1984) structuration theory. We have agency through structure, and we have structure through agency – Theorizing about human agency and collectivities is replete with contentious dualisms that social cognitive theory rejects. These dualities include personal agency versus social structure, self-centered agency versus communality, and individualism versus collectivism. The agency-sociostructural duality pits psychological theories and sociostructural theories as rival conceptions of human behavior or as representing different levels and temporal proximity of causation. Human functioning is rooted in social systems. Therefore, personal agency operates within a broad network of sociostructural influences. For the most part, social structures represent authorized systems of rules, social practices, and sanctions designed to regulate human affairs. These sociostructural functions are carried out by human beings occupying authorized roles. (Bandura, 2001, p. 14) In applying structuration theory to thinking about how people learn and to the design of learning environments in computational culture, we see that structure need not be in opposition to agency. As structure “is always both constraining and enabling” (Giddens, 1984, p. 25), there exists the potential, with careful design, to employ structure in a way that amplifies learner agency. Further, different structures will constrain and enable in different ways, and different learning environments have different structures. Accordingly, designers of learning environments need to consider the affordances of the settings in which they work and how to design for learner agency in relationship to structure. **STUDYING LEARNING IN COMPUTATIONAL CULTURE** Developed by the Lifelong Kindergarten research group at the MIT Media Lab, Scratch – which is both an authoring environment for programming interactive media projects and an online platform for sharing those projects – has served as a particularly rich context for supporting both the *what* and *how* of learning in computational culture. Since Scratch’s launch in May 2007, hundreds of thousands of young people have downloaded the Scratch authoring environment, developed millions of interactive media projects, and shared their creations with other young learners via the online community. Scratch has also been increasingly used in formal learning environments, such as K-12 classrooms, with teachers using Scratch with learners across a range of ages and across a variety of curricular areas. But a tool cannot dictate how it is used in a particular environment, despite the intentions or aspirations of the tool’s designer (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1991). As such, the use of Scratch has been significantly influenced by the structures present in individual learning environments, which has led to different learner activities and varying levels of learner agency. As a member of the group that develops Scratch and as the lead for educational outreach efforts with Scratch, I have been fascinated by the ways in which Scratch is employed in different settings to support young people’s development as computational creators. In particular, I have focused on two settings that would seem to represent extremes along an agency/structure spectrum – the use of Scratch by kids at home to support their own learning (a setting that is assumed to be high agency and low structure) and the use of Scratch by teachers in K-12 classrooms to support the learning of their students (a setting that is assumed to be low agency and high structure). The tension between structure and learner agency (and how it varies across settings) is of central importance in the design of all learning environments – and has preoccupied me as a designer and researcher. This tension lacks both theoretical and empirical attention in the research literature, particularly in the context of digital media learning and computational creation. As Emirbayer and Mische (1998) observed, there is a need for work that is grounded in experience – “the empirical challenge becomes that of locating, comparing, and predicting the relationship between different kinds of agentic processes and particular structuring contexts of action” Drawing on the contexts of young people working with Scratch at home and teachers working with Scratch in K-12 classrooms, my work is guided by two central research questions, as a way of developing understandings about the creative activities and agentic processes of young computational creators: 1. How do out-of-school and in-school learning environments support the activities of computational creators? 2. Within these learning environments, how does structure enable, rather than constrain, the agency of young computational creators? My explorations of these questions are organized into seven chapters. In Chapter 1, *Computational Culture*, I describe the new demands on and new opportunities for learners in a computation-centric culture. The chapter is organized into three parts. The first part – *What To Learn* – describes computational culture and how computational creation supports participation in the culture. The second part – *How To Learn* – describes the new opportunities for learning in computational culture. Here, I introduce *agency* (defined as a learner’s ability to define and pursue learning goals) and *structure* (defined as rules, roles, and resources, both explicit and assumed), key theoretical ideas that guide this work. I argue for the centrality of agency in learning environments, and for considering agency and structure as mutually constitutive (rather than in opposition). The third part – *Studying Learning In Computational Culture* – describes the context for my research. I introduce my research questions, which focus on the role of structure in supporting the agency of computational creators, in both out-of-school and in-school settings. In Chapter 2, *Contexts*, I introduce the two main settings for this thesis: kids working with Scratch at home and teachers working with Scratch in K-12 classrooms. The chapter is organized into three parts. The first part – *Scratch* – describes the origins and features of the Scratch authoring environment and the Scratch online community. The second part – *ScratchEd* – describes the origins and features of the ScratchEd online community and other educational outreach activities. The third part – *Constructionist Aspirations* – provides theoretical context for these settings. I describe my central assumptions about (and aspirations for) learning – how to support kids and teachers in designing, personalizing, sharing, and reflecting, ideas grounded in constructionist theories of learning. I end with a reflection on constructionist perspectives on agency and structure. In Chapter 3, *Conversations*, I describe my process for developing understandings and descriptions of the out-of-school and in-school learning environments. For each setting, my primary source of data is conversations with the people primarily responsible for navigating and negotiating the various structures of the learning environment. For the out-of-school setting, I focus on conversations with kids working with Scratch at home, through the Scratch online community. For the in-school setting, I focus on conversations with teachers working with Scratch at school, in K-12 classrooms. The chapter is organized into two parts. The first part – *Collecting* – explains the data collection procedure, describes the backgrounds of the people I spoke with and their representativeness, and discusses the de/limitations of the data collection process for each of the two settings. The second part – *Analyzing* – explains my analytical approach, describing how the theoretical framework of agency and structure serves as a foundation for subsequent analysis. In Chapter 4, *Kids*, I describe how kids talked about their goals and aspirations for creating and connecting with Scratch – and the tensions that emerged when striving to achieve those goals. The chapter is organized thematically into four sections, based on issues that kids highlighted as important and that recurred across the conversations. The first theme – *Enjoying Freedom* – highlights the freedom that kids enjoyed both in product (the diversity of creation) and in process (the responsibility of defining and pursuing their own challenges). The second theme – *Getting Stuck* – focuses on the problems kids encountered during their open-ended creative design activities. The third theme – *Making Progress* – outlines the various strategies, both individual and social, that kids employed to overcome their creative obstacles and to develop as computational creators. The fourth and final theme – *Finding Audience* – shares the importance kids attribute to (and the difficulties they face in) seeking attention and finding audience for their creative work. In Chapter 5, *Teachers*, I describe tensions that teachers identified between their aspirations and the actualities of implementing Scratch in the classroom. The chapter is organized thematically into four sections. The first theme – *Supporting Problem-Solvers* – unpacks teachers’ motivations for working with Scratch. The second theme – *Negotiating Open-Endedness* – explores the challenges teachers face when trying to implement open-ended design within the structure of the classroom. The third theme – *Building Culture* – outlines strategies that teachers have developed in response to the challenges that accompany open-ended design activities. The fourth and final theme – *Legitimizing Learning* – describes the challenges teachers experience when trying to understand and explain the learning that is taking place in their learning environments. In Chapter 6, *Agency/Structure*, I focus on the relationship between agency and structure, as manifested in the learning environments described in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. This chapter is organized into two parts. The first part – *In The Wild* – revisits the experiences of kids working with Scratch at home. I describe the structures encountered by kids in the Scratch online community, from the perspective of these young, primarily self-managing learners. The second part – *In Classrooms* – revisits the experiences of teachers working with Scratch at school. I describe the structures encountered by kids and teachers in K-12 classrooms, from the perspective of the teachers who are responsible for designing these learning environments. For each setting, I identify the sources of structure encountered, accessed, and adapted, and discuss how those structures enabled or constrained the agency and activities of kids and teachers. In Chapter 7, *The Best of Both Worlds*, I connect the threads from the previous chapters, arguing that designers of agency-supporting learning environments, rather than setting structure in opposition to agency, should judiciously employ structure in order to amplify agency. This chapter is organized into two parts. The first part – *Either-Or* – illustrates, with a story, how too much and/or too little structure can inhibit learner agency. The second part – *Intermediate Possibilities* – offers strategies for designers of learning environments, suggesting opportune ways of introducing structure in the service of learner agency. In the epilogue, *Life After Scratch*, I reflect on the future from three perspectives – as a researcher, as a designer, and as a learner. Chapter 1 32 In this chapter, I introduce the two main settings for this thesis: kids working with Scratch at home and teachers working with Scratch in K-12 classrooms. I also describe how constructionist approaches to learning influence my perspective on agency and structure. Developing as a computational creator through programming, thereby enabling one to participate as a writer and creator in computational culture, has not been possible for many people, due to a lack of accessible tools, personally meaningful activities, and supportive others. People need tools that make it easy to get started. But programming languages have historically been difficult to use, involving specialized syntax that is unforgiving of even the smallest error, such as a missing semicolon (Kelleher & Pausch, 2005). People need meaningful activities that make it worthwhile to participate. But computer science education has long been criticized for developing learning environments and activities that are disconnected from the passions and interests of young people, or only appealing to a very narrow subset of young people (Resnick & Silverman, 2005; Turkle & Papert, 1990). Finally, people need access to others to support their learning. But despite increased awareness of computational creation (from events like Maker Faire, movies like The Social Network, and initiatives like Codecademy’s Code Year), programming generally has an unflattering public image – something that is done by socially awkward people, often men, who are uninterested in interacting and working with others (Klawe, Whitney, & Simard, 2009; WGBH & ACM, 2009). Along all three of these dimensions (tools, activities, others), computer science and programming have a bad reputation – so it is unsurprising that there is a cultural devaluing of these activities and declining participation (Carter, 2006; CSTA, 2006; Foster, 2005; Maillet & Porta, 2010). In response to these needs, the Lifelong Kindergarten research group has been developing Scratch. Scratch was designed to provide an easy-to-use authoring tool, a context for personally meaningful activities, and a setting for interacting with others, enabling young people to engage in computational creation. But design aspirations do not always align with actual use – and the interestingness and complexity of how Scratch is used to support learners emerges from the different settings in which it is employed. In this chapter, I introduce the two main contexts for this thesis: kids working with Scratch at home and teachers working with Scratch in K-12 classrooms. I describe these contexts from my perspective as a designer, both as a member of the Scratch Team (supporting the development of the Scratch authoring environment and online community) and as lead for the ScratchEd Team (supporting the development of the ScratchEd online community and other initiatives for teachers). The chapter is organized into three parts. The first part – *Scratch* – describes the origins and features of the Scratch authoring environment and the Scratch online community. The second part – *ScratchEd* – describes the origins and features of the ScratchEd online community and other educational outreach activities. The third part – *Constructionist Aspirations* – provides theoretical context for these settings. I describe my central assumptions about (and aspirations for) learning – how to support kids and teachers in designing, personalizing, sharing, and reflecting, ideas grounded in constructionist theories of learning. I end with a reflection on constructionist perspectives on agency and structure. **SCRATCH** Logo\(^1\), a programming language that was initially developed in the late 1960s by Seymour Papert and colleagues at MIT, in cooperation with the technology firm Bolt, Beranek and Newman, is a significant predecessor to and intellectual inspiration for Scratch. In particular, Papert’s vision for the types of relationships to expect and encourage between young people and computers still resonates today. In most contemporary educational situations where children come into contact with computers the computer is used to put children through their paces, to provide exercises of an appropriate level of difficulty, to provide feedback, and to dispense information. The computer programming the child. In the LOGO environment the relationship is reversed: The child, even at preschool ages, is in control: The child programs the computer. (Papert, 1980, p. 19) --- \(^1\) For a history of the development and proliferation of Logo, I recommend visiting http://el.media.mit.edu/logo-foundation/logo/index.html Motivated by a desire to introduce opportunities for computational creation in the Computer Clubhouse network of after-school technology programs\textsuperscript{2}, Scratch builds on the Logo work, as well as the work of others focused on the accessibility of computational creation, including Design By Numbers (Maeda, 2001), LogoBlocks (Begel, 1996), Etoys (Kay, 2005), and Alice (Pausch et al., 1995). Scratch is a visual, blocks-based programming language that enables young people to create interactive media, such as games, stories, and simulations. Scratch’s visual approach to programming differentiates it from most programming languages, which typically require the programmer to type text-based instructions (e.g., C, Java, Logo) and grapple with any resulting syntax errors. Young designers snap together Scratch programming blocks to create artifacts in the digital world, just as one might snap together LEGO bricks to create artifacts in the physical world. The Scratch programming language offers more than 100 programming blocks, grouped into eight different categories (\textit{motion, looks, sound, pen, control, sensing, operators}, and \textit{variables}). In a Scratch project, blocks are used to manipulate the attributes of objects, called \textit{sprites}. For example, blocks in the \textit{motion} category can be used to modify a sprite’s movement and position, and blocks in the \textit{looks} category can be used to modify a sprite’s visual appearance. Scratch projects are created by adding sprites and then programming their behaviors by snapping together blocks from these different categories. A sample Scratch project is shown in Figure 2.1. In this project, \textit{control, motion, looks}, and \textit{sound} blocks have been snapped together, so that when the space key is pressed, a cat (the default sprite) repeatedly dances back and forth to a drum beat, while simultaneously changing color. Using this basic mechanism of adding sprites and then connecting blocks to specify the behavior of the sprites, kids can develop a wide \textsuperscript{2} To learn more about the initial conceptualization of Scratch, I recommend reading the National Science Foundation proposal that funded the initial Scratch development work: http://web.media.mit.edu/~mres/papers/scratch-proposal.pdf range of personalized projects. Figure 2.2 illustrates some of the possibilities: an interactive joke project, featuring a series of knock-knock exchanges between a monkey and a lion; an interactive art gallery project, featuring explorations into computer-based art; a Sims-inspired project, enabling the user to design their own office; a side-scrolling maze game in which a small green square is navigated past a series of hazards. In addition to providing an authoring environment for computational media, Scratch provides a setting in which designing, creating, and learning can be shared with others. Papert (1980) described his vision for what such a setting might look like, inspired by a visit to Brazil and to the Brazilian samba schools, the venues in which citizens prepare their Carnival dance performances. He explained what he identified as the essential elements of samba school learning. The samba school, although not “exportable” to an alien culture, represents a set of attributes a learning environment should and could have. Learning is not separate from reality. The samba school has a purpose, and learning is integrated in the school for this purpose. Novice is not separated from expert and the experts are also learning. LOGO environments are like samba schools in some ways, unlike them in other ways. (p. 179) Although he felt that the samba school vision had not yet been attained with Logo, he was optimistic that samba schools for computational creation would soon be realized. I have no doubt that in the next few years we shall see the formation of some computational environments that deserve to be called “samba schools for computation.” (p. 182) Inspired by Papert’s vision for computational samba schools and by early experiments in communities for computational creation (e.g., Bruckman, 1997), the Lifelong Kindergarten research group created a website to accompany the Scratch authoring environment. This website, *the Scratch online community*, is intended to provide a venue for Scratch designers to connect with one another, sharing their design work and supporting each other’s learning (Figure 2.3). Launched in May 2007, the Scratch online community has grown considerably, with hundreds of thousands of members sharing Scratch projects (Resnick et al., 2009). Each day, members, mostly between the ages of 8 and 16, upload more than 2000 new Scratch --- **Figure 2.3** The Scratch online community homepage. projects to the website – and more than 2.8 million projects have been shared in the first five years. The online community site includes social-networking components, supporting young creators’ interactions with one another (Monroy-Hernandez, 2012). Each member has a profile page that displays their projects and other dimensions of their participation, such as their friends and galleries of projects (Figure 2.4a). Members can leave comments on projects, express appreciation for projects through the Love It link, and add projects to galleries (Figure 2.4b). In addition to interacting with and providing feedback for others’ work, members can download projects to study how they were made, looking at the sprites and blocks of the project. A culture of remixing others’ work (with appropriate credit) is strongly encouraged in the Scratch community. Beyond the help that accompanies the authoring environment (such as help screens and starter projects), the Scratch Team established several sources of help and guidance on the site for newcomers and more experienced creators. Young creators ask and answer questions in the Scratch online community discussion forums (Figure 2.5a). They can find answers to commonly asked questions on various information pages (Figure 2.5b), and find getting-started resources, such as video tutorials and print guides (Figure 2.5c). I joined the Lifelong Kindergarten research group shortly after the Scratch online community was launched in 2007. It was a fortuitous time to arrive, affording the opportunity to study participation in the online community as it has grown from tens of members to hundreds of thousands of members. (I discuss member demographics... and participation data in more detail in subsequent chapters.) The Scratch online community has been my main entry-point for connecting with young people who are working with Scratch in out-of-school settings, primarily at home. Figure 2.5 Sources of support established by the Scratch Team in the online community: (a) discussion forums, (b) information pages, like the Scratch FAQ, and (c) resources, like the Scratch Cards. Getting Started with Scratch Software What are the system requirements for Scratch 1.4? - Display: 800 x 480 or larger, thousands or millions of colors (16-bit color or greater) - Operating System: Windows XP SP2 or later, Mac OS X 10.4.11 or later, Linux 2.6.13 or later (For other versions of Linux, see Operating System Requirements.) - Disk: at least 130 megabytes of free space to install Scratch. - CPU: an Intel Pentium 4 1.7 GHz or faster is recommended to run Scratch, but older computers may run Scratch slowly. - Sound / Video: Sound playback requires speakers (or headphones), and recording requires a microphone. Many laptops have speakers and microphones built-in; otherwise, you can connect external speakers and a microphone to your computer. - If your computer doesn’t meet these requirements, you can try installing a previous version of Scratch. How do I make a project? To learn more about making projects, visit our How To Get Started page. We also recommend looking at the sample projects that came with Scratch software. Click Open and choose a project in Animation, Games, or any of the other folders. In each folder, the simpler projects are listed first. Scratch Cards Scratch cards provide a quick way to learn new Scratch code. The front of the card shows what you can do; the back shows how to do it. Click to view and print each card, or download a .zip file with all the cards. You can also take a look at projects using the resources on Scratch Cards. Much of the early use of Scratch took place in homes and afterschool settings, and many of the young people I interacted with in the early days of the Scratch online community came from home environments that encourage and support creative explorations with technology. But a growing number of schools have started to include Scratch in classroom activities. The adoption of activities like Scratch in schools is essential for broadening and diversifying the community of young people who are participating as computational creators, moving beyond early adopters. Although the Scratch online community has a large and active membership, it was not designed to support educators – it was designed for people who want to create and share projects, while educators are primarily concerned with helping *other* people create projects. The disparity between the design and teachers’ requirements came increasingly into focus when, shortly after joining the group in 2007, I began to receive numerous emails from teachers. In these messages, teachers were sharing stories about their experiences with Scratch. They were requesting curricular resources – or offering to contribute resources that they had created. They were asking questions and offering to respond to others’ questions. They were looking for ways to connect with other educators working with Scratch who were nearby or had similar interests. Based on these educator interests and motivated by the *community of practice* literature – a model in which teachers as learners have access to peers, shared goals, and resources (Wenger, 1998; Barab, Barnett, & Squire, 2002) – I developed the *ScratchEd* site for educators. Teachers interested in or already actively working with Scratch can use ScratchEd to share stories, exchange resources, ask and answer questions, and find other educators (Figure 2.6). In designing the ScratchEd site, I was inspired and influenced by others’ work in online communities for educators, including Tapped In (Farooq, Schank, Harris, Fusco, & Schlager, 2007), KNOW (Brunvand, Fishman, & Marx, 2005), WIDE World (Wiske, Perkins, & Spicer, 2006), and Inquiry Learning Forum (Barab, MaKinster, & Scheckler, 2003). ScratchEd made its public debut in August 2009. Since then, in its first three years, more than 5800 educators from around the world have joined the community, and have contributed more than 180 stories, 470 resources, and 2,800 discussion posts. Over the past year, the site has received an average of 62,000 page views from 11,000 unique visitors per month, predominantly from the United States. Although some of the initial teachers working with Scratch employed learner-centered, agency-supporting approaches in their teaching, many others adopted more traditional, teacher-centered, “instructionist” strategies due to various pressures, such as insufficient support, lack of resources, expectations about roles, or challenges in accommodating standards (Rainio, 2008; Sawyer, 2004). With these constraints, the structure of school often operates in opposition to a learner-agency-based approach, for example, by enforcing homogeneity in activity or relying on models of learning as an individual activity. But teachers have a crucial role to play in supporting learner agency within learning environments. As discussed in the previous chapter, supporting learner agency does not imply removing all structure and support. Teachers can provide much-needed metacognitive support, helping students define problems, persist through challenges, and reflect on experiences – with the teacher modeling to the learners what being a learner can look like (Brown, 1994; Duffy Figure 2.6 The ScratchEd online community front page and Members page. Beyond pedagogical challenges, teachers also often lack comfort and confidence with technology. More than a decade has passed since Schofield (1995) and Cuban (2001) wrote about the challenges of meaningfully introducing technology in K-12 classrooms, yet many of the same problems – including lack of understanding about how to include technology and lack of support to improve that understanding – persist (Buckingham & Willet, 2006; Buckingham, 2007; Palfrey & Gasser, 2008; U.S. DOE, 2010). While many models have been proposed to support teachers, particularly in supporting teachers’ experimentation with new pedagogical strategies and with use of technology, collaboration among teachers has proven to be particularly effective (Dexter, Anderson, & Ronnkvist, 2002; Dexter, Seashore, & Anderson, 2002; Fuller, 2000; Schlager & Fusco, 2003). A blend of online and face-to-face interactions best supports a community of practice, with online interactions and face-to-face interactions mutually reinforcing the development of relationships, understanding of practice, and building of capacity among teachers (De Souza & Preece, 2004; Goodfellow, 2005; Hew & Hara, 2007; Kirschner & Lai, 2007; Vaughan, 2004). Based on this research, it was evident that, although the ScratchEd online community provided some support for teachers’ understandings of Scratch and abilities to develop student-centered Scratch learning environments, additional support was needed. Support was also needed to better accommodate all of the settings in which Scratch is being used: across disciplines, from computing studies to language arts to science to visual arts, across ages, from kindergarten to college, and by educators who have varying levels of familiarity with Scratch and computational creation. Accordingly, we have been expanding the ScratchEd professional development offerings, work made possible by funding from the National Science Foundation Discovery Research K-12 program. First, we have been featuring stories, resources, and discussions in the ScratchEd online community that highlight various strategies and approaches for designing learning environments. Second, to accompany the ScratchEd online community activities, we have been organizing face-to-face and online gatherings where teachers can develop deeper understandings of Scratch and student-centered approaches to learning. This has included quarterly introductory workshops for educators new to Scratch, monthly meetups for educators with some Scratch experiences, and monthly webinars that are recorded and shared on ScratchEd. Finally, we have been developing resources for teachers to use when introducing Scratch to students and when conducting workshops for their colleagues. For example, I wrote a curriculum guide for Scratch that was released in September 2011. The guide was downloaded more than 34,000 times and translated into more than 7 different languages (including Portuguese, Spanish, Turkish, Korean, and Traditional Chinese) by members of the ScratchEd community in the year following its release. Accessing and exploring these resources has been made easier by connecting announcements to other channels, such as email, Twitter, and Facebook. It is through the ScratchEd online community and gatherings that I have been able to learn more about the experiences of educators. This community has served as my main entry-point for connecting with teachers who are working with Scratch in schools, primarily K-12 classrooms. **CONSTRUCTIONIST ASPIRATIONS** This work focuses on the aspirations and experiences of kids and teachers working with Scratch – kids who are having learning experiences at home, in the Scratch online community, and teachers who are creating learning experiences for their students, in K-12 classrooms – and how various structures enable and constrain those aspirations. But my explorations of kids’ and teachers’ perspectives are necessarily shaped by my own assumptions and goals: if Scratch can be used in any way, how do I hope it will be used? My aspirations for Scratch are rooted in assumptions about what “good” learning is – and I use the rest of this chapter to describe these underlying assumptions. My assumptions are connected to the constructionist tradition – an approach to learning that emphasizes the importance of constructing, building, making, and designing as ways of knowing. This tradition, in turn, builds on constructivist arguments that learning does not happen through a process of transfer or acquisition. As Kafai and Resnick (1996) described, “knowledge is not simply transmitted from teacher to student, but actively constructed by the mind of the learner. Children don’t get ideas; they make ideas” (p. 1). A learner constructs new models and understandings that are connected to the learner’s existing structures and models (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1991). Constructionism is grounded in the belief that the most effective learning experiences grow out of the active construction of all types of things, particularly things that are personally or socially meaningful (Bruckman, 2006; Papert, 1980), that are developed through interactions with others (Papert, 1980; Rogoff, 1994), and that support thinking about one’s own thinking (Kolodner et al., 2003; Papert, 1980). These four aspects of constructionism – which I define here as learning through the activities of designing, personalizing, sharing, and reflecting – are key activities that, I argue, should be included in the design of learning environments. These constructionist activities are not only beneficial for young people participating as designers of interactive media with Scratch, but also for teachers in their roles as learners in professional development (PD) activities. Many PD opportunities treat teachers as consumers, neglecting fundamental understandings about how people learn, as evidenced by language like “teacher training”. As Papert (1993) argued, Although the name is not what is most important about this concept, it is curious that the phrase “teacher training” comes trippingly off the tongues of people who would be horrified The constructionist principle that “learning by doing is better than learning by being told” (Bruckman & Resnick, 1995, p. 94) applies equally well to teachers as to students, and supports teachers’ understandings of the types of experiences desired for their students. As such, my approach in the ScratchEd PD activities has been to create opportunities for teachers to engage in the same designing, personalizing, sharing, and reflecting activities that are essential for young people. With an emphasis on creating and agency, constructionist approaches to learning are well aligned to the demands and expectations of computational culture and I now describe the theoretical contexts of the four activities – designing, personalizing, sharing, and reflecting – that I define as central to a constructionist approach. Each of these activities has an extensive literature associated with it; here, I draw attention to a few of the key ideas, themes, theories, and concepts that have been most helpful to my understanding. **Designing** There are competing narratives about the relationships between young people and digital technology. One narrative is that of the “digital native” – kids who were “born digital” and belong to the “digital generation” (Palfrey & Gasser, 2008; Prensky, 2001; Tapscott, 2008). This narrative is often centered on an assumed familiarity and fluency with computation, that young people have innate understandings that elude adults – parents and teachers, cast as “digital immigrants”. Descriptions of digital natives’ activities and participation, such as Jenkins et al.’s (2006) *core media literacy skills*, Ito et al.’s (2009) *hanging out, messing around, and geeking out* participation modes, and others that similarly draw on exemplars or ideal types, have elicited criticism for misrepresenting the “often unspectacular” interactions between young people and computational culture (Selwyn, Some versions of the “digital native” narrative tend toward an exaggerated or undifferentiated view of technology use – that all forms of interaction with digital technologies are valuable and all types of participation offer equally interesting opportunities for learning. Buckingham (2007) provided a broad critique of the young-person-as-technology-elite narrative, arguing that the narrative is less of an observation than an aspiration. Recent studies suggest that most young people’s everyday uses of the Internet are characterized not by spectacular forms of innovation and creativity, but by relatively mundane forms of communication and information retrieval. … The discourse of the “digital generation” is precisely an attempt to construct the object of which it purports to speak. It represents not a description of what children or young people actually are, but a set of imperatives about what they should be or what they need to become. (p. 14) The creative activities of designing and making with digital technologies are underrepresented in the activities of young people. This is partly due to the nature of the technologies themselves, for example, the preponderance of “edutainment” software, and the paucity of construction-oriented software (Ito, 2009). But it is also partly due to the lack of visibility and value in school culture (and beyond) of design thinking, with young people reluctant to see the complexities of design activities “as opportunities rather than as things to be avoided” (Fischer, 2002). Despite the lack of opportunities and visibility, however, this is an important moment in history for design – both in the context of digital technologies and beyond – and the habits that are cultivated through designing (Burdick & Willis, 2011). Consider the call to action in the 2010 National Education Technology Plan – Whether the domain is English language arts, mathematics, sciences, social studies, history, art, or music, 21st-century competencies and such expertise as critical thinking, complex problem solving, collaboration, and multimedia communication should be woven into all content areas. These competencies are necessary to become expert learners, which we all must be if we are to adapt to our rapidly changing world over the course of our lives. (p. 9) Design activities respond to this call, by engaging young people in iterative thinking, problem-solving practices, and critical creativity, which serve as the foundation of learning (Harel & Papert, 1990; Kafai, 1995; Kolodner et al., 2003; Krajcik & Blumenfeld, 2006). Designing necessitates the ability to identify and negotiate constraints, clarify and manage ambiguity, and, fundamentally, persist and engage in hard work (Fischer & Nakakoji, 1997; Razzouk & Shute, 2012; Sawyer, 2006; Seiter, 2008). **Personalizing** Despite what the structures of modern education, such as large class sizes and homogeneous curriculum, might suggest, the individual matters. Personalizing, as a constructionist aim, means that the design of learning experiences should consider how to engage an individual learner on multiple levels, including cognitive and affective. The cognitive perspective on personalizing traces back to constructionism’s main influence – Piaget and constructivist assumptions about learning. In constructivist theories of learning, learning is not something done *to* learners, but rather something done *by* learners. Learners are not filled with knowledge and new ideas by the world around them; they engage in processes of adaptation. Engaging with new ideas leads to *assimilation*, by taking the new ideas and connecting them to already-established understandings – or to *accommodation*, by modifying already-established understandings in consideration of the new ideas (Ackermann, 1996; Koschmann, Kelson, Feltovich, & Barrows, 1996; Piaget, 1929). Understanding and supporting learning necessarily means creating opportunities to make sense of the individual, personal connections that learners are forming to what they are learning. Part of this sense-making involves thinking about differences in individuals’ learning styles and self-concepts, and recognizing that there is not one way or style of learning. There are numerous examples of frameworks that seek to extend the ways in which learners see themselves and are seen by others. Gardner’s multiple intelligences (1983, 1991, 1999) aimed to dislodge some of the privilege associated with linguistic and logical/mathematical capacities, by drawing attention to other capacities, such as musical, spatial, and inter/intrapersonal. Gilligan’s reinterpretation of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development (1982) sought to displace masculinist assumptions about self versus other. Dweck’s (2000) entity and incremental theories of intelligence provided ways of thinking about how to productively support students, by challenging assumptions about ability, success, praise, and confidence. Turkle and Papert (1990), in critiquing Piaget and Inhelder’s privileging of formal reasoning, argued for recognition of both bricoleur and planner approaches, particularly in the planner-dominated culture of computation. These frameworks deserve the attention of learning environment designers, and should encourage thinking about how individual learners are more or less productively engaged by different strategies. With personalizing, there is always a tension between the inside/outside, in relation to the learner. With assimilation/accommodation, tensions arise between the ideas that are being encountered and the ideas already in place. With learning styles, tensions arise between an individual’s learning style and the external supports (whether a teacher or a technology or some other aspect of the learning environment) available to the individual learner. As a final example of the inside/outside forces at work in personalization, tensions arise between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Perkins (1986) described intrinsic motivation from the perspective of a classroom observer, noting that different learners demonstrate different levels of enthusiasm and interest. Psychologists have taken an interest in interest and have developed a way of talking about enthusiasm – “intrinsic motivation.” When you have intrinsic motivation for an activity, you value the activity for its own sake. You enjoy doing it, find it challenging but not too frustrating, and view it as worthwhile in itself. (p. 116) Intrinsic motivation is an important component for supporting creativity, successfully dealing with challenges, and deeply engaging in one’s interests (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Perkins, 1986; Sawyer, 2006). Yet it is easily undermined by external factors, such as badges and grades and praise (among others), which intentionally or unintentionally control learners as forms of extrinsic motivation (Dweck, 2000; Hennessey & Amabile, 1998; Kohn, 1999; Tough, 2012). As learning increasingly takes place outside of school settings, driven predominantly by intrinsic motivation and learners’ desires to pursue their interests, questions emerge about how to cultivate and amplify intrinsic motivation both within and beyond the classroom setting. A recurrent theme in the literature is the need to balance challenge and current ability (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Dweck, 2000; Perkins, 1986). Too much challenge leaves learners feeling frustrated; too little challenge leaves learners feeling bored. Neither situation is desirable, particularly if it persists. **Sharing** Learning and development have important individual components (as articulated in *personalizing*, from the perspective of Piaget’s work), but they are also deeply social processes. Vygotsky extended the Piagetian framing of the individual’s cognitive processes by introducing the notion of the *zone of proximal development* (ZPD), defined as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (1978, p. 86). Vygotsky’s notion of the ZPD expanded the boundaries of individual cognition, including other people and their abilities as part of an individual’s capacities for taking on challenges of increasing difficulty (Cole & Wertsch, 1996). Theories about communities of practice and situated learning further extend thinking about how others support learning, in particular, how community settings can provide access to other learners and artifacts (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Rogoff, 1994). In this literature, apprenticeship is a recurring metaphor for the type of learning that can take place, introducing new ways of thinking about the learner and the people around the learner who are helping them (Collins, 2006; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002). Learners are gradually folded into relationships with other learners, understandings of the enterprise of the learning, and familiarity with the objects and practices of the community – learning from those with greater experience and expertise, in a process that Lave and Wenger (1991) described as *legitimate peripheral participation*. “Legitimate peripheral participation” provides a way to speak about the relations between newcomers and old-timers, and about activities, identities, artifacts, and communities of knowledge and practice. It concerns the process by which newcomers become part of a community of practice. A person’s intentions to learn are engaged and the meaning of learning is configured through the process of becoming a full participant in a sociocultural practice. This social process includes, indeed it subsumes, the learning of knowledgeable skills. (p. 29) More recent research has described the ways in which the social nature of learning serves as essential motivation and support for young people’s participation in computational culture, particularly in the context of online interactions (Buckingham & Willett, 2006; Ito et al., 2009; Jenkins et al., 2006). Whether hanging out with friends or playing games or remixing media, having access to others makes for better participation, as young people are able to support each other in understanding practices and norms. Bruckman’s (1998, 2006) work described the cognitive, social, and psychological benefits that an online community provided for individual learners in constructionist activities. From technical support to emotional support, having access to others bolstered individuals’ capacities for creative work. And, as described earlier in this chapter, the social nature of learning is not reserved for kids – teachers as learners can similarly benefit from access to others (Fishman & Davis, 2006). **Reflecting** In *Mindstorms*, Papert described his vision of children as epistemologists, wherein kids use computers as an opportunity to explore their processes of thinking. Programming becomes a context for thinking about thinking, and the LOGO programming language serves as something to think with. The activities of designing, personalizing, and sharing invite learners to ask numerous questions of themselves, of what they are doing, and of how they are thinking. *What do I want to create? What do I need to create it? What do I need help with? Why didn’t that work as I expected it to? Who might help me? Who might I help? How might I better approach all of these questions?* These types of questions represent opportunities for kids to reflect on their activities and to think about their thinking – for kids to engage in *metacognitive* processes. Numerous frameworks have been proposed for articulating metacognitive processes, and several highlight the temporal dimension of metacognition – *when* the thinking about thinking takes place in relation to action. Schön (1983) articulated a difference between reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. Bransford et al. (2000) emphasized a similar separation, drawing out self-regulation and reflection from metacognition, with the former focusing on activity planning and monitoring, and the latter focusing on assessment and evaluation of activity performance. Flavell (1979) described metacognition as the interplay between goals (what the learner is trying to achieve), strategies (how the learner tries to achieve it), metacognitive knowledge (what the learner knows about learning), and metacognitive experiences (how the learner thinks about that knowledge in action). The significance of metacognition in a variety of learning and cognitive processes has long been recognized. Metacognition plays an important role in oral communication of information, oral persuasion, oral comprehension, reading comprehension, writing, language acquisition, attention, memory, problem solving, social cognition, and, various types of self-control and self-instruction. (Flavell, 1979, p. 906) The ideas of self-control and self-instruction described by Flavell – varyingingly referred to as self-control, self-instruction, self-regulation, self-efficacy, self-directedness – speak directly to the idea of learner agency. Bandura (1997) highlighted the significance of these capacities, for supporting learning as both a life-long and life-wide activity. Development of capabilities for self-directedness enables individuals not only to continue their intellectual growth beyond their formal education but to advance the nature and quality of their life pursuits. Changing realities are placing a premium on the capability for self-directed learning throughout the life span. The rapid pace of technological change and the accelerated growth of knowledge require continual upgrading of competencies if people are to survive and prosper under increasingly competitive conditions. (p. 227) **Constructionism, Agency, And Structure** As described in the previous chapter, the tension between agency and structure is a central concern in the design of learning environments – particularly in constructionist approaches, which, unlike some other models of learning, emphasize learner agency. In contrast, consider the “programmed instruction” model developed in the mid-20th century by influential behaviorist-psychologist B.F. Skinner. In this model, learners work with “teaching machines” that lead them through a series of content questions, for example, math problems or spelling challenges. The problems have specific answers and are introduced in an intentional, guided sequence. In a 1986 Phi Delta Kappan article, Skinner responded to critics who argued that the model was too controlling and gave students little (if any) freedom in defining and grappling with problems themselves. Some 350 years ago Comenius said, “The more the teacher teaches the less the student learns,” but that is true only if it means “the less the student learns about learning.” (p. 109) His rebuttal highlights a fundamental difference between behaviorist and constructionist values and methods. While Skinner dismissed the importance of students “learning about learning”, it is of particular value in a constructionist approach. When confronted by low-agency/high-structure approaches, such as Skinner’s programmed instruction method, the reaction of some constructionists has been to reject structure, usually framed as a rejection of instruction in favor of pure discovery (as described in the previous chapter). But this need not be the case. As Kafai (2006) noted, ‘a common myth associated with constructionism is the idea that all instruction is bad” (p. 36). Constructionism does not inherently reject structure; rather, it invites teachers and learners to challenge the assumptions about the conditions and structures necessary for learning, and to carefully consider the complexity of the culture of learning. As Papert (1993) observed, Even the statement (endorsed if not originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an opportunity for discovery is not a categorical imperative against teaching, but a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check. (p. 139) Teaching and instruction are only one form of structure – in the rest of this work I explore the cultures of learning outside and inside school, the different structures of these settings, and how the structures of these two settings enable (and constrain) learner agency. In this chapter, I describe the data collection and analysis procedures that I employed to develop understandings and descriptions of computational creation in out-of-school and in-school learning environments. This work is focused on developing understandings of how the structures of learning environments support (or undermine) agency in computational creation, using Scratch out of school and Scratch in school as particular settings for computational creation. My methodological approach is primarily qualitative, as a way of attending to the culture, community, and context of these learning environments, as well as the lived experiences of individual young people and teachers. Stake (2010) described this dual focus – and process/representation – of qualitative research. It is common for people to suppose that qualitative research is marked by rich description of personal action and complex environment, and it is, but the qualitative approach is equally distinguished for the integrity of its thinking. There is no one way of qualitative thinking, but a grand collection of ways: It is interpretive, experience based, situational, and personalistic. Each researcher will do it differently, but almost all of them will work hard at interpretation. They will try to convey some of the story in experiential terms. They will show the complexity of the background, and they will treat individuals as unique, yet in ways similar to other individuals. (p. 31) I draw inspiration from ethnography (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999; Van Maanen, 1988), case study (Yin, 2009), and design-based research (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012; The Design-Based Research Collective, 2003). All three traditions acknowledge the importance of real-world (as opposed to controlled, laboratory) experiences – and the corresponding complexity of these settings and processes, which require detailed descriptions and cannot be reduced to a simple set of variables or factors. Detailed descriptions invite dense data collection (including interview, observation, artifact analysis, database analysis, and survey), and the use of multiple types and instances of data serve to minimize bias in interpretation during analysis. In this chapter, I describe my process for developing understandings and descriptions of the out-of-school and in-school learning environments. For each setting, my primary source of data is conversations with the people primarily responsible for navigating and negotiating the various structures of the learning environment. For the out-of-school setting, I focus on conversations with kids working with Scratch at home, through the Scratch online community. For the in-school setting, I focus on conversations with teachers working with Scratch at school, in K-12 classrooms. The chapter is organized into two parts. The first part – *Collecting* – explains the data collection procedure, describes the backgrounds of the people I spoke with and their representativeness, and discusses the de/limitations of the data collection process for each of the two settings. The second part – *Analyzing* – explains my analytical approach, describing how the theoretical framework of agency and structure serves as a foundation for subsequent analysis. **COLLECTING** The Scratch online community and (to a lesser extent) the ScratchEd online community have provoked excitement among some researchers. The excitement derives from a sense that these online communities and the interaction data that they are collecting possess the answers to important questions about learning – a sense that, as one researcher exclaimed to me, “We can know everything that kids and teachers are doing!” This sentiment is, as boyd and Crawford (2012) argued, part of the “mythology” of “Big Data” – “the widespread belief that large data sets offer a higher form of intelligence and knowledge that can generate insights that were previously impossible, with the aura of truth, objectivity, and accuracy” (p. 2). I do not deny the excitement and potential interestingness of the large data sets afforded by sites such as the Scratch and ScratchEd communities, but I share the sentiment of caution expressed by boyd, Crawford, and others. There is a complexity in intention behind action that is challenging to capture with data logging. If we use kids interacting in the Scratch online community as a concrete example of this complexity, there is a type of simultaneous depth and superficiality to what can be said about what they do. We can know across all members – or for a particular member – how many times they have remixed a project. But why are they doing it? How does what they *are* doing relate to what they *want* to do? What are they choosing not to do? What are they unable to do? How are they thinking about what they (and others) are doing? As Manovich (2012) reminded, although there are many things to learn and understand from analysis of large data sets, “we just have to keep in mind that all these data are not a transparent window into peoples’ imaginations, intentions, motives, opinions, and ideas” (p. 466). These details of participation and motivation are needed to understand how kids and teachers are making sense of and employing Scratch in out-of-school and in-school learning environments. Consequently, conversations with kids and teachers (which offer a different type of depth than mining the large data sets of the online communities) serve as the central component of my data collection for both settings. Conversations, in the form of semi-structured interviews with young Scratchers and teachers, are a way “to understand the world from the subjects’ points of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world” (Kvale, 1996, p. 1). I triangulated the conversation data with other sources, which I describe in each of the following sections. **Kids In The Online Community** I have been observing young people’s participation in the Scratch online community for the past five years, drawing on a key (virtual) ethnographic principle of “learning through immersion” (Hine, 2008, p. 259). Based on this observation work, I have been writing field notes and memos about Scratchers’ activities, and saving artifacts of their work – primarily Scratch projects, but also other electronic artifacts (such as forum posts, emails, and blog entries). Observation helps make sense of *what people do*, but provides limited insight into *how people think* about their actions and behavior. As such, I have also been conducting (with support from ScratchEd research team members) in-depth interviews with kids in the online community. This approach – trying to understand the culture of computational creators from the perspective of computational creators – is particularly important, as a way of supporting learner agency through learner voice. An important goal of the interviews was for kids to have the opportunity to tell stories about their experiences, as “stories lived and told educate the self and others” (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000, p. xxvi). The interviews were semi-structured and were approximately 60-120 minutes in duration. The interview questions, listed below, were organized into four major sections (with sample questions listed in italics). 1. Background a. Introduction to Scratch: *How did you find out about Scratch? What is Scratch?* b. Current practices: *Where do you use Scratch? What do you do with it? Do other people help you? Do you help other people?* 2. Project creation a. Project framing: *How did you get the idea for your project (one of several projects that are discussed)?* b. Project process: *How did you get started making your project? What happened when you got stuck?* 3. Online community a. Introduction to the online community: *What do you do in the online community? What is the Scratch online community?* b. Other people, other projects: *How do you find interesting people and interesting projects? How do you interact with other Scratchers?* 4. Looking forward a. Scratch: *What do you dis/like about Scratch? What would you keep, add, change?* b. Technology: *What are other tech-related things you like to do?* c. Beyond technology: *What are other non-tech-related things you like to do?* 30 kids from the Scratch online community were interviewed between November 2007 and January 2012. Each interview was conducted by a pair of researchers (typically, myself and one of several graduate-student interns from the Harvard Graduate School of Education). 27 interviews were conducted via phone or Skype and three interviews were conducted in person. The interviewee selection process combined random sampling and open recruitment. For the random sampling component, I segmented the online community into four groups: group A (kids between the ages of 7 and 18 who had joined the community within the past four weeks, and had not extensively participated in the community, either socially or technically – roughly Scratch “novices”), group B (kids between the ages of 7 and 18 who had been a part of the community for more than four weeks, and had moderate levels of social and/or technical participation), group C (kids between the ages of 7 and 18 who had been a part of the community for more than four weeks, and had high levels of social and/or technical participation), and group D (kids between the ages of 7 and 18 who had been a part of the community for more than four weeks, had high levels of social and/or technical participation, and had significant status in the community). Using these categories, I ran database queries to generate lists of usernames for each category, and then randomly selected a subset of these community members to invite for conversations. There were several challenges with this approach, particularly with attaining adequate representation of group A and group D kids. With group A invitations, I realized that kids who had just joined the community might feel overwhelmed or intimatied by a request to talk about their very recent experiences, even though the invitations downplayed the importance of experience or expertise. Another challenge with the group A invitations was false positives – kids who appeared to be novice, but who were actually much more advanced, having created an additional account to, for example, experiment with a different genre of project-making. With group D interviews, I found that “Scratch famous” kids were often negotiating numerous community commitments and many felt that their limited time was better directed toward cultivating the attention of their fans. In addition to this community sampling, I also posted a general invitation to members of the Scratch online community. This was partly in response to the challenges of the random sampling response rates, but also based on a desire to avoid alienating community members by being perceived as favoring certain members with invitations. The selected interviewees represent a range of ages (8-17), geographic locations (mostly U.S., but including several European countries and Canada), durations of participation (from a few weeks to almost five years), and technical/aesthetic sophistication (from beginners to sophisticated programmers and designers). 37% of the interviews were conducted with female Scratchers, which is consistent with the proportion of female participation in the online community. All of the interviewees worked with Scratch primarily at home (and, in the majority of cases, exclusively at home). Table 3.1 presents a demographic overview of the 30 kids, including their interview alias, age, gender, location, how they were introduced to Scratch, and the group (A/B/C/D) to which I assigned them. Group assignment was based on quantitative participation data and qualitative interview data. In Figure 3.1, I compare the participation of these 30 kids (clustered by group) to the 75,568 Scratch community members (6.2% of 1,222,242) who have posted four or more Scratch projects and have been active in the community for at least 28 days. I argue that the other 93.8% of Scratch accounts (with either less than four projects or less than four weeks of participation) constitute an uninteresting demographic to compare with the interviewees, as these accounts represent, at best, peripheral participation in the online community. For example, it is very easy to create a Scratch account and, comparatively, more difficult to create Scratch projects, so it is unsurprising that 70.6% of all registered members (863,178 of 1,222,242) have not posted a project to the online community. Appendix A provides a more detailed quantitative portrait of the kids’ participation in the online community. There are limitations and delimitations of the sample and of the comparison. First, as limitations, with the current instrumentation of the site, it is not possible to distinguish kids working at home from kids working in other settings (such as school or informal learning environments like libraries and museums). It is also not possible to determine when multiple accounts belong to a single individual. For example, some kids create two accounts – one account serves as the account for finished work, and a secondary account is used for works-in-progress and testing. Second, as a delimitation, I am focusing on kids who are working with Scratch at home, but who are working with the Scratch online Table 3.1 Summary of demographic information for the out-of-school interviewees. | Group | Name | Gender | Location | Age | Introduced to Scratch | |-------|--------|--------|--------------|-----|--------------------------------| | A | Allison| F | United States| 13 | Father | | A | Adele | F | United States| 9 | Teacher Recommendation | | A | Robin | F | United States| 10 | Teacher Recommendation | | A | Evan | M | United States| 10 | Father | | B | Jackson| M | United States| 11 | MIT Website | | B | Jenson | M | United States| 11 | Father | | B | Brook | M | United States| 8 | Aunt | | B | Connor | M | United States| 12 | Teacher Recommendation | | B | Easton | M | United States| 10 | Friend | | B | Edgar | M | United States| 12 | Online Search | | B | Brent | M | United States| 8 | Friend | | C | Sebastian| M | United States| 13 | Teacher Recommendation | | C | Aaron | M | United States| 10 | Community Program | | C | Devon | M | United States| 10 | Mother | | C | Barry | M | United States| 13 | Friend’s Father | | C | Matt | M | United States| 14 | Aunt | | C | Lindsey| F | United States| 12 | Teacher Recommendation | | C | Ashleigh| F | United States| 14 | Teacher Recommendation | | C | Nevin | F | Australia | 9 | Friend | | C | Fletcher| M | Europe | 14 | Online Search | | C | David | M | United States| 9 | Father | | D | Chuck | M | United States| 14 | Mother | | D | Sonia | F | United States| 16 | Online Search | | D | Chelsey| F | Europe | 10 | Father | | D | Lori | F | United States| 14 | Father | | D | Bradley| M | United States| 12 | Teacher Recommendation | | D | Clark | M | United States| 12 | Father | | D | Jan | M | Europe | 16 | Online Search | | D | Eva | F | Canada | 13 | Father | | D | Lana | F | Europe | 17 | Uncle | community as an important component of their activities. There are kids working at home who intentionally (or unintentionally) do not participate in the online community. Consider the experiences of home-based Scratchers Simon, Terry, Sam, and June. Simon was introduced to Scratch by his father, who had installed the authoring environment on the family computer, but had not mentioned that there was an accompanying online community. Terry knows about the Scratch online community, but doesn’t visit or share his work, as he doesn’t want his projects to be “copied”. Sam saw the other projects in the online community and felt demoralized, that his projects weren’t good enough to be included. June isn’t allowed to use the website, as her parents feel that she’s too young to be interacting with other kids in a social networking environment. **Teachers In Schools** Designing the ScratchEd professional development model – which includes the online community, face-to-face and virtual gatherings, and resources – over the past five years has provided opportunities to study how teachers make sense of computational creation (in the context of Scratch) and of learner-centered approaches to designing learning environments. The stories, resources, and discussions that educators have posted to the ScratchEd online community have been rich sources of data about teaching practice – what people describe doing and the resources that they are creating or seeking in support of their goals. Observations of Scratch educator meetups, workshops, and classroom visits have also provided an important source of data for understanding educators’ teaching practices. These observations and artifact analyses serve to complement the primary source of data – interviews with educators working with Scratch in K-12 school settings. The interview protocol evolved over time to highlight different areas of focus, but was generally organized into three major sections: previous teaching and technology experiences, approach to including Scratch in the classroom, and motivations and reflections on using Scratch in teaching practice. A recent iteration of the protocol is listed below (with sample questions listed in italics). 1. Background a. Current position: *What is your current position? How long have you been in your current position?* b. Teaching and technical background: *How long have you been teaching? What types of teaching experiences have you had (e.g., ages/grades, informal, disciplines)? What did you study in school? What is your technical background, if any? How would you describe your comfort level with technology?* 2. Scratch experience a. Scratch background: *How did you hear about Scratch? How long have you been using Scratch?* b. Setting: *In what setting are you using Scratch (e.g., # of students, course description, duration of time)? What is the school culture/attitude toward technology? What can you tell me about the students you work with (e.g., age, socioeconomic status, gender)?* c. Implementation: *How did you use Scratch? How were the classroom activities designed? How do you think about your role? How do you think about your students’ role? What resources did you use? How do you assess students?* 3. Reflections a. Motivation: *Why are you interested in Scratch? What do you think Scratch is good for? What is the value of Scratch to students, from your perspective as a teacher and from a student’s perspective?* b. Success: *What does a successful experience with Scratch look like? In what ways was your experience successful or not? What does a teacher need in order to be successful with Scratch?* 30 interviews with Scratch educators were conducted between October 2009 and May 2012. Each interview was conducted via phone or Skype by a pair of researchers (typically, myself and one of several graduate-student interns from the Harvard Graduate School of Education). The educators were invited to participate and represented a range of grades (from K to 12), teaching experience (from less than one year to more than 30 years), settings (required courses, elective courses, in-school, after-school), subject areas (cross-curricular, IT studies, computer science), and roles (classroom teachers, technology coaches, mentors, teacher educators). The educators Table 3.2 Summary of demographic information for the in-school interviewees. | Name | Gender | Position | Years Teaching | Technical Background | Introduced to Scratch | Years w/ Scratch | |----------|--------|-----------------------------------------------|----------------|----------------------|--------------------------------|-----------------| | Clare | F | After-School Mentor | 5 | Formal | MIT Media Lab | 3 | | Selena | F | Teacher Educator | 5 | Formal | MIT Media Lab | 3 | | Sun | M | Elementary Teacher, College Teacher | 2+ | Informal | Online Search, Via Squeak | 3 | | Ivy | F | Elementary Tech Coach | 4 | Informal | Online Search | 1 | | Kent | M | Teacher Educator | 23 | Informal | MIT Media Lab | 3 | | Larissa | F | K-12 Teacher, Teacher Educator | 20 | Formal | Online Search, Via Logo | 2 | | Lenore | M | High School CS Teacher | 13 | Informal | Online Search | 1 | | Clive | M | After-School Mentor | 20+ | Informal | MIT Media Lab, Via Logo | 2 | | Jay | M | Teacher Educator | 20+ | Informal | MIT Media Lab | 0.5 | | Sadie | F | High School CS Teacher | 2+ | Formal | Colleagues | 0.5 | | Peter | M | After-School Mentor | 2+ | Formal | MIT Media Lab | 2 | | Linda | F | Elementary Teacher | 6+ | Informal | MIT Media Lab | 2+ | | Clayton | M | Elementary Teacher | 20+ | Informal | Online Search, Via Logo | 1 | | Beau | M | High School CS Teacher | 7+ | Formal | Online Search | 1+ | | Valerie | F | High School CS Teacher | 5+ | Formal | Online Search | 4 | | Audrey | F | Elementary Teacher | 3+ | Informal | Colleagues | 0.5 | | Jody | F | High School CS Teacher | 8+ | Formal | Educator Conference | 1 | | Blake | M | After-School Mentor | 1+ | Formal | Online Search | 1 | | Kristin | F | College Educator, After-School Mentor | 30+ | Formal | Online Search | 1 | | Crawford | M | Middle School Teacher | 6+ | Formal | Online Search, Via Logo | 4 | | Tara | F | After-School Mentor | 1 | Informal | Professional Development | 1 | Table 3.2 continued. | Name | Gender | Position | Years Teaching | Technical Background | Introduced to Scratch | Years w/ Scratch | |----------|--------|-----------------------------------------------|----------------|----------------------|----------------------------------------|------------------| | Beverly | F | Teacher Educator | 8+ | Formal | MIT Media Lab | 4 | | Georgia | F | High School Art Teacher | 23 | Informal | Colleagues | 1 | | Arnold | M | High School CS Teacher | 12+ | Informal | Online Search | 0.8 | | Kirby | F | High School Business Education Teacher | 3 | Informal | Professional Development | 0.8 | | Jackie | F | Elementary Teacher | 15+ | Informal | Educator Conference | 2 | | Taylor | M | Elementary Teacher | 5 | Formal | Online Search, Via Squeak | 2 | | Candace | F | After-School Mentor | 5+ | Formal | Family Members | 0.1 | | Sabine | F | Elementary Teacher | 28 | Informal | Online Search, Via WeDo | 1+ | | Shauna | F | High School CS Teacher | 1 | Formal | Online Search | 0.5 | were based in the United States, with the exception of one educator from Asia and one educator from Mexico. All of the educators had experience working with Scratch in K-12 classroom environments, either directly or (in a small number of cases) indirectly as teacher educators. Table 3.2 presents a demographic overview of the 30 teachers, including their interview alias, gender, position, number of years teaching, technical background (*formal*, such as a degree in a technical field, or *informal*, such as self-taught), how they were introduced to Scratch, and how long they have been working with Scratch. As with the kids working at home in the Scratch online community, there are limitations and delimitations of the sample. First, the school context does not include the perspective of the students; the experiences of learners and their opportunities for agency are told from teachers’ perspectives. This is intentional – in this work, experiences in both the out-of-school and in-school settings are told from the perspective of the people who are primarily responsible for the learning activities that take place. The practical reality of modern education and the majority of current classroom structures is that teachers control the space; hence, teachers were interviewed. That said, I think there is important future work involving conversations with young learners in classroom settings. Second, Scratch is being used in a wide variety of settings – not just at home and in K-12 classrooms. For example, Scratch is being used for introductory computer science courses at the college level and in library drop-in programs. It would be interesting to compare the structures (and resulting learner agency) in these other settings. I intentionally focused on the home and K-12 classroom settings, however, as a way to focus on the assumed “extremes”. Learning at home is often assumed to be low structure and high agency, while learning in classrooms is assumed to be high structure and low agency. **ANALYZING** Audio recordings from the interviews with kids and teachers were initially transcribed by graduate-student interns or by professional transcription services. I then reviewed the transcript drafts, checking against the original audio recordings. The transcriptions included every uttered word. My initial plan for analyzing the interview (and related) data was to first thematize the data using the constructionist aspirations of designing, personalizing, sharing, and reflecting (described in the previous chapter), and then use the theorization of structure and agency (described in the opening chapter) to identify structures that enable or constrain agency. To what extent were kids having these types of constructionist experiences? To what extent were teachers designing learning environments that included these types of constructionist experiences? In each setting, what structures enabled their experiences? What structures constrained their experiences? I performed an initial line-by-line analysis of the interview transcript data with NVivo 8, using this thematizing approach (Kvale, 1996; Miles & Huberman, 1994). I was able to code the data against the themes of designing, personalizing, sharing, and reflecting – but something was not resonating with me as I conducted the analysis. I gradually realized that by coding against designing, personalizing, sharing, and reflecting, I was coding for *my* aspirations, not the aspirations of the kids and teachers that I was talking with, and that, in doing so, I was inadvertently undermining my theoretical emphasis on agency. My aspirations and desires, as manifested through the Scratch and ScratchEd activities, should only figure in the analysis as a form of structure, not as the organizing principle. I discarded my analytical work and started again. Rather than imposing a framework centered on my aspirations on the data, I performed line-by-line coding of the interview data based on what kids and teachers described as important, their intentions and aspirations, as well as the tensions and challenges. I clustered the codes into common groups (different kids, different teachers used different language to describe shared experiences), and I then organized the codes by frequency to identify shared aspects of the experience (aspects described by all or many of the people I spoke with) or diverging aspects of the experience (aspects described by some or few of the people I spoke with). This coding/clustering/organizing process went through several refining iterations. The last iteration of interview codes, their frequency across sources, and how they contribute to the descriptions of each setting are available in Appendix B. This iteration formed the basis of the organization of Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, and guided the analysis of the other sources of data (observation and artifacts). Chapter 4 – *Kids* – is focused on the experiences of young people at home with the Scratch online community – what they describe wanting, what gets in the way of their goals, what helps them to be successful in achieving their goals, and what validates their work. Chapter 5 – *Teachers* – is similarly organized, but focused on educators’ experiences working with Scratch in K-12 classrooms. Both chapters provide rich descriptions of the intentions and tensions faced by kids and teachers, drawing extensively on the interview data, and supplemented by observation and artifact data. Chapter 6 – *Agency/Structure* – revisits the description and analysis presented in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, and draws out particular structures that enable or constrain the goals, aspirations, intentions, and desires of kids and teachers, in both out-of-school and in-school settings. These particular structures were identified through coding of kids’ and teachers’ descriptions of what they were doing, what they wanted to do, what they were unable to do – and the particular rules, roles, and resources that enabled or constrained them. In this chapter, I describe how kids talked about their goals and aspirations for creating and connecting with Scratch – and the tensions that emerged when striving to achieve those goals. Since the Scratch online community’s launch in May 2007, hundreds of thousands of kids have found the online community and have started using Scratch without the support of structured learning environments, such as schools. Although for many kids their engagement does not extend past creating one or two projects, some kids have spent hundreds, or in some cases thousands, of hours at home developing and sharing Scratch projects. I wanted to learn more about these kids “in the wild”, and over several years I conducted interviews with 30 active members of the Scratch online community. A significant goal of the conversations with these kids was to understand what Scratch is from their perspective. How do they talk about what they do with Scratch? What aspects of their participation are important to them? What does Scratch mean to these kids? The most significant theme across the conversations was the interconnectedness that the kids described between their experiences in the authoring environment and their experiences in the online community. For all of these kids, “Scratch” is equally about *creating* interactive media projects and *connecting* with others. It’s a really great program that allows you to create your own games, animations, and be yourself and create your own media. So it’s definitely a way you can be yourself, make whatever you want, and then, of course, there’s an online community in which you can meet new people, be inspired to create your own stuff, and just experiment, and have fun. Clark, 12 years old In this chapter, I describe how kids talked about their goals and aspirations for creating and connecting – and the challenges and tensions that emerged when striving to achieve those goals. The chapter is organized thematically into four sections, based on issues that kids highlighted as important and that recurred across the conversations. The first theme – *Enjoying Freedom* – highlights the freedom that the kids enjoyed both in product (the diversity of creation) and in process (the responsibility of defining and pursuing their own challenges). The second theme – *Getting Stuck* – focuses on the problems kids encountered during their open-ended creative design activities. The third theme – *Making Progress* – outlines the various strategies, both individual and social, that kids employed to overcome their creative obstacles and to develop as computational creators. The fourth and final theme – *Finding Audience* – shares the importance kids attribute to (and the difficulties they face in) seeking attention and finding audience for their creative work. **ENJOYING FREEDOM** 17-year-old Lana has been using Scratch off and on for the past five years, her times of creative production coinciding with breaks from school. Her first project was a game, in which the player pops as many balloons as possible in a fixed amount of time. After this initial project, she created numerous other projects, exploring a wide variety of genres. She made interactive greeting cards celebrating holidays and friends’ birthdays. She made animations with lush graphics and detailed plot lines, both on her own and in collaboration with others. She made tutorials that helped others learn how to create animated characters in her particular style. In all of her creative work, she follows her interests, lingering for as long as she wishes on a particular genre. Her most recent fascination has been composing music with Scratch, exploring and experimenting with Scratch’s sound blocks. 11-year-old Jackson is newer to Scratch, having been a community member for little over a month. He loves exploring the Scratch website and trying out other people’s projects, particularly games. Whenever he finds a game that he likes, he downloads the project and studies the code. He searches for places in the code that he thinks are not optimal. He tries to get rid of the noise around the “peaks” – the parts of the code he identifies as absolutely necessary for the project to run. Jackson takes each project as a challenge: can he reduce the number of blocks in the project without changing the appearance or experience of the game? He has done this “peak searching” with 10 projects so far, and he talks enthusiastically about the current (and future) challenges he is working on. From Lana’s original stories to Jackson’s remixed games and everything in between, the collection of projects in the Scratch online community is highly diverse. This expanse of creative possibility is one of the first aspects described by all of the kids that I spoke with, in response to one of the initial questions in our conversations: “If you had to explain what Scratch is to one of your friends, how would you describe it?” It’s really great to express yourself creatively. You could do anything with it. You can make video games, music, art, videos, anything. The possibilities are endless, no limitations, really. Lindsey, 12 years old It’s a program that lets you explore your imagination. You can do whatever you want in it. You can create anything. There really is no limit to what you can make. You design your own stuff, and once you start you just don’t want to stop because as you learn more, you can see there’s more possibilities, and the more possibilities there are, the more you want to expand on what you just learned. Bradley, 12 years old Maybe that once you upload the whole working thing that you have a project. Or maybe it’s just the creativity of Scratch. *What do you mean by that? Can you tell us a bit more about what it means to be creative with Scratch?* Well, it’s just that there’s endless possibilities. It’s not like you can just make this project or this project and that’s all that you can make. Nevin, 9 years old Well, I like that you can sort of do anything on it. It’s like you can do whatever you want, really. You can be as creative as you want to be. Aaron, 10 years old The sources of the kids’ inspiration were as diverse as the projects themselves. Inspiration for projects emerged from personal interests – a passion for guinea pigs, an enthusiasm for soccer, a curiosity about linear equations or wanting to learn Japanese – and from the world around them. Kids talked extensively about the inspiration provided by their interactions with cultural artifacts – constructing a meme mashup based on two popular memes, Keyboard Cat and Nyan Cat, or reproducing popular mobile apps, like Fruit Ninja and Potty Racer, or creating animations extending the plot lines of popular book series, like Warrior Cats and Harry Potter – and from their knowledge of world events, such as the Tōhoku tsunami of March 2011. They described the influence of others, within and beyond the Scratch community, such as accommodating requests for animated music videos of particular songs, making a game featuring squids for a squid-obsessed friend’s birthday, or creating a game based on an older sibling’s favorite video game. The Scratch authoring environment and online community figured prominently in kids’ descriptions of inspiration. Particular sprites and sample projects often served as a creative basis for projects. Sometimes, however, the source of an idea was sudden, surprising, and unattributable. I can’t really remember how the idea got started. Some of these ideas are just popping into my head. Like, I’m brushing my teeth and then all of a sudden, “Ooom! New idea.” David, 9 years old The freedom that the kids described enjoying was not limited to the diversity of creative products, but included the diversity of creative processes. As Feynman (1965) argued in an article about the learning of mathematics, “What is the best method to obtain the solution to a problem? The answer is, any way that works” (p. 10) – a sentiment shared by young Scratchers. The kids highlighted their experience of this freedom by comparing it with their other learning experiences, both in and out of school. Scratch was not 14-year-old Lori’s first programming experience, as she had taken an Information Technology course at her school the semester prior to discovering Scratch. In the course, the students were learning to use Visual Basic to create simple animations. Lori described the experience of coming to class and watching her teacher write out code on the chalkboard at the front of the room. There was one way, her teacher explained, of creating animations with Visual Basic, and he required that students use the code on the chalkboard exactly as written in their projects. When Lori asked him about other ways of making animations, her teacher discouraged her from worrying about that, stating that he had already provided her with the best way of making animations. Reflecting on her in-class experiences, Lori described feeling limited in her explorations of process compared with Scratch. “I’ve done a lot more in Scratch than I can in Visual Basic. With Scratch, there’s like different ways you can make a project, but with Visual Basic, it’s like, there’s only one way that I saw that I could do things.” Other young Scratchers identified with Lori’s experience. Jan described how he thought that the open-endedness of Scratch was fundamentally at odds with what he saw as the culture of school. I’ve met teachers who are very interested in using new technologies to learn and to do new stuff. Of course, it’s a risk to try out new styles of learning or working because it always can go wrong – and that’s why teachers are usually just a bit worried about changing, I think. Scratch allows students to actually do something themselves and learn to think creatively. They create as opposed to reproducing something they learned before. And the problem, of course, is that I don’t know how valuable that is to most principals or teachers, but at least to me, that’s I think the most important difference between learning with something like Scratch and learning at school most of the time. Jan, 16 years old Out of school, the structure provided by knowledgeable others – often, parents with technical backgrounds and programming expertise – sometimes impinged on the open-endedness of Scratch. For example, Chuck was introduced to Scratch by his mother, who has been teaching computer science to college students for several decades. He spent hours on the family computer in the kitchen making projects. Occasionally, his mother would stop by and he would show her his Scratch discoveries and creations. He described the benefits he derived from being able to access her as a technical consultant – and the occasional tensions he experienced between his way of doing things and the way his mother thinks they should be done. Working with my mom – my mom is a teacher, so she “teachers” me things. *What does “teachering” look like with your mom?* It’s basically – it’s kind of subtle, actually. She just kind of, she’ll basically watch me make something and then if she thinks there’s a more efficient way, then she’ll show me that. But, um – but secretly, I kind of like it better when she’s not teaching because – I’m at a lot more liberty because she wants to do things the computer scientist way and I want to do stuff the – I don’t know – the other, what would be the word for what I do? Just the way you do it easily in Scratch. I’m not really sure what the word for that would be. Chuck, 14 years old Kids also talked about the open-endedness and freedom of Scratch in comparison to their other favorite activities. Jackson is – in his own words – “obsessed with MIT”. He visits the campus whenever his parents are willing to take him and he follows the work of several research groups. Whenever research groups develop a tool that is publicly accessible, he downloads it immediately. He is a huge fan of a new game developed by a group at MIT, but described how he saw the game experience as different from his Scratch experience. [MIT-developed game] is fun, but you don’t have much freedom – as opposed to Scratch where I have all this freedom. Like I can literally – I was just asked by a friend, “What is Scratch?” And I said, “It’s, um, it’s a program where you can do just about anything you want.” And that is a unique quality that I have never seen in any other video game or anything. There’s some rules, something to follow with other games. *Why do you like that freedom?* Because it’s more like real life. Jackson, 11 years old **GETTING STUCK** During my time as a doctoral student, I have often heard reference to “hard fun” – a phrase attributed to Seymour Papert, his way of describing the types of experiences that young people had with the Logo programming language. I was curious about the origins of this phrase and searched online for references. The phrase, clearly evocative, is referenced in thousands of articles, books, and other, more informal online missives. One of the top search results, however, is a short essay written by Papert (n.d.) about his introduction to the phrase. My whole career in education has been devoted to finding kinds of work that will harness the passion of the learner to the hard work needed to master difficult material and acquire habits of self-discipline. But it is not easy to find the right language to explain how I think I am different from the “touchy feely…make it fun make it easy” approaches to education. Way back in the mid-eighties a first grader gave me a nugget of language that helps. The Gardner Academy (an elementary school in an under-privileged neighborhood of San Jose, California) was one of the first schools to own enough computers for students to spend significant time with them every day. Their introduction, for all grades, was learning to program, in the computer language Logo, at an appropriate level. A teacher heard one child using these words to describe the computer work: “It’s fun. It’s hard. It’s Logo.” I have no doubt that this kid called the work fun because it was hard rather than in spite of being hard. Once I was alerted to the concept of “hard fun” I began listening for it and heard it over and over. It is expressed in many different ways, all of which all boil down to the conclusion that everyone likes hard challenging things to do. But they have to be the right things matched to the individual and to the culture of the times. These rapidly changing times challenge educators to find areas of work that are hard in the right way: they must connect with the kids and also with the areas of knowledge, skills and (don’t let us forget) ethic adults will need for the future world. Kids’ desires for “challenging things to do” and the difficulty – and reward – of programming were recurrent themes in our conversations. Many kids talked about the great satisfaction and pride they felt in struggling toward and completing a project, like Lindsay, who talked about how she “learned how difficult programming could be, but how great the results are once you finally finish it.” Others described fascination and engagement with the challenging process, like Jan, who felt that “if there’s no challenge, it’s not fun to create a project” and Allison, who described her Scratch programming experiences as “an engaging puzzle,” saying that Scratch is “a lot of fun. It’s challenging. It makes you think.” The exhilaration and frustration of creating Scratch projects came through most clearly as kids talked about their processes of developing particular projects. Extensive portions of our conversations were dedicated to discussing a project from their portfolio that they found particularly interesting. Kids were sometimes reluctant to talk about the challenges they experienced – either because they could not recall the details of a favorite project created months before or because of self-consciousness about not knowing. But I was always fascinated when kids opened up and articulated their struggles – and I found a conversation with one young Scratcher, 10-year-old Robin, particularly engrossing, as she frankly described the series of challenges she experienced while developing a recent project. When I asked her if she wanted to tell me about a project, Robin described a project that she had developed in collaboration with her younger brother. The project was inspired by a game – 100 Levels – that she had played on a popular mini-games website. She recruited her brother to help her imagine the multiple levels of the game, and she quickly realized that it would be really difficult (or at least very time consuming) to come up with 100 different levels for the game. She and her brother decided that, at least initially, it might be more reasonable to start with 10 levels. Even with this compromise, she described how it “took us a really long time” to develop the project – “like off and on for maybe even a month” – because of the various challenges that she encountered in developing and testing each of the levels (e.g., there were problems with the laser beams, one of the levels couldn’t be defeated). There were moments when she worried that she wouldn’t be able to finish the project due to the limitations of her own experience and expertise with Scratch – “Sometimes I was just like, ‘Oh my gosh, how do I do this? They aren’t doing what I want them to, how do I do this?’” – and moments of challenge when she had disagreements with her brother. Robin eventually developed the project to the point where she felt comfortable sharing it online, but nevertheless felt frustrated. “It wasn’t working as well at the beginning because I had a whole bunch of problems, and at the end there was still a problem because the backgrounds were sort of switched around.” For some kids, however, certain challenges were too great. The phrase “getting stuck” was mentioned by one of the kids in an early conversation, and it resonated with me; thereafter, I used this phrase when asking kids about their seemingly insurmountable challenges. Kids described getting stuck as the frustration of not knowing what to do or how to proceed. Edgar, for example, had an aspiration for a side-scrolling, platformer game, but expressed a deep annoyance with not knowing what the next step towards his goal might be. One thing that I don’t know is scrolling. I have no idea how to scroll. How do you think you’re going to go about figuring that out? I don’t know. I’ve tried to make platformer games that don’t use scrolling. But I have no idea how to scroll. I want to try to learn scrolling. Edgar, 12 years old Adele also talked about the limitations of her expertise as a reason for getting stuck. An avid soccer player, she wanted to create a Scratch project that would simulate her weekly soccer drills. She hoped that the simulation could help her coach develop new plays for the team to practice. She imagined a project with a field, a goal, and a team of players – all of which she understood how to create with Scratch. She also imagined needing an “infinite” number of cones to place on the field for the virtual team of players to navigate around, but she wasn’t sure what it might mean to have an “infinite” number of objects in a Scratch project and felt she couldn’t make progress without understanding this part of the project. All of the kids that I spoke with had been completely stuck on at least one project – the projects they “abandoned”, “just left”, felt “were too difficult to complete”, or “gave up on”. But the decision to abandon the project was easier for some than others and was motivated by different factors – from reluctance about further time investment, to negative feelings, to loss of interest. There’s quite a lot of projects that I don’t ever manage to finish. OK. Why are those ones unfinished? Well, either because I don’t actually know how to. Or, I lose interest because I’ve thought of another idea. Or, often, I realize that I can do it, but it’s going to involve a lot of complicated scripting. Fletcher, 14 years old I had not fully appreciated the magnitude of abandoned projects until a site visit. Most of the interviews were conducted remotely via phone and Skype, so it was a rare opportunity to sit side-by-side with a young Scratcher and discuss their development processes and observe their (digital) work environment. I met 12-year-old Connor at a local school’s Scratch open house event, and in a brief moment of quiet, I had the opportunity to be led through his collection of projects. He had shared a few projects on the Scratch online community, but had additional projects on his computer hard disk. I noticed two folders on his desktop: *Completed* and *Later*. The *Completed* folder contained 30 or so projects; the *Later* folder contained a few hundred projects. I asked Connor about the two folders. *What are all of the projects in the “Later” folder?* Projects I abandoned because, you know, I didn’t know what to do. Betraying more emotion than I intended, I asked him about the abandoned projects and he tried to console me. *But what if you really like your project idea?* It’s just sort of sad that way. **MAKING PROGRESS** In an August 2012 New York Times op-ed piece, former software engineer Ellen Ullman mocked the Securities and Exchange Commission’s suggestion to “fully test” stock trading software in an effort to prevent automated-trading errors. The suggestion, she argued, neglected a fundamental truth about software. There is no such thing as a body of code without bugs. You can test assiduously: first the programmers test, then the quality-assurance engineers; finally you run the old and new systems in parallel to monitor results. But no matter. There is always one more bug. Society may want to put its trust in computers, but it should know the facts: a bug, fix it. Another bug, fix it. The “fix” itself may introduce a new bug. And so on. This stance on the presence of errors in software was shared by the young Scratch creators that I spoke with, and was often communicated in a similar no-nonsense, matter-of-fact way. There is no game that you can release with no bugs. Bradley, 12 years old In the previous section, I described how the kids that I spoke with “got stuck” on bugs, and ended up *flailing* (not knowing how to proceed with a particular challenge and haphazardly searching for solutions) or *fleeing* (giving up on a particular challenge) – common occurrences when working with any sufficiently open system. These challenges require kids to develop strategies for making progress. In this section, I describe the sophisticated strategies and dispositions that kids described as part of their project-creation repertoires, moving them from a stance of flailing or fleeing to a stance of *fixing*. Many children are held back in their learning because they have a model of learning in which you have either “got it” or “got it wrong.” But when you learn to program a computer you almost never get it right the first time. Learning to be a master programmer is learning to become highly skilled at isolating and correcting “bugs,” the parts that keep the program from working. The question to ask about the program is not whether it is right or wrong, but if it is fixable. (Papert, 1980, p. 23) I share the strategies most frequently described by the kids, organized into two groups: individual strategies and social strategies. All of the kids talked about the tension between what you should be able to do on your own and what you should seek help on from others, a delicate interplay between relying on oneself and drawing on others. The creative process – it has really been evolving in me and learning from others. So, on one side, just learning from mistakes and investing time and changing projects, tweaking projects, and, on the other hand, help from the community. Jan, 16 years old The individual strategies include: *experimenting, planning, compromising, persevering,* and *taking a break.* The social strategies include: *asking for help, studying projects, remixing work, working with others,* and *helping others.* **Individual Strategies** *Experimenting* All of the kids that I spoke with talked about how important experimenting and exploring were as strategies for “getting better” with Scratch. Connected to their desire to have freedom in the development process, the kids described being curious and eager about figuring things out on their own by trying things out – from learning about elements of the Scratch interface, to understanding the effects of block stacks that they composed, to interacting with their Scratch creations. These explorations were sometimes serendipitous. 10-year-old Evan described his process of creating a book-report project about *The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe* by C.S. Lewis. He wanted to add an interactive component to his project – when someone clicked on the wardrobe, it should open – but he wasn’t sure how to achieve that effect with Scratch. He knew it was possible, but he wasn’t familiar with the mechanism. He talked about how his breakthrough realization came from exploring some other part of Scratch and then noticing a tab labeled *Costumes.* *Did you get stuck anytime while you were making this project?* I got stuck a few times. The one thing, it was really hard to – to make the wardrobe sort of look like it’s opening. And it took a while for me to figure out that there were stuff called costumes. And I got stuck for thirty minutes on that. And, yeah, that’s it. How did you figure out that you could use costumes? I looked at the Scratch website, and people used a bunch of sounds. So I found sounds up at the top – and while looking at the sounds and scripts, I found costumes. Evan, 10 years old The explorations were sometimes systematic. 11-year-old Jackson created a game in which the player navigates a cat through a series of increasingly challenging obstacles using the arrow keys on the keyboard. He described his biggest challenge – being able to move his cat up, left, and right, but not down – and how he overcame it by systematically exploring each block in the Motion category. This got me so stumped. I eventually learned how to move a character with the arrow keys on this project. What did you get stumped on? Figuring out how to move the cat? Up and down arrow keys are – were – my biggest enemy. What I was doing was, instead of having change y by twenty-five, and change y by minus twenty-five, I had move by this and move by minus twenty-five. So, what was happening was I was going right, right, right, up, up, up, here, here, down, down, down. And it was basically not correct, as you can see. It’s actually pretty efficient if you want to use diagonals, but I could not get my head around that I needed to change y by twenty-five. I could not get my head around that. So, I kept thinking that all I had to do is make him move in steps, but instead he had to move up and down the y-axis. How did you figure that out? I got unstuck because I went into this, motion [navigates to the motion palette], and I looked at this [points to the list of blocks] and I took out every single one of these [points to the individual blocks]. And I attached each and every one of them with my when down arrow is pressed block. And finally the character went down. And that was the one that I used forever. Jackson, 11 years old Jenson, who often shared analogies during our conversation, talked more generally about his process of learning and debugging. Thinking across his project experiences, he compared it to Bananagrams, a popular tile-based word-construction game, which involves being flexible and experimenting with multiple configurations of letters to achieve the desired winning end-state. When I asked how he dealt with challenges, he described this flexibility and experimenting as his most reliable strategy when creating projects with Scratch. I usually just try a different way. Have you ever played the game Bananagrams? Yes. Once or twice.\footnote{A fellow graduate student had recently introduced me to Bananagrams, and she and I had played the game obsessively during the weekend before this interview.} It’s like that – where you get so far into the program, or into the game, and then you realize, “Crap! I’ve got these other letters, how do I get them in?” And so you have to be able to take apart parts of your project and remix it up and put it back in and so that’s just a way to think about it. Jenson, 11 years old \textit{Planning} I have had the opportunity to talk with Lana several times over the past five years. In our most recent conversation, I asked Lana to tell me about a recent experience when she got stuck working on a project. She laughed, “I’ve actually had a few situations like that in my project when I just couldn’t go further. I think I’ve learned the most effective thing to do is to prevent it.” I asked her to tell me more about this evolution in her approach. My programming style on Scratch used to be, “It works. So don’t complain.” I’m used to just working to read the code in my project because it will be so individualized. Only I can understand it. It was really messy. *But you feel that’s changed over time?* Yeah, that’s changed. It’s kind of like – I became more disciplined when it comes to coding. It’s kind of a thing that comes with time, I think – with experience. Especially when you’re working on complex projects, you have to keep everything organized. And you have to predict possible problems that can arise and have solutions ready. For example, when you’re starting a music project, you should probably create a master volume variable and use that variable in all of the notes scripts when you need to set the volume for a certain note to be played. So that later on, when you need to silence the project for whatever reason, you don’t have to go through all the scripts and attach the variable to all of the values. Lana, 17 years old Kids described how they adopted more planning-oriented and systematic approaches to development as the complexity of their work increased, as a way of thwarting getting stuck. For some, planning involved diagrams and pseudo-code on whiteboards or sketching project requirements on paper, like the plan for a brick-breaker game shown in Figure 4.1, developed by a 6- and 9-year-old development team. For others, overall development relied on a more bottom-up approach, involving experimenting and tinkering. But, even with this style, some still employed planning and organizing strategies – the code and scripts were broken up, organized, and annotated to keep track of the emerging modules of development, like 14-year-old Ashleigh who used comments extensively as she iteratively built up her project, to remind herself of the varying responsibilities of different stacks of code. Compromising All design activities function within a set of constraints – constraints that can take on a variety of forms. I often think of design as a series of continuous approximations or compromises that work with/in these constraints. Similarly in Scratch, young designers are constrained and provoked to compromise, reframe, approximate. In our conversations, kids described how they worked with various constraints to rethink their creative visions – sometimes triumphantly, sometimes satisfyingly, and sometimes frustratedly. Constraints were often imposed by the Scratcher’s current abilities and fluency with Scratch. For example, the younger sibling of one of the kids that I spoke with talked about her desire to make a version of the popular *Angry Birds* game, which involves the player helping birds launch themselves at pigs who have stolen the birds’ eggs. The sibling, who had only recently been introduced to Scratch, struggled with making a version in Scratch, given her lack of familiarity with the tool. In her version of the game, a bird could be launched, but would get stuck, suspended mid-air, and never reach its target. The birds, she decided, didn’t seem particularly angry if they couldn’t attack, so she named her project *Birds*, instead of *Angry Birds*. For some kids, they possessed the technical capabilities and understandings, but the scale of the project was greater than the time they were willing to allocate. 10-year-old Aaron described his process of developing a music video for one of his favorite songs, and how he was flexible with his initial vision, in the interest of time. Well, the idea sort of changed because some things with the timing – some things just wouldn’t fit in the timing. So, I had to sort of like take them out or add new stuff. *What do you mean, “It didn’t fit with the timing”? Do you have an example?* Um, it didn’t work with the timing parts. It kept taking me a long time to get the timing and I had to listen to all of the song just to get there, so at that point I just got a little lazy with the timing. That’s why you see the sheep in a room instead of in a field. Aaron, 10 years old Occasionally, the constraint was the capabilities of the authoring environment. For example, 14-year-old Matt talked about the limitations he experienced with Scratch’s graphics, which currently do not scale elegantly. I don’t know how small the stickman figure is, but I think I shrank him down to twenty-five percent and that’s how I was actually able to get it to look like it was something. It was definitely shrunk down because of the – yeah, he shrank down to fifty-four. His head is flat on one side. You can see that. It’s just – his head is flat on one side. *What’s up with that? Why does he have a flat head on one side?* When you shrink the size like that, all the time, every single time it will deform the stick man. *I wouldn’t have noticed had you not pointed it out. Does that detail bother you?* Not really. It’s just something that Scratch does, so I just leave it. Sometimes it does bother me if I’m working on graphics. But that one wasn’t about graphics. Matt, 14 years old **Persevering** Earlier in this chapter, in *Getting Stuck*, I described how kids had projects that they “abandoned”, “just left”, felt “were too difficult to complete”, or “gave up on”. Despite the challenges they experienced, the kids were incredibly resilient, bouncing back from one challenge to take on another, and talking more generally about the “persistence”, “patience”, “grit”, and “determination” that they drew upon throughout their development processes. When I asked kids what their advice for other kids who are new to Scratch might be, persevering with a challenge was the most common advice. Just keep going and make sure that you don’t give up on your projects. Just keep rebuilding and constructing it and I think, pretty much, if you go on and on, it will pretty much work out. *Jenson, 11 years old* Definitely scripting, scripting, scripting. I was constantly experimenting, “Oh, this won’t work,” fixing it, experimenting, fixing it, and finally getting it right. Then having to make another version and fix more stuff. Patience is a virtue. *Lindsey, 12 years old* The motivation to persevere through challenge was always connected to personal interest and passion. If someone is working on a project they feel a deep personal investment in, they will be willing to invest the time and effort needed. For example, 13-year-old Eva (the first to use the word “persistent” in my conversations with young Scratchers) articulated this as she described how much time a particularly beloved project was taking to complete. It took maybe a month or maybe a week to finish. I was working on it really persistently. Every day I would work on it. I would go to the computer and start working on it. Oh, I love the word “persistently”. Why do you think you were so persistent? I really wanted this one to be done because I thought it would be pretty cool when I finished it. I thought it would be pretty cool and it is now. Actually, I had about 50 projects I was working on that were half done and had not finished any of them. I just thought, “I am not going to start anything new until I have finished something that I have started already” and that actually worked. I was like, “Oh my gosh, I really want to make this, so I really have to finish this first.” Eva, 13 years old Or by 12-year-old Bradley, who described the great personal satisfaction and confidence that can come from prolonged effort. You have to put work into it and it shows that you really do care about something. It shows that you were taking your time, you wanted to do something, and then it gives you that sense of accomplishment when you finally finish it. It boosts your confidence when you finish something that you thought was never possible. Bradley, 12 years old **Taking a break** As important as persevering, however, is knowing when to take a break. Sometimes the breaks are brief, a way to clear one’s head. I usually save the project I’m stuck on and come back to it later. *I like that strategy.* Yes – take a break. Brent, 8 years old When I was figuring out what functions to do, I’m like “This is a little confusing, let me just have lunch or something and I’ll come back to it a little later.” Aaron, 10 years old Sometimes, I get myself so dug in a hole that I have to just get myself out of Scratch for the day and relax myself and then start it up another time because after a lot of programming, your head hurts. It’s not easy to program with a hurting head. Jenson, 11 years old Sometimes the breaks are longer, making time to work on different projects entirely and build greater capacity with Scratch. A lot of the time when I get writer’s block/artist’s block, I take a break, do something else, and when I come back to it I am all refreshed and “Hey, an idea just popped into my mind!” Is that usually what you do? That’s usually what I do. I usually just take a break, work on something else. I’ve even had cases where I take a break and work on a whole different project. Lindsey, 12 years old Our conversations about these longer breaks in particular helped me think more optimistically about all of the projects that I initially feared were left incomplete. As I increasingly heard about projects left behind, I thought first of all of the unfulfilled dreams and aspirations. Certainly this is part of the story, but not its entirety. Kids talked about how many of the partially-completed projects served as material for future work. For example, David described how unfinished projects became collections of “extra ideas” that he saved in a special folder. What do you do with the extra ideas? I kind of make a tiny part for them and I can kind of go back to them. You know what? I’m just going to make a name for it, my Scratch workbox. Oh, I love that – workbox. I just thought of that right now. Ideas can help you very much. David, 9 years old And, sometimes, the original vision is fulfilled after an extended break. I remember one project that I didn’t give up on. It’s called Tanks. I sort of gave up on it and then came back to it. I actually started making it a little less than a year ago and then stopped completely. Then right now, my friend saw it, and I revisited it and finished it and I actually found another glitch where player one, if they were running out of health, their health would go back up. And then I figured the glitch out and fixed it and now it’s all good. Easton, 10 years old Social Strategies Asking for help At the beginning of every interview, per our ethics board requirements, I talk with the kids about who I am, my interest in talking with them, their rights to answer (or not) any questions, etc. I emphasize my conversational aspirations for the interview, explaining that – despite the fact my interview partner and I have many questions – they are welcome to ask us anything at any time. Before diving into the main set of questions, I ask, “So, before we get started, do you have any questions?” Most kids are still somewhat shy at this point, and say no – interjecting questions throughout our time together or sending questions via email or chat later on. But 9-year-old Adele caught me by surprise at the beginning of our conversation. *So, before we get started, do you have any questions?* Um...I want to know how I can use the variation list. Varis. The vari– *Variables?* Yeah, the variables. My experience with Adele was very representative of how I understood the kids’ strategies for seeking additional support. All of the kids I spoke to had experiences of asking someone else for help during their project development processes. In home settings, which were the primary work place for the kids I spoke with, parents and other older relatives were consulted for support in breaking down a problem and thinking through the challenges logically, if not for specific Scratch expertise. Siblings and friends were consulted for creative support, generating ideas for projects, and occasionally technical support. Most kids, though, talked about their general isolation and lack of access to others with Scratch experience, and described the importance of having access to other creators through the Scratch online community. *I don’t know how it feels to be a new Scratcher now, but I know that I got very constructive responses on my projects, a lot of help from other Scratchers – and this help has been very important for me. I think if that wasn’t there, I might have not, you know, continued in Scratch and be where I am now. So I think it was really important for me and therefore I think it’s important that we support this kind of giving and receiving help in Scratch.* Jan, 16 years old This help comes in different forms and at different stages in the project development process, and in one’s development as a designer of interactive media more generally, which I describe in greater detail in a book chapter (Brennan & Resnick, 2012). For example, kids use the comments area beneath projects to solicit advice about how they could improve their projects (Figure 4.2). The Scratch forums (http://scratch.mit.edu/forums/) are another important space in the online community where some kids are connecting with each other to ask for help about how to use particular features of Scratch, or how to deal with design challenges that they are facing. In the five years since the launch of the forums in May 2007, 23% of all registered Scratch members (approximately 275,000 of the 1.2 million) have used the forums, with approximately 10% (approximately 30,000 of the 275,000) of the forum participants having started or responded to more than 97,000 topics – for a total of approximately 1.3 million posts. There are many motivations for participating in the forums, however, not just seeking help with creative work, so I decided to focus on the interactions in one particular forum – the *Help with Scripts* forum – to take a quantitative look at how kids were giving and receiving support in the forums setting. The forums have been restructured and reorganized several times since 2007, and although kids have long been seeking scripting support, the *Help with Scripts* forum was established formally in January 2012. In the seven months following, 863 people started 1449 topics, most of which correspond to someone asking a question. 4.8% of the topics were “unanswered”, that is, had no posts in response. For the other 95% of topics, 668 people responded, with a median of 4 responses per topic. The median time to first response was 22 minutes, and the median lifetime of a conversation (from initial topic to final post) was 13.69 hours. In addition to people actively participating through responding, many others read the conversations, with a median of 126 views per topic. Kids described two recurrent challenges that they experience in asking others for help. First, they sometimes feel unable to sufficiently articulate the problems that they are experiencing or what type of support they need. This is unsurprising (how do you talk about something you don’t know how to talk about?), but nonetheless constitutes a barrier to successfully finding help. For example, consider the following (not atypical) exchange on the forums about how to construct a carnival game (Figure 4.3). Second, even if able to successfully articulate their challenge and need, kids often find it difficult to make a connection to someone who can help them in a way that is accessible to them. Again, this is unsurprising. Many kids lack pedagogical experience and intuition about how to best support others, as we see in the continuation of the carnival game thread (Figure 4.4). And, even with pedagogical knowledge, the content knowledge might be partial or incorrect. 10-year-old Aaron, for example, described the challenges he faced as he developed one of his games, and how it had required understanding absolute value, which he hadn’t known about before learning about it from another young creator in the online community. He was particularly appreciative of having learned from this other Scratcher the multiple ways of calculating the absolute value of a number: (1) you could use the *abs* OK, I'm making a carnival game in scratch, and I'm having trouble at making some broadcasts only happen after other things have happened. My problem is, that I need to get my sprites to communicate with each other, basically, I want them to do this: For shooter(s): "when shooter (Insert number here) clicked" "broadcast (something)" Then wall(s): "When I receive (something)" "If I have been clicked" "broadcast (something2)" For coin(s): "when receive (something2)" "Glide to x:-240 y: -125" This is what I want the sprites to do, I just don't know how to get them to do it because there will be 5 walls, 3 coins and 3 shooters and they all need their own coding, Please Help!!! I'm sorry but that's not very clear. If you could clarify what you want to do, and maybe upload what you have so far, I may be able to help. Figure 4.3 Typical forum exchange with someone looking for help. Use variables. how? Can you show me or give me some examples? well if you make a variable for each sprite's piece of data that needs to be communicated, and change them before you broadcast it would work fine. can you tell/show me in the forum pages as for some reason my computer won't let me download projects. Also, can you try and make it easier to understand as I don't... 😕 Figure 4.4 Continuation of forum thread from Figure 4.3. block in the *operators* palette, and (2) “you can just do zero minus the number.” **Studying projects** In addition to connecting kids to other young creators, the Scratch online community connects kids to millions of Scratch projects. Every young person with whom I spoke had multiple stories of a project that inspired them and that they learned from. Studying others’ code was a central practice for many kids, both as a way to get past particular challenges and as a way to learn more about Scratch in general. 12-year-old Bradley talked about how one of his initial interests in Scratch was to make space simulations, but he wasn’t sure how to simulate the gravitational pull between planets. He posted his question on the Scratch forums, and someone advised him that he “would need to learn trig.” He wasn’t sure what that meant and searched for the term “trig” on Scratch, which led him to a list of projects tagged with “trig” (Figure 4.5). He downloaded several projects and studied their code, noticing that they all used similar *operators* blocks – *sin*, *cos*, *tan*. He experimented with those blocks and built small test projects, using them until he understood them well enough to produce the desired effects in his space simulations. Several kids talked about how they used projects that were explicitly designed to support their learning – Scratch tutorials. Kids in the community have made thousands of Scratch tutorials, about all aspects of their Scratch participation, from the technical (e.g., how to use a particular block), to the aesthetic (e.g., how to create art in a particular style), to the social (e.g., how to become popular on the website). But as with soliciting help from others, studying others’ projects has challenges. Bradley, for example, although successful in studying others’ code to learn about trigonometry, described how he felt confused by a tutorial that another Scratcher had created for him. I wanted to make air hockey and it wasn’t working out quite how I wanted it to. So, I had another user help me with an example project. But he made the example so complicated I couldn’t understand it. Bradley, 12 years old Others talked about the more general challenge of the legibility of unfamiliar code. When asked about reading other people’s code, Ashleigh described these differences and difficulties in terms of one’s “scripting style”. Why do you add comments to your code? I thought for someone who doesn’t know my scripting style, it would be easier to read if there were comments there. I love the idea of scripting style, that’s really nice. When I download other Scratch projects, I can’t read the scripts. They are too complicated for me. But my own are always like my own style – I know how to read them. Oh, that’s so interesting. How would you describe your own scripting style? I don’t even know really. I always use the same blocks and the same order for them and the same sort of – I broadcast at certain times and other times I don’t. Other people are completely different in that way. When I see someone else’s script, it makes no sense to me. How do you think you developed a style? It just kind of evolved, really. The very simple projects – like when you are first learning how to make them switch costumes and things – it’s all the same for everyone. But when it keeps getting more complicated, I think everyone develops their own sort of way to go about it. Do you think there are good or bad styles? No, I mean, I think there are some that are different – but they are not necessarily worse. It’s all just different. Ashleigh, 14 years old Remixing projects Projects in the online community are intended not just for abstract inspiration or technical guidance – they are freely available to download and remix, to use the constituent components as building blocks. Just as professional programmers avoid “reinventing the wheel” by using libraries of code and common algorithms, young designers in the Scratch online community are free to remix and reuse Scratch projects to support their learning. Almost all of the kids that I spoke with had a positive impression of remixing and appreciated having access to others’ code – from the perspective of the learner or remixer. How do you feel about remixing? I think it’s great. Because, quite frankly, that’s how I learn most of my programming in Scratch – just by remixing a lot of projects. It’s really great. Chuck, 14 years old Kids talked about how remixing was an important entry point – and source of ongoing support – for their Scratch participation. It supports their technical development, allowing them to build from others’ work rather than being intimidated by a blank canvas, or providing elements that they were uncertain how to program. For example, many kids are interested in developing side-scrolling games, but a basic side-scrolling implementation is fairly complex for someone who is new to Scratch. An experienced Scratch community member, recognizing the gap between interest and ability with side-scrolling, developed a project – both a tutorial and code foundation – for others to remix as the basis of their own side-scrolling projects (Figure 4.6). This project has been remixed hundreds of times (Figure 4.7), and has been folded into many different types of projects, including games, simulations, and art pieces. Remixing also serves as an entry point for social participation in the online community, through pass-it-on or add-yourself projects, in which members are invited to contribute some small piece to an intentionally social project. This is a popular form of participation in the online community, with more than 10,000 projects having an explicit invitation to “Add yourself” – “Add yourself locked in the living room”, “Add yourself falling from the sky”, “Add yourself to the race”, “Add yourself to the group photo”, “Add yourself if you love Scratch”, “Add yourself to the party”, “Add yourself steppin’ on the beach”, etc. Through this, kids learn the basics of remixing as a community practice and of making connections with others. Whether motivated by technical ends, social ends, or both, kids, although appreciating the benefits they derived from being the remixer, talked extensively about the frustrations of being the one remixed. It was seen as important for the remixer to both: (1) change the work sufficiently, and (2) acknowledge the creator through credit and attribution. This attitude was succinctly summarized by 9-year-old Adele, when asked to explain remixing to someone unfamiliar with the concept. I would say that you take somebody else’s project and you add your own little character or your own little spark to it. Then you put it back on and see how they like it. Adele, 9 years old Minimally-derivative work was a particular frustration for kids who identified primarily as artists, because derivative works were heavily based on the artist’s aesthetic signature. Eva, a Scratch artist who creates detailed animations based on the Warrior Cats series of books, was staunchly opposed to her work being remixed. *Have you ever had someone remix your projects?* Several times. And often without my permission. *How did that make you feel?* I usually yell at them a whole bunch until they get really mad at me and then I go away. *Why does it make you yell?* I think that they need to find something original. But they will be like “Oh, I don’t know how to do this, so I will just take someone else’s.” Eva, 13 years old Occasionally, derivative works *were* different, but were seen as problematically so, in that they took an idea and remixed it in a manner that the original author felt was offensive or deeply misaligned with the original vision. 9-year-old David, for example, was a great supporter of remixing in general, but was upset with how another Scratcher remixed his project about a friendly forest hedgehog. Instead of being supportive, the hedgehog terrorized his fellow forest-dwellers, and David griped about this change in theme: “He made my hedgehog evil!” The importance of the degree of difference in the derivative work was eclipsed by the issue of credit and was a major source of kids’ dissatisfaction with remixing. The expectation of appropriate credit is high (as documented in Monroy-Hernandez et al., 2011) – and the lack of credit was a constant complaint amongst the kids I interviewed. *How does it typically make you feel when someone remixes your work?* It makes me happy when they do that, but it doesn’t make me happy when they claim everything for their own. When they claim everything for their own, that’s what makes me mad. Come on guys, you can give a little bit of credit. Matt, 14 years old Without sufficient credit (although there was considerable variation in what the kids identified as sufficient and appropriate credit), kids talked about these acts as “stealing”, “copying”, “plagiarism”, and “theft”. These acts are a significant source of strife in the online community more broadly, with numerous Scratchers flagging uncredited work and calling for greater control over remixing permission in future versions of the Scratch authoring environment and online community (Figure 4.8). **Working with others** Considering the benefit that kids describe in asking others for help, looking at others’ work, and building on others’ projects, a logical next step is combining these experiences, with Scratchers teaming up to create something greater than they could possibly create on their own. Very early in the life of the Scratch online community, and with almost no formal support or structure from the design itself, young Scratchers established creative partnerships (Brennan, Resnick, & Monroy-Hernandez, 2010; Brennan, Valverde, Prempeh, Roque, & Chung, 2011; Resnick et al., 2009; Roque, 2012). Kids who had experiences participating in group work discussed the technical benefits (e.g., learning new programming features from other Scratchers), but also emphasized the socio-emotional benefits – like 10-year-old Chelsey, who had been involved in one of the most prominent early collaborations (which she described as a “company”) on the site. *What have been some of the greatest things about starting and working with your company?* Greatest things? I’ve met – I’ve made loads of new friends. It’s really fun just making projects together rather than doing them on my own. Chelsey, 10 years old The size of the partnerships varies from pairs to dozens of kids, and the structure of the group work is also quite variable. Some kids described approaching the work in a more cooperative, divide-and-conquer fashion, with different kids responsible for different elements of the creations. Many of the early, renowned partnerships followed this model, with certain kids serving in technical roles (the “programmers”), design roles (the “artists”), or in management roles (the “president” and “vice presidents”). Some of the cooperative endeavors were even more loosely structured, following a crowdsourcing model. For example, 13-year-old Eva developed digital plays by writing scripts in Scratch projects and recruiting voice talent for various roles through Scratch-project-based auditions. Others described adopting more collaborative, holistic strategies, with members of the partnerships taking on shared responsibility for all elements of the group production. 12-year-old Clark described his experiences of working with a group in this fashion, comparing his experiences to those of other high-visibility groups in the Scratch community. In our group, it’s definitely shared responsibility. … I know there’s [Scratch-famous group], and I’ve heard that they are one of the kinds that works separately on each project, and I kind of look down on that. Because, if you ask me, that’s not even really a collaboration at its fullest. It’s just, kind of, giving everybody credit for just one thing, so everyone’s really working like that. In our situation, we ask everybody to do something their own way, and then we’ll compare to see which one is more efficient, or looks the best, like that. Clark, 12 years old The kids’ enthusiasm for working with others was accompanied by a recognition that it necessitated a type of knowing beyond technical knowledge. As Jan reflected on his five years in the Scratch online community, he described the difference between creative and collaborative learning, and the real-world value of collaboration. I think Scratch is something very good to do this creative expression and also learning programming. But it’s not just learning programming. It’s learning programming and being creative – and collaborating with different people online, which is like real life. You also collaborate in real life. Jan, 16 years old In our most recent conversation, Lana, who had worked with Chelsey in that early, prominent company, talked about essential strategies for – and challenges of – working with others on Scratch projects, none of which related directly to specific technical or creative abilities of the group members. Basically, it just requires dedication on the part of the participants. Because it’s not really a thing that people are doing out of goodwill – it’s out of interest. It’s always good when you have that enthusiasm because that’s the only thing that keeps it going. And there are no ways to organize these things on Scratch – you can only communicate on Scratch via comments or forums. There aren’t specific tools for organization and because of that, every person has to organize themselves. They have to be organized themselves. And that requires dedication. You have to communicate. People in your collaborations should know exactly what to expect and what they want to achieve out of this. Because if their expectations aren’t met and you’re kind of forcing your own views on them and you aren’t paying attention to their opinion, they’ll probably get bored with the project. For that reason, it’s always good to come to an agreement before you make a project. I think that’s the main thing. Lana, 17 years old Against her own standards for success, Lana considered the company to have been, to a certain extent, unsuccessful. I actually thought a lot about how to make organizations work, based on our company. I was thinking about why our company didn’t work out. Oh? Why do you think it didn’t work out? Well, there were a lot of reasons and mainly because, well, we were all inexperienced. Really inexperienced. And especially me because I was the person who was leading all of that. The whole thing. And I was in charge. And frankly in the end, it all boiled down to me taking over everything because I was so perfectionist about everything. I just think I wasn’t communicative enough. That was, that was a really big problem. Also, I realized that the best way to work on projects is in stages. First of all, you develop the overall idea. Create a very rough sketch and you gather everybody’s opinion about that. And when you’re done with that, you can move on to the next stage which is basically, each time you kind of refine it, until you got a pretty good idea of exactly what you’re going to do. And you start from the basic idea and then you go into the detail. And that way, you can ensure that nobody’s opinion will be ignored. The problem was that a lot of people like to start from the detail, but they get confused because they don’t know what to do. Then they start disagreeing and fighting with each other – and that’s a really big mess. Because of that, you should always start from the big idea and after everyone has agreed on that, you move deeper into the project. And I think that’s how projects and collaborations should be made. Lana, 17 years old **Helping others learn** Finally, whether creating tutorial projects or leaving constructive comments or answering questions in the forums, nearly all of the kids I spoke with had some experience with explicitly helping another young creator learn more about Scratch. I was curious about their motivations for supporting others – why did they take the time to help others? For some, the motivations were deeply altruistic – they hoped that their work would be beneficial to the Scratch community. For example, 12-year-old Clark contributes actively to a community-generated wiki about Scratch, spending hundreds of hours composing and reviewing entries in the online Scratch compendium. *What motivates you to take on such a huge project – why do you do it?* I think it’s because – it’s like similar to the same idea why the creator of Wikipedia created Wikipedia, for a full source of human knowledge. And in my case, it’s that, except about Scratch. Clark, 12 years old Some kids viewed their efforts to help others as part of a process of generalized reciprocity, paying forward benefits that they had received (and continue to receive) from others in the community. 9-year-old Nevin, for example, was enthusiastic about how much she benefited from tutorials made by other Scratchers. There are a lot of great tutorials on the website. *What’s a tutorial that a new person might want to look at?* Well, there’s this tutorial that my friend made yesterday. I saw it on my “Friend’s latest projects”. And what did it help you learn? Well, it was just talking about the hat blocks and where you can import stuff, where you can bring in stuff. Have you made a tutorial? I did one on lists to add to the tutorials. Nevin, 9 years old Finally, kids talked about the benefits they derived from helping others. Helping others supported their own learning. They say that teaching is the highest form of learning or understanding. So, I think that making math projects has actually helped me understand math concepts better than learning in school. Sonia, 16 years old Helping others resulted in positive emotional benefits. It really makes me feel good inside to help people and see their projects and know, “Hey, I was a part of this, they may not have been able to make this, and this is awesome.” Lindsey, 12 years old Helping others led to increased confidence in one’s own development and creative practices. Helping others gives you the sense that you are really – that someone’s confused and you are helping them, and it makes you feel more confident when you try and do something. Bradley, 12 years old FINDING AUDIENCE Most of the kids that I spoke with were very passionate about the importance of the online community – not surprising given that I was interviewing kids who were active participants on the site. But several kids were particularly adamant about the site’s importance as a source of audience. Like Jenson, who, after I asked whether the site had been an important part of his Scratch experience, argued that sharing one’s work was a necessary part of programming and of one’s motivation for being a programmer. Every, I think, in my opinion, every programmer probably has a hope that somebody’s going to view it. Jenson, 11 years old This idea of creating *for* other people, as opposed to creating primarily for one’s own gratification, was a recurrent theme among the kids. They were creating artifacts to engage other people – games to play, animations to watch, simulations to experiment with – and eagerly anticipated feedback from others, whether through views, comments, or love-its. Receiving feedback was described as one form of being acknowledged for the significant effort invested in developing creative work. The approximate amount of time when you’re making a movie I actually counted using my iPod stopwatch. It takes about 30 minutes to make. If you’re making a good, well-detailed movie it takes about 30 minutes to make 30 seconds of screen time. *Wow.* So, it actually adds up to be quite a lot if you’re making something. It’s very hard work. *That’s a lot of time.* Yeah. It needs to be appreciated. Jackson, 11 years old But beyond praise and appreciation, attention from others in the community was valued as a way to improve as a Scratcher (as described earlier) – and served as motivation for ongoing work. What makes the online community good is most things – like being able to comment on other people’s projects. Because getting feedback on something you made is a lot better than just making it and not having anyone see it. So, it kind of gives a purpose to making it. I don’t think I would make as many projects if there was no feedback involved. It’s just good to hear what other people have to say. Sonia, 16 years old **More Famous** Unfortunately, the hope for attaining attention and audience was often not matched by the kids’ experiences – and the kids talked extensively in the interviews about the confusion, frustration, and sadness of not finding an audience in the online community. You know what I don’t understand? Sometimes even though you do get a lot of views, that you don’t get a lot of comments. And I don’t really know why. *Why do you think that is?* I don’t know, maybe it’s just – like my mom said, it’s like someone calling you and not leaving a message on the answering machine. Aaron, 10 years old 13-year-old Eva felt that she had enjoyed a reasonable level of visibility on the site – until she introduced Scratch to her friend, who very quickly attained a level of attention that Eva had not, which led to tensions between the friends. Yeah, I showed her Scratch. And she so rudely became more famous than me in like 3 days. *What is “famous”?* Getting a lot of comments or love-its, or whatever you want to call them. I usually check and see how many comments there are on a project – and other people are like “Oh my gosh, you’ve got like 1000 love-its. That’s very famous.” Eva, 13 years old Eva’s frustration and irritation were rooted in a sense of inequity – how could someone who had not dedicated as much time as she had achieve a greater level of visibility? Inequity was often the source of frustration for kids, whether it was someone who had spent less time, less energy, or had demonstrated less aesthetic sophistication, less technical sophistication, less attention to detail, yet somehow surpassed one’s own level of visibility. 10-year-old Easton talked about this inequity as his least favorite part of the Scratch online community. You asked me what was my least favorite thing about the Scratch website. And now I remember something that I didn’t before – how sometimes bad projects get on the front page while there are better projects that only have about five views. So, like, there were many projects on the front page that weren’t anything as good as some of my projects, but they got front-paged. And also something that upsets me is that the Mario games always get front page even when they’re really glitchy. Like, you can play the first level two times and you’ll unlock level 3. Easton, 10 years old Even kids who were not personally indignant about the lack of attention recognized it and suggested developing ways of distributing attention, like Sonia. Sometimes people get a little too obsessed with getting popular or famous, or whatever you want to call it, and get upset when they are not, and that kind of stuff. But there is a core group of people that are often on the front page and I think it would be good if that was spread out a little bit more. Sonia, 16 years old And like Chuck, who discussed the consequences of a design change made to the front page of the Scratch online community, in terms of an individual’s potential to be noticed. You guys [the Scratch Team] actually did this at some point: taking away the “New Projects” page. Because when that happened, I was really disappointed because that’s a lot of people who haven’t really gotten into Scratch yet. And it’s how you actually get your work shown. Because unless you’re like a really affluent person on the website, um, you’re not – your projects really aren’t going to get looked at. I really liked the “New Projects” part because it allows people who haven’t really got a reputation yet to get a reputation. Chuck, 14 years old Frustration with unattained or unequal attention also manifests frequently on the website through comments and projects. 10-year-old Aaron shared a project he created that highlighted his annoyance (Figure 4.9). Figure 4.9 A project expressing frustration about attention inequities. You wanna know something kinda annoying that probably goes for other people too? You could make a great, awesome project but 99% of Scratchers don’t even know it exists. But if [famous Scratcher] posted the exact same thing he would be on the front page in half a DAY. It annoys me because some Scratchers really do work hard and never get credit, and then [another famous Scratcher] makes a glitchy fall down and gets 1,848 comments and 599 love its. If you agree love it. Text from project by Aaron, 10 years old The intensity and frequency of these comments in our conversations left me feeling both anxious and curious. The inequality of attention online is a well-documented phenomenon (Adamic & Huberman, 2002; Goldhaber, 1997; Lankshear & Knobel, 2002; Rheingold, 2012; Shirky, 2003). A small number of sources receive a disproportionate amount of attention, leading to power-law distributions (for example, Zipfian or Pareto distributions). Online attention is not the only phenomenon that follows this “80/20” behavior (20% of a population receiving 80% of the attention/wealth/etc., and vice versa). Newman (2005) demonstrates power law behavior in academic citations, words used in Melville’s Moby Dick, bestselling book sales, and personal wealth. To further investigate attention inequality in the Scratch online community, I developed a set of queries against the Scratch online community database. At the time I ran the queries, there were approximately 2.2 million visible projects. (I filtered out deleted or censored projects because it was no longer possible for them to receive attention.) Of these visible projects, 16% (348,466 projects) had only 0 or 1 views. But how were the 47 million total views distributed among the projects? Did most projects get the same number of views? Did some projects get more views? If so, how many more? To visualize the inequality, I use Lorenz curves. In a 1905 paper, Lorenz described how his approach to visualization illustrates inequity by plotting percent population against percent wealth. (In the context of the Scratch online community, attention is wealth.) The method is as follows: Plot along one axis cumulated per cents. of the population from poorest to richest, and along the other the per cent. of the total wealth held by these per cents. of the population. To illustrate, take a population in which wealth is distributed equally. … This will give a straight line. With an unequal distribution, the curves will always begin and end in the same points as with an equal distribution, but they will be bent in the middle; and the rule of interpretation will be, as the bow is bent, concentration increases. (p. 217) Figure 4.10 illustrates the extreme cases – referred to as “the line of perfect equality”, where N% of the population receives N% of the attention, and “the line of perfect inequality”, where one member of the population receives 100% of the attention (Lorenz, 1905; Paglin, 1975). For each project, I counted how many views the project had received, then sorted the projects from least viewed (0 views) to most viewed (94,990 views). Following the Lorenz method, I plotted the cumulative percentage of views against the cumulative percentage of projects. As Figure 4.11 illustrates, some projects do indeed receive more attention, with the top 20% of projects receiving 76% of the views. And the disparity was even more pronounced when I considered views by Scratch member (members who had posted at least one project), instead of by project. The 20% most-viewed Scratch members enjoy 95.6% of the attention – which leaves 4.4% of total views to be shared among the other 80% of Scratch members. Views are only one metric of attention, and in another set of queries, I examined the number of love-its that projects received. Love-its require an intentional click, and are a more robust signal. of appreciation – kids can look at a project without loving it. Of the visible projects, 78% (1,717,830 projects) had 0 love-its. But how were the 1.7 million total love-its distributed among the loved projects and members? Using the same approach used to describe views (above), I counted how many love-its each project had received, sorted the projects from least love-its (0 love-its) to most love-its (4086), and plotted the cumulative percentage of love-its against the cumulative percentage of projects. As Figure 4.12 illustrates, the top 20% of all projects received 97% of the love-its, while the top 20% of members received 99% of the love-its. **Getting What You Wish For, Sort Of** 14-year-old Chuck was one of the first Scratchers that I can remember thinking of as “Scratch famous” – creating a project that catalyzed the interest and enthusiasm of the Scratch community. The project, which was a humorous, talk-show parody involving the Scratch Cat as a guest, was promoted as the first in a series, which in itself was an innovation in project-framing that Scratch community members were enthusiastic to support, both as model for their own creations and as encouragement for Chuck to produce many episodes. But he never produced another episode of the talk-show series. (He did, however, produce a project, three years later, explaining that he would not be creating another episode and requesting that people “please stop asking.”) When asked about his experience with that level of attention, Chuck described how it was both beneficial and challenging. It’s actually a funny story. At first, I was really excited about it because everyone really liked it. But what I eventually realized is that it would be really, really, really hard to do what I had promised, to actually be able to put another person on the talk show. And eventually, I basically said on the page, “OK, I don’t think I can do this. Please stop asking me.” But that didn’t really work – no one really saw my comment. So, I’m still getting requests for people to be on the show even though I still haven’t made the second one. But I am really happy that so many people liked it. I think that’s really cool. Chuck, 14 years old The project was shared more than five years ago and still continues to draw attention – and ire (Figure 4.13). Look you got a lot of fans then you make an awesome project that everyone wants to be on then you just want to quit scratch by giving them a rip off you lost a lot of fans you just could make a project that says that your lev ing scratch well any way thats not how to get fans back from this rip off!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! A level of hostility often accompanies attaining visibility on the site, with featured projects receiving great praise and great criticism. As just one (but not isolated) example, a game-authoring Scratcher was frustrated by all of the attention that animation-authoring Scratchers were receiving in the community, as he felt that they were not sufficiently programming-focused. He created a protest project, encouraging people to boycott all animation projects and calling for a return to a programming focus (Figure 4.14). But even for less “famous” Scratchers, negative attention was described as a problem, with comments from others not always being as respectful or kind as kids hoped. These problems are shared through projects and on the forums, and communicated to the Scratch Team via email. Subject: Scratch is becoming a bad site :( To: Help@Scratch MIT I really like scratch, I’ve used the Program for many years. I was last year shown to the home site. It was a great place, I found many cool projects, people, and ideas. Through scratch, I have achieved great personal growth. But that was last year... even last year this was kind of evident, but the problem has grown. Its everywhere I go now, there Isn’t a single time I log onto scratch and don’t run into one of these problems... There are Haters on this site... lots of ‘em. They go around down grading any one they don’t like. I even got a hate message, and it was the first message I got on my first project. There is also lots of bad words on this site. Scratch is primarily a site filled with little kids. But there are a bunch of famous, or semi-famous scratchers out there that are older, and they use bad words. Some of them overuse bad words. Being that you have your eye on the site (I hope) I’m pretty sure you know who they are. There’s a lot of fighting, cussing, and stealing on the scratch website. That sounds more like a description of a city filled with thieves and drunkards if you ask me. This site is filled with a bunch of kids and they are obviously acting unappropriately. I know that your server is supposed to be a place where we come together to share, create, and learn to program {with fun} together. But scratch just isn’t that place. And lots of people are quitting and getting their feelings hurt because scratch just isn’t that place. I know that you cannot change the people that use your server, but there must be something you can do to try to change all this disgusting behavior…right? The challenges of online interactions are well documented. Online social interactions match the complexity of in-person social interactions, and can make interactions even more challenging, given the lack of signals and cues to support understanding an individual’s meaning and intentions (Donath, 2007). This complexity can lead to problematic interactions between people online, including both unintentionally and intentionally problematic behavior, such as conflicts, bullying, trolling, and drama among community members (Golder & Donath, 2004; Kollock & Smith, 1996; Marwick & boyd, 2011). I heard about some of these challenges in my conversations with the kids, and learned about how they dealt with negative interactions. The kids described how they relied on the affordances of the website infrastructure and on Scratch Team members to intervene, through flagging or ignoring features. But, most often, they described the ways in which support from other community members helped provide structure and guidance for appropriate behavior in challenging times. 9-year-old Adele described her experience of observing this community support in action. There are a lot of people that are willing to help you and it is a very safe website because I saw once something when somebody said like they didn’t like the person’s project. About 8 people said, “That’s not nice.” So that impressed me that so many people cared. Adele, 9 years old 8-year-old Brent told me about his own experience of how positivity from the community balanced negativity from an individual. What’s the first thing you do when you come to the Scratch website? It’s usually my projects. Because I just made a project and I want to check on my project. Because I’ve already gone and I saw a lot of negative – I feel like I’ve gotten bad comments. Have you thought about disabling comments? No, I don’t really want to disable it because I just want them to be a little – I usually like the comments. That way they can say nice things about it. [Looking at comments] I see – because there are lots of nice comments, too. Let’s take this comment right here. I like it because some people are standing up for me. So I usually don’t delete a mean comment if somebody is already standing up for me. Oh, that is nice. You can always flag it and we get an email about it so that we can let that person know that it’s not OK to say things like that. I’m OK with it as long as – I don’t really want them to comment like that again, but I’m OK with it if somebody is already sticking up for me. Brent, 8 years old Developing Strategies Despite the challenges of finding audience and developing social interactions, the kids value it highly, and are thinking strategically about how one cultivates audience. This thinking is often communicated through projects and forums – many projects and forum posts. A search for “how to animate” on the Scratch website yielded 2,670 results. A search for “how to scroll” yielded 5,470 results. A search for “how to famous” yielded 4,460 results and “how to popular” yielded 5,310, just two of the words that kids use to describe visibility. How Do I Get My Projects to Become Popular? From the Scratch Wiki — made by Scratchers, for Scratchers. This is a guide on how a user can make their projects get more views and love-its, as well as getting the user more well-known. It is primarily based off this forum guide. Some of the recommendations are thoughtfully earnest, like a young Scratcher’s project recommending a four-step popularity process (“Step 1: Making a decent project, Step 2: Adding lots of people to your list of friends, Step 3: Adding your project to a gallery, Step 4: Using a popular tag”) and the Scratcher wiki entry on popularity (Figure 4.15). Other advice is slightly more cynical – such as “Tips for Scratch Fame” (which advises the judicious use of spam to promote one’s work, and advising to not “be sad if you don’t get famous, because you probably won’t”), “How to get famous” (which advises the construction of fake apology projects because “apologies are an easy way to get the front page”), and “Tips’N’Tricks” for how Scratch works (which advises luring people in with highly engaging, if not entirely accurate, project thumbnail previews) – as illustrated in Figure 4.16. Several of the kids that I spoke with talked about the role of reciprocity in acquiring attention, both as a way of moderating one’s expectations and as a way of shaping one’s behaviors. To receive attention, one must bestow attention – and it is not reasonable to expect otherwise, as Matt explained. I don’t know what’s wrong with people, but everybody keeps quitting for popularity. I just don’t understand it. They’re like, “Oh, I’ve been gone for a week and I had one message, or I had no messages.” Well, that’s because you didn’t reply to anybody else. You didn’t talk to them. If you don’t talk to them, they’re not going to talk to you. You don’t just expect people to randomly e-mail or give you a message or something. You don’t expect people to just go ahead and on one of your projects and start commenting on it and give you several messages, stuff like that. You don’t expect that. Matt, 14 years old Ashleigh described engaging in more generalized reciprocity, a behavior stemming from her disappointment in not receiving comments. A lack of comments on her projects served as motivation for reaching out to others to lessen their disappointment. *What makes you want to leave comments?* I see like a lot of views and not that many comments on my project and somehow, not even disappointing, but yeah, I guess disappointing for me, so I like to leave comments on other people’s projects so it’s less like that. Ashleigh, 14 years old Sonia described her connections to others as an extremely important part of her experience and she wished others could have similar experiences. I asked her how others could develop those connections. *So, what advice would you give to a Scratcher who isn’t maybe connected to people?* I don’t know – it’s hard. Commenting on other people’s projects makes them want to comment on your projects, so that helps. And adding your projects to galleries or advertising them on the forums, that kind of stuff. I don’t know. I feel really bad for people who never get views, so I try to look for ones that don’t have many and comment on those. Sometimes you just get lucky. *Sonia, 16 years old* Changes in creative and social practices, as shaped by a desire for attention, audience, and popularity, were not always aligned with the kids’ other desires. For example, 13-year-old Eva created animations (based on the Warrior Cats book series) that were highly regarded in the online community. When I asked about her source of inspiration, I was surprised by the response. *I assume you like Warrior Cats.* I don’t really read the Warrior Cats books. I read the first series, but they weren’t actually that good in my opinion. … A lot of people on Scratch like to read the Warriors series and they are big fans. I thought this might be a good way to get viewed. *Eva, 13 years old* Sebastian talked about the attention economy of Scratch – how, given the limited attention available, he was more strategic about when he shared his projects. So, you don’t tend to post early and then change it? Yeah. I mean I was doing that and then I realized that’s, I mean – I know this is not the point of Scratch, but I think it is really cool when you get a lot of views, because then you know people are seeing your projects, and they are enjoying your project. And so, when you post it half-done, people will check it out, and they will say there’s a lot you can do here, and then you never see them again. So, it’s sometimes like a pattern, like the projects that get on the front page, they’re always like really, really finished. So, I try to do that. It’s really hard at first. Like you just want to post it and get feedback, but you won’t until you get it to a really good point. Sebastian, 13 years old In this chapter, I describe tensions that teachers identified between their aspirations and the actualities of implementing Scratch in the classroom. In the previous chapter, I described the experiences of kids who work with Scratch primarily at home. While there are many kids who work with Scratch this way, an increasing number of kids are being introduced to Scratch in other learning environments, by teachers – and, in this chapter, I turn my attention to these teachers. I take a broad view of “teacher” here, referring to any adult who supports young learners, from K-12 classroom teachers, to after-school-program facilitators, to teacher educators. I wanted to better understand the experiences of these teachers and what Scratch looks like in their settings, particularly in relation to the understandings I have been developing about kids working with Scratch outside of schools. How do teachers think about Scratch? What are their experiences of incorporating Scratch in the design of their learning environments? To explore these questions, over the past four years, I conducted interviews with 30 teachers who have been working with Scratch. A central theme in our conversations was the challenge of incorporating open-ended design activities in these learning environments. Creating opportunities for students to understand and to build capacities for engaging with this type of open-endedness was described by many of the teachers as the central aspiration of learning and education, yet in conflict with how learning is enacted in many school settings. In this chapter, I describe tensions that teachers repeatedly identified between their aspirations and the actualities of implementation. The chapter is organized thematically into four sections. The first theme – *Supporting Problem-Solvers* – unpacks teachers’ motivations for working with Scratch. The second theme – *Negotiating Open-Endedness* – explores the challenges teachers face when trying to implement open-ended design within the structure of the classroom. The third theme – *Building Culture* – outlines strategies that teachers have developed in response to the challenges that accompany open-ended design activities. The fourth and final theme – *Legitimizing Learning* – describes the challenges teachers experience when trying to understand and explain the learning that is taking place in their learning environments. **SUPPORTING PROBLEM-SOLVERS** Michael Smith-Welch is a graduate of the research group to which I belong at the Media Lab. Several years ago, during a conversation that we were having about Scratch, Michael introduced me to a beautiful set of questions – originally with *art* as the subject of the questions, but easily translated to other topics, including Scratch. *What is Scratch? What is Scratch good for? What is good Scratch? How do different people think about these questions differently?* I have subsequently used these questions in a variety of settings, including my conversations with teachers about their Scratch experiences. When asked what Scratch *is*, most teachers that I spoke with responded that Scratch is a programming language. When asked what Scratch is *good for*, most teachers described the value of learning how to program as a way for young people to connect with computational culture. Young people need to develop better understandings of and fluency with the technological landscape that surrounds them. > It’s the future for these kids – that’s the way things are going to go. It’s going to become more technology-based, and they already have a head start on it that I certainly didn’t have. That’s just common sense. It’s the way the world’s going, and they need to be up on it. Sabine, Elementary School Teacher I give the talk that, “You might probably end up not being a programmer – maybe some of you will, but most of you won’t. But you really want to be able to have a really deep understanding of the power of programming, so that you say, ‘Maybe I can’t do the programming for this research project, for this graphics project, but I know I can talk to the geeks or, you know, whoever. I know the power of what they can do.’” Clayton, Elementary School Teacher Although Scratch is a programming language, the focus for many teachers was described neither as programming for programming’s sake, nor as programming in the exclusive service of understanding the technological world. In a story on ScratchEd, an educator from Australia described her first experience teaching Scratch and her explanation of Scratch to parents. Parent/teacher interviews. Picture a hall, set up similar to “speed dating”. But replace hopeful singles with concerned parents on one side of the desk, and well-intentioned teachers on the other. It’s getting late, my 20th parent tonight sits down. Mr. Smith introduces himself as a parent of a student in my IT class, and asks the questions that many other parents have been asking this year. “Why Scratch? Why teach my child programming? How can you expect to teach programming to children?” My answer always refreshes my own belief in why I have come to love teaching Scratch. I say, “Mr. Smith, when I first saw Scratch I wondered how many of the students this unit of work would reach. I mean, even if one student becomes interested in computer programming after this unit, is that enough to teach programming to an entire class? From a programming point of view, Scratch takes all of the essential constructs like sequencing, conditional branching, control structures, data manipulations and places it in an easy environment, which every student is able to use as simply as using children’s building blocks. What you need to understand is that Scratch teaches much more than computer programming. Scratch is important because it is about teaching students to solve their own problems and getting them to figure things out and discovering how to work things out for themselves.” When asked about Scratch, students gave many suggestions as to its importance: “Scratch taught me to fix problems on my own.” “It made me be efficient with my time.” “It taught me that I need to try new things when it didn’t work the first time.” “I took pride in my work, because I had done it all by myself” This theme of Scratch and programming as a context for supporting the development of problem-solving capacity and creative thinking was the most common thread across my conversations with teachers, despite the lack of uniformity in their teaching settings (working with learners of different ages, and with different disciplinary intentions). Programming is a rich context for developing creativity in problem-solving abilities – I really try to work the creativity side – how can you creatively solve a problem? Maybe problem solving is a better way to say it. Of the kids I work with in my AP Java and this class, probably between those three classes, there are 70 kids. Maybe 12 of those will be programmers or computer scientists. The others, I want them to have a love for the computer and a love for methods of solving problems. Because that’s what life is about, really. I can’t do everything, but I can pretty much figure out most things through problem solving. And that’s what I am trying to get across to the kids. Arnold, High School Computer Science Teacher I was concerned about teaching a programming course to my kids, not only because I didn’t know much about it, but because how much were they going to use programming? Were these kids even interested in programming? A lot of them aren’t and they’re not necessarily looking for a programming class. But then I got to looking at Scratch and noticed they can learn a lot more, even if they are not interested in programming itself. Problem-solving and troubleshooting skills – “Why isn’t this working?” and “How can I get it to work?” The whole basis of the program is having that challenge before you, knowing that, “This has to work somehow. I can get this to work and this program to do what I want it to, just how do I? What do I need to do to do that?” And so, even if they weren’t interested in programming, then that was a valuable skill to learn. Kirby, High School Business Education Teacher Programming is also a rich context for developing creativity in expressing oneself through designing and making. For most of the kids, especially at the elementary level, this is the first time that they have had any experience with programming at all. So, I don’t worry about the programming so much – it’s more about the design process, and figuring out problem-solving strategies. They get to create and express themselves. The kids are creating something new that they enjoy and they feel is what they basically wanted to create. They should feel successful. If the kids end up with more confidence that they can take on a challenge – more confidence, whether it’s with computers, or being able to tackle challenging problems or as they work through to make their creations, you should feel successful. Taylor, Elementary School Teacher What has surprised me the most, not having a background in technology or computer science, is that I wasn’t expecting to enjoy programming and teaching it as much I do. It’s so creative – and I don’t think people realize. I don’t think all my students, who aren’t familiar with Computer Science, the ones who don’t take my classes, I don’t think they realize how creative it is. And so when my students come and they come to Computer Science at the beginning of the year, they don’t expect that they’re going to be making these crazy things! And they start to really get into it, and it just makes me happy to watch them be so motivated and I’m not doing anything to motivate them. It’s opening the possibilities for them to create something that motivates them. Lenore, High School Computer Science Teacher NEGOTIATING OPEN-ENDEDNESS Teachers shared their aspirations for the types of learning environments they desire to create for their students – learning environments that engage their students in creative, problem-solving activities. How to create these environments is a source of considerable tension, as teachers reflect on their own practice and debate approaches with each other. Such a debate sprung up at a Scratch workshop that I co-facilitated several years ago. The three-hour workshop, hosted at a regional technology conference for teachers, was framed as an introduction to Scratch. After the 20 participants arrived, we showed them three or four projects created by kids, to give them a sense of what might be possible to create with Scratch. Then, we transitioned to hands-on time for the teachers. The activity was *Pass-It-On*, in which the teachers collaboratively worked on a story project connected to the theme of Halloween (which happened to be on the upcoming weekend). We started the activity by modeling – this enabled us to introduce the basic mechanisms of Scratch (e.g. snapping blocks together, running the program), giving participants what we hoped was enough scaffolding to get started. After the modeling, pairs of teachers had 15 minutes to start their stories. After 15 minutes elapsed, each pair stood up, left their computer, and moved to another computer, where they continued the story that they found at the new computer. After another 15 minutes, the pairs rotated again, and then eventually returned to their original computer to see how the other sets of partners had modified their initial creation. Participants were usually surprised and delighted by the evolution of the project in their absence. (Although some people were sensitive about changes to their original vision!) We asked participants to talk about their experiences with the activity and how such an activity might work in their own classrooms. One teacher expressed doubt about adding the activity into her lessons. “This was great for me, but I couldn’t let my students get started this way. I’d need to show them more, right? I couldn’t just let them play, right?” She looked around the room at the other teachers for confirmation. A teacher on the other side of the room quickly jumped in. “I don’t think you need to be so structured. I’ve been using Scratch for about three years. I started using the Scratch Cards with kids because I thought that was a good way to introduce it to them. So I asked them to go through each of the twelve cards before they could start their own project. But that was a big mistake because they got very bored with those cards immediately. Today, what I do with the cards is that I leave them on the table and the kids know the cards are there. They can look for a particular card when they need it. The kids want to be able to just work on their projects and be a little freer.” Another teacher, sitting at the back of the room, shot her arm up, while shaking her head. “I teach it a different way – I don’t let them go and do it. Because they just sit there and say, ‘I don’t know how to make the cat move!’ So, I lead them through Scratch step-by-step. It takes me three or four weeks to go through all that. Because if I just ask them to make something, some of the kids – some of them are creative and do produce something – but a lot of them just make something dancing on a screen saying, ‘Hi! Hi! Hi! Hi! Oh, you’re cool! Hi! Hi!’” At the center of this discussion is the nature of open-endedness in learning environments. How much freedom and how much structure do teachers need to include in order to create the conditions for students to engage deeply in defining, pursuing, and solving their own problems? The teachers’ responses at the workshop represent extremes along a spectrum of open-endedness and structure in activity – and my conversations with teachers revealed a range of thinking across that spectrum. Teachers want to be open-ended in the design of learning activities (as opposed to giving students prescribed problems or problems with pre-defined solutions), but feel the pull of several factors that influence their negotiation of open-endedness in learning: enabling capacity-building, maintaining control, perpetuating the status quo. Capacity-Building There are several entry-points to exploring projects in the Scratch online community. You can view projects selected by community members or projects submitted in response to a community-wide activity or projects that the community is currently loving, favoriting, or remixing. One of my favorite entry-points, however, is the listing of “Newest Projects” – all of the projects that are being submitted in real time by creators from around the world. This particular collection of fresh projects has been the method by which I have serendipitously encountered the works of many of my now-favorite Scratchers. Occasionally, as I have navigated the newest projects, I have encountered a series of nearly-identical projects within a stream of otherwise highly-diverse projects (e.g., Figure 5.1). After some investigation, it was clear that the primary source of these indistinguishable works was classroom settings, where students were being asked to create the same project. Figure 5.1 A series of nearly-identical projects listed in the “Newest Projects” section of the Scratch website. Seeing these projects made me think about my early experiences as a computer science major. My first assignment, shown in Figure 5.2, was to type a block of Scheme code (from my lab manual) and execute it. ```scheme ;;; << Your name goes here >> ;;; Procedure for computing the volume of a sphere. ;;; Inputs: ;;; radius is the radius of the sphere (must be a number ;;; greater than or equal to zero to get a sensible result). ;;; Returned value: ;;; the sphere’s volume. (define sphere-volume (lambda (radius) (* (/ 4.0 3.0) (* 3.1415926 (* radius (* radius radius)))))) ``` Not particularly open-ended, in either content or process. But I found the idea of the computer doing these calculations for me fascinating – and I appreciated having a structured introduction to the syntax, which would have been difficult to learn through experimenting with the Scheme interpreter. As the term progressed, some assignments provided opportunities to be more self-directed (less or different structure and constraints), but they were not what I would describe as open-ended. The course was focused on building capacity with programming and core computer science concepts, and the pedagogical approach favored structure over freedom. The theme of balancing open-endedness and structure in the service of capacity building was recurrent in my conversations with teachers. Teachers talked about wanting to create opportunities for students to explore \textit{and} to build a baseline capacity with Scratch – all while negotiating the constraints of the classroom. Limited time was often cited as a significant concern. Teachers have limited time with students, and students, in turn, have limited time to work on their projects. But design activities, particularly in an open-ended approach, require time. You can’t just teach Scratch for one day and say, “I covered Scratch.” That’s the other big issue – you’ve got to give the kids time to understand it, to play with it, to try to create. Beverly, Teacher Educator This constraint led teachers to make decisions about which aspects of a design activity to leave more open-ended and which to make more directed, with student exploration described as less efficient than teacher explanation. For example, Jody shared her strategy of bringing students together as a group for 10 minutes at the beginning of each class to review issues that the students were struggling with, despite student resistance. I tell them that they have to give me 10 minutes of their time – and then they can go back to their projects. They would rather just figure it all out themselves, but it would take longer and we don’t always have that kind of time. Jody, High School Computer Science Teacher Large class/group sizes were also often cited as a significant constraint. Teachers attend to numerous aspects of the learning environment simultaneously, as described by Clive. When you’re in a lab with 25 kids and they’re all pursuing different projects and there’s lots and lots of interaction, you have this feeling that you’re kind of indispensable both in terms of monitoring behavior and supporting students’ learning. And then, being attentive when the school secretary comes through and needs to talk to the students. You feel like your attention is pulled in a lot of directions. Clive, After-School Mentor Introducing structure is one way to cope with the scaling complexity as more students are present, as described by Tara. I did find that sometimes that being just one instructor, even with six kids, was not enough sometimes. You wanted to be having a conversation with everybody – or everybody was stuck and needed something. That would be even harder with a class of 20 or 30 kids. ... If I had a class of 20 or 30 kids, then I’d probably use a little more structure than I was using at the after-school program. I had the luxury of letting them do whatever they wanted. Tara, After-School Mentor Adding further complexity, teachers talked about the different levels of expertise and fluency with Scratch – and a different set of ambitions for what they wanted to create – that each student brought. With more open-ended activity, teachers talked about the balance between keeping more-novice students from being intimidated, while simultaneously keeping more-expert students sufficiently challenged. Need varied among students – and within individual students, session-to-session. As Jody described, “Sometimes they need more direction and sometimes they need more freedom.” Structure, direction, scaffolding, and support can be waypoints on a path to greater freedom and self-directed learning. When learning something new, one does not always know what one needs to know, as the student helper of one of the teachers observed. The next kid who wants to do a side-scrolling game before they have done anything else – I am going to tell them they need to do some other things first. They haven’t done anything yet and they want to jump straight to this and it is not an easy thing to start with. You should do some other things first. Student Mentor, Working with Clare And structure can just as easily undermine the goals of freedom, self-direction, open-endedness, and creativity. Sadie shared her success with developing a curriculum that had students creating very sophisticated projects that they found interesting and that were developed in very little time, due to a series of step-by-step tutorials and highly structured checklists that she developed for her students to follow. Reflecting on her experience, though, despite its success, she questioned whether she had subverted her goal of fostering creativity. It worked out really, really well for them to have this checklist to go through. The one downside about the whole curriculum, looking back on it, is that it was really, really structured. For projects being completed, they were basically told what project to do, and there wasn’t too much room for creativity, and I would have liked some other kind of outlet to let them go off and be creative. Sadie, High School Computer Science Teacher Control During my conversation with Arnold, he told me a story about an experience that he had as a student in elementary school music class – an experience that profoundly shaped his philosophy of teaching. My mom was a fabulous piano player. I was born with – not my fault – but I was born with perfect pitch. So I was always singing. My sister and I sang duets and all this kind of stuff. And I, in fact, was sent to the principal when I was in fourth grade because I was singing harmony in music class instead of with the others. I was bored and so I was just, you know, trying something different. And I look back on that – what I would have done, as a teacher, is say, “Do the rest of you hear what he is doing? How many want to sing with him?” I mean – it’s hard to get fourth graders to sing in harmony! So that’s the approach I try to do with my teaching. If a kid does something I don’t know about, I try to delight in that and share it with the kids and get the kids excited about it. I think that’s the attitude you have to have if you’re going to make it teaching something, particularly something you are learning about. That really has affected my teaching because I really believe that you have to be comfortable with kids knowing more than you and not being threatened by it. Arnold, High School Computer Science Teacher Arnold’s use of the word “threatened” resonated with me – it captured some of the feelings of “nervousness”, “fear”, and “intimidation” that teachers described to me. Most of these feelings were rooted in concerns about insufficient pedagogical/content knowledge; some teachers felt that they did not know enough about Scratch and about programming to support their students in pursuing open-ended challenges. Selena described this anxiety as an observer, sharing her experiences of supporting a fellow teacher’s explorations with Scratch in her classroom and the teacher’s lack of confidence. I worked a lot with the math and science coach, who was extremely nervous about not feeling like she knew everything about Scratch. You know, like, “What am I supposed to do? I don’t know what I’m doing, and I can’t teach them how to do it.” Selena, Teacher Educator Kirby described this anxiety from her position of teaching Scratch for the first time to her high school students. She had very negative experiences with programming as a student in college – yet took on the challenge of teaching Scratch, despite these bad experiences and her fear of not being able to help her students. I am not that tech-savvy, and I was really scared about teaching programming because I know nothing about it. I took a course in college because it was part of the education program, and I hated it. I hated everything about it – and I promised myself to never ever take anything like that ever again. In fact, they were thinking about changing the program to having more programming classes, and I said, “No. If they do that, then [laughing] I am not going to finish the program!” That’s how much I hated it. The most intimidating thing about programming is that everyone’s mind works differently. There’s really no one way to do it – there are multiple ways to do things. That’s what was hard about helping them with their projects. I would go into a project that was already started, you know, and they’re thinking one particular way and I’m thinking I’d probably do it another particular way. If I provided my help to them, then it would be in my way. So I had to try to figure out sometimes either “How are they thinking?” and then try and solve from there, or have them ask the right questions so they could solve it themselves which is sometimes really hard for me to do. Kirby, High School Business Education Teacher These feelings of fear, anxiety, and intimidation – which are exacerbated by classes with large numbers of students, not having enough time as a teacher to prepare, and feeling isolated more generally from others and support – provoke different pedagogical responses. While some teachers embrace the open-endedness and their unknowingness (which I discuss in greater detail later in this chapter), some teachers opt to moderate open-endedness with greater structure. Structure becomes a mechanism of control over the learning environment – a guard against the potential “chaos” (a popular word in the conversations) of an environment that is too open-ended. In contrast with using structure to build capacity, which I characterize as the use of structure in the service of making *their students* more comfortable and capable, this other use of structure (introducing structure when negotiating feelings of fear, intimidation, anxiety, etc.) is in the service of making *the teachers themselves* more comfortable and capable. For example, a student teacher anonymously posted to ScratchEd, looking for advice for introducing Scratch in a way that is not “too complicated”, aligned with her current level of familiarity with Scratch (Figure 5.3). Teachers shared similar feelings and pedagogical decisions in our conversations. Taylor, who was now on his second iteration of teaching Scratch, described how his first iteration was much more constrained, with students following teacher-led tutorials. In previous years, I would just do a tutorial, like, “OK, we’re all going to make this type of project together.” It was step-by-step going through the direct instruction part of it, you know, I just learned how to use Scratch. I will be student teaching next semester and would love to use Scratch in my classroom. I don’t want to try anything too complicated since I just recently learned how to use it. Does anyone have any ideas on a simple way I can implement it in the classroom? Thanks. “Do this.” They would have the option of what colors to make things or what sprites they wanted to use, but they were all kind of making the same project. It was a very tutorial-type process. Especially since, when I first started using it, I didn’t know what I was doing. Taylor, Elementary School Teacher Linda described how she started with a more open-ended approach, but migrated to a more constrained approach, based on her own feelings of comfort and confidence. I found that when I first started Scratch I said, “Do whatever you want.” And then, “Wait a second.” It didn’t work for me in a way. It was too open-ended. I find that they’re going in too many directions for me as a teacher. So I structured the project – it has to have certain things. I never leave it open-ended. It’s kind of a teacher control thing. … If you work with the kids, you’ll see that they’re far more intelligent than I’m making them out to be as far as needing structure. I think it’s – as a teacher, being less secure in the environment – I need the structure. The kids would probably move quicker, but it’s kind of a security for me. I need to do it this way because that’s where I feel comfortable. Linda, Elementary School Teacher Whether using a more structured approach or less structured approach, there is still some type of opportunity for kids to engage in programming. But Beverly, who helps teachers learn about Scratch, reminded me that fearful teachers may exclude programming activities almost entirely. The biggest issue is that they’re not comfortable with the material. So they’ll cover it so they can check off that they did something, but not to the depth that it’s supposed to be covered and not covered so the kids can actually get fluent in it. They’ll say, “Oh, the kids created one project. We’re done. We did Scratch.” Programming scares the heck out of the teachers. A lot of them just ignore it and teach what they’ve always taught. That’s the fun thing about teachers is that they don’t really care what you want them to teach in many cases. They teach whatever they feel comfortable teaching. It’s been a real struggle to get them to actually include programming as much as they should. Beverly, Teacher Educator **Status Quo** Tara is a self-described “radical constructivist” – and in her first experience as a teacher, as a mentor in an elementary after-school technology program that she started at a school in her town, she strived to uphold what she saw as constructivist ideals, giving students considerable space to pursue their interests and work on projects that they care about. In our conversation, she joked about how positively some students responded to her approach in the first few sessions. Some of them would just kind of give me this attitude like, “Aren’t you going to do this for me?” I’m like, “No, I’m not. I know that you’re intimidating and you’re taller than me and you’re very crude – but no, I’m not going to do this for you. You’re going to do it for yourself.” Tara, After-School Mentor Tara was incredibly good-humored about the experience, and she communicated this initial challenge with grace and humility. I thought that this was a fantastically amusing story, but I was certain that it was an outlier, a result of some unspoken happening in the learning environment or due perhaps to this being Tara’s first teaching experience. But this theme of student resistance appeared and reappeared throughout the interviews – across age levels, subject areas, and teacher experience. Students were resisting open-ended approaches to learning because these approaches represent a fundamentally different set of expectations and way of being – opposed to what school culture had otherwise prepared them to do. I think some kids are good with exploring and some aren’t – and kids should be more like this. Tinkering, just experimenting, going in and putting some blocks in and seeing what happens. Some of my students come into ninth grade and they’re not really tinkerers – because they’ve been taught to do whatever the teacher tells them to do. Lenore, High School Computer Science Teacher For kids, it’s such a different experience than how they normally look at school or look at the educational things that they’re doing. So when they get stuck, it’s “How do I do this? How do I do this? How do I do this?” – and they want the answer from the teacher. Candace, After-School Mentor Some kids are so uneasy with not knowing things, that they need instruction. “Why don’t you tell me?” This was one of my biggest things that happened when I first started teaching. I get that much less now just because, I guess, I’m a better teacher. “Why don’t you tell me?” “Because I want you to learn.” But we shouldn’t even be engaging in this conversation, you know. It’s because you’re supposed to – I don’t know exactly. It’s kids. I don’t know if they’re trained or teachers in the lower schools just tell them when they ask for all the answers. Valerie, High School Computer Science Teacher A lot of the time the kids want to be told how to do things. After a while, I say, “You know, you’re the designer. You’ve got to figure out what’s OK and what details you want.” It’s often the kids who are reluctant to be creative or reluctant to make a choice. That’s because they aren’t given opportunities to make mistakes, and they’re afraid that if they do make a choice, then I’m going to correct them and say, “Oh, no, no – that’s not right.” Georgia, High School Art Teacher For some teachers, this resistance fueled their determination, as it further underscored a need to prepare students to deal with the open-endedness, ambiguity, and challenge of design activities – both in deciding *what* to work on and *how* to work on it. But for others, student frustration with changes in the approach to learning translated into teacher frustration – and the introduction of greater structure, as a way of perpetuating the status quo of their students’ educational experiences and expectations. Crawford, a middle school teacher, described how he had seen this teacher-student cycle of frustration in action, particularly with teachers who were new to Scratch and to more open-ended approaches to learning. I think the thing that’s frustrating for teachers is, for example, if it’s not working, a kid would spend 45 minutes on it and as a teacher you might say, “So what did they learn from that? That they have to persevere? OK, maybe. But they didn’t get it – and if you can’t solve it by yourself…” There’s a frustration level that comes in. With the student saying, “I can’t get this to work. This is my idea. How do I do it? I’ve just spent 20 or 30 minutes or two days on this and it doesn’t work!” And I think sometimes, when the students are frustrated, the teacher is frustrated. Crawford, Middle School Teacher What is a teacher to do when encouraging students to engage in challenging and frustrating activities in a setting that is perceived by students to discourage challenge and frustration? BUILDING CULTURE In conversations with teachers, after talking about their motivations, aspirations, and experiences of working with Scratch, I often asked them for advice, as a way to learn more about their implementation strategies. *What did you need in order to get from aspiration to implementation? What would be important for another teacher to know if they wanted to do what you have done?* Many teachers talked about building a new culture of learning in their classrooms. It really helps if you have kind of a culture or climate in your classroom – and not just when you’re working with Scratch. It’s something you’re doing across the entire day. Because it’s not just something that you know, “When we get Scratch out, this is the thing we need to do.” Or “When we get the computers out, this is the thing we need to do.” This is just part of what we do as learners – to help us out, to help us learn and solve our problems. That’s my best advice or way that I found makes it work. Taylor, Elementary School Teacher Taylor mentioned this idea of “doing something” in this new culture several times, but precisely what was being “done” felt elusive to me. The more I spoke with teachers, however, the more I learned about how they saw themselves and their students in new ways. Five sets of advice about building a new culture of learning recurred in the interviews: *try it yourself, follow their interests, be a guide, feel OK with not knowing*, and *create opportunities to share*. Try It Yourself Many teachers remarked that classroom cultural change starts with the teacher exploring the possibilities of Scratch as a part of their teaching practice. Teachers make sense of Scratch by accumulating resources (for example, by searching for materials in the ScratchEd online community) and by hearing testimonials from educators (for example, by attending professional development events or looking online). But for all of the resources and all of the stories, teachers emphasized the importance of taking the time to explore Scratch themselves, sitting down with a computer and making projects. These hands-on teacher explorations are not motivated by a desire to attain mastery, but to develop a basic familiarity with the interface and to cultivate confidence. I think you just need to play with Scratch. That was the big thing for me is that I said, “OK, I’m going to play with this. I’m going to learn this. I’m going to figure out what it can do. I’m going to find some good sample projects that are related directly to education.” So, I think it’s just not being intimidated by, “Ooh, programming,” by that phrase, and just playing with it as much as possible. Ivy, Elementary Technology Coach Trying it themselves helps teachers to develop sensibilities around the types of experiences students are having. Clive, for example, talked about how his experiences of working on a Scratch project gave him new insights into his students’ processes. As he was working, he noticed that he spent a considerable amount of time thinking about *what* he wanted to create, and then even more time thinking about *how* he would create it – which made him more sensitive in response to his students’ quiet moments of “waiting for inspiration” and overcoming challenges. Follow Their Interests Larissa, a K-12 teacher and teacher educator, spoke extensively about making space for student interests, using one of the projects her students developed as an example. Larissa asked each of the students in her technology class to select a topic, research it using online and school-library resources, and develop an interactive Scratch project that helps the person interacting with the project learn more about that topic. The topics the students selected were very diverse, including animals, planets, sports, and famous figures in history. One of Larissa’s students, Maria, decided to learn all about crocodiles. Maria came to Larissa and said, “I want to know the sound the crocodile makes.” After a pause, Larissa responded, “I don’t know what the sound of a crocodile is. Let’s find out.” In our conversation, Larissa explained the source of her pause – it was a moment of hesitation in balancing Maria’s priorities with her own as the teacher. If you’re this kind of teacher that you like to go with the flow with the students – like with Maria who said, “I want to know the sound of the crocodile” – you realize that you have never, never put any thought into the sound of the crocodile. And maybe if you are a teacher, you are kind of tired because it’s an afternoon class, and so you go to the student and tell her, “Well, maybe the sound is not so important; maybe how they breed.” But really the student wants to know about the sound. Sometimes, as teachers, we think, “Oh, no, no, that’s not important. The important thing is the alligator’s claws.” But that’s not what is important for the kid, so you have to find a middle place in that. For Scratch educators, I would say that imagination is very important, and that the most important part of it is all these interests that the student has. Larissa, K-12 Teacher and Teacher Educator Teachers offered numerous strategies for developing interesting activities that connected to students’ personal interests. But “follow their interests”, as advice, also extended beyond a particular activity, to following students’ interests and connecting them to larger socio-cultural contexts. Beau, for example, used his students’ interests and passions for video games as motivation for learning about programming. Everyone plays video games, you know? This is something that’s true now. It wasn’t always true, but in this generation, they all play games. Everybody plays video games, like every single person. Why wouldn’t you want to learn about that more and be engaged with that more? So that’s my starting point. Everyone plays video games. You’ve all had experiences where you got addicted to a video game. How does that work – and how do you make one? Beau, High School Computer Science Teacher **Be A Guide** When I was a student teacher, I was amazed by the number of educational aphorisms. Every class offered advice – “friendly, but not friends”, “one, two, three – then ask me” – delivered in a cute and pithy package. The phrase repeated most often was to “be a guide on the side, not a sage on the stage”. Our program was deeply influenced by constructivism, and use of that phrase aligned with the student-centered approach, reminding student teachers to think of their role differently from that (presumably) of the teachers that we had growing up. The advice to “be a guide” was common among the teachers interviewed. How could a student learn to solve their own problems, if the teacher was always available as expert, on hand to resolve any challenge that the student encountered? The teachers described their role as guide, mentor, supporter, facilitator – helping students to pursue their goals through metacognitive support, by asking questions, providing helpful resources, breaking down problems into smaller problems, and reframing problems. Linda shared her experiences of being a cognitive guide, relating a story about one of her students’ experiences with Scratch. Her third-grade students were studying animals that live in the water, and students were invited to represent their investigations in whatever format they liked. One of her students, Sarah, decided to create a Scratch project that showed the different types of environments that fish live in. But Sarah quickly got stuck as she worked on her first tableau, that of a fish in a pond. She wanted her fish to swim back and forth in the pond, but she was incredibly frustrated because no matter what she tried, her fish was sometimes swimming backward (Figure 5.4). Deeply frustrated, she thought about abandoning her project idea, but decided instead to call Linda for assistance. Linda sat down, and asked Sarah to tell her about the project and the bug that she was working on. Sarah struggled to describe the problem, but after running the program a few times, she found the language to describe the situation – that her sprite was pointing in the wrong direction. Sarah experimented with a few blocks, but the project still wasn’t working as she imagined. Sarah had done what Linda would have tried, so she wasn’t sure what the solution to the problem might be. Linda suggested a next step. “We know that there’s a way of doing this – because we’ve seen examples. Why don’t you look for similar projects?” She could tell Sarah was unhappy with the project not working correctly, even during this period of research. “And until you figure out direction,” Linda suggested, “you could change your fish to another animal that lives in the water that doesn’t have a direction.” They brainstormed a list of aquatic creatures that might move laterally, and Sarah temporarily revised her project to feature a jellyfish (Figure 5.5). Teachers also talked about being emotional guides, helping students negotiate the emotional landscape of autonomy, challenge, experimentation, and creativity. Teachers encouraged students to be fearless in their experiments. Don’t be afraid to just try things, to see what happens. It’s not the end of the world. Clare, After-School Mentor You can try it and it’s OK. The world won’t end if you try to do something another way. If you’re not afraid to tinker, you’re better at it. Valerie, High School Computer Science Teacher You can’t break it, so why not? If you’re curious about something, try it, see what happens. It’s not like it’s going to be broken forever. We can go back to where you were before. But you know – take a chance, take a risk, see what happens! Sabine, Elementary School Teacher Teachers also encouraged students to persevere. It starts on the first day of school – getting kids to appreciate that they’re going to make mistakes and that I’m going to be asking them to do stuff that is hard. I always just put that right out there. And they don’t, at first, just because they want to succeed – and part of it is the age, too. Well, even adults don’t like to fail, or make mistakes. But it is important, I feel that when you do run into difficulties that it’s not time to give up or cry. It’s time to think about the strategies that you have to solve your problem, or to look for help. I hope they get to appreciate it by the time they leave my class. I do see less frustration as the year goes on. That could be them maturing or, you know, I hope it has something to do with me just encouraging them and continuing, honestly, to put them in situations where the problems are hard. You know? And that they kind of get used to that. No reason to break down or give up – you keep at it. Taylor, Elementary School Teacher Figure 5.5 Scratch project revised, substituting the fish for a jellyfish, as a temporary simplification of the animation. Feel OK With Not Knowing Returning to the aphorism about the “guide” and the “sage”, teachers talked about what it would even *mean* to be a Scratch “sage”, what it would mean to “know” Scratch. All of the teachers that I spoke with felt that it meant knowing that you can’t know everything – and that it was important to feel comfortable with this realization. You need to be able to divorce yourself from being the expert. You’re not going to say, “All right, I know everything there is to know about Scratch,” because that’s impossible. Tara, After-School Mentor Comfort and confidence are developed not by mastering the universe of answers to every problem. Rather, they are supported by having a set of problem-solving and design strategies in place, and having a particular psychological stance. Scratch and programming aren’t about knowing an answer, but about flexibility in one’s thinking. I think the really nice thing about programming is how one thinks, that you approach a problem in a kind of an amorphous way. You don’t have to come into a problem scared if you don’t know everything. You approach a problem saying, “I can approach a problem without knowing everything.” I can say, “I’m going to solve this like this, and I’m going to assume certain things are going to fall into place, and then if they don’t I’m going to adjust things.” Valerie, High School Computer Science Teacher Further, it involves openness to the curiosities of the experience. The biggest thing we’ve realized about teachers is that teachers have a mindset of needing to know everything before they’re willing to offer it to students. As if they need to know everything about programming Scratch before they can offer Scratch. And the power behind Scratch is that you actually don’t need to do that if you have accessible materials and kind of a playful community. … [Adults] seem to be the ones who are having all the trouble feeling comfortable in being able to say, “I don’t know. Let’s find out.” You’ll hear that mantra in most of our programs. We don’t expect people to be experts. In fact, we expect people just to be curious and take the stance of a learner. Kent, Teacher Educator This opens up opportunities to disrupt the teacher’s role as “the one who knows”. In Mindstorms, Seymour Papert tells the story of a teacher who was working with a student on fixing a bug. As they puzzled together the child had a revelation: “Do you mean,” he said, “that you really don’t know how to fix it?” The child did not yet know how to say it, but what had been revealed to him was that he and the teacher had been engaged together in a research project. The incident is poignant. It speaks of all the times this child entered into teachers’ games of “let’s do that together” all the while knowing that the collaboration was a fiction. Discovery cannot be a setup; invention cannot be scheduled. (1980, p. 115) The teachers that I spoke with related similar stories of struggling over authentic problems with their students, and they shared the power, surprise, and delight experienced by both the student \textit{and} the teacher in doing so. For many teachers, this delight was expanded when they weren’t just learning \textit{with} students, but \textit{from} students. Linda, for example, talked about the pleasure she experienced by learning from students, by having them explain things to her and by studying their code. Clive described how being open to learning from students enhanced both his own learning and the students’ learning. \textbf{Create Opportunities To Share} Jody was initially very skeptical about the idea of her students remixing each other’s work. She wasn’t sure how her students would react to other people looking at and changing their code – or of what her students would actually be learning from the experience. At a meetup with other Scratch educators, Jody had the opportunity to hear about another educator’s use of remixing in her classroom, a type of pass-it-on activity. Jody felt inspired by the activity and decided to try it in her own classroom the next week. At the following month’s meetup, Jody’s stance toward remixing had shifted significantly, and she shared her experiences and her enthusiasm for remixing, as a practice, with the group. In conversation, she elaborated on the value that she saw in creating opportunities for students to share with each other. I like to see them share. The difficulty is that that’s not what they’re used to. Maybe they’re used to sharing their homework at night and all that, but they’re not used to coming into class and finding out something and being asked to let everybody else know that very cool thing. It kind of goes against their whole view of what school does sometimes. It’s a learning curve from their standpoint. What we do is – they post their programs online, and then other people play it, comment on it, remix it, or fix it. It’s very hard for them to admit that something doesn’t work, but they’ll say, “Here it is. It’s a little glitchy. I don’t know why.” And then somebody else will pick up on it and look at it and try to fix it. Which is great because in the end, it’s a win-win situation. I don’t think it’s all that healthy for them to feel like they have to do the whole thing on their own and figure it out all on their own. I mean, that’s not the way we all work, so why should they? Jody, High School Computer Science Teacher Teachers talked extensively about the importance of sharing – at different stages of project creation, with different numbers of people, over different periods of time. Kirby talked about the importance of presenting final work, by having kids participate in a gallery walk, playing each other’s games and asking each other questions. Taylor described the shift in kids’ thinking through collaborating, creating interactive narratives with a partner. Clare talked about *demoing* as a way of supporting peer learning, with students starting each class session sharing something they had figured out in the previous class. Whatever the form of peer sharing, teachers valued it as a powerful and critical element of learning. As Sun described, The students wanted to learn more. They used to work one-by-one, but then they would encounter a big mountain or big barrier. That is why I encourage them to make a community – without community, it’s not possible. The tool is important, but making community is more important for learning. Sun, Elementary and College Teacher **LEGITIMIZING LEARNING** In our conversations, teachers described the excitement they felt about the learning environments they were designing and the learning they were seeing in those environments. But an uncertainty often accompanied the excitement, as teachers described struggles in reconciling their classroom activities with the expectations and structures common in formal learning environments. Two fundamental aspects of Scratch were most often questioned (either externally, by administrators, colleagues, or parents, or internally, by the teacher him/herself): *social/networked learning activities*, and *assessing learning of creativity and problem-solving*. **Networked Learning** Although some teachers that I spoke with did not have reliable access to computers (e.g., considerable demand for shared computer labs limited the time available with computers) or network infrastructure (e.g., low-to-no connectivity in rural, or older urban, schools), most teachers were in settings in which there were computers and network connections. Some of these connected teachers described the Scratch online community as an important resource, both as a source of help and as a way of learning how to participate in network culture. But it was a resource that was described as having great complexity in the school environment. School models of learning are deeply individual. Teachers often described a tension between wanting to support social learning activities, such as pair programming and group design, but also wanting to assess an individual student’s understanding and development over time. Scratch and its networked learning approach, with access to hundreds of thousands of other young learners and millions of projects, only amplifies anxieties about assessment. We see these anxieties expressed through numerous questions on the ScratchEd forums, and through emails (Figure 5.6). **Subject:** Checking for remixing **Date:** December 3, 2011 5:35:19 PM EST **From:** ___________________________ **To:** firstname.lastname@example.org Hi, Is there a way for educators to simply check student work to determine how much is original, and how much was simply copied from the Scratch site? I don't want to upload individual projects from my students. I just want a way to see if the work is original or not. Thanks. Teachers who encourage their students to engage with the online community described their approaches to supporting students’ thinking about using others’ work. They emphasize the importance of credit with their students, that it is important for students to acknowledge their sources. Some teachers define rules about when it is appropriate to use others’ work. Jody, for example, encourages her students to experiment with implementing their own ideas, rather than finding a similar base-project to build on. Concerns about authorship and copying are accompanied by concerns about student safety, part of a larger cultural conversation about kids’ appropriate engagement with online resources, applications, and communities. Teachers face questions from administrators. Our school and district is big on this PII (Personal Identifiable Information) concerns. Does anyone else have these issues with their school or district? If so, how were you able to overcome them? … If any of you have an idea on how I can try to ease the concerns of our district over these concerns. Excerpt from ScratchEd post They also face questions from fellow teachers. There are teachers at my school who are nervous about the idea of kids contacting “strangers” on the Scratch web site. Excerpt from ScratchEd post Parents were also a source of concern when thinking about encouraging students (both younger students and older students) to connect to the online community. These concerns led teachers to restrict the types of interactions their students had in the online community – I usually say [to the students], “We’re going to share our projects with the rest of the world” – even if I sometimes don’t allow comments because I have to be careful with my parent body. Linda, Elementary School Teacher Sometimes the concerns led to not using the online community at all. I don’t. I don’t. That’s something that they have to find themselves. If I was privately tutoring them I surely would. In the class, without their parents’ permission, I’m not comfortable doing that. If it’s outside of school, I am. But when it’s a school thing, I’m really not supposed to do that. I don’t know if the parents want them uploading, downloading, looking at games, or what. I’m sure this is ridiculous, because they look at everything and anything, but I’m not supposed to. So I really haven’t. Valerie, High School Computer Science Teacher But for some teachers, these concerns about copying and safety never reach their classrooms, as school or district restrictions prohibit the use of networked tools like the Scratch online community, categorizing it as a “social networking platform” like Facebook or a “media file-sharing site” like YouTube. In a survey of Scratch educators conducted in May 2012, 468 respondents indicated that they were enthusiastic about the learning potential of the online community, but 68 respondents (14%) were constrained to using only the authoring environment, as the online community did not conform to district policies. These types of restrictions are frustrating for teachers – and for students. A high-school student’s Scratch project (Figure 5.7) about her experiences of using her school’s library computers catalyzed Scratchers to share their experiences and frustrations with school network blocks. These frustrations lead kids to develop creative workarounds to the restrictions. Tara, for example, shared how two of her students dealt with her school’s network restrictions. In the first session of her after-school Scratch club, Tara showed her students a few of the sample projects that come with Scratch. Brian and Ben were immediately inspired, and had an idea for a Club Penguin-inspired project they wanted to create. In their vision, a penguin would roam around a small town and would be able to go into different buildings in the town – a building to find food, a building to play a game, a building to watch a movie, etc. But they weren’t sure how to start, and they couldn’t find anything like it among the sample projects. They asked Tara if she had any ideas. Tara suggested that they explore the Scratch website, but all three were disappointed when the school’s access policy page appeared in the web browser. At the next meeting, Brian ran in and threw himself next to Ben at the computer. When Tara asked what all of the excitement was about, Brian explained that he had found the Scratch website at home – and had found a project that partly did what he wanted it to do. He had downloaded the project and played with the code until it did what he and Ben were trying to do with their project. He had memorized the chunks of code at home and was now trying to recreate the effect in their project at school. Tara watched Brian and Ben enthusiastically implement this method of memorizing chunks of code and carrying them between home and school for several weeks. Every session they would tell Tara, “I did the coolest thing. Do you want to see?” And then they would try to show her. As the project became increasingly complicated, they would have more trouble with the approach, telling Tara, “I don’t know – it works at my house. It worked!” Tara decided to buy the students USB drives to make it easier for all of the students to bring in projects or excerpts of code that would help them with their own projects. Creative Learning When talking with teachers about how they know what young people are learning with Scratch, I often hear, “I know it when I see it” – with teachers relying on their deep intuitions about student learning. For example, teachers would relate stories of their students’ persistence, dedication, and enthusiasm for the work, as possible indicators of learning. They love it. I can’t emphasize that enough. I heard one boy with his mother – his mother is a teacher at the school – and as they were leaving, I heard him in the hallway say, “Can we do Scratch this weekend?” And she said, “You’ve got a ball game this weekend.” He goes, “I’d rather do Scratch.” That said a lot for a little 7-year-old boy, that he was more interested in doing Scratch. I had just handed out a new program for them to do, and he was taking his copy home and he wanted to work on it over the weekend. Sabine, Elementary School Teacher But the teachers talked about the stress they face when lacking language or other (often, measurable) structures to explain to those outside of the learning community the complexity of the learning taking place in their classrooms. They shared how this stress leads teachers to search for methods of assessment that will demonstrate the legitimacy of their work. Unfortunately, teachers often described themselves as being in one of two uncomfortable situations. In the first situation, teachers felt unable to assess, and, as result, omitted assessment altogether. The inability to assess was often rooted in concerns about poor assessment models potentially undermining their teaching goals, by undervaluing multiple approaches to learning and by constraining creativity. Assessment is continuously a challenge. I kind of have a gut feeling that they’re progressing of some sort. But unless I make the criteria or develop a rubric I can’t tell really how they’re doing. I do see growth, but I don’t have a real clear-cut way of assessing. But I think a rubric would probably be the way to go with trying to determine what is it that I wanted to see and where do they come within that range. But it’s hard because – how do you put a rubric on creativity? Sometimes if they come up with some really good idea, but it’s really hard – I haven’t figured that out. So, I have the advantage of being a little open-ended with assessment. … I don’t know how you assess the ability to think logically except that maybe – I have no idea. Linda, Elementary School Teacher I never ended up developing anything [for assessing]. I kind of just did it more along a pass/fail basis or a complete/incomplete because I didn’t – I didn’t want to be the one responsible for breaking their creativity either. … I didn’t want programming to feel like an assignment or work. Or something that was out of reach for them. I wanted them to have fun with it and be creative with it. More structured assessments would have looked a lot better on paper, and then we would have been able to mark off our objectives at the end of the quarter and say, “OK – this is what we accomplished.” But, instead, we kind of just have soft objectives that we can just sort of look back and say, “I learned this and that,” nothing measurable. I guess, I don’t have anything measurable is what I regret. Kirby, High School Business Education Teacher In the second situation, teachers felt able to assess, but in a way that was not connected with their overarching goals and aspirations. Jody, for example, described how she used small programming challenges to assess students’ technical understandings, although it came at the cost of creative diversity. The assessment question is a huge question. … I understand that in computer programming courses even in college there’s so much plagiarism because there’s typically one well-written answer and that’s the answer, and I wouldn’t want that to be a part of the learning of Scratch or the learning of programming in my class. And so you really need to keep coming up with ways of making it – so even if it’s a structured assignment – how do you make the end products look different? How do you add some personality? Jody, High School Computer Science Teacher She balanced this more-constrained assessment through programming challenges with an assessment of effort in the final projects. It’s basically assessing the efforts that you put into these things, rather than if it didn’t work. In their final projects, hardly any of the projects worked to begin with, because the students took on big ideas. Part of it is to throw them into that environment, where they realize that it’s a lot harder than it looks. And then they can’t back out because they’re so tunnel-visioned into it, and that’s really difficult. … It’s a real struggle. So, I wouldn’t want to mark them down for it not working, as long as they kept plugging away and fixing and fixing and fixing, and I’m there assessing it. To be honest, on a daily basis, I’m assessing their effort. Jody, High School Computer Science Teacher Teachers talked about how assessments would help “market”, “sell”, or “prove” Scratch, to “convince” colleagues, administrators, and parents about its validity. This was particularly important, Crawford noted, when doing something different in the classroom. I think where I’m struggling with Scratch – I want them to be creative, but – and this is another dilemma that is interesting – is I feel this pressure. This isn’t a pressure from anything anyone has said explicitly, but it’s this undercurrent of education that if you deviate from the curriculum, you still have to prove it works, even more so. I was in parent conferences and we’d done Scratch in my math and science class. I framed it as, “Now we’re working on computational thinking, computer science, and science.” And then it sounds fancy versus “playing video games”. It’s this pressure of – “Well, this class is doing this,” “Why are you doing this? What skills are they learning?” And sometimes I feel that pressure not from anything explicit, but it’s from society – and it’s interesting. Crawford, Middle School Teacher In this chapter, I focus on the relationship between agency and structure, as manifested in the learning environments described in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. For each setting, I identify the sources of structure encountered, accessed, and adapted, and discuss how those structures enabled or constrained the agency and activities of kids and teachers. In Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, I described the experiences of kids in the Scratch online community and of teachers working with Scratch in K-12 classrooms. These chapters serve as a response to my first research question – *How do out-of-school and in-school learning environments support the activities of computational creators?* In this chapter, I focus on the relationship between *agency* (defined earlier as *a learner’s ability to define and pursue learning goals*) and *structure* (defined earlier as *rules, roles, and resources, both explicit and assumed*), as manifested in these two learning environments, by identifying key sources of structure and describing how particular structures enable or constrain learner agency. In doing so, and drawing upon the data and analysis from Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, I respond to my second research question – *Within out-of-school and in-school learning environments, how does structure enable, rather than constrain, the agency of young computational creators?* I also describe the ways in which structures made available by the Scratch and ScratchEd teams have been adapted in ways that enable or constrain learner agency. As de Certeau (1984) argued, one must think about the ways in which people will adapt and interpret structures – > It is nonetheless implicit in the “producers”’ claim to “inform” the population, that is, to “give form” to social practices. … To assume that is to misunderstand the act of “consumption.” This misunderstanding assumes that “assimilating” necessarily means “becoming similar to” what one absorbs, and not “making something similar” to what one is, making it one’s own, appropriating or reappropriating it. (p. 166) Adaptations of Scratch- and ScratchEd-developed structures have taken on several forms, but, as connected to my goals as a designer (described in Chapter 2), have sometimes manifested as incongruent adaptations (Lin & Fishman, 2009) or “lethal mutations” (Brown & Campione, 1996) that undermine agency and/or constructionism in learning environments. This chapter is organized into two parts. The first part – *In The Wild* – revisits the experiences of kids working with Scratch at home. I describe the structures encountered by kids in the Scratch online community, from the perspective of these young, primarily self-managing learners. The second part – *In Classrooms* – revisits the experiences of teachers working with Scratch at school. I describe the structures encountered by kids and teachers in K–12 classrooms, from the perspective of the teachers who are responsible for designing these learning environments. For each setting, I identify the sources of structure encountered, accessed, and adapted, and discuss how those structures enabled or constrained the agency and activities of kids and teachers. **IN THE WILD** In Chapter 4, I focused on the goals and ambitions of young creators in the Scratch online community. Kids described how they valued the freedom to create and learn, and the potential to connect with others for help and as audience. They shared their challenges, and their strategies for overcoming those challenges. In general, the conversations (and Chapter 4) were organized around what kids want and what kids do – and what helps them and what hinders them. Table 6.1 summarizes the main sources of structure that the kids discussed in our conversations – elements characterized as important to (or as interfering with) their goals – and how these structures enable or constrain learner agency. In the remainder of this section, I discuss each of these four sources of structure: *individual, computer, home, school.* **Individual: Personal Interests And Current Abilities** For kids in the online community, their personal interests, passions, and curiosities served as the primary enabling structure of their creative work. Kids give themselves the freedom to pursue their interests, whether exploring particular topics, or particular features of Scratch, or particular genres of projects. In addition to serving as creative inspiration, connecting to personal interests is a significant Examples In *Enjoying Freedom* (Ch. 4), Lana’s range of creations, Jackson’s pursuit of “peaks”, and the varied sources of creative inspiration kids draw on. Table 6.1 Sources of structure available and experienced at home, participating in the online community. | Source | Structure | Enable(s) | Constrain(s) | |-----------------|----------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Individual** | Personal Interests | By serving as a source of creative inspiration; By providing motivation to persevere | When leading to goals that exceed current abilities | | | Current Abilities | By increasing creative confidence; When appropriately matched to goals | When insufficient to achieve goals | | **Computer** | Authoring Environment | By providing easy entry-point; By supporting a range and diversity of creative possibility | By providing too little direction; By lacking complex features | | | Online Community | By providing ideas and technical/aesthetic building blocks through enormous repository of projects; By providing access to other designers for ideas, advice, collaborative work | When failing to connect learners with projects and people of interest, particularly as the community grows in size and sophistication; When peer pedagogical knowledge or content knowledge insufficient | | **Home** | Parents, Relatives, Siblings, Friends | By providing emotional, technical, and metacognitive support | When imposing direction without latitude for self-discovery; By specifying computer-use/screen-time restrictions | | **School** | Teachers | By introducing kids to Scratch or other learning opportunities | By designing low-agency learning experiences, with programming or other topics | | | School Culture | When connecting out-of-school Scratch learning and school-based learning | By offering learning experiences perceived as fundamentally different from “real life” | Examples In *Getting Stuck* (Ch. 4), Edgar’s side-scrolling challenge, Adele’s infinite pylons, and Connor’s “Later” folder. Personal interests constrain learner agency, however, when they lead to goals or ambitions that exceed the creator’s current abilities. *Abilities* is intended broadly here, including technical, emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive capacities, strategies, and dispositions that kids draw on while creating projects. There were numerous stories of mismatch between interests and abilities – often with kids who were newer to Scratch or who were younger. Kids described wanting to create projects, but being unsure about how to use a particular feature, how to organize a particular set of blocks, or even what the barrier was. As 10-year-old Robin noted, “You don’t know what you don’t know until you know it.” Certainly, a lack of abilities constrains kids’ participation and learning, particularly when kids have not yet developed strategies for seeking help. But, more generally, kids’ abilities (whether knowing how to use Scratch or how to break down problems or how to find support outside of themselves) serve as a significant enabling structure. Kids described how they built on their existing expertise and abilities to develop and improve over time. 9-year-old David, for example, who had hundreds of projects, could see how his increasing abilities had expanded the range of what he was able to create. My very first project doesn’t look as interesting to me, but I’m still surprised at what I did back then. *Why don’t you find it as interesting?* I don’t know. It seems like now I feel like I can do bigger things, now that I know a little better. David, 9 years old Several kids described how their abilities had developed to the point where they felt completely unconstrained in what they could create. They were still motivated by curiosity and creativity, but the challenge was no longer about figuring out the interface or developing strategies for getting unstuck. For example, 13-year-old Sebastian shared one of his most recent projects, a complex game based on a popular phone application, and I asked him what he had to learn in order to complete the game. **Examples** In *Making Progress* (Ch. 4), the range of strategies that kids developed, including experimenting (Jenson’s Bananagrams analogy), planning (Lana’s discipline increasing with complexity), compromising (the “Birds” version of “Angry Birds”), persevering (Eva’s work on a much-loved project), and taking breaks (David’s Scratch workbox). Was there anything you didn’t know already for Fruit Ninja that you had to learn? I mean, I guess I’m at the point now where I’m not learning anything new. I’m just using it in different ways. Sebastian, 13 years old Computer: Authoring Environment And Online Community The Scratch authoring environment was designed for young people with no prior experience – or even prior image of themselves – as programmers. But although it was designed to be very easy to get started with programming, Scratch was also intended to support kids’ ever-expanding understandings and abilities, supporting them in creating more complex projects over time. The range of projects in the online community, from first steps to technical masterpieces, and the range of projects among the kids that I interviewed serve as evidence that the authoring environment enables the agency of both novice and more-expert creators. However, in striking a balance between the needs of both novice and more-expert creators, the authoring environment, in some ways, compromises the needs of both groups. Although Scratch provides some support for getting started (as discussed in Chapter 2), this support is insufficient for some kids, which necessitates finding other sources of support. As we saw in Chapter 4, this has provoked kids to develop new resources, such as Scratch tutorials and the Scratch wiki (the online compilation of articles about Scratch, for Scratchers, by Scratchers). 12-year-old Clark, who had actively contributed to the Scratch wiki, described his initial confusion with Scratch, which motivated his contributions to the wiki. At first, [Scratch] was pretty much a foreign world. And definitely, if I had the Scratch wiki back then, that would have helped. Clark, 12 years old For other kids, Scratch – in its current incarnation – is not sufficiently complex. An unexpected adaptation of the authoring environment came in the form of young people downloading the source code and developing their own versions of Scratch. For example, a group of kids developed a derivative version, named Panther, which includes additional blocks and features (Figure 6.1). The Scratch online community is also an enabling structure for young people’s development and agency as computational creators. It provides young creators with access to a large collection of projects and to other creators. Having access to projects provides kids with ideas and guidance for the projects they want to create. As the site has grown, however, it has become more challenging to find the content that is most relevant or most interesting. This can sometimes lead to a feeling that everything has been done, as Lana described. When Scratch was first introduced, there were a lot of things to discover about Scratch. And people were really enthusiastic about it. Now, a lot of people are like, “Oh, we miss 2007. Things were so good in 2007.” That’s because everybody... shared a common interest – Scratch and getting to know more about Scratch. Because not a lot was known, not a lot of things were known about it. So, once this knowledge kind of accumulated and a lot less things were left to be discovered in Scratch, eventually there came a point when basically, most of the things in Scratch were kind of common sense in the community. Everybody knew about everything. Lana, 17 years old In addition to having access to projects, having access to other creators enables kids’ creative goals. Other creators can provide feedback and advice, and serve as audience or as collaborators. And just as the increasing size of the site can make it difficult to find interesting projects, it can present challenges in connecting with others. As we saw with some of the quantitative and qualitative data in Chapter 4, kids often struggled with finding the attention and connections they desired. Further, the kids were sometimes constrained by peer interactions that were not as respectful (kids testing social boundaries, or learning how to interact with others online) or as helpful (due, perhaps, to a lack of pedagogical or content knowledge) as they – or the Scratch Team – might hope. **Home: Parents, Relatives, Siblings, And Friends** From the first interview, it was clear that kids’ home lives served as an important enabling structure in their development as computational creators. Parents, relatives, siblings, and friends were often mentioned in interviews – and sometimes participated in the interviews as well. (It was these supportive home lives that served as the initial prompt for me to think about Scratch in schools, as a form of support for kids who did not have the benefit of Scratch support at home.) Parents (and other home-based supporters), whether they had technical expertise or not, were often unfamiliar with Scratch itself. They contributed by supporting kids technically (e.g., working collaboratively to figure out some aspect of Scratch), emotionally (e.g., serving as an appreciative audience), and metacognitively (e.g., helping break down a challenging aspect of a project). 10-year-old Evan’s father, for example, shared his thoughts via email after the interview. He had been listening in to the conversation and wanted to share his perspective. I help Evan very little on his projects, mostly with metaphysical stuff (how to upload projects was the last thing I helped with, and will help later this week with how to move sound files from Garageband to Scratch). Every other time, I just come when he calls me. He asks me questions which I don’t answer (‘I don’t know’ is my typical response), and he pretty much figures things out himself. Email from Evan’s father Home-based supporters can also constrain agency. Some of this happens when technical expertise leads to “overhelping”, as we saw in Chapter 4 with Chuck, who felt at times that he was “teachered” by his mother, being told the “best way” to do things rather than independently discovering and exploring. Other constraints that emerged from the home setting were restrictions on time or access to computers. Some parents, for example, had strict guidelines about the amount of time that their kids were permitted to use the computer and to use Scratch. School: Teachers And School Culture Schools were a more peripheral part of my conversations with kids, but not absent and certainly providing structure for young creators, even in the home environment. Although two of the kids that I spoke with had been homeschooled, the majority attended public elementary, middle, or high schools. Their experiences with computers at school varied considerably, from kids who did not have access to computers at school to kids who were encouraged and expected to use computers as part of their daily activities. Some kids had learned about Scratch at school, and those that had were very appreciative of the support that they had received from the teacher who had introduced it to them. For example, 14-year-old Ashleigh was introduced to Scratch by her computing teacher as something to try Examples In Table 3.1, kids made aware of Scratch by teachers. independently, and was encouraged to enter a video-game-making competition, which she won. Although she worked with Scratch at home, she might not have found this opportunity without school-based support. Conversely, kids described how Scratch enabled their school learning. Kids talked about using Scratch for school projects (such as developing book reports, exploring math concepts, creating science simulations) and how the types of thinking that they were learning also became a part of their cognitive toolkit. For example, 11-year-old Jenson and his mother reflected on his improving mathematical ability. We don’t do Scratch at school. My dad just got Scratch up and I started doing Scratch at my house. I do it every once in a while, like mostly like every two days because – I usually only get an hour to play any other game, but my dad lets me get on as much as I want on Scratch because it’s a learning type thing, so I get on it very often. *What does that mean, “a learning type thing”? Well, actually, my parents think that’s what got my math up higher, like problem solving in math, and stuff like that. *And what do you think of that? I think that’s definitely a part of it. It definitely encouraged me to get more into math and stuff like that. (Mom) Do you want me to speak to that? *Sure! (Mom) About half way through the year or so, his teacher came to me and said they were kind of stunned with the way his math skills shot up. We kind of point to the problem solving that he’s using in Scratch. He has been identified as TAG (Talented and Gifted) now – and that has just not been the case. It really has to do with his math scores, and his math scores shot up just this year. You know, it could do with a lot of things, but we are very happy about the Scratch contributions to that. Jenson, 11 years old, and his mother At the same time, however, kids described how they felt constrained by the structure of school. Some of the constraints were specifically about their Scratch participation. For example, 13-year-old Eva talked about how restricted access to computers at school made it difficult for her to introduce her school friends to Scratch. But many of the constraints were about school culture more generally. School learning was described as separate from “real life” or kids’ “real interests”. For example, 10-year-old Easton is an incredibly passionate, self-directed learner, having taught himself electronics and puppet-making and a variety of other creation-oriented activities by watching videos, but feels disconnected from school (which his mother confirmed). You know what? I’m inspired by YouTube. (Mom) Oh, yes, YouTube videos. They have really cool things on YouTube. (Mom) The things that excite him don’t really happen at school I think. I hate school. Easton, 10 years old, and his mother IN CLASSROOMS In Chapter 5, I focused on the experiences of teachers introducing Scratch in K-12 classrooms. Teachers shared their ambitions for supporting their students as creative problem solvers, anxieties about the open-ended nature of design activities with Scratch, strategies for coping with challenges, and struggles with legitimizing the learning taking place in their classrooms. In this section, I identify and analyze, from a teacher perspective, the structures in K-12 classrooms that enable or constrain learner agency. Table 6.2 summarizes the main sources of structure that teachers discussed in our conversations – elements characterized as important to (or as interfering with) their goals – and how these structures enable or constrain learner agency. In the remainder of this section, I discuss each of these five sources of structure: teacher, student, computer, classroom, school. | Source | Structure | Enable(s) | Constrain(s) | |-----------------|----------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Teacher** | Attitude | When teachers’ curiosity, enthusiasm, and courage support experimenting | When teachers’ fear and anxiety lead to controlling behavior | | | | with open-endedness | | | | Experience | When technical, content, and pedagogical knowledge align with aspirations | When too little expertise leads to overly-constrained activities; When | | | | | too much expertise leads to solving problems for (rather than with) | | | | | students | | **Student** | Attitude | When students’ curiosity, enthusiasm, and courage support experimenting | When students’ reluctance, avoidance, and refusal discourage | | | | with open-endedness; When student self-concept aligns with “problem | experimenting with new ways of learning | | | | solver” and/or “computational creator” | | | | Current Abilities | When opportunities are available to have students’ abilities and expertise| When lack of abilities leads to too much challenge; When abundance of | | | | valued | abilities leads to too little challenge | | **Computer** | Authoring Environment | By providing learning opportunities different from other school-based | When lacking particular features for certain domains (specifically, | | | | technology experiences | computer science) | | | Online Community | By providing motivation of authentic audience | When evoking concerns about privacy, safety, and protection | | | Educator Online Community | By serving as a source of agency-enabling ideas through stories, resources,| When serving as a source of agency-constraining ideas through stories, | | | | and discussions | resources, and discussions | | **Classroom** | Group | By providing a diversity of perspectives; When encouraging exchanges | When group size and multiplicity of (potentially conflicting) needs lead | | | | between group members | to controlling behavior | Teacher: Attitude And Experience In November 2008, I was in Copenhagen, Denmark attending a conference. Around the city, I encountered a series of large signs (e.g., Figure 6.2) that encouraged the viewer to “replace fear of the unknown with curiosity.” I was reminded of these signs (which were promoting an art exhibition) and their message as I thought about how teachers described structures that can enable or constrain student agency. As noted in Chapter 5, many teachers are afraid or anxious about Scratch, particularly when thinking about introducing Scratch in a way that supports open-ended design, an approach that encourages kids to define and develop solutions to their own problems. We know that teacher attitudes, feelings, and beliefs impact student learning – in general and when including technology and computation in teaching practice (Buckingham, 2007; Cuban, 2001; Schofield, 1995) – and Chapter 5 shared stories of how teacher anxiety can diminish the agency of young people in classrooms. While there are many external structures (as will be discussed later in this section) that explicitly or implicitly discourage teachers from trading *fear* for *curiosity*, several teachers noted a more personal barrier to change – altering one’s teaching practice might imply that, previously, one had not been teaching effectively. Crawford reflected on his own experiences with change. Why is there change? You’re dissatisfied with the way it’s going. If you’re a teacher, that’s sometimes the case, but usually you’re not because – this is another pet theory. If you say, “Oh, you’re right. I should do more open-ended problem-solving, logical thinking, that’s how kids are going to learn,” then you’re basically admitting to yourself, “Oh, the way I was doing it was crap and now I’ve failed these kids.” That’s the extreme case and I see that in myself even. And I feel guilty, even though I’m conscious of it. I’m like, “Oh, so I used to teach it that way, and now I’m teaching it this way.” So I’m basically saying, “I was a horrible teacher and I failed those kids.” I think that’s why there’s some resistance to change. Crawford, Middle School Teacher Jackie shared a similar reflection regarding her previous approach to computing with her elementary school students. So now that I am done with teaching Scratch this term, I’m kind of looking back and saying, “OK. Basically I have been teaching secretarial skills to these kids.” You know what I mean? I thought, “They have to learn how to do word processing. That’s one of the things they need to learn.” Now, I’m thinking, like, “Oh, that’s a secretarial skill.” So, I like that every Scratch lesson has some kind of thinking skill or computational thinking skill that we were trying to get them to wrap their heads around. I kind of felt like this Scratch experience was a lot more purposeful than a lot of the stuff that was going on in my classrooms before. Jackie, Elementary School Teacher Teacher comfort and confidence was often connected to teacher experience and knowledge – their technological experience/knowledge (familiarity with Scratch), their content knowledge (familiarity with solving problems, programming concepts and practices), and their pedagogical knowledge (familiarity with teaching). Too little experience or knowledge in any one of these areas negatively impacted teacher comfort and confidence, leading them to adopt more rigid structures for their students. Too much experience or knowledge similarly undermined student agency, by not giving students space to explore, experiment, and build capacity as self-managing problem solvers. As described in Chapter 5, teaching Scratch using a constructionist approach does not necessitate expertise or mastery of Scratch, but rather an openness, curiosity, and vulnerability as a learner. Examples In Negotiating Open-Endedness (Ch. 5), Arnold’s experience with his music teacher, Linda’s lack of comfort leading to reduced student agency. In Legitimizing Learning (Ch. 5), ScratchEd posts about online fears, Crawford’s anxiety in response to implicit pressures to justify learning. In Building Culture (Ch. 5), Clive’s sympathy for student experience from trying it himself, Tara’s feeling that one cannot know everything, Kent’s encouragement for teachers to be curious learners. Student: Attitude And Current Abilities Like teachers, the attitudes and experiences (or current abilities) of students are important structures to consider when thinking about learning in K-12 classrooms. Kids bring a set of beliefs about themselves, about their teachers, about their peers, and about school environments – all of which impact the types of experiences that are possible in classrooms. As described in Chapter 5, students’ negative attitudes or unwillingness to participate in self-directed learning created challenging conditions for teachers to support learner agency. Teachers described kids who, never having had opportunities in school to take responsibility for their learning in a way that connected to their interests and passions, were reluctant to take on this foreign approach to learning, given that it seemed more demanding with no apparent “incentive”. On the other end of the spectrum, positive student attitude and self-concept, as well as a willingness to explore, experiment, persevere, and be courageous, all serve as enabling structures in the classroom, just as they do for kids working at home. Teachers described how their work often involved cultivating and supporting the development of positive self-concept, working with students to think about themselves as being (or capable of becoming) problem-solvers, and finding ways to connect with students’ motivations and interests. In addition to supporting young learners by encouraging them to pursue their passions and interests or make culturally-relevant connections (as we saw in Chapter 5), creating opportunities for students to share their abilities and expertise with each other is an important enabling factor. Students experience pride when their learning is valued by the teacher and, more importantly, valued by their peers. Computer: Authoring Environment And The Online Communities The teachers I spoke with were enthusiastic about the Scratch authoring environment, as they felt it represented a different type of engagement with technology than was otherwise available for students in school. Several of the teachers were familiar with (and, in some cases, even had extensive experience with) the Logo programming language, which they saw in a similar way. Giving students opportunities to be the designers of computational artifacts, rather than the consumers of already-designed computational artifacts, was seen as affording different types of learning opportunities than using a web browser, writing an essay with a word processor, or making a video with video editing software. Just as it does for kids working on projects at home, the Scratch authoring environment makes it easy for students in classrooms to get started, while having sufficient flexibility to enable the creation of more complex projects as students progress. However, students in classrooms also face some of the same challenges as kids at home with respect to open-endedness and authoring-environment limitations. Computer science high school teachers, for example, discussed how the authoring environment lacked specific programming features necessary to satisfy computer science curricular requirements (e.g., Scratch’s lack of named procedures). This constraint led some teachers to supplement their activities by using other programming languages. Unlike the authoring environment, and despite its tremendous potential for enabling student agency, the online community is not as easy to incorporate into school activities as it is into home activities. For example, during a show-and-tell session at a Scratch educator meetup hosted at MIT, a middle-school teacher talked about her motivation for connecting kids with the online community. Coming from an English background, it was really important to me that there was a “publication” step. As a writer, the last step is always sharing, getting feedback, and critiquing. That’s why I really bought into the whole idea of the website. My middle-schoolers are mostly inspired by the feedback they get from their peers and the gratification they get from sharing their projects in such a public way. Middle-school teacher Examples In *Supporting Problem-Solvers* (Ch. 5), Sabine’s observation about the centrality of technology in the world, Clayton helping kids learn how to talk with programmers. Examples In *Building Culture* (Ch. 5), “creating opportunities to share” strategy recommended by teachers, extending beyond the classroom walls. But concerns about online access in the school setting, including privacy, protection, and plagiarism (as discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5) often constrained the possibilities. Another online resource that was referenced frequently by teachers is the ScratchEd online community. Although not designed for students, teachers talked about how the structure of the online community facilitated learner agency and constructionist experimentation by enabling educators to connect with one another and share their experiences. There have been numerous examples within the ScratchEd community of how access to the experiences of others produced a shift in favor of learner agency. For example, a parent who was invited to speak to his son’s 7th grade class about his career as computer programmer thought that it would be great for the kids in the class to have a hands-on experience with programming, and arranged with the teacher for Scratch to be installed. As the presentation approached, he considered different strategies for introducing the kids to Scratch. He posted to the ScratchEd forums in search of advice. I would like to give the kids the basic idea of a step-by-step algorithm with loops. But, I don’t want to make it so complicated that the kids get bogged down or bored. I’m thinking about leading the kids through Scratch Getting Started. I’d be very grateful for any suggestions on good activities for this presentation, comments on what to expect, warnings of problems to be prepared for, etc. ScratchEd forum post I responded, and suggested that he might be interested in another thread, *How do you introduce Scratch to beginners?* A few weeks later, the parent posted again, describing the success he had enjoyed with the students. Thanks for the links. The presentation went well and the kids loved Scratch. My original idea was to walk the kids through the Scratch Getting Started guide. After reading the thread, “How do you introduce Scratch to beginners?” I changed my approach. Instead of a step-by-step walk through, I decided to demonstrate Scratch quickly and then get out of their way. … The most common question was, “Where is the website where I can download Scratch.” I’m glad that I read the thread and changed my approach. Thanks a bunch. Follow-up to original ScratchEd forum post The ScratchEd online community also provides teachers with access to an array of resources – resources that are developed by people at MIT and by members of the community, and have varying degrees of alignment with a constructionist approach to learning. For example, some lesson plans are highly didactic. But, even for resources that are intentionally designed with constructionist ideals in mind, designer intentions do not always align with how the resources are employed. For example, the Scratch curriculum guide that was developed by the ScratchEd team and released in 2011 was intended to be remixed and adapted by educators. Some educators, however, felt uncomfortable with making modifications, and opted to follow it extremely faithfully, even if there was a lack of clarity about the purpose for including particular activities. My students had never heard of the six-word stories, so that was interesting. And I apparently forgot what they were. But I talked to the English instructor at our school and she just thought it was such a cool idea, and I did too. So we were looking them up on the Internet and there were just some really funny ones up there and they really enjoyed that. Just because it was something different, you know? But I didn’t quite see where that was going. I mean, it was cool that we had six-word stories – but then I’m like, “Um, I don’t get it.” Kirby, High School Business Education Teacher Other educators felt comfortable with adapting the curriculum, but implemented changes that were (as discussed earlier) incongruent with the guide’s aspirations. For example, one educator emphasized the value of optimized code, which I feel is not a significant consideration for those just learning how to program. Classroom: Group, Roles, And Activities In Chapter 5, I described teachers’ main strategy for negotiating the complexity associated with an open-ended, design-based approach to learning: building a new culture of learning in the classroom. This necessitated thinking about the structure of the classroom in different ways – reimagining the nature of learning with/in a group, individuals’ roles, and the learning activities. Learning within a group, as happens in classroom settings, presents many challenges. For example, the size and diversity of the group can be intimidating, particularly when thinking about encouraging learners to pursue their individual interests. But size and diversity can be an asset in the structure of the classroom, presenting opportunities for teachers to encourage peer learning and mentorship, in turn providing greater support for learners to pursue their goals and develop as computational creators. Teachers described the satisfaction students experienced in learning from each other, as Larissa shared – I’ve always had students teaching because I found out that students communicate better with other students. Larissa, K-12 Teacher and Teacher Educator They also described how quickly this peer learning spread throughout the classroom community, as Clayton shared – It’s like how ten kids get some video game and then one of them learns where the key to the castle is. In 30 minutes, everyone knows! It’s that kind of thing – they can really teach each other those kinds of things quite well. Clayton, Elementary School Teacher This type of peer learning often necessitates new ideas about classroom roles and activities, dislodging some of the historical asymmetries of classroom-based learning environments. The teacher (as described in Chapter 5) does not serve as the source of all knowledge, and enters into authentic, engaged learning with students, helping students identify and pursue their learning goals, and sharing responsibility for the classroom culture. The students take on new responsibilities, for their own learning and for the learning of their peers in class. These new roles are supported and reinforced through careful activity design, balancing the structure needed for capacity-building and sufficient scaffolding, while maintaining the open-endedness of engaging problem-solving, connecting to personal interests, and fostering creativity. **School: Intentions And Assessment** The teachers that I spoke with are passionate, dedicated educators, committed to designing learning environments that engage and enrich student experiences from day-to-day, and that will also meaningfully support and prepare students over the longer term, for full participation in 21st century society. Teachers’ desires to foster students’ capacities for problem-solving and self-expression are not primarily motivated by short-term, school-based performance concerns; rather they stem from beliefs about the fundamental project of schools. Larissa described her focus on supporting students as independent learners, thinkers, and decision-makers. > Students know they can come to me [for help], but they know that they have to take their own decisions. As a person in education, you might understand that one of the most important things we have to do with all these human beings is help them learn how to make their own decisions. Larissa, K-12 Teacher and Teacher Educator But teacher intentions are often influenced by short-term, school-based performance concerns – the expectations of the school structure – that impinge and constrain learner agency in a variety of ways. Time was often cited by teachers, and by the kids I interviewed, as a constraint of school. For example, when I asked Jan about whether he would be interested in introducing Scratch into his school, he struggled to imagine a successful outcome, given the way in which school is structured into time blocks. **Examples** In *Building Culture* (Ch. 5), creating opportunities for learners to connect with each other (Sun encouraging community) and to think about roles in new ways (teacher as coach, with Linda and the jellyfish). **Examples** In *Supporting Problem-Solvers* (Ch. 5), ScratchEd post about fostering problem-solving capacities, Arnold fostering a love of problem solving, Taylor’s aspiration for building confidence through creation and design. **Examples** In *Negotiating Open-Endedness* (Ch. 5), challenges of time, number of students, and variability of student expertise and interests. There’s always this conflict of schools. They are organized into one-hour time slots – and for creative projects, it’s never enough. If you want to engage in creativity, it takes its time. Jan, 16 years old Other school expectations also served as constraints. As discussed in Chapter 5, expectations about demonstrating and providing evidence for student learning are high, yet methods are lacking for assessing and evaluating the types of learning aligned with teachers’ intentions. Often, the aspects of learning that are easiest to assess are not the aspects most significant to students’ development as learners with agency. In this chapter, I argue that designers of agency-supporting learning environments, rather than setting structure in opposition to agency, should judiciously employ structure in order to amplify agency. I offer five strategies for designers of learning environments, suggesting opportune ways of introducing structure in the service of learner agency. In the opening lines of *Experience and Education* (1938), John Dewey calls attention to the human tendency to dichotomize. Mankind likes to think in terms of extreme opposites. It is given to formulating its beliefs in terms of *Either-Or*, between which it recognizes no intermediate possibilities. (p. 1) In this thesis, I have been preoccupied with the often-assumed dichotomy of *agency* (defined earlier as *a learner's ability to define and pursue learning goals*) versus *structure* (defined earlier as *rules, roles, and resources, both explicit and assumed*) in learning environments. Chapter 1 outlined my theoretical framework for agency and structure, which argues for thinking about agency and structure as mutually constitutive, drawing on Giddens’ structuration theory. Chapter 2 introduced some of the assumptions (and myths) about agency and structure that are often associated with the adoption of constructionism (and its high-agency aspirations) as an epistemological stance. Chapter 3 described my methodological approach to studying agency and structure, which emphasized interview and observation. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 examined the tensions between structure and agency in two settings for computational creation – kids working with Scratch at home through the online community, and teachers working with Scratch in K–12 classrooms. These chapters described the learning processes in each setting (Chapter 4 and Chapter 5) and the key structures that enable or constrain learner agency (Chapter 6). Here, I connect the threads from the previous chapters, offering strategies for thinking beyond an *either-or* approach to agency/structure, in favor of exploring *intermediate possibilities*. I argue that designers of agency-supporting learning environments, rather than setting structure in opposition to agency, should judiciously employ structure in order to amplify agency. This chapter is organized into two parts. The first part – *Either-Or* – illustrates, with a story, how too much and/or too little structure can inhibit learner agency. The second part – *Intermediate Possibilities* – provides advice for designers of learning environments, suggesting opportune ways of introducing structure in the service of learner agency. **EITHER-OR** During my time as a graduate student at MIT and as a member of the Scratch Team, I have had many opportunities to help people learn about Scratch. In workshops and presentations, I usually begin by describing Scratch and why it is important. I demonstrate the features of the authoring environment and online community, and talk about participation from a quantitative perspective, to give a sense of scale. I share what I think is most interesting about the online community as a space for learning – the incredible diversity of projects that kids create and share, and the types of connections that kids establish with each other, from giving feedback in comments, to remixing each other’s work, to making projects together. After talking about the online community as a learning environment, I explain my interest in supporting these types of activities in schools. I argue that not all young people have opportunities for these types of learning experiences at home, and that including Scratch in K-12 classrooms is one strategy for broadening participation in computational culture. Occasionally, however, this strategy is questioned – “Isn’t it OK for them to be separate? How can the type of learning happening at home even happen in the classroom? Won’t schools take away everything that you think is great about the online community?” Certainly, there are occasions in which Scratch’s translation from out-of-school to in-school is unsuccessful. For instance, several years ago, I was asked to introduce 30 high school girls to the work of our research group, and to provide a hands-on experience with Scratch. As the participants arrived for the workshop, I noticed one girl scowling, with arms crossed – a markedly different comportment than her more animated companions. My colleagues and I welcomed the girls to our lab, and described our plan for the afternoon’s workshop: a brief overview of the Media Lab, an introduction to Scratch, and then time for creating their own Scratch projects. The girl’s scowl deepened. We showed the girls some projects that others their age had created and shared in the online community, and then introduced the theme of the afternoon’s activity – an interactive dance party. We quickly modeled how to start a dance party project by adding music, a background, and several dancers, and then paired the girls to develop their own dance party projects. The girls worked for an hour with their partners, consulting their neighbors, importing their favorite songs, and taking photos of themselves to put into their projects. We took time at the end for the girls to share their projects with each other, which provoked laughter, questions, and applause. In all of the activity, I lost track of the scowling girl, until she approached me and said, “I hate Scratch.” It was the first time I had experienced such a negative reaction to Scratch. I waited for her to say something else. She continued, amending her statement, “I used to hate Scratch.” She explained that she had been dreading the afternoon’s session because of a bad experience with Scratch at school. Her teacher had assigned the students to draw geometric shapes with Scratch’s pen tool and had required them to follow the teacher’s actions step-by-step. They had spent a week with Scratch in this way, building up increasingly complex programs, but with no opportunities to customize or explore, and discouraged from interacting with each other. In that setting, the girl didn’t understand Scratch. It didn’t mean anything to her. Why would anyone want to do anything like this? Why was it interesting or important to her – or to anyone else? Her inability to distinguish pedagogy from technology had led her to expect the worst from the afternoon workshop, but she was surprised by how much she (and the other girls in her group) had enjoyed Scratch. She asked for a Scratch postcard, so that she would know how to download Scratch at home. As this story illustrates, imposing too much structure can constrain learner agency. Designing was constrained to following the teacher’s process. Personalizing was discouraged and the subject matter was not personally appealing. Sharing was prohibited, with individual students working at individual computers on individual projects. Reflecting on the design activities was not promoted, leaving the girl to question why the activities were being done at all. Given these kinds of experiences, it isn’t hard to understand the motivation behind questions like, “Won’t schools take away everything that you think is great about the online community?” These questions reflect underlying assumptions that learning at home is low structure and high agency, that learning at school is high structure and low agency, and that agency and structure – and out-of-school and in-school settings – are fundamentally incompatible. But although excessive structure undermines the agency of young people, I argue that the response should not be to dismiss structure more generally. As described in previous chapters, a lack of structure does not equal agency. At the other end of the spectrum, Chapter 4 illustrates the ways in which too little structure can constrain learner agency. Kids who go to the online community, create an account, but don’t understand the range of creative possibilities afforded by Scratch. Kids who have big visions for a Scratch project, but can’t figure out what they need to learn to actualize their visions. Kids who want to find another Scratcher to work with, but the size of the community makes it difficult for them to be seen or to find someone with shared interests. Ostensibly, kids who learn primarily in the online community have a higher degree of learner agency – a freedom to choose what and how to learn – than kids who learn primarily in classrooms. But in addition to confusing a lack of structure with agency, this mistakenly assumes that all types of freedom are equally desirable. I began this chapter with the first lines of John Dewey’s *Experience and Education* – and I return to Dewey for a critical reflection on learner freedom. The ideal aim of education is creation of power of self-control. But the mere removal of external control is no guarantee for the production of self-control. It is easy to jump out of the frying-pan into the fire. It is easy, in other words, to escape one form of external control only to find oneself in another and more dangerous form of external control. Impulses and desires that are not ordered by intelligence are under the control of accidental circumstances. It may be a loss rather than a gain to escape from the control of another person only to find one’s conduct dictated by immediate whim and caprice; that is, at the mercy of impulses into whose formation intelligent judgment has not entered. A person whose conduct is controlled in this way has at most only the illusion of freedom. Actually he is directed by forces over which he has no command. (p. 75) There is enormous potential for schools to help support the development of this type of self-control, a form of structure that is the basis of learner agency, enabling young people to flourish as learners with the ability to define and pursue goals. Teachers need greater support to reconceptualize their roles in a way that enables these changes – including emotional support, classroom support, and institutional support. And just as we should begin to think about agency and structure not as separate, but as mutually-reinforcing concepts, we have a similar opportunity to reconsider the dichotomy between out-of-school and in-school settings. We need to think about learning more continuously, the ways that out-of-school and in-school activities can support each other, and the ways in which kids can carry learning across settings, beyond facile ideas of “transfer”. Learning is a lifelong (across ages, not just K-12 and college) and life-wide (across settings, not just school) enterprise, with the life-wideness accelerated by network and other digital technologies (Banks et al., 2007; Dede, 2011; DML Research Hub, 2012; Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012; Roschelle, Bakia, Toyama, & Patton, 2011). There are intermediate possibilities to be explored with both the agency/structure relationship and the out-of-school/in-school relationship – it is not either-or with agency and structure, and need not be either-or with out-of-school and in-school settings. We can have the best of both worlds. But how do we design for the best of both worlds, seeking the intermediate possibilities? **INTERMEDIATE POSSIBILITIES** Agency-centered learning that takes place within/across a variety of settings is not merely an aspiration. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 presented glimpses of the possibilities – and I end this chapter with five sets of concrete strategies and recommendations for designers of learning environments who aim to support the development of learner agency. The strategies – introduce possibilities, encourage experimentation, support access to resources, cultivate connections with others, and create opportunities for reflection – suggest ways to productively introduce structure into learning environments. These strategies represent a synthesis of commonalities in the experiences of kids working with Scratch at home in the Scratch online community (from Chapter 4) and the experiences of teachers working with Scratch in K-12 classrooms (from Chapter 5), filtered through my own experiences as a designer of agency-centric learning environments focused on computational creation. For each strategy, I provide examples of how different types of learning-environment designers – teachers in K-12 classrooms, parents at home, and developers of learning technologies (using the Scratch Team as a concrete example) – have employed structure to support agency in computational creation. Although the examples stem from the context of computational creation with Scratch, these strategies are not, in general, limited to a particular domain or particular tool. **Strategy 1: Introduce The Possibilities** When encountering a new area of learning, the entry-points and trajectories of participation and learning are often not self-evident. Learners might wonder: What can I do? Why might I want to do it? There are opportunities within learning environments for structure to bring clarity to these trajectories by introducing and describing the possibilities of what the learner can do, both broadly and in a focused manner at particular waypoints. In the broad case, this might involve explaining what a particular tool makes possible, discussing how an activity is connected to a learner’s personal interests, or how an activity has larger social or technical relevance. In the more focused case, this might involve explaining what is possible for a learner at a particular moment, connecting to current abilities – like presenting an appropriately scoped and scaled learning challenge. **Examples** - **Teachers:** A middle-school teacher was facilitating a digital media production course that included a unit on interactive media creation with Scratch. Knowing how passionate her students are about music, she searched the Scratch online community for animated music video projects. She began the initial class by dimming the lights, pronouncing, “Look at what you’ll be able to create in just a few weeks,” and screening several of the music video projects for her students. - **Parents:** A parent read a news article about Scratch and thought that his daughter might be interested in trying it. He searched for a tutorial and found an overview video that explained what Scratch is and illustrated what you can do with it. He shared the video with his daughter. - **Developers:** The Scratch Team decided to include a series of Scratch projects as part of the distribution of the authoring environment. The sample projects span a range of genres – animation, games, art, simulation, and more – and include projects of varying complexity within each genre. **Strategy 2: Encourage Experimentation** Learning through designing involves negotiating constraints – it requires a learner to adopt a stance of flexibility and experimentation in relation to their learning goals. Learners might wonder: *What are the goals I want to pursue? What are different pathways to achieving my goals?* Opportunities exist within learning environments to use structure in support of experimentation. Designers can support learners in experimenting with both the *what* of their learning (e.g., encouraging diversity in creation) and the *how* of their learning (e.g., highlighting different pathways or strategies for achieving goals). A learner’s willingness to vary subject and method is, however, in tension with a simultaneous desire to persist with particular experiments. The balance between breadth (experimenting) and depth (persisting) should be supported, along both cognitive and affective dimensions. **Examples** - **Teachers:** An elementary teacher encouraged her third-grade students to define a project to work on. But one of her students, who was developing a playful story about an Arctic mishap, struggled with programming the visual behaviors of the story. The teacher helped the student identify several strategies for debugging the project. When the student shared her project with others, she described the array of troubleshooting strategies they employed, including her approach to experimenting with blocks in the *looks* category, and described how important it was to have “grit” while experimenting. - **Parents:** An 8-year-old Scratcher was frustrated by his project, which wasn’t working, and went to his mother, teary-eyed, for advice. His mother gave him a hug, and recommended working on a different project until he had an idea for how to fix the problem with his original project. Feeling better, he returned to his room and made a list of potential ideas for new projects. - **Developers:** The Scratch Team designed the Scratch authoring environment to be “tinkerable” – enabling something large to be built up by playing with smaller pieces, rather than breaking apart a larger plan into smaller components (as is often the case with other tools for computational creation). In Scratch, this enables young designers to experiment with different blocks and observe their behavior and impact on a project in real-time. Strategy 3: Support Access To Resources In agency-centered learning environments, learners take ownership of and responsibility for learning goals, instead of primarily following the ambitions and direction of others. But in order to achieve their goals, learners require access to resources to support the pursuit of the individualized pathways. Learners might wonder: *What can help me achieve my goals?* Ideally, designers will make resources available that are appropriately-timed and appropriately-accessible (both in format and complexity) for the learner. Resources may be centralized (e.g., a resource accessed by all members of the learning environment simultaneously) or decentralized (e.g., just-in-time resources accessed on demand by learners). Resources may take on a variety of formats (e.g., text, video, audio) and complexity (e.g., resources for beginners, resources for learners who are further along). **Examples** - **Teachers:** A high-school animation teacher made the *Scratch cards* (a resource developed by the Scratch Team) available to her students. The cards each describe something that one might want to do with Scratch, such as creating a character that dances back and forth or using variables to maintain a score in a project. The teacher used the Scratch cards as a model, encouraging her students to develop new resources based on the challenges they experienced when making Scratch projects. - **Parents:** A mother saw her daughter wanting to make more sophisticated games with Scratch, but unable to make progress on her goal. She bought her daughter a book that included a series of tutorials for creating games. - **Developers:** On the main page of the Scratch online community, the Scratch Team included links to resources designed to help people get started with Scratch. One link points to “Scratch Tours”, which are collections of thematically-related, annotated projects, while another link points to a collection of introductory video tutorials. A link is provided to the ScratchEd online community, which contains numerous resources for teachers (and is also available to young learners and parents). **Strategy 4: Cultivate Connections With Others** Learning is not an individual process – learners can benefit from being connected with others. These connections can take different forms, with others potentially serving key roles as advisors (e.g., providing advice for challenges), as collaborators (e.g., jointly pursuing a learning goal), as audience (e.g., showing appreciation for creative work), and/or as advisees (e.g., someone with whom to share one’s understanding). Learners might wonder: *Who can help me achieve my goals? Who might work with me to define and pursue goals? Who might appreciate my achievements? Who might I help achieve their goals?* Cultivating connections between learners and others involves at least two components: (1) helping learners identify potential connections (i.e., matchmaking), and (2) supporting positive interactions within those connections (i.e., respectful, productive, and mutually beneficial). Designers can introduce structures that support connection-making processes (e.g., introducing learners to those who have compatible and complementary interests, or grouping learners with those who have divergent interests as a way to broaden learners’ perspectives). Further, designers can introduce structures that contribute to the success of these connections (e.g., by providing partnered learners with ideas for how to give each other constructive criticism). **Examples** - **Teachers:** At the end of every class, an upper-elementary school teacher encouraged his students to post challenges that they experienced with their Scratch projects on a whiteboard. At the beginning of each subsequent class, he asked students to select someone else’s challenge and then meet for 10 minutes to discuss possible solutions. At the end of the Scratch unit, the teacher invited a lower-elementary class and several of his colleagues to attend final class project demonstrations. His students introduced the younger kids, their teachers, and the school principal to Scratch. - **Parents:** A father introduced his son to Scratch and they worked on making projects together. But the son quickly outpaced the father’s abilities – and the father wished he could connect his son to another young Scratcher. He learned about a Scratch event being organized by a local university and brought his son. At the event, his son met another young Scratcher and they enthusiastically worked on a project together at the event. They continued working on the project through the online community and occasional face-to-face meetings. - **Developers:** When the Scratch online community initially launched, the Scratch Team included an online forum where members could ask and answer questions, but the team was uncertain about the extent to which young Scratchers would use this feature. Much to the team’s surprise, some kids in the community use the forums extensively – giving and receiving help, establishing partnerships, and advertising creations. **Strategy 5: Create Opportunities For Reflection** Learners need opportunities to reflect on their experiences – and the “learners might wonder” questions from the previous four strategies are examples of reflective prompts. Reflection happens both in real-time and in retrospect (e.g., Schön’s reflection-in-action vs. reflection-on-action, as described earlier), and involves both cognitive and affective dimensions of learning experiences. The designer of a learning environment can make use of structure to create opportunities for learners to articulate and negotiate these types of reflective prompts. Structures can be employed to support learners in identifying and taking steps to resolve the gap between what is currently known and what is not yet known. Structures can also be employed to support learners in negotiating feelings about their experiences, and the (expected) vulnerability of being a learner with responsibility for one’s own learning. Learning can be simultaneously hard and fun (as described by Papert and echoed by kids in Chapter 4) – and structures that support reflection can support awareness of when learning might be moving from eustress to distress. **Examples** - **Teachers:** A high-school computer science teacher asked his students to maintain design journals accompanying their Scratch projects. As students came into class each day, there were questions on the front board to which the students would respond in their journals. The questions spanned a range of topics, and encouraged the students to reflect on their experiences. What is your plan for today? What did you do yesterday that you were most proud of? What are three things you are able to do now that you weren’t able to do when we first started? - **Parents:** A 12-year-old girl felt creatively blocked. She had created several Scratch projects, but didn’t know what she should create next. She went to her mother for assistance. Although her mother didn’t know much about Scratch, she was able to help her daughter by asking questions about the types of projects that she had already created and then asking her what advice she would give to someone who was similarly stuck. - **Developers:** The Scratch Team experimented with different ways to explicitly encourage and elicit reflection and reflective response. One Master’s thesis explored augmenting the Scratch authoring environment with reflective prompts (Rosenbaum, 2009). The next generation of Scratch includes an area on a designer’s profile page for the designer to describe what they are currently working on, as well as a summary of what they have been doing. The process of designing learning environments, particularly those that emphasize learner agency, is complex and multi-faceted, with numerous factors shifting and in tension with one another. The five strategies presented in this chapter are intended to serve as points of focus in this shifting landscape, but also as points of continuous negotiation and iteration. The pursuit of intermediate possibilities between agency and structure is, to borrow an aphorism from Rogers (1961), “a direction, not a destination.” In this chapter, I reflect on the future from three perspectives – as a researcher, as a designer, and as a learner. As I am writing this, members of the Scratch Team are actively developing the next generation of Scratch. Scratch 2.0 represents the most significant changes to the Scratch authoring environment and online community since Scratch 1.4 was released in 2009. These changes make me think about the future. I wonder what new opportunities and new challenges await the kids and teachers who have so deeply invested in computational creation and computational culture. I consider these opportunities and challenges from three perspectives – as a researcher, as a designer, and as a learner. **Researcher** As a researcher, I think about new questions opened up by the work described in this thesis. First, this work has illustrated the complex system of structures that young computational creators encounter, rely on, negotiate, and build up around themselves – contrary to “digital native” narratives, it is not just kids “doing Scratch on their own”. Where do these experiences fit on a pathway/trajectory of participation? What happens next? What do these experiences lead to? Second, this work has focused on kids who have, in relation to the larger Scratch community, been very successful. Their experiences – their aspirations, the challenges they faced, the strategies they developed to overcome challenges, how they validated their experiences – were predominantly positive and, as such, Chapter 4 might be read as uncritical. I would argue that this is not due to a lack of criticality, but due to my desire to faithfully and respectfully represent the experiences of these particular kids. But what about the kids who have less positive experiences? Some kids may find entry-points, but have negative interactions on the Scratch community site. I describe instances of negative interactions in Chapter 4 and Chapter 6, as well as in another paper (Brennan, 2011). But other kids may not find entry-points or ways of participating. What about the kids who are unable to (or choose not to) make sense or take advantage of the structures that they encounter? Is the lack of connection due to a lack of interest or a lack of self-directedness as a learner? How might a lack of connection be related to the increasing size of the online community – making it harder to find what is most valuable to an individual learner, or harder to focus, with many demands on learner attention? Third, in an era where learning is increasingly unleashed from school settings, this work has illustrated the special role that teachers can play in supporting young people’s development of agency. But it has also described the complexity of supporting learner agency in school settings, and the numerous barriers that make the promise of supporting agency in school seem distant. How can teachers be better supported in thinking about themselves as designers of learning environments and as advocates for learner agency? How can teachers be better supported in enacting and assessing constructionist approaches to learning within the current realities of schools? How do kids in classrooms experience agency in computational creation? How do these experiences migrate across settings and across activities, both computational and otherwise? **Designer** As a designer, I think about how the kids and teachers that I have worked with have been impacted by their experiences with Scratch. In particular, I think about how kids’ experiences of designing with Scratch, no matter the setting, might support how they re/design themselves, their future lives, and the world around them. Five years of work have shown me a variety of possibilities. Some engagements with computational creation are quite brief, providing an interesting childhood experience among thousands of interesting childhood experiences, with unknown impact and influence on future activities and interests. Some engagements are intense and extensive, yielding hundreds of projects, developed over hundreds of hours, and, sometimes, sparking interest in a career. And many engagements are somewhere in between, with computation seen as enjoyable and interesting, and perhaps applicable to a future career – as a veterinarian, a café owner, or an Olympic luge athlete (as I learned in my conversations with young Scratchers). Whatever the nature and extent of the engagement, I aspire for young people to have opportunities to engage creatively with the computational culture in which they are immersed. This is not solely a matter of participating in the workforce of the 21st century or of being a contributing member of society. It is also fundamentally about the individual and how they see themselves as learners with agency, capable of great creativity, as “it is creative apperception more than anything else that makes the individual feel that life is worth living” (Winnicott, 1971, p. 87). **Learner** As a learner, I think about how I have benefited from and through the Scratch and ScratchEd communities, and how I have experienced the constructionist learning I hope for others. I have designed – creating activities for the Scratch website, planning Scratch Day events and conferences, building websites for teachers and event organizers, and making resources for teachers and their students. I have personalized – figuring out what I’m passionate about and contributing to the Scratch research base in my own way. I have shared – working with interns, members of Lifelong Kindergarten, teachers, and young Scratchers. And, of course, I have reflected – struggling with challenges, but always experimenting, working towards the next iteration, trying to make things better. The last interview that I conducted for this work was with Lana, who was also the first Scratcher that I had the opportunity to talk with. As I prepared for the interview by reviewing the transcript from our first conversation in 2007 and my half-decade of field notes, I anticipated that there would be a feeling that so much had changed, that so much was different now. Both she, now 17, and the Scratch online community had grown up considerably. But as our conversation began, I felt a familiarity and comfort, almost as though we were picking up a conversation that we had only recently set aside. I explained that I was interested in her experiences, particularly given her long-term participation in, and perspectives on, the community. She told me that there was so much to the story and so much to share that she wasn’t sure where to begin. I reassured her that she could start wherever she wanted. She paused, taking a moment to collect her thoughts, and then began, with a laugh. “When I think about my life, I almost divide it into two parts – life before Scratch and life after Scratch.” I couldn’t help but smile. “Me, too.” Epilogue References Ackermann, E. (1996). Perspective-taking and object construction: Two keys to learning. In Y.B. Kafai & M. Resnick (Eds.), *Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world* (pp. 25–35). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Adamic, L.A., & Huberman, B.A. (2002). Zipf’s law and the Internet. *Glottometrics*, 3, 143-150. Anderson, T., & Shattuck, J. (2012). Design-based research: A decade of progress in educational research? *Educational Researcher*, 41(1), 16-25. Anthony, W. (1973). Learning to discover rules by discovery. *Journal of Educational Psychology*, 64(3), 325-328. Appadurai, A. (1996). *Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of globalization*. Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota Press. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman. Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. *Annual Review of Psychology*, 52, 1-26. Banks, J.A., Au, K.H., Ball, A.F., Bell, P., Gordon, E.W., Gutierrez, K.D., et al. (2007). Learning in and out of school in diverse environments: Life-long, life-wide, life-deep. Retrieved August 30, 2012, from http://life-slc.org/docs/Banks_etal-LIFE-Diversity-Report.pdf Barab, S.A., Barnett, M., & Squire, K. (2002). Developing an empirical account of a community of practice: Characterizing the essential tensions. *Journal of the Learning Sciences*, 11(4), 489-542. Barab, S.A., MaKinster, J.G., Scheckler, R. (2003). Designing system dualities: Characterizing a web-supported professional development community. *The Information Society*, 19, 237-256. doi:10.1080/01972240390210064 Begel, A. (1996). LogoBlocks: A graphical programming language for interacting with the world. Advanced undergraduate project report, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved July 10, 2012, from http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/abegel/mit/begel-aup.html boyd, d., & Crawford, K. (2012). Critical questions for big data: Provocations for a cultural, technological, and scholarly phenomenon. *Information, Communication & Society*. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2012.678878 Bransford, J., Brown, A.L., Cocking, R.R., Donovan, M.S., & Pellegrino, J.W. (2000). *How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school* (Rev. ed.). Washington: National Academies Press. Brennan, K. (2011). Mind the gap: Differences between the aspirational and the actual in an online community of learners. CSCL’11 conference proceedings, 342-349. Brennan, K., Resnick, M., & Monroy-Hernandez, A. (2010). Making projects, making friends: Online community as catalyst for interactive media creation. *New Directions for Youth Development*, 2010(128), 75-83. Brennan, K., & Resnick, M. (2012). Imagining, creating, playing, sharing, reflecting: How online community supports young people as designers of interactive media. In N. Lavigne and C. Mouza (Eds.), *Emerging Technologies for the Classroom: A Learning Sciences Perspective*. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4696-5_17 Brennan, K., Valverde, A., Prempeh, J., Roque, R., & Chung, M. (2011). More than code: The significance of social interactions in young people’s development as interactive media creators. In T. Bastiaens & M. Ebner (Eds.), *Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2011* (pp. 2147-2156). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Brown, A.L. (1994). The advancement of learning. *Educational Researcher*, 23(8), 4-12. Brown, A.L., & Campione, J.C. (1996). Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments: On procedures, principles and systems. In L. Schauble and R. Glaser (Eds.), *Innovations in Learning: New Environments for Education* (pp. 234-265). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. *Educational Researcher*, 18(1), 32-42. Bruckman, A. (1997). MOOSE Crossing: Construction, community, and learning in a networked virtual world for kids. Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Bruckman, A. (1998). Community support for constructionist learning. *Computer Supported Cooperative Work*, 7, 47–86. Bruckman, A. (2006). Learning in online communities. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), *Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences* (pp. 461-472). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Bruckman, A., & Resnick, M. (1995). The MediaMOO project: Constructionism and professional community. *Convergence*, 1(1), 94-109. Brunvand, S., Fishman, B., & Marx, R. (2005). Moving professional development online: Meeting the needs and expectations of all teachers. In J.R. Dangel & E. Guyton (Eds.), *Research on alternative and non-traditional education* (pp. 205-232). Oxford, UK: Association of Teacher Educators. Buckingham, D. (2007). *Beyond technology: Children’s learning in the age of digital culture*. Malden, MA: Polity. Buckingham, D., & Sefton-Green, J. (2003). Gotta catch ‘em all: Structure, agency and pedagogy in children’s media culture. *Media, Culture, & Society*, 25(3), 379-399. Buckingham, D., & Willett, R. (Eds.). (2006). Digital generations: Children, young people, and new media. London: Routledge. Burdick, A., & Willis, H. (2011). Digital learning, digital scholarship, and design thinking. Design Studies, 32(6), 546-556. Carter, L. (2006). Why students with an apparent aptitude for computer science don't choose to major in computer science. Proceedings of the 37th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, Houston, Texas, USA. Chopra, A. (2012). New summer jobs + commitments plan to introduce low-income youth to technology-related skills. Retrieved January 20, 2012 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2012/01/17/new-summer-jobs-commitments-plan-introduce-low-income-youth-technology-related-skill Clandinin, D.J., & Connelly, F.M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cole, M., & Wertsch, J.V. (1996). Beyond the individual-social antinomy in discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. Human Development, 39(5), 250-256. Collins, A. (2006). Cognitive apprenticeship. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (pp. 47-60). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Collins, A., & Halverson, R. (2009). Rethinking education in the age of technology: The digital revolution and schooling in America. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Craig, R. (1956). Directed versus independent discovery of established relations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 47(4), 223-234. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: HarperCollins. CSTA. (2006). A model curriculum for K-12 computer science: Final report of the ACM K-12 Task Force Curriculum Committee (2nd ed.). Retrieved January 15, 2012 from http://csta.acm.org/Curriculum/sub/CurrFiles/K-12ModelCurr2ndEd.pdf Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Damșa, C.I., Kirschner, P.A., Andriessen, J.E.B., Erkens, G., & Sins, P.H.M. (2010). Shared epistemic agency: An empirical study of an emergent construct. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 19(2), 143-186. de Certeau, M. (1984). The practice of everyday life. Berkeley: University of California Press. Dede, C. (2011). Emerging technologies, ubiquitous learning, and educational transformation. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 6964/2011, 1-8. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-23985-4_1 De Souza, C.S., & Preece, J. (2004). A framework for analyzing and understanding online communities. *Interacting with Computers*, 16(3), 579-610. Dewey, J. (1938). *Experience and education*. New York, NY: Collier Books. Dexter, S., Anderson, R., & Ronnkvist, A. (2002). Quality technology support: What is it? Who has it? And what difference does it make? *Journal of Educational Computing Research*, 26(3), 265–285. Dexter, S., Seashore, K., & Anderson, R. (2002). Contributions of professional community to exemplary use of ICT. *Journal of Computer Assisted Learning*, 18(4), 489–497. DML Research Hub. (2012). What is connected learning? Retrieved September 1, 2012, from http://connectedlearning.tv/infographic Donath, J. (2007). Signals in social supernets. *Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication*, 13(1), article 12. Retrieved September 5, 2012, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/donath.html Duffy, T.M., & Cunningham, D.J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction. In D.H. Jonassen (Ed.), *Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology* (pp. 170–198). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Dweck, C. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Lillington, NC: Psychology Press. Emirbayer, M., & Mische, A. (1998). What is agency? *The American Journal of Sociology*, 103(4), 962-1023. Farooq, U., Schank, P., Harris, A., Fusco, J., & Schlager, M. (2007). Sustaining a community computing infrastructure for online teacher professional development: A case study of designing Tapped In. *Computer Supported Cooperative Work*, 16(4-5), 397-429. doi:10.1007/s10606-007-9049-0 Feynman, R.P. (1965). New textbooks for the “new” mathematics. *Engineering and Science*, 28(6), 9-15. Fischer, G. (2002). Beyond “couch potatoes”: From consumers to designers and active contributors. *First Monday*, 7(12). Fischer, G., & Nakakoji, K. (1997). Computational environments supporting creativity in the context of lifelong learning and design. *Journal of Knowledge-Based Systems*, 10(4), 21-28. Fishman, B.J., & Davis, E.A. (2006). Teacher learning research and the learning sciences. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), *Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences* (pp. 535-550). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Flavell, J.H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. *American Psychologist*, 34(10), 906-911. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906 Foster, A. (2005). Student interest in computer science plummets. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 51(38). Retrieved January 10, 2012, from http://chronicle.com/article/Student-Interest-in-Computer/10912/ Freeman, J. (1972). The tyranny of structurelessness. Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 17(1972-1973), 151-164. Fuller, H. (2000). First teach their teachers: Technology support and computer use in academic subjects. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32(4), 511–537. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York, NY: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic Books. Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Golder, S.A., & Donath, J. (2004). Social roles in electronic communities. Paper presented at the Association of Internet Researchers conference, Internet Research 5.0, Brighton, England. Goldhaber, M.H. (1997). The attention economy and the Net. First Monday, 2(4). Goodfellow, R. (2005). Virtuality and the shaping of educational communities. Education, Communication, and Information, 5(2), 113-129. Guzdial, M., & Forte, A. (2005). Design process for a non-majors computing course. Proceedings of the 36th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, St. Louis, Missouri, USA, 361-365. Harel, I., & Papert, S. (1990). Software design as a learning environment. Interactive Learning Environments, 1(1), 1-32. Hargittai, E. (2009). An update on survey measures of web-oriented digital literacy. Social Science Computer Review, 27(1), 130-137. Hayles, N.K. (2005). My mother was a computer: Digital subjects and literary texts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hennessey, B.A., & Amabile, T.M. (1998). Reality, intrinsic motivation, and creativity. American Psychologist, 53(6), 674–675. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.53.6.674 Hew, K.F., & Hara, N. (2007). Empirical study of motivators and barriers of teacher online knowledge sharing. *Educational Technology Research and Development*, 55(6), 573-595. Hine, C. (2008). Virtual ethnography: Modes, varieties, affordances. In N. Fielding, R.M. Lee, & G. Blank (Eds.), *The SAGE Handbook of Online Research Methods* (pp. 257–270). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Hmelo-Silver, C.E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? *Educational Psychology Review*, 16(3), 235-266. Illich, I. (1971). *Deschooling society*. New York, NY: Harper & Row. ITEA. (2007). *Standards for technological literacy: Content for the study of technology* (3rd ed.). Reston, Virginia: International Technology Education Association. Ito, M. (2009). *Engineering play: A cultural history of children’s software*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Ito, M., Baumer, S., Bittanti, M., boyd, d., Cody, R., Herr, B., et al. (2009). *Hanging out, messing around, geeking out: Living and learning with new media*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K., & Robison, A. (2006). *Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Kafai, Y.B. (1995). *Minds in play: Computer game design as a context for children’s learning*. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Kafai, Y.B. (2006). Constructionism. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), *Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences* (pp. 35-46). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kafai, Y.B., & Resnick, M. (Eds.) (1996). *Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world*. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Kay, A. (2005). Squeak Etoys, children & learning. VPRI Research Note RN-2005-001. Retrieved August 19, 2012, from http://www.vpri.org/pdf/rn2005001_learning.pdf Kelleher, C., & Pausch, R. (2005). Lowering the barriers to programming: A taxonomy of programming languages for novice programmers. *ACM Computing Surveys*, 37(2). Kirschner, P. & Lai, K. (2007). Online communities of practice in education. *Technology, Pedagogy and Education*, 16(2), 127-131. Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R.E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. *Educational Psychologist*, 41(2), 75-86. Klawe, M., Whitney, T., & Simard, C. (2009). Women in computing – Take 2. *Communications of the ACM*, 52(2), 68-76. Kohn, A. (1999). *Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A's, praise, and other bribes*. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin. Kollock, P., & Smith, M. (1996). Managing the virtual commons: Cooperation and conflict in computer communities. In S.C. Herring (Ed.), *Computer-Mediated Communication: Linguistic, Social and Cross-Cultural Perspectives* (pp. 109-128). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Kolodner, J., Camp, P., Crismond, D., Fasse, B., Gray, J., Holbrook, J., et al. (2003). Problem-based learning meets case-based reasoning in the middle-school science classroom: Putting Learning by Design into practice. *Journal of the Learning Sciences*, 12(4), 495-547. Koschmann, T., Kelson, A., Feltovich, P., & Barrows, H. (1996). Computer-supported problem-based learning: A principled approach to the use of computers in collaborative learning. In T. Koschmann (Ed.), *CSCL: Theory and practice of an emerging paradigm* (pp. 83–124). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Krajcik, J.S., & Blumenfeld, P.C. (2006). Project-based learning. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), *Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences* (pp. 317-334). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kvale, S. (1996). *InterViews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing*. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Lankshear, C. & Knobel, M. (2002). Do we have your attention? New literacies, digital technologies, and the education of adolescents. In D.E. Alvermann (Ed.), *Adolescents and literacies in a digital world* (pp. 19-39). New York, NY: Peter Lang. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). *Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation*. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. LeCompte, M.D., & Schensul, J.J. (1999). *Designing & conducting ethnographic research: Ethnographer's toolkit*. Plymouth: AltaMira Press. Lin, H.T., & Fishman, B. (2009). Scaffolding teacher adaptation by making design intent explicit. In A. Dimitracopoulou, C. O'Malley, D.D. Suthers, & P. Reiman (Eds.), *Conference on Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning* (Vol. 2, pp. 159-161). Rhodes, Greece: The International Society of the Learning Sciences. Lorenz, M.O. (1905). Methods of measuring the concentration of wealth. *Publications of the American Statistical Association*, 9(70), 209-219. Maeda, J. (2001). *Design by numbers*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Maillet, K., & Porta, M. (2010). Consequences of the declining interest in computer science studies in Europe. *Education Engineering*, April 2010, 71-76. Manovich, L. (2012). Trending: The promises and the challenges of big social data. In M.K. Gold (Ed.), *Debates in the Digital Humanities* (pp. 460-475). Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota Press. Martin, J. (2004). Self-regulated learning, social cognitive theory, and agency. *Educational Psychologist, 39*(2), 135–145. Marwick, A.E., & boyd, d. (2011). The drama! Teen conflict, gossip, and bullying in networked publics. Paper presented at A Decade in Internet Time: Symposium on the Dynamics of the Internet and Society. Retrieved September 10, 2012, from http://ssrn.com/abstract=1926349 Mayer, R. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. *American Psychology, 59*(1), 14-19. Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Monroy-Hernandez, A. (2012). Designing for remixing: Supporting an online community of amateur creators. Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Monroy-Hernandez, A., Hill, B.M., Gonzalez-Rivero, J., & boyd, d. (2011). Computers can’t give credit: How automatic attribution falls short in an online remixing community. Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2011. National Research Council. (1999). *Being fluent with information technology*. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. National Research Council. (2010). Report of a workshop on the scope and nature of computational thinking. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Newman, M.E.J. (2005). Power laws, Pareto distributions and Zipf’s law. *Contemporary Physics, 46*(5), 323-351. Paglin, M. (1975). The measurement and trend of inequality: A basic revision. *The American Economic Review, 65*(4), 598-609. Palfrey, J., & Gasser, U. (2008). *Born digital: Understanding the first generation of digital natives*. New York, NY: Basic Books. Papert, S. (n.d.). Hard fun. Retrieved August 2, 2012, from http://www.papert.org/articles/HardFun.html Papert, S. (1980). *Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas*. New York, NY: Basic Books. Papert, S. (1993). *The children’s machine: Rethinking school in the age of the computer*. New York, NY: Basic Books. Pausch, R., Burnette, T., Capeheart, A.C., Conway, M., Cosgrove, D., DeLine, R., et al. (1995). Alice: Rapid prototyping system for virtual reality. *IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 15*(3), 8-11. Pea, R. (2004). The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning, education, and human activity. *Journal of the Learning Sciences*, 13(3), 423-451. Pellegrino, J.W., & Hilton, M.L. (Eds.). (2012). *Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century*. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Perkins, D. (1986). Knowledge as design. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Perkins, D. (1991). Technology meets constructivism: Do they make a marriage? *Educational Technology*, May, 18–23. Piaget, J. (1929). *The child’s conception of the world* (J. Tomlinson & A. Tomlinson, Trans.). Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. (Translation published 2007) Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. *On the Horizon*, 9(5), 1-6. Rainio, A. (2008). From resistance to involvement: Examining agency and control in a playworld activity. *Mind, Culture, and Activity*, 15(2), 115-140. Razzouk, R., & Shute, V. (2012). What is design thinking and why is it important? *Review of Educational Research*, 82(3), 330-349. doi:10.3102/0034654312457429 Resnick, M., Maloney, J., Monroy-Hernandez, A., Rusk, N., Eastmond, E., Brennan, K., et al. (2009). Scratch: Programming for all. *Communications of the ACM*, 52(11), 60-67. Resnick, M., & Silverman, B. (2005). Some reflections on designing construction kits for kids. *Proceedings of Interaction Design and Children conference*, Boulder, CO. Rheingold, H. (2012). *Net smart: How to thrive online*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Rogers, C.R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin. Rogoff, B. (1994). Developing understanding of the idea of communities of learners. *Mind, Culture and Activity*, 1(4), 209–229. Roschelle, J., Bakia, M., Toyama, Y., & Patton, C. (2011). Eight issues for learning scientists about education and the economy. *Journal of the Learning Sciences*, 20(1), 3-49. Rosenbaum, E. (2009). Jots: Cultivating reflective learning in Scratch. Master's thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Roque, R. (2012). Making together: Creative collaboration for everyone. Master's thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Rushkoff, D. (2010). *Program or be programmed: Ten commands for a digital age*. New York, NY: OR Books. Sawyer, R.K. (2004). Improvised lessons: Collaborative discussion in the constructivist classroom. Teaching Education, 15(2), 189-201. Sawyer, K. (2006). Explaining creativity: The science of human innovation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1991). Higher levels of agency for children in knowledge building: A challenge for the design of new knowledge media. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 1(1), 37-68. Schlager, M., & Fusco, J. (2003). Teacher professional development, technology, and communities of practice: Are we putting the cart before the horse? Information Society, 19(3), 203–220. Schofield, J.W. (1995). Computers and classroom culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York, NY: Basic Books. Schwartz, D.L., & Okita, S. (2009). The productive agency in learning by teaching. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved December 30, 2011, from http://aalab.stanford.edu/papers/Productive_Agency_in_Learning_by_Teaching.pdf Seiter, E. (2008). Practicing at home: Computers, pianos, and cultural capital. In T. McPherson (Ed.), Digital youth, innovation, and the unexpected (pp. 27-52). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. doi:10.1162/dmal.9780262633598.027 Selwyn, N. (2009). The digital native – myth and reality. New Information Perspectives, 61(4), 364-379. Sewell, W.H. (1992). A theory of structure: Duality, agency, and transformation. American Journal of Sociology, 98(1), 1-29. Shirky, C. (2003). Power laws, weblogs, and inequality. Retrieved September 5, 2012, from http://www.shirky.com/writings/powerlaw_weblog.html Skinner, B.F. (1986). Programmed instruction revisited. The Phi Delta Kappan, 68(2), 103-110. Stake, R.E. (2010). Qualitative research: Studying how things work. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Tapscott, D. (2008). Grown up digital: How the net generation is changing your world. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. The Design-Based Research Collective. (2003). Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 5-8. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2009). Learning for the 21st century. Retrieved March 1, 2012, from http://www.p21.org/storage/images/stories/otherdocs/p21up_Report.pdf Thomas, D., & Brown, J.S. (2011). A new culture of learning: Cultivating the imagination for a world of constant change. CreateSpace. Tough, P. (2012). *How children succeed: Grit, curiosity, and the hidden power of character*. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Turkle, S., & Papert, S. (1990). Epistemological pluralism: Styles and voices within the computer culture. *Signs*, 16(1), 128–157. Ullman, E. (August 8, 2012) Errant code? It’s not just a bug. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/09/opinion/after-knight-capital-new-code-for-trades.html U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. (2010). *Transforming American education: Learning powered by technology*. Retrieved June 10, 2012, from http://www.ed.gov/sites/default/files/netp2010-execsumm.pdf Van Maanen, J. (1988). *Tales of the field: On writing ethnography*. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Vaughan, N. (2004). Technology in support of faculty learning communities. *New Directions for Teaching and Learning*, 97, 101–109. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). *Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes* (14th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wenger, E. (1998). *Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., and Snyder, W.M. (2002). *Cultivating communities of practice*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. WGBH, & ACM. (2009). *New image for computing: Report on market research*. Retrieved March 1, 2012, from http://www.dotdiva.org/downloads/New_Image_Computing_final.pdf Wing, J.M. (2006). Computational thinking. *Communications of the ACM*, 49(3), 33–35. Winnicott, D.W. (1971). *Playing and reality*. London: Tavistock Publications. Wiske, M.S., Perkins, D., & Spicer, D.E. (2006). Piaget goes digital: Negotiating accommodation of practice to principles. In C. Dede (Ed.), *Online professional development for teachers* (pp. 49–67). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Yin, R.K. (2009). *Case study research: Design and methods* (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. References Appendix A: Quantitative Participation Data The following tables provide detailed quantitative information about the participation of the 30 kids who were interviewed, as well as quantitative information about “active” Scratch community participants, for comparison. Active participants are the 75,568 Scratch community members (6.2% of 1,222,242) who have posted four or more Scratch projects and have been active in the online community for at least 28 days. Table A.1, in addition to listing how long accounts had been active at the time of the interview, focuses on technical aspects of participation: the number of projects created, the total number of scripts written (across all projects, average number of scripts per project, maximum number of scripts in any project), and the number of projects that were remixes of others’ work. Table A.2 focuses on social aspects of participation: the number of people that the Scratcher identified as a friend, the number of people who identified the Scratcher as a friend, the number of “love-its” that the Scratcher had given to others, and the number of love-its that the Scratcher had received (total across all projects, average love-its per project, maximum love-its on any project). Table A.3 focuses on social exchanges through text: the number of comments given, the number of comments received (across all projects, average number of comments per project, maximum number of comments on any project), and the number of posts contributed to the Scratch online forums. Table A.1 Summary of account statistics (technical) for the out-of-school interviewees. | Group | Name | Account (years) | Projects | Total Scripts | Avg Scripts Per Project | Max Scripts Per Project | Remixes | |-------|----------|-----------------|----------|---------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|---------| | A | Allison | 0.15 | 2 | 5 | 2.5 | 3 | 0 | | A | Adele | 0.09 | 5 | 44 | 8.8 | 35 | 0 | | A | Robin | 0.07 | 8 | 148 | 18.5 | 59 | 4 | | A | Evan | 0.10 | 6 | 79 | 13.2 | 25 | 0 | | B | Jackson | 0.02 | 20 | 435 | 21.8 | 58 | 8 | | B | Jenson | 1.96 | 21 | 598 | 28.5 | 176 | 1 | | B | Brook | 0.65 | 34 | 270 | 7.9 | 91 | 5 | | B | Connor | 1.00 | 36 | 397 | 11.0 | 50 | 4 | | B | Easton | 1.88 | 70 | 1311 | 18.7 | 121 | 14 | | B | Edgar | 2.76 | 150 | 2648 | 17.7 | 265 | 20 | | B | Brent | 2.43 | 175 | 977 | 5.6 | 46 | 5 | | C | Sebastian| 0.41 | 10 | 213 | 21.3 | 74 | 0 | | C | Aaron | 1.09 | 257 | 4472 | 17.4 | 179 | 44 | | C | Devon | 0.59 | 65 | 957 | 14.7 | 218 | 20 | | C | Barry | 2.97 | 227 | 4387 | 19.3 | 286 | 41 | | C | Matt | 1.04 | 90 | 2530 | 28.1 | 154 | 19 | | C | Lindsey | 1.72 | 150 | 5477 | 36.5 | 669 | 42 | | C | Ashleigh | 0.92 | 64 | 2248 | 35.1 | 607 | 13 | | C | Nevin | 0.29 | 236 | 1554 | 6.6 | 120 | 105 | | C | Fletcher | 1.82 | 147 | 3138 | 21.3 | 265 | 10 | | C | David | 1.88 | 307 | 2666 | 8.7 | 147 | 88 | | D | Chuck | 1.05 | 31 | 1348 | 43.5 | 242 | 1 | | D | Sonia | 1.73 | 54 | 941 | 17.4 | 74 | 6 | | D | Chelsey | 0.94 | 128 | 1577 | 12.3 | 72 | 6 | | D | Lori | 0.27 | 169 | 3127 | 18.5 | 536 | 0 | | D | Bradley | 1.60 | 339 | 3788 | 11.2 | 988 | 77 | | D | Clark | 3.54 | 221 | 9937 | 45.0 | 918 | 55 | | D | Jan | 4.44 | 43 | 947 | 22.0 | 108 | 9 | | D | Eva | 2.15 | 324 | 5990 | 18.5 | 221 | 61 | | D | Lana | 4.77 | 192 | 5095 | 26.5 | 343 | 19 | | A | 50 Percentile | 0.10 | 6 | 62 | 11.0 | 30 | 0 | | B | 50 Percentile | 1.88 | 36 | 598 | 17.7 | 91 | 5 | | C | 50 Percentile | 1.07 | 149 | 2598 | 20.3 | 199 | 31 | | D | 50 Percentile | 1.73 | 169 | 3127 | 18.5 | 242 | 9 | | Pop | 0 Percentile | 0.00 | 4 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | | Pop | 25 Percentile | 0.24 | 6 | 47 | 4.9 | 14 | 0 | | Pop | 50 Percentile | 0.67 | 11 | 133 | 10.4 | 38 | 1 | | Pop | 75 Percentile | 1.59 | 24 | 417 | 22.1 | 101 | 4 | | Pop | 90 Percentile | 2.70 | 59 | 1133 | 43.6 | 208 | 12 | | Pop | 95 Percentile | 3.36 | 104 | 1994 | 64.6 | 308 | 24 | | Pop | 97 Percentile | 3.81 | 151 | 2841 | 84.3 | 402 | 37 | | Pop | 99 Percentile | 4.52 | 286 | 5474 | 141.5 | 704 | 79 | | Pop | 100 Percentile | 5.55 | 6374 | 438998 | 8457.5 | 436214 | 746 | | Pop | Average | 1.08 | 28 | 517 | 20.0 | 120 | 6 | Table A.2 Summary of account statistics (social) for the out-of-school interviewees. | Group | Name | Friends | Friended By | Loveits Given | Total Loveits Received | Avg Loveits Received | Max Loveits Received | |-------|----------|---------|-------------|---------------|------------------------|----------------------|----------------------| | A | Allison | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.5 | 1 | | A | Adele | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | | A | Robin | 1 | 3 | 12 | 3 | 0.4 | 1 | | A | Evan | 2 | 1 | 12 | 3 | 0.5 | 2 | | B | Jackson | 3 | 4 | 7 | 3 | 0.2 | 2 | | B | Jenson | 2 | 3 | 9 | 10 | 0.5 | 2 | | B | Brook | 2 | 2 | 6 | 3 | 0.1 | 1 | | B | Connor | 7 | 12 | 53 | 30 | 0.8 | 4 | | B | Easton | 16 | 14 | 195 | 28 | 0.4 | 9 | | B | Edgar | 0 | 9 | 27 | 31 | 0.2 | 4 | | B | Brent | 4 | 13 | 51 | 30 | 0.2 | 5 | | C | Sebastian| 5 | 11 | 92 | 66 | 6.6 | 21 | | C | Aaron | 26 | 55 | 186 | 129 | 0.5 | 10 | | C | Devon | 354 | 183 | 2586 | 157 | 2.4 | 16 | | C | Barry | 198 | 116 | 229 | 84 | 0.4 | 12 | | C | Matt | 13 | 79 | 106 | 188 | 2.1 | 134 | | C | Lindsey | 5 | 99 | 152 | 174 | 1.2 | 54 | | C | Ashleigh | 25 | 153 | 748 | 594 | 9.3 | 157 | | C | Nevin | 85 | 151 | 604 | 244 | 1.0 | 29 | | C | Fletcher | 78 | 144 | 77 | 271 | 1.8 | 26 | | C | David | 675 | 244 | 1831 | 104 | 0.3 | 16 | | D | Chuck | 72 | 340 | 54 | 398 | 12.8 | 122 | | D | Sonia | 26 | 154 | 257 | 537 | 9.9 | 49 | | D | Chelsey | 11 | 236 | 176 | 277 | 2.2 | 58 | | D | Lori | 4 | 170 | 54 | 519 | 3.1 | 97 | | D | Bradley | 86 | 488 | 326 | 1189 | 3.5 | 303 | | D | Clark | 194 | 562 | 7 | 1074 | 4.9 | 114 | | D | Jan | 125 | 675 | 321 | 2016 | 46.9 | 646 | | D | Eva | 12 | 306 | 330 | 1414 | 4.4 | 699 | | D | Lana | 700 | 1576 | 1457 | 2387 | 12.4 | 232 | | A | 50 Percentile | 1 | 1 | 7 | 2 | 0.4 | 1 | | B | 50 Percentile | 3 | 9 | 27 | 28 | 0.2 | 4 | | C | 50 Percentile | 52 | 130 | 208 | 166 | 1.5 | 24 | | D | 50 Percentile | 72 | 340 | 257 | 1074 | 4.9 | 122 | | Pop | 0 Percentile | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | | Pop | 25 Percentile | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | | Pop | 50 Percentile | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0.1 | 1 | | Pop | 75 Percentile | 6 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 0.4 | 2 | | Pop | 90 Percentile | 23 | 29 | 40 | 32 | 1.0 | 6 | | Pop | 95 Percentile | 54 | 61 | 93 | 80 | 1.8 | 13 | | Pop | 97 Percentile | 89 | 98 | 152 | 142 | 2.6 | 23 | | Pop | 99 Percentile | 223 | 214 | 381 | 400 | 6.2 | 83 | | Pop | 100 Percentile | 4283 | 3200 | 7091 | 18676 | 200.2 | 4086 | | Pop | Average | 13 | 14 | 22 | 24 | 0.5 | 5 | Table A.3 Summary of account statistics (social, through text) for the out-of-school interviewees. | Group | Name | Comments Given | Total Comments Received | Avg Comments Received | Max Comments Received | Forum Posts | |-------|----------|----------------|-------------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-------------| | A | Allison | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | | A | Adele | 0 | 1 | 0.2 | 1 | 0 | | A | Robin | 29 | 5 | 0.6 | 3 | 0 | | A | Evan | 11 | 7 | 1.2 | 5 | 0 | | B | Jackson | 11 | 12 | 0.6 | 2 | 0 | | B | Jenson | 13 | 18 | 0.9 | 4 | 0 | | B | Brook | 39 | 21 | 0.6 | 6 | 3 | | B | Connor | 97 | 32 | 0.9 | 7 | 0 | | B | Easton | 188 | 62 | 0.9 | 8 | 3 | | B | Edgar | 121 | 115 | 0.8 | 9 | 2 | | B | Brent | 77 | 155 | 0.9 | 87 | 2 | | C | Sebastian| 149 | 150 | 15.0 | 62 | 86 | | C | Aaron | 875 | 436 | 1.7 | 26 | 1 | | C | Devon | 1998 | 463 | 7.1 | 51 | 733 | | C | Barry | 1292 | 550 | 2.4 | 72 | 1562 | | C | Matt | 226 | 618 | 6.9 | 419 | 2 | | C | Lindsey | 1093 | 908 | 6.1 | 151 | 156 | | C | Ashleigh | 1803 | 1203 | 18.8 | 232 | 20 | | C | Nevin | 1846 | 1210 | 5.1 | 165 | 187 | | C | Fletcher | 688 | 1302 | 8.9 | 180 | 1367 | | C | David | 3369 | 1605 | 5.2 | 55 | 25 | | D | Chuck | 157 | 1221 | 39.4 | 460 | 18 | | D | Sonia | 642 | 1648 | 30.5 | 183 | 1259 | | D | Chelsey | 1098 | 1660 | 13.0 | 336 | 172 | | D | Lori | 419 | 2286 | 13.5 | 145 | 329 | | D | Bradley | 3077 | 3198 | 9.4 | 423 | 2075 | | D | Clark | 2821 | 3901 | 17.7 | 211 | 5052 | | D | Jan | 797 | 4163 | 96.8 | 882 | 2045 | | D | Eva | 6272 | 5801 | 17.9 | 599 | 38 | | D | Lana | 5655 | 10481 | 54.6 | 466 | 5295 | | A | 50 Percentile | 6 | 3 | 0.4 | 2 | 0 | | B | 50 Percentile | 77 | 32 | 0.9 | 7 | 2 | | C | 50 Percentile | 1193 | 763 | 6.5 | 112 | 121 | | D | 50 Percentile | 1098 | 3198 | 17.9 | 423 | 1259 | | Pop | 0 Percentile | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Pop | 25 Percentile | 0 | 1 | 0.1 | 1 | 0 | | Pop | 50 Percentile | 4 | 6 | 0.5 | 2 | 0 | | Pop | 75 Percentile | 31 | 27 | 1.5 | 7 | 0 | | Pop | 90 Percentile | 164 | 133 | 3.7 | 21 | 2 | | Pop | 95 Percentile | 416 | 340 | 6.5 | 49 | 9 | | Pop | 97 Percentile | 729 | 622 | 9.6 | 89 | 23 | | Pop | 99 Percentile | 1722 | 1753 | 19.9 | 237 | 202 | | Pop | 100 Percentile | 31292 | 55840 | 416 | 5719 | 16468 | | Pop | Average | 95 | 100 | 1.8 | 14 | 15 | Appendix B: Interview Themes The following tables illustrate the quantitative density of the qualitatively thematized interview data. (The interview data was later supplemented with observation and artifact data based on this thematizing.) The themes are sorted by order of appearance in Chapter 4 (Table B.1) and Chapter 5 (Table B.2), respectively. As described in Chapter 3, the themes were initially developed using an emic approach, drawing on language used by kids and teachers to describe their experiences. Then, through an iterative coding/clustering/grouping process, the themes were refined and organized using a narrative structure of goals, challenges to those goals, strategies for overcoming challenges, and processes of validation as an organizing strategy. Table B.1 and Table B.2 illustrate the mapping from the high-level themes that organize Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 to the particular codes from the interviews. The Respondents column reports the number of respondents whose transcripts were coded with this theme (maximum 30), and the Instances column reports the number of coded instances across all interviews. Themes without respondent and instance values were used for organizational purposes, and not uniquely coded. | Theme | Respondents | Instances | |--------------------------------------------|-------------|-----------| | **Enjoying freedom** | | | | what Scratch is - freedom | 23 | 33 | | what Scratch is good for - freedom | 22 | 44 | | learner freedom | 13 | 32 | | freedom of creation | | | | freedom in creating | 19 | 25 | | where they get ideas | | | | getting ideas - other sources of inspiration | 17 | 22 | | getting ideas - from others | 15 | 17 | | getting ideas - from projects | 14 | 17 | | getting ideas - from personal interests | 12 | 27 | | beyond Scratch - hobbies and interests | 21 | 23 | | freedom of process | | | | different from school experiences | | | | school - Scratch experiences | 24 | 54 | | school - technology experiences | 16 | 22 | | school - learning experiences | 6 | 8 | | different from home experiences | | | | home - Scratch experiences | 14 | 16 | | different from other tech experiences | | | | beyond Scratch - other technology use | 15 | 22 | | beyond Scratch - programming | 7 | 8 | | compared to other languages | 13 | 20 | | **Getting stuck** | | | | programming is challenging | 11 | 15 | | getting stuck | 14 | 20 | | **Making progress** | | | | getting better | 26 | 50 | | improving work | 10 | 11 | | individual strategies | | | | learning alone | 14 | 20 | | experimenting | | | | learning by experimenting | 4 | 4 | | experimenting | 14 | 19 | | debugging | 15 | 24 | | testing | 6 | 13 | | Theme | Respondents | Instances | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|-----------| | iterative, incremental planning | 11 | 19 | | planning | 16 | 25 | | organizing | 5 | 5 | | breaking down the problem | 8 | 14 | | optimizing | 2 | 8 | | multiple accounts | 6 | 7 | | compromising | | | | compromising, reframing, approximation | 10 | 13 | | persevering | | | | time, practice | 22 | 33 | | persistence | 10 | 17 | | taking a break | | | | giving up | 15 | 22 | | taking a break | 7 | 9 | | social strategies | | | | what Scratch is - community | 11 | 14 | | learning with others | 7 | 8 | | asking for help | | | | access to expertise at home | 14 | 16 | | learning from others | 18 | 31 | | getting help from other | 19 | 40 | | studying projects | | | | learning from examples | 15 | 29 | | looking at examples | 7 | 9 | | style | 1 | 1 | | remixing work | | | | framings of remixing | | | | customizing | 15 | 18 | | improving | 6 | 6 | | way to learn | 6 | 6 | | building blocks | 5 | 6 | | remixing | | | | learning opportunities | 6 | 6 | | challenge, copying | 17 | 20 | | challenge, credit | 5 | 6 | | Theme | Respondents | Instances | |--------------------------------------------|-------------|-----------| | working with others | | | | collaboration | 25 | 38 | | collaboration, challenges | 9 | 14 | | helping others | | | | helping others | 28 | 52 | | **Finding audience** | | | | motivation | | | | receiving encouragement to create | 12 | 12 | | getting feedback from others to improve work | 10 | 14 | | wanting to engage others | 7 | 9 | | displaying work to a broad audience | 7 | 7 | | interests, shared | 7 | 12 | | friends | 7 | 8 | | challenges | | | | comments - receiving | 17 | 27 | | comments - giving | 16 | 20 | | comments - reciprocity | 4 | 5 | | negative interactions | | | | interests, different or conflicting | 6 | 8 | | meeting people in person | 4 | 7 | | not connecting with people | 3 | 4 | | mean or unproductive comments | 9 | 13 | | inappropriate projects | 4 | 4 | | lying | 3 | 3 | | hacking accounts | 2 | 2 | | popularity | | | | importance of | 14 | 15 | | challenge of attaining | 17 | 25 | | strategies for attaining | 12 | 20 | | downsides | 4 | 4 | | Theme | Respondents | Instances | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|-----------| | **Supporting problem-solvers** | | | | motivation - fostering creativity | 16 | 17 | | motivation - understanding computers, technology | 12 | 16 | | motivation - developing problem-solving abilities | 7 | 10 | | motivation - expressing ideas in an another medium | 7 | 9 | | motivation - meaningful computer activity | 6 | 7 | | motivation - experiencing programming | 5 | 7 | | motivation - developing logic | 5 | 6 | | motivation - experiencing computer science | 2 | 2 | | motivation - broadening participation | 1 | 1 | | motivation - contextualizing abstract knowledge | 1 | 1 | | motivation - learning about learning | 1 | 1 | | **Negotiating open-endedness** | | | | knowing how much structure to provide | | | | building capacity | 11 | 18 | | feeling tension between freedom and structure | 9 | 14 | | students need time | 9 | 12 | | maintaining control | 8 | 10 | | deciding what examples to show | 1 | 2 | | lack of time in a teacher's schedule | 13 | 19 | | working with large numbers of students | 6 | 8 | | fears | | | | not knowing (enough about Scratch) | 14 | 33 | | lacking understanding of what Scratch is | 9 | 13 | | feeling isolated | 7 | 7 | | not being able to keep up with tech | 5 | 5 | | challenges, negotiating different levels of experience | | | | pedagogical challenge | 5 | 7 | | keeping more advanced Scratchers engaged | 6 | 7 | | discourages newer Scratchers | 4 | 4 | | unevenness in group work | 2 | 2 | | challenges, negotiating student attitudes and anxieties | | | | resistance to collaboration or sharing or remixing | 9 | 9 | | frustration with not being able to do what they want | 6 | 6 | | resistance to experimenting | 4 | 5 | | unmotivated learners | 3 | 5 | | Theme | Respondents | Instances | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|-----------| | keeping kids focused on work | 3 | 3 | | disinterest in computers and technology | 2 | 2 | | helping kids who get stuck | | | | inappropriate scoping of project | 6 | 8 | | lack of persistence | 4 | 7 | | uncertainty about what the problem is | 3 | 3 | | on bug in project | 2 | 2 | | not knowing what to work on | 1 | 3 | | **Building culture** | | | | create expectations of learning culture | 3 | 6 | | advice from teachers | | | | try it yourself | | | | try it out yourself | 17 | 29 | | connect with other educators | 14 | 26 | | accumulate pointers to great resources | 13 | 16 | | follow their interests | | | | connect to learner interests | 16 | 29 | | understand that there are multiple approaches | 12 | 13 | | create multiple pathways of participation | 3 | 4 | | develop interesting project ideas and activities | 11 | 13 | | be a guide | | | | provide metacognitive support | | | | help students break it down | 15 | 19 | | be a consultant or coach | 12 | 12 | | help kids develop design strategies | 7 | 13 | | ask questions of students | 7 | 10 | | support reflection | 7 | 7 | | provide more explicit guidance when needed | 11 | 16 | | encourage | | | | encourage kids to explore | 12 | 22 | | encourage kids to solve problems | 11 | 20 | | encourage kids’ autonomy | 9 | 13 | | encourage kids to challenge themselves | 9 | 11 | | encourage kids’ experimenting | 9 | 10 | | encourage kids’ creativity | 7 | 7 | | encourage kids’ fearlessness | 3 | 3 | | Theme | Respondents | Instances | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|-----------| | **teacher attitudes** | | | | be enthusiastic | 7 | 9 | | be sympathetic to kids’ experiences | 3 | 4 | | be a model learner | 4 | 7 | | be curious | 3 | 3 | | **feel OK with not knowing everything** | | | | feel OK about not knowing everything | 11 | 13 | | learn from student expertise | 6 | 6 | | learn w/students by working together | 7 | 7 | | say you do not know | 3 | 3 | | avoid showing everything | 2 | 2 | | **create opportunities to share** | | | | support peer learning | 18 | 30 | | have students work together on projects | 11 | 18 | | recruit student mentors or helpers | 7 | 13 | | have students present their projects | 7 | 9 | | invite an outside audience | | | | other teachers, to inspire | 6 | 8 | | parents and other family | 6 | 7 | | broader community | 5 | 5 | | use the website | 9 | 11 | | have students share with a neighbor | 2 | 3 | | have students do demos | 2 | 2 | | **Legitimizing learning** | | | | setting of Scratch use | 22 | 29 | | challenges, school culture - going against the way school is done | 16 | 20 | | challenges, school culture - performance or perception pressure | 12 | 17 | | challenges, school culture - curricular connections | 4 | 5 | | knowing how to assess | | | | creative work | 10 | 14 | | acknowledging effort, engagement, enjoyment | 6 | 8 | | technical understanding | 5 | 6 | | using the web | | | | inappropriate content or behavior | 5 | 6 | | worrying about copying | 3 | 4 | | keeping things related to Scratch | 1 | 1 | | Theme | Respondents | Instances | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|-----------| | wanting other venues for sharing Scratch projects | 1 | 1 | | lacking instructional support and resources | | | | lack of access, to computers or other tech resources | | | | at school | 10 | 13 | | at home | 2 | 2 | | finding funding | 6 | 8 | | lacking quality instructional resources | 2 | 2 |
<urn:uuid:499bbaab-832f-4d7c-9f70-cbe1ba3f897b>
CC-MAIN-2019-39
http://scratched.gse.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/user_photos/26/brennan_2013_02_dissertation.pdf
2019-09-18T01:37:34Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514573173.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20190918003832-20190918025832-00206.warc.gz
172,301,915
84,399
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.972851
eng_Latn
0.997396
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "mlt_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1114, 2967, 3261, 3498, 3789, 5890, 8066, 8181, 8844, 8931, 9218, 11269, 13306, 15324, 17568, 19572, 21571, 23747, 26057, 28096, 30344, 32317, 34742, 37062, 37639, 37654, 37920, 40285, 42304, 44632, 45539, 46146, 47096, 48806, 50728, 52933, 54478, 56526, 58501, 60674, 62606, 64698, 66680, 68946, 71010, 73262, 75323, 77287, 79101, 79313, 81437, 83628, 85826, 87616, 89918, 91900, 92605, 95281, 97502, 99615, 103403, 106315, 108292, 110600, 111331, 111521, 113687, 115851, 117480, 119506, 121650, 123636, 125455, 127661, 129848, 131735, 133414, 135255, 137056, 138849, 140534, 142422, 143920, 145596, 147318, 148657, 150206, 151763, 153452, 154645, 156828, 158164, 160115, 160563, 161798, 163556, 164631, 165177, 166806, 168186, 170117, 172001, 173874, 175528, 176933, 178407, 179909, 181666, 182686, 184815, 186188, 186578, 188653, 190584, 191448, 193297, 194882, 196356, 197510, 199052, 199814, 199965, 202136, 204040, 205960, 207943, 209734, 211982, 214051, 215160, 216992, 218839, 220796, 222655, 224652, 226767, 228295, 229990, 231818, 233835, 235641, 237429, 239519, 241420, 243371, 245121, 246957, 248910, 250984, 252880, 254760, 256284, 257315, 259355, 261313, 263251, 265184, 265497, 265848, 267907, 270149, 272870, 274971, 276748, 277914, 280003, 282101, 283843, 285495, 289712, 290729, 291787, 294061, 296148, 298555, 300560, 302637, 304605, 307188, 307821, 308174, 310227, 312264, 314416, 316593, 318669, 320781, 322875, 324935, 327005, 328996, 331194, 333243, 333361, 335286, 337457, 339463, 340155, 340165, 342655, 345238, 347671, 350169, 352405, 354946, 357680, 359986, 362344, 364778, 366791, 366803, 368329, 374341, 380509, 386376, 387621, 390399, 394058, 396393, 400152, 403926, 407685, 408578 ]
[ 1.0234375, 2.734375 ]
3
0
The Positive Development of Youth: Comprehensive Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development Tufts University The first-of-its-kind research defined and measured positive youth development. The result is a model that is driving new thinking and approaches to youth development around the world. For more than a decade, preeminent youth development scholars, Drs. Richard M. Lerner and Jacqueline V. Lerner, and the team at the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development at Tufts University, Medford, MA, partnered with faculty at America’s land-grant universities to conduct this groundbreaking research. The final report, *The Positive Development of Youth: Comprehensive Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development*, reviews the multi-year research findings. **RESEARCH SHOWS 4-H YOUTH EXCEL BEYOND THEIR PEERS** The longitudinal study discovered that the structured out-of-school time learning, leadership experiences, and adult mentoring that young people receive through their participation in 4-H plays a vital role in helping them achieve success. Compared to their peers, the findings show that youth involved in 4-H programs excel in several areas: **Contribution/Civic Engagement** - 4-H’ers are nearly 4 times more likely to make contributions to their communities (Grades 7-12) - 4-H’ers are about 2 times more likely to be civically active (Grades 8-12) **Academic Achievement** - 4-H young people are nearly 2 times more likely to participate in Science, Engineering and Computer Technology programs during out-of-school time (Grades 10 – 12) - 4-H girls are 2 times more likely (Grade 10) and nearly 3 times more likely (Grade 12) to take part in science programs compared to girls in other out-of-school time activities. (Data found in Science, Engineering and Computer Technology (SECT) section of report) **Healthy Living** - 4-H’ers are nearly 2 times more likely to make healthier choices (Grade 7) **4-H’ers Excel** - Nearly **4x more** likely to make contributions to their communities - About **2x more** likely to be civically active - Nearly **2x more** likely to participate in science programs during out-of-school time - **2x more** likely (Grade 10) and nearly **3x more** likely (Grade 12) to take part in science programs compared to girls in other out-of-school time activities - Nearly **2x more** likely to make healthier choices The research is helping families, schools, communities and youth programs develop strategies to support children and adolescents. Effective youth development programs like 4-H are putting the research to work by focusing on three important areas: - Positive and sustained relationships between youth and adults - Activities that build important life skills - Opportunities for youth to use these skills as participants and leaders in valued community activities The study assessed the key characteristics of PYD – competence, confidence, character, connection and caring – followed by the impact of valued community programs, including 4-H. **4-H FORMULA FOR SUCCESS** 4-H PYD INPUTS + OUTCOMES = IMPACT - SKILL-BUILDING - LONG-TERM CARING ADULT - MEANINGFUL LEADERSHIP - COMPETENCE - CONFIDENCE - CONNECTED - CARING - CHARACTER 4-H YOUTH OUTCOMES CONTRIBUTION REDUCED RISK BEHAVIOR **BACKGROUND** The 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development is a longitudinal study that began in 2002 and was repeated annually for eight years, surveying more than 7,000 adolescents from diverse backgrounds across 42 U.S. states. The first wave of research began with fifth graders during the 2002-2003 school year and ended with twelfth graders (Wave eight) in 2010. More recently, the Tufts research team examined all eight waves of data and conducted new and more rigorous analyses in order to produce the latest comprehensive report of findings. The new report, while sometimes diverging from earlier results, provides powerful evidence of the impact of 4-H participation throughout Grades 5-12. “The potential for change is a core strength of all youth – a strength that can be built upon. This strength is cause for optimism for it means we can positively influence the life paths of all children.” Lerner et al., 2013 About 4-H 4-H is a community of seven million young people around the world learning leadership, citizenship, and life skills. National 4-H Council is the private sector, non-profit partner of the Cooperative Extension System and 4-H National Headquarters located at the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) within the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). In the United States, 4-H programs are implemented by the 109 land-grant universities and Cooperative Extension through more than 3,000 local offices serving every county and parish in the country. Outside the United States, 4-H programs operate through independent, country-led organizations in more than 50 countries. Learn more about 4-H at www.4-H.org, find us on Facebook at www.facebook.com/4-H and Twitter at https://twitter.com/4H.
7841dc32-60e6-4a9e-9fe7-5e2e1685f429
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://www.uidaho.edu/-/media/uidaho-responsive/files/extension/4-h/research/4-h-study-of-positive-youth-development-fact-sheet-pdf.pdf?la=en&rev=13b815bddffa48df9cffe244550ca794
2024-11-01T20:17:37+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477027552.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20241101184224-20241101214224-00262.warc.gz
962,762,500
1,117
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.927252
eng_Latn
0.993801
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 176, 2463, 4285, 5108 ]
[ 2.328125 ]
2
1
Electricity Distribution Discussion Questions: 1) How is electricity generated? 2) How does electricity get from the power station to your house? 3) What are some safety issues regarding electricity supply? Michael Faraday was a British chemist and physicist who experimented with electromagnetism and electrochemistry during the 1830s. He found that an electric current could be produced when a copper disc was rotated between the poles of a magnet. His work in the field of electromagnetic induction led to the production of the transformer and the generator. A modern electric motor (or generator) works using the same principle. Metal wire is coiled around a metal rod. The rod spins within a strong magnetic field. Electric current is generated and pushed along within the wires. Power stations produce electric current using the same method. A coiled metal rod spins within a magnetic field inside a turbine. The power to turn the turbine usually comes from steam. (The steam comes from water that is heated by burning coal or by nuclear fission.) Alternative methods of turning the turbine include wind power, and the power of moving water. How Electricity is Supplied to Households. 1. Electricity is produced in generators at the power plant. 2. The current is sent through transformers to increase the voltage so it can travel a long way. 3. The current travels through high voltage wires across the country. 4. The voltage is lowered at substations so that the current can run through smaller wires. 5. The current travels through distribution wires to all areas. 6. The voltage is lowered again so it can be distributed to households. 7. The distribution wires connect to your household wiring. Why don’t birds get electrocuted when they sit on the overhead wires? Why don’t birds get electrocuted when they sit on the overhead wires? You might think the reason is because overhead electric wires are encased in a protective covering, but they are not. Electricity travels along the path of least resistance from areas of high energy to areas of low energy. If the bird were to put one foot on a high voltage wire and one foot on a lower voltage wire then electricity from the high voltage wire would pass through the bird’s body to get to the lower voltage wire. The bird would be electrocuted. The same thing would happen if the bird could place one foot on the wire and one on the ground. Birds can only sit on overhead wires safely if they are not touching anything else. If you touch a live wire electricity will flow from the wire, through your body to get to the ground you are standing on. Never touch exposed electric wires or poke things into a power socket!
<urn:uuid:86f8c8c4-0a64-4d92-9bc3-9f569e412096>
CC-MAIN-2019-22
https://static.studyladder.com/cdn/course/a8/0248baef3fcf/Studyladder+-+Electricity+Distribution+Systems.pdf
2019-05-21T03:33:27Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-22/segments/1558232256215.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20190521022141-20190521044141-00165.warc.gz
640,515,417
533
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997541
eng_Latn
0.999278
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 207, 1151, 1718, 1789, 2506, 2700 ]
[ 3.75 ]
1
0
Managing Risk in a Changing Climate Dr. Sara Via Dept. of Entomology & UME UMD, College Park firstname.lastname@example.org 2016 the hottest year ever Difference from average temperatures 1881-1910 Source: NASA GISS and NOAA NCEI global temperature data averaged and adjusted to early industrial baseline (1881-1910). Data as of January 2017. Source: NASA, Climate Central How do we know this is not part of a natural cycle? 2013 CO₂ concentration: 400 ppm ~9 deg Source: National Climatic Data Center, NOAA More CO₂ in the atmosphere slows heat loss Greenhouse gas molecules absorb infrared waves and reflect some heat back to Earth, slowing heat loss. *more gas molecules, **slower heat loss ***more warming Some energy is radiated back into space as infrared (heat) waves Most solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth and warms it Isn’t more CO₂ good for plants? Yes: Plants use CO₂ in photosynthesis, so more should be good, but No: As CO₂ rises in the atmosphere, - temperature rises, soil moisture decreases - summer droughts more likely - photosynthesis drops b/c stomates close to prevent water loss Net effect of increased CO₂ is negative for plants The “New Normal” -Warmer air -Warmer ocean -More water vapor in air -Higher sea level These cause - Severe weather; more extreme extremes - More variable weather - Warmer winters, earlier springs, hotter summers - More rainfall comes as downpours; flash flooding - Rainy springs & falls (MD) - Dryer summers - More tidal flooding and storm surge What does this look like for Maryland? Temperature Annual Temperature Days over 80 deg Nights over 70 deg Days over 100 deg Nights over 80 deg Average, maximum & minimum temperature increase in all seasons Source: NOAA The New Normal in Maryland Growing Degree Days GDD Difference from 30-year average March 15 - October 31, 2016 CSF Climate Smart Farming A program of Cornell University Powered by ACIS Regional Climate Centers The New Normal in Maryland Growing Degree Days (2016) Cumulative Base 50 Growing Degree Days @ Caroline County, MD - **Year to Date** - **15 Year Average** - **30 Year "Normal"** - **Period of Record** Cumulative GDD Jan 2016 - Nov 2016 Powered by NRCC Effects of Climate Change: Temperature LONGER FROST-FREE SEASON +18 +9 +10 +21 +5 Increase in number of days between last spring freeze and first fall freeze during 1991-2011 relative to 1901-1960. Source: Kenneth Kunkel, Cooperative Institute for Climate and Satellites, North Carolina State University and NOAA NCDC. Spring comes earlier Fewer cold nights for required plant chilling Potential to add additional crop into rotation? Warmer winters = earlier blooming February 2017 the warmest ever, then freeze in March NY apples bloom 8 days earlier than in the 1960s Grapes bloom 6 days earlier Wolfe DW et al. 2005. Internat J Biometeor 49:303-309. Late spring cold snap → freezing, fruit loss Plant new orchards on hilltops, plant longer season varieties? Effects of warmer winters, earlier springs Pest insects - better overwinter survival - earlier appearance - more generations/yr - range expansion - be vigilant & scout!! - expect the unexpected Insect control Insectary plants attract beneficials, increase their diversity Provide natural enemies nectar, pollen & protection from predators Bachelor buttons in celery, beneficials reduce aphids Mustard Sunflower Buckwheat Carrot Alfalfa Marigold French bean Maize/Corn Cowpea Spearmint Mismatched timing in species interactions Species respond differently to warming—impacts biocontrol: Host adds a generation, parasitoid doesn’t Corn earworm in New Zealand Effects of warmer winters, earlier springs Weeds - weeds & invasives doing well under climate change - better overwinter survival - earlier appearance & flowering - expect the unexpected - mulch! cover crops between rows plant into dead cover crops Credit: Texas A&M Summer heat stress: reduced pollination, sun scald Sweet Corn Pollination Problems July 27, 2012 in Uncategorized, Weekly Crop Update Gordon Johnson, Extension Vegetable & Fruit Specialist; email@example.com • Leaf Scald in Sweet Corn Again in 2012 • July 12, 2012 Gordon Johnson, Extension Vegetable & Fruit Specialist; firstname.lastname@example.org This apple tree was affected by sunscald many years ago that later served as an entry for a canker disease. ozone damage! Heat stress reduces pollination, fruit set Tomato Pollination and Excessive Heat July 12, 2012 Jerry Brust, IPM Vegetable Specialist, University of Maryland; email@example.com Tomato plants 30% shade, July 2012 Yellow shoulders in tomatoes Peppers drop flowers and fruit when Day temp > 90 Nite temp > 75 Source: TAMU Credit: Jerry Brust UME Heat stress in corn & soybeans **Corn:** - Very hot days, leaf rolling - 1% yield loss/12 hrs but - 12% loss/12 hrs during silking - Duration of heat → more loss - Pollination fails in hot weather - Kernels abort **Soybeans:** - Temperature > 90° reduces pod formation http://www.cornandsoybeandigest.com/corn/high-temperature-effects-corn-soybeans Crop yields decline under high temperatures National Climate Assessment 2014 Corn Change in Yield (tons per hectare) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Change in maximum temperature (°F) relative to 1980-2007 average Soybean Change in Yield (tons per hectare) -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Change in maximum temperature (°F) relative to 1980-2007 average Yield in wheat reduced by drought Control Drought Adapting to increased temperature - Plant earlier in spring, later in summer - Stagger planting dates to hedge bets - Mulch (plant material, white or reflective) - Try heat tolerant varieties - Build shade Reflective mulch, shade cloth saves GA peppers (Carlos Diaz-Perez UGA) Breeding heat-tolerant varieties with viable pollen at high temperatures Tomatoes Heat tolerant Non-tolerant NORMAL Bita et al. 2011. BMC Genomics 12:384. Breeding heat-tolerant varieties with viable pollen at high temperatures Tomatoes Heat tolerant Non-tolerant NORMAL Heat tolerant Non-tolerant HOT Bita et al. 2011. BMC Genomics 12:384. Adapting to increased temperature Add evaporative cooling? 2104: Oakmoor Orchard, BC lost 40% Granny Smith yield to sun scald. Saved $47,000/yr with overhead evaporative cooling http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/services-and-advice/business/energy-and-materials-efficiency-for-business/case-studies/agriculture-case-studies/oakmoor-orchards Heat stress on dairy cows - reduced fertility, milk production, death | Temp °F | 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 | 45 | 50 | 55 | 60 | 65 | 70 | 75 | 80 | 85 | 90 | |---------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| | 72 | 64 | 65 | 65 | 65 | 66 | 66 | 67 | 67 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 71 | | 74 | 65 | 66 | 66 | 67 | 67 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 74 | | 76 | 66 | 67 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 75 | | 78 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | | 80 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 78 | 79 | | 82 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 80 | | 84 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | | 86 | 71 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 84 | | 88 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 86 | 86 | | 90 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 86 | 87 | 88 | | 92 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | | 94 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 86 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 92 | | 96 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 94 | | 98 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 80 | 80 | 82 | 83 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 94 | 95 | 98 | | 100 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 90 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 94 | 95 | 96 | 98 | | 102 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 90 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 94 | 95 | 96 | 97 | 100 | | 104 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 93 | 94 | 95 | 96 | 98 | 99 | 100 | 101 | | 106 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 84 | 85 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 93 | 94 | 95 | 97 | 98 | 99 | 101 | 102 | 103 | | 108 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 85 | 86 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 92 | 93 | 94 | 96 | 97 | 98 | 100 | 101 | 103 | 104 | 105 | | 110 | 81 | 83 | 84 | 86 | 87 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 93 | 95 | 96 | 97 | 99 | 100 | 101 | 103 | 104 | 106 | 107 | **Stress threshold for lactating cows.** Respiration rate may exceed 60 BPM. Milk loses begin ~ 2.5 lbs/cow/day. Reproductive loses are detectable. **Caution for people depending on age, exposure and activity.** People may not feel heat stress until 80°F and 40% humidity. **Mild to moderate stress for lactating cows.** Respiration rates may exceed 75 BPM. Milk loses ~ 6 lbs/cow/day. Rectal temperatures will exceed 104°F. **Extreme Caution for people depending on age, exposure and activity.** **Moderate to severe stress for lactating cows.** Respiration rate exceeds 85 BPM. Milk loses ~ 8.7 lbs/cow/day. Rectal temperature exceeds 106°F. **Danger for people depending on age, exposure and activity.** **Severe stress!** Life threatening conditions for lactating cows. Respiration rates are 120-140 BPM. Rectal temperatures may exceed 106°F. Adaptation to high temperatures - dairy - provide shade - ensure water availability and that cows drink - give portion of feed in evening - increase ventilation w/ fans - evaporative cooling Air temperature = 94°F Relative humidity=90% Cow is not under shade radiation gain from sun evaporation by sweating reduced conduction & convection reduced Heat Production > Net Heat Loss Body temperature rises evaporation by respiration reduced -102.4°F THE COST OF HEAT STRESS IN BROILERS AND LAYERS Increased mortalities - Sudden death syndrome Lost fertility - In males (up to 30%) and females Productivity Losses - Depressed appetite - F.C.R. down by 10%-12% - Slower growth up to 25% less protein and fat - Lower egg yield (8%-10) fewer lighter eggs eg - 4g @ 30°C environmental temperature - Decline in shell quality - more downgrading - Inferior carcass quality - overfat downgrades - Indigestibility - Loss of acid/base balance Increase in Metabolic Disorders - Incidence of Ascites increases - Bone Metabolism is disturbed, eg Tibial dyschondroplasia - Bigger output of urine - Wet droppings Lower Resistance to Disease Caused by suppression of the immune system (lowered serum immunoglobulin) - Spread of intercurrent diseases of respiratory and digestive systems - Mal absorption syndrome Add Capital Investment To provide - Shade - Fans - Cooler pads - Water sprinklers https://www.heatstress.info/Heatstressincattlepoultryandswine/costofheatstressinlayersandbroilers/tabid/2132/Default.aspx Adaptation to high temperatures - poultry - increase ventilation in poultry houses - insulate poultry houses - spray foam - evaporative cooling - ensure adequate water, flavor water? https://www.poultryventilation.com/ Recirculating Evaporative Cooling System http://www.thepoultrysite.com/articles/386/basic-introduction-to-broiler-housing-environmental-control/ Table 1. Potential corn evapotranspiration and yield loss per stress day during various stages of growth. | Growth Stage | Evapotranspiration Inches per day | Estimated Yield Loss Percent Per Day (Avg) | |--------------|----------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | V12-V16 | .21 | 3.0 | | V16-Tasseling| .33 | 3.2 | | Pollination (R1) | .33 | 6.8 | | Blister (R2) | .33 | 4.2 | | Milk (R3) | .26 | 4.2 | | Dough (R4) | .26 | 4.0 | | Dent (R5) | .26 | 3.0 | | Maturity (R6) | .23 | 0 | Source: Rhoads and Bennett (1990) and Shaw (1988) Use online tools to stay aware U.S. Drought Monitor March 21, 2017 (Released Thursday, Mar. 23, 2017) Valid 8 a.m. EDT Drought Impact Types: - Delineates dominant impacts - S = Short-Term, typically less than 6 months (e.g. agriculture, grasslands) - L = Long-Term, typically greater than 6 months (e.g. hydrology, ecology) Intensity: - D0 Abnormally Dry - D1 Moderate Drought - D2 Severe Drought - D3 Extreme Drought - D4 Exceptional Drought The Drought Monitor focuses on broad-scale conditions. Local conditions may vary. See accompanying text summary for forecast statements. Author: Eric Luebehusen U.S. Department of Agriculture http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/ Adapting to Drought - Add irrigation, build storage capacity - Increase soil health - more organic matter holds water - boost soil microbes that help plants fight drought - Plant into mulched cover crops - Plant earlier, stagger planting dates - Use drought-resistant varieties Establishing cover crop for next year - Plant cover crops into corn or soybeans - Better establishment - Provides more N and biomass for mulch in next crop - Improves soil health, controls weeds - Cornell Cover Crop Decision Tool http://blogs.cornell.edu/whatscroppingup/2016/03/15/cover-crop-interseeding-research-in-new-york/ Drought: Plant different crops/varieties - Useful for UME to compile lists - heat tolerant crops? - drought tolerant crops? Example: Instead of corn, try sorghum Drought Tolerant Crops These 9 plants can handle a dryer soil, so utilize them in arid climates. Cantaloupe Garbanzo Beans Chard Sugar Baby Watermelon Purslane Black Eyed Peas Jalapeño Peppers Okra Pole Beans facebook.com/homesteady Irrigation: Use water wisely - Minimize evaporation - Use online tool to time irrigation: Cornell Climate-Smart Farming Water Deficit Calculator Cereals, Centerville MD 2016 season Water Deficit (in/ft soil) Mar 2016 - Nov 2016 No deficit for plant Deficit, no plant stress Deficit, plant stress likely Deficit, severe plant stress Field Capacity Plant Stress Begins Wilting Danger Exists 10/31 Obs: Precipitation: 5” more/year than in 1900 (Deviations from the 1901-1960 Average) What does this look like for Maryland? Rainfall Observed number of rains > 4” 5-year intervals Observed rainfall in Spring Summer Fall Source: NOAA More rain in spring and fall → flash floods - Delay planting, cause soil compaction - Wash out or contaminate fields, - Stunt or kill plants, - Increase disease, - Cause problems at harvest Spring/Fall flooding: adaptation strategies - Improve drainage - Credit: Yoncong Li, UFL - Improve soil health for better infiltration - Prevent erosion—use cover crops - Graft onto flood-resistant rootstocks - Stagger planting dates - Diversify crops - Protect manure storage Beware: Floods can compromise food safety Spring/Fall flooding: adaptation strategies Breed flood tolerant crops Ohio State Both classical plant breeding & GMO w/ flood tolerance gene(s) Discovery of flood tolerant corn in South America Cross w/ US inbreds → 50% flood tolerant Martin Sachs, ARS,UIUC Or, try something totally different Flood and salt tolerant beach mallow for poultry bedding – U Delaware http://www1.udel.edu/udaily/2014/mar/mallow-chicken-bedding-031914 Flooding: adaptation strategies Replant?? Use Decision Support Tools But beware compaction! http://farmdoc.illinois.edu/pubs/FASTtool_special_PDM.asp Flooding: adaptation strategies Breed flood tolerant crops Ohio State Both classical plant breeding & GMO w/ flood tolerance gene(s) Discovery of flood tolerant corn in South America Cross w/ US inbreds → 50% flood tolerant Martin Sachs, ARS,UIUC Or, try something totally different Flood and salt tolerant beach mallow for poultry bedding – U Delaware http://www1.udel.edu/udaily/2014/mar/mallow-chicken-bedding-031914 Salination: sea level rise and storm surge **Salination -- storm surge** may possibly be leached out with irrigation **Salination -- rising water table** fewer options - salt tolerant variety - salt tolerant crop Variety trials reveal genetic variation in salt tolerance in wheat Gordon Johnson, U Del New opportunities? California then and now If Maryland could ramp up fruit & vegetable production, could gain some of California’s lost market share. ## Effects of climate change on fruit and vegetable crops | Climate Impacts | Adaptive solutions | |-----------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Flooding** | * increase drainage | | * wash out or delay planting | * raise beds? | | * damage roots | * plant high value or flood intolerant crops out of flood plain | | * contaminate soil | * use cover crops to control erosion | | * contaminate crop | * increase organic content of soil | | * cause delayed harvest/ spoilage | | | * increase disease | | | * cause erosion | | | * cause soil compaction | | | **Drought** | * drip irrigation (on timer or computerized) | | * stunt growth | * use online tool to plan irrigation | | * prevent flowering or fruit set | * mulch | | * increases variability of yields | * increase organic content of soil | | * reduces high-value crop quality | * use cover crops and mulch in spring | | * affect pollinators? | * enhance water capture and storage | | * affect soil (micro)biota? | * explore drought tolerant varieties | | i.e., mycorrhizae, Rhizobium, nematodes | | | **High daytime temperatures** | * change or stagger planting dates | | * at critical times, can affect flowering, pollination | * explore heat tolerant varieties | | * reduces yield | * explore new crops | | * exacerbates drought | * diversify varieties or crops to reduce risk? | | * warmer winters, risk of freeze damage in perennials | * plant new orchards on hills to avoid late freezes? | | * increased ozone damage | | | ??effects of duration of heat?? | | For copy of this handout, email me: firstname.lastname@example.org Let me know if you would like to work on an adaptation plan specifically for your farm; email@example.com Announcing the NEW University of Maryland Extension Team Climate Science for Farmers The University of Maryland Extension is proud to announce the formation of the new Climate Science for Farmers Extension team. The team will be headed by Dr. Sara Via, Professor, Department of Entomology, Interested in climate smart farming? Email me: firstname.lastname@example.org
f396fd48-c411-48d1-bbb4-26c44b0d7edb
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://extension.umd.edu/extension.umd.edu/sites/extension.umd.edu/files/2021-04/Webinar%20_%20Managing%20risk%20in%20a%20changing%20climate.pdf
2024-11-11T20:55:40+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477028239.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20241111190758-20241111220758-00251.warc.gz
225,664,946
5,915
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.900406
eng_Latn
0.962298
[ "pam_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 106, 359, 498, 829, 1158, 1508, 1736, 1950, 2210, 2653, 2985, 3182, 3487, 3662, 3936, 4400, 4746, 5103, 5510, 5790, 5951, 6146, 6495, 10193, 10650, 11708, 12076, 13191, 13865, 14149, 14481, 14887, 15296, 15379, 15535, 15727, 16052, 16494, 16649, 17079, 17386, 17539, 21306, 21408, 21762 ]
[ 3.09375, 2.203125 ]
1
0
Fire in Florida Activity Book Thanks to Fire in Florida’s Ecosystems Student’s Workbook for supplemental materials and illustrations. Parts of a Wildland Fire 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. **Point of Origin**: Where the fire started. 2. **Head of a fire**: The side of the fire having the fastest rate of spread. 3. **Flank of a fire**: The part of a fire’s perimeter that is roughly parallel to the main direction of spread. 4. **Rear of a fire**: That portion of a fire edge opposite the head. Slowest spreading portion of a fire edge. 5. **Fire perimeter**: The entire outer edge or boundary of a fire. 6. **Fingers of a fire**: The long narrow extensions of a fire projecting from the main body. 7. **Pockets of a fire**: Unburned indentations in the fire edge formed by fingers or slow burning areas. 8. **Island**: Area of unburned fuel inside the fire perimeter. 9. **Spot fire**: Fire ignited outside the perimeter of the main fire by a firebrand. Facts about Fire Florida Statutes, section 590.125(3)4 “The use of prescribed burning for management of public lands is essential to maintain the specific resources values for which these lands were acquired.” Wildfires are started with the help of lightning while some are caused by people. Florida is the lightning capital of the USA! Prescribed Fires are planned to mimic natural processes. Fire has a History in Florida! A long time ago Native Americans observed their surroundings with regard to their individual needs. When they noticed that deer and elk preferred grazing in areas that recently burned, they began to burn similar areas to attract game. They also noticed that some plants produced more fruit, and that certain insect pest populations were temporarily reduced after fire. Can You Escape the Blaze Through the Maze? Plants and animals that thrive in fire environments have formed adaptive traits or abilities that allow them to escape or to reproduce and regenerate after a fire has passed. An adaptive trait is a behavior, physical feature or other characteristic that helps a plant or animal survive and make the most of its habitat. Plants have a harder time than animals when it comes to escaping a fire so they’ve adapted other methods for survival of fires. The bark of the slash pine is thicker than many other pine trees. This adaptation protects them from the heat of most fires. Small woody plants and shrubs normally have thin bark. These plants use the soil as an insulating layer to protect themselves. Individual plants resist being killed in fires by producing new growth (shoots) from underground organs called roots. Animals know that they need to escape a fire to survive it so different animal species have developed different methods or strategies for escaping fires. Animals such as deer, bear and fox are all accomplished runners and use this skill to escape from flames. Other animals not so adapted for running sometimes hide in underground burrows. Rats, mice, moles, snakes, lizards, frogs and Gopher Tortoises move deeper underground to wait for the fire to pass before they can safely return to the forest. Birds like the Florida Scrub Jay can tell when there’s a fire and fly away to safety to wait for it to pass. All living things have some traits that are adaptations to disturbances and constraints of their environment. Leave it to the Professionals to conduct Prescribed Fires! It is important to know that fires are dangerous. Fire safety must be carefully observed to prevent unwanted fire. Only trained professionals should decide when and where a prescribed fire is started or permitted to burn. Before a prescribed fire is ignited or allowed to burn, weather conditions are assessed for likelihood of the fire burning out-of-control. Many conditions can affect the size and intensity of a fire. Winds, soil type, fuel moisture, and the amount of fuel are a few factors which influence fire behavior. These factors are carefully weighed before decisions are made to conduct a prescribed fire or not. Color in and name all of the members of the ecosystem you see here! Fire Triangle Each year Florida averages about 5,000 wildfires. Before a fire can start, three things must be present: oxygen, fuel, and heat. Oxygen: There must be approximately 16 percent oxygen for a fire to start. The air we breathe has 21 percent oxygen. Fuel: Any living or dead material that will burn. Some fuels such as dead plants, dry leaves, pine needles and grass are more likely to burn than moist green plants. This is because they contain less moisture or water than living plants. However, this is not always the case. In Florida many plants contain oleoresins that burn easily even when the plant is green. Heat: Can be supplied by lightning striking a tree or the ground. People can also provide heat by using matches or carelessly starting or leaving a campfire. Wildfires start small and can only grow and spread if favorable fuels, heat, and oxygen are available. By removing fuels from the path of an advancing fire, firefighters can slow a fire’s growth. Firefighters can also slow a fire’s growth by using water, which robs fire of its heat. Fire in Florida's Ecosystem Crossword Across: 1. A type of fire that occurs naturally and is beneficial to the ecosystem (6) 2. The process by which plants grow back after a fire (7) 3. The area where fires are most likely to start (5) 4. The time of year when fires are most common (8) 5. The type of fire that is caused by human activity (9) 6. The area where fires are least likely to start (10) 7. The type of fire that is caused by lightning (11) Down: 1. The type of fire that is caused by natural events (6) 2. The area where fires are most likely to start (7) 3. The process by which plants grow back after a fire (8) 4. The time of year when fires are most common (9) 5. The type of fire that is caused by human activity (10) 6. The area where fires are least likely to start (11) Across 5. An alteration in structure or function of a plant or animal that aids it in changing over time in order to be better suited to live in its environment. 8. Unburned indentations in the fire’s edge formed by fingers or slow burning areas. 10. Slowest spreading portion of a fire’s edge. 11. A self-sustaining chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of light and heat. Down 1. Fire ignited outside the perimeter of the main fire. 2. The part of a fire’s perimeter that is roughly parallel to the main direction of spread. 3. The side of the fire having the fastest rate of spread. 4. The long narrow extensions of a fire projecting from the main body. 6. An area in which all living organisms, work together and influence each other. 7. Area of unburned fuel inside the fire perimeter. 8. The entire outer edge or boundary of a fire. 9. Where the fire started. Animals of Florida ALLIGATOR, BEAR, CARDINAL, DEER, FOX, FROG, GOPHER TORTOISE, HAWK, HUMMING BIRD, LIZARD, MOUSE, OPOSSUM, RABBIT, SCRUB JAY, SNAKE, SPARROW, TURKEY, VULTURE, WOODPECKER Questions 1. Fire occurs naturally in the ecosystem? Circle one. True or False 2. Explain what “prescribed fire” means. 3. Explain the difference between a wildfire and a prescribed fire? 4. What does adaptation mean? 5. Circle the example of an adaptation that helps plants survive fires. Fuzzy buds Black leaves Thick bark Wide branches 6. Name one adaptation some animals have to survive a fire? Adaptation- An alteration in structure or function of a plant or animal that aids it in changing over successive generations in order to be better suited to live in its environment. Biological Diversity- The total variety of all living organisms in a given area. Ecosystem- An area in which energy, nutrients, water and other biological and geological influences, including all living organisms, work together and influence each other. Fire- A self-sustaining chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of light and heat. Prescribed Fire- The planned application of fire to natural fuels, grasslands and understory vegetation to achieve specific objectives with the intent to confine the fire to a predetermined area. Wildfire- Any fire occurring on wildlands that is not meeting management objectives and thus merits a suppression response. Wildland fire- All fires that burn in wildlands, including wildfires and prescribed fires.
0031d60a-9547-4616-84a5-3921f550aca0
CC-MAIN-2021-04
https://friendsofjdsp.org/resources/Documents/Fire_%20in_Florida_Activity_Book%20(002).pdf
2021-01-26T20:37:24+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610704803737.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20210126202017-20210126232017-00478.warc.gz
342,949,091
1,832
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.927728
eng_Latn
0.998542
[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "fin_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 134, 188, 967, 1366, 1812, 2632, 3353, 4042, 4111, 4740, 5184, 5977, 6858, 7047, 7469, 8417 ]
[ 4.46875 ]
1
0
MODULE No 6. Home & Community Gardens Permaculture Resource Book Module 6. Home & Community Gardens Notes... Planting a range of vegetables, fruits and grains is important for providing family nutritional needs, especially for children. Good nutrition is especially important for pregnant and breast feeding women. Other family members need to help make sure that pregnant and breast feeding women are getting enough of the best foods possible. **Some benefits of good nutrition include:** - Reduced health problems - Faster recovery after sickness - Children grow better - A longer lifetime - More energy for activities - Increased ability to learn and concentrate. This is very important for children who are still in school. Better food will create smarter people We need to eat a variety of foods to be healthy. Every day we should eat vegetables, fruits, eggs, and meat, as well as beans and grains. A wide range of healthy vegetables grown at home will provide many vitamins, minerals, proteins, energy and oils. **Sources of Nutrition from the Home Garden** **Vitamin A:** Good for eyes, examples are taro leaves, sweet potato leaves, cassava leaves, pumpkin leaves, cabbage, green vegetables, carrot, mango, banana, papaya. **Vitamin C:** Good for body health, examples are papaya, citrus, tomato, pineapple, guava, tamarind. **Protein:** Strong bones and muscles, examples are peanut, beans, peas, yam, watermelon seeds, banana tuber, moringa seeds, candle nut. **Carbohydrates:** For energy, examples are rice, corn, sweet potato, cassava, taro, potato, avocado, coconut (old), jack fruit, bread fruit, sugarcane. **Fats and oils:** Good for skin and hair, examples are avocado, milk, chocolate, peanut, candle nut, cashew nut, soybean. **Iron:** Good for growth, strength and stamina, examples are mustard, spinach, green vegetables, banana tuber, cassava, sweet potato leaves, dried beans. Other vegetables such as eggplant, squash, pumpkin, cucumber, onions and radish, and fruits such as watermelons, bananas, apples and much more, also provide a lot of vitamins and minerals. Some types of trees provide very nutritional leaves, roots, sap, trunk and bark. Meat, fish and egg provide a lot of protein, iron and oils. If possible, eat these every day. Dried beans, tempeh and tofu are also high in protein. Mushrooms are very nutritional, good for health, and provide protein as well as many vitamins and minerals. Mushrooms can be collected in the wild, or by using manure, liquid compost and mulch they can be grown in the garden and vegetable plots. This is because mushroom spores (or seeds) live in and are spread by manure, compost and mulch. Spices and herbs, such as chili, ginger, garlic, pepper, coriander and basil are also important to eat for the bodies health and are good to use to fight some sicknesses. Traditional medicinal plants, like aloe vera, *kumis kucing*, *samirota* and *daun sembung*, can also be planted near the house, in between flowers and vegetables. All plants the family needs can be planted ourselves, which means we are fulfilling the families needs at a low cost. Excess produce can be sold or exchanged. When cooking, remember that many vitamins are lost if vegetables are cooked for too long or if water used to boil vegetables is thrown out. **nutritional foods are needed every day** Designing a Garden There is a lot of knowledge about agriculture in Indonesia now, which is still growing and developing. Improving food production depends on the knowledge willing to be shared between communities. This module uses a lot of this knowledge and adds to it new techniques, which use local materials to fit local needs. Garden Location Sunlight Plants need sunlight to grow. Plants use sunlight and change it into food through a process called photosynthesis. Almost all plants prefer to receive full sunlight. However, some plants like spinach, beans, cabbage, cucumbers, lettuce, potato, pumpkin and other green leaf vegetables, can still photosynthesize well under some shade. Don’t plant tall growing and thick leaved trees, like mango and jack fruit, near vegetable plots. As these trees grow larger, they will block out the sunlight. Some other types of trees can be planted near vegetable plots, such as banana, papaya, and legume trees like acacia and casaurina. Don’t plant too many trees or shade plants, use them only as needed. Water Water is always needed for planting any type of vegetable, not only during the dry season, but also during the wet season in some areas that are particularly barren. So, gardens should be close to a water source or have good irrigation. Irrigation can be made using bamboo, metal or plastic piping. Storing irrigation water in a tank or drum closer to the garden will help to provide a continuous water supply. All stored water should be covered to prevent mosquitoes from breeding. Covering water will also help to reduce water loss due to evaporation. Use gravity to help make irrigation, this is easier and less expensive. By using gravity, water can be run from higher places to lower places. Hand pumps are also good for bringing water up from underground sources. Any irrigation must be designed in cooperation with other water users. If a community group is formed, tanks, pipes and hand pumps will be cheaper to buy and much easier to maintain. Soil The garden location should have healthy soil, and also be close to the house and a water supply. Almost all soils can be improved quickly with good techniques and by regularly using mulch and compost. Soils that contain a lot of clay or are waterlogged need time and specific techniques to make them productive. Maybe it will be more productive to use these areas for something else, such as for fishponds and water plants. Wind Vegetables, especially seedlings, need to be protected from strong winds, which can dry out the soil and reduce moisture in plants. Living fences and windbreaks will help manage problems associated with strong winds. Other Factors Root Competition Large trees have roots that spread out up to 2/3 the height of the tree and the same width as the tree. These roots will compete with vegetable plants for water and nutrients in the soil. Some trees, such as eucalypt, are especially competitive, so these trees should be either removed from the land or regularly cut back to reduce their roots size. The eucalypt tree also releases an oil (alelopati) from its roots which most other plants don’t like. Thin leaf legumes, like acacia and sesbania, or smaller fruit trees, like banana, papaya and guava, are examples of suitable trees to be planted in the garden. Distance from house Having the house and vegetable garden close together will save time, energy and costs. Because of this, we must first decide which types of plants are going to be planted. Larger plants that don’t need intensive management and are not for every day use can be planted further away from the house. While, plants which do need intensive care and can be used every day should be planted close to the house, such as vegetables and bamboo. Gardens made close to the house will also receive benefits from house wastes. Preparing the Garden Garden Plot Design In conventional agriculture, garden plots are generally made in long rectangular shapes and straight lines. These shapes actually are only suitable in low lands, while in higher areas where the land is sometimes more sloped, these can be very difficult to make. Isn’t it true that we can find no square or rectangular shapes in nature? Only commercially focused people are benefited from using this type of system, because they can count how many trees and plants they have. Try to think and act creatively, remember that beauty and natural patterns are also important. The easiest way to make garden plots is by following natural shapes, follow the natural shape of the land you are working on. Besides the shapes looking more interesting, pest problems will reduce and land use will be maximized. Working against nature increases the possibility of problems. Raised garden plots should always be surrounded by rocks, bamboo, wood or any other material that will: - Hold the soil - Hold more water in the soil - Hold mulch - Allow the soil to build up Good garden plot design will improve soil quality. Improving the quality of the soil will also improve production. Garden plots should be wide enough to hold water, but small enough so that all of the plot can be reached without being trampled. A width of ½ meter to 1 meter is good, or maybe 1½ meters if you have long arms. If the garden plots are often stepped on this will cause soil compaction, which is not good. Garden plots should be designed with main pathways which can be used for bringing in compost and mulch, and for bringing out garden produce, as well as smaller pathways for access and to make garden maintenance easier. SMART IDEAS! During the wet season, the edge of garden pathways can also function as swales to collect and hold water. There are many other garden plot designs which function very well in dry lands and conserve water maximally. Swales For areas with sloped land, swales are a great way to make vegetable gardens. This can even be used for small home gardens. On steep slopes, swales will help prevent erosion, while still holding water and nutrients in the soil. Swales and terraces should be made following the shape of the land, so that if heavy rains come this will not create problems. For vegetable gardens, smaller swales are usually better. On steep slopes, make smaller swales about 1 meter apart. On gentle slopes, make the swales larger, about 2 meters apart. (For more information about how to make swales, see Module 8 – Forests, Tree Crops and Bamboo). Terraces Terraces are similar to swales because they are made following the land contour. Terraces cut into the land, and are usually stone or clay walls designed to hold the land in place. Terraces take more time, energy and cost more to make, but they will make the land very productive. Terraces are used in many countries and there is a lot of information about how to build and use them. SMART IDEAS! • Try to make the edge of the swale or terrace higher using rocks or other materials. This will help hold more mulch, compost and water in the soil. • On steep slopes, make sure that heavy rains won’t cause erosion or land slides. Use legumes to hold the soil in place, as well as for serving many other functions. Fences Fences are very important if you don’t want pigs, goats and other animals eating all of your vegetables! Remember that fences are multifunctional. Using a fence to separate two areas will save time, labour and resources. Planting a living fence will provide many more functions than a normal fence. Some of these functions include acting as a windbreak, trellising for vines, and for providing shade, animal habitats, and erosion control. Living fences can be made from many different types of plants and trees, and can produce a range of products. Some products from living fences could include human food, animal fodder, mulch and compost material, medicines, wood, weaving material, nitrogen fixing legumes and natural insecticides. **Living fence materials:** Leuceana, cactus, sesbania, moringa, tall grasses. **Other fence materials:** Rocks, wood, bamboo, old fishing net, old tin roofing. Small Garden Nurseries A garden nursery is important because plants need more care when they are still young. If seedlings are cared for carefully, the quality and size of vegetables will improve. A small garden nursery can be made from inexpensive and natural materials. You can also make a small movable nursery. A nursery needs to have shade, healthy soil, and protection from animals, pests and disease. Don’t ruin the land around the nursery by digging up soil for use in the nursery. Following are some soil mixtures which are good for use in nurseries: 1. 30% compost / dried manure, 30% soil, 30% sand, 10% ash / rice husks 2. 50% compost / rice husks, 50% soil / sand The soil needs to be combined with other materials. Sand and rice husks provide drainage, which makes root growth easier. Compost and dried manure provide nutrients and hold more water in the soil. If seedlings are being planted directly into the garden, add rice husks, sand, compost and dried manure to help the seedling grow better. Also, build a temporary shade structure for the first 3-4 weeks after planting. You can also just use containers as a nursery substitute. Many old materials can be reused as seedling containers. Garden Additions The garden can also be planted with small fruit trees, perennial plants, legumes and flowers. This will protect the garden from strong winds, provide food for humans and animals, and materials for making mulch and compost. Pollinators and pest predators, like birds, bees, spiders and other insects, will also be attracted into your garden. Increasing pollination of fruits and vegetable flowers will produce more fruits and vegetables per plant. Pest predators will feed on insects and pests, which will reduce the number of pests in your garden. Flowers and herbal plants will add beauty and fragrant smells to the garden, as well as providing many other benefits. Ponds Ponds will provide many benefits in different ways. Ponds can produce fish, vegetables and materials for making mulch and compost. Make one or two ponds near the garden area, the pond will attract frogs, small lizards, insects and birds, which will all function as pest predators in your garden. SMART IDEAS! - Excess water in the wet season can be stored in ponds to prevent water laying stagnant on the ground. - To manage the problem of mosquitoes laying eggs in ponds, add a handful of neem leaves to the pond once every three months. Neem leaves will help stop mosquitoes from breeding, but won’t harm other pond creatures. Frogs, lizards and fish, especially tilapia fish, will feed on mosquito eggs and larvae. BEWARE! Chemicals from pesticides and herbicides can kill many plants and animals living in your pond. Garden Maintenance Providing Plant Food Garden plots should be covered with compost at least 2 weeks before planting. Compost can be lightly turned into the soil if nothing has been planted, or just leave the compost laying on top of the soil. Add more compost 1 or 2 weeks after planting. Make sure adding compost does not disturb the plant roots. After composting, add a thick layer of mulch on top. Liquid compost can be used on garden plots every 1 or 2 weeks, but make sure to dilute with water before use. There are many different ways to fertilize the garden. It is up to you to decide which method works best for your situation. Use EM (Effective Micro-organisms) with other soil improvement techniques to increase results. All of these techniques will improve soil quality, structure and nutrient content so that there is enough food available for plants to use. Watering 1. **Always water early in the morning or in the late afternoon.** Morning and afternoon is better for watering because watering at night could promote fungus growth, while if you water at mid day, water will evaporate before it can soak into the soil, so the water is just being wasted. 2. **Making garden edges** will help to hold more water in the soil. Use rocks, bamboo, wood or other materials to hold the soil in place. 3. **Mulch** will protect the soil from hot sunlight and prevent water evaporation. This will also reduce the soil temperature and the amount of water needed for each garden plot. 4. **Making windbreaks** around garden plots will save a lot of water. Wind dries out plant leaves and makes them lose water, so the plant then uses more water from the soil. Less wind means plants need less water. 5. **Watering with pipes.** There are many used water bottles around and burning these bottles causes pollution. One way of reusing these bottles is by turning them into watering pipes, so that they water deep into the soil. Bamboo can also be used as a pipe, especially for fruit trees. Some benefits of watering deep include: - Water evaporation is reduced because water is released in the soil, not on top of the soil. - Water can be concentrated at the roots of each plant. - Only a small amount of water is used. - Watering pipes can also be used to give liquid compost to plants. 6. **Garden plots which are dug low** need less water than raised plots, especially for very dry areas. Weed and Pest Control Weed Control Weeds are an easily available mulch and compost material, which can also be used as animal fodder. Weeds should be more understood as a benefit rather than a problem. Reuse weeds to help keep the soil healthy. However, removing weeds can take a lot of time, and some types of weeds do create problems if they are not controlled. Some natural methods to control weeds: 1. Continuously mulching the garden. Mulch stops sunlight from reaching the ground surface. When weed seeds grow they need sunlight to photosynthesize and keep growing, when sunlight is blocked by the mulch, almost all weeds will die. Try not to use weeds that contain a lot of seeds in the mulch because these may grow, and this will spread more weeds. If using quick growing grasses in mulch, make sure the grasses have been dried first so that they will not grow in the garden. 2. Use integrated planting systems. Vine plants and ground covering plants, such as pumpkin, beans, sweet potato and potato, can be planted under cassava, corn and other larger crops, to prevent weeds from growing. This same technique can be used for fruit trees or other tree crops. 3. Use weed barriers. Make a weed barrier along the outside of garden plots to stop fast growing weeds. This weed barrier can be: - A space around the edge of garden plots which is always kept free of weeds - A small, thick living fence to prevent fast running grasses from entering the garden. Lemon grass and other smaller grass plants can be used as a living fence weed barrier 4. Every time soil is turned, weed seeds are encouraged and are more likely to grow. Therefore, if you turn the soil less, fewer weeds will grow. 5. Use animals as ‘tractors’. This is a good way to remove weeds and their seeds, while fertilizing the land at the same time. 6. Remove weeds before they produce seed. If weeds are removed when they are still young, the roots of vegetables will not be damaged because of weed removal. SMART IDEAS! Lets create new weeds! These new weeds can be useful plants, which are intentionally planted to grow fast and spread easily. Choose a few types of vegetable, animal fodder or legumes that can function as weeds, it is important that these plants grow easily and quickly. Pest Control Pest control in the garden does not just mean exterminating pests. Controlling pests in a sustainable way involves using a number of techniques, from which the results will not be achievable from just using pesticides. These techniques improve soil quality, encourage pest predators and prevent pests. If pesticides are still needed, use natural pesticides, not chemical pesticides. (For more information about pest management and recipes for making natural pesticides, see Module 9 – Integrated Pest Management). examples of pest predators Planting Methods Seedlings Plants will react to damage or mistreatment, especially when still seedlings. Any damage caused will slow plant growth and reduce the amount of harvest. For good seedling care, give special care to: - Plant small seeds about 2 cm deep and larger seeds 3-4 cm deep. Don’t forget to water seedlings every day - If planting large seeds in containers, soak the seeds first to encourage faster growth - Don’t plant too many seeds in one pot. When the seedlings grow, they will need space for root growth. If planted too close together, plants will compete. Also, many roots will break as they are separated, and this will slow plant growth - Increase the amount of sunlight seedlings receive for as long as one week before being transplanted in the garden. This technique is called ‘hardening seedlings’ and is used to prepare seedlings for stronger sunlight conditions in which they will later grow - When planting seedlings in the garden, make sure they receive enough water - Give special attention to plant roots. Make sure that plant roots are always facing down. Don’t leave plant roots exposed to sunlight and avoid root damage - Don’t plant seedlings at mid day, when the sunlight is at its hottest - Provide shade for about a week after the seedlings have been planted in the garden. A temporary shade structure can be made of anything, from legumes to woven coconut palm, or any other available material Succession Planting Don’t plant all of your garden plots at once. By planting 3 crops of the same vegetable at different times, you will get 3 harvests. Even though harvests will be smaller, they will be extended and provide continuously. Also, less harvest will have to be thrown out or will go rotten. You can also plant different types of vegetable, which can be harvested at different times. Every type of plant needs a different amount of time to be ready for harvesting, so crop harvests will happen at different times. Food Calendar A good technique for planning continuous food production is to make a food calendar. **Step 1:** Make a list of all the vegetables and grains you want to grow. You can add illustrations to the list if you like. **Step 2:** Write down the planting times and harvest times. **Step 3:** Write out each month on the calendar, and list what was planted and what will be harvested each month. **Step 4:** If there are months that do not have harvests, consider: - What else could be planted to be harvested in that month? - Are there different types of plants which can be planted? - Are there other techniques to increase harvest and make harvest times longer? - What types of crops can be harvested continuously throughout the year? | JANUARY | FEBRUARY | MARCH | |---------|----------|-------| | planted | harvested | planted | harvested | planted | harvested | **SMART IDEAS!** If you have enough water supply, planting can be extended through most of the year. Mulch, compost and good garden design will help keep water in the soil for longer. This will extend the production period for crops. Using Different Plant Growth Periods Every plant has a different growth period and will produce harvest at different times. You can use this knowledge to increase production in each garden plot. Lettuce, mustard greens and other green leaf vegetables grow quickly and can be harvested in 1 to 2 months. Eggplant, chilies, cabbages, capsicums, tomatoes and beans need 3 months or more to be ready for harvesting. It is better if these plants are all planted at the same time, so lettuce and green leaf vegetables will be ready for harvesting before the other vegetables have grown large. Afterwards, there is still a following harvest of the other vegetables which take longer to produce. This means we will have more harvest times, with more crop variety. Be careful not to disturb the roots of long term crops when harvesting the short term crop. Using Different Plant Heights Plants that grow to different heights can be planted together to increase production amounts, while at the same time saving space in each garden plot. Make sure that smaller plants are receiving enough sunlight. Taller plants can be used as a place to grow smaller climbing vine plants. Using Different Garden Plot Heights Using different garden plot heights can increase production and planting area. Different heights will allow more root growth and better access to sunlight. Using swales on sloped land will provide more planting area and also provide different micro-climates. The bottom of swales are wet and sometimes full of water in wet season, so water plants, like kangkung and taro, can be planted there. The top area is drier and other crops can be grown there. Crop Rotation Different types of plants use different amounts of nutrients. Crop rotation helps to balance the amount of nutrients in the soil. Plant rotation will also help reduce pest and disease problems. It is better not to plant the same type of vegetable in the same garden plot twice in a row. All beans can be considered as one type of vegetable. Tomato, eggplant, potatoes and capsicum can all be considered one type of vegetable because they are all from the same family (solanaceae). Once every two years, give each garden plot a few months of rest time to recover its stock of nutrients. During this resting time, add compost and mulch to the soil. Crop Integration Growing different crops together will reduce pest and disease problems, because pests will need more time to move from one plant to the next. Also, there will be less of each type of vegetable to be attacked by pests. Therefore, pest problems will be much easier to control. Some plants will benefit from other plants growing near them. For example, garlic helps to repel aphids (a very small pest, that in large numbers can damage tomatoes, capsicum, cabbage, green vegetables and other crops). Aphids don’t like garlic. Therefore, by planting garlic near plants which aphids like, it will help to discourage and reduce the amount of aphids. Planting flowers and herbs in garden plots will attract insects, which will help with pollination, as well as increase the number of pest predators. So, this is also reducing pest problems. Beauty is an important part of every garden. Integrating different types of plants together will make the garden much more beautiful and appealing. SMART IDEAS! - You don’t have to plant vegetables and other crops in straight lines. Different patterns might even increase produce - Place long term crops, which don’t need a lot of maintenance and will only be harvested once, at the back of the garden plot or in places which are difficult to reach. Place short term crops, which need more maintenance, and will be harvested over and over again, in areas of the garden plot which are easily reached. This will make gardening easier, and reduce soil compaction in garden plots Following are some examples of vegetable combination which are commonly used: - Corn, pumpkins and beans - Tomato, garlic and basil. This combination grows well in smaller gardens and will help to protect each other from pests - Chilies and tomato - Sunflowers planted around the garden will help reduce pest problems - Cabbage, tomato and garlic - Carrot, onion, cabbage and lettuce - Cucumber, beans and peas - Sweet potato and taro. This combination works well for soils containing many rocks SMART IDEAS! Make a rock pile about 2 x 2 meters. Use large rocks, at least hand sized, so that there are many gaps in the pile. Around the rock pile dig a shallow pit, about 1 hand length deep. Add sweet potato and taro cuttings when filling in the gaps in the rock pile. Continue to add soil, rocks, and sweet potato and taro cuttings until the pile is 1 meter high or more. The result will be a pit or cave that can be used to grow sweet potato and taro coming outside of the pile. The rocks will protect the plants from mouse pests. Don’t forget to add compost or fertilizers. Use cut banana stalk as mulch. This will help to keep the pit moist. Integration with Animals Plants need animal manure as their food, and animals need plants as well. This common need can go much further by integrating crops and animals together. This integration could be: - Land use being rotated between crops and animals. Animals will clean weeds, loosen the soil and provide fertilizer after crop harvests. - For smaller gardens, chickens and pigs can be kept in movable pens to clean and fertilize the soil. - Vegetables can be grown at the bottom of a fish pond, which is dry during the dry season (if the pond is made of clay, and not cement). - Vegetables can be planted along the edge of fish ponds. (For more information about integrating animals and crops, see Module 11 – Aquaculture and Module 10 – Animal Systems). Integration with Rice Rice paddy borders can function as garden beds. Vine plants, such as beans, luffa, cucumber and pumpkin can be grown along these borders. Rice crop and water plants can be grown together in wet areas. Water flowing through the rice paddies can be stored in ponds where the overflow water falls out. This system will work best on sloped land. This system is just an example, you can create your own new system fitting your needs, as long as the system follows the natural patterns of your land. This module has provided many ideas for growing crops. But, storing and using vegetables well is also important. Good storage means that vegetables last longer and keep more vitamins. Good storage minimize vegetables that must be thrown out and increase selling opportunities. Almost all types of vegetables can be left in the ground until needed. However, for some types of vegetables, good storage is essential. After crops are harvested, clean and throw out all rotten plant parts. Store in a cool place, protected from hot sun and safe from pests or other animals. Three types of traditional containers which are good for storage: 1. Clay pots, for small vegetables and green leaf vegetables. Cover the top of the pot with a damp cloth and use a string or rubber to tie it on. Keep out of the sun. These vegetables will stay fresh for a few more days 2. In Africa, two clay pots are used, a smaller pot inside a larger pot. Damp sand is placed between these pots. Cover and keep out of sunlight. This technique works better than just using 1 pot 3. Coolgardie safe. This is a simple tool made of a large box covered with wire, it uses water and wind to keep vegetables cool. This container can also be used to store meat or other foods. This container is inexpensive and easy to make. (For more information about Coolgardie safes, see Module 12 – Appropriate Technology) If too many vegetables are picked during one harvest, and cannot all be sold or eaten, there are a few methods which can be used to store the vegetables, including: - Solar driers, which can be used to dry vegetables, fish, meat and fruits - Vegetables and fruits can be preserved as sauces, pasta, pickles and jams. Some examples: Sauces made from tomato, chili, tamarind. Pasta made from peanuts, candle nut, cashews. Pickles made from cucumber, onion, capsicum, cabbage, mango, bamboo. Jams can be made from any type of fruit, except watermelon - Some vegetables, such as eggplant, capsicum and tomatoes can be dried and stored in oil Notes... Notes...
b2e5cfae-edf6-49ee-8a71-d0fdd6d12bcb
CC-MAIN-2024-10
https://ngo.csd-i.org/wp-content/uploads/Elective-Courses/304/IDEP-Home-Community-Gardens-Module-6.pdf
2024-02-28T00:39:41+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474688.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227220707-20240228010707-00888.warc.gz
442,020,485
6,517
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.962724
eng_Latn
0.998911
[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 101, 111, 1916, 3361, 5386, 7226, 9196, 10565, 11969, 13685, 15093, 16623, 18905, 20905, 22550, 24214, 26413, 27564, 28850, 30874, 30884, 30894 ]
[ 3.953125, 4 ]
1
0
Is Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki (Btk) harmful? Btk is not harmful to the environment, humans or other wildlife. Btk is a naturally occurring bacteria that affects the digestive systems of caterpillars. Since Btk does not specifically target LDD moths, there are some native caterpillars that will be affected by aerial spray operations. My neighbour’s trees also have LDD moths. How do I inform them? Encouraging your neighbours to manage the LDD moth population will benefit the entire neighbourhood. LDD moths can travel by wind up to one kilometer in distance, taking over urban neighborhoods quite easily. If you notice that your neighbour’s trees also have an infestation, encourage them to manage the situation. If you are unable to connect with your neighbours, the County can attempt to contact them on your behalf. Outbreaks tend to occur every 7-10 years, with the last major outbreak in the County of Brant being estimated around 2008. Aerial Suppliers who can help? The cost of doing an aerial spray can be costly, and if not done properly, it may be less successful than desired. Encouraging your neighbourhood to participate will alleviate the cost for you and would result in a high success rate for everyone. Local companies that aerial spray Btk are: **Zimmer Air Services Inc.** *Bleinhem, ON* T: 519.676.9550 | TF: 1.800.665.5485 F: 519.676.9552 email@example.com zimmerair.com **General Airspray Ltd.** *Lucan, ON* T: 519.227.4091 firstname.lastname@example.org *The County of Brant does not endorse/recommend any specific vendor. All procurement procedures follow the County of Brant Purchasing Policy #45-13.* Questions? For more information please email email@example.com or call 519.44BRANT (519.442.7268) brant.ca/Moths @BrantCommunity The County of Brant’s *Lymantria dispar dispar (LDD) moth program* aims to control outbreak levels of LDD moths in our community. To help manage infestations, the County is implementing a sustainable approach of control. brant.ca/Moths What is a Lymantria dispar dispar (LDD)? (formerly known as a Gypsy Moth) The *Lymantria dispar dispar* (LDD) moth is an invasive species which was introduced to North America in the mid-1800’s and was first detected in Ontario in 1969. The caterpillar stage of this insect feeds on the leaves of both deciduous and coniferous trees, leaving them defoliated. This makes the trees more susceptible to disease and damage from other insects, like tent caterpillars. While most trees can handle a defoliation, several repeated defoliation events can weaken and eventually kill the tree. **Life cycle of the LDD moth** The LDD moth has a one year life cycle, with four distinct stages: 1. **Egg Stage** – The LDD moth overwinters in the egg stage, and eggs are laid in masses of 100 to 1,000 eggs. Each egg mass is tan coloured with a woolly texture, and are found on the sides of trees, the underside of tree branches, and attached to other outdoor structures. 2. **Caterpillar Stage** – The eggs hatch into caterpillars in May and begin feeding on the leaves of the trees where they hatch. The caterpillars feed until mid-summer and usually feed in the tree canopy at night and descend the tree during the day to hide in sheltered areas. 3. **Pupa Stage** – Once the caterpillars complete feeding, they seek a sheltered location and enter the pupa stage by wrapping themselves in a coppery coloured shell that hangs from the underside of tree branches or in crevices in tree bark or on other structures. 4. **Moth** – After approximately 2 weeks, the moth will emerge from the pupa stage. Male moths are tan coloured and can fly, while female moths are white in colour and cannot fly. These moths live for about 2 weeks and do not feed. After mating, the female moth lays an egg mass and dies, completing the life cycle. **What can be done?** There are several ways to control the LDD moth population, which include: **Egg Mass Removal** – Egg masses can be physically removed by scraping them off trees and structures and either burning them or soaking them in soapy water or a bleach mixture. Not feasible for larger outbreaks. **Banding Trees** – Bands of tape or burlap can be wrapped around tree trunks while caterpillars feed, trapping the caterpillars and allowing them to be disposed of. Like egg mass removal, this is not feasible in larger outbreaks. **Traps** – Traps which attract and trap moths using pheromones can be deployed in areas where outbreaks are occurring. Not feasible for larger outbreaks. **Chemical Treatment** – Chemical insecticides can be sprayed on trees with caterpillar infestations. This is feasible for smaller trees or by tree services with high-pressure spray equipment, but is not feasible for larger woodlot areas. Also, chemical insecticides can have health and environmental side effects. **Biological Treatment** – The most common approach to dealing with large infestations is to treat the LDD moth populations with a biological pathogen called *Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki* (Btk) which is a naturally occurring organism found in soil. Btk is consumed by the caterpillars and will kill the caterpillar a few days later. This treatment is most commonly applied from the air using aircraft which spreads the material evenly into the feeding zones. Aerial treatment is the only feasible way to treat this pest in woodland areas or larger urban settings.
d4acb433-3ae6-4eca-8ea4-dd497b3f0a1a
CC-MAIN-2023-50
https://www.brant.ca/en/bylaws-and-animal-services/resources/Documents/LDD-Moth-Brochure---County-of-Brant.pdf
2023-11-28T08:38:22+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679099281.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20231128083443-20231128113443-00820.warc.gz
752,180,865
1,246
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.996562
eng_Latn
0.998071
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2004, 5417 ]
[ 2.890625 ]
1
0
WOMEN’S HEALTH GUIDE HOUSTON Methodist® LEADING MEDICINE THERE’S NO SECRET TO LIVING A LONG AND HEALTHY LIFE. We must take care of ourselves, but oftentimes women are so busy taking care of their careers, homes and families, they neglect their own health. No matter what phase of life you’re in — Generation Y or a baby boomer — the decisions you make now will have long-term effects on your health. This guide is designed to help you meet your health goals and live a longer, healthier life. | Topic | Page | |------------------------------|------| | Health Through the Decades | 3 | | Take Control of Your Health | 9 | | Heart Disease | 11 | | Diabetes | 12 | | Blood Pressure | 14 | | Stress | 15 | | Weight Management | 16 | | Calculating BMI | 17 | | Exercise | 18 | | Healthy Eating | 19 | | Daily Nutritional Guidelines | 19 | | The New Food Label | 23 | | Daily Servings Guide | 24 | This guide is for informational purposes only. Please consult your personal health care provider for medical advice on your specific health needs. houstonmethodist.org Your Health Through the Decades In Your 20s SKIN - Overall skin exam at least once every 3 years by a doctor - Practice self-exam of all moles HEART - Baseline cholesterol panel (total, LDL, HDL and triglyceride) - Blood pressure checked at least once every 2 years BREAST - Clinical breast exam every 3 years GYNECOLOGY - Annual pelvic exam (including STD screening) - Pap test every 3 years EYES, EARS AND TEETH - Annual vision exam - Baseline hearing exam - Semiannual dental visits for exam and cleaning GENERAL - Immunizations: - Annual influenza (flu) vaccination - Meningococcal vaccine (discuss with your health care provider if attending college) - Tetanus once every 10 years NEED TO FIND A DOCTOR? Visit houstonmethodist.org or call 713.790.3333. SKIN - Overall skin exam at least once every 3 years by a doctor - Practice self-exam of all moles HEART - Blood pressure checked at least once every 2 years - Cholesterol panel every 5 years (total, LDL, HDL and triglycerides) or baseline panel if not done yet BREAST - Clinical breast exam every 3 years GYNECOLOGY - Annual pelvic exam (including STD screening) - Pap test every 3 to 5 years EYES, EARS AND TEETH - Vision exam at least twice during this decade - Hearing exam every 10 years - Dental visits for exam and cleaning twice every year GENERAL - Annual influenza (flu) vaccination - Diabetes check (fasting blood glucose) every 3 years - Tetanus once every 10 years - Thyroid test (TSH), starting age 35, then every 5 years NEED TO FIND A DOCTOR? Visit houstonmethodist.org or call 713.790.3333. Your Health Through the Decades In Your 40s SKIN - Overall skin exam at least once every 3 years by a doctor - Practice self-exam of all moles HEART - Blood pressure checked at least once every 2 years - Cholesterol panel (total, LDL, HDL and triglycerides) BREAST - Annual mammogram GYNECOLOGY - Annual pelvic exam - Pap test every 3 to 5 years BONES - Bone density test (talk to your health care provider) EYES, EARS AND TEETH - Vision exam at least every 1 to 2 years - Hearing exam every 10 years - Dental visits for exam and cleaning twice every year GENERAL - Annual influenza (flu) vaccination - Diabetes check (fasting blood glucose) every 3 years - Tetanus shot every 10 years - Thyroid test (TSH) every 5 years NEED TO FIND A DOCTOR? Visit houstonmethodist.org or call 713.790.3333. Your Health Through the Decades In Your 50s SKIN - Overall skin exam at least once every 3 years by a doctor - Practice self-exam of all moles HEART - Blood pressure checked at least once every 2 years - Cholesterol panel (total, LDL, HDL and triglycerides) BREAST - Annual mammogram GYNECOLOGY - Annual pelvic exam - Pap test every 3 to 5 years BONES - Bone density test (talk to your health care provider) COLORECTAL - Annual fecal occult blood test - Colonoscopy every 10 years - Rectal exam every 5 to 10 years EYES, EARS AND TEETH - Vision exam at least every 1 to 2 years - Hearing exam every 3 years - Dental visits for exam and cleaning twice every year GENERAL - Annual influenza (flu) vaccination - Diabetes check (fasting blood glucose) at least every 3 years - Pneumococcal vaccination (one-time vaccination) - Tetanus shot every 10 years - Thyroid test (TSH) every 5 years NEED TO FIND A DOCTOR? Visit houstonmethodist.org or call 713.790.3333. Your Health Through the Decades In Your 60s SKIN - Overall skin exam at least once every 3 years by a doctor - Practice self-exam of all moles HEART - Blood pressure checked at least once every 2 years - Cholesterol panel (total, LDL, HDL and triglycerides) BREAST - Mammogram every 1 to 2 years GYNECOLOGY - Annual pelvic exam (talk to your health care provider) - Pap test every 3 to 5 years BONES - Bone density test (talk to your health care provider) COLORECTAL - Annual fecal occult blood test - Colonoscopy every 10 years - Rectal exam every 5 to 10 years EYES, EARS AND TEETH - Vision exam at least every 1 to 2 years - Hearing exam every 3 years - Dental visits for exam and cleaning twice every year GENERAL - Annual influenza (flu) vaccination - Diabetes check (fasting blood glucose) every 3 years - Herpes zoster (shingles) vaccine - Pneumococcal vaccination (one-time vaccination) - Tetanus shot every 10 years - Thyroid test (TSH) every 5 years NEED TO FIND A DOCTOR? Visit houstonmethodist.org or call 713.790.3333. Your Health Through the Decades **SKIN** - Overall skin exam at least once every 3 years by a doctor - Practice self-exam of all moles **HEART** - Blood pressure checked at least once every 2 years - Cholesterol panel (total, LDL, HDL and triglycerides) **BREAST** - Mammogram every 1 to 2 years **GYNECOLOGY** - Annual internal exam (talk to your health care provider) - Pap test (talk to your health care provider) **BONES** - Bone density test (talk to your health care provider) **COLORECTAL** - Annual fecal occult blood test - Colonoscopy every 10 years - Rectal exam every 5 to 10 years **EYES, EARS AND TEETH** - Vision exam at least every 1 to 2 years - Hearing exam every 3 years - Dental visits for exam and cleaning twice every year **GENERAL** - Annual influenza (flu) vaccination - Diabetes check (fasting blood glucose) every 3 years - Herpes zoster (shingles) vaccine - Pneumococcal vaccination (one-time vaccination) - Tetanus shot every 10 years - Thyroid test (TSH) every 5 years **NEED TO FIND A DOCTOR?** Visit houstonmethodist.org or call 713.790.3333. PARTICIPATE IN YOUR HEALTH Don’t be a silent partner! The single most important way you can prevent errors and stay healthy is to be an active partner with your health care team. Please ask questions and speak up if you have concerns. You should talk to your team about your health and treatment. If you do not understand — please ask. Ask Questions, Seek Answers - Keep a list of all the medicines you take - Make sure you get the results of any test or procedure and bring it with you to your doctor’s appointment - Talk with your doctor and health care team about your options if you need hospital care - Make sure you understand the risks and benefits of your treatment Prepping for an Appointment - Take a few minutes to write down some notes before your appointment to help ensure you get the answers and information you need - Write down any symptoms you have been experiencing and note if they are new or recurring - When did the symptoms begin? - What makes you feel better or worse? - Write down any specific concerns or questions you may have Ask About Prescribed Medication - What is the medication and why is it being prescribed? - How should the medication be taken? What is the dose? And how frequently should it be taken? - Are there any side effects? - How long will it take the medication to start working and how will you know if it is working? - Will the medication interfere with any other prescriptions you might be taking? - What should you do if you forget to take a dose? The single most important way you can prevent errors and stay healthy is to be an active partner with your health care team. If Your Treatment Involves a Hospital Stay - Most likely your doctor will give you instructions before you go to the hospital. Be sure to follow them closely. - When at the hospital, don’t hesitate to tell your care providers how you are feeling both before and after your procedure. - It’s best to leave valuables such as jewelry, credit cards and extra cash at home. - When talking with your insurance company about your hospital stay, keep records and detailed notes on all interactions, including date, time, customer service representative’s name and what you were told. - Keep copies of all paperwork pertaining to your stay, including letters, bills and claims. WOMEN AND HEART DISEASE Are You at Risk for Heart Disease? Heart disease is the No. 1 killer of women: more women die from it than from all forms of cancer combined. While the statistics are staggering, too few women realize the dangers of heart disease and how it can affect them. Young women need to be aware that good decisions today — following a healthy diet, exercising, not smoking and preventing obesity — can significantly reduce their risk of heart disease in the future. Know the Warning Signs Some symptoms that may occur during a heart attack: - Pain, pressure or a “squeezing” sensation in the chest - Pressure or tightness under the breastbone, which can spread to the left arm or the neck - Pain radiating to the shoulder, neck, back, arm or jaw - A pounding heart or change in heart rhythm - A burning sensation in the chest, which can be mistaken for heartburn - Feeling breathless, often without chest pain of any kind - Cold sweats or clammy skin - Shortness of breath - Nausea and/or vomiting For both men and women, the most common symptom is chest pain. But women are more likely than men to experience other symptoms, and not perceive them to be a sign of heart attack. Take Action! Remember the signs of a heart attack and if you experience any of them, call 911! Early treatment is essential. While medical procedures can open blocked arteries to prevent (or limit) heart damage, they must be administered very soon after the onset of heart attack symptoms. TIPS FOR STAYING HEALTHY WITH DIABETES 1. Follow a heart-healthy meal plan designed by you and your dietitian or health care provider. Eat less fat and salt. Eat more fiber — choose whole grains, beans and vegetables. 2. Be physically active every day. Regular exercise can lower blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol. 3. Take your prescribed diabetes medicines. 4. Test your blood sugar level as often as your health care team suggests. Blood sugar testing is a very important tool that will help you and your doctor learn more about your diabetes and the best way to treat it. 5. Check your feet and between your toes daily — look for cuts, sores, swelling and redness. Keep your feet clean and dry. Never go barefoot. 6. If you smoke, stop! 7. Know your A1c. A1c tests show your average blood sugar control for the last two to three months. 8. Set blood sugar goals with your provider and health care team. The American Diabetes Association recommends the following blood sugar goals: - Before meals: 90-130 mg/dL - After meals: <180 mg/dL - Bedtime: 110-150 mg/dL 9. Aim for a healthy weight. Many studies have shown that losing as little as 10 pounds can improve diabetes control and often make a big difference in your health. 10. Get regular checkups — they can help you reach your targets. DIABETES CHECKLIST - A1c target of less than 7 percent — check every three months - Blood pressure target of less than 130/80 mmHg — check at every office visit or as directed by your health care team - Eye exam — yearly - Kidney test for protein in urine — check yearly - Foot check — daily at home, have your provider examine them at every office visit - Blood lipids (cholesterol, triglycerides) — check yearly or as directed - Dental care — checkup and teeth cleaning at least once every six months Blood Sugar A1c .................................................. Below 4% – 6% Cholesterol Total Cholesterol .......................... Below 200 mg/dL HDL .................................................. Above 40 mg/dL LDL .................................................. Below 100* mg/dL Triglycerides ................................. Below 150 mg/dL Source: NCEP ATP III *For some patients, the LDL goal will be set at below 70. (circulationaha.org) MANAGING YOUR BLOOD PRESSURE Symptoms Many people with high blood pressure (hypertension) do not have symptoms or feel “bad.” However, if high blood pressure is not treated, over time, it may cause heart disease or a stroke. Checking Your Blood Pressure Talk with your health care provider about the target blood pressure that is ideal for you, and how often you should check it. Keep a journal of your blood pressure readings. Factors That May Raise Your Blood Pressure - Emotional stress and nervousness/anxiety - Eating foods that are high in salt - Consuming too much caffeine - Taking over-the-counter antihistamines, cold and flu medications - Smoking constricts your arteries raising your blood pressure Factors That Can Help Lower Your Blood Pressure - Daily exercise - If you are overweight, losing weight can help - Eat a healthy diet low in sodium and saturated fats - Quit smoking - Limit alcohol intake Blood Pressure Classification for Adults | BP Classification | Systolic BP | Diastolic BP | |-------------------|-------------|--------------| | Normal | <120 | <80 | | Pre-hypertension | 120-139 | 80-89 | | Stage 1 Hypertension | 140-159 | 90-99 | | Stage 2 Hypertension | 160 or more| 100 or more | Source: JNC 7 Blood Pressure Guidelines STRESS MANAGEMENT Stress causes the body to produce adrenaline and other stress hormones that enter the bloodstream, which increase your heart rate and blood pressure. Adrenaline also may cause the coronary arteries to narrow and go into spasm, reducing the heart’s supply of oxygen. Under stress, your body may also increase cholesterol production. Short-term, these chemicals shut down some biological mechanisms in order to conserve energy. The reactions of the body to stress can cause tense muscles, anger, anxiety, distraction, overeating and excessive drinking. When stress is prolonged, the response may in fact damage the body. For example, heart disease, gastrointestinal problems, depression, memory lapses, substance abuse and eating disorders may result from prolonged stress. Managing Stress - Express yourself honestly and understand your emotional needs - Take responsibility for your own thoughts and behavior - Release yourself from self-imposed responsibility for others - Develop realistic expectations - Know your limitations - Have appropriate boundaries in relationships - Take care of yourself by getting adequate sleep, eating healthfully, exercising regularly and utilizing relaxation techniques regularly - Be proactive. Think scenarios through and choose how you want to deal with things versus being forced to deal with an event as it unfolds Physical and Mental Benefits of Laughter - Oxygen supply increases, resulting in lower baseline heart rate and blood pressure. Blood vessels open, producing a “flushed” feeling - Production of endorphins and enkephalin increases, the body’s natural painkillers, which are 100 times more powerful than morphine - The thymus gland, which plays a part in regulating the body’s immune system, is stimulated. The result is in an increased production of killer T-cells that help protect your body from infection MAINTAINING A HEALTHY WEIGHT Obesity in the United States is increasing at an alarming rate among all age groups. Obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI) greater than 30, is a nationwide epidemic associated with chronic diseases, including heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Primary Goals for Weight Management - Consume fewer calories than you burn. Maintaining a low-calorie diet is a very effective way to lose weight. Reduce your caloric intake by 500 calories each day to promote a one-pound weight loss per week. - Self-monitoring of your diet will keep calories in check. The two most important items to monitor and record are the types of food and the portion sizes you consumed during the day. - Physical activity on a regular basis is an essential component of a healthy lifestyle, and it is the most important factor in weight maintenance. Aim for at least 30 minutes of accumulated daily exercise on five or more days per week, such as one 30-minute interval or three 10-minute spurts. Determining Your BMI Behavioral and environmental factors, which are the primary causes of obesity, include increased food portions and caloric intake, widespread availability of high-fat, high-calorie foods, stress factors and sedentary lifestyles. Your initial weight loss goal should be a 5-10 percent reduction in body weight. For example, a person weighing 200 pounds should strive to lose 10-20 pounds. Research has shown that moderate weight loss within this range significantly decreases health risks associated with obesity. CALCULATING YOUR BMI BMI Classification < 18.5 Underweight 18.5-24.9 Normal 25-29.9 Overweight 30-34.9 Obesity Class I – Mild 35-39.9 Obesity Class II – Moderate 40 + Obesity Class III – Extreme Obesity Body Mass Index (BMI) * HEIGHT (ft-inch) | WEIGHT (pounds) | 5'0" | 5'1" | 5'2" | 5'3" | 5'4" | 5'5" | 5'6" | 5'7" | 5'8" | 5'9" | 5'10" | 5'11" | 6'0" | 6'1" | 6'2" | 6'3" | 6'4" | |-----------------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|-------|-------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| | 100 | 20 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 12 | | 105 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | | 110 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 13 | | 115 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 14 | 14 | | 120 | 23 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | | 125 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 15 | | 130 | 25 | 25 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | | 135 | 26 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 16 | | 140 | 27 | 26 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 23 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 17 | | 145 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 23 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 18 | | 150 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 18 | | 155 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 19 | | 160 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 19 | | 165 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 19 | | 170 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 20 | 19 | | 175 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 21 | | 180 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 22 | | 185 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 23 | 23 | 23 | | 190 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 23 | 23 | 23 | | 195 | 38 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 24 | | 200 | 39 | 38 | 37 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | | 205 | 40 | 39 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 26 | 25 | | 210 | 41 | 40 | 38 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 26 | | 215 | 42 | 41 | 39 | 38 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 33 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 28 | 27 | 27 | | 220 | 43 | 42 | 40 | 39 | 38 | 37 | 36 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | | 225 | 44 | 43 | 41 | 40 | 39 | 36 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 27 | | 230 | 45 | 43 | 42 | 41 | 39 | 38 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 28 | | 235 | 46 | 44 | 43 | 42 | 40 | 39 | 38 | 36 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 29 | | 240 | 47 | 45 | 44 | 43 | 41 | 40 | 39 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | | 245 | 48 | 46 | 45 | 43 | 42 | 41 | 40 | 38 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 31 | 30 | | 250 | 49 | 47 | 46 | 44 | 43 | 42 | 40 | 39 | 38 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 | Find your height along the top, and follow it across the grid to the weight nearest to your body weight. Then find your body mass index. *Body Mass Index (BMI) is a tool indicating weight status in adults. It is a measure of weight for height, and it correlates with body fat. Web site: cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/index.htm EXERCISE FOR YOUR HEALTH When starting an aerobic exercise program, make sure you choose a type of exercise you enjoy. This will help you continue your program for life. Start your program gradually and progress from there. Exercise Tips - Wear loose-fitting, lightweight clothing. Wear proper-fitting, lightweight shoes with cushioned soles and good support - During warm weather, exercise indoors or in the early morning or late evening hours - Always begin with a five-minute warmup and finish with a five-minute cooldown Warning Signs - Stop exercising if you have any of the following symptoms: - Light-headedness or dizziness - Chest pain - Nausea or vomiting - Irregular heartbeat - Inability to catch your breath - Severe tiredness/fatigue Taking Your Heart Rate (Pulse) To take your pulse at the wrist, use two fingers as demonstrated in the picture. Find your pulse on the thumb side above the wrist bone, between the tendons and the edge of the wrist. Recheck your pulse after your cool down. Remember to cool down by performing stretching exercises or walking at a slow pace for one to two minutes. Count your heart rate for 15 seconds and multiply by four to get your one-minute pulse. Example: 23 beats x 4 = 92 beats per minute (BPM) TIPS FOR HEALTHY EATING - Choose skim or 1% milk, low-fat yogurt and cheeses with no more than three grams of fat per ounce - Aim for at least eight to 10 servings of fruits and vegetables every day, including a variety of colors: green, yellow, orange and red - Choose fresh, frozen or canned fruits and vegetables without added sugar or salt - Make an oil change! Choose olive, canola, peanut, safflower oils. - Choose up to six ounces of meat per day (i.e., lean meats with the fat trimmed off, skinless poultry, pork or fish) - Limit whole eggs to three to four per week - Choose whole grain breads and cereals, beans, peas and lentils. Buy low-fat, low-sodium varieties - Eat at least two servings of baked or grilled fish each week, especially oily fish - Eat a variety of foods - Drink alcohol in moderation - Avoid eating and drinking large amounts at a time to prevent excess workload on the heart - For heart-healthy food preparation, bake, broil or grill. Avoid frying Daily Nutritional Guidelines | Component | Recommendation | |-----------------|-----------------------------------------------------| | Total calories | Balance energy intake and expenditure to achieve desirable body weight | | Total fat | 25–35% of total calories | | Saturated fat | 7% of total calories or less | | Polyunsaturated fat | Up to 10% of total calories | | Monounsaturated fat | Up to 20% of total calories | | Carbohydrates | 50–60% of total calories | | Protein | Approximately 15% of total calories | | Cholesterol | 200 mg or less | | Sodium | 2,300 mg or less | | Fiber | 20–30 grams fiber (including 5–10 grams as soluble fiber) | COOKING HEALTHY MEALS - Before cooking, trim all fat from meat and remove skin from poultry - Bake, broil, grill, boil or poach meats, fish and poultry. Use a rack when broiling, roasting or baking to drain off fat and discard it. Avoid frying - Use pans with no-stick coatings or use nonstick cooking spray in place of margarine or oil - Chill soups, stews and casseroles in advance to harden the fat for easy removal before serving - Use herbs and spices on vegetables rather than cream or butter sauces - Prepare sauces using skim milk and allowable margarine and oil - Substitute two to three egg whites or one-quarter cup egg substitute for one whole egg - In baking, try substituting applesauce, fruit puree or banana in place of some or all of the fat - Marinate chicken breast in orange juice, pineapple juice or low fat dressing with tarragon leaves and ground black pepper - Try cooking dried beans from scratch, adding homemade chicken stock and flavoring with cumin, garlic, onion, thyme, oregano or ginger. Try combining several spices for delicious results - Add homemade chicken stock to soups, stir fried vegetables and cooked dried beans The Good HDL Cholesterol (High-Density Lipoprotein) - Known as “good” cholesterol in your blood - Carries cholesterol away from the blood vessels to be passed out of the body - Exercise helps to increase level - Optimal level: 40 mg/dL Monounsaturated Fats - Liquid at room temperature - Helps lower LDL cholesterol - Food sources: canola, olive and peanut oils; avocados, peanuts Polyunsaturated Fats - Liquid at room temperature; helps lower LDL cholesterol - Food sources: safflower, sunflower, corn, cottonseed and soybean oils; walnut Omega-3 Fatty Acids - Normally occurring fats that help lower triglycerides and decrease plaque formation - Food sources: cold-water fish such as salmon, mackerel, herring; cheese; whole milk; coconut oil; palm and palm kernel oil; hydrogenated margarine; vegetable shortening; cocoa butter; non-dairy creamers and whipped toppings; albacore tuna; sardines; lake trout; canola oil; tofu; soybeans; English walnuts; ground flax seed; flax seed oil Soluble Fiber - Helps control blood glucose levels and reduce cholesterol - Food sources: fruits, vegetables, legumes, oats, barley Insoluble Fiber - Increases bulk in stool - Food sources: bran from wheat, rye or rice; fruits and vegetables Plant Stanols/Sterols - Plant-based compounds that help the body decrease absorption of cholesterol - Help lower total and LDL cholesterol - Food sources: common in margarine, salad dressings and other products where labeling states “contains plant stanols or sterols” The Bad and the Ugly Cholesterol - Soft, waxy substance in the bloodstream and cells that can build up and form plaques and on artery walls, which harden and can eventually block blood flow - Found in animal products; also made by the liver - Food sources: egg yolks, organ meats, whole milk products, shellfish and meats - Optimal level: 200 mg/dL or less LDL Cholesterol (Low-Density Lipoprotein) - Known as “bad” cholesterol in your blood - Contributes to plaque build up in the artery walls - Optimal level: 100 mg/dL or less Saturated Fats - Solid at room temperature - Known to increase total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol Triglycerides - Fat that circulates in the blood - Contributing factors for high triglycerides are: excess weight/obesity, diabetes, diets high in refined carbohydrates and/or alcohol - Optimal level: 150 mg/dL or less Trans-Fatty Acids - May increase LDL and decrease protective HDL cholesterol - Trans-fats are formed when vegetable oils are hydrogenated to make them more solid - Food sources: partially hydrogenated vegetable oils; commercially baked and fried foods such as French fries, onion rings, doughnuts, crackers, cookies and microwave popcorn; found naturally in small amounts in meat and milk products Dining Out Tips - Have a glass of water with dinner - Avoid going to a restaurant excessively hungry - Ask questions about how foods are prepared, sauces or dressings that may be used, portion sizes, etc - Ask about making heart-healthy substitutions, such as broiled or baked chicken in place of fried - Order meat, poultry or fish grilled, broiled or baked without added fat - Ask for salad dressing, gravies and other sauces on the side - Avoid fried foods and casseroles, which tend to be high in fat and sodium - Beware of high-fat and high-sodium items at the salad bar - Consider a vegetable plate as your meal or ask for steamed vegetables - Eat larger portions of vegetables or salad in place of higher fat/higher calorie items - For portion control, consider splitting an entree or requesting a “to-go” container for part of your meal - Consider fresh fruit, sorbet, sherbet or Italian ice as a dessert THE NEW FOOD LABEL: TRANSLATING FAT Trans-Fat Facts - Trans fats, or trans-fatty acids occur during hydrogenation, a chemical process that turns liquid fats (e.g., vegetable oils) into solid fats. Trans fats are found in vegetable shortenings, hard or stick margarines, processed foods (e.g., crackers, cookies, baked goods) and fried foods. - The body treats trans fats like saturated fat. High intake raises LDL (“bad”) cholesterol in the blood, which can increase the risk of coronary heart disease. - Trans fat listing is geared to help consumers make healthier food selections. START HERE Serving Size: typical serving size shown in household measure, (e.g., 1 cup) and by weight. Amount of calories and nutrients in one serving. LIMIT THESE NUTRIENTS Total Fat: total fat grams in one serving. A low-fat food contains less than 3 grams of fat per serving. Saturated Fat: major sources are milk products, butter and fatty meats. Trans Fat: minimal intake is advised. Look for words “hydrogenated” or “partially hydrogenated” in the ingredient list to detect trans fat. Less than 7 percent of your total daily calories should come from saturated and trans fat. GET ENOUGH OF THESE NUTRIENTS Food product ingredient list (referenced, not shown): ingredients are listed by weight. The first three ingredients listed make up 80 percent of the product. Nutrition Facts Serving Size: 1 cup (226g) Servings Per Container: 2 | Amount Per Serving | Calories 250 | Calories from Fat 110 | |--------------------|--------------|-----------------------| | % Daily Value* | | | - **Total Fat** 12g 18% - **Saturated Fat** 3g 15% - **Trans Fat** 1.5g - **Cholesterol** 30mg 10% - **Sodium** 470mg 20% - **Total Carbohydrates** 31g 10% - **Dietary Fiber** 0g 0% - **Sugars** 5g - **Protein** 5g - **Vitamin A** 4% - **Vitamin C** 2% - **Calcium** 20% - **Iron** 4% * Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your Daily Values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs. | Calories: 2,000 | 2,500 | |-----------------|-------| | Total Fat | Less than 65g | 80g | | Sat Fat | Less than 20g | 25g | | Cholesterol | Less than 300mg | 300mg | | Sodium | Less than 2,400mg | 2,400mg | | Total Carbohydrate | 300g | 375g | | Dietary Fiber | 25g | 30g | Servings Per Container: If you eat two servings, you are getting twice as many calories and nutrients. Amount of calories from fat contained in a food product. Low cholesterol food is 20 grams or less cholesterol and less than 2 grams from saturated fat. A low sodium food is 140 mg or less. Fiber: 20-35 grams of fiber each day is recommended. A “good” source of fiber food is one that contains at least 2.5 grams. A “high fiber” product contains 5 grams or more per serving. Percentage of Daily Values Five percent or less is low and not a good source of a nutrient. Twenty percent or more is high and is a good source of a nutrient. ## DAILY SERVINGS GUIDE | DAILY SERVINGS | CHOOSE THESE FOODS | AVOID THESE FOODS | |----------------|--------------------|-------------------| | **Meat, Fish, Poultry, Eggs and Meat Alternatives** | | | | 5-6 oz./day<br>Serving size:<br>▪ 1 oz. cooked lean meat, poultry, fish<br>▪ Egg whites<br>▪ 1 whole egg<br>▪ ½ cup tofu<br>▪ ½ cup cooked dried beans, peas or lentils | Fish (preferably oily), chicken, turkey, lean meats (limit to 6 oz./day), shellfish (limit to 3 oz./week); egg yolks (maximum of 2/week); egg whites, egg substitutes, tofu, dried beans, peas and lentils | Fatty meats, organ meats, chicken skin, sausage, hot dogs, bacon, bologna, salami, pastrami meats, most luncheon meats | | **Dairy Products** | | | | 3 cups/day<br>1 cup equivalent to:<br>▪ 1 cup milk<br>▪ Yogurt<br>▪ 1 oz. low-fat cheese<br>▪ ½ cup low-fat cottage cheese | Skim, ½–1%, evaporated skim or powdered skim milk, cheeses labeled no more than 2–6 grams of fat per ounce such as Alpine Lace®, Laughing Cow®. Non-fat or low fat: yogurt, frozen yogurt, ice cream, cottage cheese, cream cheese, sour cream, nondairy creamer, whipped toppings | Whole, 2% or commercial chocolate milk; half & half; eggnog; yogurt made from whole milk; natural or processed cheese (American, Colby, cheddar, Swiss, Monterey Jack); cheese spreads; trans-fat ice creams; cream; custards | | **Fruits and Vegetables** | | | | 2-4 servings fruit/day (1½–2 cups)<br>3-5 servings veggies/day (2½–3 cups)<br>Serving size:<br>▪ ½ cup canned fruit or juice<br>▪ 1 medium piece of fruit<br>▪ 3 dried prunes or dates = ½ cup<br>▪ 2 Tbsp. raisins = ½ cup<br>▪ ½ cup cooked vegetables<br>▪ 1 cup raw vegetables | Fruits:<br>Fresh, frozen, canned (packed in water or juice), dried fruits, fruit juices<br>Vegetables:<br>Fresh, frozen, low sodium or salt-free canned, low sodium vegetable juice. | Vegetables prepared in butter, cream or other sauces; fried fruit or vegetables, coconut, canned fruit packed in syrup, regular vegetable juice | ## DAILY SERVINGS GUIDE | DAILY SERVINGS | CHOOSE THESE FOODS | AVOID THESE FOODS | |----------------|--------------------|-------------------| | **Breads, Cereal, Starches, Dried Beans and Lentils** | 6-11 servings/day Serving size (1 oz. equivalents): - 1 slice bread - ½ cup pasta or rice - ½ small bagel - ½ cup cooked dried beans or lentils | Homemade baked goods (using unsaturated oils sparingly); rice, pasta, potatoes, breads and cereals (except as listed to avoid); low-fat/low sodium popcorn; low-fat crackers and muffins (in moderation); dried beans, peas and lentils | Doughnuts, croissants, pancakes, biscuits, commercial muffins and corn bread; high-fat crackers, bagels and granolas; fried noodles, fried rice, french fries, hash brown potatoes, tater tots, cereals with coconut, microwave buttered popcorn | | **Fats and Oils** | 3-5 servings/day (5-7 tsp. fats) 1 tsp. fat: - 1 tsp. oil, margarine or mayonnaise - 1 Tbsp. nuts, seeds or ground flaxseed - ½ medium avocado - 1 Tbsp. regular salad dressing or reduced fat margarine - 2 tsp. peanut butter | Unsaturated vegetable oils; olive, canola, sunflower, soybean, corn, safflower, sesame seed, flaxseed. Low-fat salad dressings, margarines and mayonnaise made with oils listed above. Avocados, flaxseed meal. Salt free fats: sesame seeds, peanut butter, almonds, peanuts, pecans, walnuts | Coconut oil, palm or kernel oil, lard, stick margarine, bacon, meat fat, gravy from meat drippings (unless fat is removed), cream sauces, butter, dressings made with egg yolk and cheese, coconut, macadamia nuts, cashews, Brazil nuts, pistachio nuts | | **Desserts** | Use sparingly. | Angel food cake, gelatin, fruit ice, frozen or fruited low fat yogurt, sherbet, sorbet, popsicles, fruit bars, fat-free ice cream or cookies, gum drops, hard candy, jelly beans, sugar, marshmallow, honey, syrup, jam, molasses | Commercially prepared pies, cakes, pastries, cookies and other baked goods; chocolate candy, regular ice cream, sweets made with butter, cocoa butter, whole milk, cream, coconut oil or palm oil | For more specific information, go online to [choosemyplate.gov](http://choosemyplate.gov). 1. Houston Methodist Hospital 6565 Fannin St. Houston, TX 77030 2. Houston Methodist San Jacinto Hospital 4401 Garth Road Baytown, TX 77521 3. Houston Methodist St. John Hospital 18300 St. John Drive Nassau Bay, TX 77058 4. Houston Methodist Sugar Land Hospital 16655 Southwest Frwy. Sugar Land, TX 77479 5. Houston Methodist The Woodlands Hospital 17201 Interstate 45 S. The Woodlands, TX 77385 6. Houston Methodist West Hospital 18500 Katy Frwy. Houston, TX 77094 7. Houston Methodist Willowbrook Hospital 18220 State Hwy. 249 Houston, TX 77070 houstonmethodist.org 072017
<urn:uuid:499bd356-1ab9-4fce-bd2a-a2450908febe>
CC-MAIN-2018-22
https://www.houstonmethodist.org/-/media/pdf/services-and-specialties/womens-services/womenshealth-journal_web.ashx
2018-05-23T22:33:57Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865830.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523215608-20180523235608-00528.warc.gz
755,574,861
10,644
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.947182
eng_Latn
0.994098
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "zsm_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 57, 1266, 2039, 2854, 3657, 4626, 5669, 6754, 8265, 9062, 10556, 11886, 12857, 14175, 16061, 17604, 22717, 23989, 25912, 27453, 28934, 30743, 33741, 35742, 37933, 38588 ]
[ 1.265625, 2.984375 ]
2
0
All About Space Curiosity: The First 12 Months By Jonathan O'Callaghan This mosaic of Curiosity, with Mount Sharp in the background, was put together using 55 images taken by the Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) Curiosity: the first 12 months In August 2012, the most ambitious robotic vehicle ever devised landed on Mars on a mission to probe the Red Planet for signs of past and present habitability. We spoke to the team’s deputy project scientist one year after about Curiosity’s accomplishments at that point, and what they hoped it would be doing in the years that followed. Written by Jonathan O’Callaghan On 6 August 2012 the world watched in awe as a rover the size of a car descended to the surface of Mars under a rocket-powered contraption and touched down. Almost a decade in the making, the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), better known as the Curiosity rover, has been a massive success story for NASA. Never before has such a large and complicated vehicle landed on another world. In just 12 months after Curiosity went operational it made some tentative steps towards achieving its numerous goals, which include assessing Mars for signs of past and present habitability. NASA was careful to only take baby steps in its first 12 months, but in the following year Curiosity was pushed to the limits as it explored its surroundings and headed towards its ultimate goal, Mount Sharp (a mountain also known as Aeolis Mons), which rises 5.5 kilometres (3.4 miles) above the floor of Gale Crater and has layers of sediments that may hold clues about the Red Planet’s history. “When you land you have this incredible burst of adrenaline,” Dr Joy Crisp, the deputy project scientist for the MSL mission, told All About Space. “But a lot of this first year involved [testing] of more and more [of our] capabilities. We needed to test things out on Mars before we went crazy, but now we are a lot more confident in the rover.” That’s not to belittle any of the accomplishments of Curiosity however. After only a few tentative steps, the rover found evidence of a watery past on Mars and returned stunning high-resolution images from the surface. The first piece of evidence of Mars’ wet past that was discovered by Curiosity came from ‘conglomerate rock with rounded pebbles in it’, Dr Crisp explained. “When we looked at those pebbles and saw how rounded they were, that led the science team to be able to figure out how deep the water had to have been and how fast it was flowing. They were able to determine that those rocks were deposited from a stream.” With groundbreaking discoveries like this already being made, we expect great things from Curiosity in its future as the team became more confident in its abilities. In the year after the rover landed, the MSL team at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California made great strides in their operations to make sure they get the most out of the mission. “We try to come up with better ways to do operations, so we’ve had to make changes along the way to make the whole operations...” Curiosity: The first 12 months A year on Mars 6 August 2012 Bradbury landing site Using the revolutionary Sky Crane mechanism, Curiosity successfully lands on Mars 2.4km (1.5mi) from the centre of its wide target area. 19 August 2012 First laser shot During its first two weeks Curiosity tests several of its instruments, including the firing of its ChemCam laser for the first time on 19 August 2012 on a rock called Coronation (or N165). 29 August 2012 Driving begins Curiosity begins its first drive on 29 August to an area called Glenelg about 400m (1,300ft) east of its landing site. The MSL team at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory celebrate as Curiosity successfully lands on Mars. timeline go faster,” said Dr Crisp. “We started out working on Mars time [one Martian day is 37 minutes longer than an Earth day], taking about 16 or 17 hours preparing the rover’s commands for the next day, and we’ve gotten that down to 11 hours now, so we can work more normal hours.” Considering the complexity of the mission, it’s remarkable that things went so smoothly in the first 12 months, barring one mishap. “It’s performed very well,” agreed Dr Crisp, “but we did have one hiccup where one side of the computer had an issue, so we had to switch to the other side, but overall everything has been functioning okay. It’s a very, very complicated beast and it takes a lot of effort [for] everybody to understand that complexity and be able to plan what the rover should do each day.” As mentioned earlier, the primary objective of Curiosity’s mission is to ascend Mount Sharp and study the mountain’s various sedimentary layers. However, as Curiosity’s projected landing site was within an area 19 by 7 kilometres (12 miles by 4 miles), NASA was unsure where exactly the rover would land. Ultimately it touched down just a few kilometres from the centre of this area, near a region of particular interest known as Glenelg. So, rather than rushing straight to Mount Sharp, NASA made the decision to explore the flat plain of Gale Crater first, and then take another look at Glenelg on its way back, if possible. “Looking at where we landed from the orbiter images we realised it would make sense to first go over to Glenelg and check out these different rocks that we could see before heading over to Mount Sharp,” explained Dr Crisp. But while the lifetime of the rover was set at a lowest estimate of two years, “if it’s anything like Spirit and Opportunity this rover may last much longer than two Earth years,” which gives Curiosity plenty of time to study Mount Sharp. In fact, NASA extended the operational lifetime of the mission indefinitely, giving the MSL team funding to continue driving the rover until it stops working, which could be several decades from now. Aside from observing pebbles in an ancient streambed, indicative of a wet past on Mars, Curiosity also tested out its other instruments to ensure they were working normally ahead of some planned hardcore science for the rover. “We’re looking for past environments that could have been suitable for life,” explained Dr Crisp, “and liquid water is key for life as we know it. So getting over to Yellowknife Bay [a Martian outcrop in the Glenelg area] and drilling into sedimentary rock and discovering abundant clay mineral, which has a lot of bound water in it that can only form in the presence of liquid water, was a major find.” Not all of Curiosity’s instruments had returned data with such a high level of interest at that point, though, but of most importance to Dr Crisp was ensuring that “the instruments were working well.” One “We needed to test things out on Mars before we went crazy, but now we’re a lot more confident in the rover” Dr Joy Crisp, MSI’s deputy project scientist Curiosity in numbers The facts and figures about NASA's flagship Mars rover 899 kilograms Mass of the Curiosity rover $2.5 billion Total cost of the Mars Science Laboratory mission 14 minutes Time it takes to send a command to Curiosity 55 years Upper estimate of Curiosity's possible operating lifetime 10 Number of scientific instruments on board Curiosity 5 Curiosity is about 5 times larger than its predecessors Spirit and Opportunity 668 Number of Martian days (sols), or 687 Earth days, the primary mission lasted Five key instruments on Curiosity SAM The Sample Analysis at Mars instrument suite studies samples scooped up by Curiosity. The entire suite accounts for more than half of Curiosity’s science payload. APXS The Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) is used to measure the abundance of particular chemical elements in rocks and soil. ChemCam The Chemistry and Camera complex (ChemCam) uses a small laser to vaporise rocks or soil up to 7m (23ft) away and analyses the emitted spectrum of light to determine the target’s characteristics. of the most important instruments on the Curiosity rover is SAM (Sample Analysis at Mars), a suite of instruments comprising over half of the rover’s scientific payload that can scoop up soil samples and analyse them in an on-board laboratory. “We sent the SAM instrument to look for organic compounds,” said Dr Crisp, “but we knew it was going to be like looking for a needle in a haystack. It’s not easy to find organic compounds preserved in ancient rocks even on Earth, so we didn’t really expect to hit it on the first try.” SAM, however, was expected to be one of Curiosity’s most valuable assets when it comes to studying the sedimentary deposits on Mount Sharp. With the first year behind them, the MSL team were eager to really get the wheels rolling and make use of Curiosity as best they could. According to Dr Crisp, in the next 12 months “we will be driving a lot further than we’ve done so far, heading towards Mount Sharp, so we don’t know what exactly we’ll encounter or what we’ll see from our cameras on the surface. We can see from orbit that we might want to stop a handful of times on our way to Mount Sharp but we don’t want to get bogged down unless there’s something really amazing that we discover on the way. So [in the next 12 months] we’ll be doing a lot of driving, and if you’ve seen the pictures of Mount Sharp with the layering it looks really fascinating. So I think that will be a magnetic pole for our team to psychologically want to keep going, because as we drive the detail of what we can see in those hills is going to get more and more interesting,” she added. While Curiosity’s predecessors Spirit and Opportunity (neither of which are currently operational) have travelled tens of kilometres on the surface, never before has a rover attempted to scale a mountain on Mars in the way Curiosity did. But, as Dr Crisp explained, the team believes the rover will have no problems making its way to a higher altitude. “The wind should not be a problem,” she said, “and it’ll be interesting for the meteorological instrument to measure that. The steepness we believe will also be okay, based on studying the 3D models we have from our orbiter data. When we actually get there and see the terrain up close our 3D models will improve and we may have to adjust our routes based on that newer data as well as finding out how much the rover slips on different kinds of rock.” So, with the most exciting part of Curiosity’s mission yet to happen, Dr Crisp highlighted a “combination of new things” that would be of most interest to both scientists and the public alike in the coming year. “I’m hoping that we’re going to see some new rock types and new landforms that tell us about other things that went on in the past on Mars,” she said. And with the public clamouring for more astounding science and incredible imagery from Curiosity, the rover’s mission could only get better and better as the team becomes more confident in their operation of one of the greatest and most ambitious space exploration missions of all time. **The goals** **Has Curiosity accomplished what it set out to do?** **Did it demonstrate the ability to land a large rover on Mars?** Yes. The car-sized Curiosity rover successfully landed in Gale Crater by the foot of Mount Sharp. **Did it reach Mount Sharp?** Yes. On 11 September 2014 the rover arrived at the foot of the mountain. It then proceeded to travel up and collect rock samples. **Did it discover new rock types on Mars?** Yes. After drilling into sedimentary rock and analysing the samples, the rover discovered tridymite, a silica mineral often occurring in volcanic rocks, which wasn’t thought to be present on Mars. **Did they determine the climate and geology of its landing area? Did it confirm ancient lakes?** Yes. Over six years the rover, using its Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM), found that Mars has seasonal variations in its levels of methane, higher in warmer weather and seeing a drop in colder periods. It also found evidence in Gale Crater to suggest that billions of years ago Mars was home to lakes. **Did it determine the habitability of the planet?** Yes. Curiosity discovered that Mars’ radiation levels were much higher than previously thought, beyond NASA’s limit for astronauts. For humans to live on the planet, scientists would need to design habitats to accommodate the high radiation levels.
3d263eb2-2ee1-4e9d-bf93-81cb4c383129
CC-MAIN-2021-21
https://onlineobservatory.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/CuriosityTheFirst12Months.pdf
2021-05-08T11:32:42+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988858.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20210508091446-20210508121446-00222.warc.gz
481,479,376
2,652
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.975936
eng_Latn
0.998846
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 72, 211, 3057, 4547, 6832, 7904, 12304 ]
[ 3.4375 ]
1
0
Action Pack 12 Level 3 OMAR SANAD | Term | Definition | Arabic Translation | |-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------| | calculation | A way of using numbers in order to find out an amount, price or value | عملية حسابية | | computer chip | A small piece inside a computer which stores information via an electric current | رقائق الكمبيوتر | | floppy disk | Flexible, removable magnetic disk that stores computer information | القرص المدمج | | PC | A computer that is used by one person at a time | الحاسوب الشخصي | | program | A set of instructions enabling a computer to function; | برمجية | | smartphone | A mobile phone with advanced computing technology | الهاتف المطور | | World Wide Web | An information system, which allows documents to be connected to other documents, and for people to search for information by moving from one document to another | الشبكة العنكبوتية | When you are using a computer, think about the technology that is needed for it to work. People have been using types of computers for thousands of years. A metal machine was found on the seabed in Greece that was more than 2,000 years old. It is believed that this was the first ever computer. عندما تستخدمو الحواسيب فكروا بالتكولوجيا المستخدمة لكي تعمل. استخدم الناس الحواسيب للافت السنين. آلة معدنية وجدت في قاع البحر في اليونان منذ أكثر من ألفي عام. وكان هو أول حاسوب. In the 1940s, technology had developed enough for inventors to make the first generation of modern computers. One such model was so large it needed a room that was 167 square meters to put it in. During that decade, scientists in England developed the first computer program. في الأربعينيات تطورت التكنولوجيا بشكل كافى لصنع أول جيل من الحواسيب. كان أول نموذج يحتاج لغرفة مساحتها 167 متر مربع – خلال ذلك العقد طور العلماء أول برنامج حاسوبي. It took 25 minutes to complete one calculation. In 1958 CE, the computer chip was developed. The first computer game was produced in 1962 CE, followed two years later by the computer mouse. استغرقت 25 دقيقة لحساب أي شيء. في 1958 ميلادية تم تطوير رقائق الكمبيوتر. أول لعبة كمبيوتر اخترعت في 1962. ثم بعد عامين أي 1964 تم اختراع الفارة. In 1971 CE, the floppy disk was invented, which meant that information could be shared between computers for the first time. The first PC (personal computer) was produced in 1974 CE, so people could buy computers to use at home. In 1983 CE, people could buy a laptop for the first time. Then, in 1990 CE, the British scientist Tim Berners’ Lee developed the World Wide Web. في سنة 1971 ميلادية تم اختراع القفلي و هذا يعني مشاركة المعلومات مع الحاسوب. الحاسوب الشخصي تم إنتاجه في 1974 ميلادية لذاك أصبح بإمكاننا نشراء حواسبنا نستخدمها في المنازل في 1983 ميلادية أصبح بالإمكان شراء آل لابتوب لأول مرة. بعد ذلك في 1990 اخترع العالم البريطاني تيم لي الويب حول العالم. However, it was not until 2007 CE that the first smart phones appeared. Today, most people use their mobile phones every day. What will happen in the future? You can already buy watches which can do the same as mobile phones. Scientists have also developed glasses that can do as much as this and more. Life in the future is going to see further changes in computer technology. It is likely that all aspects of everyday life will rely on a computer program, from how we travel to how our homes are heated. على أية حال حتى 2007 ميلادية ظهرت الهاتف الذكية. اليوم معظم الناس يستخدمون موبايلاتهم – ماذا سيحدث في المستقبل؟ قد يصبح لدينا ساعات ذكية تعمل بنفس الموبايل و أيضا طور العلماء نظارات تعمل بنفس كفاءة الموبايل. ستشهد الحياة المستقبلية تغيرات في تقنية الحاسوب وكل سمات الحياة اليومية ستعتمد على برمجيات الحاسوب بدءاً من المقر وحتى تدققة منزلنا. 1 Where was the First ever computer found? 2 What information in the text shows that the First modern computers were very large? 3 List the inventions that were completed between 1958 CE and 1974 CE. 4 How do you think computer technology will develop further in the future? How far do you agree with the article? 5 We rely more and more on computer technology. How far do you agree that this is a positive development? Answers 1 It was found on the seabed in Greece. 2 A very large room was needed to keep the computers in; the room was 167 square metres. 3 the computer chip, the first computer game, the computer mouse, the floppy disk, the first personal computer 4 Suggested answer: I think that computer technology will develop further in the future to the point that it will ‘know’ how to address our every need. We will not have to think about everyday tasks like shopping and cleaning because technology will take care of them. I disagree with the article because I do not think that all aspects of our daily lives will rely on a computer program, because this would result in too many problems if the computers crashed. 5- Suggested answer: I agree that computers have enabled us to do many great things, but becoming overly reliant on technology is not a positive aspect of this development. GRAMMAR: • PRESENT SIMPLE We use the simple present in the following cases: A: To talk about activities that we repeat regularly (routines and habits): Key words: • always, often, usually, sometimes, normally, generally, rarely, occasionally, regularly, • every day, every week, every month, every year, every morning, every summer, every night…etc. • daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, hourly. • once a day, twice a day, three times a week, five times a day. 1- She frequently………………what she wants. (forget) 2- He’s always late. He never ……….. on time. (come) 3- We rarely………………out anymore. (go) 4- We ……………up early on Fridays. (not/get) 5- Ahmad usually……………at 10 p.m. (sleep) Forgets / comes / go / don’t get / sleeps 2- To talk about general truths: 1-Water ...............of two elements .They are Oxygen and Hydrogen. (consist) 2-Birds ...............their nests in Autumn.( not / build ) 3-The earth ...............round the sun. (revolve) Consists / don’t build / revolves 3- To talk about future official events or timetables which we can’t change, especially with the verbs: (start , begin , open , close , leave , arrive , finish , end ) 1. The plane to Damascus ..................at 8 tomorrow morning. ( leave ) 2. Our exhibition ..................on the 1st of next April. ( start ) Leaves / starts • Present Continuous Tense: المضارع المستمر We use the present continuous tense in the following cases: A: To talk about activities that are going on at the time of speaking: Key words: now , at the moment , right now , Look! , Listen!, Be quiet!, Hurry up , Be careful! 1- What’s that smell? Something .................. (burn) 2-A- Where is Ahmad? B- He ..................................................in the dinning room. (eat) 3- We ..............................................to the news at the moment. (listen) Is burning / is eating / are listening B - To talk about activities that happen regularly but for a limited period of time Temporary routines or habits: Key words: nowadays, these days, this week, this month, this year, today, tonight, at present. 1- John ...........a lot of time in the library these days ,as he’s writing a book. (spend) 2- We usually grow wheat , but this year we .....................nothing. (grow) Is spending / are growing C- To talk about a future event which is already arranged: Key words: today , tonight , tomorrow , next week , next month . 1- I ....................the manager at the theatre tomorrow night. (meet) 2- My parents ..................to Spain next month. (go) 3- Rami ......................me next week. ( visit) 4- My mother ..................................................her doctor tomorrow mo Am meeting / are going / is visiting / is visiting State Verbs: أفعال لا تقبل الاستمرارية These verbs are rarely used in the continuous tenses. These include: a-Verbs of mind: know, understand, think, believe, forget, realize, suppose, want b- Verbs of emotions: like, love, hate, dislike c-Verbs of senses: see, smell, taste, hear, touch Present Perfect Tense المضارع التام We use the present perfect in the following case: 1-To express an action that started in the past and is still continuing: Key words: since/for/already /just 1-I..................a student for 12 years. ( be ) 2-We..............in Amman since 1966. ( live ) 3-My father.............in a bank for nearly 16 years.( work ) Have been // have lived // has worked 2-To give the latest and up-to-date news Key words: lately, recently, at last, in recent times 1-Prices...............up sharply recently. ( go ) 2-My brother .............a new job lately. ( get ) 3-Oh! I...........my keys. ( lose ) Have gone // has got // have lost 3-To talk about experiences, the number of times has an action happened in the past, or the number of things that happened so far in the past without telling when was that. Key words: never, so far, yet, 1-I..................Petra three times before. ( visit ) 2-She............two letters so far this month. ( write ) 3-This the first time I...........you. ( see ) 4-We.............two English exams up to now this semester.( take ) Have visited // has written // have seen // have taken Present Perfect Continuous: المضارع التام المستمر We use present perfect continuous in the following cases: 1- when there is (be + v): I .................. (be / run) for two hours (have been running) 2- To express an activity that began in the past and is still going on without interruption: Key words: since : for / all day / all night 1- We .................. in Amman for more than 20 years. (live) 2- I .................. English for five years. (learn) 3- They ............ since they returned home. (study) Have lived / have learnt / have studied 3- To show the reason of a present action: (when a repeated or prolonged action in the past caused a present result: 1- Her eyes are red. She .................. (cry) has been crying 2- The earth is wet. It .................. (snow) has been snowing Simple Past Tense: الماضي البسيط We use the simple past in the following cases: A: Finished actions in the past: Key words: last year, last month, last week, last Summer, ....etc. • a week ago, two days ago, a few months ago... etc. • yesterday, yesterday morning, yesterday, ... etc. • In the past, once, in 1998, when I was a child, when I was 7 years old. 1- I .................. this film along time ago. (see) saw 2- The police .................. the thief two days ago. (arrest) arrested 3- We .................. a lot of work yesterday. (do) did 4- The war .................. in 1941. (happen) happened Simple Past (verb) + (ed) or irregular Past Present Future The future Tense: المستقبل English has several forms for expressing ideas about the future Key words: Tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, tonight, soon, next week, next month, next year, in a week, in a month, in a year, in two days time 1: Will + Base We use this form in the following cases: A: To express predictions based on opinions or beliefs, usually with the verbs think, believe, expect, be sure, be afraid and the adverbs probably, perhaps, certainly, etc.. 1. In the future, advertisements for washing powder .................. more men. (include) will include 2. I think she .................... a good teacher in the future. (make) will make 3. I'm sure he..................... his next exams. (pass) will pass 4. I don't suppose they ................... early next time. (come) will come B: To express a sudden decision made at the moment of speaking 1. I'm very tired. I...................... to bed. (go) will go 2. My shoes is wearing out. I think I.................. myself some new shoes. (buy) will buy C: To express promises, usually with the verbs promise, swear, guarantee, hope, etc.: 1. I promise I....................... you back next month. (pay) will pay 2. Don't worry, I....................... you the money you need. (give) will give D: For actions/events/situations which will definitely happen in the future and which we can't control 1. The temperature.................. 40 degrees centigrade tomorrow. (reach) will reach 2. The weather..................... very hot tomorrow. (go) will go E: To make a request or an offer: 1. Your bag looks heavy? I.................. it for you. (carry) will carry 2: be going to: We use this form in the following cases: A: For plans, intentions or ambitions we have for the future: 1. I................................. a famous musician one day. (ambition) (become) am going to become 2. Now that they've won the lottery, they.................. a big house. (intention/plan) (buy) are going to buy B: For actions we have already decided to do in the near future: 1. She....................in three months .She has already decided to do it.( retire) Is going to retire C: In predictions when there is evidence that something will happen in the future: 1. Look at the clouds! It's.....................(rain) raining • Past perfect الماضي التام Past perfect Tense: Use the past perfect in the following cases: A: To talk about an event which happened before some other past events: After / before: I went out after I had watched a film. Police had come before the thief went. 1- Before I did my homework, I ..................my lunch. (ate, had eaten, was eating, have eaten) 2- By the time the film started, she .......(was sleeping, had slept, has slept, sleeps) 3- We...............................in Irbid before 1985.(were, have been, are, had been) 4- Sami...........................before we got there.(was leaving, left, had left, has left) 5- I.................................my computer course before last month. ( took, have taken, had taken, take) 6- They..............................shopping by the time you saw them. ( went, were going, had gone, are going) 7- By the end of last week, we................................three letters from you. (received, had received, were receiving, have received) B: By + time / when The boys had studied when I entered. By the time I saw him, he had finished the job. • We wrote the letter, and then posted it. After we............................................................... Before we............................................................... C: Until / never / already : I saw him, I had never known him before I reached the school, the bell had already rung. D: Because : I met Ali because I had bought a new car. I got a new house because I had sold the old one. 1: activities or situations that form a background for an event: Key words: When, while, as Following this rule: When + simple past, past continuous While + past continuous, Simple past 1- The telephone rang while he.......................a bath. (have) was having 2- We..............at a high speed when the accident happened. (drive) were driving 3- It began to rain while I .......................in the park. (walk) was walking Complete the text with the correct form of the verbs in brackets. People (1)..................(use) smart phones since they (2)....................(invent) in the early 2000s. During the early 2000s, people...................(3)(buy) phones in different colours and different designs. In 2010 CE, the first tablet computer.............(4)(produce). By the end of 2010 CE, companies (5)...................(sell) more smart phones than PCs for the first time. Now, about one billion smart phones .................(6)(sell) around the world each year. In the near future, it (7).............(estimate) that over 40% of the population in Jordan will have a smart phone. It is probable that this market (8) ...............(expand) in the future. At the moment, people aged 16–30 (9)...................(buy) the most smart phones, but experts say there (10)...................(be) a growth in the number of older people buying smart phones in the future. Answers 1 have been using (Present Perfect Continuous) 2 were invented (Past Simple Passive) 3 bought (Past Simple) 4 was produced (Past Simple Passive) 5 had sold (Past Perfect) 6 are sold (Present Simple Passive) 7 is estimated (Present Simple Passive) 8 will expand (Future with will) 9 are buying (Present Continuous) 10 will be (Future with will) This text is a talk (an informal presentation) about using technology in class. Listen and read. Complete the text with these sentences. A They could even email students in another country. B For example, scientists or teachers from another country could give a lesson to the class. C Tablets are ideal for pair and group work. D If students learn to summarise quickly, they will be able to use this skill in future. Young people love learning, but they like learning even more if they are presented with information in an interesting and challenging way. Today, I am going to give a talk about how you can use technology in Jordanian classrooms. Here are some ideas: يحب الشباب عملية التدريب ولكن يحبونها أكثر إذا ما تم إعطاؤهم معلومات بطريقة ممتعة و فيها نوع من التحدي. اليوم سأتحدث عن كيفية استخدام التكنولوجيا في صفوف الأردنيين – هنا بعض الأفكار. Many classrooms now use a whiteboard as a computer screen. As a consequence, teachers can show websites on the board in front of the class. Teachers can then use the Internet to show educational programmes, play educational games, music, recordings of languages, and so on. In some countries, tablet computers are available for students to use in class. Therefore, students can use the tablets to do tasks such as showing photographs, researching information, recording interviews and creating diagrams. (1) يستخدم في صفي اللوح الأبيض و كأنه شاشة كمبيوتر – نتيجة لذلك – يستطيع المعلمون أن يظهروا الطلبة شاشات التلفزيون و يفعلوا البرامج التعليمية و تشغيل العاب تعليمية و موسيقى و تسجيل لغات و هذا في بعض البلدان التابلت يستخدم الطلبة في صفوفهم لذلك قد يستخدم الطلبة في دروس الفقرات أو معلومات للإبحاث و قراءة المقالات أو المخططات. Teachers can perhaps ask their students to start writing a blog (an online diary), either about their own lives or as if they were someone famous. They can also create a website for the classroom. Students can contribute to the website, so for example they can post work, photos and messages. Most young people communicate through social media, by which they send each other photos and messages via the Internet. Some students like to send messages that are under 140 letters for anyone to read. Teachers can ask students to summarise information about what they have learnt in class in the same way. (2) قد يطلب المعلمين من طلابهم كتابة مذكرة على الإنترنت سواء عن حياتهم أو عن شهرة. قد يعملا موقعًا خاصًا ب صفهم. وقد يساهمون من خلال الصور أو المسجات. أكثر الشباب يتواصلون من خلال وسائل اتصال معينة. وقد يرسلون صورهم و مساجتهم عبر النت. وقد يرسل بعضهم مسجات أقل من 140 حرف. وقد يطلب المعلمين من طلابهم تخصيص ما تعلموه بنفس الطريقة. We all like to send emails, don’t we? Email exchanges are very useful in the classroom. Teachers can ask students to email what they have learnt to students of similar age at another school. (3).......................... As a result share information and help each other with tasks. نحب جميعنا إرسال اليميلات البين كننك ؟ تبادل اليميلات شيء رائع في غرفة الصف وقد يطلب المعلمون من الطلبة تبادل اليميلات لمعرفة ما تعلموه ........................................ و كنتيجة لذلك فإن تبادل المعلومات قد يساعد الآخرين في حل ما عليهم حله. Another way of communicating with other schools is through talking to people over the computer. Most computers have cameras, so you can also see the people you are talking to. In this way, students who are studying English in Jordan can see what students in England are doing in the classroom while they are speaking to them. You can also use this system to invite guest speakers to give talks over a computer. ....................................................(4) If you had this type of lesson, the students would be very excited. و للتواصل مع مدرسة أخرى يكون عبر الحديث مع الآخرين عبر جهاز الحاسوب . أكثر الحواسيب غياباً كاميرات و بذلك ترى من يتكلم معك – بعض الطلبة هنا في لاردن يستطيعون مشاهدة ما يأخذ الطلبة في انجرافاً و أيضاً تستطيع دعوة ضيف للتكلم عبر الحاسوب........................................ أن اخذت هذا النوع من الحصص سوف تستمتع. Students often use computers at home if they have them. Students can use social media on their computers to help them with their studies, including asking other students to check and compare their work, asking questions and sharing ideas. The teacher must be part of the group, too, to monitor what is happening. Thank you for listening. Does anyone have any questions الطلبة يستخدمون الحواسيب في منازلهم إن توفرت – يستطيعون إزالة وسائط لمساعدتهم في دراستهم – من خلال سؤال طلبه آخرين ومقارنة أعمالهم - أسئلة ومبادلة أفكار المعلم يجب أن يكون جزءاً من العملية ليراقب ما يحدث. Answers 1 Tablets are ideal for pair and group work. 2 If students learn to summarise quickly, they will be able to use this skill in future. 3 They could even email students in another country. 4 For example, scientists or teachers from another country could give a lesson to the class. 3 Which of the following would you use to ... Blog email exchange social media tablet computer whiteboard ما هي الأداة التي ترتبط باستخدام أي من الجمل التالية؟ 1 record interviews with people? tablet computer 2 share information with students in another country? 3 watch educational programmes in class? 4 ask another student to check your homework? 5 write an online diary? Suggested answers 1 tablet computer 2 email exchange 3 whiteboard 4 social media 5 blog 4 Work in pairs. Explain the difference in meaning between these phrases from the article. 1 to share / compare ideas 2 to create / contribute to a website 3 to research / present information 4 to monitor / find out what is happening 5 to give a talk to / talk to people 6 to show / send photos Suggested answers 1 **share ideas**: to give your ideas to another person or to a group **compare ideas**: where two or more people consider how their ideas are similar or different 2 **create a website**: to construct a website that currently does not exist **contribute to a website**: offer your writing and work to the website 3 **research information**: to use a variety of sources to find the information you need **present information**: to give the results of your research in a presentation 4 **monitor what is happening**: you know what is happening and you are following the developments **find out what is happening**: you don’t know what is happening and you want to discover it 5 **give a talk to people**: you have prepared a speech and you are giving this speech to a group of people who are expecting it **talk to people**: an informal discussion 6 **show photos**: you show people photos that you have in person **send photos**: you send photos to someone over the Internet or by post Complete the verb phrases and phrasal verbs with the correct words. Then listen again and check. 1- to know....................... dangers of the Internet 2- to connect ....................... people on the Internet 3- to turn.......................... privacy settings 4- to give............................ personal information 5- to fill............................. a form Answers 1 about 2 with 3 on 4 out 5 in Grammar: Revision of reported speech الكلام المنقول 1. الجملة العادية: في هذا النوع من الجملة يحول المضارع إلى مضارع الماضي والماضي للماضي التام مع تحويل ضمائر الزمان والمكان. 1. My parents spend everyday of their lives together. He said (that) his parents spent everyday of their lives together. My parents === His parents Spend ==== Spent 2. I have lost my glasses. He said (that) he had lost his glasses. I ==== he Have ==== had 3. I am watching T.V with my friends. Laila said (that) she was watching T.V with her friends. I am ==== she was My ==== her 1. ‘I won two cooking competitions last year.’ He said .................................................................. 2. ‘I’ve never cooked anything Japanese.’ He admitted .................................................................. 3. ‘My job is as creative as an artist’s.’ He claimed .................................................................. 4. ‘I’m working on a new recipe for tomato soup at the moment.’ He added .................................................................. 5. ‘I’m sure the soup will be delicious.’ He said .................................................................. 1- he had won two cooking competitions the previous year. 2- He had never cooked anything Japanese. 3- His job was as creative as an artist’s. 4- he was working on a new recipe for tomato soup at that moment. 5- he was sure the soup would be delicious. 2. عندما يكون هناك أفعال مساعدة أخرى: وضع if وعكس الفاعل والفعل المساعد مع تحويل المساعد إلى تصريف ثاني. 1. Could you help me please? Ahmad asked me .................................................. If I could help him. لاحظ أننا حذفنا كلمة please. ^^ أداه السؤال تحول إلى نقطة. 2. Did you enjoy watching the film yesterday? Ali asked his sister .......................................................... 3. Have you opened your car, Ali? I asked Ali .................................................................. مثاله لا تتغير Example >> I could run. Ali said he could run. | DIRECT | REPORTED | DIRECT | REPORTED | DIRECT | REPORTED | |--------|----------|--------|----------|--------|----------| | I | he, she | me | him, her | my | his, her | | we | they | us | Them | our | Their | | you | he, she, they, I | | | Your | His, her, my, our | Direct مباشر Indirect غير مباشر | this | That | |--------|--------| | these | Those | | here | There | | now | Then | | today | that day | | tonight| that night | | yesterday | the day before | | tomorrow | the next day/ the following day | | Soon | Later | | ago | Before | | next + (week/month/year) | the (week/month/year) after | | last + (week/month/year) | the (week/month/year) before | قد نستخدم أفعال مثل: ask / wonder / want to know / enquire الإجابة تبدأ بـ If دائماً: تتبع الأمثلة التالية: 1. Has the lesson started? Salma wanted to know .................................................................. 2. Is Ali tired now? Salma wondered .................................................................. 3. Did Ali come at 4:00 p.m? Salma was interested to know .................................................................. 4. "Did you play football?" Ali asked me .................................................................. 5. "Are you playing, Ahmad?" Huda wanted to know .................................................................. 1- If the lesson had started 2- If he was tired then 3- if he had come at 4:00 4- If I had played football 5- If he was playing . 3. Do / Does Questions في هذه الحالة نحذف {Do / Does} ونضع If بدلاً منها ثم نكمل الجملة مع تحويل الفعل إلى التصريف الثاني. 1. "Do you know the right answer?" They asked me .................................................................. 2. "Does she run well?" He asked ........................................................................... 1- If I knew the right answer 2- If she ran well 4. W.H Questions: تعامل مثل معاملة سؤال yes/no ولكن نضع wh بدلاً If وتعاملك مع نفس الطريقة و عندما تكون مع غير Do/Does أيضا تعامل بطريقة أخرى What does your friend write? I asked Ali .................................................................. What his friend wrote. What did your mum write? I asked Ali .................................................................. What his mum had written. 1. Direct: Where have you been? She asked me .................................................................. 2. How long are you going away for? She asked .................................................................. 3. "Where is Salma"? Ali asked .................................................................. 1- Where I had been 2- How long I was going a way for 3- Where Salma was Complete the sentences using the correct form of the verbs in brackets: 1. One of their sons told me that his parents ................. (Spend) every day of their lives together. 2. He said they ...................... (Always have) a good social life and ..... (Keep) in regular touch with their family, friends and neighbors. 3. He said he ....................... (be) not sure, but suggested that ... 4. He added that they ......................... (Both be involved) in farming for most of their lives. 5. Mrs. Chin said she ....................... (Never do) paid work. Had spent// had always had// had kept// was// had both been involved// had never done 5- orders: Don’t open the door. I ordered Ali …………………… Not to open the door. Open the door please. I ordered Ali ……………………… To open the door. Write the sentences from the recording in reported speech. 1 ‘Many computers have filters which stop people seeing certain websites.’ He said that many computers had filters which stopped people seeing certain websites. 2 ‘If they share information on social media with their friends, it might be accessed by other people, too.’ 3 ‘On social media, you should only connect to people you know well.’ 4 ‘Later we will give you, our dear listeners, information about websites where you can find more advice on Internet safety.’ Answers 1 He said that many computers had filters which stopped people seeing certain websites. 2 He said that if they shared information on social media with their friends, it might be accessed by other people, too. 3 He said that on social media, they should only connect to people they know well. 4 He said that later they would give the listeners information about websites where they could find more advice on Internet safety. Report what these people are saying. Pay attention to the time phrases. Our teacher told us about the dangers of the Internet yesterday. I have to write an essay about it tonight. I think I’m going to need some help. Farida Answers 1 Farida said that their teacher had told them about the dangers of the Internet the day before. She said that she had to write an essay about it that night. She thought she was going to need some help. We have to give a talk about the advantages and disadvantages of the Internet next week, so I’ll need to prepare it this week .Saleem 2 Saleem said that they had to give a talk about the advantages and disadvantages of the Internet the following week, so he would need to prepare it that week. 1 Tick the word that is different. 1- track rugby court pitch 2- journalist clerk playwright rink 3- confident tense الزمن upset worried 4- oars ماجديف poet bat مصرب goggles نظارات واقية 5- muscle eyelids الجفون skates heartbeat 6- wind coal gas paper 1 rugby 2 rink 3 confident 4 poet 5 skates 6 paper 2- Find six natural sources of power. Circle them and write them down. qklfossi lfuelsamsiwindplfwaterqkld woodghelwavessmfsolarenergybch 1 _____________________ 2 _____________________ 3 _____________________ 4 _____________________ 5 _____________________ 6 _____________________ 1 fossil fuels 2 wind 3 water 4 wood 5 waves 6 solar energy Passive Voice المبني للمجهول: هو كل فعل في التصريف الثالث V3 (P) مسندق يأخذ أفعال (Be) التالية: ( am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being ) من أهم أساسيات تحويل جملة من المبني للمعلوم إلى المبني للمجهول ما يلي: 01 لا بد من وجود مفعول به في جملة المعلوم حتى تستطيع تحويلها إلى جملة المجهول، فإن لم تتوافر المفعول به في جملة المعلوم فإن الجملة لا تقبل التحويل إلى المجهول بحالها. 02 تأخذ المفعول به ونضعه في بداية الجملة الجديدة بصيغة ( capital letter ) . 03 ننظر إلى زمن جملة المعلوم حتى تستطيع اختيار الفعل المساعد المناسب والذي يتناسب مع المفعول به من حيث الإفراد والجمع. 4 التصريف الثالث من الفعل V3 (P) حسب تصريف الأفعال سواء كانت المنظمة أو غير المنظمة. 5 لا ضرر من استخدام عبارة ( by ....... ) كجملة مكملة. 1. Simple present: المضارع السبست السؤال ^ الفعل ^ الإلإيات ^ Active: Do/Does + S+ base+ O? Passive: Am/Is/Are + O+V3? Active: S+ don't/doesn't +base +O. Passive: O+ am not/is not/are not +V3. Active: S+ base/base(s, es) +O. Passive: O+ am/is/are +V3. A. They speak English all over the world with their friends. English ................................................. Is spoken all over the world. B. They don’t read the books in their schools. The books ................................................. Aren’t read in their schools. C. she speaks English. English ................................................. . D. They eat apples Apples ................................................. . E. She doesn’t speak English English ................................................. . F. They don’t speak English English ................................................. . c- is spoken d- are eaten e- isn’t spoken f- isn’t spoken 2. Simple past: الماضي البسيط Active: Did + S+ base+ O? Passive: Was/Were + O+ V₃? A. They wrote three letters last week. Three letters ................................................................. Were written last week B. They climbed the tree last night. The tree................................................................. Was climbed last night. C. She took a book last week A book ............................................................................... D. They ate apples Apples .............................................................................. E. She didn’t see me I .................................................................................... F. They didn’t eat apples Apples .............................................................................. Was taken last week / are eaten / weren’t eaten 3. Present Perfect: المضارع النام Active: Have/Has +S+V₃ + O? Passive: Have/Has +O+ been +V₃? A. They have built a new house in Jabal Amman. A new house ................................................................. Has been built in Jabal Amman B. She has spoken English. English .............................................................................. C. They have taken books. Books .............................................................................. D. She hasn’t spoken English. English .............................................................................. Has been spoken / have been taken / hasn’t been spoken 4. **Past Perfect:** - **السؤال ^** - **الإيجابي ^** - Active: Had +S+V₃ + O? - Passive: Had +O+ been +V₃? - **النفي ^** - Active: S+ had not+ V₃+O. - Passive: O+ had not +been+ V₃ - **الإيجابي ^** - Active: S+ had +V₃+ O. - Passive: O+ had +been+V₃. ننزل then been ثم تصرف ثالث لا أهمية للمفرد أو الجمع. A. They had written three letters. Three letters ................................................................. Had been written B. She hadn’t eaten the food with her relatives. The food ................................................................. Hadn’t been eaten C. She had taken a book. A book ............................................................................... D. They had taken books. Books ............................................................................... E. She hadn’t eaten an apple. An apple ............................................................................ Had been taken / had been taken / hadn’t been eaten 5. **Future Perfect:** - **السؤال ^** - **الإيجابي ^** - Active: Will +S+ have+V₃ +O? - Passive: Will +O+ have+ been +V₃? - **النفي ^** - Active: S+ will not have + V₃+ O. - Passive: O+ will not have +been+ V₃. - **الإيجابي ^** - Active: S+ will have +V₃+ O. - Passive: O+ will have +been+ V₃. 1. They will have eaten the food. The food .................................................. will have been eaten 2. She can’t have spoken French. French.................................................. cant have been spoken 3. He will have taken a book. A book.............................................................................. 4. They will have taken books. Books.............................................................................. 5. She won’t have eaten an apple. An apple ............................................................................ Will have been taken / will have been taken / wont have been eaten 3- Add one word from box A and one word from box B to complete each sentence. | A | B | |-------|---------| | Get | around | | Look | down | | Meet | place | | Settle| started | | Take | up | | Wake | Up | أكمل الجمل التالية بالتركيب الصحيح: 1-. Tell me about the novel you’re reading Where does the story ____________________? 2-I’m sorry I’m late. I didn’t ____________________ early enough. 3- When I graduate from university I would like to buy a house and _________________. 4- If you’re free at the weekend, let’s ____________________ and go shopping together. 5- I’ve never visited that museum. I’d like to go in and _________________. 6- I’ve got a lot of homework, so I think I should ____________________ right now! 1- take place 2- wake up 3- settle down 4- meet up 5- look around 6- get started 3- Report the following statements. 1- I have some questions for you, Muna. Nour told Muna.......................................................... 2 I’ve lived in Amman for six years. Sami said .................................................................. 3- Yesterday I bought all the ingredients for a chocolate cake. Huda told me ................................................................ 4 I really enjoyed the book that I finished this morning. Tareq said .................................................................. 5- My favourite subject this year is Chemistry. Hussein told me .......................................................... 1 that she had some questions for her 2 that he had lived in Amman for six years 3 that she had bought all the ingredients for a chocolate cake the day before 4 that he had really enjoyed the book that he had finished that morning 5 that his favourite subject that year was Chemistry 5 Complete the sentences with words from the box. One word is not needed. أكمل الجمل التالية بالكلمة الصحيحة من الصندوق – واحدة منها لا تحتاجها. | energy | grateful | headlines | |--------|----------|-----------| | helmet | lawyer | likely | | navy | | | 1- I am studying hard because I want to be a............................................... 2- When you ride a bike, you should always wear a............................................... 3- Thank you so much! We are very ...................................................... 4- Do you think it is................................. to rain tomorrow? 5- I always look at the newspaper....................................................... but I don’t always read the articles. 6- Solar panels generate ....................................................... from the sun. 1- lawyer 2- helmet 3 -grateful 4- likely 5- headlines 6- energy Circle the correct words. ضع دائرة حول الإجابة الصحيحة: 1- We’re going to Aqaba again in / on the summer. I have / had been looking forward to it since last year. 2- We had the computer repaired / repairing because it had stopped to work / working. 3- Mahmoud was walking home when the rain was starting / started. It was very heavy, so he must / can’t have got very wet. 4- In the past, most letters wrote / were written by hand, but these days they are usually typed / typing. 1 in; have 2 repaired; working 3 started; must 4 were written; typed Complete the sentences with the cooking verbs in the box. One verb is not needed. Boil fry grill melt mix roast season slice sprinkle 1 When you heat cheese, it ...........................................s 2 Put some flour and sugar in a bowl and ...........................................them together. 3 You need a sharp knife to ...........................................the bread. 4 Heat the water until it ...........................................s. 5 Put the eggs in oil or butter to ...........................................them. 6- ...........................................some salt and pepper over the potatoes to ............... Them. 7- ........................................... the meat in the oven. 1 melt 2 mix 3 slice 4 boil 5 fry 6 Sprinkle; season 7 Roast 1- Match the descriptions with the pictures and the words in the box. One word is not needed. The first one is done for you. computer chip calculation Floppy disk smart phone program PC World Wide Web 1- a mobile phone that connects to the Internet smart phone: d 2 a very small piece found inside every computer ........................................... 3- a small square piece of plastic that was used to store information from computers ........................................... 4- a computer designed for one person to use ........................................... 5- when you use maths to work out an answer ........................................... 6- all the information shared by computers through the Internet ........................................... 1- smartphone: d 2- computer chip: b 3- floppy disk: f 4- PC: e 5 -calculation: c 6- World Wide Web: a Complete the sentences. Use words from exercises 1 and 2. 1 Although they are pocket-sized, .......................s are powerful computers as well as phones. 2 My brother is learning how to write Computer .........................s. 3- I need to make a few ...............s before I decide how much to spend. 4 Mobile phones used to be huge. Early ...............s were as big as bricks! 5 I can close the lid of my ............... and then put it in my bag. 1- smartphone 2- program 3- calculation 4- model 5-laptop 4 Complete the text with the correct form of the verbs in brackets. The first one is done for you. In 1943 CE, the chairman of a ‘business machines’ company (1) said (say) that the world only (2).................. (need) two or three computers. He (3).................. (be) wrong! Since then, there (4).................. (be) a technological revolution. These days, millions of families (5).................. (have) at least one computer at home, and many people (6).................. (carry) smartphones and tablets with them everywhere. A few people even (7).................. (wear) them – either on their wrists, round their necks or on their belts. There’s even more: experts say that one day soon we (8).................. (attach) them to our skin! 1- said 2- needed 3- was 4- has been 5- have 6- carry 7- wear 8 -will attach Choose the correct form of the verbs below. The first one is done for you. 1 Children often use / are using computers better than their parents. 2 If you will play / play computer games all day, you won’t have time to study. 3 I want to get / getting a tablet, but I can’t afford to buy / buying one at the moment. 4 Look at the black sky! It’s raining / going to rain soon! 5 I’m coming / come from Ajloun, but I’m staying / stay in Irbid for a few months. I will return to Ajloun in the spring. 6 Nadia has been doing / done her homework for two hours! She is / will be finished very soon. 7 If Ali had / has his own computer, he wouldn’t / doesn’t need to use his friend’s computer. 8 I was writing / wrote an email when my laptop was switching / switched itself off. 1- use 2- play 3- to get; to buy 4- going to rain 5- come; ’m staying 6- been doing; will be 7- had; wouldn’t 8- was writing; switched Rewrite the sentences with the words in brackets. The first one is done for you. 1- Perhaps Issa’s phone is broken. (might) Issa’s phone might be broken. 2- Somebody has found my missing laptop. (been) My .......................................................... 3- I asked someone to fix my computer. (had) I .......................................................... 4- It isn’t necessary to switch off the screen. (have) You .......................................................... 5- You are not allowed to touch this machine. (must) You .......................................................... 6- I think you should send a text message. (would) If .......................................................... 7- Press that button to make the picture move. (moves) If you .......................................................... 8- Mohammad checked his emails, and then he started work. (before) Mohammad had ............................................ Answers: 1 Issa’s phone might be broken. 2 My missing laptop has been found. 3 I had my computer fixed. 4 You don’t have to switch off the screen. 5 You mustn’t touch this machine. 6 If I were you, I would send a text message. 7 If you press that button, the picture moves. 8 Mohammad had checked his emails before he started work. Read the article again and match the headings with the correct paragraphs. You do not need one of the headings. 1 An easy life! 2 A frightening future 3 What is the ‘Internet of Things’? 4 Is progress always good? A 3 B 1 C 2 The Internet of Things A ............................................................... Everyone knows that the Internet connects people, but now it does more than that – it connects objects, too. These days, computers often communicate with each other; for example, your TV automatically downloads your favourite TV show, or your sat nav system tells you where you are. This is known as the ‘Internet of Things’ and there’s a lot more to come. B ............................................................... In just a few years’ time, experts say that billions of machines will be connected to each other and to the Internet. As a consequence, computers will increasingly run our lives for us. For example, your fridge will know when you need more milk and add it to your online shopping list; your windows will close if it is likely to rain; your watch will record your heart rate and email your doctor; and your sofa will tell you when you need to stand up and get some exercise! C ............................................................... Many people are excited about the ‘Internet of Things’. For them, a dream is coming true. They say that our lives will be easier and more comfortable. However, others are not so sure. They want to keep control of their own lives and their own things. In addition, they wonder what would happen if criminals managed to access their passwords and security settings. The dream could easily become a nightmare! Read the article once more, then answer the questions. 1- What does the ‘Internet of Things’ mean? Give an example from the text. ........................................................................................................... 2- Find a word in the first paragraph which has the same meaning as ‘speak to.’ ........................................................................................................... 3- How will the ‘Internet of Things’ help you to keep fit, according to the text? ........................................................................................................... 4- What does the word ‘others’ in bold in the third paragraph refer to? ........................................................................................................... 5- According to the text, why are some people excited about the future? Why are others worried? ........................................................................................................... 6- In your opinion, is the ‘Internet of Things’ exciting or worrying? Why? ........................................................................................................... Answers: 1 It means the connections between different computers. Examples from the text are TV downloads and sat nav. 2 communicate 3 The sofa will tell you when to get some exercise. 4 other people with a different opinion 5 Some people are excited because they think their lives will be made easier and more comfortable. Others are worried because they want to keep control of their own lives and their own things. 6 Students’ own answers | Acupuncture | a system of complementary medicine in which fine needles are inserted in the skin at specific points | الوخز بالإبر | |-------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------| | Ailment | illness | المرض | | Allergy | a reaction of the immune system when it is sensitive to something; | الحساسية | | Arthritis | a disease causing painful inflammation and stiffness of the joints | التهاب المفاصل | | Herbal remedy | An extract or mixture of a plant used to prevent, alleviate, or cure disease | العلاج العشبي | | Homoeopathy | a system of complementary medicine in which illnesses are treated by minute doses of herbs and other natural substances | العلاجات المكملة | | Immunization | The process by which an individual’s immune system becomes protected against an illness | التلقيح | | Malaria | a dangerous disease transmitted by mosquitoes | مرض الملاريا | | Migraine | a very bad headache which often comes with a feeling of sickness and problems with vision | داء الشقيقة | Complementary medicine: is it really a solution? العلاجات المكملة: هل هي الحل؟ Most doctors used to be sceptical about the validity of homoeopathy, acupuncture and other forms of complementary medicine. If patients wanted to receive this kind of non-conventional treatment, they used to have to consult a private practitioner who was likely not to have a medical degree. However, in recent years, the perception of this type of treatment has changed. These days, many family doctors study complementary medicine alongside conventional treatments, and many complementary medicine consultants also have medical degrees. مازال الأطباء يشكون بشأن العلاجات – الوخز بالإبر و بعض الأدوية المكملة. أن أراد المريض أحد الأدوية غير التقليدية – احتاجوا على استشارة أحد الممارسين للمهنة والذي قد لا يكون حاصلًا على شهادة طبية على أية حال – في السنوات الأخيرة فهم هذا النوع من العلاجات تغير. هذه الأيام أكثر الأطباء يدرسون العلاجات المكملة بجانب الأدوية التقليدية وبعض مستشاري الأدوية المكملة لديهم شهادات طبية. Whereas critics used to say that there was no scientific evidence that non-conventional treatments actually worked, now it is more common for medical experts to recognise that conventional medicine may not always be the only way to treat an ailment. بينما اعتاد النقد أن يقولوا أنه لا يوجد دليل أن العلاجات غير التقليدية تعمل جيدا – الآن أكثر من الشائع بالنسبة للخبراء في مجال الأدوية يدركون أن الأدوية التقليدية ليست الطريقة الوحيدة لعلاج المرض. At a surgery in London, 70 per cent of patients who were offered the choice between a herbal or a conventional medicine for common complaints such as insomnia, arthritis and migraines chose the herbal remedy. Fifty per cent of patients then said that the treatment helped. One doctor said, "I now consider homoeopathy to be a viable option for many different conditions, including anxiety, depression and certain allergies. It provides another option when conventional medicine does not address the problem adequately." في العلاجات الجراحية في لندن 70% من المرضى الذين تم العرض عليهم الخيار بين العلاج العشبي و العلاج التقليدي المتشكل من الأرق التناوب المفصل، وأمراض التقنية اختاروا العلاجات العشبية 50% من المرضى قالوا أن العلاج ساعدهم. أحد الأطباء قال أعتبر حاليا أن العلاجات الطبيعية خيار فعال للعلاج في ظروف مختلفة بما فيها الفلق والكتابة والحاسوبات المختلفة. تزيد لدينا خيارات أخرى عندما الأدوية التقليدية تشخيص المرض بشكل كافٍ. However, complementary medicine cannot be used for all medical treatments. It can never substitute for immunisations as it will not produce the antibodies needed to protect against childhood diseases. It also cannot be used to protect against malaria. One doctor said, "I will always turn to conventional medical treatment first to ensure that no underlying condition is missed. However, the idea of complementary treatments is no longer an alien concept. In my opinion, it should work alongside modern medicine, and not against it." على أية حال فإن الأدوية المكملة لا تستخدم لجميع العلاجات. لا يمكن أن تكون البديل للقاحات لأنها لا تنتج الأجسام المضادة التي تحتجتها الأجسام لعلاج أمراض المفولة. ولا تستخدم كمضاد للمalaria. أحد الأطباء قال سوف أعود للعلاجات التقليدية. على أية حال أن الفكرة من العلاجات التقليدية هي ليست مفهومها أجنبيا. برأيي أنها تعمل مساندة للعلاجات الحديثة وليس ضدها. Listen to and read the article again, and decide if these sentences are true or false. Correct the false sentences. 1. Doctors and patients didn't use to be convinced that complementary forms of medicine work. True 2. Nowadays, many doctors study complementary forms of treatment. True 3. At the surgery mentioned in the article, the majority of patients found that the herbal remedy did not help them. False. Fifty per cent of patients said it helped 4. Complementary medicine can work as a replacement for immunisations or to treat malaria. False. Complementary medicine cannot be used for all medical treatments Answer the following questions about the article. 1. The article suggests that people’s perception of complementary medicine has changed over time. Why do you think this is the case? 2. “Complementary treatments … should work alongside modern medicine, not against it.” Explain this statement in two sentences, justifying your answer with Suggested answers 1- I think people’s opinions of complementary medicine might have changed because of more information being freely available on the Internet. Additionally, more research may have been done on the effects of complementary medicine. 2- Students’ answers might include mention of the doctor’s comments recognition that conventional medicine isn’t always the solution to a medical problem and the positive responses from patients. Used to We use this expression to talk about habits or repeated actions in the past which we don't do in the present. We also use it to talk about states in the past which are no longer true. For example: Used to = an action or habit that was common in the PAST but not anymore. - I used to have long hair (but now I have short hair). - He used to smoke (but now he doesn’t smoke). - They used to live in India (but now they live in Germany). Watch out! With the negative and the question it's 'use' and not 'used': Used to in Negative If we want to make a negative sentence, the didn’t part shows that we are talking about the past tense. It is NOT common to use Used to in negative form though we will show you how to do it anyway. Compare the normal past tense: - I played rugby on Saturday. (past - affirmative) - I didn’t play rugby on Saturday. (past – negative – play doesn’t have the –ed at the end because the auxiliary didn’t tells us that the sentence is in the past tense) - Did you use to be a teacher? - Did he use to study French? - She didn’t use to like chocolate, but she does now. - I didn’t use to want to have a nice house. We also use it for something that was true but no longer is. - There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn’t. - She used to have really long hair but she’s had it all cut off. - I didn’t use to like him but now I do. We use 'be used to + verb-ing' to talk about things which feel normal for us or things that we are accustomed to: نستخدمها لشيء نشعر أنه أمر معتادين عليه و مازلنا متعودين عليه. - I'm used to getting up early, so I don't mind doing it (= getting up early is normal for me, it's what I usually do). - My little daughter is used to eating lunch at noon. So she was grumpy yesterday when we didn't eat until one. Note that we make the negative or the question with the verb 'be' in the normal way. The 'used to' doesn't change: نعمل النفي أو السؤال مع أفعال آل be - Lucy isn't used to staying up late, so she's very tired today. - Are your children used to walking a lot? Choose the correct option in each sentence. 1 I didn’t use to / am used to understand English, but now I do. 2 My cousin has lived in Lebanon for a year. He says he is used to / didn’t use to living there now. 3 My family and I are used to / used to go camping once a month, but we stopped doing that when we moved to the city. 4 Joining a gym can be very tiring at first if you used to / aren’t used to doing much exercise. 5 When I was young, I used to / am used to going fishing with my dad every weekend. Now I don’t, unfortunately! Answers 1- didn’t use to 2- is used to 3- used to 4- aren’t used to 5- used to Are happier people healthier – and, if so, why? هل الناس السعداء أصحاء؟ وإن كان كذلك – لماذا؟ It’s normal to feel a bit blue from time to time. However, studies show that negative emotions can harm the body. من الطبيعي أن تشعر بالحزن من وقت لآخر – على أية حال أثبتت الدراسات أن المشاعر السلبية قد تؤذي الجسد. Anger can also have harmful effects on health. When you see red, your blood pressure is raised and you can suffer from headaches, sleep problems and digestive problems. However, what about positive feelings and attitudes? Until recently, scientists had not investigated whether there is a link between positive feelings and good health. أيضًا للغضب نتائج سلبية على صحتنا – عندما تضطرب ضغط دمك وقد تشعر بالصداع و مشاكل النوم و الهضم. على أية حال ماذا بشأن المشاعر والمواقف الإيجابية؟ حتى وقت متأخر فإن العلماء لم يحققوا فيما إن كان هناك رابط بين المشاعر الإيجابية و الصحة السلبية. Then, in a study that had followed more than 6,000 men and women aged 25 to 74 for 20 years, researchers found that positivity reduced the risk of heart disease. Other factors influencing health included a supportive network of family and friends, and an optimistic outlook on life. إن الدراسة التي أجريت على 6000 رجل و امرأة أعمارهم بين 25 و 74 عاما و لمدة عشرين عام من الدراسة ان الإيجابية تقلل المخاطر على القلب. عوامل أخرى لها دور في الصحة الجيدة هو دعم الرابطة الأسرية و الأصدقاء و النظرة المتفائلة. The research showed that children who were more able to stay focused on a task, and who had a more positive attitude to life at age seven, were usually in better health 30 years later. أثبت العلماء أن الأطفال القادرين على البقاء بتركيزهم الجيد في مهماتهم و لديهم موافق إيجابية في سن السابعة يكونون بصحة جيدة بعد 30 عام. The study has been controversial. Some health professionals believe that bad lifestyle choices, such as smoking or lack of exercise, are the reason for heart disease and other illnesses, and not an individual’s attitude. The researchers, while agreeing, raise the question: why are people making bad lifestyle decisions? Do more optimistic people make better and healthier lifestyle choices? الدراسة فيها نوع من الجدلية – بعض مختصين الصحة يقولون إن أسلوب الحياة السيئ هو الذي يؤدي إلى أمراض القلب والأمراض الأخرى وليس الموافق الشخصية – الخبراء بينما يوافقونا يظهر لنا سؤال لماذا يميل البشر لأسلوب حياة خاطئ؟ هل الناس المتفائلين سيكون خيارهم أفضل من غيرهم؟ The researchers appreciate that not everyone’s personal circumstances and environment make it possible to live without worry. However, they believe that if we teach children to develop positive thinking, and to ‘bounce back’ after a setback, these qualities will improve their overall health in the future. قد الخبراء أن ليس كل الظروف المحيطة تجعلنا نعيش بلا قلق – على أية حال يعتقدون أننا يجب أن نعلم أننا نكون أن يطوروا تفكيرهم الإيجابي وأن يعودوا أقوياء لأن حصلت معهم أي نكسة – هذا سيحسن صحتهم مستقبلاً. 3 Read the article again and answer the questions. 1 What are the possible effects of anger and stress on someone’s health? 2 What is controversial about the researchers’ study? 3 What is your opinion of the researchers’ findings? 1 They can raise blood pressure and cause headaches, sleep problems and digestive problems, as well as leading to illnesses such as heart disease. 2 Many other researchers believe that bad lifestyle choices are responsible for these problems and not an individual’s attitude. 3 Students’ own answers. Whichever opinion they have, they should give reasons using the information in the article, where possible. 4- a What feeling does each of the idioms in bold from the text refer to? A- happiness B- sadness C- fear D- anger Answers 1- feel a bit blue : sadness see red : anger b- What do the following colour idioms in brackets mean? 1- Have you heard the good news? We’ve got the green light to go ahead with our project! (the green light) 2- Luckily, the police arrived and the thief was caught red-handed. (red-handed) 3- I was shocked when I heard the news. It came completely out of the blue. (out of the blue) 4- Nobody goes to the new private sports club. The building is a white elephant. (a white elephant) Answers: 1- permission 2- in the act of doing something Wrong 3- unexpectedly 4- a useless possession. Phrasal verbs: point out – tell someone about something they hadn’t noticed leave out – not include something carry out – do something that needs to be organised and planned find out – discover, become aware set out – begin a journey work out – think about something and manage to understand it Health in Jordan: A report Health conditions in Jordan are among the best in the Middle East. This is largely due to the country’s commitment to making healthcare for all a top priority. Advances in education, economic conditions, sanitation, clean water, diet and housing have made our community healthier. الظروف الصحية في الأردن هي الأفضل في الشرق الأوسط. وهذا عائد لالتزام البلد تجاه الجميع – تطور في التعليم والظروف الاقتصادية – تصريف المجازري – المياه النظيفة – المياه النظيفة. تجعل مجتمعا أكثر صحة. A ……… Healthcare centres As a result of careful planning, the number of healthcare services has been increasing rapidly over the past years. More than 800 different kinds of healthcare centres have been built, as well as 188 dental clinics. In 2012 CE, 98 percent of Jordanian children were fully immunised, thanks to immunisation teams that had been working towards this goal for several years. Although there were remote areas of the country where people had been without consistent access to electricity and safe water, almost 99 percent of the country’s population now has access. كنتيجة للتخطيط الجيد عدد الخدمات الصحية تزداد بسرعة – أكثر من 800 مركز خدماتي يني و أكثر من 188 عيادة أسنان. وفي 2012 يوجد 98% من أطفال الأردنين يتم تلقيهم – شكا فريق التلقيح الذين يعلمون لتحقيق الأهداف لسنوات عديدة. بالرغم من أن مناطق بعيدة تأخذ الطاقة، وتوفير الماء – أكثر من 99% من الوطن لديهم خدمات. B ……… Hospitals Although the country has been focusing mainly on improving its primary healthcare facilities, it has not neglected its advanced medical facilities. The reputation of Jordanian doctors has spread in the region, and now many more patients come to Jordan for open heart surgery. In Jordan, the open heart surgery programme started in 1970 CE in Amman. بالرغم من أن الدولة تركز على الخدمات الصحية الأساسية – سمعة الأطباء الأردنيين انتشرت لذلك فإن أكثر المرضى من الدول المجاورة يأتون للعلاج للقلب المفتوح في الأردن – بدأ برنامج علاج القلب المفتوح في 1970 في عمان. C ……… Life expectancy The life expectancy figures show that Jordan’s healthcare system is successful. In 1965 CE, the average Jordanian’s life expectancy was age 50. In 2012 CE, this average life expectancy had risen to 73.5. According to UNICEF statistics, between 1981 CE and 1991 CE, Jordan’s infant mortality rates declined more rapidly than anywhere else in the world – from 70 deaths per 1,000 births in 1981 CE to only 32 deaths per 1,000 births in 2014 CE. تبين الأرقام أن الحياة الصحية في الأردن ناجحة – في 1965 فإن معدل العمر في الأردن 50 سنة لكن في 2012 ارتفع معدل التوقعات إلى 73. حسب إحصائيات اليونيسيف بين 1981- 1991 معدل وفيات الأطفال قد انخفض بشكل ملحوظ عنه في أي من بلدان العالم – فقد انخفض من 70 وفاة لكل 1000 في 1981 الى 32 مولود من كل 1000 في عام 2014. Conclusion The low infant mortality rate, as well as the excellent healthcare system, have been contributing factors to Jordan’s healthy population growth, which will result in a strong work force with economic benefits for the whole country. Read the report again and answer these questions. 1- What is the title of the report? 2- What is the purpose of the sub-headings before different sections? 3- What is the link between the introduction and the conclusion? 4- Is the language formal or informal? How can you tell? Answers 1 Health in Jordan: A report 2 They tell the reader what the section will be about. If it is a very long report, they are very useful in helping the reader to find particular pieces of information and making the text easier to read. 3 ‘Health conditions are among the best in the Middle East’ and ‘Advances … have made our community healthier’ links with ‘excellent healthcare system’ and ‘contributing factors to Jordan’s healthy population growth’. 4 The language is formal. There are no contractions; the sentences are quite long, with relative pronouns, etc.; the vocabulary is formal; there are linking expressions such as As a result of, According to and Although; the statistics included add to the formality. Past perfect continuous | subject | + | auxiliary verb HAVE | + | auxiliary verb BE | + | main verb | |---------|---|---------------------|---|------------------|---|-----------| | | | conjugated in simple past tense | | past participle | | present participle | | | | had | | been | | base + ing | Form: Had + been + V.ing For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not after the first auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect continuous tense: | Subject | Auxiliary verb | Auxiliary verb | Main verb | |---------|----------------|----------------|-----------| | + I | had | been | working | | + You | had | been | playing | tennis | | - It | had | not been | working | well | | - We | had | not been | expecting | her | | ? Had | you | been | drinking? | | ? Had | they | been | waiting | long? | When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract the subject and first auxiliary verb: | I had been | I'd been | |------------|----------| | you had been | you'd been | | he had | he'd been | | she had been | she'd been | | it had been | it'd been | | we had been | we'd been | | they had been | they'd been | Here are some more examples: - John was very tired. He **had been running**. - I could smell cigarettes. Somebody **had been smoking**. - Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It **had not been running** well for a long time. - **Had** the pilot **been drinking** before the crash? You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being **now** the time is **past**. | Past perfect continuous tense | present perfect continuous tense | |-------------------------------|----------------------------------| | had | have | | been | been | | doing | doing | | >>>> | >>>> | For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you: - "I am angry. I **have been waiting** for two hours." Later, you tell your friends: - "Ram was angry. He **had been waiting** for two hours." توضيح: نستخدم هذا الزمن لتوضح أن حدثاً بدأ في الماضي واستمر حتى حصل حدث آخر في الماضي. | After | before | when | because | |-------|--------|------|---------| 1. I had been talking **before** Ali arrived 2. Ali was very tired **because** he had been working all day. باختصار نستخدم الماضي المستمر عند وجود (for) و (all+) Time و وجود فعلين بين الأقواس احدهما be. Example >> 1. When Mr. Mahmoud arrived, he was exhausted. He ............... for five days. (Be, climb) **had been climbing** 2. How long had he been ................. in the garden? (Play) **playing** 3. Ahmad slept well. He ............ hard all the night. (Be, work) **had been working** 4. Ahmad had been..................... T.V for a long time. (Watch) **watching** 5. Ahmad had ...................... playing since the morning. (Be) **been** 6. After ............... T.V I slept . ( watch ) **watching** - Complete the sentences, using the Past Perfect Continuous form of the verbs in brackets. 1- A: When I saw you yesterday, you looked really tired. B: Yes. **I had been running** for half an hour. (run) 2- My mother lost her purse yesterday. She .................. in the market; she must have put it down somewhere and left it there. (shop) 3- I made my mother a cup of tea. She was hot and tired; She ........................... all afternoon for a special family dinner. (cook) Answers 1- had been running 2- had been shopping 3- had been cooking Complete the sentences by choosing the correct answer: Hind (1) **has / had** been working very hard for several weeks before she did her final exams. When the results were published, she was delighted to learn that she (2) **has / had** passed. She (3) **has / had** done extremely well. She (4) **phoned / had phoned** her parents from the college. They (5) **were / had been** waiting for her call all morning. When she arrived home an hour later, there was a surprise for her. For several weeks, her parents (6) **planned / had been planning** a special weekend away to the Jerash Festival. They (7) **have / had** managed to make it a surprise for Hind, even though they (8) **were / had been** using the family computer to make all the arrangements! Hind was delighted. She (9) **has / had been** talking about the Jerash Festival for months; and now the whole family was going! It was a wonderful graduation present. Answers 1- had 2- had 3- had 4- phoned 5- had been 6- had been planning 7- had 8- had been 9- had been Activity book Match the phrases in the table with the correct meanings. One word is not needed. The first one is done for you. 1- a serious illness that is spread by mosquitoes **Malaria** 2- a disease that causes pain and swelling in joints **التهاب المفاصل** 3- an illness or disease which is not very serious .......................................... 4- giving a drug to protect against illness ....................................................... 5- an extremely bad headache ............................................................... 6- a form of complementary medicine which uses thin needles ...................... 7- conditions that make you ill when you eat, touch or breathe a particular thing ........................................... 1- malaria 2- arthritis 3- التهاب المفاصل 4- immunisation التلقيح 5- migraine 6- الشقيقة 7- الورك بالإبر allergies الحساسيات Complete the sentences with words from exercise 1. The first one is done for you. 1- My grandfather has **arthritis** in his fingers, so he sometimes finds it difficult to write. 2- ........................................... to nuts and milk are becoming more common. 3- Many serious diseases can be prevented By..........................................., which helps the body to build antibodies. 4- Headaches and colds are common .................................................s, especially in winter. 5- If you have a..........................................., the best thing to do is take some medicine and rest somewhere quiet. 1- arthritis 2 -Allergies 3- immunisation 4- ailment 5- migraine Complete the sentences with the correct form of the phrases in the box. Two phrases are needed twice. The first one is done for you. be used to use to not be used to used to 1- We needed warm clothes when we went to London. We **weren’t used to** the cold weather. 2- My grandparents didn’t............................... send emails when they were my age. 3- Rashed...............................go swimming every morning, but now he doesn’t. 4- We always go to the market across the street, so we............................... eating fresh vegetables. 5- Please slow down. I .......................................................... walking so fast! 6- When you were younger, did you............................... play in the park? 1- weren’t used to 2- use to 3- used to 4- are used to 5- ‘m not used to 6- use to Choose the correct form of the verbs below. The first one is done for you. 1- I used to / am used to go shopping in the local supermarket, but it closed two years ago, so now I have to drive into town to shop. 2- There didn’t use to / wasn’t used to be so much pollution, but these days it is a global problem. 3- I think television used to / is used to be better than it is now. Most of the programmes these days are just reality TV. 4- Most Jordanians are used to / used to the hot weather that we have in summer. 5- There was used to / used to be a lot more wild animals in the past, but they are becoming rare nowadays. 6- Salma has been practising the oud really hard and she is now used to / now used to playing it. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verbs in brackets. The first one is done for you. 1- When I was a student, I used to work (work) very hard. I used to get up (get up) very early and study alone before my lectures, attend lectures all day, and then come home to study some more! 2- Are you ……………….(live) in Jordan yet? You’ve only been here for two months. 3- When I was a child, my grandmother ……………………………(make) cakes for us all the time, and I liked helping her a lot. 4- My grandfather retired a month ago. He isn’t………………………….. (have) nothing to do all day. He says he needs a project to concentrate on. 5- I just got glasses this week, and I’m not ………………………………..(wear) them yet, so I’m still having difficulty. 1- used to work; used to get up 2- used to living 3- used to make 4- used to having 5- used to wearing Complete the sentences with the words in the box. Viable فعال alien أجنبي conventional تقليدي sceptical شكك complementary مكمل 1- I don’t really believe that story – I’m very _________________________. 2- Doctors often treat infections with antibiotics; that is the______________________ approach. 3- Medicines that are not the normal, traditionally accepted treatments are known as ___________________________. 4- Another way of saying that something could be successful is to say it is _________________________. 5- If something seems very strange, we sometimes say it is ______________________________. 1- sceptical 2- conventional 3- complementary 4- viable 5- alien Sentences 1–4 contain incorrect information. Correct them, using the phrases in the box. One phrase is not needed. The first one is done for you. conventional medicine / produce ///// antibodies ///// children and teenagers better and healthier lifestyle choices ///// suffer from health problems relax / get some exercise 1- A good way to cope with stress is to work extra hard. No, it isn’t. You should try to relax and get some exercise. 2- Complementary medicine can be used to immunise people. No, it can’t. You can immunize yourself using ___________________________. 3- Optimistic people make bad lifestyle choices. No, they don’t. They make ___________________________. 4- Seeing red has positive effects on your health. No, it doesn’t. You often_________________________. 1- No, it isn’t. You should try to relax and get some exercise. 2- No, it can’t. You can immunise yourself using conventional medicine because it produces (the necessary) antibodies. 3- No, they don’t. They make better and healthier lifestyle choices. 4- No, it doesn’t. You often suffer from health problems (if you get angry). Read the article and match the paragraphs with the correct headings. One heading is not needed. 1 Time to listen 2 Useful tips 3 Don’t leave it too late! 4 A growing problem 5 It’s good for you! Get moving! A................................. A growing problem In many countries, an increasing number of young people and adults are overweight or even obese. One reason for this is the growing popularity of fast food, which didn’t use to be as common as it is now. في بعض البلدان يزداد عدد الشباب والبالغين أصحاب الأوزان الزائدة (البدنيين جدا) – سبب واحد لهذا وهو ارتباط الوجبات السريعة السريعة والتي أصبحت شائعة الآن. (1) Another big factor is lack of exercise. People would often walk to school or work, but these days many more of us drive. Modern technology has also played its part; we spend more and more time focusing on computer screens. Before the Internet was invented, nobody had dreamt of online shopping, but now we can buy almost anything without leaving the sofa. غالبا يمشي الناس للمدرسة أو العمل ولكن هذه الأيام الكثيرون منا يقودون سيارات التكنولوجيا الحديثة لعبت أيضا دورها – تمضي الكثير من وقتنا أمام شاشات الحواسيب قبل اختراع الإنترنت لم يحلم أحد بالتسوق من خلال النت ولكن الآن نشتري ما نريد دون أن نترك أريكتنا. B ....................... Time to listen Health experts have been warning about this trend for years, and their advice is clear. Adults should aim to exercise for at least two and a half hours every week; for children and teenagers the target should be at least an hour a day. This might not sound very much. However, recent research shows that less than 50% of the British population manages this. 2 School children are less physically active than they used to be. Girls in particular often dislike PE. This can lead to serious health problems. حذر خبراء الصحة من هذا الميلول ونصيحتهم كانت واضحة وهو أن يتدرب البالغين ساعتين ونصف أسبوعيا على الأقل أما الأطفال والمراهقين ساعة واحدة أسبوعيا – قد لا يؤثر كثيرا لكن الأبحاث الأخيرة تبين أن 50% من البريطانيين يفعل هذا – أطفال المدارس أقل لياقة مما يجب أن يكونوا عليه – البنات لا يعشقن الرياضة وهذا يؤدي لمشاكل صحية. C ........................................... It’s good for you! Experts recommend a mixture of activities. These should include moderate exercise, such as fast walking, and more strenuous exercise, like running. (3) They also advise exercise that strengthens the muscles, for example sit-ups. The more muscle we build, the more calories we burn, and the fitter we become. In addition, exercise is a great way to cope with stress. In a recent study, patients who had been suffering from depression reported a great improvement after increased physical activity. يوصي الخبراء بمزيج من النشاطات منها التمارين المعتدلة مثل الهرولة وتمارين النشاط مثل الركض – يوصون أيضا بتنمية العضلات – كلما بينا تحسلاتنا كلما حرقتا سعرات حرارية كلما أصبحنا أكثر لياقة بالإضافة لذلك التمارين طريق للسيطرة على التوتر – في الدراسات الأخيرة أن الذين يمارسون الرياضة تنتهي الكآبة عندهم. D ......................................................... Useful tips Of course this raises a question: how can I manage to fit in all this extra exercise? The best way is to build it into our daily lives so that it becomes a routine. (4) It doesn’t have to take much extra time You could get off the bus one stop earlier than usual, or stand up when you’re on the phone! Most importantly, we should find a sport that we enjoy doing. That way, we will all become fitter, healthier and happier. طبعا هذا يظهر لنا سؤالا – كيف أتصور كيف يمكن أن أصبح لائقا من خلال تمارين إضافية؟ الطريقة الأفضل لذلك هو أن تصبح الرياضة روتينا، لا تأخذ وقتا طويلا لذلك – قد تخرج من النابض قبل المكان المحدد أو أن تتفق عندما تتكلم في الهاتف – والاهتمام أن نجد رياضة نستمتع بها. بهذا نصبح أكثر لياقة وأكثر سعادة. A 4 B 1 C 5 D 2 Read the article again and complete it with the missing sentences. One sentence is not needed. ضع هذه الجمل في الفراغات الموجودة بالفقرة. a- School children are less physically active than they used to be. b- Another big factor is lack of exercise. c- They also advise exercise that strengthens the muscles, for example sit-ups. d- On the other hand, it can be fun. e- It doesn’t have to take much extra time. 1 b 2 a 3 c 4 e Answer the following questions. 1- According to the article, what are the main reasons for higher rates of obesity? .......................................................... 2- What is the minimum amount of exercise recommended for someone in your age group?........................................................... 3- Do most British people get enough exercise? Which sentence in the article tells you this?.......................................................... 4- Guess the meaning of the highlighted word in paragraph C. Then check in a dictionary.................................................................. 5- The author suggests some ways of including exercise in our normal lives. Give two examples from the article............................................ 1- the growing popularity of fast food; increasing inactivity (preferring to drive rather than walk, and shopping online) 2- at least an hour’s exercise every day 3- No, they don’t: ‘However, recent research shows that less than 50% of the British population manages this.’ 4- *Strenuous* means requiring a lot of effort. 5- getting off the bus one stop earlier than usual; standing up when you’re on the phone | apparatus | the technical equipment or machinery needed for a particular purpose | الجهاز | |-----------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | appendage | a body part, such as an arm or a leg, connected to the main trunk of the body | التوصيل | | artificial | made or produced by human beings rather than occurring naturally | اصطناعي | | limb | arm or leg of a person | العضو | | prosthetic| an artificial body part | البديل | | sponsor (v) | to financially support a person or an event | الداعم | Young Emirati inventor is going to travel the world apparatus – equipment appendage – limb artificial – prosthetic sponsor – fund Ten-year-old Adeeb al-Balooshi, from Dubai, is going to travel to seven countries on a tour which has been organised and funded by Sheikh Hamdan bin Mohammad, Crown Prince of Dubai. The boy caught Sheikh Hamdan’s attention with his invention — a prosthetic limb for his father. The Sheikh has taken a special interest in the boy, and hopes the tour that he is sponsoring for Adeeb will give the young inventor more self-confidence and inspire other young Emirati inventors. Adeeb got the idea for a special kind of prosthetic leg while he was at the beach with his family. His father, who wears an artificial leg, could not swim in the sea as he could not risk getting his leg wet. This inspired Adeeb to invent a waterproof prosthetic leg. Adeeb is going to visit the USA, France, the UK, Ireland, Belgium, Italy and Germany, where he will be staying with relatives. However, while he is in Germany, Adeeb will not be spending all his time sightseeing. He will be working with a specialist doctor to build the appendage. He will also be attending a course on prosthetics and learning about different kinds of medical apparatus. Adeeb has invented several other devices, including a tiny cleaning robot and a heart monitor, which is attached to a car seat belt. In the case of an emergency, rescue services and the driver’s family will be automatically connected with the driver through this special checking device. He has also invented a fireproof helmet. This special equipment, which has a built-in camera system, will help rescue workers in emergencies. It is for these reasons that Adeeb rightly deserves his reputation as one of the youngest inventors in the world. اخترع أيضا خوذة واقية من النار. هذه الآلة المصموعة بنظام كاميرا سيساعد على إنقاذ العمال في حالات الطوارئ. لأجل كل هذا أديب يستحق السمعة الطيبة لأصغر مخترع في العالم. 1 Why was Sheikh Hamdan interested in helping Adeeb? Why did he offer Adeeb the gift of a world tour? 2 How did Adeeb get his inspiration for a waterproof prosthetic leg? 3 Who will Adeeb be staying with in Germany, and what will he be doing there? 4 What does the suffix -proof mean (waterproof, line 15; fireproof)? 5 What is the purpose of the in-car heart monitor? Why do you think that it is built into the seat belt? 1 Sheikh Hamdan was interested in Adeeb’s invention of a prosthetic limb for his father. He offered Adeeb the world tour to help to give him more self-confidence and to inspire other young inventors from the UAE. 2 He got the inspiration when he was at the beach with his family. His father couldn’t swim because he couldn’t risk getting his prosthetic leg wet. 3 Adeeb will be staying with relatives in Germany. He will be working with a doctor to build his new invention of the waterproof prosthetic leg, as well as attending a course to find out more about prosthetics. 4 It means ‘to provide protection against’. 5 The in-car heart monitor will be used to keep an eye on those with a heart problem while they are driving or in a car. It is built into the seat belt so that when the driver or passenger wears it, it is near their heart. The Future Continuous (will + be + verb-ing) A continuous action in the future which is interrupted by a time or by another action. حدث مستمر في المستقبل ينتهي مع حدث آخر I will be waiting when you arrive. At eight O’clock will be eating dinner. A complete action in the future that will happen in the normal course of events. حدث سيكتمل في المستقبل مع سلسلة أحداث تكونت تلك الفترة. The Government will be making a statement later. Because this talks about something that will happen if everything is as we planned, we often use this tense to ask politely about what someone is going to do. Will you be taking your car to the meeting? (=I'm asking very indirectly and politely - perhaps I want to get a lift). To make a guess about the present. My mother will be working now (= I think she is working now, but I'm not completely certain). **POSITIVE FORM** At five a.m Tomorrow: - I will be running - you will be sleeping Here's the **negative**: When Ali gets home, - I will not be sleeping (I won't be ..) - you will not be running (you won't be ..) **yes / no' questions:** When arrives at the party, - will I be sleeping? - will you be running? **Next weekend,** - what will I be doing? - where will you be working? - how will she be travelling? Future Perfect Tense How do we make the Future Perfect Tense? Subject + will + have + v3 We use this English verb tense: 1. With a future time word, (and often with 'by') to talk about an action that will finish before a certain time in the future, but we don't know exactly when. يستخدم للتحدث عن شيء انتهى قبل حدوث حدث آخر ولكن لا ندري بالضبط متى انتهى. By 10 o'clock I will have finished my homework. (=I will finish my homework some time before 10, but we don't know exactly when) بحلول العاشرة أكون قد أنهيت حل واجبي – أي سوف أنهي حل واجبي قبل العاشرة – لكن بالضبط متى لا ندري. By the time I'm sixty, I will have retired. (=I will retire sometime before I'm sixty. We don't know exactly when, but definitely before my sixtieth birthday) عند عمر السنتين سوف أنقاعد – لا نعرف متى بالضبط لكن المهم عند السنتين. By six pm tonight: - I will have finished this book - You will have studied the English tenses - She will have cooked dinner Examples: positive/negative/question - You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S. - Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.? - You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S. The future continuous (will be + ‘ing’ form) and the future perfect (will have + past participle) tenses are used to talk about events in the future. Future continuous - Don’t ring at 8 o’clock. I’ll be watching Who Wants to be a Millionaire. - This time tomorrow we’ll be sitting on the beach. I can’t wait! Future Perfect - Do you think you will have finished it by next Thursday? - In 5 years time I’ll have finished university and I’ll be able to earn some money at last. 1- ‘I will be doing something’ (future continuous) = I will be in the middle of doing something. 2- The football match begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.15. So during this time, for example at 8.30, Kevin will be watching the match. 3- Don’t phone me between 7 and 8. We’ll be having dinner then. Complete the mini-dialogues using the Future Continuous. 1- A: Can I call you tonight after 6 p.m., or …………………… (you have) dinner with your family then? 2- B: No, I………………………… (not have) dinner at that time. I………………………… (watch) the news. My mum ………………………..(prepare) dinner, because we usually eat at about 7 p.m. 3 - A: What do you think…………………… (you do) in two years’ time? ………………….(you work), or …………………….(you do) a university degree? 4- B: I certainly………………. (not work) because I want to do a degree in Medicine. It’s a very long course, so I……………………………. (still study) in seven years’ time! Answers 1 will you be having 2 will not be having; will be watching; will be preparing 3 you will be doing; Will you be working; will you be doing 4 will not/won’t be working; will still be studying Choose the correct form of the verbs. 1- If you need to contact me next week, we’ll stay / be staying at a hotel in Aqaba. 2- If you need help to find a job, I will help / be helping you. 3- I can’t call my dad right now. He’ll board / be boarding the plane. It takes off in an hour. 4 - We won’t be home tomorrow night. We’ll watch / be watching the football match at the stadium. 5- Do you think you’ll miss / be missing your school friends when you go to university? Answers 1 be staying 2 help 3 be boarding 4 be watching 5 miss Work in pairs. What will you be doing at the times in the box? Ask and answer questions using the Future Continuous. this time tomorrow in five years’ time on Friday afternoon in June A: What will you be doing this time tomorrow? B: I will be sitting in the dentist’s chair. What about you? A: I will be having a piano lesson. 2- Read the words in the box. Which words refer to illnesses and other medical conditions? Which refer to medical apparatus or treatment? Check the meaning of any word(s) that you do not know in the Glossary on pages 90–92 or in a dictionary. coma غيبوبة dementia الخرف drug المخدر implant الزرع medical طبي trial المحاكمة pill الحبة Scanner الناسخ الضوئي side الجانب effect تأثير stroke الضربة symptom الغلامة Answers Illnesses and other medical conditions: coma, dementia, side effect, stroke, symptom Medical apparatus or treatment: drug, implant, medical trial, pill, scanner We will be able to have an operation to increase our intelligence. Scientists have already developed brain implants that improve vision or allow disabled people to use their thoughts in order to control prosthetic limbs like arms, legs or hands, or operate a wheelchair. In 2012 CE, research on monkeys showed that a brain (1)... implant .................. improved their decision-making abilities. طور العلماء زراعة الدماغ لتحسين البصر أو السماح للمعاقين أن يستخدموا أفكارهم لزراعة الأعضاء البديلة مثل الذراعين والساقين أو اليدين أو يشغلوا الكراسي المتحركة. في 2012 بحوث على القرود بينت إن زراعة الدماغ حسنت قدرة الدماغ عندها. How will humans benefit from this research? Scientists hope to develop a similar device to help people who have been affected by brain damage, which could be caused by (2) ........... dementia ............... , a stroke or other brain injuries. كيف يستفيد البشر من هذه الأبحاث؟ العلماء يأملون أن يطوروا آلة شبيهة لمساعدة الناس الذين يتأثرون من تلف الدماغ الذي يسبب الخرف أو الضربة أو الآم الصداع الأخرى. Doctors will be able to communicate with people in a coma. In 2010 CE, neuroscientists confirmed that it was possible to communicate with some patients in a coma, by using a special brain (3)......... scanner .......... Called an MRI. They suggested that, in the future, more meaningful dialogue with patients in a coma would be possible. في 2010 أكد علماء الأعصاب أنه من الممكن التواصل مع من هم في الغيبوبة من خلال ناسخ صوتي للدماغ يسمى التصوير بالرنين المغناطيسي – اقترحوا أنه في المستقبل إنه سيصبح التواصل مع من هم في غيبوبة ممكنًا. Two years later, it has finally happened. The scanner, used on a man who has been in a coma for more than twelve years, proves that he has a conscious, thinking mind – a fact that had previously been disputed by many. Doctors plan to use similar brain-scanning techniques in the future to find out whether patients are in pain, or what they would like to be done in order to improve their quality of life. بعد عامين حصلت أخيرا. استخدم هذا المساح المغناطيسي على رجل كان في غيبوبة لمدة 12 عام أثبتت أن هذا الشخص كان عنده ضمير – عقل مفكر. يخطط الأطباء لاستخدامها جهازاً مشابهاً ليكتشفوا إن كان هؤلاء عندهم آلام أم لا و ماذا يريدون أن يتم فعله لتحسين أنماط حياتهم. A new drug will help to treat certain types of cancer almost instantly. A new cancer drug is being trialled in Plymouth, UK, which doctors hope will extend the lives of cancer patients and reduce their symptoms overnight. It is taken as a single (4)...... pill ............. every morning, and so far patients have shown none of the usual (5)........ side effects ............. such as the sickness and hair loss that are experienced when undergoing other forms of cancer treatment. علاج جديد للسرطان تم تجريبه في بلايموث - انكلترا - والذي يأمل الأطباء أن يقللوا من حدة المرض و يخففوا من أعراضه ليلا. تؤكد كمية واحدة كل صباح و بذلك تخف الأعراض الجانبية مثل المرض و فقدان الشعر الذي كان يحدث معهم عند أخذهم لعلاجات أخرى. The new treatment works by blocking a protein which causes cancerous cells to grow. It will improve patients’ life expectancy and quality of life much more quickly than any other treatment. The patients were interviewed a year after starting the treatment and are fit and well, saying that they are definitely going to continue the trial. They have every reason to believe the new drug is going to work. Doctors at Plymouth Hospital hope that it will help patients from all over the world. العلاج يعمل على إيقاف البروتين و الذي يسبب نمو الخلايا السرطانية. تحسن حياة المرضى و متوسط اعمارهم بسرعة أحسن من العلاجات الأخرى. تمت مقابلة المرضى الخاضعين لهذا العلاج و قالوا أنهم ياحسن حال و سوف يستمرون بالعلاج. لديهم أكثر من سبب للاستمرار بهذا العلاج و يأملون أن يساعدوا المرضى في جميع أنحاء العالم. Answers 1 implant 2 dementia 3 scanner 4 pill 5 side effects Make correct sentences about the future. 1 He / hope / become a teacher one day. 2 I / intend / apply for a job when I finish university. 3 Many hospitals / plan / use robots to help nurses in the future. 4 How / you / intend / solve the problem? 5 Our school / hope / raise enough money to build a new library. 6 you / intend / buy tickets for the play? Answers 1 He hopes to become a teacher one day. 2 I intend to apply for a job when I finish university. 3 Many hospitals plan to use robots to help nurses in the future. 4 How do you intend to solve the problem? 5 Our school hopes to raise enough money to build a new library. 6 Do you intend to buy tickets for the play? The King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC) is Jordan’s only comprehensive cancer treatment centre. It treats both adult and paediatric patients. As the population of the country increases, more and more families will rely on the hospital for cancer treatment. Patients come not only from Jordan but also from other countries in the region, as they are attracted by its excellent reputation, lower costs, and cultural and language similarities. In order to cope with the increase in demand for treatment, the KHCC has begun an expansion programme. Building started in 2011 CE. The hospital will have more than doubled its capacity by 2016 CE, increasing space for new cancer cases from 3,500 per year to 9,000. By then, they will have added 182 extra beds, along with bigger units for different departments, including radiotherapy. New adult and paediatric wards will have opened. Additionally, they will have built a special ten-floor outpatients’ building, with an education centre which will include teaching rooms and a library. Many cancer patients live far away from Amman, where the KHCC is located, and the journey to and from the hospital is often difficult. For this reason, there are plans to extend cancer care facilities to other parts of Jordan. In the near future, King Abdullah University Hospital in Irbid hopes to set up radiotherapy machines, so that cancer patients from northern Jordan will not have to go to Amman for radiotherapy treatment. In the future, the King Abdullah University Hospital in Irbid hopes to set up radiotherapy machines, so that cancer patients from northern Jordan will not have to go to Amman for radiotherapy treatment. Read the article again and answer the questions. 1 Why does the hospital need to expand? 2 Give three reasons why patients from other countries visit the centre. 3 What is one of the disadvantages of the KHCC for patients who live far from Amman? 4 What plans are there for increasing cancer care facilities in other parts of Jordan? Answers 1- The hospital needs to expand because there is more demand for treatment. 2- It has an excellent reputation, the costs are lower and there are cultural and language similarities. 3- The journey to and from the hospital is often difficult. 4- There are plans to set up radiotherapy machines in Irbid. Complete the sentences with the Future Perfect form of the verbs in brackets. 1 This time tomorrow, we’ll be celebrating because we our exams. (finish) 2 This time next month, my parents married for twenty years. (be) 3 The books that you ordered by the end of the week. (not arrive) 4 By next year, you England? (visit) Answers 1 will have finished 2 will have been 3 will not have arrived 4 will, have visited Edit the following text. There are two grammar mistakes and three spelling mistakes. Find and correct them. In the near future, a new ‘bionic eye’ will have helped people with failing eyesite to see again. A devise inside the eye picks up an image from a small camera attached to a pair of sunglasses and send it to the brain, which interprets it as vision. Answers 1 will help 2 eyesight 3 device 4 sends 5 brain NUMBERS If students don’t know the answer, ask them to find out for the next class. Make sure they can say the numbers correctly. Remind them that we only use and after hundred, e.g. 304 = three hundred and four; 2,304 = two thousand, three hundred and four; 1,340,304 = one million, three hundred and forty thousand, three hundred and four. Also point out that we use commas, not full stops in whole numbers (full stops are used as decimal points, e.g 304,.67 = three hundred and four point sixty-seven. ACTIVITY Vocabulary 1 Make pairs of words with similar meanings and match them with the correct definitions. The first one is done for you. Apparatus artificial equipment fund prosthetic sponsor | DEFINITIONS | WORDS WITH SIMILAR MEANING | |-------------|---------------------------| | 6- describes an object that is manufactured by humans | اصطناعي Artificial prosthetic | | 7- tools or machines that have a particular purpose | آلة Apparatus equipment | | 3- to pay for | دعم مالي Fund sponsor | 2 Choose the correct verb to complete the collocations. Then, write two sentences of your own, using two collocations of your choice. The first one is done for you. 1 catch / take someone’s attention 2 get / catch an idea 3 take / get an interest in something/ somebody 4 spend / do time doing something 5 make / attend a course ANSWERS: 1 catch 2 get 3 take 4 spend 5 attend Students’ own sentences 3 Use the words in the box to complete the sentences. One word is not needed. The first one is done for you. helmet inspire monitor reputation risk seat belt self-confidence tiny waterproof 1- You can wear your watch when you go swimming if it’s waterproof. 2- It’s amazing how huge trees grow from...................... seeds. 3- The Olympic Games often .........................young people to take up a sport. 4- Please hurry up. Let’s not......................... missing the bus. 5- You must always wear a........... in a car, whether you’re the driver or a passenger. 6- When my grandfather had a heart attack, the doctors attached a special....................... to his chest. 7- It’s important to encourage young people and help them develop....................... 8- Petra has a................................. as a fascinating place to visit. 1- waterproof 2- tiny 3- inspire 4- risk 5- seat belt 6- monitor 7- self-confidence 8- reputation 4- There is one mistake in the verb tenses in each of the four conversations below. Underline the mistake and rewrite the verb in the correct tense. 1-A: What do you think you will be doing in two years’ time? B: I think I will be living in Karak, and I will study Geography. 2-A: Don’t phone me at seven. I’ll have dinner with my family. B: OK, I’ll phone at nine. 3-A: What time will you get here tomorrow? B: At about three, I think. I’ll be texting you the exact time later. 4 A: Please be quiet when you come home tonight. The baby will sleep. B: Don’t worry. I won’t forget. 1- will be studying 2- will be having 3- will text 4- will be sleeping 5- Replace the words and phrases in bold with words from the box. One word is not needed. a coma dementia medical trials pills symptoms 1 Doctors look at the **signs of illness** before they decide how to treat the patient. 2 Before doctors prescribe drugs to patients, scientists perform **special tests** to make sure the drugs are safe. 3 After Ali’s accident, he lay in an **unconscious state** for two weeks. 4 My grandfather has to take a lot of medicine – he takes six different **tablets** every day. Complete the text with the correct form of the verbs in the box. The first one is done for you. going to + do going to + miss going to + take will + have will + stay will + tell Rami has broken his leg. It (1) ’s going to **take** a long time to get better. He...................... (2) in hospital for at least two weeks, and he (3)................... his leg in plaster for much longer. Rami (4).......................... a lot of lessons at school, but he (5)....................... Some work while he’s in hospital, and he also hopes his friends (6) .......................him about the lessons he has missed. 1- ’s going to take 2- will stay 3- will have 4- ’s going to miss 5- ’s going to do 6- will tell Scientists have successfully invented a prosthetic hand with a sense of touch. It is an exciting new invention, which they plan to develop. It is possible that, in the not-too-distant future, similar artificial arms and legs will have taken the place of today’s prosthetic limbs. Dennis Sorensen, a 39-year-old from Denmark, was the first person to try out the new invention. After losing his left hand in an accident, he had been using a standard prosthetic hand for nine years. The new hand, which was developed by Swiss and Italian scientists, was a huge improvement. With it, Sorensen could not only pick up and manipulate objects, but he could also feel them. ‘When I held an object, I could feel if it was soft or hard, round or square’, he explained. He said that the sensations were almost the same as the ones he felt with his other hand. Unfortunately, Sorensen was only taking part in trials, and the equipment is not ready for general use yet. He was only allowed to wear it for a month, for safety reasons. So now he has his old artificial hand back. However, he hopes that soon he will be wearing the new type of hand again. He is looking forward to the time when similar artificial limbs are available for the thousands of people who need them. He will have helped to transform their lives. And that’s all for now. Thank you for listening. Read the article again and answer the questions. 1- Who invented the new prosthetic hand? What is special about it? 2- Why does Dennis Sorensen need a prosthetic hand? 3- Which hand is he wearing now? Why? 4- Who do the bold pronouns ‘I’ refer to in line 17? 5- Find a word that is the opposite of ‘natural’ in the first and third paragraphs. 1- Swiss and Italian scientists; it allows the wearer to feel objects. 2- because he lost his left hand in an accident 3- his old artificial hand, because the new hand is not yet ready for general use 4- Dennis Sorensen 5-artificial Complete the sentences in the Future Perfect or the Future Continuous. The first one is done for you. رتب الجمل التالية باستخدام المستقبل القائم أو المستقبل المستمر _ تم حل الجملة الأولى لك. 1 Next month, we / live / in this house for a year. Let’s celebrate! Next month, we will have lived in this house for a year. Let’s celebrate! 2 Next Monday, I / work / in my new job. 3 you / do / all your homework by eight o’clock? 4 It’s three o’clock now, so Miriam’s flight / arrive / at Queen Alia International Airport. 5 you / meet us / at the library this afternoon? 6 You can borrow this book tomorrow. I / finish / it by then. 1- Next month, we will have lived in this house for a year. Let’s celebrate! 2- Next Monday, I will be working in my new job. 3- Will you have done all your homework by eight o’clock? 4- It’s three o’clock now, so Miriam’s flight will have arrived at Queen Alia International Airport. 5- Will you be meeting us at the library this afternoon? 6- You can borrow this book tomorrow. I’ll have finished it by then ANSWER | arithmetic | the branch of mathematics concerned with numerical calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division | الحساب | |-----------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | geometry | the branch of mathematics concerned with the properties, relationships and measurement of points, lines, curves and surfaces | الهندسة | | mathematician | a person who studies Mathematics to a very complex level | عالم رياضيات | | philosopher | someone who studies and writes philosophy professionally, or an undergraduate student of Philosophy | فلسفه | | physician | someone qualified to evoluti medicine, especially one who evolutioni in diagnosis and treatment | فيزيائي | | polymath | someone who has a lot of knowledge about many different subjects | متعدد | 63 The importance of Islamic achievements in history Jabir ibn Hayyan (born 722 CE, died 815 CE) The Arab world has many famous chemists in its history, but the person who is known as the founder of chemistry is probably Jabir ibn Hayyan. He is most well known for the beginning of the production of sulphuric acid. He also built a set of scales which changed the way in which chemists weighed items in a laboratory: his scales could weigh items over 6,000 times smaller than a kilogram. هناك كيميائيين مشاهير في تاريخ العالم العربي – ولكن جابر بن حيان هو من اوجد علم الكيمياء وقد اشتهر بداية بانتاج السلفوريك اسيد . عمل مجموعة من الميزانين التي غيرت الطريقة التي يزن فيها الكيميائيين في المختبرات. ميزانهم قد يزن اشياء اقل من كيلو ب 6000 مرة . 1- How old was he when he died ? 2- write two achievements for him . 3- The underlined pronoun ( he ) refers to ........ 4- write one feature for the scale in the laboratory . Ali ibn Nafi’ (Ziryab) (born 789 CE, died 857 CE) Ali ibn Nafi’ is also known as ‘Ziryab’ (or ‘Blackbird’, because of his beautiful voice). He was a gifted pupil of a famous musician from Baghdad, and it was his talent for music that led him to Cordoba in the ninth century CE. He was the guest of the Umayyad ruler there. He is the person who established the first music school in the world in Cordoba, Al-Andalus, teaching musical harmony and composition. revolutionized musical theory, and is also the person who introduced the oud to Europe. 1- when was he died ? 2- write one achievement for him . 3- what was the aim from establishing the music school ? علي ابن النقيس المعروف ب زريب أو الطائر الأسود لجمال صوته – شخص موهوب بالموسيقى من بغداد وموهبتة في الموسيقى قادته إلى قرطبة في القرن التاسع – نزل بضيافة الحاكم الأموي هناك – هو أول شخص أسس مدرسة للموسيقى هناك (0 الأندلس ) والتي تدرس تأليف و انسجام الموسيقى موجد نظرية الموسيقى وهو أول من قدم العود لأوروبا . Fatima al-Fihri (born early 9th century, died 880 CE) Fatima al-Fihri was the daughter of a wealthy businessman. She used her father’s inheritance to build a learning centre in Fez, Morocco. This learning centre became Morocco’s top university, and it is where many students from all over the world come to study. Moreover, it was Fatima’s sister, Mariam, who supervised the building of the Andalus Mosque, which was not far from the learning centre. 1- who was her father? 2- how did she build Morocco's university? فاطمة الفهري – ابنة رجل أعمال ثري . استخدمت ميراثها لتنمي مركزا دراسيا في المغرب – هذا المركز التعليمي أصبح أشهر جامعة في المغرب والكثير من طلبة العالم يأتون للدراسة فيها – أكثر من ذلك كانت أخت فاطمة ( مريم ) والتي أشرفت على مبنى مسجد الأندلس والذي ليس بعيدا عن مركز التدريس . Al-Kindi (born around 801 CE, died 873 CE) Al-Kindi was a physician, philosopher, mathematician, chemist, musician and astronomer – a true polymath. He made ground-breaking discoveries in many of these fields, but it is probably his work in arithmetic and geometry that has made him most famous. 1- what was the job for Al-Kindi? 2- what was the thing made him well-known? كان الكندي فيزيائيا – فيلسوف – عالم رياضيات – كيميائيا – موسيقارا و عالم فلك . وفي الرياضيات العددية – صاحب الاكتشافات الرائدة في عدة حقول ولكن عمله في الحساب والهندسة كانت أهم اكتشافاته . ## Relative clauses | relative pronoun | use | example | |------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Who | subject or object pronoun for people | I told you about the woman who lives next door. | | Which | subject or object pronoun for animals and things | Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? | | Which | referring to a whole sentence | He couldn’t read which surprised me. | | Whose | possession for people animals and things | Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse? | | Whom | object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining | I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference. | | | relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially | | | | prefer who) | | | That | subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in | I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen. | | | defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible) | | | when | in/on which refers to a time expression | the day when we met him | |------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | where | in/at which refers to a place | the place where we met him | | why | for which refers to a reason | the reason why we met him | Defining Relative Clauses Defining relative clauses (also called *identifying relative clauses* or *restrictive relative clauses*) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas. Non-Defining Relative Clauses Non-defining relative clauses (also called *non-identifying relative clauses* or *non-restrictive relative clauses*) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas. Cleft sentences Cleft sentences (also called *it*-clefts) result from changing the normal sentence pattern to emphasise a particular piece of information. The emphasis in the resulting cleft sentence is on the phrase *after it + be*. We can transform this sentence in different ways depending on which part of it we want to bring into focus: *It was János Irinyi who/that invented the non-explosive match in 1836.* *It was the non-explosive match which/that/(–) János Irinyi invented in 1836.* *It was 1836 when János Irinyi invented the non-explosive match.* We want to emphasise the part of the sentence which is in bold in sentences 1–3. Match each one to an appropriate cleft sentence a–c. 1 The Great Mosque in Cordoba was built in 784 CE by **Abd al-Rahman I**. 2 **The Great Mosque in Cordoba** was built in 784 CE by Abd al-Rahman I. 3 The Great Mosque in Cordoba was built **in 784 CE** by Abd al-Rahman I. a **The year when** the Great Mosque in Cordoba was built was 784 CE. b **Abd al-Rahman I** was the person **who** built the Great Mosque in Cordoba in 784 CE. c **The mosque that** was built by Abd al-Rahman I in 784 CE was the Great Mosque in Cordoba. Answers 1 b 2 c 3 a Write this sentence in three different ways, emphasising the parts underlined in each case. Al-Jazari invented the **mechanical clock** in the **twelfth century**. Answers - The person who invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century was Al-Jazari. OR It was Al-Jazari who/that invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century. - The thing that Al-Jazari invented in the twelfth century was the mechanical clock. OR It was the mechanical clock that Al-Jazari invented in the twelfth century. - The period/time when Al-Jazari invented the mechanical clock was the twelfth century. OR It was in the twelfth century that Al-Jazari invented the mechanical clock. Rewrite these sentences, emphasising the part in bold, and using the structure as shown. 1 Al-Kindi contributed to the invention of the oud. *The person who* 2 Jabir ibn Hayyan did his research in a laboratory **in Iraq**. *The country where* 3 Ali ibn Nafi’ established the first music school in the world. *It was* 4 Jabir ibn Hayyan also invented ink that can be read in the dark. *It was* 5 Al-Kindi is especially famous for **his work in geometry**. *It is* Answers 1- The person who contributed to the invention of the oud was Al-Kindi. 2- The country where Jabir ibn Hayyan did his research in a laboratory was Iraq. 3- It was Ali ibn Nafi’ who established the first music school in the world. 4- It was Jabir ibn Hayyan who/that also invented ink that can be read in the dark. 5- It is for his work in geometry that Al-Kindi is especially famous. The Giralda The Giralda tower, which is one of the most important buildings in Seville, Spain, stands at just over 104 metres tall. The person who is believed to be responsible for the design of the tower, which was originally a minaret, is the mathematician and astronomer Jabir ibn Aflah. The architect of the tower was Ahmad Ben Baso, who began work in 1184 CE. He died before the tower was completed in 1198 CE. The design of the tower is believed to be based on the Koutoubia Mosque, which is in Marrakesh, Morocco, and the Hassan Tower in Rabat. 1- Identify the defining and non-defining relative clauses in the text. 2- What relative pronouns do we use for the things in the box? People animals and things places. Answers 1- Defining relative clauses: • who is believed to be responsible for the design of the tower Non-defining relative clauses : • which is one of the most important buildings in Seville, Spain • which was originally a minaret • who began work in 1184 CE • which is in Marrakesh, Morocco 2- people – who, that; animals and things – which- that; places – where, which, that Complete the text with the correct word from the box. Sometimes, more than one answer is possible. Qasr Bashir is an extremely well-preserved Roman castle (1)........... is situated in the Jordanian desert, and is about eighty kilometres south of Amman The walls and huge corner towers of the castle, (2).............. It is .was built at the beginning of the fourth century CE, are still standing thought that Qasr Bashir was built to protect the Roman border. Apart from the rooms in the castle, there are also about twenty-three stables People (4)..................... love .(3)............ horses may have been kept. exploring historical Roman ruins will certainly find a visit to Qasr Bashir very rewarding. Once inside the building, one can imagine very vividly what it would have been like to live there during the times of the Roman Empire Answers 1 which/that 2 which 3 where 4 who/that Masdar City – a positive step? Megaprojects are extremely large investment projects, which are designed to encourage economic growth and bring new benefits to cities. Although megaprojects vary in terms of size and cost, they are all, by definition, expensive, public projects that attract a high level of interest and media coverage. Projects range from motorways, airports, stations, tunnels, bridges, etc. to entire city complexes. The concept of a megaproject is always based on the benefits it brings to a community. However, many megaprojects have been criticised because of their negative effects on a community or the environment. This essay will look at issues with regard to Masdar City, a megaproject in Abu Dhabi. Masdar City, which began its development in 2006 CE, will be the world’s first carbon-neutral, zerowaste artificially-created city. Covering an area of six square kilometres, when it is completed in 2025 CE, it is expected to house more than 40,000 residents, 50,000 commuters, and 1,500 businesses involved in mainly environmentally-friendly products. The city will run entirely on renewable energy sources. It is built on an advanced energy grid which monitors exactly how much electricity is being used by every outlet in the complex. Furthermore, in order to reduce its carbon footprint, Masdar City will be a car-free zone, designed to be pedestrian and cycle-friendly. Electric, driverless cars will operate as public transport vehicles, and the city will be connected to other locations by a network of roads and railways. Energy will be provided by solar power and wind farms, and there are also plans to build the world’s largest hydrogen plant. A desalination plant will be used to provide the city’s water, with 80% of water used being recycled. Biological waste will be used as an energy source too, and industrial waste will be recycled. The current residents of Masdar City are all students at the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, a university whose students are fully committed to finding solutions to the world’s energy problems. While the project has the support of many global environmental and conservation organisations, there is some criticism of it. It is felt that, instead of building an artificial sustainable city, sustainability should be made a priority of existing cities. In conclusion, the benefits of Masdar City for the community and the environment greatly outweigh any disadvantages. If the aims of the developers are realised, Masdar City will be a blueprint for future urban planning that will inspire similar megaprojects in other countries. Read the essay again and answer the questions. 1- What examples of megaprojects are provided in the essay? 2- What are the advantages of the creation of Masdar City? What are the disadvantages? 3- Do you think that Masdar City is a beneficial project or not? Give your reasons. Answers 1 Examples of projects include motorways, airports, stations, tunnels, bridges and entire city complexes. 2 The advantages include the fact that it will be the world’s first carbon-neutral, zero-waste city. It will also be a car-free zone, although there will be excellent public transport. The disadvantage is that existing cities are nowhere near as environmentally clean, and many people think the money should have been spent on cleaning up existing places and making them more sustainable. 3 Students’ own answers Look at the nouns in the box. Which adjectives collocate with them? Write them next to the adjectives. Growth effect transport footprint waste planning urban public biological carbon negative economic Answers 1- urban planning 2- public transport 3- biological waste 4- carbon footprint 5- negative effect 6- economic growth Complete the sentences with the correct collocations. 1- When people talk about ______, they can mean either an improvement in the average standard of living, or an increase in the value of a country’s products. 2- Pollution has some serious ______ on the environment, such as the death of wildlife and plant life. 3- We can all work hard to reduce our ______ by living a more environmentally-friendly lifestyle. 4- If we take ______ more often, there will be fewer cars on the roads, which will result in cleaner air in our cities. 5- Hospitals need to dispose of a lot of ______, and it should be carefully managed because it can be dangerous. 6- The need for more effective ______ is evident when we consider modern day problems like traffic. Answers 1- economic growth 2- negative effects 3- carbon footprint 4- public transport 5- biological waste 6- urban planning ACTIVITY Complete the sentences with the words in the box. One word is not needed. The first one is done for you. Philosopher arithmetic Polymath chemist geometry Mathematician physician My father teaches Maths. He’s a mathematician. 2 You must not take in medicine without consulting a .......................................... 3 We learn about shapes, lines and angles when we study .......................................... 4 Mr Shahin is a true, working in all kinds of creative and scientific fields........................... 5 Ramzi is very good with numbers and calculations. He always scores high in ..................... 6 A is someone who thinks and writes about the meaning of life.......................................... 1- mathematician 2- physician 3- geometry 4- polymath رياضيات الاعداد 5- arithmetic 6- philosopher 2 Match the words with the correct definitions. One definition is not needed. The first one is done for you. 1 talent _g_ 2 founder __ 3 scales __ 4 polymath __ 5 arithmetic __ 6 laboratory __ a an expert in many subjects b a room for scientific experiments c the person who starts something new, such as an organisation or a city d an instrument to measure weight e an engineer f the study of numbers g special ability 1-g 2- c 3- d 4 -a 5 -f 6- b Make cleft sentences, stressing the information in bold. The first one is done for you. 1 Queen Rania opened the Children’s Museum of Jordan in 2007 CE. It was **Queen Rania** who opened the Children’s Museum of Jordan in 2007 CE. 2 Petra was made a World Heritage Site in 1985 CE. The year.................................................................. 3 I stopped working at 11 p.m. It was .................................................................. 4 My father has influenced me most. The person............................................................. 5 I like Geography most of all. The subject............................................................ 6 The heat made the journey unpleasant. It was .................................................................. | 1 | **Queen Rania** who opened the Children’s Museum of Jordan in 2007 CE | |---|---------------------------------------------------------------------| | 2 | when/in which Petra was made a World Heritage Site was 1985 CE | | 3 | 11 p.m. when I stopped working | | 4 | who/that has influenced me most is my father | | 5 | that/which I like most of all is Geography | | 6 | the heat that/which made the journey unpleasant | Match the beginnings with the correct endings and join them with a relative pronoun. Then, write the sentences out in full. The first one is done for you. | A mathematician is someone … | are studied by mathematicians. | |------------------------------|--------------------------------| | Geometry and arithmetic are subjects… | means ‘doctor’. | | ‘Physician’ is an old fashioned word … | works with numbers. | | A chemist is a person … | astronomers study. | | The stars and planets are things … | works in a laboratory | 1 c: A mathematician is someone who works with numbers. 2 a: Geometry and arithmetic are subjects that/which are studied by mathematicians. 3 b: ‘Physician’ is an old-fashioned word that/which means ‘doctor.’ 4 e: A chemist is a person who/that works in a laboratory. 5 d: The stars and planets are things that/which astronomers study. Complete the text about Ibn Sina, using the relative pronouns in the box. One pronoun is used twice. Add commas for the non-defining relative clauses. That when which who Ibn Sina (1)… **who** …… is also known as Avicenna was a polymath. Ibn Sina was influenced as a young man by the works of the philosopher Aristotle. He wrote on early Islamic philosophy (2)… **which** …… included many subjects, especially logic and ethics. He also wrote *Al Qanun fi -Tibb*, the book (3 … **that** ……… became the most famous medical textbook ever. In the last ten or twelve years of his life, Ibn Sina started studying literary matters. His friends (4)… **who** …… were worried about his health advised him to relax. He refused and told them ‘I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length.’ It was the month of Ramadan (5) **when** …… Ibn Sina died, in June 1037 CE. - **Derivation** Complete the sentences with words formed from the words in brackets. 1- The Middle East is famous for the……………….. of olive oil. (produce) 2- Ibn Sina wrote……………….. textbooks. (medicine) 3- Fatima al-Fihri was born in the…………………. century. (nine) 4- My father bought our house with an…………………. from his grandfather. (inherit) 5- Scholars have discovered an………………….. document from the twelfth century. (origin) 6- Do you think the wheel was the most important…………………. ever? (invent) 7- Al-Kindi made many important mathematical……………….. (discover) 8- Who was the most…………………. writer of the twentieth century? (influence) 1 production 2 medical 3 ninth 4 inheritance 5 original 6 invention 7 discoveries 8 influential A founding father of farming A that described how to treat different types of soil B which is the study of plants C that he and his followers put in place D when the book was first written E who was the King of Toledo Ibn Bassal was a writer, a scientist and an engineer who lived in Al-Andalus in the eleventh century CE. He worked in the court of Al-Ma’mun, (1) ............... His great passions were botany, (2) .................., and agriculture. Although he was a great scholar, he was also a practical man and all of his writing came from his own ‘hands-on’ experience of working the land. One of the many things which Ibn Bassal achieved was *A Book of Agriculture*. The book consisted of sixteen chapters which explain how best to grow trees, fruit and vegetables, as well as herbs and sweet-smelling flowers; perhaps the most famous chapter of all was the one (3) ...................... Ibn Bassal also worked out how to irrigate the land by finding underground water and digging wells. He designed water pumps and irrigation systems. All of these things were passed on through his writing. The influence of Ibn Bassal’s book was enormous. As farmers down the generations followed his instructions and advice, the land became wonderfully fertile and produced more than enough food for the fast-growing population. The irrigation systems (4) .........................are still in evidence in Spain. Although his name is not widely known, Ibn Bassal’s legacy to the world has been great. 1 E 2 B 3 A 4 C Read the text again and answer the questions. 1 Name two of Ibn Bassal’s achievements. 2 Find a verb in the second paragraph that means ‘supply land with water’. 3 Guess the meaning of ‘fertile land’ in the third paragraph. Which part of the text illustrates its meaning? 4 Guess the meaning of ‘legacy’ in the third paragraph. What does the author suggest is Ibn Bassal’s legacy to the world? 5 Which paragraph suggests that Ibn Bassal was a polymath? Give examples of his areas of knowledge. 6 Why do you think the area around Toledo had a ‘fast-growing population’? Complete the sentences with words from the box. One word is not needed. Benefit farms footprint free friendly neutral Pedestrian power renewable waste 1 In hot countries, solar....................... is an important source of energy. 2 ‘Green’ projects are environmentally ........................ 3 Wind................................. are an example of ..............................energy. 4 If a city recycles everything and doesn’t throw anything away, it is zero--- 5 We burn carbon whenever we use oil, coal or gas. This is known as our carbon... 6 If we replace as much carbon as we burn, we are carbon-.............................. 7 A place where no cars are allowed is a car-.......................... zone, and it is............................. friendly 1 power 2 friendly 3 farms; renewable 4 waste 5 footprint 6 neutral 7 free; pedestrian Read the text again. Underline the parts that give you basic information about Ibn Bassal and write them below. | Name | Ibn Bassal | |---------------|------------| | Date | lived in the eleventh century CE | | Location | Al-Andalus | | Occupation and Interests | writer, scientist and engineer / interested in botany and agriculture | | Achievements | writing *A Book of Agriculture*; designing water pumps and irrigation systems | | Legacy | agricultural instructions and advice | يمكنكم تحميل أوراق عمل لمادة الإنجليزي من صفحة الاستاذ عمر سند على موقع الاولانى www.awa2el.net GRAMMAR | Ceramics | the art of producing something made from clay or porcelain, or the clay or porcelain items themselves | السيراميك | |----------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Conservatory | a school where people are trained in music or acting | المعهد الموسيقي | | installation | an art exhibit often involving video or moving parts | معرض فني | | Performing arts | A type of art that can combine acting, dance, painting and film to express an idea | فنون تمثيلية | | textiles | types of cloth or woven fabric | المنسوجات | | visual arts | art such as painting or sculpture that you look at, as opposed to literature or music | الفنون البصرية | The arts in Jordan Jordan has a very rich cultural heritage thanks to the support of the Department of Culture and the Arts, which was founded in 1966 CE. Since then, the department has built up an exciting, ongoing programme of cultural activities related to all the arts: music, visual arts, performing arts and the written word. In 1979 CE, the Royal Society of Fine Arts (RSFA) was established to promote visual arts in Jordan and other countries in the region. It has links with major art galleries around the world in order to encourage artists from different cultures to learn from each other. The Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts is one of the most important art museums in the Middle East. The collection includes over 2,000 works of art, including paintings, sculptures, photographs, installations, textiles and ceramics, by more than 800 artists from 59 countries. In 2013 CE, it held Jordan’s largest art exhibition called ‘70 Years of Contemporary Jordanian Art.’ Until the 1990s, most Jordanian literature was only available in Arabic. However, thanks to PROTA (the Project of Translation from Arabic), many Jordanian plays, novels, short stories and poems are now translated into English, and people all over the world are able to read and appreciate them. Every year, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) chooses a different Arab city as the Arab Cultural Capital. In 2002 CE, the city of Amman was awarded this title. Jordan has a centuries-old musical heritage. The National Music Conservatory (NMC) opened in 1986 CE, making it possible for more Jordanian students to study music seriously. For Jordan, the Royal Society of Fine Arts (RSFA) was established in 1979 CE to promote visual arts in Jordan and other countries in the region. It has links with major art galleries around the world in order to encourage artists from different cultures to learn from each other. The Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts is one of the most important art museums in the Middle East. The collection includes over 2,000 works of art, including paintings, sculptures, photographs, installations, textiles and ceramics, by more than 800 artists from 59 countries. In 2013 CE, it held Jordan’s largest art exhibition called ‘70 Years of Contemporary Jordanian Art.’ Until the 1990s, most Jordanian literature was only available in Arabic. However, thanks to PROTA (the Project of Translation from Arabic), many Jordanian plays, novels, short stories and poems are now translated into English, and people all over the world are able to read and appreciate them. Every year, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) chooses a different Arab city as the Arab Cultural Capital. In 2002 CE, the city of Amman was awarded this title. Jordan has a centuries-old musical heritage. The National Music Conservatory (NMC) opened in 1986 CE, making it possible for more Jordanian students to study music seriously. In 1987 CE, the National Centre for Culture and Arts was created, which showcases theatre and dance in Jordan and in the region. Realising the value of art and culture, Jordan decided to offer Jordanians and the world an annual arts festival. في 1987 انشأ المركز الوطني للثقافة و الفنون والذي فيه معرض و مسرح للرقص للازراك قيمة الفن و الثقافة قدر الأردن ان يقدم للأردنيين و للمعالم مهرجانا سنويا للثقافة و الفنون. In 1981 CE, the Jerash Festival for Culture and Arts was founded. This three-week-long summer programme is one of the largest cultural activities in the region. It takes place in the important archaeological site of Jerash, which underlines the close relationship between the arts and Jordan’s cultural history. في 1981 انشا مهرجان جرش للثقافة و الفنون . هذه الثلاثة اسابيع من البرنامج الصيفي هو من اكبر النشاطات الثقافية _ مكانها في جرش وتقري الروابط بين الفنون و تاريخ الثقافة الأردنى. 1 How does the Royal Society of Fine Arts show its support for the arts in Jordan? 2 What makes The Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts a major institution in the 3 How has translation helped Jordanian literature? 4 What is the significance of the location of the annual Jerash Festival? 5 ‘To truly understand a country’s culture, you have to understand its artistic heritage.’ Do you agree or disagree? Justify your answer. 1 It shows its support by having links with major art galleries around the world and by promoting visual arts in Jordan. 2 It is so important because it has over 2,000 works of art by more than 800 artists from 59 countries. 3 Translation has helped Jordanian literature by making it more accessible to people all over the world. 4 It takes place in Jerash, which is an important archaeological site. This shows the close relationship between the arts and Jordan’s cultural history. 5 Suggested answer: I agree with this statement. If we say that a culture is informed by the ideas and the physical artefacts from its past (as well as its present), we can say that artistic heritage gives us, at the very least, an excellent insight into the social structure of any given people. For instance, nowadays people outside Jordan and the Arab world will have more of an opportunity to understand Jordanian culture now that the PROTA initiative has been set up. Find an example of the following uses of articles in the report. 1 *the* when the speaker and listener know what/who is being spoken about 2 *a/an* when it is not known what/who is being spoken about or it does not matter 3 *the* when we refer to a proper noun where there is only one of its type 4 zero article before uncountable and plural nouns, and when talking about something in general 5 zero article before the names of most countries, mountain ranges, languages, continents, towns, streets, days, months and years 1- the department 2- an exciting, ongoing programme //a different Arab city 3- the Department of Culture and the Arts the Royal Society of Fine Arts //// the National Centre for Culture and Arts ////4- music////; art galleries //// artists //// literature . 5- Jordan // 1979 // 2013 // 2002 //// Amman // 1987 //// Jerash Articles 1.- The definite article (the) تستخدم مع جميع الأسماء المعدودة و غير المعدودة المفرد و الجمع. 2.- The indefinite article (a, an) They are only used with singular countable nouns such as: a book, a man, a chair, a car, an apple, an orange….etc. 3- The indefinite article (X): لا تستخدم أي أداة مع الجمع و غير المعدود/ مستحيل أن تستخدم صفر الأداة مع الأسماء المعدودة المقدرة. شرح تفصيلي: A: Use the definite article (the) in the following cases: 1. When the other person knows who /what we are talking about and can easily identify this person or thing: -The boy is tall.(the other person knows the tall boy). -close the window .( We know the window ). 2. With things which are unique in the world: The earth /The moon /The sky /The world /The king/The universe /The sea/The queen /The minister/The sun. 3. Before the names of rivers ,seas and oceans: The Nile /The Amazon /The Red Sea / The Dead Sea / The Pacific /The Atlantic Ocean. The Mississippi / The Mediterranean . 4. Before the names of mountain ranges and groups of islands: The Atlas / The Alps /The Bahamas/The Andes 5. With an adjective to talk about groups of people who are all characterized by one feature: The French /The Arab/The poor /The young /The Deaf /The blind/The disabled/The unemployed/The dead/ the strong/ The Kurds/The Hindu / The homeless. 6. Before the names of countries that have a plural form: The Netherlands/The Philippines/ kingdom / republic / union /united 7- Before the superlative: the biggest/the fastest/the most beautiful/the most important. 8- With the following time expressions: in the morning / in the afternoon/in the evening /the Zoo/the office- the mosque 9- With nouns followed by prepositions or wh-words. The boy on the mountain / The girl whom I saw. 10- before musical instrument : The guitar , the piano , the oud B: Use the Zero article (x) in the following cases: 1. Before plural and uncountable nouns when we refer to people or things in general: - Apples are good for your health. - Do you eat meat? 2. Before names of continents, towns and cities: Africa / Asia / Europe / Amman / London / Australia / Zarka / Lake Victoria. 3. Before the geographical names of countries: Egypt / Jordan / France / Syria/ 4. With meals: breakfast/lunch/dinner. 5. Names of school subjects: English / science / Math / Arabic / Biology / . 6. With the following time expressions: at night/at noon/at dawn/at sunrise/at sunset / after midnight / before sunset. at, before, around, after, 7- Diseases: influenza, cancer, asthma, leukemia. 8- Names of transportation preceded by ( by / on ): by car / by plane / on foot Complete the text with a, an, the or – zero article (.) The Amman International Theatre Festival is said to be (1)……………… biggest of its kind across (2)…………… entire Middle East and (3) …………… North Africa. It is held annually in (4)…………… April, and (5) ……………… festival is (6) attempt to promote (7)……………… Jordanian theatre. Performances are in (8)…………… English and (9)…………… Arabic. Many international stars and famous people from (10)…………… Hollywood attend. Usually, (11)……………… festival lasts for about eight days. (12) ……………… visitors can choose (13) ……………… days on which they want to attend. This is (14)……………… great way to learn about different cultures at one event. Answers 1 the 2 the 3 – 4 – 5 the 6 an 7 – 8 – 9 – 10 – 11 the 12 – 13 the 14 a Read the online travel guide about Jordan. Find four examples of American English spelling. Write them in the table and work out the rules. You only have to look at Jordan’s beautiful mountains to see where the country’s sand bottle artists get their inspiration from. This has led to an absolutely amazing traditional art form. Today, sand artists use artificial colors, sand and tools to create mini paintings, sometimes only a few centimeters high, in glass bottles. These ‘paintings without a brush’ need an eye for detail, and a lot of patience. With time and skill, extremely beautiful scenes can be created, for example, lifelike camels traveling through the vast deserts. The end result is totally breathtaking. Anyone watching a sand artist at work will realize immediately how much skill is needed for this work. Answers 1- color – colour: In British English, we always use ou 2- centimeters – centimetres: In British English, words such as centre are spelt -re. 3- traveling – travelling: In British English, we always double the consonant after a short vowel sound. 4- realize – realise: Until recently, -ise was always used in British English. Now it is common to see -ize (the standard American English spelling) in some British English. ‘The sand gives us transparent, or “white”, glass,’ Adnan explains. ‘We get this beautiful dark, cobalt blue by adding the metal cobalt to the melted glass. Then, this blue becomes a lighter, sea-green turquoise after adding copper. Finally, we decorate the glass by hand.’ يقول عدنان إن الرمل يعطينا زجاج شفاف أو أبيض. نحصل على اللون الغامق الجميل والأزرق من خلال إضافة معدن الكوبالت للزجاج المذاب. بعد ذلك يصبح الأزرق أكثر لمعانا أخضر مزرق فيروزي بعد إضافة النحاس. أخيرا نزخرف الزجاج يدويا. ‘These days we recycle broken glass. We also use commercially produced colours instead of using natural ingredients as in the past. Apart from that, nothing else about this craft has changed through the centuries. You can’t use a machine to do this work,’ he says. ‘The old ways are still the best.’ هذه الأيام نعيد تصنيع الزجاج المكسور. نستخدم الألوان التجارية بدلاً من الألوان الطبيعية كما كان في الماضي. بعيداً عن ذلك لم يتغير أي شيء بالنسبة لهذه الحرف عبر القرون – لا تستطيع استخدام آلة لصناعة ذلك قال هو – الطريقة القديمة ما زالت هي الأفضل. 1- How much time was his family experience? 2- Who is Adnan? 3- Is glassblowing an easy job? 4- why does he work extremely quickly? 7 Complete the text with the suitable words derived from the words in brackets. Madaba is the place where most Jordanian weavers buy their raw materials. Sheep’s wool, and goat and camel hair are used by Bedouin tribes and villagers all over Jordan to (1) ……………….(product) rugs, bags and other beautiful items. (2)……………….. (Traditional), the whole process is done by hand, from the washing of the wool to the finished article. There is a particular Bedouin style of (3)…………………… (weave) that buyers find very (4)……………………… (attraction). Another craft practised in Madaba is the (5)………………………… (creative) of ceramic items. Answers 1 produce 2 Traditionally 3 weaving 4 attractive 5 creation 1- Choose the correct words to complete the following sentences. The first one is done for you. 1 Watch people acting a story at **a theatre** / **an installation**. 2 Admire **textiles** / **ceramics** but don’t break them! 3 Look at beautiful pieces of art at a **play** / **gallery**. 4 Look at an **installation** / **a theatre** that has been set up in a public space. 5 Look at and touch **textiles** / **handicrafts** that have been sewn together. 1 **a theatre** 2 ceramics 3 gallery 4 an installation 5 textiles 2- Match the words in the box with the correct meanings. One word is not needed. The first one is done for you. Ceramics exhibition gallery handicrafts heritage sculpture textiles 1 beautiful objects made by hand **handicrafts** 2 a place where art is shown .......................................... 3 a solid piece of art, usually made of stone, metal or wood ....................... 4 an event during which works of art are displayed ......................................... 5 art made from clay............................................................. 6 traditional culture, such as art, architecture, customs and beliefs 1 **handicrafts** 2 gallery 3 sculpture 4 exhibition 5 ceramics 6 heritage Complete the sentences with the correct adjective. One adjective is not needed. The first one is done for you. Contemporary cultural educational major on going visual 1 We went to a concert yesterday. The music was written by a new young composer, so it was contemporary. 2 When we go on school trips, we always learn new things because the trips are ________________. 3 King Hussein was a ___________ world figure in the twentieth century. 4 Photography and painting are two examples of the ___________ arts. 5 Art, music and literature are all part of our _____________ life 1- contemporary 2- educational 3- major 4- visual 5- cultural 4 Complete the sentences with *a, an, the* or *–*. The first one is done for you. 1 X—Amman is **the** capital of x—Jordan. 2 It’s one of oldest cities in world. 3 Petra is in south of Jordan. It’s important archaeological site. 4 It was important city until huge earthquake destroyed it in about 663 CE. 5 Aqaba is next to Red Sea; people often go there for their holidays. 6 I’m very interested in history, in particular history of Jordan. 1 –; **the**; – 2 **the**; the 3 –; **the**; an 4 **an**; a 5 –; **the**; – 6 –; **the**; – Read and correct the dialogues. Add *a, an* or *the* where necessary. The first one is done for you. 1 A: I’m reading A really good book. B: Oh, what’s title? 2 A: Do you ever go to art galleries? B: Yes, I do. There’s big gallery in our town, and I often go there. 3 A: Where are Pontic Mountains? B: They’re in Turkey. 4 A: Is there art museum in Amman? B: Yes, go to National Museum of Fine Arts. 5 A: Do you like music? B: Yes, I do. I play piano, actually. 1 A: **a** really B: what’s **the** title? 2 B: **a** big … 3 A: **the** Pontic … 4 A: **an** art … B: **the** National … 5 B: **the** piano Mark is American and Bruce is British. How would Bruce say sentences 1–3 in British English? How would Mark say sentences 4–6 in American English? 1- Mark: Did you see that exhibition yet? Bruce ____________________________: 2- Mark: I usually take a shower in the morning. Bruce ____________________________: 3- Mark: I just had my breakfast. Bruce ____________________________: 4- Bruce: Where’s Leo? Have you seen him Anywhere? Mark ____________________________: 5- Bruce: I’d like to have a look at those paintings. Mark ____________________________: 6- Bruce: Leo’s already done his project. Mark ____________________________: 1 Have you seen that exhibition yet? 2 I usually have a shower in the morning. 3 I’ve just had my breakfast. 4 Where’s Leo? Did you see him anywhere? 5 I’d like to take a look at those paintings. 6 Leo already did his project. Complete the following table. The first one is done for you. | neighbour | 1 neighbor | |-----------|------------| | 2 _________ | liter | | paralysed | 3 __________ | | 4 __________ | canceled | | marvellous | 5 __________ | | 6 __________ | harbor | Look at these pairs of words that have the same meaning. Write Am (American English) or Br (British English) next to each word. Then check in a dictionary. The first one is done for you. 1= lift Br elevator Am 2- autumn__ Br __ fall__ Am__ 3- pavement__ Br __ sidewalk__ Am__ 4- rubbish__ Br __ trash/garbage__ Am__ 5- candy__ Am__ sweets__ Br __ 6- gas__ Am__ petrol__ Br __ 7- vacation__ Am__ holiday__ Br __ 8- cookie Am biscuit__ Br __ Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in the box. 1 Petra is an important site. 2 I will be going to university to continue my . 3 In our exam, we had to a text from Arabic into English. 4 They are going to a new air conditioning unit in our flat. 5 Thank you for your help, I really it. 6 Have you seen Nasser’s of postcards? He’s got hundreds! 1 archaeological 2 education 3 translate 4 install 5 appreciate 6 collection Read the blog post quickly, and answer the questions. 1 Where was Rashed when he wrote the blog? 2 What did he most enjoy looking at? 3 Where did he go in the evening? 4 What bothered him? 1- He was in London. 2- a beautiful Egyptian jug 3 a concert at the Royal Albert Hall 4- A lot of people stood in front of the orchestra and didn’t sit down at all. Hi! My name is Rashed. I’m staying in London for a week, with my family. I hope you enjoy reading my blog. Wednesday Yesterday was brilliant. We decided to go to the Victoria and Albert Museum (also known as the V&A), which is a big museum of art and design in central London. It has one of the largest collections of Islamic art in the world and, as you can imagine, we were keen to have a look. We spent most of our time in the Jameel Gallery, which opened in 2006 CE. There were about 10,000 items on display (no, I didn’t count them; the guide told us!). There were carpets and other textiles as well as pottery, ceramics, paintings and things made of ivory (from elephants), wood, metal and glass. My favourite thing was a beautiful Egyptian jug, which looked as if it was made out of glass. In fact it is rock crystal, and it was made over ten thousand years ago. The person who made it must have been incredibly skilled. We were at the V&A all day (there’s a good café there, and an excellent shop too!). Then, although we were quite tired, in the evening we went to a concert at the Royal Albert Hall. The orchestra was from Germany and it was brilliant! We had comfortable seats, but a lot of people stood right in front of the orchestra. They didn’t sit down at all! I’ve never stood all the way through a concert, and I don’t think I’d like to! Read the blog post again and answer the questions. 1 Why did Rashed and his family decide to go to the V&A Museum? 2 Name four materials that Rashed mentions. 3 Look at the words and phrases in bold. Is Rashed using British or American English? Justify your answer. 4 Look at the sentences in brackets in lines 5–6. In your opinion, what question is Rashed answering and why? 1 because the V&A has one of the largest collections of Islamic art in the world 2 glass, metal, ivory, wood 3 Rashed is using British English. He says ‘have a look’ instead of ‘take a look’; he spells ‘favourite’ with ‘ou’ instead of ‘o’; and he uses the Present Perfect instead of the Past Simple in ‘I’ve never stood all the way through a concert.’ Appendix 1: American vs British English spelling and vocabulary SPELLING | American English | British English | |------------------|-----------------| | center | centre | | theater | theatre | | favorite | favourite | | color | colour | | dialog | dialogue | | catalog | catalogue | | Program | *programme | | Authorize | authorise | | (practice (verb) | practise (verb) | | (practice (noun)| practice (noun) | | Traveling | travelling | | archeology | archaeology | | homeopathy | homoeopathy | American Apartment candy conservatory cookie drugstore elevator fall gas pants school principal trunk British flat biscuit conservatoire biscuit chemist’s lift autumn petrol trousers head teacher boot (of a car) Omar siddiqui I Remember, I Remember Thomas Hood I remember, I remember, The house where I was born, The little window where the sun Came peeping in at morn; He never came a wink too soon, Nor brought too long a day, But now, I often wish the night Had borne my breath away! I remember, I remember The roses, red and white The violets, and the lily-cups Those flowers made of light! The lilacs where the robin built And where my brother set The laburnum on his birthday— The tree is living yet! I remember, I remember Where I was used to swing And thought the air must rush as fresh To swallows on the wing My spirit flew in feathers then That is so heavy now And summer pools could hardly cool The fever on my brow I remember, I remember, The fir trees dark and high; I used to think their slender tops Were close against the sky: It was a childish ignorance, But now 'tis little joy To know I'm farther off from heav'n Than when I was a boy. Answer the questions. 1 Why does the poet describe the sun as *peeping in* (line 4)? 2 How do the word *wing* (line 20) and the phrase *flew in feathers* (line 21) help us to work out the meaning of *swallows* (line 20)? 1 It suggests that it slowly got brighter and brighter; at first it wasn’t very bright. 2 We know that wings and feathers are both things that birds have, and that they fly, so a swallow must be a kind of bird. Answer the questions about the poem. 1 How does the poet contrast his memories of the past with the present day in the third stanza? Refer to the words in bold in your answer. 2 In line 29, the poet refers to his ‘childish ignorance’. What was he ignorant about? 1 He remembers his childhood being very happy (*My spirit flew in feathers then*) but now he is not so happy (*That is so heavy now*). He also remembers the summer pools that he probably used to enjoy cooling off and swimming in on hot summer days, but says that he is so ill now that they wouldn’t be able to cool him down (*And summer pools could hardly cool / The fever on my brow!*). 2 The poet was ignorant about the size of the world; he used to think that the tops of the fir trees nearly touched the sky. The poet probably thought this because he was short and the trees were so tall that he thought they must touch the sky. --- **All the World’s a Stage** by William Shakespeare (from *As you like it*, Act II Scene VI) All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts... At first, the infant Mewling and puking in the nurse’s arms. Then the whining schoolboy, with his satchel And shining morning face, creeping like snail Unwillingly to school... Then a soldier, Full of strange oaths and bearded like the pard, Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel, Seeking the bubble reputation Even in the cannon’s mouth. And then the justice, In fair round belly with good capon lined, With eyes severe and beard of formal cut, Full of wise saws and modern instances; And so he plays his part. ... Into the lean and slippered pantaloon, With spectacles on nose and pouch on side; His youthful hose, well saved, a world too wide For his shrunk shank, and his big manly voice, Turning again toward childish treble, pipes And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all, That ends this strange eventful history, Is second childishness and mere oblivion, Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything. Answer the questions. 1 In lines 10 to 14, the poet describes the soldier’s life. Which word refers to a weapon used by soldiers? 2 Compare lines 8 and 11. How do they convey the images of a boy and a soldier? 3 Describe, in your own words, the image that the poet has created of the old man (lines 20–25). What is the old man wearing? How do his clothes fit him? What does his voice sound like? 4 Which word in ‘man’s last stage’ sums up the last line of the speech: Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything? Answers 1 cannon 2 Suggested answer: The schoolboy is represented as innocent and clean with his ‘shining morning face’ in line 8. This is contrasted strongly with the soldier in line 11, who is ‘bearded like the pard’. 3 He is now thin and stays indoors (‘Slippered’ refers to footwear that people wear indoors, and ‘pantalon’ means old man in this context). He wears spectacles and has his bag for carrying his money with him. His legs have grown thinner, so his trousers do not fit well and his voice has become high again like a child’s. 4 ‘Sans’ meaning ‘without’, so at the end the person has nothing – he can’t eat because he has no teeth, he can’t see and he loses his sense of taste. Answer the questions about the speech. 1 What are the five stages of a human’s life, according to the speech? List them in the correct order. 2 What does the playwright suggest about the soldier, in lines 10 to 14? Choose the correct answer and justify it. A His life is short. B He does not like conflict. C He is aggressive and gets angry or violent easily. 3 How does the playwright describe the appearance of the middle-aged person? 4 Look at the phrases in bold on lines 19 and 26 of the speech. How is the life of a person compared to an actor in the theatre? 5 How does the playwright describe the person in the first and last stage of life? 6 What does the playwright mean by the line, ‘this strange eventful history’? (line 27) Answers 1 babyhood (the infant), childhood (the schoolboy), early adulthood (the soldier), late adulthood/middle age (the justice), old age (second babyhood/childhood) 2 C – The soldier is ‘jealous in honour, sudden and quick in quarrel’. He is also ‘seeking the bubble reputation’ (he does things that make him look good even if they are pointless) ‘Even in the cannon’s mouth’ (even if it means standing in front of guns, i.e. going to war or getting into fights). 3 The middle-aged person is fat from eating too much (‘round belly’ on line 16); he has got hard eyes and a neat beard and he knows lots of wise sayings. 4 A ‘part’ is a role in a play and the expression is ‘to play a part’. The ‘last scene’ is the end of a play and Shakespeare is connecting this to the end of life. 5 They are both like young children – the first one is a baby, but the second is an old person. 6 He means that life can be strange with lots of things happening in it. Discuss these questions in pairs. 1- Which simile does the playwright use to describe the schoolboy as he walks to school? 2- Find another example of a simile in the speech. Which two things are being compared? 3- In your opinion, which stage do you think the playwright believes to be the most positive? 4- How could you add meaning to this speech when reading it aloud? Discuss with a partner. Then, read the speech. Do you think you added appropriate expression? Why? 5- Read the poem I Remember, I Remember again on page 81, and compare both authors’ attitudes to childhood. In what ways do they differ? In what ways are they similar? Which one do you prefer? 1- The poet uses ‘creeping like snail’ in line 8 meaning going very slowly. 2- ‘bearded like the pard’ in line 11 – Shakespeare is comparing a soldier to a leopard. 3- Suggested answer: I think he believes middle age is the most positive. He says the person has become a judge or magistrate and he’s full of wise sayings, suggesting that he has learnt from the past and is putting his knowledge to good use. He is also well fed, serious in manner, takes pride, and is conventional, in his appearance. 4-) Now that the students have understood the speech better, they should be able to read it with more expression. Remind them to use the different tones of their voices as well as gestures to help to get across the meaning to the listeners. 5- The poet and the playwright have very different views on childhood. Firstly, the poet sees it as a positive time of life, whereas the playwright does not portray either the baby or the schoolboy very favourably. Secondly, the poet is talking about his own childhood while the playwright is generalising. The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway Santiago is an old fisherman in Cuba, but for the last eighty-four days he hasn’t caught any fish. His friend, a young fisherman named Manolin, helps him to bring in his empty boat every day. Manolin has been Santiago’s fishing partner for years. Santiago had taught him all about fishing, and has done so since he was a boy of five years old. Now, the young man’s parents want him to fish with a more productive partner. The next morning, Santiago leaves early and sails far out to sea to try his luck again. Eventually, he feels a bite on one of his hooks, and he works out that it must be a big fish, perhaps a marlin. The fish is strong, though, and does not come up to the surface. Instead, the fish swims away, dragging the old man and his boat along. This goes on until the sun goes down, and eventually Santiago can’t see the land any more at all. As night falls, he wraps the fishing line around himself, and goes to sleep, leaving his left hand on the rope to wake him if the marlin surfaces. Soon, the old man is asleep, dreaming of the lions he used to see when he was a boy in Africa. Santiago is awoken in the night when he feels the marlin pulling on the line in his hand. The marlin leaps out of the water, and Santiago has to hold on to the line with all his strength to avoid being pulled into the sea. When he sees the fish at last, he is amazed by its size. After a long and difficult struggle, he manages to pull it closer to the boat and he kills it. Santiago ties the marlin’s body to his boat and prepares to sail home. Before he reaches land, though, he is attacked by several sharks. He kills one with a harpoon and another with his knife. The blood in the water attracts more sharks. Santiago has to beat them away with a club and is badly injured himself. When he arrives back at the harbour, everyone is asleep. Arriving home, Santiago collapses on his bed in exhaustion and falls asleep. The next morning, Manolin finds Santiago in his hut and cries over the old man’s injuries. Manolin reassures Santiago that the great fish didn’t beat him and that they will fish together again. He tells him that the old man still has much to teach him. That afternoon, some tourists see the marlin’s skeleton and ask a waiter what it is. Trying to explain what happened to the marlin, the waiter replies, ‘shark.’ The tourists misunderstand and assume that is what the skeleton is. They don’t realise that it is actually a marlin, the biggest fish ever caught in the village, at more than five metres long. Meanwhile, Santiago is sleeping and once again, dreaming of the lions he saw in Africa long ago, when he was young. Look at the words in the box. Which one means … | Productive | hook | drag | surface | harpoon | club | reassure | assume | |------------|------|------|---------|---------|------|----------|--------| 1 a sharp, pointed weapon, like a knife on a long stick? 2 a heavy object used for hitting? 3 to pull something heavy behind you? 4 someone who is successful or who earns you money? 5 to believe something without questioning it? 6 to say something positive to someone who is worried about something? 7 a curved object on which to hang something, for example a fish on a line? 8 to come to the top of the ocean or earth? Answers 1 harpoon 2 club 3 drag 4 productive 5 assume 6 reassure 7 hook 8 surface Read the story again and answer the questions. 1 What evidence is there at the very beginning of the story that Santiago is a very optimistic and determined person? 2 When Santiago feels a bite on his line, he works out that ‘it must be a big fish, perhaps a marlin’. What evidence is there that he is correct? 3 Why does Santiago go to sleep that night with the line tied around himself? (paragraph 4) 4 How does Manolin try to encourage Santiago not to give up fishing? What does this tell you about Manolin’s character? (paragraph 9) 5 What is the reason for the tourists’ misunderstanding about what the skeleton was? (paragraph 10) Answers 1 He goes to sea to try his luck every day even though he hasn’t caught anything for 84 days. 2 It drags the boat along for a long time, so it must be a big fish. 3 Santiago ties the line round himself so that he doesn’t lose it in the water and also so that he feels the tug when the fish pulls on the line. 4 Manolin tells Santiago that he didn’t lose against the marlin and that he wants to fish with him again because he still has a lot to learn. Manolin seems to be a caring person; kind, thoughtful and loyal to Santiago. 5 The waiter couldn’t speak their language and was trying to explain about the sharks. However, the tourists only understood ‘shark’ and assumed that the skeleton was the skeleton of a shark. 1- Opposites: Use words that they have come across, e.g.: **in** – secure, competent, expensive; **un** – enthusiastic, ambitious, common; **im** – patient, perfect, modest; **dis** – honest, able, please; **il** – legal, logical Rules of derivation Nouns: Nouns usually end with the following suffixes: __ment / __ness / __ship / __hood/ __dom / __er / __or / __ure/ __age/ __tion / __ation /__sion / __ance / __ence / __ce / __cy / __gy / __ity / __ist / __ism/ __ian / __ing/ يأتي اسم في الحالات التالية: 1. After prepositions such as: in, on, at, of, from, with, without, before, after: A- He suffers a lot from.......................... (Exhausted exhaustion exhaustedly) 2. After articles such as: (a, an, the) unless they are followed with nouns: A- We have taken a.......................to start a new business next month. (Decide decision decided) 3. When the space comes between (the..................preposition): A- The.........................of environment is a result of pollution. (Destruct destruction destructive) 4. After quantifiers such as: much, little, some, any, no: A- There is a little.......................in our area. (Develop development developed) 5. After possessive pronouns such as: my/his/her/our/their/your/its/ or a apostrophe "s": A- You should listen to my....................... (Advisable advise advice) 6. When the space comes at the beginning of the sentence followed by a verb: A- ..............................killed the cat. (Curious curiosity curiously) 7. After adjectives: A- A stressful.......................causes stress. (Situation situational situated) 8. After (and) when preceded by a noun: A- I need some help and................... (Advise advice advisable) Adjectives: Adjectives usually end with one of the following suffixes: __Ful / __ous/ __less/ __ic/ __ent/ __ant/ __able/ __ible/ __al/ __ive/__ed تأتي الصلة في الحالات التالية: 1. After verb to be such as: **be, am, is, are, was, were, been and being**: نستخدم صفة بعد أفعال الكنينية: A- Reading the labels on food contents is………………for you. (Benefit beneficial beneficially) 2. After intensifiers such as: **quite /rather/too/so/abit/slightly,very**; بعد المشدّات: A- Nabeeela is quite………….. (Intelligence intelligent intelligently) 3. After adverbs such as: **completely , interestingly , extremely ,etc.**: بعد الطرف A- The situation was ironically…………… (Embarrassed embarrassment embarrass) 4. Before nouns: قبل الاسماء A- Rain is an………………source of water. (Importance importantly important) 5. After (The most…………) or between (as………as)and(more……than) بين أدوات المقارنة A- Amman is as……………as Aqaba. (Attractive attraction attract) 6. After verbs like ( seem, look, feel, sound, become, get): بعد مجموعة الأفعال المذكورة أعلاه: A- Osama looks…………..in his military uniform. Adverbs: Adverbs usually end with ( ly ): تأتي الطرف في الحالات التالية: 1. When the space comes at the beginning of the sentence followed by a comma: نستخدم الظروف عندما يأتي الفراغ بداية الجملة متوقفاً بفاصلة: A- ……………., we were given prizes for our effort. (Interesting interestingly interest) 2. Before adjectives: قبل الصفات A- Lama is……………beautiful. (Extreme extremely extremity) 3. Between the helping verb and the main verb: بين الفعل المساعد والفعل الرئيسي A- The operation was…………carried out. (Success successful successfully) 4. At the end of the sentence to say how something happened: نهاية الجملة لتضفي كيفية حدوث الفعل: A- She was playing the piano………………. (Beautifully beautiful beauty) 5. Before main verbs: قبل الفعل الرئيسي A- I …………begged him to come. (Excess excessively excessive) Verbs: Verbs usually end with one of the following suffixes: __ize /__ise/ __en/ __ate/ __ide/ __ve/ __fy 1. After modal verbs such as: Will/shall/can/may/might/must/could/would/should A- We must...........our level in English. (Improvement improved improve) 2. After (to) as an infinitive: A- I hope to..............from your experience. (Beneficial benefit beneficially) 3. After subject pronouns such as( he / she / we / you / they / I who) A- People are known by the ones they.............with. (Social socialize socially) Guided writing 1. Guided Writing: | Traditional letters | Advantages | Disadvantages | |---------------------|------------|---------------| | | personal, serious and respectful | take longer time, cause trouble | e-mail | Advantages | Disadvantages | |------------|---------------| | quick, easy | impersonal, not so serious | Mobile Phone Calls | Advantages | |------------| | - quick and personal | | - can be recorded |
2a9d1d8c-d3b9-45bf-89c5-b550797951d3
CC-MAIN-2021-10
https://www.awa2el.net/ar/file/398/download?token=bWrdVNSb
2021-03-02T23:41:17+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178364932.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20210302221633-20210303011633-00236.warc.gz
676,506,496
40,035
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.925528
eng_Latn
0.988965
[ "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "arb_Arab", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 35, 1258, 4027, 6055, 8077, 9534, 11022, 13018, 14872, 16616, 19240, 21959, 23278, 24263, 25732, 27288, 29169, 30506, 31667, 33334, 34847, 37099, 38618, 40379, 42078, 44033, 45655, 47347, 48979, 50302, 53578, 54984, 56370, 57663, 60554, 62215, 64970, 66857, 68584, 71049, 73465, 75037, 76838, 78946, 81055, 82256, 82923, 84734, 86765, 87438, 88670, 90240, 91689, 94652, 96190, 97858, 99847, 100757, 102386, 103613, 104974, 106603, 107442, 109338, 110702, 113189, 114896, 116438, 118440, 120324, 121878, 123091, 124396, 126266, 128213, 130300, 131175, 131797, 132522, 135525, 138665, 140156, 141334, 143341, 145207, 147096, 148243, 149806, 151969, 153589, 154525, 156356, 158258, 160633, 163652, 166686, 168247, 170205, 171208 ]
[ 3.71875, 3.828125 ]
1
0
Behaviour Policy Early Years and Primary Last reviewed: July 2020 Our philosophy for Teaching and Learning: As a school community we are all learners, adults and children alike. We aim to foster in our learners, a life-long love of learning while developing the skills, knowledge and understanding to achieve to the best of our abilities. As learners we thrive best in a warm and secure environment where we are accepted and valued while developing the attitudes and dispositions to be happy, caring and creative learners for life. We want the children in our school to develop the skills that will help them to achieve and become successful, independent and lifelong learners. We can achieve this aim when we work as a team; children, parents and staff, to create the best conditions and environment for learning. The aim of our behaviour policy: - We believe that good behaviour has a positive effect on progress and learning - We believe that children who are treated with respect will in turn learn how to treat others respectfully - We believe that we all have a responsibility to help children achieve a high level of positive behaviour and that best results come from working together with regular communication between home and school. It is essential that there is consistency in dealing with behaviour throughout the Foundation Stage and that this links with the methods used in the rest of the school. Our Aims: - To promote a caring environment where students and adults support each other. - To ensure the safety and well-being of all members of the school. - To teach and expect co-operation, honesty, politeness and good manners. - To develop and encourage positive attitudes to learning. - To give students the confidence to express their needs and feelings and assert themselves positively. - To ensure that the students follow the Golden Rules (see Appendices) - To be sensitive and considerate towards the needs of others. - To teach and expect others to make positive decisions and act appropriately and where necessary, be accountable for their actions. - To recognize that all students are of equal value and are to be treated equally regardless of gender, religion, ethnic background or disability. - To ensure that all adults in school provide an appropriate role model. - To involve parents in a community approach to good behaviour. - To teach students to care for resources and the environment. Reward Systems We praise and reward students for good behaviour in relation to our Golden rules and other behaviours in a variety of ways: - Dojos - Good to be green (EYFS/KS1 traffic lights on green, KS2 Privilege cards/book) - Praise in class and in assemblies - Stickers (optional) - House Parties at the end of term for the winning house team Staged Approach Our school implements a staged approach to behaviour management as follows: Stage 1 – Quality first teaching/provision - Visual prompts are used to support expectations of behaviour (e.g. visual displays of expected behaviours) - Non-verbal visual cues/reminders are given to children observed not following the rules - If the behaviour is repeated, one verbal warning will be given. - Upon being given a second verbal warning the child will be asked to move to yellow and experience a time out in the Thinking area for two minutes - If the behaviour is repeated again the child will be asked to move to red, repeated red behaviour will be shared with parents - At the start of each day all names are returned to a green card for a fresh start - Children will have opportunities to move back to green if their behaviour improves Stage 2 – Individualised plan - Where incidents of behaviour are continually being repeated a meeting with parents will be held to discuss how best to support the child e.g. individualised learning plan to motivate the child (see appendix 2 and 3) - The Head of Early Years will be informed - If poor behaviour continues after the plan their will be a meeting with the parents, class teacher, the Head of Early Years and if necessary the school psychologist to discuss next steps Physical restraint All staff are aware that Physical restraint will be viewed as a last resort and staff will exhaust other strategies before intervening. Anti-bullying Our school does not tolerate bullying of any kind and all staff act immediately to stop any further occurrences of such behaviour. We do our utmost to ensure that all children attend our school free from fear where they can learn best. We therefore do all we can to prevent it, by developing a school ethos in which bullying is not tolerated under any circumstances. Bullying is a subjective experience that can take many forms. Various national and international definitions of bullying exist and most of these definitions have three things in common which reflect children’s experience of bullying and evidence gained from extensive research in this area. The three common aspects in most definitions of bullying are that: - It is deliberately hurtful behaviour - It is usually repeated over time - There is an imbalance of power, which makes it hard for those being bullied to defend themselves. **Bullying can occur through several types of anti-social behaviour:** - Physical – a child may be physically punched, kicked, hit spat at etc. - Verbal – verbal abuse can take the form of name-calling. It may be directed towards gender, ethnic origin, physical or social disability or personality. - Exclusion – a child may be bullied simply by being excluded from, or left out of discussions / activities by those they believe to be their friends. - Damage to property or theft – pupils may have their property damaged or stolen. The bully may use physical threats in order that property is handed over to him or her. - Cyber bullying - All areas of internet, such as email and internet chat Twitter, Facebook misuse **Procedures** - All cases of potential bullying should be reported to class tutor - The class tutor will conduct an investigation and pass on all of the information to Head of Stage - The Head of Stage will make a decision as to whether the case can be dealt with in class or is a bullying case that needs to be passed on to DSL. - The DSL will inform parents and record confidentially on internal record. - If the case is considered to be bullying, the Head of Stage will record this onto Engage (with information and dates) - When a case is considered bullying. The Whole school Bully Policy will be followed. See document: [https://drive.google.com/file/d/12qQGeHlMvgx37RRBFDR-TCXh400M4VgQF/view?usp=sharing](https://drive.google.com/file/d/12qQGeHlMvgx37RRBFDR-TCXh400M4VgQF/view?usp=sharing) **Exclusion** It is the general policy of the school to consider exclusion of a child only as a last resort and one that should be avoided by all practical means. However, under certain circumstances, the exclusion of a child may be the only option. **Reasons for Exclusion** Exclusion may be considered in one or more of the following circumstances: - A child exhibits repeated violent and/or uncontrollable behaviour - A child persistently directs abusive or threatening language towards either a member of staff or to another child - Persistent asocial behaviour or problems of an indefinable nature - The child through his/her behaviour is perceived to represent a physical risk to him/herself, to other children or to members of the preschool staff - Should a child begin to exhibit extreme antisocial behaviour or is disruptive or violent, - In exceptional circumstances, students can be sent home from school pending investigations while their case is reviewed by the senior management team If the behavioural problems persist: - The parents of the child will be consulted so that an action plan can be formulated - Specialist advice (including the school psychologist), assistance and help will be sought - A meeting with all relevant parties will be held to discuss the behavioural issues and to agree upon an action plan - Staff will report progress to the child’s parents on a daily basis - Funding for 1-to-1 assistance for the child May be sought - Regular meetings will be held with all relevant parties - If there is no improvement in the child’s behaviour or the behaviour constitutes an immediate threat to another child or member of staff, the child will be excluded - A letter to the parents/guardians will be sent informing them of the school’s decision to exclude the child will be sent **How does the behaviour system work in Early Years?** **Classroom rules** At the beginning of the school year the class teacher discusses the Golden Rules with his/her class and reinforces them whenever necessary. Golden Rules are displayed in every classroom and in all communal areas. In this way, every child in the school knows the standard of behaviour that we expect in our school. 1. We look after our School 2. We work hard and try our best 3. We listen to others 4. We are kind and honest 5. We will try our best to speak in English **Traffic Lights** - Each class has a WOW/Green/Yellow/Red traffic light display (with either name cards, photos or pegs) - Children will start each day on green and the objective is to ‘stay green’ all day - Throughout the day children can be moved depending on their behaviour - green, yellow and red behaviours are detailed in appendix 7 - If a child is moved to red or yellow they will be asked to spend a few minutes in the Thinking Area (within their own class) - Repeated red behaviour to be reported to Head of Early Years - Children on the WOW/Green at the end of the day will receive stickers **Playtime and Lunchtime** Children are expected to treat all adults with respect and to use good manners when eating. The playground is separated into zones. Members of staff supervise playtime on a rota basis. There is a Thinking Area on each playground which is used if children do not respond to a verbal warning (5 minutes maximum). If a child goes to the Thinking area this should be fed back to their class teacher. Any behaviour incidents on the playground should be reported back to the class teacher. **Golden time - Reception** Children who have displayed green behaviour for the majority of the week will access golden time, which will be 30 minutes timetabled on a Friday afternoon. Golden time activities to be chosen based on the children’s preferences and should be exciting in order to encourage good behaviour. **Golden table and Certificates** Each week teachers must select a Star of the Week from their class. This child receives a Star of the Week certificate in assembly and children in N3 and Reception get to sit on the Golden table for lunch the following week. (TO BE REVIEWED) **Reception - Dojos** All staff working with Reception children give ‘dojos’ to children for positive behaviours, attitudes etc. When in the classroom these are recorded electronically (using “Class dojo”) and when in the wider school environment laminated cards (see Appendix 1 for examples) are handed to the child to be exchanged electronically when they return to the classroom. So as to not disturb teaching flow, where deemed appropriate, children may be given physical dojos in the classroom to exchange later. The child who gets the most dojos each week will receive a Dojo-tastic award in assembly. Biting Many children go through stages in their development where they exhibit behaviour that others find unacceptable. Biting in particular is a very unpleasant form of behaviour that is particularly prevalent in children whose language skills are only just developing and can often be an expression of frustration that they have not yet acquired the skills to express what they are feeling. The following procedures should be adhered to in the event of a child being bitten: - Comfort the bitten child and administer appropriate First Aid. - Explain to the biting child why biting is unacceptable, that it hurts the other child and show the mark or bruise. - Remove the biting child from the circumstances that provoked the biting for a short period of time. - Always inform the parents of the bitten child. - Inform the parents of the child that has bitten and explore with them their strategy for dealing with such incidents if they occur at home or elsewhere. - Discuss with other staff members the incidents concerned and evaluate and monitor the situation for the future. How does the Behaviour system work in Primary? The behaviour system in Primary builds on from the system developed in the EYFS stage. Class Dojo All staff within our school (teachers, support staff, senior leaders, office staff, lunchtime staff and extra-curricular activity teachers) give “dojos” to students for positive behaviours, attitudes, etc. When in the classroom, these are recorded electronically (using “Class Dojo”), and when in the wider school environment, laminated cards (see appendices for examples) are handed to the students to be exchanged electronically when they return to the classroom. Students work towards collecting 300 dojos across three terms – aiming for Gold in Term 3. Their dojos are recorded on the platform Class Dojo. The student continues to collect more dojos to achieve the following: - 100 dojos = Bronze award - 200 dojos = Silver award - 300 dojos = Gold award Any students who collect more than 400 dojos will receive a special “Dojo-tastic” certificate (see appendices). When the student receives an award (bronze, silver or Gold), they receive a special certificate (see appendices), which is awarded in class but will be mentioned at the end of term assemblies. End of term parties will be planned between the Behaviour Working Party members and the House Team Working Party members. These parties will be for the house with the highest number of dojos so far in the year. **Primary Dojo Guidelines** The following is an idea of how we should be using our Class Dojo in Primary. In order for us to maintain a consistent atmosphere throughout our school and to ensure that the students progress through the year groups with similar opportunities to have points awarded, the following is the standard ‘Skills’ that we can award. These points allow for all weights from 1 point up to 5 and can be used flexibly where needed. If specialist teachers would like to contribute and add their own, then this is encouraged. *If throughout the year you discover there is a particular skill that deserves awarding, then please contact your Key Stage Coordinator and we can review and share it with everyone.* Here is how to do this: 1. 2. Type in the name, e.g. Good work Leave the point weight as 1. Select a picture from the drop down box by clicking the arrow to the right of the picture (These should be set up as displayed above to ensure consistency) Click save after each selection and then just follow step 4 to add another Here are some Tips - At least once a week in KS2 parents love to see something that their children are doing in school. Photos are a great way to quickly share learning with parents. More than once a week in Early Years and KS1 parents love to see something that their children are doing in school. Photos are a great way to quickly share learning with parents. If used timetables including homework and exam timetables should be shared as soon as they are available Please share any messages that Head of Stage or KSCs ask to be shared on Dojo It is advisable to adjust your account to include the ‘quiet hours’ in order to maintain your own well being and rest time outside of school Try to talk within your year group to ensure that there is a fair balance regarding content being sent to parents. Take particular care when twins are in your year group. Add all specialist teachers, your KSC and Head of stage as co-teachers to your class Do not share any negative behaviours publically – This should be done via private messages If using points, update dojo points on a regular basis and ensure that the points are hidden from the parents If you have any other queries about dojo, please first refer to the Dojo help webpage: https://classdojo.zendesk.com/hc/en-us **Key Stage 1: Star of the Week** - Teachers will select a ‘Star of the Week’ each week, this child will be allowed to carry out special jobs (special person jobs) for a week and will be allowed to sit on a special star cushion in class. These children will sit on a special bench and receive their Star of the Week certificates in assembly. - Specialist staff can select a ‘Star’ from their subject for the assembly, pupils will also receive a sticker in assembly **Key Stage 2: Privilege Book** During monthly assemblies teachers will have the opportunity to select up to three students (two by class teacher in conjunction with specialist teachers and one from Spanish staff) from their class to be entered into the Privilege book for special behavior during that week. A reason will be entered into the Privilege Book and those students will be celebrated. Later in class, the ‘Privilege’ students will take a Privilege card to place in the Dojo Chart. This also entitles them to choose a reward (see appendices examples). **Classroom Rules** At the beginning of the school year, the class teacher discusses the Golden Rules with his/her class and reinforces them whenever necessary. Golden Rules are to be displayed in each classroom and all communal areas. This way, every student will be aware of the standard behaviour that is expected throughout the school. **Good to be Green chart** (see appendices) **Key Stage 1** - Each classroom has a “Good to be Green” chart on the wall with a named space for every student in that class – This will be used to store dojos. - Each teacher will display a traffic light system in class. All children will begin the day on green (represented through a name card, peg or photo card) - Children will move down the traffic light system for poor behaviour. There **are two warning steps** before yellow and then a **further two warning steps** before red. - Above the traffic lights there will be a ‘WOW’ sign. Children who have shown exceptional behaviour may move to here – children on the ‘WOW’ at the end of the day will receive a sticker to take home - Examples of green, yellow and red behaviour are detailed in the appendices - Golden Time will be rewarded to children you spend most of the week on green - **Note:** As this is a positive reward system, teachers should avoid moving whole classes to both red and yellow at any one time. Rather, use dojos to reward any appropriate behaviour. As a whole class sanction for consistent low level behaviour, the teacher should use their own discretion whereby the class lose minutes from their patio time (maximum of 10 minutes – students should be allowed to eat their snack quietly during this time). **Key Stage 2** - Each classroom has a “Good to be Green” chart on the wall with a named space for every student in that class. - Each student has a green card in their space. - Gold, yellow and red cards are available in the chart. - The objective of the scheme is to stay on green all week. - Students will start each day with a green card. - Examples of green, yellow and red behaviours are detailed in the appendices **Playtime and Lunchtime** Students are expected to treat all adults and students with respect and use good manners when eating whether in the playground or in the dining room. The playground is separated into zones and students. Members of staff supervise playtime on a rota basis. Staff on duty will inform class teachers of any misbehaviours that they deem unacceptable. Playground Buddies – Y3 and Y5 Students are selected through a recruitment process (led by Playground Buddy staff), to be Playground Buddies at lunchtime. They are responsible for contributing to the selection of resources and for leading play activities with peers. The playground zones are also monitored by teachers on duty. Yellow and red cards cannot be given by playground buddies, although they are expected to report any behaviour issues to teachers on duty. Key Stage 2: Three Ticks and Reflection time At the beginning of the school year, the class teacher will display the ‘Three Tick Chart’ which will list all student’s names on it and provide space for three ticks to be recorded. Using this system, the teacher will follow the same system as behavior using the described methods of warning a student before resorting to ticks. If a student is misbehaving and doesn’t follow your clues to desist, then a tick can be written beside the student’s name. Through the course of the day ticks can be rubbed out to reward improved behavior (allowing the student the opportunity to modify their behavior) but can also be added to if misbehavior continues. If a student receives three ticks, they will then take a Yellow Warning Card and add it to their name. At the end of the school day, all students who have no ticks will receive a dojo for showing good behavior. If a student receives six ticks in one day then the next step is to use a Red Card. On the sixth tick a red card should be given. These students should be directed to the Reflection Area (see below) in their upcoming patio time. Parents MUST be informed when a yellow or a red card is given via dojo. Key Stage 2: Reflection Area - Any student who receives a red card will be guided to the Reflection Area in the next patio (usually the following day). This is so that the sanction is as immediate as possible and so that the student can complete the consequence of their action and then begin again with a green card. Once a student has visited the Reflection Room, they will return to a green card. - The Reflection Area will be in 6P and supervised by the Key Stage Coordinator. It should be no longer than 10/15 minutes to allow the students to go to the patio and have their snack before their next class. During this reflection time, students will tell the supervising teacher why they have been given a red card and this teacher and reflection activities and discussions will take place. Note: As this is a positive reward system, teachers should avoid distributing both red and yellow cards to a whole class at any one time. Rather, use dojos to reward any appropriate behaviour. As a whole class sanction for consistent low level behaviour, the teacher should use their own discretion whereby the class lose minutes from their patio time (maximum of 10 minutes – students should be allowed to eat their snack quietly during this time). **Key Stage 2: Homework** ‘Homework’ along with ‘Speaking The Appropriate Language’ will not be dealt with using the sanctions from the ‘Good to be Green’ behaviour system. Close monitoring has revealed that these two areas would benefit from being recorded and sanctioned separately. In order to effectively monitor homework, we would recommend using the google sheets homework template. Parents should be notified via dojo when their student has not handed in their homework on the first day. If a student has failed to hand homework in on time on three consecutive occasions, a Yellow Card may be given but this should only be after the parent has been informed on all three occasions. An example of a way of recording and managing homework can be found in the appendices. If the teacher feels it is appropriate (perhaps the student’s parent is not active on Dojo) they can use the paper alternative and send home a Homework Slip which can be found in the appendices. **Key Stage 2: Speaking The Appropriate Language** There are a number of ideas that can be used in order to improve the level of English being spoken in the classroom. Choose from the following suggestions: - Students are given three stars at the beginning of a day. If they are heard using the wrong language for the lesson at hand, a star will be removed. If a student loses all three stars in one day, they will not receive their dojo for the day. - Google sheet – If a student is heard speaking in the wrong language, they will have a tally added to their name and at the end of the third tally they will not receive their daily dojo. This could be used further and a record of those who have not received any tallies all week could be awarded extra dojos on Friday. **Monitoring the Quality of Marking and Feedback** The implementation and impact of the behaviour policy will be monitored across the stages. Monitoring of this policy is carried out as part of the remit of Key Stage Coordinators, school psychologist and the Senior Leadership Team. **Strategies for monitoring:** - Looking for Learning visits - child interviews and discussions - monitoring of the quality of marking and feedback - Weekly Head of Stage meetings with school psychologist • Feedback from teachers Appendices: Appendix 1 Physical Dojos – examples Appendix 2 Behaviour Chart *To adapt according to student’s year group / interests Appendix 3 – Puzzle Choose an image with the child, depending on their needs divide it into a number of puzzle pieces (3 is good to start with). Through good behaviour children earn their pieces throughout the day and when they have got all the pieces they get a reward. This puzzle is normally displayed on the wall so the child can see it clearly throughout the day. Appendix 4: Golden Rules 1. We look after our school. 2. We work hard and try our best. 3. We listen to others. 4. We are kind and honest. 5. We always speak in the appropriate language. Appendix 5: Dojo-tastic Certificate Appendix 6: Bronze (A5), Silver (A5) and Privelege (A4) Certificates Appendix 7: Appendix 8: Privilege Card Rewards or Star of the week rewards: Use of teacher’s chair for a lesson. Eat lunch with the teacher. Pick your own partner. Sit next to your friend for the day. Sit on the floor (with a cushion). Sit on a cushion in assembly. Listen to / pick the music for the lesson. Read a story to the class (G/T). Appendix 9: Green, Yellow and Red Behaviour and Sanctions | Behaviour | Consequence | Reflection Notes | |-----------|-------------|-----------------| | * Out of seat | * Moving seat | * Privilege card – use discretion. | | * Running on seat, corridor or yard | * Going for lunch at break time | * Teacher meeting (could be a private meeting with child and parent, or a staff meeting to see and invitation to make contact. | | * Not listening/playing appropriately | * Not working | 2nd House to Care card – yellow card. | | * Not listening/playing appropriately | * Not homework | * Child’s name to recorded on a personalised behaviour plan and behaviour diary. | | * Not listening/playing appropriately | * Not working | * Child is sent to the reflection area in class. | | * Not listening/playing appropriately | * Not homework | * Child’s name to recorded on a personalised behaviour plan and behaviour diary. | | * Not listening/playing appropriately | * Not homework | * Child’s name to recorded on a personalised behaviour plan and behaviour diary. | Appendix 10: Good to be Green Chart Appendix 11: Reflection Sheet Y1 & Y2 (A5) Reflection Sheet Y3 – Y6 (A5) Appendix 12: Class Behaviour Record Appendix 13: Generic Message – Yellow / Red Cards (Student’s name) has received a yellow / red card in (subject / patio) today for (reason). He / she will bring a reflection sheet home. Please sign and return (tomorrow / next school day). Thank you Privilege Cards Message — *this is not compulsory as the student should return home with a certificate, however, should you wish to you can use the following message.* (Student’s name) has received a Privilege card in school today for (reason). He /she has been /will be rewarded by (chosen reward). Congratulations (student’s name)! **Appendix 14:** [Personal Behaviour Plan](#) **Appendix 15:** [ABC Form](#) **Appendix 16:** [Homework Slip](#)
69a6c505-84c8-419b-9aaa-37bf6e801fac
CC-MAIN-2022-05
https://www.laudenewtoncollege.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Behaviour-Policy-Early-Years-and-Primary-ENG.pdf
2022-01-26T23:24:12+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320305006.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20220126222652-20220127012652-00342.warc.gz
867,966,847
5,824
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.91756
eng_Latn
0.998556
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "nld_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 67, 2431, 4551, 6960, 9069, 11395, 13694, 14633, 14662, 15145, 17292, 19748, 22571, 24917, 24994, 25640, 25773, 27190, 27553, 28005 ]
[ 3.546875, 2.75 ]
2
0
Providing Psychosocial Support to New Americans in Your Community Osob Issa, MSW and Emma Cardeli, PhD Refugee Trauma and Resilience Center (RTRC) Refugee Trauma and Resilience Center at Boston Children’s Hospital Prevention and Intervention - Trauma Systems Therapy (TST) - Trauma Systems Therapy for Refugees (TST-R) - Multi-Disciplinary Team (Community Connect) Research and Innovation - Somali Youth Risk and Resilience Project - Intervention Adaptation - Intervention Research: TST-R Training and Resource Development - Refugee Services Toolkit (RST) - Dissemination: TST-R - Cultural Brokering Training In 2018, 68.5 million people were forcibly displaced worldwide - 25.4 million of these people are refugees - Over half of these were children (UNHCR, 2018) - Somalia, Iraq, Syria, Burma - Ukraine - Bhutan, Afghanistan, Iran - Northern Triangle Who Qualifies for Refugee Status? A person who is outside his/her country of nationality or habitual residence; has a well-founded fear of persecution because of his/her race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion; and is unable or unwilling to avail himself/herself of the protection of that country, or to return there, for fear of persecution. -- Article 1 of the 1951 U.N. Refugee Convention Different Groups That Migrate to the U.S. - Difference in legal status: refugee vs. immigrant, documented vs. undocumented - Differences and similarities in experiences - Differences in access to services - Other special groups: unaccompanied minors, asylum seekers, temporary protected status Ellis, B. H., Abdi, S. M. & Winer, J. P. (Under review). *Working with child and adolescent refugees and immigrants: Intervening across social ecologies*. American Psychological Association Trauma Series. The Refugee Experience Somali Children & Families: Reasons for Leaving - 1991 Civil war erupted - “Worst humanitarian crisis in the world” - Prolonged brutal fighting - Disruption of basic food production and services - Drought - Marginalization of the Somali Bantu Boston Children’s Hospital Until every child is well™ NCTSN The National Child Traumatic Stress Network HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL TEACHING HOSPITAL LIFE Boston Children’s Hospital Until every child is well™ Displaced families in Kenya. Sequential Traumatization Pre-Migration - Lack of access to basic resources During Migration - Loss of/separation from family Post Migration - Stress - Poverty Refugee Experience - Dislocated, travel long distances by foot, death of loved ones, torture, imprisonment - Refugee camp - Resettlement: takes up to 2 years of vetting, interviews, gathering documents Youth reported having experienced on average 7 traumatic events (range 0-22) (Ellis, MacDonald, Lincoln, & Cabral, 2008) Service Utilization Of those with posttraumatic stress disorder, how many sought services of any type? - No Services: 92% - Sought services: 8% (Ellis, Lincoln, Charney, Ford-Paz, & Benson, 2008) Pathways to Healing - Community talk - Youth coping - Tell Family - Solve problems within family - Religion - School teacher, counselor - Hide problems - Tell a friend - Solve by self - Mental health professional - Send back to Somalia Attitudes Towards Therapy Talking to a therapist, that’s something we laugh at in our culture because we’re like... ‘why would you want to talk about your issues?’. . . Somali’s don’t seek therapy. Or they don’t know there’s a solution in talking about your problems. They think you don’t have problems enough to be talking to a therapist or they don’t think things should impact you that much. They think you should just brush everything off your shoulders and that’s how it should work.... They just think you shouldn’t have problems like that . . . There should be a certain gratitude or a certain sense of fulfillment just because you're respecting what your parents are saying. Barriers to Mental Health Care - Distrust of Authority/Power - Linguistic & Cultural Barriers - Stigma of Mental Health Services - Primacy of Resettlement Stressors Strategies to Address Barriers - Community Engagement - Partnership of Providers & Cultural Experts - Embedding Services in Service System - Integration of Concrete Services Ellis, B. H., Miller, A. B., Baldwin, H., & Abdi, S. (2011). New directions in refugee youth mental health services: Overcoming barriers to engagement. *Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 4*(1), 69-85. Community Engagement Getting to Know your Local Community... How do you begin to engage communities? What are community hopes and concerns? How do your services align with other services in the community? How do you explain your services to the community? What community strengths can be engaged in the services? Step 1: Build Partnerships - Foster open communication with local, state, school and city offices that work with target population - Build positive and collaborative relationships with MAAs/ECBOs; Pay for consultative services - Build awareness of other community services supporting clients - Collaborate where possible to prevent duplication of effort Community Engagement - Engaging community in discussion about the program, framing in a way that people are receptive, hearing from the community about concerns - Reducing stigma: ongoing work to reduce stigma around mental health, have community members talk about program/mental health in an informal way - Engaging families and students into program through both school and community efforts; holistic approach - Connecting parents who may not traditionally have access to services - Providing education about the mental health/health, the school system, and the provision of treatment Importance of Community Engagement 1. Usually harmonious with values of many ethnic/cultural groups: - Integrates Community beliefs and understanding of issues - Supports family and community systems - Supports collective decision making - Supports information sharing 2. Increases understanding of cultural/community factors that may shape perceptions of illness 3. Increases understanding of cultural/community factors that may shape a person’s process of seeking help for emotional difficulties and other health-related issues 4. Acknowledges that cultural values may inhibit help seeking behaviors Moving from Engagement to Collaboration... • Learning from the refugee community; for example: – Hearing from the refugee community about their concerns (not just “mental health concerns”) in addition to service systems in their countries of origin, idioms of distress, common help-seeking behaviors, etc. – Informal discussions with community members to obtain feedback about your service (what’s working/not working) and to identify new concerns – Attending community events and gatherings • Sharing information with the refugee community, for example: – Engaging the community in discussion about your service and framing it in a way that community members are receptive – Providing education about the goals of your service – Engaging community gateway providers and leaders (e.g., religious leaders) Project SHIFA https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=Su2WRPUG-f8 Break Time Boston Children's Hospital Until every child is well™ HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL TEACHING HOSPITAL Activity: What’s in a name? Cultural Humility Video Cultural Humility: by Vivian Chavez Cultural Humility 1) A commitment to self-evaluation and self-critique 2) Recognize, acknowledge and change power imbalances in relationships 3) Develop mutually beneficial partnerships with communities; work towards institutional accountability Competence and Humility: Two Pedagogies - Cultural competence - What to say and do and what not to say and do - Concrete and goals oriented - Cultural humility - A stance towards engaging with other fellow travelers in the world - A values oriented focused on increasing connection and dismantling oppression (Ellis, Abdi, & Winer, Under Review) | Non-Western Expectations/Values | Western Expectations/Values | |---------------------------------|-----------------------------| | Help is given when asked | Roles and limit setting | | Things are implied | Verbalizing feelings and thoughts | | Expect shared understanding and knowledge | Clearly stating positions | | Shared context, thus no need to verbalize | Not assuming shared knowledge | | Verbal communication: Narrative, non-direct | Verbal communication: Informal, to the point | | Eye contact as disrespectful/ close personal space as rapport building | Eye contact as respectful Distant personal space as professional | | Relationships-historical | Relationships- objective/distance | | Collective identity | Individualistic identity | | Shared experiences and shared feelings Are important to the relationship | Focus on self-reliance and autonomy | | Community talk | Boundaries | | Individual interests are subordinate to the family needs | Individual interests are valued and encouraged | | Concept of Time: Flexibility | Concept of Time: Efficiency | Take a Moment to…. Age Ethnicity Country/Region/State of Origin Religion Socioeconomic Status Gender Sexual Orientation Military Profession Education Role Generational Status Disability/Ability Relationship Status Other groups (e.g., sports, arts, etc.) What is your relationship to these various groups... How it has changed over time.... How does being a member of each of these groups . . . ... impact the way you think about health and mental health? ...influence your health-seeking behaviors and view of healing? Cultural Humility: Strategies for Self Reflection and Life Long Learning - Understand your own worldview and be willing to challenge your paradigms - Be willing to unpack your own privilege and power Cultural Humility: Strategies for changing power imbalances in relationships - Assess what is influencing bias, unequal treatment and prejudice - Notice, describe and interrupt unintentional and intentional discriminatory practices - Deliver client-focused care - Listen - Advocate Cultural Humility: Strategies for Building Partnerships & institutional accountability - Identify and encourage community representation at every opportunity - Speak up about discriminatory practices - Model cultural humility, be curious Case Example What is Traumatic Stress? “Traumatic stress occurs when a person is unable to regulate emotional states and in certain moments experiences his or her current environment as extremely threatening even when it is relatively safe” Saxe, Ellis, & Brown, 2016 Trauma EXPOSURE Does Not Mean Traumatic Stress - 15-40% of trauma-exposed individuals will develop a traumatic stress response - **Good news**: People are resilient, particularly refugees - **Bad news**: Trauma exposure is so common that 15-40% means an awful lot of people Traumatic stress is Mediated by... Survival Circuits fight flight freeze Survival Circuits – What’s Supposed to Happen? Step 1: Picking up the threat information Step 2: Deciding on its importance for survival Step 3: Making a more accurate appraisal Step 4: Doing something about it Survival Circuits – What Happens in a Child with Traumatic Stress? Traumatic Stress is About... Survival in the moment Broken Switch What are Signs of Traumatic Stress? - Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - Physiological Arousal - Re-Experiencing - Avoidance - Negative cognitions and mood - Depression - Behavior problems - Learning and concentration problems - General difficulties with emotion regulation - Trouble with relationships - Physical symptoms like headaches and stomachaches Culture and Traumatic Stress Culture affects symptom expression, help seeking patterns, healing mechanisms, and the meaning ascribed to trauma. For Somalis... - Spirituality might be intermixed with experience of MH issues - Often religious leaders serve as MH resource - Language used is linked to faith - Somatic expression of symptoms more acceptable - No word for concepts like ‘depression.’ Words used to describe pain: ‘heart is hurting’ ‘head is bursting.’ Core Stressors in Resettlement - Trauma - Social Support - Environment - Emotion Regulation - Acculturation - Family Relationships - Language Learning - Cultural Learning - Isolation - Discrimination - Loneliness - Alienation - Resettlement - Basic needs - Legal - Financial - Healthcare Risk Factors for Mental Health Problems in Refugee Youth **Parental Factors** - PTSD in either parent - Maternal depression - Torture - Death of/ separation from parents - Direct observation of parent helplessness - Parent unemployment - Parent underestimation of stress on children **Child Factors** - Number of traumatic events (witnessed or experienced) - Expressive language of difficulties - PTSD - Physical health problems - Older age **Environmental Factors** - Number of transitions - Poverty - Time taken for immigration status to be determined - Cultural isolation - Period of time in a refugee camp - Time in host country BRYCS, (2009) *Strengths Based Programming: The Example of Somali Refugee Youth*; Fazel, Reed, Panter-Brick, & Stein, 2012 Protective Factors for Mental Health Problems in Refugee Youth Parental Factors: • High parental support and high family cohesion • Same ethnic-origin foster care • Family attachment and stability Child Factors • Social skills • Biculturalism • Role of religion • Academic engagement • Academic achievement Community/School Factors • Self-reported of support from friends • Self-reported positive school experiences and a sense of school belonging • Ethnic-Based Services Organization BRYCS, (2009) *Strengths Based Programming: The Example of Somali Refugee Youth*; Fazel, Reed, Panter-Brick, & Stein, 2012 Applying a Trauma Lens... “What’s going on with this child?” Applying a Cultural Lens - How do you think the child’s cultural background impacts expression of emotions or help-seeking behaviors? - What’s the family’s understanding of what the child is struggling with? And what’s the family’s solution to this problem? - How are core stressors in resettlement presently impacting the family system? Things to Consider - What is health/mental health in the culture? - How are general health issues/mental illness expressed/treated in this culture? - When, who and where do people go for help for this type of a problem? - What has been the family’s health/mental health services experience? - What expectations might the family have about services as a result? What Does Islam Say About Healing - Illness, suffering and dying are part of life and a test from Allah (God) - Healing is prioritized (do whatever is necessary to heal) - You do what you can but leave rest to Insha Allah Lunch Break Out to LUNCH! Discussion What are potential challenges in the engagement, assessment, and care coordination processes when working with refugee, asylee, and immigrant children and families? Why is Nasser Acting This Way? - Psychiatric diagnosis frame? - Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and survival coping - Oppositional Defiant Disorder - Neurodevelopmental disorders/academic frame? - Learning Disability - Social-ecological frame? - Social learning within the refugee camp - Behavior is the result of acculturative stress - Resettlement and isolation stressors create a context that challenges Nasser’s capacity to thrive **The treatment plan will vary greatly depending on which formulation is seen as the primary problem.** (Ellis, Abdi, Winer, Under review) Cultural Formulation - Different cultures exhibit and explain symptoms in various ways. - Different cultures make meaning out of adversity in different ways. - Consider mental health stigma and language barriers. - It is very common in many cultures to report somatic complaints instead of mental health issues, reporting symptoms of heart problems, back aches, stomach aches. (APA, 2013) Cultural Variations Consider cross-cultural variations in presentation in addition to the social and cultural context prior to diagnosing. Examples: - **Psychosis**: A clinician diagnoses a Latino client with psychosis after the client says that she is seeing and hearing God’s voice. The clinician may be arriving at the wrong diagnosis because experiencing ‘visions’ is a normal part of their religious ceremonies. - **Separation Anxiety Disorder**: Diagnosing separation anxiety with families from collectivistic/interdependent cultures. It is very common for children to sleep in the same bed as their parents until 8 years old. - **Selective Mutism**: Children may refuse to speak in school because they do not speak English. (Paniagua, 2018) Cultural Formulation Interview Guide - A set of 16 questions that clinicians can use to obtain information about the impact of culture on key aspects of the individual’s presentation - Domains: cultural definition of the problem, cultural perceptions of cause, and cultural factors affecting coping and help-seeking behavior - It allows clients to define their distress in their own words - It’s most important to ask what are the concerns and why - Avoid clinical terms, using behavioral descriptions instead - Example: “Do you think your son spends a lot of time alone, cries a lot, seems quieter than usual?” RELATIONSHIP WITH THE PATIENT Clarify the informant’s relationship with the individual and/or the individual’s family. 1. How would you describe your relationship to [INDIVIDUAL OR TO FAMILY]? PROBE IF NOT CLEAR: How often do you see [INDIVIDUAL]? CULTURAL DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM Elicit the informant’s view of core problems and key concerns. Focus on the informant’s way of understanding the individual’s problem. Use the term, expression, or brief description elicited in question 1 to identify the problem in subsequent questions (e.g., “her conflict with her son”). 2. What brings your family member/friend here today? IF INFORMANT GIVES FEW DETAILS OR ONLY MENTIONS SYMPTOMS OR A MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS, PROBE: People often understand problems in their own way, which may be similar or different from how doctors describe the problem. How would you describe [INDIVIDUAL’S] problem? Ask how informant frames the problem for members of the social network. 3. Sometimes people have different ways of describing the problem to family, friends, or others in their community. How would you describe [INDIVIDUAL’S] problem to them? Focus on the aspects of the problem that matter most to the informant. 4. What troubles you most about [INDIVIDUAL’S] problem? CULTURAL PERCEPTIONS OF CAUSE, CONTEXT, AND SUPPORT CAUSES This question indicates the meaning of the condition for the informant, which may be relevant for clinical care. Note that informants may identify multiple causes depending on the facet of the problem they are considering. 5. Why do you think this is happening to [INDIVIDUAL]? What do you think are the causes of his/her [PROBLEM]? PROMPT FURTHER IF REQUIRED: Some people may explain the problem as the result of bad things that happen in their life, problems with others, a physical illness, a spiritual reason, or many other causes. Focus on the views of members of the individual’s social network. These may be diverse and vary from the informant’s. 6. What do others in [INDIVIDUAL’S] family, his/her friends, or others in the community think is causing [INDIVIDUAL’S] [PROBLEM]? CFI Supplementary Modules - These modules supplement the core Cultural Formulation Interview and can help practitioners conduct a more comprehensive cultural assessment. - The first eight supplementary modules explore the domains of the core CFI in greater depth. The next three modules focus on populations with specific needs, such as children and adolescents, older adults, and immigrants and refugees. - May use these supplementary modules in two ways: 1. As adjuncts to the core CFI for additional information about various aspects of illness affecting diverse populations. 2. As tools for in-depth cultural assessment independent of the core CFI. - Can administer one, several, or all modules depending on what areas of an individual’s problems they would like to elaborate. - Asterisk [*] denotes duplicates of the core CFI. - This makes it possible to administer each module independently. This module aims to further clarify the individual’s cultural identity and how this has influenced health and well being. Related Core CFI Questions: 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 National, Ethnic, Racial Background 1. Where were you born? 2. Where were your parents and grandparents born? 3. How would you describe your family’s national, ethnic, and/or racial background? 4. In terms of your background, how do you usually describe yourself to people outside your community? Sometimes people describe themselves somewhat differently to members of their own community. How do you describe yourself to them? 5. Which part of your background do you feel closest to? Sometimes this varies, depending on what aspect of your life we are talking about. What about at home? Or at work? Or with friends? 6. Do you experience any difficulties related to your background, such as discrimination, stereotyping, or being misunderstood? 7. *Is there anything about your background that might impact on your [PROBLEM] or impact on your health or health care more generally? [RELATED TO CFI Q#9.] Language 8. What languages do you speak fluently? 9. What languages did you speak growing up? 10. What languages are spoken at home? Which of these do you speak? 11. What languages do you use at work or school? 12. What language would you prefer to use in getting health care? 13. What languages do you read? Write? Migration GUIDE TO INTERVIEWER: If the individual was born in another country, ask questions 1–7. [For refugees, refer to the module on Immigrants and Refugees to obtain more detailed migration history.] 14. When did you come to this country? 15. What made you decide to leave your country of origin? 16. How has your life changed since coming here? 17. What do you miss about the place or community you came from? 18. What are your concerns for your own and your family’s future here? 19. What is your current status in this country (e.g., refugee claimant, citizen, student visa, work permit)? Be aware this may be a sensitive or confidential issue for the individual, if they have precarious status. 20. How has migration influenced your health or that of your family? 21. Is there anything about your migration experience or current status in this country that has made a difference to your [PROBLEM]? 22. Is there anything about your migration experience or current status that might influence your ability to get the right kind of help for your [PROBLEM]? CFI Supplementary Modules: Immigrants and Refugees Pre-migration difficulties 5. Prior to arriving in __________ (HOST COUNTRY), were there any challenges in your country of origin that you or your family found especially difficult? 6. Some people experience hardship, persecution, or even violence before leaving their country of origin. Has this been the case for you or members of your family? Can you tell me something about your experiences? Migration-related losses and challenges 7. Of the persons important/close to you, who stayed behind? 8. Often people leaving a country experience losses. Did you or any of your family members experience losses upon leaving the country? If so, what are they? 9. Were there any challenges on your journey to __________ (HOST COUNTRY) that you or your family found especially difficult? 10. Do you or your family miss anything about your way of life in (COUNTRY OF ORIGIN)? Ongoing relationship with country of origin 11. Do you have concerns about relatives that remain in (COUNTRY OF ORIGIN)? 12. Do relatives in (COUNTRY OF ORIGIN) have any expectations of you? Resettlement and new life 13. Have you or your family experienced any difficulties related to your visa, citizenship, or refugee status here in __________ (HOST COUNTRY)? 14. Are there any (other) challenges or problems you or others in your family are facing related to your resettlement here? 15. Has coming to [HOST COUNTRY] resulted in something positive for you or your family? Can you tell me more about that? Relationship with problem 16. Is there anything about your migration experience or current status in this country that has made a difference to your [PROBLEM]? 17. Is there anything about your migration experience or current status that might make it easier or harder to get help for your [PROBLEM]? Future expectations 18. What hopes and plans do you have for you and your family in the coming years? These questions aim to collect information from refugees and immigrants about their experiences of migration and resettlement. Related Core CFI Questions: 7, 8, 9, 10, 13 Gathering the Trauma History - Consider how and when to talk to refugee families about their experience - Be conscientious of the language you use to describe trauma and the refugee experience - Understanding current behavior through the lens of past experiences - Provide psychoeducation What Do You Ask? Use interpreter or cultural broker Sociocultural history, migration/trauma history, and core stressors in resettlement *Family goals, concerns, explanatory model of illness, and dynamics Barriers? Strengths What is the family’s understanding of the Western mental health system? Who do they typically go to for help? Who Do you Ask? Work together with family and treatment team to gather info! Sometimes, we need to gather information from multiple informants to help put together the whole story. Child Caregiver(s) Community Leader Teacher or Case Worker When Do You Ask? - Prior to meeting with client: Learn about the family’s cultural background and the recent historical context of that specific refugee population, client’s primary language and proficiency with English,—practice cultural humility - During initial intake: demographics, concerns, goals, core stressors and basic needs assessment, strengths, understanding of and experience with western mental health services, clarify your role, who do they typically go to for help? - Ongoing: Sociocultural history, trauma history, migration history, cultural factors influencing symptoms, meaning making, and help-seeking behavior (Ellis, Abdi, Winer, Under review) Core Stressor Assessment Tool - Suggested questions guide the user to think about how each core stressor is impacting the family they are assessing. Trauma Assessment Questions Many refugee children and families cope well with their experiences of trauma and stress; others may experience stressors or symptoms that begin to interfere with their daily functioning. Here are some examples of ways in which you can ask families about trauma related exposure and symptoms: Emotion Regulation - Does family report that child has exhibited changes in their behavior or mood? - Is this child exhibiting symptoms of depressed or irritable mood, anxiety, attention or concentration problems, or behavior problems? - Is this child experiencing trauma specific symptoms such as frequent nightmares, flashbacks, hyperarousal or avoidance? This could present as frequent mood changes or inconsistent behavior. - The user next rates their level of concern about this family from low to high. Based on the risk assessment table, how do you rate the individual? - Low risk - Moderate risk - High risk Finally, users are provided with a customized chart of recommendations based on the level of risk they identified for each core stressor. Based on the risk assessment table, how do you rate the individual? - Low risk - Moderate risk - High risk Interventions for MODERATE risk | Trauma | Interventions | |--------|---------------| | Moderate | - Connect children and families to cultural and community support resources (e.g., schools, mutual assistance agencies, resettlement agencies, religious organizations) - Consider referring child and family to counseling services through local mental health providers - Identify and diminish reminders of trauma or triggers in the child’s environment - Locate group support for refugees/new arrivals through local resettlement agencies, schools, or mental health providers - Work with cultural brokers and interpreters when connecting with services | Interventions for Low Risk are also appropriate: - Provide educational materials about the effects of trauma - Identify local cultural resources for background information - Work with cultural brokers and interpreters when interacting with families - Connect children and families to local activities (e.g., sports teams, arts programs, after-school programs) Interventions for HIGH risk | Acculturation | Interventions | |----------------|---------------| | High | - If you are concerned the child is at risk to harm/hurt or others, contact your local hospital emergency department, your local emergency response team, or child welfare - Refer child or family to local mental health services - Consider contacting local child protective services if you have a concern that a child is at risk or abuse or neglect; encourage child protection services to work with cultural brokers as families may have different cultural norms - Access home-based family support services if available - Work with cultural brokers and interpreters when connecting with services | Interventions for Moderate Risk are also appropriate: - Connect families to cultural and community programs that provide opportunities for children and parents to spend time together - Create opportunities for children and caregivers; respect family rules and work towards identifying common goals - Consider referring child and family to counseling services through local mental health providers - Consider working with caregivers with English language learning classes - Work with cultural brokers and interpreters when connecting families with services - Consider psychological or cognitive testing, recognized limits of cultural validity Interventions for Low Risk are also appropriate: - Provide educational materials about adjusting to a new culture or connect them to cultural agencies that provide orientations for newly arriving refugees - Respect existing roles within families (e.g., if children speak better English than a parent, do not use them as interpreters) - Provide information about resources such as language classes & vocational training - Provide opportunities for children and families to ask questions and learn rules and norms in the US and your community. Do not assume that children or families are familiar with systems such as how schools or hospitals function in your community. Group Discussion - Discuss experiences with using interpreters - Challenges and rewards - Bring back to the larger group What is an Interpreter? Professionally trained, verbal connectors between people who need to communicate but do not speak the same language - Facilitate communication. - Represent information accurately Four modes of interpretation: 1. consecutive interpreting, 2. simultaneous interpreting, 3. sight translation, and 4. summarization Ad Hoc Interpretation Not recommended! Problematic for a variety of reasons: 1. Lack efficiency due to lack of fluency in both languages 2. Difficulties created due to complex terminology i. More likely to make errors, ii. Violate confidentiality, iii. Increase the risk of poor outcomes such as misdiagnoses 3. Lack of knowledge of ethical and legal guidelines 4. Inability to be neutral 5. Parentification of children 6. Potential child-parent power imbalances Meeting with Families Before: - Attend to all relationships (clinician, interpreter/cultural broker, and client) - Make time to discuss the hopes and expectations of meeting During: - Rely on verbal and non-verbal communication - Keep in mind the therapeutic triad After: - Discuss each other’s understanding of what happened - Clarify any areas of confusion - Follow up with questions regarding cultural context The Mental Health Clinician’s Role: 1. Share your name and your title to the interpreter in the pre-session 2. Accept the guidelines around interpretation that the interpreter shares, including: - Speak to and look directly at the client during the session, not the interpreter - Be aware that everything that is said will be interpreted exactly as it is said, both to and from the client. - Speak in short sentences in order to facilitate accurate interpretations, and to pause frequently when speaking to allow time for interpreting. - Establish a signal to be used when the interpreter needs more time before new information is introduced. 3. Share any particular expectations or concerns about the subjects to be broached or interpreting to be done in this particular session. 4. Ask interpreter if she/he has any questions or suggestions before they meet with the client. 5. Check if by any chance, interpreter knows the client and if she/he knows client -- make sure to add an extra conversation about confidentiality and what to do if interpreter sees client out in her/his community. Debrief After a Session The Mental Health Clinician’s Role: - Thank interpreter - Receive/give feedback about the session - Ask interpreter about what came up that was important - Self-care and secondary traumatic stress prevention - Summarize with professional interpreter what were the more meaningful interactions between you and interpreter during the meeting; and evaluate the areas of improvement - Review of what to do if interpreter sees client in his/her community Overall Benefits of Interpretation - Meet the needs of a larger pool of community members - Provide higher quality assessment and more accurate diagnosis - Higher level of engagement for children and families, and less attrition - Improve adherence to medication schedules - Improves access to care and quality of care - Improve the ability to understand and treatment recommendations **In addition, employing a qualified interpreter has been shown to be cost-effective** (National Partnership for Community Training, 2015; Tribe & Lane, 2009) Break Time Boston Children's Hospital Until every child is well™ HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL TEACHING HOSPITAL PARTNERED WITH NCTSN The National Child Traumatic Stress Network Engaging Families in Mental Health Services Culture and Parenting - All aspects of parenting are informed by culture. Culture influences how parents care for children, what parents expect of children, and which behaviors parents appreciate, reward, and punish. - Our background, culture, experiences shape what we think is ‘good’ parenting; must be aware of how background and culture shapes views and values. Parent training must be sensitive to the culture of the family. - Must have a deep understanding of how pre-migration, migration, and resettlement stressors impacts the family. | Parenting: Independent (Western, Individualistic) cultures | Parenting: Interdependent (Non-Western, Collectivistic) cultures | |----------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------| | Emphasis on autonomy, individual achievement, self-reliance, self-assertiveness | Emphasis on collective achievement, sharing, and collaboration | | Parents offer frequent praise, verbal feedback, encourage children to think critically, and distinguish self from others | Parents place high importance on obeying authority, being respectful, family’s needs before their own, and academic achievement | | Encourage autonomous self-feeding | Breastfeed longer, spoon-feed longer | | Infant sleeps in own crib, even own room | Co-sleep with infants, toddlers, and even early childhood | Protective Nature of Culture and Connection to Countries of Origin - Cultural values and beliefs as a source of strength enabling flexibility and cohesion - Identification with core cultural values protective towards negative outcomes such as substance abuse and mental illness - Family structure - Presence of two parent families - Extended family - Parents’ determination, strength, and strong sense of personal and family responsibility demonstrated by making the journey to US and desire for a better life for their children - Strong parental supervision, religious beliefs, and supportive community networks The Acculturation Gap Children often acculturate more quickly than older generation. Cross-cultural, generational conflict around maintaining culture and tradition in common. The most resilient children are ones who are able to develop a bi-cultural identity. Significant changes in family roles/dynamics throughout the migration pathway - In resettlement: - Conflict around sleep, food, and bedtime - Conflict around peers - Conflict around gender norms - Conflict around parental vs. child responsibilities Challenges for Refugee and Immigrant Children in the American School System - Lack of formal schooling experience - Placement in schools by age - Lack of familiarity with societal norms related to school - Language barriers with parents; limited communication between school and home - Poor sense of school belonging - Challenges with assessing English Language Learners in school Mandated Reporting Why Refugee Families Might Be at an Increased Risk of Report for Maltreatment - Many cultures value and enforce respect and modesty - Prevalence of stressors in resettlement in addition to impact of past traumatic exposures - Isolation from support network and other sources of traditional support/influence over a child - Certain cultural norms may be illegal in the U.S. (e.g., community supervision of children; formal vs. informal arrangements) - Professionals unfamiliar with the culture might misinterpret traditional punishment as abuse - Financial stressors place children at greater risk of exploitation - Cultural differences in sexual scripts and gender norms Countering the Refugee Experience: Giving Power, Control, and Respect Back to Parents - Connect with parents and respect values and traditions, use trained interpreters/cultural brokers to increase parent engagement - Remind them of their strength - Listen to their concerns - Ask about effective strategies and skills they are already using Nasser Applying a Trauma-Informed Lens - How safe/stable is his present environment? - What are some of Nasser’s past traumatic exposures? - What is Nasser’s perception of what is happening to him? - What has he learned about himself? Others? The world? - Can we link Nasser’s current difficulties to his past traumatic experiences? - What might be some of Nasser’s triggers? - How might we address these triggers in treatment? Applying a Culturally-Responsive Lens - How do you think Nasser’s cultural background impacts his expression of emotions or his help-seeking behaviors? - What do you think Nasser might believe is the solution to current challenges? - How do you think Nasser’s aunt and uncle respond to his misbehavior at school? - What might it be like for Nasser to be living without any members of his biological family? - How do you think living in a primarily White, suburban community in the U.S. impacts Nasser? - How are core stressors in resettlement presently impacting Nasser’s family system? STRATEGY Avoid Using Clinical Jargon How might you explain a psychological difficulty without using mental health terminology? “Imagine if you broke your leg because of an accident. Your leg is injured and you are feeling a lot of pain. In order for our leg to heal, it will need medicine, care, support, exercise, and time. When a person has been through a lot of hardship and suffering, their mind can also become injured. The mind can also feel a lot of pain. The difference between the leg injury and the injury of the mind, however, is that pain in our mind is not visible to most people. The mind (our pain on the inside) can also heal in a similar way as the leg, through medicine, care, support, exercise, and time.” “Most people who are adjusting to a new place where they don’t speak the language or know the culture feel scared, worried, and sad. Some may feel angry because they cannot find work. Some may have a hard time understanding how things work in America. Learning these things takes time, but you will eventually understand and most people do feel better.” Focus on Student Success - Articulate how services can reduce barriers to learning/success - Provide education to parents about the school’s expectation of them - Partnerships and resource mapping; referrals - Connect family to resources in the community (e.g., financial opportunities, food pantry, etc.) - Connect students with academic services and mentors Strategies for Working with New American Families - When possible, work with a cultural broker and/or community liaison - Don’t assume all families of a certain culture are the same - Respect the families own understanding of the problem and the solution - Use culturally appropriate language and concepts - Attend to confidentiality concerns and fears of systems/institutions - Advocate for needed services; prioritize basic needs - Ensure that your office space is welcoming and respectful of diverse cultural beliefs and values Additional Strategies - Pace the process with families; focus on building trust - Focus on the positive and build from a place of strength - Respect family roles; do not use children as interpreters - Give children and families choices - Share positive experiences (food, humor, language, stories, music, games) - Helps families build connections with relatives, friends and community members - When possible, do home visiting; get to know families - Leave significant time for psychoeducation Send Signals of Care Caring interpersonal signals can remedy the emotional dysregulation created by provocative interpersonal signals. Questions/Discussion For more information on resources related to supporting refugee children and families, please visit: http://nctsn.org/trauma-types/refugee-trauma This webpage provides the most current information about refugee youth, their needs and experiences, and provides guidance for service providers including teachers and educators. Refugee Core Stressor Assessment Tool: https://is.gd/Corestressortool Additional Resources Our Refugee Trauma webpage on the NCTSN website provides the most current information about refugee youth, their needs and experiences, and provides guidance for service providers including teachers and educators. - http://nctsn.org/trauma-types/refugee-trauma Bridging Refugee Youth and Children’s Services (BRYCS) provides national technical assistance to organizations serving refugees and immigrants, so that all newcomer children and youth can reach their potential. - http://www.brycs.org/ The Refugee Health Technical Assistance Center works to promote and improve refugees’ well-being by providing resources and tools that help providers better understand the needs of refugee groups. - http://refugeehealthta.org/about-us/ The Cultural Orientation Resource Center provides technical assistance to refugee groups which includes facilitating cultural and linguistic orientations either before their resettlement in the United States or after their arrival. - http://www.culturalorientation.net/ THANK YOU! "A journey of a thousand miles starts with one step." -Lao-tzu, ancient Chinese philosopher Contact Information: email@example.com
6f05c783-e690-418d-85e7-17d7d3134495
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://iod.unh.edu/sites/default/files/nh_wraparound_training_6.6.19.pdf
2024-11-14T14:51:55+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477028657.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20241114130448-20241114160448-00585.warc.gz
276,225,778
9,006
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.922481
eng_Latn
0.993157
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 147, 613, 861, 1306, 1808, 1832, 2077, 2225, 2286, 2316, 2480, 2807, 3007, 3253, 3938, 4487, 4509, 4807, 5163, 5754, 6373, 7193, 7269, 7378, 7407, 7469, 7717, 8075, 9228, 9484, 9754, 9956, 10244, 10484, 10498, 10756, 11034, 11112, 11328, 11396, 11465, 11836, 12304, 12623, 13384, 13997, 14400, 14763, 14987, 15015, 15193, 15791, 16183, 16938, 17554, 19687, 20593, 23045, 25152, 25443, 25784, 26030, 26704, 27799, 31110, 31236, 31575, 32051, 32468, 33578, 34055, 34603, 34778, 34823, 35370, 36212, 36831, 37353, 37736, 37756, 38429, 38773, 38781, 39204, 39793, 39803, 40522, 40877, 41241, 41776, 42272, 42409, 42431, 42829, 43861, 44015 ]
[ 1.6328125, 2.5 ]
1
0
OUR YEAR WITHOUT WASTE Grant Baldwin and Jenny Rustemeyer of The Clean Bin Project share their story of understanding—and eliminating—the effects of trash. A CLEAN BIN IS IN THE BAG. FOR YOUR GREEN BIN • 100% Compostable • Plastic Free • 100% Paper www.bagtoearth.com One man’s trash could be another’s energy source. It’s time to trash the misconception that garbage is useless—it can, in fact, be a resource. The onus is on consumers to recycle, reuse and, most importantly, reduce. The evolution of a recycling revolution Does change happen through evolution or revolution? In B.C., it’s both. Since the late 20th century, B.C. has led an evolution in the way we manage and think of waste, slowly transforming it into a resource, in a process that is the basis for the next industrial revolution. It’s called extended producer responsibility (EPR). EPR shifts the responsibility and costs of managing end-of-life products from municipalities to producers, potentially saving local taxpayers more than $200 million annually in operating costs alone. Six years of those savings would completely pay for Translink’s Evergreen Line. Once diverted from disposal, those resources provide the foundation for new economic activities and products that are more sustainable and reduce our environmental footprint. A bright beginning As more producers apply “design for environment,” the results will be less waste, a greater pool of reusable resources in a closed-loop system that is the core of the next industrial revolution. It was B.C.’s sustainable process and in B.C. it began in a colorful fashion with paint. Much of this evolution or revolution, depending how you look at it, began in 1994 with the Post-Consumer Paint Stewardship Program Regulation. This made the paint industry responsible for the collection of its end-of-life product at depots across the province, where you could take leftovers to be managed in an environmentally responsible manner. Metals were recycled and leftover paint either repurposed or used as a feedstock for new products. Since then, the legislation has evolved into the B.C. Recycling Regulation. Enacted in 2004, it is based on performance measures, such as a 75 percent collection rate. It is up to industry to determine how to meet targets within the objectives within their approved plan, and then report those results annually. Like every other cost associated with producing, distributing and marketing a product, the cost of EPR programs are part of the product price. None of the programs are funded by the public sector to government. It is set and applied to products by the industry stewardship agencies based on a number of factors, including the ability to operate a program on a long-term basis. Public support British Columbians are firmly behind EPR programs. A recent survey by McAlister Opinion Research found 78 percent of us think applying fees as part of a recycling program is a reasonable approach to funding such a program. Seen as fair, it is a polluter pay system, rather than a collective tax-based approach which rewards the wasteful, and provides no incentive for those who waste less. There are now 12 industry-managed programs in B.C., and in many cases much of which heads to landfills now will be diverted to become a potential resource rather than a part of toxic stuff, brewing beneath the surface to boil up as potential problems for future generations. Seeing results In 2007 alone EPR removed 267,000 metric tonnes of CO2, diverting one billion beverage containers from landfills; and managed 5 million litres of used oil, solvents, flammable, pesticides and gases—items that toxic chemicals didn’t end up in our environment. Aside from diverting potential toxic material, thousands of tonnes of plastics, metals and rubber were collected and made into new products in Canada, helping to strengthen our tax base and forming the foundation of the next industrial revolution. B.C. leads in this field, as lawmakers and industries from across North America now look to our province as the prime example to follow. These EPR programs are supported by industry as well as waste management professionals in both the public and private sectors. With every stage of evolution, and instance of revolution, there is change. In this case, B.C.’s leadership in EPR will ensure an environmentally and economically sustainable future for all. Waste, meet your maker: Explaining product stewardship As landfills overflow, a movement called product stewardship is gaining momentum for waste disposal of products in the hands of the producer is gaining momentum. “Generally speaking, product stewardship is a new program,” says Mark Kuehner, president of Product Care Association. “It’s a polluter pays concept.” Product Care manages programs to dispose of household hazardous and special waste for companies. Products such as batteries, electronic light bulbs, fertilizer, paints and solvents all require specific handling methods to ensure their toxic ingredients aren’t absorbed into soil and watersheds at landfills. In B.C. there are many agencies operating stewardship programs for a variety of hazardous waste—most of which run depots for consumers to dispose their special waste. Some of the latest products of concern include: A brighter future The lighting industry’s stewardship programs focus on ensuring that Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)—which require mercury and contain mercury to ignite—are disposed of properly. “We don’t want that mercury to end up in landfills so we work with Product Care to manage the ‘post-consumer waste,’” says Sheryl Keller, senior manager of strategic marketing for Philips Lighting. Mercury is a potent neurotoxin that can affect the brain, liver and kidneys, and cause developmental disorders in children. When the toxin makes its way into landfills it can seep through the ground into the water table or release toxic emissions if incinerated. A small fee is included in the cost of the light bulbs to help fund proper disposal. Batteries and cellphones As technology improves, the list of chemicals used to manufacture batteries and cellphones grows. Some of the more damaging uses include cadmium, zinc, lead, brominated flame-retardants and arsenic. Joe Zenobio, executive director of CallRecycle Canada, a product stewardship program that recharges or disposes batteries for the electronics industry, says they yield plenty of recycling promises. “While rechargeables the metals can sometimes be extracted,” says Zenobio. “There’s opportunity to reuse those materials.” Last year, Call2Recycle collected 1.2 million kilos of batteries. “We pick those batteries up across Canada through 1600 sites,” says Zenobio. A refreshing take Despite efforts by the beverage industry to manufacture beverage containers that can be pelleted and reused, the containers still work their way into landfills where they take thousands of years to decompose. Bill Hastie, president and CEO of EnCorp Pacific, which provides stewardship for the beverage container industry, says most bottles include a deposit in the price. “You get your money back when you take it back to the depot,” says Hastie. EnCorp collects about half a billion bottles a year. “We bring them back to processing plants where they are baled or compressed and shipped to a recycling facility.” One billion containers are recycled every year Encorp Pacific is one of North America’s leading product stewardship corporations With over 180 depots and mobile collectors across BC, the Return-It™ system is a British Columbia success story. Thanks to the system, 80% of all beverage containers sold in the province are recovered and recycled into something new. That’s over one billion containers kept out of our landfills. Encorp Pacific (Canada) runs the Return-It system for the province’s four product stewardship corporations. Encorp’s mandate is to develop and manage a consumer-friendly and cost-effective system to recover end-of-life container products and packaging for recycling. Encorp monitors and estimates greenhouse gas emissions associated with its recycling activities. This helps reduce their carbon footprint and maximize their net benefit to the planet. The numbers speak louder than words In 2009, more than one billion containers were recycled. That’s approximately 365 million aluminum cans, 355 million plastic bottles, 47 million plastic bottles, 82 million drink boxes and cans, and 10 million other containers of varying types. “One billion containers weigh around 97,000 metric tonnes. That’s about the size of an aircraft carrier,” adds Encorp’s President and CEO, Neil Hastie. “Imagine if our landfills had to accommodate that in addition to everything else that’s thrown out.” It all started with soft drinks First established in 1994, Encorp created a network of 100 beverage recycling depots to ensure soft drink containers were recycled. The system expanded in 1998 when the provincial government expanded the recycling regulations to include beer, wine and alcohol containers. Today, consumers pay a deposit on all ready-to-drink beverage containers sold in BC, except for milk. Encorp’s Return-It Depots collect the collection revenues from consumers and returns them for recycling on behalf of more than 1,000 beverage brand owners. “When Encorp first started, we were recycling about 300 million containers. Over the past 16 years, that number has just kept growing and growing,” says Hastie. Milk and electronics too As product stewardship has expanded over the years, so has Encorp. They also manage the recycling of milk containers on behalf of the Dairy Farmers of BC and the Association for the Electronics Stewardship Association of BC (ESABC). “In less than four years, over 53 million kilograms of electronics have been diverted from landfills and recycled responsibly in BC. It’s one of the highest rates of e-waste diversion in North America,” says Tyler Games, Encorp’s Logistics Manager. Transparency is a priority The details of Encorp’s financial system are available to the public, including audited financial statements. Revenues include the sale of collected materials to recyclers, redeemed container deposits and, if required, a Container Recycling Fee (CRF). Expenses include deposit refunds, handling fees to depots, transportation and processing of collected containers, consumer awareness and administration. No government funding Encorp is 100% industry operated and receives no government funding. They bring private sector expertise and a high degree of public sector transparency to manage collection and recycling programs. You can view Encorp’s 2010 annual report at encorp.ca/ar2010 Taking responsibility creates a world-class recycling system BC’s product stewardship model is one of North America’s best. The model shifts responsibility for managing end-of-life products and packages from local governments and taxpayers to producers and consumers. The Recycling Regulation, under authority of the Environmental Management Act, sets out the requirements for product stewardship in BC. The regulation ensures that the collection systems established by any of BC’s stewards guarantees they will be recycled safely and responsibly. Do you find yourself dazed by an abundance of bins? An emerging recycling initiative is consolidating sorting efforts and decreasing municipalities’ overall footprints. Sorting it out: Explaining single stream recycling Environmentalists, governments and the industry alike understand that one of the major elements to fostering sustainability is convenience—if recycling is easy, chances are people will do it. That’s why single-stream recycling—a process where all recyclables are placed in a single blue bin then separated at facilities—is becoming the norm for municipalities. In B.C., 43 percent of the population receives single stream recycling service while 20 percent of the population receive two-stream recycling (mixed fibres and comingled containers) and about 20 percent receive three-stream recycling (newspaper, mixed paper, and comingled containers). The simplicity of the process increases the amount of recyclable products diverted from landfills. “Single stream is really a child of an overall interest in the environment,” says Geoff Love, an environmentalist who has worked as a waste diversion and energy conservation consultant for over 25 years. Although his consultancy company Love Environment is based out of Toronto, Love has worked throughout Canada. Decreasing traffic “B.C. has always had a history of recovering a lot of materials from drop off programs,” says Love. “The first step is getting high recovery.” Love points out that single stream only requires one vehicle to pick up the blue bin rather than separate compartments for separate products. Keep it simple, Surrey Surrey employs a single stream system says Rob Costanzo, deputy manager of operations for the City’s environmental department. In 2010, Surrey diverted approximately 26,000 tonnes of household recyclables from landfills, up from 23,000 tonnes (in 2007) prior to the introduction of its single stream program. “This represents an increase of 13 percent in diverted recyclable waste since switching to single stream—despite the fact that waste tonnages in general, including recyclables, have been declining,” says Costanzo. Smaller footprints, bigger bins But it’s not just about simplicity, says Love. “Footprint issues are important,” says the environmentalist, noting that multiple bin systems require multiple vehicles on the road to collect the respective recyclables and, in cases where there’s one truck with separate compartments, idling becomes an issue. “It’s 95 percent more energy efficient,” says Love. In single stream collection, the recyclables are separated using cameras and computers. Once separated, the materials can be sent to product recovery sites for reuse—from plastic being pelleted to newspaper being turned into recycled paper. Education definitely plays a large role in single-stream recycling. Greg Moore, mayor of Port Coquitlam, says the key to the success of his city’s recycling system (one of the first in Western Canada) is working with industry through stewardship programs and keeping residents in the loop. “The improvement we’re in need of is better communication with residents,” says Moore. Love echoes Moore’s sentiments saying the municipality needs to let residents know “what needs to go where.” “The recycling business is an essentially an item-by-item industry,” says Love. “It’s important to make sure that what goes in the bin is recoverable material.” Andrew Seale firstname.lastname@example.org Tetra Pak’s products are everyday food and beverage cartons, but the 60-year old Swedish company is determined to do its part to help protect the environment. **Greening business through the three “Rs”** Reduce, renew, recycle – these three words underpin Tetra Pak’s mission to reduce the impact of its value chain operations on the environment. Two months ago, the company published its Mission Possible report, which outlines an ambitious global 2020 strategy to produce a better product while conserving the earth’s limited resources. Driven by its company motto: “to protect what’s good”, Tetra Pak is working hard to minimize its environmental impact, writes Dennis Jonsson, president and CEO Tetra Pak. Elizabeth Comere, Tetra Pak director, environment and government affairs said the company’s long-term environmental strategy is far reaching. “The first pillar is reducing the company’s environmental footprint across the value chain. This spans raw materials suppliers to transport providers. “In 2005, we pledged to cut our absolute CO2 emissions by 10% by 2010. We succeeded in reducing emissions by 13%, despite a 23% increase in sales,” explains Comere. “We have now decided to go further and our global 2020 goal aims to cap our carbon emissions at 2010 levels, across the value chain.” This will require a hefty cut of 40% in CO2 emissions, especially considering Tetra Pak’s global growth ambitions, she adds. **Innovation is key** The second pillar involves the use of renewable materials in its packaging. Tetra Pak’s cartons are made mainly from paper (on average 73%), which is a renewable resource. However, “our vision is to have packaging made up of 100% renewable material,” says Comere. This requires substantial investment in research. However, its award-winning Tetra Recart packages show how innovation can reap rewards. Tetra Recart is the world’s first carton made mainly from paper which is suitable for products like milk, juice, water and beans, typically packaged in steel cans or glass bottles. The lightweight square cartons are shipped flat, so one standard truck with empty Tetra Recart cartons equals nine trucks with empty cans -- meaning less fuel is used to transport packaging, and less trucks are clogging the highways, says Comere. Tetra Pak is also researching the use of plant-based plastics, or green polymer, in its packaging, as such materials have a lower carbon footprint. **We can recycle more** For its third pillar, recycling, Tetra Pak aims to achieve a 40% recycling rate for cartons by 2020, doubling the current rate of 20%, as rates among countries vary. According to official statistics, the recycling rate in Canada is about 43%, but we can do better, says Comere. At Tetra Pak’s instigation, the Carton Council of Canada, established earlier this year, aims to increase recycling in this country. The Council has been tasked with advancing sustainable recycling solutions through promoting recycling technology and local collection programs to divert carton packaging from landfills, she explains. “There is some critical work we need to do to achieve this goal, and the bulk of it involves educating the consumer,” says Comere. --- **New life for old oil** Like it or not, oil-derived products play an overwhelming role in our lives. Granted, it’s no secret that the slick liquid—like most non-renewables—will run dry some day. But while industry drills new frontiers in search of “black gold”, innovative recycling efforts at home have shown ways to reuse and re-refine oil to alleviate some of the pressure on environmentally damaging practices associated with getting oil. “The greatest greenhouse gas benefits are when the oil is re-refined,” says Ron Driedger, executive director of the Used Oil Management Association (UOMA), an organization that helps recycle oil for both consumers and the industry. “Before then, the consumer had to pay to dispose of it,” says Driedger. Needless to say “very few filters and oil containers were recovered—they ended up in the landfill.” According to the Used Oil Management Association (UOMA), about 215 million litres of new oil are sold across western Canada each year with a majority of that oil not consumed during use and available to be recycled. “Half of the 47 million litres of recycled oil collected in B.C. goes to the re-refinery,” says Driedger. “The remainder that doesn’t get re-refined gets used as fuel at the pulp mills.” North Vancouver is home to Newalta’s Mohawk re-refinery—one of two located in Canada. The facility operates year round, producing 28 million litres of base oil annually. The re-refining process basically emulates the original refining process to return the oil to its original state where it is virtually indistinguishable from its base oils made using virgin crude oil. Afterwards it can be used in place of or in conjunction with other virgin based oils. **Where’s the incentive?** Oil is one of our most vital non-renewable resources and when you consider that a litre of oil can generate a million dollars in revenue, it seems like common sense to keep it out of our landfills. “Any time you can divert something from the landfill to recycling that’s a good thing,” says Harvinder Gill, information services manager for the Recycling Council of B.C. She points out how silly it is considering that oil products already have a built in deposit fee when you purchase them. “You already essentially paid into the program so you might as well use it,” says Gill. According to Driedger, 12 percent of the oil weight remains in an oil Jerry can. But the success of reusing oil lies in ensuring oil cans are returned to one of the 490 plus recovery stations in the province—which also collect discarded antifreeze containers. “There’s no incentive at the back end to do the right thing,” says Driedger. Visit www.usedoilrecycling.com to find the nearest recovery depot. --- **A World of Good in Every Carton** Good is helping preserve the Earth’s resources for future generations, because cartons are made mainly from a renewable resource. Good is diverting carton packaging from landfills, because they are recyclable. Tetra Pak cartons protect what’s good inside and out. tetrapak.ca Where to put hazardous materials? With the approval of Metro Vancouver’s solid waste management plan in late July, stricter restrictions on waste at landfills presents new challenges and solutions for the hazardous waste industry. “Many people aren’t conversant with how much hazardous waste is moving on our roads, rails and waterways,” says Frank Cane, president of the B.C Environment Industry Association. In B.C., transportation of hazardous waste, such as used motor oil, acids, waste pesticides, biomedical & radiological waste, paints, solvents, metals and asbestos – follow strict regulation. “You get a tremendous amount of hazardous waste from construction and resource industries,” says Cane. He points out that some contaminants can’t be reused. “Soil is something that can’t just be trucked off to a golf course to use as a green,” he says. Just keep it out of there But Dave Rogers, founder of hazardous waste consultancy firm BC HAZMAT, says the new plan, which will divert 40 percent of disposal costs into 40 percent recycle costs, will help the industry in a few interesting ways too. “If we divert more plastics from the landfills we will find uses for it,” says Rogers. “Most of our Spill Response Products, pads, booms and such are all made from these recycled plastics.” The plan will increase public education to cut down on improper handling of potentially toxic materials. Rogers says that by the time pre-consumer chemicals and hazardous products get to the recycling stage, most of the products are so far removed from their original protective packaging and identifiers that it’s not surprising people have no idea what they’re dealing with. “I think this will be good for our member industries and that this type of plan will allow our folks to gear up and will also allow the generators to gear down,” says Rogers. When it comes to hazardous waste, educating the public is only half the battle. “It’s not just on the user—it falls on the user to question what goes into the product,” says Cane. “Find out what is hazardous and machine it out of the process.” Kyle Bodnarukh email@example.com The Clean Bin Project: One wasteless year When I tell people that I didn’t take my garbage out for an entire year, it takes them a moment to process it. I think they’re envisioning a huge pile of black garbage bags festering in my backyard. But, the reason I didn’t take my garbage out is that I didn’t really have any. For the past year, I’ve been living waste-free. To hold a competition we dubbed The Clean Bin Project. We challenged ourselves to consciously buy less stuff, pick things without packaging and recycle more. And we managed to reduce our annual garbage from over 500 pounds per person to just one grocery bag. Going without Then the questions start. “How did you do it? What about toilet paper and feminine hygiene? What about snack food? How did you wash your hair without shampoo bars and brush your teeth without toothpaste tubes?” In what my brother-in-law would call “extreme recycling,” we set up kitchen bins not only for compost and curbside recyclables that get picked up by the city, but also soft plastics, styrofoam, scrap metal, batteries, lightbulbs and other items not included in municipal systems but accepted at private recyclers (see www.MetroVancouverRecycles.org as a resource). We became acutely aware of waste. We ate pizza without the paper plate, eschewed toothbrushes and drinking straws, and took the bread aisle with cloth bags in hand, and after getting over our initial embarrassment! brought our own containers to the deli counter, the butcher shop and the food court. We even made our own (excellent!) laundry soap and (not so excellent tasting) toothpaste and learned to bake bread and make crackers from scratch. You can do it too Maybe you’re thinking that our year sounds more like a shameless display of ‘greener than thou’ deprivation, than a feasible lifestyle change, but I think there’s something to be said for coming to a challenge and making it fun. Now two years past the official project, I’m still using my cloth bags and diligently composting. Sure, I buy the occasional tube of deliciously minty-fresh toothpaste (in plastic wrapping, because I haven’t completely stopped waste), but it never feels good come garbage day when I don’t have to drag that smelly black bag to the curb. The documentary film of Jenny’s household’s zero waste year recently won Best Canadian Documentary at the Projecting Change Film Festival and is currently screening in select communities (www.cleanbinmovie.com). Jenny Rustemeier The Clean Bin Project blog firstname.lastname@example.org Plastics. Too Valuable to Waste. Recycle. A message from members Canadian Plastics Industry Association Working to Increase Recycling & Re-use. www.plastics.ca Environmental solutions to support your waste management plan. IPL has a full line of wheeled carts to meet municipalities every need in regards to waste, recyclable and compostable material collection. These smartly designed and cost-effective containers come with the RIFC technology and SR option that use post-consumer raw material, furthering IPL’s 70 year tradition of excellence while protecting the environment. Experience the quality IPL! www.ipl-plastics.com | 1 800 463-0270 Managing your hazardous waste safely. And with peace of mind. • Setting the Standard – Responsible Hazardous Waste Management and Resource Recovery in your Community. • Since 1997, we’ve been making a difference with Secure, Environmental Solutions. VISIT OUR WEBSITE TO OBTAIN A FREE TDGA BOOK, AND DOWNLOAD OUR WHITEPAPER: HOW TO DEVELOP A WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM. WWW.TRI-ARROW.COM 1-877-579-9988 Waste Solutions for Metro Vancouver? Award-Winning Zero Waste Partnership Regional District of Nanaimo & ICC Group “Without the investment and commitment of ICC to organic waste diversion, the (award-winning) RDN Zero Waste Program would not be the success that it is today.” Carey McIvor, Manager, Solid Waste Regional District of Nanaimo ICC Group is a Victoria, BC based CleanTech Company turning Organic Waste into Compost, Heat & Electricity ICC Group, 1002 Wharf Street, Victoria, BC V8W 1T4 – Phone 250 360 0476 How food waste and bioenergy is cleaning your community **Question:** How can organic waste decrease the burden on landfills? **Answer:** The latest methods go beyond fertilizer, transforming your food garbage into usable biofuel. In the 1980’s film “Back to the Future,” Doc tosses a banana peel and garbage into his DeLorean to fuel the vehicle. Granted, our society may not have the ability to zip through time but using waste as a fuel isn’t so far off. Dr. Bryan Imber, founder, president and CEO of ICC Group, a company that turns organic waste into fuel and fertilizer, points out that about seven to 10 percent of all greenhouse gasses produced in Europe and North America come from landfill methane and CO2 emissions. According to Imber, 40 percent of waste in a landfill is comprised of organics. “It’s a fact that most of the greenhouse gases from landfills come from (organic waste),” says Imber. ICC is one of several companies looking to turn high-grade compost into bioenergy. “Unlike other biofuels, when you turn that organic waste into fuel you’re not using farmland,” says Imber referring to other alternatives that require significant land-use such as corn-based ethanol. And the best part about biofuel? It’s a by-product of everyday activities. Imber points out that 100 thousand people produce about a hundred tonnes of organic waste a day. **Breaking it down** Paul Sellew, CEO of Harvest Power, a bioenergy company, says the concept of putting organic waste in a landfill is dated. “It really doesn’t make sense for (organic waste) to end up in a landfill,” says Sellew. Harvest Power’s facility in Richmond uses a process called anaerobic digestion to compost. A series of processes break down organic compounds through the use of bacteria in an oxygen-free environment. “This is a biological system,” says Sellew. “We’re able to generate 200 kilowatt hours of electricity through a tonne.” The excess foam that is created can be used to power the facility itself. “From the standpoint of the environmental community, this is really considered the highest and best form of bio-energy,” says Sellew. “This is going to be the model for how organic waste should be managed.” **Learning from Nanaimo** Nanaimo, is ahead of the curve when it comes to dealing with its organic waste says Carey McIver, manager of solid waste for the Regional District of Nanaimo. “We spent the 90’s developing our solid waste plan,” says McIver. “We said once the private sector has constructed a facility we will ban food waste from our landfills.” In 2005, the region banned food waste in light of ICC’s development of a compost facility near Nanaimo. According to Stats Canada, the average Canadian disposed of 777 kg of solid waste in 2008. That year, Nanaimo began a pilot program for curb collection of organic waste. “We’ve achieved a 60 percent diversion rate,” says McIver. “In 2010, the disposal rate in Nanaimo was 414 kg per capita.” Last year the region signed a 10-year contract with ICC, one of several disposal companies operating in Nanaimo, to pick up regional compost. And the next step? McIver says she hopes the bioenergy from the compost can help the communities zero waste goals. “We would be delighted to see our buses fuelled by our food waste.” --- **Plastic’s second life** All it takes is a quick glance around oneself to see how pervasive the use of plastic has become in one’s life. Did you know that in a landfill, plastic takes 500 years to decompose, but if diverted to a proper recycling facility it can be pelletized and reused in the same manner virgin plastic is? Peter Bissada, of Westcoast Plastic Recycling says when plastic is separated properly, the process for recreating usable plastic is actually quite easy. “Once it goes back to the pellet form it can basically be made into anything,” he says. Take Altwood for example, a lumber product created by Victoria-based Syntal Products using recycled plastic. “The recycled plastic is ground up into flakes and chunks and fed into machines that melt them together,” according to Brian Burchell, manager of Syntal. Now you may be thinking, “Doesn’t burning plastic create green house gas emissions?” In Bissada’s case, the plastic flakes are melted using pressure, with 25 percent of the energy being generated by the plastic itself. The product has been approved by the organic farming industry and is often used in situations where there is a chemical reaction between wood and soil, which causes decay. Although you can’t use Altwood to replace lumber as a whole, a product like this can help to reduce the amount of trees cut down. **Green by design** The recycling process is relatively similar in most facilities—separate the different types of plastic from any piggybacking products such as metal or organic waste. “One you start mixing plastic it kills the process,” says Bissada, pointing out that food wastes and metals can contaminate the pellets. Once the different types of plastics are separated the product is washed, shredded and bailed, companies can then sell the bails. Tony Moucachen, president of Merlin Plastics—one of B.C.’s largest plastic recycling companies—says the industry is also beginning to understand how creating products that can easily pelletized will help them in the long run. “When a brand owner is serious they put effort into designing their product so it’s environmentally responsible and recyclable,” says Moucachen. He points to the beverage container industry, which has started to produce bottles made of plastics that can be melted down with the label and the cap. With the efforts put into designing a recyclable package, public education plays a big role in making sure plastics are separated properly. “The whole concept of environmental stewardship translates into product design,” says Moucachen. “Look at the product life cycle and how long it’s on the shelf and what can be done to remove excess waste from the process.” To solve the toughest problems you have to look at the world differently. By focusing on recycling and recovery, we push beyond conventional thinking and find cost-effective ways to transform industrial residues back into valuable products. For example, we operate British Columbia’s only used oil re-refinery. Last year we recovered over 20 million litres of base oil and lubricant products using a process that saved more than 100,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions from entering the environment. There are better ways to think about waste. NEWALTA newalta.com
<urn:uuid:a8e5c2ac-2616-4a2c-b04f-02f52eb8c245>
CC-MAIN-2018-09
http://doc.mediaplanet.com/all_projects/7946.pdf
2018-02-25T04:00:37Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891816094.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20180225031153-20180225051153-00152.warc.gz
89,532,488
6,933
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.98125
eng_Latn
0.998087
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 272, 7405, 11327, 14802, 21073, 27348, 33363, 33945 ]
[ 2.515625, 2.875 ]
1
0
Retracing Footsteps of the Literati: Towards an Understanding of Literacy Development through Stories of Malawian Teacher Educators Manuel Boyd Kazembe Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Curriculum and Instruction Patricia P. Kelly, Chair Jerome Niles Josiah Tlou Mary Alice Barksdale November 14, 2005 Blacksburg, Virginia Keywords: learning, literacy development, teacher education, print-limited context Copyright 2005, Manuel B. Kazembe Retracing Footsteps of the Literati: Towards an Understanding of Literacy Development through Stories of Malawian Teacher Educators Manuel B. Kazembe (ABSTRACT) If there is a single song in which nations, governments, human rights organizations, communities, and parents harmoniously blend their voices, it is that being literate is valuable and valued. Being literate entails one’s access to and interaction with text in one’s environment (Harris & Hodges, 1995). However, in developing countries, print is hard to come by due to several factors. What is of significance, though, is that despite the absence of readily available print environments that are prevalent in the developed world, one still sees highly literate persons emerging from poor developing countries. This study sought to investigate how those who become literate achieve literacy despite growing up in places where print is not readily available. It was a search for factors that supported and enabled the participants to become literate persons. This investigation searched for an answer to the umbrella question: What are the conditions that promote literacy development in a print-limited environment? In order to answer this question, six postgraduate degree holding Malawian teacher educators were interviewed. The interviews generated six to literacy autobiographies, i.e. stories of how they acquired literacy skills in English, a second language, when print resources were limited. From an analysis of those stories, themes emerged that indicated prevailing commonalities in the study participants’ literacy developmental paths. The major themes that emerged were parental involvement in children’s literacy development, influence of teachers on developing literacy, the role of peers and siblings as learners develop literacy, presence of text in the environment, literacy practices of participants as they grew up, and participants’ perceptions of literacy and its development. The study showed that literacy acquisition is a complex developmental phenomenon (Luke, 2002). It is a process that emerges from a combination of complementary factors. What emerged from the study is that, even in print-limited environments, there are facilitating conditions that enhance an individual’s literacy development. The facilitating conditions were various people who helped learners acquire literacy, the availability of text, the meaningfulness of texts and tasks, the learners’ intrinsic motivation, and the differences that evolved over time in the relationships between the learners and those with whom they interacted. DEDICATION To my family, especially my children Sharon Atikonda, Carolyne Tisungeni, and Manuel Kazembe Jr who felt the pangs of the absent father as they grew up while I was away from home concentrating on my doctoral studies and only saw them during sporadic visits. I hope they can now wipe away the memory of my long absences with the joy of this accomplishment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my deepest appreciation to all those who have supported my efforts in my academic pursuits in general and in the investigation leading to the preparation of this doctoral dissertation in particular. I know I am greatly indebted to all those without whose support and encouragement this accomplishment would have remained just an unattainable dream of a lifetime. I am very thankful to my dissertation committee. Professor Emeritus Patricia Proudfoot Kelly, my dissertation committee chair, you deserve a zillion tons of thanks for your serene and perceptive academic assistance from the first day I set my foot onto the doctoral academic turf right through the preparation of this dissertation. If anything, this dissertation, is the outcome of your meticulous technical as well as professional expertise. My many thanks go to Dr. Jerome Niles for his very cool and patient disposition as well as insightful and enlightening scholarly questions and comments. Your willingness and availability countless times as I progressed with my work was pivotal in this investigation. I am also very heavily grateful to Dr. Mary Alice Barksdale for her candid professionalism as she time and again showed me that doctoral work was hard yet doable and a satisfying pursuit. Your wonderful sense of humor at times when my brains seemed incapable of engaging an extra gear always worked wonders for me. Countless containers of thanks also go to Dr. Josiah Tlou for priceless pieces of advice, words of encouragement, and for being a mentor. The “you can do it” reminder as the years went by gave me the strength to put in all I could because you were a living example of what you said. Please receive my profound heartfelt gratitude. Many thanks also go to Dr. Ann Potts, Dr. Cheri Triplett, Dr. Daniel Stahl, who in their unique ways fueled my passion for real things that matter and work for children. Dr. Susan Magliaro, and Dr. Peter Doolittle also deserve incalculable appreciation for opening up whole new and enriching dimensions of looking at the realm of knowledge and learning. Countless thanks also go to Dr. Terry Graham for showing me that learning ought to be fun and that there are countless ways of creating instructional set activities and instructional engagements that resonate with learners’ lives. My gratitude extends to Dr. Ross Perkins, Anne M. Roberts, and Janice Fournellier for the valuable assistance rendered to me while I was pursuing the doctoral program. Roberta Snelling, Joy Thorn, Vanessa Scott and all faculty members of the Department of Teaching and Learning at Virginia Tech should receive my gratitude. Your friendship, collegiality, and readiness to help meant a lot to me. My many thanks are extended to Dr. Kevin Laws of the University of Sydney who ignited in me the desire to pursue a doctoral degree when I was doing a Master’s degree in 1999. Pieces of advice you gave are what encouraged me to pursue the doctoral degree whose dissertation happens to be this one. I also extend my thanks to Jane Oldham who called me “Dr. Kazembe” even before I had started doctoral studies. because she strongly believed in me and was convinced that I needed to take the “final” academic lap after getting my Master’s degree. The United States Agency for International Development (Malawi Office) is commended for financing my doctoral studies. Besides, I am most grateful to William Mvalo and Chrissie Kaliu for their willingness to facilitate my travels to and from the US through timely preparation of necessary travel and immigration papers. # TABLE OF CONTENTS | Title Page | i | |------------|---| | Abstract | ii | | Dedication | iii | | Acknowledgements | iv | | Table of Contents | vi | | List of Multimedia Objects | viii | ## Chapter 1: Introduction - Need for the Study 2 - Context for the Research 3 - Purpose of the Study 4 - Research Questions 5 - Outline of the Study 5 ## Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework - Knowledge Construction 6 - Cognitive Constructivism 7 - Social Constructivism 8 - Contextualizing Literacy 9 - Defining Central Concepts Inherently Associated with Literacy 10 - Indispensable Human Communicative Transaction Triangle Components 10 - Defining Literacy 13 - Developing Literacy 15 - The Role of Reading in Literacy Development 16 - The Role of Writing in Literacy Development 17 - The Role of the Home in Literacy Development 20 - The Role of Teaching Strategies in Literacy Development 22 ## Chapter 3: Research Methodology - Qualitative Research Paradigm 25 - Employing the Autobiographical Method 27 - Sample Selection 28 - Data Collection 28 - Interviews 29 - Validity and Reliability 31 - Confidentiality 32 - Data Analysis 32 - Limitations of the Study 33 | Chapter 4: Six Literacy Stories | 34 | |---------------------------------|----| | Benson’s Story | 34 | | Dalitso’s Story | 41 | | Emmie’s Story | 48 | | Joshua’s Story | 51 | | Lumbani’s Story | 62 | | Sarah’s Story | 69 | | Chapter 5: Data Analysis | 77 | |---------------------------------|----| | Parental Involvement in Children’s Literacy Development | 77 | | Influence of Teachers in Learner’s Literacy Development | 83 | | Peers’ and Siblings’ Influence in Literacy Development | 85 | | Presence of Text in the Environment | 86 | | Literacy Practices of Participants as they Grew Up | 91 | | Participants’ Perceptions of Literacy and Its Development | 95 | | Chapter 6: Discussion, Implications for Teacher Education, and Suggestions for Further Research | 99 | |-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----| | Discussion of the Findings | 99 | | Influences that led to Literacy Development | 101| | Literacy Development Experiences | 105| | Evolving Relationships | 108 | | Implications for Teacher Education | 110 | | Suggestions for Further Research | 112 | | Summary | 114 | | References | 115 | | Appendices | 122 | |------------|-----| | Appendix A | 122 | | Appendix B | 123 | | Vita | 125 | | Multimedia Object | Page | |-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Figure 1. Indispensable Communicative Transaction Triangle. | 11 | | Table 1. Interconnectedness of literacy development influences, experiences and evolving relationships during a learner’s literacy developmental phases | 100 | CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In a very touching true story entitled “My Father’s Hands,” appearing in the New York Sunday News Magazine of November 30, 1978, Calvin R. Worthington eloquently tells the story of his late father whose hands, he claims, were warm, rough, and exceedingly strong. The deceased could gently prune a fruit tree or firmly wrestle an ornery mule into harness. He could draw and saw a square with quick accuracy. The hands of the said deceased were good hands that served their owner well and failed him in only one thing: they never learned to write. In other words, the deceased was illiterate. Actually, he had been withdrawn from school by his father after several seemingly fruitless months in first grade. It would seem that for some reason, shapes, figures, and recitations just did not fall into the right pattern inside the six-year old head. In his old age, Worthington’s father died an untimely death from a heart attack while holding the helpful nitroglycerin pills bottle in his hands, one of which, if placed under his tongue at the onset of an attack, should have pacified the fatal heart attack. The big warm hands lost their struggle with death because imprinted on the bottle cap, were the words, “Child-Proof Cap – Push Down and Twist to Unlock.” The hands failed to open for the eyes had never learnt how to read. The above story graphically conveys one of the sad realities that come with the inability to read and write. Although the numbing event encapsulated in this story took place several decades ago, the sad thing is that illiteracy is just as real today as it was then, in the West and, much more so, in the poor developing nations of the world. Western pre-20th century world history testifies that in the past, reading and writing were the exclusive domain, a highly esteemed province, of the educated and powerful. The nobles, royalty, and religious leaders were the people of letters. After all, the ordinary folk did not need an education to get by in a world where one’s line of descent pretty much determined what they were to be in life. Artisans would be artisans and tillers of the land would be tillers of the land, unless otherwise called upon to fight for their royalty in wars whose causes they could hardly articulate. But in this cyberspace and information dependent 21st century, education is an imperative and, literacy is the key to the future. But the big question is: How do we become literate? Is there something that we ourselves do, or does something happen to us, or is something done to us by either ourselves or by someone else that turns us to be literate? In the cultures where the printed word has been around since ages past, the question is: How do people become readers and writers? Do they all become literate in the same way? On the other hand, what are the stories behind people’s literacy development in a print-limited environment? How to teacher educators’ personal literacy stories compare? Where are the teachers coming from in their literacy routes and foundations? Do such stories play out in these literacy torch-bearing professionals’ lives and practice? Are there lessons that should be learned from teachers’ literacy stories to inform the practice of teaching? The above story graphically conveys one of the sad realities that come with the inability to read and write. Although the numbing event encapsulated in this story took place several decades ago, the sad thing is that illiteracy is just as real today as it was then, in the West and, much more so, in the poor developing nations of the world. Western pre-20th century world history testifies that in the past, reading and writing were the exclusive domain, a highly esteemed province, of the educated and powerful. The nobles, royalty, and religious leaders were the people of letters. After all, the ordinary folk did not need an education to get by in a world where one’s line of descent pretty much determined what they were to be in life. Artisans would be artisans and tillers of the land would be tillers of the land, unless otherwise called upon to fight for their royalty in wars whose causes they could hardly articulate. But in this cyberspace and information dependent 21st century, education is an imperative and, literacy is the key to the future. But the big question is: How do we become literate? Is there something that we ourselves do, or does something happen to us, or is something done to us by either ourselves or by someone else that turns us to be literate? In the cultures where the printed word has been around since ages past, the question is: How do people become readers and writers? Do they all become literate in the same way? On the other hand, what are the stories behind people’s literacy development in a print-limited environment? How to teacher educators’ personal literacy stories compare? Where are the teachers coming from in their literacy routes and foundations? Do such stories play out in these literacy torch-bearing professionals’ lives and practice? Are there lessons that should be learned from teachers’ literacy stories to inform the practice of teaching? This investigation was a study in the field of Literacy. It was a study grounded in teachers’ perceptions and reflections of their own literacy development, under conditions that might be termed less conducive to researchers looking with Western academic eyes. Need for the Study Literacy is pivotal to the development of any country. Bhola (1989, p. 66) argued that “neither modernization nor democratization is possible without literacy… literacy is the only passport for independent learning and for citizenship in the knowledge society.” Reading and writing have become indispensable to the creation and maintenance of dynamic, progressive, critical, analytical, creative, healthy, and politically stable nations and cultures. Unfortunately, primary school students in Malawi, it seems, hardly get hooked on reading and writing. A study conducted in Malawi during the closing quarter of the 20th century is quite revealing. Mchazime (1994) explained that 70% of 170 interviewees who completed standard eight had read no other book than a school text. Surely, such lack of reading is a sign of schooling and modern day literacy malnutrition. While not being the only reason, the prevailing lack of interest in reading and writing in primary school students contributes to the poor results on the Primary School Leaving Certificate, Junior Certificate of Education, and the Malawi School Certificate of Education examinations. It is an open secret that literacy is the passport to the socio-economic development of any progress-conscious country. Therefore, this displayed absence of reading and writing enthusiasm among primary school students in Malawi paints a bleak literacy picture of the country’s future. This is a portrait of a situation needing reversal. One wonders about the teaching and learning that goes on in schools, that is, primary, secondary, and teacher education institutions. One might also pause to ponder what goes on in students’ lives outside of school. However, it must be understood that the enormous majority of Malawian children live in rural communities where they learn life skills available and used in the local environment in the absence of print. Perhaps it might be inappropriate to assume that these children suffer from an intellectual impoverishment commensurate with the material. Of course, being literate is an important personal asset that allows women and men increased opportunities in life. This provided the strong rationale for investigating how Malawian teacher educators became literate and, thereby, came to learn how learning to read and write is done under circumstances that have significantly remained unchanged for decades. Tonjes and Zintz (1992) point out that lack of reading and writing skills among a nation’s population takes a devastating toll on the country and bequeaths a legacy of unemployment, poverty, and alienation. Surely, no nation on the globe wants to have permanent abode in such an unpalatable environment. **Context for the Research** This study was conducted in Malawi, a 118,484 square kilometre country in the Southern Africa region. Malawi is a country that became free of the British colonial empire in 1964 on July 6. In this small developing nation, the vast majority of the 12 million population lives below the poverty line. In addition, the primary school population of over 3 million students entails large classes with a 1: 60 plus teacher – student ratio (National Statistical Office, 2002). The situation is compounded by inadequate classroom and related infrastructure inadequacy. Limited government expenditure on education due to a fragile government economic base, unavoidably leads to the availability of very insufficient and limiting teaching and learning resources. Although newspapers, magazines, and book kiosks are available in cities and big towns, where, according to National Statistical Office (2001), only 14 percent of Malawi’s 12 million population resides, saying that the country is a print-limited environment in not an exaggeration. While the high cost of print material certainly scares away would-be readers, the country’s low literacy rate does not make things any better. National Statistical Office (2001) indicated that literacy is higher among men (72 percent) and lower among women (49 percent). Besides, literacy is higher in the urban areas (75 percent for women and 88 percent for men) than in the rural areas (44 percent and 69 percent, respectively). Additionally, Malawi is a multilingual society of thirteen ethnic groups with 13 languages that fork out into 36 dialects. This is a society that is mostly non-English speaking because while the official language of business and medium of instruction in school from standard five in primary school through university is English, the national language, Chichewa, is the upheld medium of communication bridging the various ethnic groups across the country. Nevertheless, not everyone really speaks, let alone understands Chichewa. Another factor that contributes to the literacy problem is that in Malawi no teachers are trained to be reading specialists as there is no such component in the country’s teacher education program curriculum. Primary school teachers learn all the eleven content areas they are destined to teach, as they go through the teacher education program. But reading as a subject is not part of the curriculum. Furthermore, primary school teachers do not hold university degrees, and few primary teacher educators hold Masters degrees. The majority of teacher educators are trained secondary school teachers who came to primary school teacher education without professional primary teacher education training. At the time of this study, Malawi was in the process of establishing a cadre of professionally trained primary school teacher educators. Such was the landscape of the field in which this study took place. **Purpose of the Study** However, despite this bleak scenario, the country has over the years produced some highly literate persons. Both within Malawi and outside the country, one may find literate Malawians. Many of these people were born in and got their primary, secondary, and tertiary education within the country. Just as it is true of all other people all over the world, there are Malawians who have become distinguished academics, scientists, physicists, medical doctors, or lawyers, in spite of Malawi’s very low literacy and income levels and the myriad accompanying social and related problems. Therefore, this investigation sought to find out how those who become literate do so in this not-so-conducive environment. The study purposefully sought literacy stories of six Masters degree holding Malawian teacher educators. These participants were chosen because they fall in a category of literate Malawians. Also the teacher educators’ involvement would reveal findings that would inform teacher educators’ practice in Malawi. Research Questions This study was a search for factors that support and enable learners to become literate by following how participants in this study became literate persons. It sought to investigate the umbrella question: What are the conditions that promote literacy development in a print-limited environment? Finding the answer to the umbrella question given above meant finding answers to the following three questions: 1. What were the influences that led to literacy development for these teacher educators in a country that is print-limited? 2. What kinds of experiences did these teacher educators have as children that led to literacy development in a country that is print-limited? 3. What were the personal relationships that evolved during the literacy development of these teacher educators? Outline of the Study Chapter One is the introduction to the study. As already noted, this first chapter contains the need for the study, the context for the research, the purpose of study, and research questions. Chapter Two is a review of the literature related to this study. This chapter begins with the theoretical framework governing this study, followed by a synthesis of what literacy and related terms have come to mean. Wrapping up this chapter is a review of the literature that informs this study. Chapter Three is the methodology section where the design of the study is highlighted. This is the chapter that outlines the research questions; participants’ selection, and data collection and analysis methods. Chapter Four contains research findings in the form of six stories of literacy development. The analysis of the literacy stories is in Chapter Five. Finally, Chapter Six contains the discussion of the findings, implications of the study for teacher education, and areas for further research that emerged from this study. CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Learning is inseparable from living because from the time we are born and throughout life we do not stop learning. At all times we are learning. Even when we find ourselves unable to master a skill or understand some body of knowledge, what we learn is that that particular skill or subject is outside our scope. How do we come to know and how do we learn so that we can know? To ask the same question differently: How do we construct knowledge? How do we become literate? How do we develop literacy? These questions are central to this study. In this chapter, I look at the theories on which this investigation hinges. I begin by taking a look at knowledge construction. After that I look at the branches of Constructivism known as radical constructivism and social constructivism. Thereafter, literacy is contextualized in which I offer a communicative transactional model that ties together the crucial aspects of literacy learning. The chapter concludes with a synthesis of research in areas that contribute to literacy development. Knowledge Construction From Socrates right through Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Kant, Vico, Dewey, and Piaget, with many other philosophers and epistemologists in between and after, the way knowledge is arrived at continues to be debated. That be as it may, I find that Piaget (1957) made a fundamental statement in relation to knowledge when he wrote, “The mind organizes the world by organizing itself” (p. 311). This means that our understanding of the world is based upon our perception. Most importantly, the knowledge we claim to have has much to do with our experiences. By creating order in our minds, we are able to perceive the arranged order in the world. The thought that we create our knowledge has given birth to the line of thinking referred to as constructivism. This is “a philosophical perspective derived from the work of Immanuel Kant which views reality as existing mainly in the mind, constructed or interpreted in terms of one’s own perspectives” (Harris & Hodges, p. 43). Brooks and Brooks (1999) made the proposition that we construct our own understanding of the world in which we live. This means that we create our own new understandings depending on the interaction between what we already know and believe and anything we experience afterwards. If we encounter something new, we either interpret it in line with our prior knowledge or we generate a new set of rules to account for the disequilibrium that comes with the new occurrence. What is central to knowledge making or construction is that facts change and, subsequently, knowledge changes too. In school, for instance, as Baxter Magolda (1999) asserted, teachers must come to the point where they help students grasp this idea by creating the conditions for this shift to occur. It is imperative that this ability to learn in line with changing conditions needs to be inherent in productive people. Unfortunately, it is not something that is in-born but something that must be learnt. Constructivism has two major strands, namely: *cognitive constructivism* and *social constructivism*. **Cognitive Constructivism** Cognitive constructivism is largely based on Piaget’s work on knowledge construction. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) viewed cognitive constructivism as the knowledge construction process that focuses on individual, internal constructions of knowledge. Knowledge is seen as entirely being in the mind of an individual. Such is the case because cognition is seen as an instrument of adaptation, that is, a tool for fitting ourselves into the world of our experience (Piaget, 1970; Glasersfeld, 2002). Heavily influenced by Piaget, Glasersfeld (2002), admittedly, has come up with a new elemental strand of cognitive constructivism, which he has called *radical constructivism*. In radical constructivism, as coined and advanced by Glasersfeld (2002), truth is not absolute or independent of us for what one considers to be true is relative, that is, simply another way of explaining something. According to Glasersfeld (2002), radical constructivism, is an approach to knowledge and knowing. It is a way of thinking and not the theory for explaining independent reality. The basis for this approach is the assumption that knowledge is in people’s heads constructed individually based on personal experiences which are, unavoidably, subjective. While radical constructivism does not get into the argument of the existence or non-existence of reality, what this approach puts forward is the assertion that there is no way of ascertaining the existence of universal reality. This is so because knowledge exists in the mind of the knower based on their personal experience. Otherwise, there is no way of getting into the knower’s mind to view the knowledge contained in there and be able to compare it to that of other knowers. What is crucial is that even when people go through the “same” experience (or event), the constructs they make out of such an experience do not necessarily denote sameness of knowledge. For example, riding in a fast cruising car may create excitement and joy in one while creating fear and numbness in another person on the same trip. Radical constructivism hinges on two essential tenets: (1) knowledge is not received passively but constructed by each individual and (2) the function of knowledge is adaptive, assisting in organizing the experiential world and not in the discovery of ontological reality (Glasersfeld (2002). The first principle nullifies the existence of knowledge independent of the knower’s individual construction. This means that a knower constructs knowledge by actively putting together their prior experience in the wake of new experiences. No other person knows what the knower knows in the way the knower does. For example, the mention of “Virginia Tech” conjures up different images in the minds of different people, like, the Hokies (famous American football team) for some, or some part of the campus for others. The second principle asserts that knowledge is there to assist the knower get to an understanding of the way the world operates because it is prior knowledge and experience that determines our understanding of the world. In this regard, what people know helps them make sense of the way they see their subjective reality and act the way they do. Furthermore, language is a very important tool used in communication and, thereby, in the construction of schemes that lead to the construction of knowledge. Moreover, there are several concepts that are crucial to the understanding of radical constructivism as advanced by Glasersfeld (2002). One such concept is the concept of truth. In radical constructivism, truth is not absolute for what one considers truth might simply be one of several ways of explaining something. Another concept is viability of knowledge. This concept stipulates that knowledge is kept or discarded depending on its usefulness (viability). It is noted that knowers like staying in a state of equilibrium (balance or comfort). However, any new event creates a disequilibrium (disturbance or perturbation) resulting in action that leads to accommodation (tolerance), if it does not fit in the already existing constructs, or assimilation (acceptance) if it fits. The knower then has to adapt (accept) the schemes (mental sets) that are either verified or modified to fit into the prevailing state of knowing. What is important here is that individuals construct knowledge that is deemed useful at the time or in future. **Social Constructivism** Social constructivism owes its beginning to Vygotsky (1978). Social constructivism suggests that knowledge exists in a social context and is initially shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual (Eggen and Kauchak, 2001; Turner, 1995). Therefore, social constructivism refers to the approach to knowledge and knowing that asserts that knowledge is a product of associations that take place in societies. What is pivotal here is the assertion that knowledge exists in a social context. Therefore, knowledge is shared with others and not just exclusively constructed within the mind of an individual. Interaction is paramount in Social Constructivism because it is the process of sharing that results in individuals refining their own ideas and shaping those of others in the particular society. It is worth noting that within the umbrella term social constructivism dwell three closely related schools of thought, namely: (1) sociocultural constructionism, (2) symbolic interactionalism, and (3) social constructionism (Prawat, 1996). In brief, sociocultural constructionism asserts that what we think, what we think about, and how we think, depends on our society and culture which we are mediated by. Knowledge construction, therefore, is dependent more on socialization than on the individual. Symbolic interactionalism, however, asserts that knowledge is constructed by individuals through socialization. As such, knowledge is a social product which, through interaction, is confirmed by society but left to the individual to take away from the interaction what is worth. Social constructionism, on the other hand, while acknowledging the importance of the social aspect, goes on to emphasize that knowledge construction is dependent mainly on language. This is so because discourse communities have one language, and all experience is distilled by language. Furthermore, social constructivism presupposes the coming into play of the following elements: society, culture, individuals, interaction or socialization, distributed cognition, and language (Bredo, 2000). First, Social Constructivism portrays society as the core determinant of knowledge. Knowledge is created in and by groups of people. Everything happens within a social framework, for example, within a society of politicians, scientists, nationals, residents, ethnic group members, and family because knowers are socialized into communities. Second, culture is also part and parcel of particular social groupings. Knowledge is constructed when one has some linkage to the culture of the knowers of something. Third, individuals bring their, prior knowledge, power of analysis and concepts construction that lead to the creation of the knowledge that is shared with others. Fourth, socialization or interaction is another indispensable element of Social Constructivism. Knowers get to know what other knowers know and then create their own knowledge through interaction with others. Consequently, this socialization leads to the codification, externalization and ultimate delocation of knowledge. Fifth, language is at the centre of knowledge construction. Actually, in order for a group of people to share knowledge, they must have a language that generates sameness of meaning when used by anyone of the members of the group. All in all constructivism has a bearing on this investigation. Such is the case because the study hinges on how learners learn, that is, how they become literate. Furthermore, this process of knowing takes place in societies that are culturally mediated. Both the radical constructivism proposition of knowledge as being individually constructed and the social constructivism assertion of the centrality of society in knowledge construction play a pivotal role in literacy development. Whereas no one gets to know how to read and write on another’s behalf, the knowledge one has must be in line with constructs of a given society in which the literate person is a member. **Contextualizing Literacy** We all obtain and provide massive information in our countless interactions with other people. From time to time, we all have something to say or questions to ask other people. To do that, we use a medium of communication that is both comprehensible between the communicators, and acceptable in the particular social setting. Although it cannot be disputed that individuals’ perceptions of the world are not carbon copies of others, what is pleasing is that there is much overlap as points of similarities override differences by a very wide margin. As such, it is neither surprising nor uncommon for one to hear people say, “I understand” or “I see what you mean.” What's more, we perceive, decode, interpret, comprehend, and even analyze what others say only if and when they operate on the same wavelength with us. Similarly, we decide, encode, and transmit our intents to others in a way that facilitates productive interaction. These human communicative transactions, so crucial to human co-existence, take place within a given society. One has to be literate in order to participate in this indispensable activity. This is so because we interact with others in a meaningful way using “common” language within the parameters that are governed by a given society’s culturally acceptable codes. Therefore, it cannot be emphasized enough that literacy is central to societies’ and nations’ survival, development, and progress as well as the appreciation, preservation, and promotion of people’s cultures. It is worth noting that unless we become literate about the goings on in the community, society and world we live in, we can neither make our contribution nor draw the benefits accrued to us by virtue of our membership to these. Unfortunately, literacy is perceived differently by stakeholders resulting in non-uniform treatment of issues related to literacy education (Allington, 2002; Graves, 2001; Ohanian, 2001; Smith, 1998). **Defining Central Concepts Inherently Associated with Literacy** To begin with, every society or community is cohesively glued together by its *language*, *culture* and *literacy* practices. Certainly, these may either be identical or different. However, the bottom line is that they serve the same three-dimensional purpose: preservation, self-correcting dynamism, and promotion of the uniqueness of each society. It is unlikely that the terms *language*, *culture*, *society* and *literacy* can enjoy the impossible opportunity of being universally singularly defined. I would like, at this juncture, to provide my definitions of these terms in the way they have come to make sense to me because their understanding has significant bearing on this investigation. Language refers to the oral, written, graphic, and sign decodable patterns that are used to mediate purposeful communicative transactions between individuals. On the other hand, *culture* is the unique mix of beliefs, values, and ways of doing things that are special to a group of people in a given community or society. The term *society*, stands for a group of people who interact with each other because of their being members of the same geographical locality, members of the same institutional community, or members of the same professional fraternity, and, indeed, any other grouping. As for *literacy*, this is the term that refers to the ability to listen, speak, read, write, analyze, and synthesize a conveyed message and meaningfully respond to the same in a way that entails full comprehension of the interaction one is engaged in. The words language, culture, society, and literacy embody crucial components of what I would call the indispensable human communicative transaction triangle. Figure 1 outlines the relationship that exists among these concepts in literacy education. **Indispensable Human Communicative Transaction Triangle Components** Understanding the interconnectedness of these components is paramount in productive literacy education. Society, culture, and language are the sides of the triangle that encase what goes for literacy within a particular community. In figure 1, I graphically present the interconnectedness of these components. Figure 1. Indispensable Communicative Transaction Triangle Note: Sides of a triangle showing components that facilitate the development of literacy, with multiple triangles indicating an individual’s multiple literacies. Society is “the sum of human conditions and activity regarded as a whole functioning interdependently” (The Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus, p. 1442). Society may be seen as a concoction of persons who basically see things more or less through the same type of frame. These individuals belong because they have some commonalities that bind them together. The binding forces may be such things as affiliations, convictions, professions, localities, and hobbies, to name just some. What this means is that one has to be a member of a particular society in order for them to belong. But it must also be noted that one might be a member of several societies based on the particular forces that might be at play. For instance, one could be a university professor, on the one hand, and a radio program presenter on the other. In simple terms, an individual may be a member of two or more societies. That is where the multiple triangles come in each one standing for a person’s membership to a particular grouping. Culture refers to the attitudes, values, customs, and behaviour patterns that characterize a social group (Eggen and Kauchak (2001). It is culture that moulds individuals who belong to and subscribe to beliefs, values and practices of certain groups into given modes of ways of looking at and understanding things. Different societies have significant similar and distinct perspectives to those of others. One needs to be a member of a society, in a way, in order to understand, appreciate, and participate in the goings on. Language is the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression (Crystal, 1992). Language is basically a medium of communication. It is acquired in the society one belongs to. If one belongs to a number of societies, they likely are or become conversant in the language of the respective ones. For instance, if one belongs to a society of mathematicians, he/she is bound to be capable of speaking the language of mathematics, which might be total “double Dutch” to someone who is “allergic” to anything falling under the umbrella of mathematics. Furthermore, a person that relocates to a different place, like a Chichewa speaking Malawian relocating to an English speaking community in Britain, ends up learning and speaking the language spoken in their new place of abode. This means that language finds meaning in the context of a socio-cultural setting. In addition, language is the means by which interaction is fostered among members of a society that upholds a culture. Generally, one has to be fluent in a language in order to understand and convey meaningful messages by choosing the appropriate word choice and formation that carry the right shades of nuances. Literacy signifies one’s ability to participate in a given discourse from an informed perspective. It entails having appropriate frames of reference that are available to members of a given society that embraces a culture one is conversant with. Successful and meaningful participation in some sport, or in an intellectually stimulating discussion, is dependent on one’s being literate in that particular area. Therefore, literacy embraces a lifelong context-bound set of practices in which an individual’s needs, despite varying in time and context, engender understandable messages. These four components are intertwined. A person needs to be a member of a society in order to benefit from and contribute to it. Schools, for instance are communities of learners. Teachers learn from colleagues, students, and reflecting on their own works while students also learn from teachers, colleagues and their own motivation to find out things. Furthermore, being a member of a particular society has to do with being immersed in a particular culture. For example, one finds that one school culture is not totally transferable to another school. Every school has its own ways of doing and upholding values that make a particular school what it is. As such one has to be a member of such a school to become a participant. Finally, being literate has much to do with being conversant with the language and culture of a society that informs one’s ability to articulate their thoughts. As Vygotsky (1962) put it, our private thought and language are originally shaped through the way we learn to interact with others. The human communicative transaction model above contains layers of triangles that represent that an individual is capable of being immersed in several literacies. We enjoy the richness of multiple literacies, that is, the literacy of our specialized field of endeavour, the jargon of our favourite sport or hobby, the dialect of our hometown or other ethnic heritage (Newman and Beverstock, 1990). **Defining Literacy** There are several perspectives to literacy ranging from minimal literacy, that is, the ability to read and write on the one hand, and the complex skills used in information processing oriented scenarios, on the other. Crucial and central to learning are the basic abilities of reading, writing, and counting. Such abilities are very useful in generating and storing various useful bodies of knowledge. In fact, in formal education, any level of information acquisition, interpretation, and usage, requires these prerequisite skills. One must be literate in order to store, retrieve, and make meaningful use of the available information, be it in making informed decisions or applications to other aspects of human endeavor such as travel and purchase of goods and services. Therefore, literacy is certainly essential to effective learning both in schools and in the society at large. Achieving high literacy levels in school is a task requiring the involvement of all teachers across the curriculum. While *The Oxford Dictionary* (1996, p. 876) has defined literacy as “the ability to read and write,” academics and practitioners in education have not yet agreed on what the term *literacy* means. One way of understanding *literacy* is to see it as a continuum of skills, including both reading and writing but applied in a social context (Gray, 1956). *Literacy* is also viewed as the prerogative of reading and writing (Johnson, 1993). Furthermore, *literacy* “requires active, autonomous engagement with print and stresses the role of the individual in generating as well as receiving and assigning independent interpretations to messages” (Harris & Hodges, 1995, p. 142). Additionally, *literacy* should be seen as a lifelong context-bound set of practices in which an individual’s needs vary with time and context (Verhoeven, 1993). Historically, the term *literacy* originates from the Latin term “litteratus” which in the Middle Ages meant “a learned person… one who could read Latin” (Venezky, 1990, p. 3). After 1300, being literate turned out to mean “minimal ability to read Latin” (p. 3). Macias (quoted in Venezky, 1990, p. 18)) added to this assertion when he said that “reading, of course, is primary to any definition of *literacy* and the other skills are, in a sense, secondary”. However, after the Reformation, a “literate” person came to mean “one who could read and write one’s native language” (Venezky, 1990, p. 3). But by the 1790’s a literate person came to mean one who was well-versed in Greek and Latin. However, as of the Twenty first century the term *literacy*: implies an interaction between social demands and individual competence… Today literacy is understood as a continuum, anchored at the bottom by illiteracy. Of equal importance to illiteracy, however, is aliteracy – the unwillingness to use literacy even though the capability is present (Harris & Hodges, 1995, p. 142). Consequently, to say that someone is “literate” is, therefore, dependent on how one defines *literacy* basically because the term literacy pervades every facet of life. For instance, Freire (1985) viewed literacy as a strategy of liberation that teaches people to read not only the word but also the world. Such a view articulates the broadening of horizons and awareness and acceptance of a much larger perception of self in relation to one’s own world and to the world of others. For that reason, literacy must, unavoidably, be studied from a variety of perspectives since it is merely a term used in general reference to very complex human activities which no single perspective seems to reveal very much (Robinson, 1987). It is, certainly, no wonder then that finding a universal definition of the term literacy remains rather elusive. One is, therefore, left to conclude that it must be due to the elusiveness of an “adequate” definition that professionals in this field of literacy have come to find a way of creating common understanding by attaching qualifiers to the term literacy so as to engender desired meanings. To begin with, some professionals (Gray 1956) split literacy into two levels: (1) *minimal level* which refers to the ability to read and write simple messages and (2) *functional level* which refers to a sufficiently high level for a person to ably operate in a society. Venezky (1990) went one step further by categorizing literacy into three aspects. The first of these is *basic literacy*, that is, the type that allows self-sustained development in literacy. The second is *required literacy*, that is, the level expected for any given social condition. The third is *functional literacy*, that is, a general designation of abilities above basic literacy that allows some level of functioning through print in society. Stephens and Brown (2004) added to the arena with *content literacy*, referring to, using reading and writing as tools for learning subject matter. Whitehurst and Lonigan (2002) evoked *emergent literacy*, a term that refers to the developmental precursors of formal reading that have their origin early in the life of a child. Luke (2002) talked of *multiple literacy*, that is in reference to the flexible and sustainable mastery of a repertoire of practices with the texts of traditional and new communication technologies via oral language, print, and multimedia, to critical literacy, thereby going beyond the presented obvious to uncover the hidden nuances of messages. Papen (2000) argued the perspective that literacy should not be conceived as a single set of competencies but different practices embedded in political relations, ideological practices, symbolic meaning structures and discourses. It is no wonder that bearing all this expansiveness, Hautecoeur (1992) simply conceded that *literacy* is an issue that is multi-faceted, complex and changing. Indeed, it is hard to pin down. This lack of a universal definition of *literacy* poses further problems in the understanding of what constitutes *literacy*. In such a scenario, it is inevitable to ask questions like: what are the standards against which levels one might be labeled as literate or illiterate? For instance, if one is not a non-native speaker of English but very fluent in one’s native language, do we label them literate or illiterate? This latter question is asked because one of the contentions for literacy is that it enables people to get involved in their society due to their being literate. This becomes problematic when one comes to consider that the person who might hardly contribute in the all-English speaking environment, might actually be a valuable contributor to their native society where English is not a necessary part and parcel of that environment. This is what probably explains why Venezky, Wagner, and Ciliberti (1990, p. ix) stated that “who is literate depends upon how we define literacy.” In that regard, Chall (2002) has maintained that, because of changing standards in American schools, there has not been agreement on what constitutes functional literacy or minimal competence. However, despite all this lack of a universally accepted definition, *literacy* is highly valued in societies. As such, it is expected of schools to ensure that those who go through a schooling system acquire desirable levels of *literacy*. It should be said that the role of schools is to assure that learners get engrossed in functional literacy because writing and reading have become increasingly important in societies than ever before. **Developing Literacy** How do we become literate? How do we become readers and writers? How do we become text users, decoders, analysts, and creators? How do we develop literacy? One encompassing answer is, by learning. Smith (1998) argued that just about all the important knowledge and skills we have directly results from our learning. Inseparable from students’ learning are teachers. After all, as McGee and Richgels (2000) contended, teachers are concerned with supporting all children’s literacy growth, and fortunately, with thoughtful instruction, most children succeed in becoming reflective, motivated readers. The Role of Reading in Literacy Development We develop literacy by principally learning to read and write. These are fundamental skills. It is no wonder that Whitehurst and Lonigan (2002) asserted that learning to read is a key milestone for children living in a literate society. The thinking here is that a critical part of the foundation for children’s academic as well as after school success is provided by reading skills. It is hard to dispute that individuals who acquire more knowledge in various domains actually read well and read more. But for this to happen, one must be in an environment that is conducive to learning and presented with learning instructions and medium of communication that make sense to the learner. Reading is one gigantic door that leads to the inexhaustible world of multi-literacies. Once opened, it is almost impossible to shut this door. In addition, fruitful teaching helps learners acquire the important abilities of synthesis and critical literacy that are crucial for comprehending underlying agendas hidden in innocent looking communications that pervade the worlds of marketing, entertainment, politics and the myriad social practices. Jenkins (2002) argued that reading is neither natural nor spontaneous but it is learned. Luke (1995) made the case that reading is a supple social practice with identifiable moral and ideological consequences in a four-tiered model that defines reading in terms of coding, semantics, pragmatics, and critical roles. In addition, Luke (1995) contended that critical reading, the awareness of and facility with the technique by which texts and discourses construct and position human subjects and society, is a very essential component of everyday life in social institutions. As such, reading is seen as being tied up with learning values and ways of a culture. Moreover, reading instruction is not about skills but the construction of identity and social relations. This is so because reading is viewed as social practice that comprises interpretive rules besides being constructed and learned in institutions like school, churches, family and work places. Although Luke (1995) asserted that there are no universal skills for teaching reading, he presented a model of reading as a social practice that is suitable for making critical readers needed in the present world. Reading is not a private but social practice. Texts are not timeless aesthetic objects or neutral receptacles of information but important sites for the symbiotic reproduction of discourses and ideology, identity and power within communities. That is why it is imperative that readers should learn their roles as code breaker, text participant, text user, and text analyst. However, Luke (1998) also observed that many teachers are facing challenges in that they continue to see many of their students struggling with literacy and having difficulty engaging with the cultures and texts of schooling in the mostly crowded classrooms. Unfortunately, the major, never-ceasing debate in literacy education happens to be over which instructional approach is best able to solve student reading and writing problems. Luke (1998) further argued that the issue is not one of finding the right and correct scientific methods of teaching literacy because such a way does not exist. Instead, the matter is about reconstructing and realigning the curriculum, instruction, and assessment in ways that better address the knowledges, practices, and aspirations of communities most at risk in the face of the new technologies and economic conditions. Therefore, the question should not be: What is the best way of teaching writing and reading? Instead, the question should be: How and to what ends can teachers reshape students’ reading and writing practices in communities facing new and old technologies, media and modes of expressions, emergent hybrid cultures and institutions, as well as forms of cultural identities and life pathways for which teachers have few precedents. Furthermore, Allington (2002) explained that literacy is always a situated response to particular political economies of education. As such, the teacher’s work, from a sociological perspective, is not about enhancing individual growth, personal voice, or skill development but building access to literate practices and discourse resources for social exchange in the social fields where texts and discourse matter. This is so because literacy education is about instructional access and inclusion, discrimination and exclusion, and setting the conditions for students to engage in textual relationships of power. Therefore, the way resources are selected and framed has consequences for students’ capacity to become active designers and agents in shaping their social futures and those of their communities and cultures. Duffy (1992) advocated two approaches used in teaching children to read: (1) the skills and strategy approach and (2) the whole language or literature based approach. In the *skill and strategy approach* students learn about language systems in isolation; it is very structured, carefully sequenced and teacher directed lessons; passing tests and not understanding is the important thing; and, students learn to answer questions without understanding use of language system. On the other hand, *whole-language or literature based approach* places emphasis on actual reading of books and writing of stories. With this approach learning is relatively unstructured, non-sequenced, and without quizzes, while teachers promotes real reading without being unduly directive. It is important to note that the latter approach is unhelpful to at-risk students because such learners get left behind (Wilhelm et al., 2001). The combination of the two approaches seems to be the most effective. There is practical immediacy to instruction since learning is situated in a meaningful activity. In addition, the curriculum is sensibly ordered and the teacher provides the required scaffolding. Moreover, evaluation is on whether the learners have gotten from the reading what they need in order to accomplish a given task. The combined approach emphasizes authentic use not contrived exercises thereby focusing on teaching and learning for understanding. Then the direct instruction ensures ordered and forthright teaching with students not left to figure things out unassisted. Therefore, by engaging in authentic activities, learners do what literate people do in real life situations. The literacy development of learners in such a learning environment is enhanced. **The Role of Writing in Literacy Development** The skills of reading and writing develop together as children grow in literacy. Children who have read good books over and over and who have been read aloud to again and again are, through that process, developing their repertoire for reading as well as for what makes good writing. However, these young writers also need to be convinced that their life experiences and the bits and pieces of those experiences set down in their writer’s notebooks can be turned into stories, that their nascent thoughts and reflections can be splendid works of art (Harwayne, 2001). Furthermore, constructivist teachers view reading and writing as opportunities to provide forms of authentic classroom communication (Strickland & Strickland, 2002). “Students learn language and literacy simultaneously in environments that permit them to read, write, listen, and speak for a variety of authentic purposes” (p. 13). Writing is an integral part of the process of developing literacy. Support for including writing in kindergarten classrooms came from the National Research Council (USA) in 1998 when it issued the following standards that students should meet by the end of kindergarten: 1. Independently writes many uppercase and lowercase letters. 2. Uses phonemic awareness and letter knowledge to spell independently (invented or creative). 3. Writes (unconventionally) to express own meaning. 4. Builds a repertoire of some conventionally spelled words. 5. Shows awareness of distinction between “kid writing” and conventional orthography. 6. Writes own name (first and last) and the first names of some friends or classmates. 7. Can write most letters and some words when they are dictated. (Snow et al., p. 80) However, Edwards (2003) went further in her suggestions for writing in kindergarten by including short compositions, such as writing a sentence that describes a picture and writing a short story that tells what is happening in a wordless picture book. In discussing the place of writing in the kindergarten classroom, Routman (2000) asserted that students need to be immersed in “compelling literature … read it together, discuss it, and notice writers’ techniques, personal styles, forms, word choices, leads, descriptions, power to persuade, ability to forge a connection with the reader, and more (p. 400). It is through reading stories and through reading each other’s writing that students come to see themselves as writers. Reading helps develop students’ understanding of how writing works, but it is also through writing that children develop their reading skills. On the other hand, Johnson (1993) argued that there are two literacies based on linguistic language and visual language that work together within children’s texts, not only in fiction but also in content texts. Art can do things that words cannot. Color, symbolism, spatial depth, and texture can convey more than words; therefore, visual literacy becomes part of the reading process. However, drawing is also part of children’s writing process in that illustrations, regardless of artistic ability, correlates and adds to the stories they write. “Children learn the art of writing by reading a wide range of materials, and they learn how illustrations “work” by studying the artwork of picture books Visual language can also be used as a bridge between literature or content texts and writing about those texts. Older students can use “symbolic representations” rather than writing to show their understanding of written texts (Wilhelm et al, 2001). In this way the formulations of visual language assist understandings of reading language that can then be put into written language. Another area in which writing is helpful in literacy development in the context of schooling is the type of writing that is done across the curriculum. Self (1987) stated that writing across the curriculum means that all teachers will give students frequent opportunities to use writing in ways that will help them to learn course material and learn to think with that material. Writing becomes a tool for learning. It should be noted that writing across the curriculum does not entail only the production of academic, literary or practical products but also writing that centers on thinking and learning about subject matter. Therefore, writing in all content areas is helpful to students because writing develops the thinking of learners. Actually, engaging in writing encourages learners’ thinking and learning since one cannot write unless he/she is thinking. Self (1987) contended that thinking propels the pen forward in a meaningful way. And it is the thinking and recording in a meaningful way that make people remember or learn better what they write. When the teacher’s focus is not on techniques but on intention to mean, ideas in a lesson are articulated by learners in the latter’s own language as they are turned into thinkers and doers by the writing. In addition, writing enhances learners’ assimilation and understanding of subject matter. Stephens and Brown (2004) made this point when they wrote that providing students with multiple opportunities to construct meaning in subject matter classes enhances their content knowledge and promotes a deeper conceptual understanding of it. It is only when this happens that learning can be said to be taking place. After all, the heart of writing across the curriculum is to help students view writing as a natural and useful way to learn subject matter, to discover content by putting it into their own language, and reflect on what they know. Furthermore, the study of content areas is actually the study of language. Stephens and Brown (2004) developed this line of thought by saying that biology is not plants and animals. It is language about plants and animals. History is not events. It is language describing and interpreting events. Astronomy is not planets and stars. It is a way of talking about planets and stars. Therefore, writing across the curriculum helps learners internalize the language of the particular subject matters. Finally, it should be said that writing across the curriculum also helps dispel the myth in the learners that only people with special abilities and in certain subject areas can write. Johnson (1993) posited that it is practical to make a book of words, graphics, and pictures, whether the aim is to explore one’s creative potential (an illustrated poem) or make a scientific investigation (inventing a machine). The point is that when learners write in a particular subject matter, they come to realize that they can frame their learning in multiple ways. The following letter written by a student, Tim, to his class teacher Mrs. Morgan, clearly underscores the importance of using writing to promote learning as well as the role of writing in developing his literacy: Dear Mrs. Morgan, The last two years we have been writing to learn. Never in all of my school experience have I done so before. All the teachers I ever had previously only wanted me to repeat information I was given and not to expand on it with my own thoughts. I find it very difficult to give someone back the same information they want to hear without putting it in my own words and saying it how I need to in order to get the point across. In those years of school I wasn’t learning I was repeating and it was boring and turned me off to school. Now I write to learn and I don’t just repeat information. I find when I write to learn I learn to write and it opens up new areas and different aspects of the learning process and sometimes it actually gets interesting and when a person is interested it makes all the difference in the world. – Tim (Morgan, C.G. 1987, p. 60) The Role of the Home in Literacy Development While schools are in the business of educating children, teachers are in the practice of helping children learn so that the learner achieves some degree of masterly, not just rote knowledge. One thing that is noted, though, is that the school is a whole world of its own that has, in a way, a culture and discourse of its own. Purcell-Gates (1997) explained that when there is a dichotomy between the literacy of the school and that of the communities outside of school, learners are in for a difficult time. As such, there is need to try everything possible in acknowledging and bringing into the school, the literacies of the community to facilitate students’ learning. The point is that what happens in the home has a substantial bearing on a learner’s literacy development. If a child sees parents and older siblings reading and writing, the child will want to do the same. Likewise, if no literacy practices occur in the home, children may not grasp the value of reading and writing. The term *home literacy environment* generally has referred to participation in literacy-related activities in the home, which can include the availability of print material and frequency of reading (Leseman & de Jong, 1998). They further suggested that there are three aspects of the home literacy environment that are important for the development of literacy: opportunities for practice, promotion of literacy activities by literate family members, and motivation. Parents play a crucial role in the literacy development of their children. According to Cochran-Smith (1986): Children are not born knowing how to connect their knowledge and experiences in literate ways to printed and pictorial texts. Rather they must learn the strategies for understanding texts just as they must learn the ways of eating and talking that are appropriate to their cultures or social groups. (p. 36) However, students often come to school without the basic skills necessary for later success. They lack the early literacy skills that have been shown to facilitate learning how to read (Allor & McCathren, 2003). Among the essential skills are - the development of both expressive and receptive oral language (Kamhi & Catts, 1999), and - the understanding that print symbolizes language and holds information (Adams, 1994). Many studies have indicated that children who are early readers come from families where literacy activities such as reading aloud, and having books are valued and practiced (Bus, van Ijzendoorn & Pellegrini, 1995; Lancy, Draper, & Boyce, 1989; Morrow, 1983; Teale, 1978). Additional activities that impact children's literacy development include being read to on a consistent basis, interacting with the reader through question and clarification dialogues where they negotiate meaning of the text together. Adams (1994), in her extensive review, identified reading aloud to children as one of the most important activities for building the skills necessary for early reading. She estimated that children who are read to for approximately 30 minutes each night will have acquired at least 1,000 hours of print exposure when they begin kindergarten. This extensive print exposure is seen as an important prerequisite for children to begin to understand the phonemic structure of language and to readily identify letters. Because many parents lack the skills to provide literacy experiences for their children at home, some schools have initiated programs that help parents to learn such strategies and skills. Storybook reading has been touted as a process for parents and children to read together. Smetana (2005) reported on a Collaborative Storybook Reading Program carried out in a kindergarten class in a culturally diverse, small urban school. Parents and other family members were given interactive training sessions. Fifteen at-risk students were the target group. At the end all of the parents indicated that they used all of the interactive strategies as they read with their child, and all indicated that they were comfortable assisting their children with learning how to read and do school work. The interactive storybook reading program resulted in significant improvement in student ability to retell a story. Their interest and attention to stories being read aloud in class increased. The students began to mimic what readers do – predicted story events, understood and discussed story structure, began to repeat text and vocabulary, and began to understand that reading is the process of communicating with the author. The students approached the skill level of those who had early literary experiences. Griffin and Morrison (1997) developed the nine-item *Family Literacy Environment Scale* for a longitudinal study of kindergarten children. Their results revealed that home literacy environment was significantly related to receptive vocabulary, general knowledge, and reading recognition, but not to mathematics scores, in kindergarten children after controlling for demographic variables. There continued to be a significant relationship between home literacy environment, general knowledge, and reading ability for this sample at the end of second grade. **The Role of Teaching Strategies in Literacy Development** Schooling is about teachers helping students mediate the knowledge they bring to school with what they find in school in order to negotiate meaning in the situated contexts of instruction. It is important for teachers to facilitate students’ acquisition of subject discourses through the process of perfecting the practice of constructive meaning making, that we call learning. The different content areas are, actually, different discourses the students engage in. This means that teachers must ascertain the help that students need by engaging them in strategies that develop literacy, specifically reading comprehension, in a variety of discourses. Over the last twenty-five years, comprehension strategy research has primarily centered on single strategy approaches and multiple strategy approaches. Students were typically taught a specific comprehension strategy as compared with a control group of students who had not been taught the strategy. Several strategies proved useful for improving children’s reading comprehension before, during, and after reading including: prior knowledge activation, question generation during reading, making mental images during reading, summarization, and analyzing story structure (Pearson & Dole, 1987; Pearson & Fielding, 1991). Other studies centered on explicit explanation of single comprehension strategies to build a repertoire over time (Duffy, 2003; Duffy et al., 1987; Roehler & Duffy, 1989). The explicit explanation approach emphasized the importance of teacher explanation of why we read, how the reading system works including understandings about print, texts, concepts, vocabulary, and strategies and the use of mental process modeling through the use of “think aloud” processes to show students how to think through the application of comprehension strategies before, during and after the text. After the teaching explanation and modeling, the teacher provided mental scaffolds to assist learners in applying the strategy taught in a group and individual settings. Over time, teacher cuing, prompts, and support were gradually withdrawn to encourage students to use the strategy on their own. Evaluations of the explicit explanation of strategy instruction (EESI) by Duffy et al. (1987) found that EESI students outperformed control students on standardized measures of reading. Several adaptations of explicit explanation of individual comprehension strategies instruction eventually led to Keene and Zimmerman’s (1997) description of their classroom work in *Mosaic of Thought*. They proposed the explicit explanation and teaching of six comprehension strategies: (1) Connecting the Know to the New, (2) Determining Importance, (3) Questioning, (4) Using Sensory Images, (5) Inferring, and (6) Synthesis. Each strategy is taught one at a time for several weeks until all six are taught. These six strategies are then embedded in a Reader’s Workshop, where the teacher reads aloud, provides shared and guided reading experiences, and offers independent reading opportunities. Because these practices were grounded in classroom practice, Pressley (2000) suggested that there is a need for research on the Keene and Zimmerman approach on student achievement in reading. On the other hand, multiple strategies approaches were also being explored during this same time. Palincsar and Brown (1984) proposed the teaching of four comprehension strategies in an instructional cycle called Reciprocal Teaching. The strategies were summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. Oczkus (2003) described the application of these strategies in a classroom setting. Students first read to a predetermined point in a text and then somewhat mechanistically use all four strategies in processing the text. Later they use the strategies when the text calls for or supports use of one or more of the four strategies (Palincsar, 2003). Wherever Reciprocal Teaching has been evaluated the effects on reading comprehension improvement have been moderate to large regardless of group size, number of teaching sessions, or age of the students (Rosenshine & Meister, 1994; Palincsar, 2003). Another multiple strategy approach is Transactional Strategies Instruction (TSI), which involves explicit teacher explanation coupled with teacher modeling, followed by guided practice during lively discussions of texts where teachers and students construct meaning together. According to Pearson & Duke (2002) the TSI model includes thinking aloud, constructing images, summarizing, predicting, questioning, clarifying or monitoring, story grammar analysis, and text structure analysis. Research on TSI is limited to four published studies (Anderson, 1992; Anderson & Roit, 1993; Brown, Pressley, Van Meter, and Schuder, 1996; Collins, 1991). In each of these studies, TSI was show to be overwhelming effective in improving students’ comprehension test scores and their ability to narrate texts effectively. The use of multiple strategy approaches gained importance with the Report of the National Reading Panel (2000) when it recommended the teaching of comprehension strategies as essential to effective reading instruction, and specifically endorsed the teaching of sets or families of strategies as found in Reciprocal Teaching, Transactional Strategies Instruction, Collaborative Reasoning, Questioning the Author, and Concept Oriented Reading Instruction. For example, Questioning the Author is a widely research strategy in all subject areas. Salinger and Fleischman (2005) described using Questioning the Author strategy for studying literature with good success. At the same time, comprehension instruction using expository texts and non-linear texts (Pearson & Duke, 2002) have become more important as new models for the role of cognitive processing evolves. Walter Kintsch’s (1998) Construction-Integration Theory argued that long-term working memory (LTWM) and cognitive retrieval structures (CRS) point to an even broader and deeper definition of reading comprehension. Many children develop listening comprehension abilities long before they enter school from being read to, interacting with parents, and engaging in ordinary life activities. These familiar experiences support the capacity for understanding simple stories. However, learning to read information texts about unfamiliar topics places new and increased demands on students because the information is new, most of it cannot be learned through direct experiences, and it is organized in expository discourse structures that may also be new. Students, who acquire a rich knowledge base in a content area, also acquire long-term memory capacities that help them build richer text connections that help them retrieve and use the knowledge to learn. However, long-term working memory capacities and the associated cognitive retrieval structures are acquired only through sustained learning of subject matter across time and through deliberate effort on the part of students and high quality instruction on the part of teachers. **Summary** Constructing knowledge from text and understanding how that knowledge is related to other knowledge and experience in life is a necessary condition for developing high levels of literacy. The cognitive aspect aside, literacy is a profound social process. As one writes, one’s thoughts unfold, take shape and are clarified. As one reads and listens, other people’s ideas touch, nourish, and transform the reader’s thinking. Literacy is a globally valued precondition for one’s full participation in society, and is therefore a demand that nations place on learners who are individual citizens. Therefore, not only must learners remember and understand a variety of texts, but they also must continue to learn skills, processes and acquire knowledge in order to efficiently organize and access that knowledge for application in this world to facilitate further learning. CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Wildman, Niles, Magliaro, and McLaughlin (1989) observed that teaching is an extremely complex process and one in which the teacher should be engaged continuously through the process of teaching, reflecting and learning. Bearing that in mind, this study intended to investigate participants’ development to becoming literate individuals and literacy torch-bearers. What is noteworthy is that even in Malawi, a country that has quite an insufficient trained teaching cadre and teaching resources, which are essential ingredients in the promotion and attainment of literacy, some Malawians have excelled academically and professionally. Therefore, this investigation sought to find out how those who become literate do so in such an environment. The study was a search for factors that support and enable learners to become literate by following how participants in this study became literate persons. It sought to investigate the umbrella question: What are the conditions that promote literacy development in a print-limited environment? The following three specific questions were derived from the overall question: 1. What were the influences that led to literacy development for these teacher educators in a country that is print-limited? 2. What kinds of experiences did these teacher educators have as children that led to literacy development in a country that is print-limited? 3. What were the personal relationships that evolved during the literacy development of these teacher educators? This chapter starts by placing the study in a qualitative educational research paradigm, followed by an argument for an autobiographical approach specifically. Methodological issues of selection of the participants, data collection procedures, data analysis, and limitations of the study are discussed. Qualitative Research Paradigm This investigation is qualitative in nature. My desire to do careful investigation and to share what I learn both in a methodical and in an individual, personal way led me to choose a qualitative research approach. The study aimed at gathering amounts of narrative and descriptive data that documented what the participants have gone through on their way to becoming highly literate adults. I was interested in understanding how they became literate and what being literate means to the participants. The qualitative approach was chosen because it entails a commitment to the naturalistic interpretive approach to its subject matter. Noteworthy also is the thought expressed by Denzin and Lincoln (1998) that the word *qualitative* implies emphasis on process and meanings that are not rigorously examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount, intensity or frequency. As such, in the study, although I was going to self-consciously draw upon my own experiences, this investigation’s intention was to make connections among participants’ lived experiences. Although the study asked participants to narrate their life stories, the life story is distinguished from a written autobiography in that it is determined by an oral situation of communication specified by an interview recorded on tape, and by the embedding of the speech act in an institutional framework, that is social sciences (Chanfrault-Duchet, 2000). The questions I asked, the information I attended to, the interactions I had with my participants, and the writing I did all had a direct bearing on the participants’ literacy stories. Newman and Beverstock (1990) asserted that what we value determines the direction of our lives. In a significant way, as Fingeret (1987) argued, this particular investigation was done to illuminate how teachers in Malawi view themselves as learners and, retrospectively, to understand student perspectives of instructional programs, their description of the relationship between students’ cultural and classroom behaviour, as well as the functions of literacy in settings other than schools. I consider this as very important because I view literacy as both a personal and a social process of coming to know that, unavoidably, happens to be political, cultural and context dependent. Actually, Green, et al. (2001) contended that what counts as literacy in any group is viewed in the actions members take, what they orient to, what they hold each other accountable for, what they accept or reject as preferred responses of others, and how they engage with text. That is why the study looked at how teacher educators within the unique context of Malawi acquired literacy and came to understand literacy as well as their own literacy development. On the other hand, in this process of striving to get answers to the how question, I chose and employed the qualitative approach in order to emphasize my role as an active learner who seeks to tell the story from the participants’ view as opposed to being an expert who passes judgment on the participants. As Creswell (1998) expressed it, through this investigation I intended to construct a holistic picture, analyze words, report detailed views of informants and conduct the study in a setting that is natural. I used the interpretive research strand of inquiry, which according to Merriam (1998), considers education to be a process and school a lived experience. In this regard, understanding the meaning of the process or experience produces the knowledge to be gained from an inductive, hypothesis or theory generating method of inquiry. Sherman and Webb’s (1988) argument that qualitative research implies a direct concern with experience as it is lived or felt, resonates with my quest. In my view, I consider reality to be the construction by individuals as they interact with their social worlds. I concur with Merriam (1998) that meaning is embedded in people’s experiences. Therefore, I anticipated that participants’ meaning would be negotiated through my own perceptions as the investigator. Such was the case because, as argued by Patton (1985), qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as part of a particular context and the interaction there. In this case, what was pivotal was to understand the nature of the setting, what it meant for the participants to be in that setting, what their lives were like, and what their world looked like in that particular setting. What was equally crucial was to strive for depth of understanding in the analysis of the outcome, which in turn was to be ably and faithfully communicated to those interested in the particular setting, that is, Malawi teacher educators and teacher educational professionals across the world. For this study I embraced the five characteristics of qualitative research as advocated by Merriam (1998). First, there was the need to understand the meaning these teacher educators had constructed, that is, how they made sense of their experiences in becoming literate. Second, as the researcher in this qualitative study, I was the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Since data were to be mediated through me, I needed to be responsive to the context, adapt techniques to the circumstances, be sensitive to nonverbal aspects, and clarify and summarize aspects as the study evolved. Third, qualitative research is grounded in fieldwork; therefore, I went to the participants in their natural setting and collected data. Fourth, because qualitative research primarily employs an inductive research strategy, I moved from observations and intuitive understandings gained in the field to arrive at some themes and categories in response to the question driving this particular study. Fifth, the literacy stories and analysis of those stories generated in this study are richly descriptive. **Employing the Autobiographical Method** Green, et al. (2001) viewed literacy as “a socially constructed phenomenon that is situationally defined and redefined within and across differing groups, including reading groups, classrooms, schools, communities, and professional groups” (pp. 124-125). Thinking along the same lines Baker and Luke (1991) argued that literacy is not a generic process located solely within the heads of the individuals or process that is the same for all people in all situations. Such being the case, this study aimed at understanding the participants’ views of literacy and how they became literate. This investigation chose the autobiographical approach in order to let participants talk about themselves, that is, their own knowledge about themselves through their own perceptual and experiential lens. Graham (1998) viewed autobiography, among other things, as a method that works in reclaiming hidden or forgotten aspects of an individual’s past. In the same vein, Gusdorf (1980) saw autobiography to be one means to self-knowledge as it recomposes and interprets life in its totality. Autobiography adds consciousness to the raw contingencies of experience. As such, it is no wonder that Weinstraub (1975) argued that autobiography must be regarded as an interweaving of self-consciousness and experience. More directly, Howarth (1980) considered autobiography to be a self-portrait. Britton (1981) pointed out that by telling our life stories we actually shape our lives into a kind of narrative in order to possess our experiences fully. Similarly, Abbs (1976) asserted that the attempt to re-create the past reveals the intimate relationship between being and knowing, existence and education, as well as between self and culture. Therefore, it may be said that when we view life as a process, autobiography may have a special function in helping us understand life dynamics. Such a view was what governed this study since the task was to come to an understanding of how the participants developed their literacies. In order to achieve that, I attempted to access the participants’ past and present through their stories about themselves. **Sample Selection** This researcher purposefully sought six Malawian teacher educators to inform this investigation. These participants were master’s degree holding teacher educators working in different teacher education institutions of Malawi. This criterion was used to ensure that the participants should be undoubtedly literate by any standard nationally and internationally. As the medium of communication during the investigation was going to be English, it was thought that because of their developed English language fluency and proficiency, they would be able to orally communicate their thoughts succinctly. In addition, participants chosen to take part in the study were those who had been practicing teacher educators for over three years. The assumption was that, using their professional experience, the participants would be able to conceptualize and contextualize what they had gone through while growing up. Seidman (1998) argued that despite the pressures, strains, and contradictions that affect those who work in collegiate institutions, in the same way as those who work in other fields, college faculty are paid for the pleasurable activities of reading, writing, teaching, and doing research. As such, the participants were also chosen because they were likely to find talking about themselves pleasurable. Furthermore, the demographic patterns of Malawi are such that the Central Region has almost twice the population of the Northern Region while the Southern Region has almost twice the population size of the Central Region. With that in mind, the researcher selected one participant from the Northern Region, two from the Central Region, and three participants from the Southern Region. In addition, of the six participants two were female. One of the female participants came from the Central Region and the other from the Southern Region. All this was done in an attempt to strike a balance regarding the participants’ region of birth and gender representation. **Data Collection** Creswell (1998) asserted that qualitative inquiry and research design falls into the traditions of biography, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and case study. Merriam (1998) and Mason (1996) regarded interviews, observations, and document analysis essential ways of data collection in qualitative research. Consequently, these may be viewed as ways qualitative investigators use in data collection to inquire, experience, and to examine. It may be argued that in qualitative research, these are the basic ways of knowing. In this study, my view was that the participants were multiple individuals who had gone through the same phenomenon, that is, the experience of becoming literate in the Western sense of the term. By extension, that means these purposefully chosen participants should be identically located as a homogenous sample because, ethnographically speaking, they share the same national socio-political culture and also what can be viewed as the culture of the Malawi education system. This is worth mentioning because, as argued by Patton (1985), without context there is little possibility of exploring the meaning of an experience. What is also equally important is that the study should be viewed as a case study because it is a bounded system involving multiple individuals while investigating the process of the development of literacy, which is a single phenomenon. As the study was to involve human subjects, appropriate forms were completed and endorsement provided by the Institutional Review Board of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (see Appendix A). After agreeing to participate, each teacher educator signed a consent form (see Appendix B) and thereafter data collection started. Data for this study were collected through interviews and researcher-generated documents, that is, autobiographical literacy stories. **Interviews** I began pursuing my investigation through semi-structured tape-recorded interviews with each of the participants. The semi-structured interview was preferred to the tightly structured interview because the latter does not give participants the chance to become narrators of their life stories (Summerfield, 2000). At the same time, I did not use unstructured interviews because I was operating under the constraints of time and had specific research questions in mind. Of course, all three approaches, that is, structured, semi-structured, and unstructured have some merits for oral history (Summerfield, 2000). I designed my interview guide (Appendix C) with, mostly, open-ended questions but during the interviews I felt free to direct specific questions to the narrator. Such an approached allowed for fresh insights and new information to emerge (Merriam, 1998). Both Ives (1995) and Seidman (1998) advised that the interview process begins with focused information and progresses to the more unstructured, reflective questions. During the interview process, participant and researcher engaged in co-construction of the life story of each particular participant (Chamberlain, 2000). The semi-structured interviewing questionnaire was essentially a helpful guide, but I encouraged the participants to tell their own stories. Of course, I asked specific informational questions, and sometimes asked for clarification of something a narrator had said. In addition, I also had some reflective questions. Although at times my participants looked at me in a way that told me they were waiting for me to ask them something, most of the times they talked for long periods without my asking any questions. Such was the case because, to a large part, the narrators were telling their stories in their own words and in so doing were answering many of my questions without my asking them directly. Although my goal was to hear each participant’s story, I remained mindful that the questions I asked were an important part of the process through which their narrative was to be collected and would shape its final configuration (Silverman, 2000). Actively listening and paying attention to the narrator meant, in part, asking them to define expressions in their own terms, digging into their feelings about the actions and events they narrated and asking for their evaluations of circumstances, choices, and actions (Anderson & Jack, 1991). The interviews for my research were scheduled for sixty to ninety minutes, at a place and time convenient for the participants (Wolcott, 1995; Seidman, 1998). While three of the participants chose that we hold the interviews in their offices, the other three chose that the interviews take place in the comfort of their homes. One participant in the latter group even decided that we hold the second interview in a seemingly quieter section of a shopping complex. In order to capture the data fully, I tape-recorded all the interview sessions on standard dictating cassettes using a clear voice double recording time voice operated recording tape recorder. To minimize the possibility of technical problems, prior to each interview session I tested the tape recorder and used a fresh set of batteries for each interview. I started transcription of the tapes soon after the first interview had been completed. This enabled data analysis to be ongoing and for information gained early in the process to be used in later interviews and for fashioning new questions (Silverman, 2000; Merriam, 1998; Strauss, 1996; Mercier & Murphy, 1991). In addition, transcribing each interview as it was completed gave me the opportunity to evaluate myself as interview researcher (Wolcott, 1995) and to attempt to become a more effective and perceptive interviewer. As a researcher, another important methodological consideration for me was that I involve my participants with all aspects of the inquiry process (Behar & Gordon, 1995). In total I conducted twelve interviews. Each one of the participants was interviewed twice. After the initial interaction, which was the main interview, I provided the participant a transcription of the interview. At the second, follow-up interview the participants had the opportunity to point out errors, to make suggestions, and to elaborate or explain. I also probed further to seek clarification and to follow up on issues or questions that had emerged as a result of the analysis of the data collected during the first interview. Then the data generated from both interviews were presented in personal stories that illustrated the participants’ individual literacy development paths (as presented in Chapter Four). The stories were then taken back to the respective participants so that they could confirm that they were a true reflection of themselves in line with what they had discussed with me during the two interviews. These member checks of the transcripts and autobiographies ensured the study’s validity (Merriam, 1998). Such checks were the primary way a researcher can be sure that the each story that was written is the story the particular participant wants to tell (Borland, 1991). Validity and Reliability Issues of validity and reliability must be addressed by researchers in all their work. In addition to the steps insuring internal validity already referred to, I took further actions to insure the integrity of my research. Merriam (1998) noting that there is some disagreement about whether the term reliability is applicable to qualitative research, said that “the question then is not whether the findings will be found again but *whether the results are consistent with the data collected*” (p. 206, original emphasis). I agree with this assessment because for me what was vital was the consistence of the investigation results with the data I collected. If I was the instrument of data collection (Merriam, 1998), if my participants were collaborators, and if we were co-constructing this study, then the people we were at the time of the study, the context in which we situated ourselves, and the relationships we developed can never be scientifically replicated. Nevertheless, this belief did not free me from maintaining scientific rigor in the study. I insured the reliability of my research through the triangulation of data, through my explicitness concerning my own position as researcher, and by maintaining careful records of my data and of my process (Merriam, 1998). The question of external validity for quantitative research concerns whether or not the study is generalizable (Merriam, 1998). However, “in qualitative research, a single case or small nonrandom sample is selected precisely *because* the researcher wishes to understand the particular in depth, not to find out what is generally true of the many” (Merriam, 1998, p. 208, original emphasis). Therefore, if we pay attention to the particulars, we may also find broader significance. Geertz’s maxim, which says that there is no ascent to truth without a descent to cases, is a useful guide in qualitative research (Wolcott, 1990). Looking through a similar lens, Lawrence-Lightfoot and Davis (1997) spoke of a “persistent irony” at the centre of qualitative portraiture as a method of social science research: “As one moves closer to the unique characteristics of a person or a place, one discovers the universal” (p. 14). Wolcott (1990) suggested that validity as understood by the quantitative researcher—measuring “whatever it is that is supposed to be measured”—is not applicable to qualitative research (p. 122). Miles and Huberman (1990) asserted, however, that another understanding of validity is an essential concept in qualitative research: We have a right to ask whether things happened as they are painted (do statements fit observations?), whether conclusions were tested and strengthened rather than simply being asserted, whether another analyst would draw a reasonably similar picture given the same set of field notes, and whether the text is totally idiosyncratic or builds on prior knowledge about the same phenomena…. We need methodological accounts; we need the possibility of an ‘audit trail’…. We want a work[wo]manlike sense that the researcher was *there* and came back with something we can trust. (pp. 347-349, original emphasis) Because my study was qualitative and did not set out to measure a specific concept, to prove a hypothesis, or to support preconceived ideas, my concern with reliability and validity centered on carefully recording data, diligence in obtaining sufficient data, documenting my own research journey, and providing an analysis that was rigorous and supported by my data. **Confidentiality** The issues of confidentiality of the participants were strongly taken into account. However, because Malawi is a country with few well-educated persons, I could not guarantee that a careful reading of the stories from friends within the country would not lead to a deduction of a participant’s identity. To further confidentiality, I have used pseudonyms for the autobiographical stories. **Data Analysis** The study used the content analysis method as I searched for the meaning conveyed in the stories told and the themes that emerged from them. Merriam (1998) argued that all qualitative data analysis is content analysis since it is the content of interviews, field notes, and documents that is analyzed. Similarly, Manning and Cullam-Swan (1994) argued that content analysis is a qualitatively oriented technique by which standardized measurements are applied to metrically defined units that are used to characterize and compare documents. The view is that context analysis centres on communication, especially the frequency and variety of messages. Therefore, content analysis was applicable in qualitative investigations like this one. As Merriam (1998) stated, in the adoption of content analysis for use in qualitative studies, the communication of meaning is the focus. And the search for meaning, that is, the teasing out of meaning from the collected data was what this particular investigation was all about. Data analysis in this study took heed of the advice offered by Merriam (1998) that the right way to analyze data in a qualitative study is to do it simultaneously with data collection. I subscribed to the view that without ongoing analysis, the data can be unfocused, repetitious, and, certainly, overwhelming when one considers the gigantic volume of the data waiting to be processed. Besides, data that is analyzed while it is collected turns out to be both parsimonious and illuminating. As such, this continual analysis helped in offering me leads to areas requiring focus during my next meetings with my informants. The recording, transcribing, and archiving of the oral literacy histories generated by this study were important. However, these steps alone could not answer my research questions. These were achieved only through careful analysis of the data provided by the tapes, transcriptions, and the participants’ individual literacy stories based on their transcripts of the interviews. One of the first steps in data analysis was the coding of transcripts on two levels (Merriam, 1998). The first level of coding was simply a method by which I would be able to identify my data. The participant’s name, the date of the interview, the page number of the transcript, and other pertinent information were rigorously identified as the data were being collected so as to enable me to readily locate the information I needed later (Merriam, 1998). Moreover, in addition to this identification coding, from the first interview, I began to develop interpretive constructs related to analysis (Merriam, 1998). This level of coding began with reviewing the transcripts and marking passages that were interesting, that provoked further questions, or that repeated or contradicted earlier passages (Seidman, 1998). Tentative analytical categories and labels were assigned to the passages, which later evolved and became more complex as analysis continued (Seidman, 1998; Merriam 1998; Strauss, 1996). This tentative analysis was done on all the transcripts and aided the coherent development of the literacy stories. As the stories were rigorously analyzed, emerging themes were identified across the six stories. When the relationships became increasingly common, I went ahead coding the texts narratively (Clandinin and Connelly, 2000). While the findings of this investigation are contained in the literacy stories that are presented in Chapter Four, the analysis of the findings in terms of themes that emerged out of the findings is presented in Chapter Five of this study. **Limitations of the Study** There were at least three limitations to a study of this nature. First, the number of participants was limited to six teacher educators with master’s degrees. This number permitted three types of extensive contacts with each participant. However, a larger number of participants may have yielded different results, especially if they had been purposefully selected to represent a range of economic backgrounds. Likewise, if the participants had included educated Malawians other than teacher educators, their stories may have been different. A second limitation was that from the outset the participants knew I wanted to study how they became highly literate in a country that has low literacy rates. As a researcher, I relied on their responses to my questions. Their responses were their best endeavours to re-create for themselves, and for me, what they could remember from their past. In other words, their stories were filtered through time, perception, and memory. A third limitation was that the participants might have also wanted to give me responses that they thought would fit my research needs. As teacher educators who had either completed a literacy course or were conversant with literacy practices, these participants knew the impact of various practices on literacy and could have articulated their own experiences through that knowledge. The findings of this research emerged from the interviews I had with six Malawian teacher educators. The purpose of the interviews was to hear their stories of their development of literacy in a print-limited environment. The interviews were then transcribed. I held a follow-up interview with participants to verify, clarify, and add information. From these expanded transcriptions, I then developed “literacy stories” for each participant. Each story was taken to the appropriate investigation participant for verification that it was a true reflection of what had been said during the interviews. These are real stories of the participants’ literacy experiences although the names are pseudonyms. **Benson’s Story** When I arrived at Benson’s office just before ten o’clock on this bright sunny and hot summer morning, I learnt he was not around. His secretary informed me that he had gone to the bank. She advised me to wait for him and assured me that he would be back soon. He did not take long indeed because before my eyes had finished taking in what was in the secretary’s office, the door opened and in came the dark six foot two broad shouldered and heavily built Benson. “Oh you are already in. That’s fantastic. Please come this way,” Benson spoke as he led the way into his office. We went in, sat in his burgundy cozy visitors’ sofa seats, shook hands, and exchanged greetings before going into the scheduled interview. “As indicated when I was asking for this opportunity to have this conversation with you,” I began, “the purpose of this banter is for you to reflect for sometime on your past, particularly on your literacy development. But to begin with, what is your nationality?” “I am a Malawian, born in Chikwawa in 1962 of bona fide and very indigenous Malawian parents,” Benson came in. “Did you have any siblings?” “Well, yes. I grew up in a family of eight. We were five boys and three girls. I happen to have come third in line after the two girls. Unfortunately, both the girls passed away so that as things now stand, I have to say that I am the oldest in the family,” Benson explained. “And turning to your parents, what was your father, professionally?” I inquired. “My father was a qualified Clinical Officer. He was very professionally sound and rose within the ranks in Government because he was a very intelligent person who never made it to Medical School because he came from a disadvantaged background. But whatever training he got, he made very good use of it.” “How about your mother?” “My mother didn’t go very far with education basically because of financial limitations. She was brought up in a home where the father was actually a cook for the then Principal of Blantyre Secondary School. Actually, she grew up interacting with daughters and sons of this Principal. But in terms of potential, she is quite an intelligent woman.” “How far have you yourself gone up academically?” I asked. “I hold a Master’s degree in Higher Education Management and Planning,” Benson replied. “Now looking at your home, as you were growing up, were you financially hard up, comfortable, or very well off?” I inquired. “Well, I wouldn’t say very well off. You may recall that there were eight of us, that is, children in the family and my father was a member of what we would call the Malawian middle class. Therefore, because of the size of the family, we cannot say that there was too much cash to spare. Nonetheless, we were reasonably comfortable,” he recalled. “Going back to your earliest days as a child learning to read and write, can you recall the time you think you began to know how to piece letters together to form words and read?” I asked. “I must say that my father was highly committed to seeing to it that we all got a good education,” Benson began, “because he himself had seen the benefits of good education. And because my mother too was converted to the view that if we were to be comfortable in life, we needed education, she too saw to it that whatever little education she had herself, was actually shared with us. “So, from the age of four I was already being helped to read by my parents, both my father and mother to such an extent that by five years of age I was able to read quite a number of things. And I am told that, generally, I was also very curious by way of laying my hands on anything that I could read. And because my sisters who were ahead of me used to bring a lot of reading materials from school, I tended not to be satisfied with my own reading but wanted to venture into reading what my sisters brought home.” “From what you have said, I get the impression that there was quite some reading culture prevailing in the home,” I intoned. “That’s right. There was a lot to be read within the house. And because of the fact that we were always at a District centre, it was somewhat easy to access Boma Lathu, a national Government newspaper. We used to go to the Information Department to collect Boma Lathu for free. Apart from that, the schools I attended were relatively well endowed with resources. What I mean here is that the school texts were available in sufficient quantities that I was able to have access to them,” Benson explained. “Did the primary schools you went to have libraries?” I asked. “No. There were no libraries as such. But the available school texts were useful from standard one up to five. Later on when I got to standard seven and eight, the school I attended in Nsanje, Nsanje Primary School, had a good library. And I used to read quite a lot from the library. “Apart from that, we had a neighbour, a missionary woman, whom I deliberately befriended when I saw a big shelf of books in her house. I used to run errands for her and in return she used to lend me books. I would read a book a week, finish, go and collect a new one. Actually, I can say that between standard seven and eight, I read quite a bit.” “Getting you back to your early days, did your father read a lot at home?” I asked. “Yes, my father read quite a lot.” “What sort of things, if I may ask?” I probed. “Essentially, he read his medical books. But apart from that, generally, he wanted to inform himself. As such, he brought home *Time Magazine*, *Newsweek Magazine*, *The Daily Times* as well as *Malawi News*. And from time to time, he bought books of general interest.” “How about your mother, did she spend time reading as well?” I probed further. “At the time I was growing up, my mother was studying for the Junior Certificate of Education examinations by correspondence. So, she had lots of lecture notes from the Malawi Correspondence College, now known as the Malawi College of Distance Education, which she used to read. We, the children, used to read these lecture notes as well.” “How about your sisters, did they also read much?” I still inquired. “Yes they did. You know, when my sisters went to secondary school, I was still in primary school then, and was curious to find out what they were doing in secondary school. So, whenever they came home, they brought with them, certainly, more advanced books. I remember reading Camara Laye’s *The African Child* while I was in standard eight basically because of its availability in the home. The other literary works by respected African writers I got exposed to while in standard eight included *Cry the Beloved Country*, *The River Between* and *Things Fall Apart*. So, I got exposed to the kind of literature my sisters brought home.” “Did your brothers follow in your footsteps?” I inquired further. “Certainly, that was the kind of pattern. What actually happened was that I benefited from my sisters and when I made it to secondary school, I was like the role model for my brothers. As such, anything of interest I brought home that was readable tended to be shared with my brothers. Therefore, they read more at the stage where I didn’t read much because I didn’t have too much to read. “Consequently, as I went up the academic ladder, when I went to university, that is, books I never read myself were available to my brothers right at an early age for them. Particularly my last born brother, who is himself an established international economist in South Africa, read a lot. You can imagine, even while in standard eight, he was pestering me about ‘who is this Plato in *The Republic*?’ ‘What is Mimesis?’ And because I was doing an education degree, part of the process of testing whether I indeed had the capacity to teach, was that I also tried to digest and explain these sophisticated ideas in such a way that a standard eight boy could make sense of them and thereby whet his reading appetite even more. “In looking back, I must say that I am most delighted about that. I feel that I contributed quite significantly to his development. He was an extremely outstanding chap in secondary school. And when he went for his degree in the USA in Iowa, he excelled. At the University of Illinois he did a research Master’s degree in one year when it was supposed to be done in two years and graduated top of his class with distinction. Now, in his late thirties, he is already Director of Multiple Investments in a bank in South Africa.” “And the other brothers, of course, ended up as university graduates in their own right. One went to Bunda College of Agriculture and did a Bachelor’s degree in Agriculture. This one is now in Florida, USA. One other brother did a Bachelor of Social Science degree and is now heading the Administration Department of the Malawi Electoral Commission. The one who did not go to the university is a talented artist. He ended up in TV production and went to Namibia for his training.” “How did it feel the time you got lost in a book for the first time, that is, when you were able to read and everything else in the world around you kind of ceased to exist?” I asked. “I must say that right from an early age, I was fascinated by storytelling. And I think what took me into reading newspapers or anything that was written was basically an attempt on my part to accumulate as much language as I could because I realized that those who told good stories had a way of playing around with words. Yes, in a way that was very unusual compared to the normal speaker or writer. So, anytime I got hold of a book, my preoccupation was to discover the tricks the particular writer employed in order to engage me in the manner he or she appeared to do. And, perhaps my major weakness as a child growing up was that I tended to waste my time with books than with doing the usual things children do.” “Were you able to read before you had even gone into primary school?” I inquired. “That’s right. You know, I bothered my parents quite a lot. For instance, when my father was reading a newspaper I wanted to find out what he was doing. And he would then tell me what it was. As he did that, I then would be recording in my mind what it was. And, you know, it was quite common for me to write on the ground as we did not have much access to paper then.” “Did your ability to read on the one hand and the ability to write on the other come simultaneously or they come one after the other?” “They came more or less at the same time. As indicated earlier, my earliest episodes in writing were done on the ground, particularly during the rain season when the ground was soft. I used to write A, B, C and so on and then call my mother to come and check whether or not what I had written was actually correct. I did the same with my sisters. “In fact, when they told me that I was going to start standard one, I was very excited about it and intensified those acts in the hope that by the time I got to school I would be able to do the same even there,” Benson explained. “What do you remember as the very first thing that you wrote apart from writing in the sand?” I asked. “Well, what I remember very well was my first class in standard one. Upon entering the classroom we were given slates. I trust you remember slates. Well, I had a slate and its pencil. And then my teacher, who was quite an engaging fellow, I must say, wrote the English alphabet on the chalkboard and asked us to copy what he had written on the chalkboard onto our slates. Actually, he wrote only the five letters of the English alphabet, that is A B C D and E. After he had done that he started going round to check if we had copied correctly what he had written on the chalkboard. “But in my case, because I had been doing that at home, this exercise of copying A B C D and E was no big deal. Actually, I finished doing this very quickly and went a step further and added, I think, F G H and I. So when the teacher came round and saw that I had done more than what was on the chalkboard, he asked me, ‘Why have you done more than what you were told?’ I said, ‘I thought I should fill the time doing this because I finished A B C D and E.’ My teacher just broke into laughter and proceeded to see what the student next to me was doing. And when I went home, I narrated the incident to my mother. She also laughed and gave me lots of encouragement to continue doing that.” “Did your parents take time to read or tell you stories?” I asked. “My mother was a very good storyteller. Usually, she told us folktales in the evenings. In her storytelling, she had the ability to hold her audience spellbound. And from an early age I quickly picked up that element. As a result, whenever a storytelling session began in my class, I was the preferred candidate to kick it off. I should think that this was because I had lots of self-confidence derived from what I had learnt from my mother. “Over the years I found that whenever I told a story, it was always different. My stories were responded to in a manner different from what my friends got as feedback. So, I started feeling and convincing myself that one day I shall tell stories of my own in written form rather than orally. And as you know, that’s what has happened. I have never looked back since I started, that is, since I published my first story in the 1980s.” “How far back in your life do you remember writing your first story?” I asked. “Writing my own stories never started until when I got into secondary school. For the greatest part of primary school, it was basically participating in oral storytelling. You know, during the end of school term, or semester as others call it, our parents were invited and they came to school. And as part of the occasion’s entertainment, before teachers started announcing the results of the just ended term’s examinations, that is, calling out names of those who had passed, we were asked to stand in front of our parents and recite poems from our textbooks. “But when I got into secondary school, what was noticeable was that my compositions were always quite different from the rest of the class because of the kind of expressions I was able to bring into them. Usually, I had more advanced expression than the stage I was at. And I suppose this was basically due to the advanced reading I used to do. In fact, I remember my Form Two teacher telling me to slow down a bit because he felt I was getting too involved in fairly sophisticated writing before knowing the basics.” “Did you slow down, as advised?” “I slowed down in terms of what I could write. But in terms of what I could read, I did not. I continued reading anything I laid my hands on. It was hard for me to slow down my reading pace basically because the secondary school I went to had a beautiful well-stocked library. And my problem was that I felt I didn’t have enough time to (laughter) read everything I thought was of great interest.” “You are highly esteemed for expressive, eloquent and fluent writing in English as well as Chichewa. I am not sure in what other languages you have competence in. Did this fluency in Chichewa and English come about because of the avid reading you were reading both Chichewa and English books or not?” I asked. “Well, you see, the time I was going to junior primary school was the very time Malawi had large numbers of American Peace Corps teaching in secondary schools. And so it happened that my primary school was closer to a secondary school where some of these people taught. Part of our fun as children was to test our rudimentary English, learnt in junior primary school, on the American Peace Corps as they cycled to the secondary school. And they would respond to us. Now, the more they responded to us the more we got encouraged to engage them. With time, we moved from greeting them by the roadside and followed them into their homes. (laughter) I must say that these were people of generous heart because they were able to notice and become helpful when they realized that my friends and I were eagerly determined and fascinated to master the English language at such an early stage. “So, whenever we got into their houses, they engaged us; they talked to us more in English. And I noticed that by the time we were getting to standard four and five, the level of English we had acquired was relatively higher than what an average Malawian child without exposure would ordinarily have. Therefore, I believe that that kind of kick start laid the foundation on which I built when I got into the upper classes in primary and secondary school. “Apart from that, my own father realized at an early stage that being fluent in English would give one an advantage in life as one grew. Consequently, much as in the home we spoke Chichewa, from time to time he corrected us when we made mistakes in English. Besides, he regularly spoke to us in English. And in the process, I found out that I was able to communicate in both languages.” “How about the Chichewa side of things?” I inquired. “I think that can be explained by the fact that my Civil Servant father during his working life, which is the time that I was growing up of course, was transferred to different Chichewa and Chimyanja speaking areas. For instance, as I was growing up I lived in Ntchewu, Lilongwe, Kasungu, Nkhotakota, and Dowa. All these are Chichewa speaking areas. Therefore, in each one of these areas I was able to pick up new concepts and words that enriched my Chichewa vocabulary. “And that coupled with the fact that I was a staunch fan of our famous J. W. Gwengwe made it easy for my Chichewa to be polished. Actually, I read anything written by J. W. Gwengwe. I am certain you remember that in those days J. W. Gwengwe was the Master storyteller. For this reason, I read him inside out and, I am sure, that helped me quite a lot.” “Earlier on you said that you started doing much of writing in secondary school. What did you write?” I inquired. “Much as, of course, in secondary school, I wrote poetry, I mostly wrote short stories.” “Why was that?” I inquired further. “It was largely because at that time we were never taught poetry be it in Chichewa or English. The literature we had was mostly prose. That’s why my interest in poetry really flourished when I started university where there was a shift as I concentrated in poetry for some time before I later balanced up the two,” Benson explained. “Was your writing in secondary school in both English and Chichewa or you wrote much in one or the other language?” “I wrote much in English. You know, among the teachers who taught me there was one Andrew Kulemeka, who was a very good short story writer. At the time, he had been publishing in Star Magazine which was edited by one Innocent Banda and produced by Blantyre Print. Each copy was a collection of short stories written in English by Malawian graduates. The stories were fantastic. I, therefore, found it fascinating to see my own teacher contributing to that magazine. And I wanted to be like him.” “What were the kinds of stories you wrote in secondary school?” “Well, in secondary school, the kind of stories I wrote were, largely, instructive. They talked about students who were anti-establishment and how such students ended badly by losing an opportunity to continue with their education and so on. I think I was largely limited by the stimuli within the school context I was in. During my time, the secondary school I went to had a school magazine. And my contribution to the school magazine was usually short stories.” “When you entered university, what was your writing like?” “I think during the first two or three years of university a larger part of my writing was poetry. The quarter bit of what I wrote was short stories I think. But by the time I got to the fourth and fifth year, I had struck equilibrium as it was now half-half. Yes. When a subject was better expressed in poetry, I tackled it poetically. However, if I thought the subject would be better managed in prose, I did it in a short story form. “I suppose it is also worth mentioning that when I got to the university, I discovered that there was a kind of renaissance, people going back to Chichewa poetry, Chichewa short story writing. I must say that I became part of that renaissance.” “Do you have an anthology of the things you have written?” I asked. “I do not have an anthology for those pieces I wrote in primary and secondary school but certainly for those in university. Actually, I have produced two anthologies. The first one was published in 1990 and the second one in 2001. They are both Chichewa pieces anthologies. “Apart from that, I have had short stories published in various newspapers and journals in Malawi and other countries. For instance, I have poetry and short stories in English in a journal published by the University of California. In addition, I have also published poetry in English in a South African magazine called Tribute. “What is the literacy culture like now that you are in your own home away from your parents?” I inquired. “Actually, I read daily. Initially, I was what you would call a jack of all trades. Come biology, it would be my breakfast; history would be my lunch, and something else would be my supper or dessert. Of course, I continue to read this and that because I am aware that in this knowledge economy there is no way one can do away with Science, for instance. So, I read technical articles on medicine, HIV/AIDS, and what-have-you. However, in terms of emphasis, I am reading more biographies than creative literature and theoretical books of writing.” “Why biographies?” “The shift has come about basically due to my quest to find out what makes people successful. As you may appreciate, you know, biographies are usually about people that have succeeded in life in one way or the other. So, in my attempt to get the formula for success, I have chosen to read biographies to see if there are any commonalities among those who have succeeded. And I am glad to say that I am beginning to find some commonalities among those people that have been successful.” “Have you passed on the mantle to those you are bringing up in your home?” “It is fascinating that my son never stops following me into the reading room. He has not gone to primary school yet but he is able to write his name. So, the story is now a replica of what I myself went through when I was growing up. I have taken charge of teaching him how to read and write. Of course, he goes to pre-school where they are also taught. But I reinforce what they are taught in pre-school. “I also read to my son stories from storybooks. I am the one who usually reads to the son because I am the storyteller and my wife is a scientist.” “What has been the impact of the emergence and proliferation of television watching on you and your home?” I asked. “Actually, I still read daily. You know, when I acquired a TV, I was consciously worried that I could lose my affinity for reading because of the TV. So, as a matter of conscious effort, even when I have watched TV for so long, I make sure that I read something before I go to bed. I do this because, up to now, I seriously believe that I am what I am basically because of the written word,” Benson explained. “So, what advice would you give a parent or teacher of a young child?” “I would say that the critical age for a child is before they go to primary school. At this stage of their growth, parents should show a lot of interest in teaching children many things about life so that when they start reading, their interest should be literally in everything. And the other thing I would strongly urge parents to do is to keep the TV away from children in terms of regulation. Children should watch less TV. Whatever they are permitted to watch should be in a much more regulated fashion other than just leaving them free to watch anything and everything, just like that. “Children should be encouraged to read more. You know, what reading does is that it opens up avenues to a lot of information which may be of interest to the child without even the mother or father knowing that the child is interested in such and such things. And by the time the child says, ‘I want to become a medical doctor,’ for instance, the parents can be sure that the choice is made from a position of reasonable knowledge other than sheer fantasy.” “Well, Benson, thank you very much for according me this opportunity to have this conversation with you. I very much appreciate your acceptance and time given to me. Thank you so much.” “You are most welcome,” Benson said as we stood up and he escorted me to the door. **Dalitso’s Story** It was a hot summer morning was when I arrived at Dalitso’s office for a scheduled interview with him in the Education Department of his Teacher’s College. We had agreed that I should meet him at 10:00 a.m., and I arrived early to find the light complexioned, round faced sanguine male teacher educator in his office quite engrossed in a book that was open on his desk. Hearing my knock he looked up, smiled broadly, stood up and walked to the door to shake my right hand as he told me that I was most welcome. “Please take a seat,” Dalitso said as he pointed to one while returning to his own on the other side of the desk. We both took our seats after which we exchanged greetings and briefly talked about the hot weather. In this peripheral interchange, we shared the same view that some cloud cover would have done this part of our land some good. Pleasantries having been dispensed with, Dalitso caught my attention with, “I have just been informed that we are having an emergency meeting for all teacher educators starting at 10.00 a.m., which is just five minutes from now. The meeting is likely going to take the whole of today knowing that it is a planning meeting. The problem is that some of us were away and have just returned to the campus and did not get the communication about the meeting when it was circulated. In fact, I have just returned from Mangochi where I was for the past four weeks. But knowing that you have traveled over ninety kilometres to get here, I do not want you to go back without doing what you have come here for. As such, I was just wondering whether we could delay the interview a couple of hours so that we meet at 12.00 noon and go through it over the lunch hour.” I said that I understood the situation and appreciated his suggestion. However, I proposed that may be I should return home and come another day because I felt it would not be fair for him to go through the day without having at least an hour to rest before going into another busy session that would be coming that afternoon. But Dalitso still insisted that we should have the interview during the day’s lunch hour. With that, he asked me to find something to do in the interim as he quickly picked up a paper pad and pen before disappearing in the direction of the conference room. As advised, I spent the said two hours in the College’s library taking note of the kind of literacy books that were in stock. Time flew and before I knew it, noon had arrived. When our interview session reconvened at the said time, I sincerely expressed my gratitude for Dalitso’s acceptance to participate in my research and much more for accommodating me despite his very busy schedule. And without much ado I asked about his nationality. “I am a Malawian national. I was born in the Southern Region of Malawi, in Mulanje District to be precise. I was born on the 13th of December in 1966 and have lived in this country ever since. I happen to be the first born child in a family of six children, that is, two girls and four boys. Besides, both my parents, who have since passed on, were Malawians of indigenous Malawian descent,” Dalitso explained. “I am so sorry to hear about their passing on,” I expressed my belated condolences before asking, “but when they were still around, to which profession did each one of your parents belong?” “They were both teachers. I know academically my father had a Malawi School Certificate of Education before obtaining a teaching certificate. As for my mother, she had a lower education certificate and a teaching certificate of a lower class than that of my father. It could have been T3 or T4, but I am not certain which one of these it may have been.” “And where do you yourself stand professionally?” “I am also a teacher, a teacher educator, to be precise. I hold a Master’s degree in Curriculum and Instruction.” “I see. Now going back to your early days when you were growing up as a child, in terms of your family’s economic standing in the community, would you say that as a family, you were hard up on money, or you were comfortable or even quite well off for that matter?” I asked. Dalitso took a moment’s pause before responding. “If I reflect on the economic status of teachers then, I would consider my parents not so well up in terms of economic status and not so low. The fact that they managed to send us to school at the time, when primary education was not free, was an indicator that we were not completely poor in the society. Of course we sometimes lacked certain basic needs, something typical of a Malawian teacher then, but my parents were at least earning something at the end of each month as they had their sure salaries,” Dalitso said. “Did your parents, being teachers that they were, read or tell you stories when you were a child?” I inquired. “My parents had shelves of books in the home. However, I don’t really remember sitting down with my parents and one of them reading a story to me or to us children in the home. Of course, I recall that I used to get a book from a shelf and maybe ask my father what that story was all about. As for stories, such as stories about animals, folktales, that is, these were told in the community. Such stories were quite common and I still remember them. But in the case of my parents reading to us children, no, they did not. The only kind of reading I can recall is of them reading just words to me.” “But how did you yourself start off as a reader then?” I inquired further. “Well, all I can remember is that there was a book titled *Ukan*, which really started me off. I remember having learnt to read using this book. It was a Chichewa book, which is my vernacular language,” Dalitso recalled. “Would you recall of a time, as you were growing up, you would say you got lost in a story, that is, lost in a book world, because you found the story gripping or very interesting, as it were?” I wondered. Dalitso’s face lit up and he responded, “Yes. At the time, I must have been in standard three or four. I guess I would say that that was when I really began reading stories on my own.” “Do you remember some of the stories?” “Yes, I sure do,” Dalitso responded. “One of the stories I still remember so well is the story of a crow and a chicken. It is the story about why a crow always picks chicks from a chicken and why the chicken keeps scratching the ground. The story went that a crow had a needle and the mother chicken borrowed that needle. But in the course of using it, mother chicken lost that needle. Now when the crow asked to have the needle back, mother chicken could not find it. Meanwhile, the crow said that until mother chicken returned the needle, the crow shall be picking chicks. And that is what happens while the mother chicken continues scratching the ground in search of the lost needle. This story remains engraved on my mind. Actually, I have a very clear picture of a crow flying and landing on the ground to get chicken and the mother chicken trying to protect the chicks so that the crow does not pick them. So, that’s the story I remember from my earliest interaction with texts. “Perhaps something I consider interesting and worth sharing with you is how I learned to speak English at quite an early age. At the time we were living in Newlands suburb in the south of the city of Blantyre. It so happened that our house was next to that of English white people. And as a boy, the sons of these white people were my very first friends. My association with these English speaking white children hastened my English language acquisition and fluency. What I am still able to recall is that we were able to play together although our mother tongues were different. Although I do not remember the exact games we used to play, what is clear is that from my interaction with them I learnt their language. It was like when I was chatting or playing with these English speaking children nothing was strange. Life was just normal as we conversed in English as we played. Whenever I returned home to my father and mother after playing with these friends of mine, my parents also spoke to me in English. There was no problem there. However, whenever I left the city and went to our home village where they expected me to speak Chichewa, they marveled at my speaking English. “While I do not remember most of the things that I did as a child, one thing that has remained with me is actually what was happening whenever I went home, that is, my home village. It used to happen that whenever I went home, the standard six, seven, and eight boys would gather around me and listen to my good English, and marvel at how, young as I was, I could speak things that they sometimes could not follow. At the time, I must have been five or six years old,” Dalitso said ending with a chuckle. “Now, talking about your primary school days,” I took the conversation back to Dalitso’s time as an upcoming reader, “did you read anything else apart from prescribed school texts?” “Yes I did, indeed. You know, there used to be a monthly Government newspaper called *Boma Lathu*. My father received a copy of this newspaper every month. Each time a copy arrived, I read it from cover to cover. There was also an Agriculture magazine called *Za Achikumbi* produced by the Agricultural Extension Branch which I also read. The third one was a monthly magazine called *Moni*. So, these are the three I remember very well that I used to read every month.” “At that time were your parents suggesting to you what to read?” I asked. “My parents being teachers, we had shelves full of books in the home. My father just let me read any book I wanted. In fact, he used to say that all the books on the shelves were mine. So, I had a wide choice when it came to what to read. Obviously, some of the books were quite advanced. As a result, I generally picked the ones I could easily follow. But with time, I also got to read even advanced books, ones that had higher vocabulary at an early age,” Dalitso explained. “If you were to juxtapose those texts written in your vernacular with the ones written in English, which ones got much of your attention?” I inquired. Dalitso paused briefly, “At that early age, going back to the time I began to read books on my own, that is, I started with Chichewa books. We had fascinating and exciting easy to read stories written in Chichewa. It was until I came to standard five, six, and seven, in other words, senior primary school, that I now got interested in English texts. I also remember that there were a series of books written in English called *Outdoor World*. These ones I read from standard five up to eight. “When I went to secondary school, in English we had Practical English Books one through four written by Ogundipe. They had very fascinating stories followed by pronunciation and grammar sections. In fact, in junior secondary school I read Pacesetter novels most of which were written by Nigerians. Whereas in senior secondary school I read a lot of the African Writers Series books such as *The Narrow Path* by Francis Salormy, *An Old Man from the Village*, plus many more. In addition, I also read a lot of the Corgi books written by James Hadley Chase including *An Ace Up My Sleeve*. “However, when I went to university, I read fewer novels as I now got interested in books related to different disciplines. Actually, what I developed in college was a system of choosing a field of interest each year. As such, if I decided the year was a sociology year, it meant reading a lot of sociology books that year. Psychology year meant reading more books on psychology, and so on and so forth. This continues to be my practice even today long after leaving university. For instance, last year was HIV/AIDS year and this year is human rights year.” “Again, going back to your earliest days as a learner,” I turned Dalitso’s mind back in time, “what are the earliest things you remember writing?” “I must say that I started writing as a child way before I even stepped in a classroom,” Dalitso began, “Actually, with me writing started with simple drawings, patterns and then different images on sand. I remember that I used to enjoy drawing a car without tyres. This is a thing that has remained with me to this day. Sometimes when I get bored, I tend to sketch a car. What is interesting though is that I sketch my car in the very same way I used to when I was young. I have still not improved on it. “As indicated earlier, I started reading and writing right in the home. By the time I got into primary school to start standard one, I was already writing my name and some Chichewa words. I am not certain whether I was writing comprehensible English then. Anyway, in terms of writing in junior primary school, I remember copying notes and writing homework. It was like I was only writing when there was need, that is, when asked to do so. However, in senior primary school, while still doing what I used to do in junior primary school I remember writing a few very short stories. I should think this came about because I used to read a lot of stories and sometimes just thought of creating one myself once in a while. “There was also something else I used to do while in senior primary school besides writing stories. I used to do or rather replicate experiments done in school back at home. I repeated at home every experiment done in school in standard six, seven, and eight. I even dissected a frog by myself. Besides, I remember to have opened up a dry cell or battery, and labeled it. I also remember that I bred mosquitoes and observed the different types of mosquito larvae and how they behave. I poured oil on the water source and then observed them die or come up. Therefore, that time I used to do a lot of observations as science turned out to be my strongest passion in senior primary school. Consequently, much of my writing was related to that because I was recording often what I was doing and the observations I was making.” “How about when you joined secondary school, what was your writing like?” I urged Dalitso to go on. “What I remember writing in secondary school were class exercises, notes, and homework. Outside that what I wrote was mostly correspondence. However, every once in a while I would write a poem,” Dalitso recalled. When I asked Dalitso to tell me about his writing practices while at university, I saw his face suddenly lose a bit of its smiling look. “You know, I had a problem in that I took a programme that I was not interested in because I was forced to do it. I was forced to do something else and not what I would have liked to do. If I had a chance, I would have liked to study psychology or sociology. Instead, I was pushed to study education. The thing is that I went to university on sponsorship. I was told by my sponsors that they would sponsor me only if I studied education with a religious studies major. I could not even have chosen to do sciences as my path was clearly stipulated. “Therefore, outside academic writing, I independently wrote a few poems. But since I was not taking a Creative Writing course, I simply wrote for my friends. At the time I used to like going sight seeing, observe sunrise or sunset and nature. So, I wrote quite a lot on that.” “Now that you are out of university and established in your profession, do you still write things that are simply of interest to you?” I asked. Dalitso was quick to reply, “Oh yes, I do. I still write, only that now I am interested in writing for children because I feel there has not been enough reading materials produced for children in Malawi.” “How do you do that?” I wanted to know. “What I do is that once I have a story line in mind,” Dalitso explained, “I bring together some young boys and girls. I then tell them the story and in the process observe how interested they are in the story. If the story captures their attention, I go ahead and write it up. So far, I have three scripts. Let me say though that as of now I have not yet published any of them but keep hoping that some day that will be possible.” “Has that interest in writing children stories stemmed from your own life experience?” I probed. “I would say yes to a great extent. You may remember that I have said I was exposed to books. I was interested in books my parents led me to. I realize in our country today, especially in villages, there are many children who have not been exposed to books or text outside the classroom walls. You know, I have actually come to discover that generally children enjoy reading. Unfortunately, there has not been enough material produced for them in the country.” “Do you think things would have been different if you had not that much exposure to books as you actually did when you were a young child?” I asked. “I think there would certainly have been a difference,” Dalitso responded. “You see, when children do not see the need for writing and reading, it is because they have not been exposed to it. In fact, they don’t see the gap within themselves. Sadly, they do not know that they have this gap. It’s obvious that one can only know something when they have been exposed to it. “I know that my experiences were not the most ideal. Probably that was due to the educational levels of my parents. They had books quite alright. But, maybe they did not know that if they had read to me I would have been more interested in books. Of course, I can say that I was interested in reading but that was out of my own initiative. My parents just made the bookshelves accessible to me by telling me that I was free to pick and read any of the books that were on the shelves,” he said. “In that case, do you think parents have any role to play in creating and whetting the reading appetite of their children?” I asked. “I strongly believe so,” Dalitso passionately acknowledged. “And their role is quite crucial. And I believe that even the illiterate or uneducated parents can still foster or encourage their children to read if they are only exposed to ways how they can encourage them. Actually, I have seen some parents, when I go to work with children and teachers in primary schools, who get books and give them to their children to read. Some parents even go to the extent of forcing their children to sit down and read.” “Unfortunately, these parents don’t guide the children. They don’t create the curiosity in them. Such adults don’t trigger the interest to read in the children who unavoidably become bored. They become bored because they are forced to read by their parents and do not see the need for it in themselves. But I think that if parents were helped and led to see how they can facilitate the development of reading skills in their children, they could play an active role. Certainly, the initiative of children is important. However, this initiative of children needs the support of teachers at school and parents or guardians in the home situation to foster interest.” “I am curious to know, are you married?” I asked. Dalitso laughed before saying, “That’s quite an interesting question. Yes, I am married with two children aged five and two and half years.” “How are you presenting yourself as a role model to your children and probably those you are bringing up in your home, in the light of the views on early literacy development that you have just expressed?” came my follow-up question. “I am able to say that up to now, I have managed to develop in our children curiosity and interest in reading and writing,” he responded. “The five year one is able to write her name. She is also able to write all the letters of the alphabet. In addition, she is able to write numbers 1 up to 30. Furthermore, she likes drawing whatever catches her attention. As for the younger child, she is still having a good time in the scribbling stage. What is so pleasing is that I have also instilled this curiosity and interest in their mother. Professionally she is not a trained teacher but a computer person. But I have encouraged her and tried to teach her how she can encourage the children to be reading. As such, when I am at work and she is at home, she tries to encourage them. They read together stories in English and in Chichewa. At the time she is more or less their teacher. And when I go home, it is now my turn. The children leave their mother and come to me. “That is what I am doing in an attempt to create the appropriate environment. There are so many children’s books in my home that I have bought for them besides their toys. My children know the books and their titles. Sometimes they forget the stories and end up asking ‘what happened to the hyena here?’ Then we remind them. “So, I am only trying to put into practice this gospel I have described that if parents were to play their role, maybe children would become better readers. In the meantime, I am also experimenting with these ideas in order to see how they can feasibly work. What I am saying about the significance of the role of parents is because I have seen tremendous improvement in these children of mine. They are doing fine.” “As a full stop to our conversation, may I know, in your view, who gets much of the credit for your becoming who you are today?” I asked. After a short pause Dalitso informed me, “My parents.” That marked the end of our conversation. I extended my sincere gratitude to Dalitso for accepting to be one of my research informants and much more for accommodating me in his very tight work schedule on this particular day. With that he saw me to the door before returning to his office to pick his papers and head back to the college’s conference room for the afternoon session of the meeting the faculty members of staff were having on this day. Emmie’s Story It was a cloudless hot summer afternoon. As I drove towards the southern suburbs of Blantyre City to meet Emmie, I enjoyed the green scenery of the undulating Shire Highlands. Emmie had graciously accepted to participate in my research and had suggested that I meet and interview her at her home on this particular afternoon. She had chosen this day because she was not going to work as later in the afternoon she would be visiting a relative who was hospitalized. Hence, she thought she could spare about one and half hours for our conversation before leaving for the hospital which was on the northern end of town. The directions she gave me on the telephone were excellent because I had no problems at all in locating her home, a thing that is not easy in a city where signposts and road names are a rare luxury. One of her sons opened the huge brown gate and ushered me inside the tall brick fence that protected the well manicured cream painted three bedroom house. As I drove in, five foot four or so, light chocolate complexioned Emmie, who was standing on the porch, directed me to a parking spot using her right hand forefinger. I parked, cut the engine, got out, and proceeded to the porch where Emmie and her last-born daughter were standing, welcoming me to their home. They ushered me into their well-lit sitting room where Emmie and I sat facing each other on comfortable couches. The son and daughter came and greeted me and quickly retreated to the dining table, where a pile of books and notebooks could be seen from where Emmie and I had sat. After greetings and talk about the weather of the day, I thanked Emmie for according me the opportunity to interview her so that I could learn the story of her literacy development. I began by asking her to tell me her nationality and place of birth. “I am Malawian by nationality,” she began, “I was born in Zomba on July 18, of the year 1957. My religious leanings are that I am a Christian of the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian. Although I am now married and have children of my own, I actually come from a family of five brothers and six sisters. As such, when I was growing up there were eleven of us children in our home. In terms of profession, I am a teacher educator working with a Government college of Education. At present I hold a Master’s of Education degree in Education Management.” “What are your parents, professionally?” I inquired. “While my father was an accountant by profession, my mother was simply a home maker despite having gone to school up to standard six during her days,” Emmie said. “When you were growing up as a child, would you say that in your family you were hard up on money, hard little money, were comfortable, or were well off?” I asked. Emmie took some time before responding. “It is difficult to say; we had little or no money,” she began, “but I think we were comfortable. I say this because we did not lack food and we were living in good houses. Besides, our father could take us on trips to see places of interest. Therefore, I think we were comfortable.” “Would you say that your parents valued reading?” I wondered. “Yes, especially my father. He encouraged us to read. He used to borrow story books from the library and given them to us to read. He also read stories to us.” Moreover, he always checked whatever we had done at school each school day,” Emmie said. “Did he ever tell you the importance of reading?” I asked. “No. I don’t remember him saying anything to that effect. I just remember that he read stories to us. But I believe that he placed a lot of importance on reading. For instance, whenever we were traveling he made us look at road signs and read billboards or posters. He always made it a point to explain to us what they meant,” Emmie explained. I then wanted to know for how long Emmie listened to her father read stories to the children as they were growing up. “Well,” Emmie came in, “I think I was a drop out somewhere around standard five or six. I stopped listening while the young ones continued listening to him read stories to them. At that time I was confident and felt I knew how to read. I considered listening to stories read by my father as something done by children.” “When do you think you learned how to read?” I asked. Emmie briefly paused then said, “I think I learnt to read before I went to school. It’s actually my parents and brothers who taught me how to read. As you already know, there were many of us. It so happened that sometimes we used to have a class among ourselves, the children that is, at home. What used to happen was that one of us children would play teacher with the rest of us children playing students. I don’t remember teaching one of the classes, but I just remember we used to play such school games. And, come to think of it, I am sure that those who were teaching were actually emulating my father.” “Do you remember how or when you first came to realize that you were able to understand that letters that were put together could be read as words?” Emmie paused and then responded, “I do not recall a specific incident. But I remember reading Chichewa stories. I do not recall the exact title of the book. All I can remember is that the book had short stories written in Chichewa. Later on I realized that I could read English books although I could not understand what the words meant, I could still read them.” “How did you source your reading materials?” I asked. “During my early days I depended on my father to bring me stories to read. Other than that, I read school curriculum prescribed texts books that were given to students in school. These books comprised Chichewa, English, and Mathematics textbooks. These were the books that, generally, I read. Of course the primary school I attended did not have a school library just like most public primary schools throughout the country then. But let me be quick to add that even when I went to secondary school where a library was available, I still did not make full use of the school library. I only visited the library whenever a teacher told the class to go to the library and read a particular book for an assignment that was given in class. Therefore, whenever I visited the library to read, it always had to do with some class assignments not just the interest to go to the library and read for pleasure. No. I think I was not motivated enough to simply enjoy reading anything I laid my hands on.” “Who do you think should have given you that motivation?” I wondered. Emmie was quick to respond this time, “I think both parents and teachers. At least my dad started it at home. But when I was exposed to books at school, no one was doing it. I am sure that if the reading culture I experienced in my home had been continued in primary school, I would have been a good reader. You know, when I went to primary school no one was reading and there were no books. In fact, we only read during classes, the round robin kind of stuff.” “How was it when you went to university? I asked. “It was tough going,” Emmie responded. “I found myself in a situation where we were given a number of books to read. Since the books I was expected to read were many, I only concentrated on reading those books that were on the reserve section in the library, that is, those books that directly related to given assignments. Of course, a rare once in a while I could afford to read for pleasure. I read newspapers and magazines especially *Ebony*, *Woman*, *Bona*, *Moni* and some comics.” “In terms of writing,” I turned the coin over, “when did you write letters to make words and were confident you really had written something?” “That was in early primary school, I think in standard three. At the time we were writing what the teacher had instructed us to do in class.” “What kind of things did you write in junior primary, senior primary, secondary school, and at university?” I asked. Emmie paused for a moment, “As far as I can remember, I wrote whatever my teachers asked us to write. Even in the early days, say, in classes two, three and four, I always wrote what the teacher asked me to. I remember we wrote exercises. In primary school we usually answered comprehension questions based on a given passage. We also did some gap filling exercises as well as changing sentences from present tense to past tense, or some other grammar exercises. The practice was more or less the same in secondary school. At university, it was not different because my writing was basically in the form of course assignments. “I must say that throughout my growing up I did not take the initiative to write things like short stories or poems. Anything I wrote was school related. The only things I personally took the initiative to write were letters I wrote friends and my father. Otherwise, even at university I did not write for pleasure.” I wanted to know whether or not Emmie’s father showed as much interest in her writing development as he did in her reading development. “He was very much interested in seeing to it that his children’s writing abilities were developed. Just as a case in point, you may be pleased to note that when I was in primary school, he used to check whatever we had written at school that day. In fact, he used to mark whatever we had written and then tell us what we should have written. Whenever he found that we had written something wrongly, he would say, ‘you should have written it like this.’ “Furthermore, he continued with this practice while I was in secondary school. For instance, he used to keep all the letters that I wrote him while at school. He then marked the letters for language, punctuation and grammar. Then, when I returned home on school recess, he brought out the edited letters and went, ‘What did you mean here?’ or ‘you should have done it this way.’ “Did you grow up with either a typewriter or a computer in the home?” I asked. Emmie replied, “A computer was unheard of, but a typewriter, yes my father owned one. Unfortunately, although we were playing with it, my brothers and I did not seriously go into learning typing skills. My father patiently showed us how to type capital letters as well as using the shift keys and the space bar.” “While you were growing up and had learnt how to read, can you recall an event, historical, political, or otherwise, that took place and you came to know about it because you read about it, say, in a magazine or newspaper?” I wanted to know. Without delay Emmie said, “Nothing that I can recall. Things that happened like the change of the Malawi currency from British pound sterling to Malawi Kwacha were learnt through the radio and not through reading.” “As you look back on your literacy development path leading to your becoming who you are now, who or what has had the most influence on you?” I asked. Emmie took a brief moment before saying, “I am sure that my father is such a person. I cannot think of any other person apart from him when I consider the things he used to do with us. Certainly, he wanted us to learn a lot of things. Among other things, he took us to places of interest like Shire River, Lake Malawi, Mwalawanthunzi, Chingwe’s Hole, and the source of Mulunguzi River on Zomba Plateau,” Emmie explained. Desiring to know whether Emmie’s own home was a replica of the home she had grown up in as a child where some literacy development practices took place, I asked her to enlighten me on literacy activities that took place there if there were any. “There is reading taking place in my home. I encourage my children to read. I bring books home and ask them to read these books. Actually, sometimes I bring a long list of books from the library and ask each child to keep a record of the books they have read. “As a result, I have seen that there is some kind of reading culture being developed. Sometimes I just see someone picking up a book and start reading on their own. I don’t even have to tell them to do it. I suppose I might be setting myself up as a model because I am always reading, mostly my academic books. Of course, at times I also read story books, religious books and newspapers. In the past, my husband also used to read substantially. Nowadays, he doesn’t read anymore. As such, when the children are seeing a parent reading in the home, it is me their mother. “Sometimes, when looking back at my past, I recall the games we were playing as children. I now realize that some of them were, in fact, literacy development games. For example, there was a game which involved skipping a string. While skipping the string we used to sing: ‘Fish, fish spell your name. F-I-S-H.’ It is now that I realize we were actually playing literacy development games.” Having heard so much and being mindful of Emmie’s impending trip to visit a relative who was admitted to hospital, the interview came to an end. Once again, I thanked Emmie for her willingness to participate in my investigation. With that, she saw me to the door where we shook hands, and then I left with Emmie’s son closing the gate behind me once I got back on the road. Joshua’s Story Joshua had chosen that I meet him in his office on this cool July week day to interview him. I was in his office at 2:25pm for the 2:30pm agreed time. The dark complexioned bespectacled Joshua was waiting for me when I arrived. With a smile he motioned me to a visitor’s chair as he left his executive desk to come and sit opposite me for the interview. We exchanged greetings after which I expressed my gratitude for his accepting to participate in my investigation. As I had already explained to him what my study entailed and the purpose of my interview earlier on, I went into the interview without wasting time. “Would I be privileged to know your nationality please?” I began. “I am a Malawian national born on 17 May of 1961 in Dowa, a district in the Central Region of Malawi,” Joshua said. “What is your marital status?” I inquired. “I am married with three children, two girls and one boy, aged seventeen, fifteen, and twelve. The boy is the youngest,” Joshua said. “How many were you in your family when you were growing up as a child?” I asked. “I come from a family of three boys and I happen to be the youngest of the trio,” Joshua responded. “What is your father’s profession?” I probed. “My father is a builder or bricklayer, if you like. However, he does not own a company, as it were, because he does it single-handed although once in a while he hires one or two bricklayers to help him. Besides, he always has a couple of people assisting him with mortar preparation for laying the brinks, and mixing cement and sand for plastering the buildings,” he replied. “How about your mother, what is she professionally?” I probed further. “My mother was, for she has since passed on, a home maker. During her growing up time, there was not much a woman could do considering she grew up and lived right in the countryside where bringing up a family was, basically, a woman’s lot,” Joshua said. “How far up have you gone academically?” “I have a Master of Education degree in Management and Human Resources Development,” Joshua explained. “While you were a child did your parents read to you?” I asked. “No. None of them ever read to me when I was a child.” “But did they do some reading, say to themselves, in the home?” I asked. “Yes, they did. I do not remember seeing my father doing any serious reading. He would flip through a magazine or newspaper, once in a while. However, let me say that he did some amount of writing and sketching. I remember seeing him writing letters. He also wrote lists because, you see, he owned a grocery shop and, therefore, he used to write lists of needed items that would be bought to replenish the stock. “On the other hand, I recall seeing my mother reading her Bible and religious books very often. I recall being fascinated with listening to my mother as she read to herself. A leader in the women’s arm of her church congregation, she frequently read her Bible and wrote her sermons and teaching lessons’ outlines. Other than that, I do not remember seeing her writing such things as lists or letters. She more often read aloud in the shade of a tree in the front yard of our home mostly during afternoons of the hot dry summer months of the year. There were times when I sat by her side as she read aloud stories from the Bible. Such times were very special to me and, honestly, I still cherish the memories. I remember bubbling over and bombarding her with questions when she read from the Bible stories of the three Hebrew young men who were thrown in a fiery furnace, Daniel who was thrown in a den of lions and Jesus walking on water, among others. As far as I can recall, I never heard my mother speak a word of English, let alone read or write one. Nevertheless, she read and wrote Chichewa very well. She had been in school up to standard three,” he said. “Did your parents teach you to read?” I inquired. “I appreciate that I was born into one of the few families in the community where some reading and writing was done. However, my parents did not teach me how to read and write. I should think my parents and brothers felt that teaching reading and writing were the responsibility of teachers in school. Therefore, giving credit where it is due, I must say that I was taught reading by teachers in junior primary school,” Joshua replied. “Narrate to me your earliest school experiences,” I requested. “Well, I think my earliest school experiences were that schools were places where children went to be with their friends, sing, play, listen to or tell stories, and do some additions and subtractions. Reading and writing aside, we did a lot of playing, singing, and dancing as well as making handicraft work of toys (people and cars) out of clay. On some days we listened to school programs broadcast on the national radio. This meant doing what the presenter was telling us to do. If the presenter said ‘jump’ we repeated the word while doing the actual jumping as demonstrated by the teacher. And that was much fun! I do not remember teachers ever giving us homework while I was in junior primary school. “Like the majority of Malawian children for whom kindergarten both as a word and an institution happens to be outside their lexicon, I started school as a non-reader. Before I started school I knew nothing about reading and writing numbers and the English alphabet, which is also the same one used in Chichewa, my first language except for letters Q and X which are non-existent. “In standard one and two what went for reading essentially was that some pages in a school text were memorized after parroting and chorusing the contents (texts) many times led by the teacher. One of my most memorable teachers made a song out of the English alphabet. He would arrange us in four groups. A group would either sing soprano, tenor, alto or bass (laughter). And each group had a portion of the alphabet. For instance, the soprano group would only sing A B C D. “Of course, learning to read and write English turned out to be quite difficult though exciting. The basic reason was that English spellings were not as easily predictable as Chichewa spellings happened to be. I came to learn that whereas every syllable in Chichewa ends with a vowel, that rule did not apply in English. For instance, when asked to write cry I would spell it as karayi and happy as hape. Pronunciation was another hurdle more especially because among other factors, Chichewa has no fricative th as in this or thesis. The closest I would come up to pronouncing this would be turning the th in this to a z sound that would go as zis. Another example was simply eliminating the rolling r sound in burn and pronouncing it as ben as one does with beg and not burg. But with time, that sorted itself out. I suppose what compounded the difficulty of learning English at the outset was that English was not a medium of communication right from standard one,” Joshua said. “But do you remember the time you first came to realize that you were now able to read?” I asked. “Yes, I sure do. I can still vividly recall the first time and day I was able to really read. I was in standard three then and the place was at was at my grandfather’s, on my mother’s side. Late in the afternoon of one day I picked up a book he had been using in his adult literacy program, for he had never gone to school during his days as a youngster, and therefore came to learn to read and write quite later in his life. The experience began by me realizing that I could put together the syllables \( u \), \( ka \), and \( ni \) of the title of the book entitled *Ukani* which means “wake up” in Chichewa. Not believing myself, I turned the first page and was greatly surprised that I could read the first sentence, then second, the third and so on. And before I knew it, I had reached the last page. “I was very excited and ecstatic with joy that I was now able to read. I could not (and still cannot) tell what exactly happened and how it happened. What can be said, though, is that, as I now looked at print, I was able to string letters and words together and make sense of them instead of simply making up a story based on what I could remember the teacher saying in class or the picture seemed to indicate. I now wanted to open any book I could lay my hands on and see if I could read it. My standard three Chichewa text was the first one I energetically delved into. “How about writing?” I asked. “With reading, came writing as well. I think I would not be wrong to say that they came simultaneously. I say this because having learnt the Chichewa alphabet, that is, consonants and vowels, in isolation followed by syllables and syllable combinations to make words, word combinations to make sentences were now the obvious logical follow up. From the time I first learned how to spell my name, I wrote it almost on any piece of paper I could lay my hands on. Covers of my exercise books and textbooks ended up having my name written all over them. “Did you have a library in the school you went to?” I asked. “Actually, I changed primary schools a lot basically because my father used to relocate a lot. You see, between standard one and eight, I attended ten primary schools. None of these schools, though, had a library. In fact, I don’t remember a primary school I visited in my primary school days that had a school library.” “What did you do for reading materials in primary school then?” “Basically, the books I remember reading in primary school were class texts. Each class, each year that is, had one English text, one Mathematics text, and one Chichewa text. The English and Chichewa texts contained comprehension, grammar, vocabulary, and composition sections within every chapter. Other than that, there was the Mathematics text which was also nothing but numbers.” “Did you not do any reading outside the primary school classroom texts?” “I did and quite substantially for that matter. Once a month, I got hold of a monthly magazine called *Moni*, published by Montfort Press in Blantyre. Actually, I remember flipping through the pages of this magazine from as far back as when I was in standard two although I was unable to read then. The most interesting sections of this magazine for me were a cartoon, an adventurous witty young boy, called Chatsalira. There was also Dr. Gombar’s “Such Is Life” column that contained out of the ordinary happenings in the world. And then, there were the sports and the short story sections. Sadly, *Moni* magazine went out of circulation in July 2002. “There was also *Boma Lathu*, a free national Government newspaper published by the Department of Information. This newspaper covered development issues across the country as well as humorous anecdotes from around the country with eye-catching titles like “Man fights with a hyena”, and a not-so-wise slow-learning cartoon character called Ajojo. I got hold of copies by chance once in a while from those who were either on the publisher’s mailing list or were able to collect it from the Department of Information’s office at the distant district headquarters. “Furthermore, when I reached standard five, I subscribed to a free South African monthly magazine titled *Bantu*, which covered stories in English from across the southern African region. In the 1980s the magazine changed its name to *Southern Africa Today*. From within Malawi there was also a weekly newspaper called *The African*, published by Likuni Press of Lilongwe that had a cartoon called Kamzimbi. This one had to be bought and I used to buy copies once in a while. “I also remember that once every month, my father used to go to the city of Lilongwe to buy merchandize for the groceries shop he used to run. Although he himself hardly did any reading, he used to buy me several monthly magazines and old copies of weekly newspapers. Therefore, I used to look forward to his trips to the city because of their predictable benefits to me,” Joshua explained. “Do you remember some of the titles of these magazines and newspapers?” I asked. “*Parade* magazine from Zimbabwe was one of them. This one I used to enjoy very much because among other interesting aspects it had a photo story or comic strip that covered several pages. And the story involved a character whose name I still remember to this day: Sam Mperu. There was also a Malawian magazine that fell along the same lines as *Parade*, which was titled *Star Magazine*. And there was a short stories collection titled *Star Stories*. Besides these, there were other international magazines and back issues of *Malawi News* newspaper that he used to buy whenever he came across them. Now that I come to think of it, I am amazed that he went to the trouble of doing this knowing that he himself hardly read or spoke English really. “There is no doubt in my mind that what my father did actually helped in igniting in me a very strong liking for the printed word. In the years that followed, I found myself amassing a collection of magazines, mail order catalogues, and tourist magazines from Denmark, UK, South Africa, and Canada. I also had quite a huge collection of comics namely: *Kid Colt, Captain Devil, Devil Bad Bat, She, Lone Wolf*, and *Beau Dupont*. I also had all my class notebooks from standard one through standard six neatly packed in three big cartons,” Joshua explained. “Why do you think your father took the trouble of buying you such reading material?” I asked. “I would say that he probably wanted to achieve through me what he had not achieved himself, that is, get a good education. Hence he must have felt that by helping me to get exposed to such reading material I would be what he desired I should be. Actually, when I was in standard three, I remember my father one day asking me to tell him how many heads of cattle he had. I told him ‘none’ because he did not have any. He then asked the same question about my uncles and my grandparents. The answer was the same: none. At the end he told me that he had asked me that question to tell me that my future lay in my own hands. He asked me to work hard in school because that was the only way to a meaningful future for me and my brothers, because there was no inheritance awaiting us in the form of heads of cattle as was the case with my peers.” “In terms of books, what are the earliest books you remember reading while in primary school outside classroom texts?” I inquired. “Well, the earliest book I remember reading outside prescribed class texts was titled *People of Other Lands*. Through this book, which I read while in standard five loaned to me by my class teacher, I got to know some people from all the continents on the globe like the Eskimos of North America and the Aborigines of Australia. While in standard six, I also read Charles Dickens’ *David Copperfield*, which I borrowed from our next door neighbour. I think I would be right to say that this was the time that I first found myself getting lost in a book,” he said. “Earlier on you said that all the primary schools you went to did not have school libraries. Does that mean that you first stepped into a library when you went to secondary school?” I asked. “No. Not really. I first entered a library when I was in standard eight. At the time I had moved away from my parents and was living with my eldest brother who was working at Mponela, a small town in Dowa District. My first library experience was not a school but a public library that was housed in a very small room within the town’s community hall complex. I read most of the books available in that library. But that should not sound as if there was much because I am sure all the books on the bookshelves hardly numbered anywhere close to a couple of a hundred,” Joshua explained. “What was your reading experience in secondary school?” I inquired. “Getting into secondary school provided a very fertile ground for my interest in reading to grow. It was in secondary school where I found a library that housed hundred of books covering a wide range of disciplines. I read all children’s literature books found in that library. There were a lot of graded readers that I read including *The Burning Star of Ndutu*, *Kwabena and the Leopard*, *The River that Changed its Course*, *The Old Man and the Village*, and *Coral Island*. “When I exhausted the available novels section of the secondary school library, I was privileged to be lent books by my form one and two teacher of English, who also doubled as the school librarian, from her own personal library. In this way I got introduced to the world of *The Chronicles of Narnia*, *The Secret Garden*, *Oliver Twist*, *A Tale of Two Cities*, *Hamlet Prince of Denmark*, *the Prisoner of Zenda*, *The Adventures of Tom Sawyer*, *The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn* and many others. “On the academic front, however, I read all the expected texts that were available in the content areas, that is geography, history, biology, physics, chemistry and so on. One content area that got my attention was English literature. This is where I read the following novels: *Out of the Silent Plane*, *Matryona’s House and Other Stories*, *The River Between*, *The Narrow Path* on the English side. In Chichewa literature I read *Kalenga ndi Mzake*, *Kukula ndi Mwambo*, *Mbiri ya Angoni*, and *Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa*, among others. “However, because I also happened to have been chosen my class (year) representative in my secondary school’s Top of the Class Quiz Competition team, I also read any latest copy of newspapers, magazines and any books deemed helpful to widen my general knowledge,” Joshua explained. “What was your reading like when you went to university?” I inquired. “At university I would say that most of my readings were related to prescribed readings plus those I picked from the library that I considered relevant to my areas of study. Besides readings in literature, my favourite area, I also immensely enjoyed reading psychology, philosophy and sociology. I guess this is so because I have always been fascinated by what people do, why they do what they do, and what makes people tick. On the lighter side, at university I also read national and international newspapers, *The University Harvester* magazine and Chancellor College’s own *The Muse*. “This was also the time I got introduced to the world of Tintin. I bought and read most of the Tintin books. Besides, I also made sure that I bought a novel each month throughout my five year undergraduate study period.” “Nowadays do you still do a lot of reading?” I probed. “Yes, and a lot of it. As you may appreciate, the nature of my work demands that I read much to keep abreast of the current professional trends so that I ably assist my students. Nevertheless, I also read a lot to pacify my personal appetite for the written word.” “What do you like reading for pleasure?” “After having read a lot of espionage stuff, the likes of Wilber Smith, Ludlum, John le Carre, and Joseph Wambaugh, as well as scores of Agatha Christie’s and other mystery writers, plus lots of Christian literature, I have now moved to biographies, historical fiction and children’s literature. I like reading lives of real people for that helps me to understand how they have come to be what they are and why certain things have come to be as they are in the world today. One of the remarkable people I have read about is Colin Powell, the one time United States of America’s Secretary of State. I have also read several Christian missionaries’ personal accounts of their experiences as they went to spread Christianity in South America, Africa, the Middle East, Russia, China, and Asia. “In terms of historical fiction, James A. Michener remains my favourite writer. He is such a master storyteller when it comes to presenting history in action-packed prose that turns out to be very enlightening and educative because you see history developing through the lives of living persons during their times and circumstances. Whether one reads *Tales of the South Pacific*, *Space*, *The Drifters*, *Hawaii*, *The Source*, *Alaska*, *Caravans* or indeed the dozen others, one cannot help but see that each story is about a real people in a real country going through real life vicissitudes although fictitiously presented. “For instance, through *The Covenant* one sees the incredible story of South Africa plus the birth of the now defunct deplorable and inhuman *apartheid* system and the hope and resilience of the people on both sides of the divide, that is, the oppressed (black Africans) and the oppressors (Afrikaans), as well as the helpless minorities (English, Indians, and mixed race) caught in the middle of the diabolic conflict. “As regards children’s literature, I have come to enjoy reading stories written for children from diverse cultures, countries and continents. For instance, I have enjoyed Saint-Exupery’s *The Little Prince*, Collodi’s *The Adventures of Pinocchio*, Orlev’s *The Island on Bird Street*, Berry’s *A Thief in the Village* and *Other Stories from Jamaica*, Ihimaera’s *The Whale Rider*, Park’s *A Single Shard*, Sachar’s *Holes*, and Lindgren’s *Pippi Longstocking*, to mention just some. “Nowadays, week in and week out, I read almost every issue of *The Nation*, *The Daily Times*, weekend newspapers, *Pride Magazine*, *BBC Magazine*. Once in a while I also read *Bona* and *Drum* of South Africa and some of the other Malawian newspapers on the market. In addition, I also read a portion of *The Bible* and some Christian literature on a daily basis,” Joshua explained. “Do you read to your children?” “Not anymore. I used to read to them when they were young. We have three different sets of volumes of Bible Stories. There is also a set of Stories from Africa. I have read all these to them. We also have a lot of children’s storybooks, cartoons, and films like Cinderella, and Pocahontas. But I guess they still like my reading stories to them because not long ago I went into my boy’s bedroom to read him a bedtime story, he was ten years the: the girls opened their bedroom and requested that I sit in between the two bedroom doors for they wanted to listen to the story too (laughter). “Even the reading of a portion of Scripture before bed time is no longer the monopoly of us parents. The boy or one of the girls does the reading and shares with the rest of us the day’s portion from their daily Scripture guide which they will have read in advance,” Joshua explained. “Do your children read things of their own choice?” I asked. “Yes. Actually, when the papers arrive at home each one takes their turn to read them. They also read children stories that are available in the home as we buy books time and again. Besides, they bring books from the public library where each one of them holds a membership. When they think I have time to spare, they always ask me to escort them to the library when they go to return and get new books or check their electronic mail or just surf the internet.” “You mean they are also conversant with the use of the internet?” “Yes they are. Everyone in the family is. And that includes their mother and me. Whereas I have been using the internet just for the past seven years, my wife and children have done so for the past four.” “Do you have a computer in the home?” I asked “Yes we have three desktops and one laptop.” “How did you and the members of your family learn keyboard skills?” “Some seventeen years ago, I was teaching at a secondary school where Office Practice was one of the content areas. Included in this area was Typing. As such, the school had a set of typewriters that students were using in learning typing skills. I approached the teacher of the subject to introduce me to typing. The teacher simply gave me the course text and gave me a brief on the theory of typing and set up of the keyboard. Armed with that knowledge I learned typing all by myself using this textbook by sparing thirty minutes each day after knocking off from work before returning home over a period of four months. This was in 1988. “When I first got access to computers in 1994, I simply transferred my typing skills to the computer keyboard after someone had showed me how to turn on and shut down a computer and working in Word. The rest of the things I do are generally through personal learning using the various types of available software. But then to help my family not get traumatized while learning to use the computer, I purchased a typing software programme which they have all benefited from,” Joshua explained. “Do you assist your children with their school work?” “Knowing the importance of offering children assistance with their school work, both my wife and I give them a helping hand whenever they happen to need it. I am always interested in the books they read and they enjoy telling me the stories they have read. There are those films that we tirelessly watch together as a family, such as The Lion King and The Gods Must Be Crazy and countless musicals. We also engage in passionate discussion of films they have watched and books they have read. We play a lot of games together. Among the games are Scrabble, an English word game, and From Egypt to Canaan, also an English Bible based word game. Interestingly, all the three children write, creating and writing their own stories. And since they know that stories are my passion, the first and third born always want me to read their stories. However, the second born does not want me to read her stories yet. She is writing a series of what she calls episodes. The last time I checked with her she was on episode seven.” “And if we can just go back to your early days, what do you remember about your learning to write experiences?” I asked. “Well, during the first days in standard one we wrote figures, numbers and letters in the sand outside the classroom. From writing in the sand, we graduated to writing on slates. Later on we started writing in notebooks. In standard two we wrote in notebooks only. From standard three onwards we did a lot of answering comprehension questions and solving mathematical problems. These were done either as part of class work or homework. Throughout my primary school days, I did a lot of writing from standard three through eight. I think I must consider myself fortunate in that I was taught in these classes by teachers who believed in giving a lot of written assignments to students.” “What was the nature of these assignments?” “Mostly they comprised answering English or Chichewa comprehension questions after reading a passage in a book or solving some mathematical problems. But in standard five and six I had a teacher who brought story telling into the classroom. He used to tell us very interesting stories. At the end of each session, he used to ask us to write down the story as we heard it and he would mark that. This led me to start writing stories of my own, either documenting those told by my grandfather or my own creations. As a result, by the time I finished standard six, I had two eighty-page notebooks filled with my own created short stories.” “Did the teacher mark your creative writing?” “My standard six teacher read and marked my pieces. Beyond that nobody did. As a result, I didn’t present them to anybody to have a look. I basically wrote for myself. Even when I went to secondary school, I wrote a number of sketch plays that I didn’t show any teacher but simply narrated the plots to some close friends with whom I acted these stories out during Variety Show weekends.” “Basically, what kind of writing did you do in secondary school?” “We wrote a lot of homework along the same lines I did in senior primary school, content area assignments, that is. We also wrote notes from books besides those given by the subject teachers, and completed science workbook units after doing experiments. The only serious creative work that I did then was composing about four songs for a singing group that I belonged to.” “What was your writing trend like at university?” “Apart from course work assignments I think at university I wrote a lot of letters. These letters were mostly of encouragement to Christian friends who were either in other constituent colleges of the University of Malawi or were still in secondary schools across the country. Besides these two activities, I started writing a story that was completed after I graduated with my Bachelor’s. It is a 219 page story for late teens and young adults. “I must say that while doing my Bachelor’s, I wrote four love poems. When I was studying for my Master’s, I wrote four poems depicting my experience in a foreign land. Two of them were published in that university’s magazine called Challenge.” “Now that you are deep inside your working life, what is your writing like?” “On my professional front, I write my lecture notes, seminar papers, consultancy documents, that is, project proposals and reports, to mention just the major things. On the leisure side, I compose songs that I play on the guitar. I have written four plays and three have been performed, and I also make contributions to one of Malawi’s daily newspapers’ opinion column. I have also written poems reflecting the changing political landscape in Malawi, one in 1994, the second in 1999, and the third one in 2004 depicting, in three words, hope, shock, and frustration, respectively.” “Who or what has been your influence in your literacy development?” “I think it is both who and what. On the who side, my junior and senior primary school teachers get the credit for introducing me to letters, words, sentences, numbers and writing of compositions. Without them, it is doubtful that I would have become what I am. And I guess special mention should be made of my secondary school teacher of English, Mrs. Pearson, who introduced me to the world of children literature by lending me her own books. There is also my father. He provided large quantities of the printed word that whetted my reading appetite and encouraged me to be focused in my education. My mother also played her part as she made me realize through her reading of Bible stories that fascinating stories come out of the written word. I longed for the time I could read these stories by myself. My grandfather on my mother’s side also played a significant role in that besides the fact that my ability to read clicked using his own adult literacy development textbook, he also told me fascinating stories about his past. It was these stories that enabled me start writing my own stories later on while I was still in primary school. “On the what side, I think the available printed word is what provided the impetus for me to want to read more starting right in primary school through secondary school. I came to realize that by reading I was able to relocate to a different place and time and be able to partake in what was happening where I did not have the opportunity to be physically present. When I went to secondary school, besides reading and appreciating the stories I read, I started getting interested in the way writers played with words, that is their style of writing both in Chichewa and English books. “What’s more, the presence of a radio in the home also played some significant role in my literacy development, particularly in my development of the English language. Two things stand out. First, I enjoyed, and still do, listening to music and singing. I remember that from as far back as when I was in standard three I enjoyed listening to the radio and memorized popular songs of the time like those by Abba, Jim Reeves, The Minerals, Mirriam Mekeba, The Beatles, Olivia Newton John, Electric Light Orchestra, The Hurricanes, and countless others. I was able to sing along almost any of the popular songs by the time I reached standard five. “Second, I found a program on the Malawi Broadcasting Corporation, the country’s only radio station then, where someone read stories from books. I was intrigued and got hooked although the stories were in English. Now that I come to think of it, that was rather strange since by standard three, I could barely go beyond a greeting in English. Yet when the day and time came along for the continuation of the story, I was always by the radio every week. Unavoidably, with the passing of time, I started following quite easily. The stories that I can still recall were *Cry the Beloved Country* by Alan Paton and *Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe.” “What advice would you give parents and teachers?” I asked. “To parents I would say that they should spare time to read or tell stories to their preschool and junior primary school children. That generates curiosity and interest in the children who are by nature inquisitive. Parents should also provide literacy material in the home so that children get to know the printed word before they are even able to read. In addition, parents should read in the home so that children can see the value of books and other printed texts. You know my son, for example, starting from the time he was able to walk and get to church with me, he used to carry a pocket Bible and hymn book. Whenever, the congregation was reading a text, or singing a hymn, he too would open his to some page, and sometimes his book would be upside down. But I guess that didn’t matter so long he too was in line with the rest of us. As such, my children never tore books or newspapers when they were young because I guess they considered them valuable. One thing that my parents didn’t do but I have done and urge other parents to do is to help their children with their reading and school work in general. If we appear interested in their work and eager to help, children realize that we value what they do and tend to work harder than they otherwise would do. “Turning to teachers, I would say that children should not see learning as laborious but fun. Teachers should make every effort to make their lessons as involving as possible for children. They should also be ready to offer help to children who seem to be struggling because for most children the only help they get with their school work is that which comes from teachers. Furthermore, children should be encouraged to read widely to broaden their view of the world they live in by giving them more reading material outside their prescribed curriculum texts. Teachers should involve children in oral and written activities because the only way children can develop their spoken language fluency is when they practice the language, probably having teachers themselves as role models. Moreover, teachers should give students a lot of meaningful written work to develop children’s writing competency,” he said. “Well, with that we come to the end of our conversation. Let me thank you most sincerely once again for giving me this opportunity to talk with you.” “It’s been a pleasure,” said Joshua standing up and escorting me to the door. **Lumbani’s Story** On this very warm and bright sunny summer day I arrived some five minutes before 2 o’clock in the afternoon, the time Lumbani had suggested I meet him at his office. When I got there, he was standing by his office door which was open at the time. I should think he must have been looking forward to my coming. Just about a couple of inches short of being six foot tall, Lumbani is dark, in the Southern African sense of the word, broad shouldered and well built. With a smile across his face he extended his right hand in greeting, which I took in mine while returning his smile. “You are most welcome. I suggest we go to the Audio-Visual Centre. We have less likelihood of us being disturbed there than here,” Lumbani said as he closed his office door and led the way to the Audio-Visual Centre. We were at the new venue of the interview in less than two minutes. As an indication that Lumbani had made necessary arrangements before my arrival, he took me straight to an inner room past the offices of the technicians who manage the centre. In the quietness of this our ‘interview room’ we sat on comfortable hard backed chairs facing each other. After another exchange of pleasantries and talk of the day’s weather, I expressed my gratitude to him for his acceptance of my request that he be a participant in my investigation. I also restated the purpose of the conversation with him which was for me to learn his literacy development story. “What is your nationality?” I asked as a way of setting the ball rolling. “I am very Malawian although I was born in Chingola in Zambia where my father was working, at the time of my birth,” Lumbani said. “Any siblings?” I inquired. “I come from a family of six brothers and a sister, that is, seven children in total. All of us were born in Zambia before the family relocated to Malawi in the 1980s,” he replied. “When you were growing up as a child, what were your parents, professionally?” I asked. “My father was a miner. He just rose through the ranks. But in terms of education, he did not go beyond primary school. As for my mother, I can say that she was, actually, illiterate. You see, whereas my father could read, my mother could not,” Lumbani explained. “As for yourself, how far up the academic ladder have you climbed?” I probed. “Well, after successfully completing primary school, I went to secondary school where I got the Junior Certificate of Education after two years. Thereafter, I got a Malawi School Certificate of Education after another two years. And this saw me enter the University of Malawi. At university, following three years of study I obtained a Diploma in Education. After another two years, I obtained a Bachelor of Education degree in 1990. Then I taught for ten years before returning to university in 2000 for an Honour’s degree that I completed in 2001. Then in 2002 I enrolled in a Master’s degree programme with the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University or Virginia Tech as it is popularly called. I completed the studies in 2003. As such, I am now a holder of a Master’s degree in Curriculum and Instruction.” “If I may take you back to the days when you were growing up as a child,” I once again got Lumbani’s attention, “how would you rank your family on an economic scale, in other words, were you financially well off, comfortable, or hard up for money?” “Well,” he replied after a short pause, “I think there was a progression. Initially, at the time I was born, that is, my father was a low income earner. But over time, by the time I was in grade one, my father had moved into the middle income bracket. Such was the case because, for example, we were now occupying a three bedroom house in the city. This shift connotes that we had moved from a low income section to a middle income section.” Bearing in mind that Lumbani’s mother could not read, I asked, “Did your father read to you when you were a child?” “All that I remember my father reading to me were my school reports or invitations to meetings. But in terms of literacy support there is not much except that he paid my library subscription fees when I joined the library services. In addition to that, he allowed me to go to the library to read,” Lumbani explained. “Why do you think he did that?” I probed. “Presumably, he wanted me to go through education. And I suppose by doing that he must have felt he would be helping me to excel in my studies.” “Can you recall the time you were first able to read?” I requested. “Between grades three and four was the time that I was so confident that I knew how to read. I should think that because of the phonology activities the teachers involved us in, I could read the word ‘disappointment’ by grade three although I could not tell what it meant. By that time, I could just look at a word, see its composition, and read it. I still remember that I could read the word ‘point’ without understanding what it meant,” Lumbani replied. “How would you describe the primary school where you started school education?” I inquired. “Well,” Lumbani explained, “the community I started growing up in as a child was multilingual. Therefore, because of this factor, vernacular languages were not taught in school. I suppose because they were numerous. As such, the language of communication and instruction turned out to be English right from grade one, that is, standard one in Malawi. Besides, at this school we had several white teachers and a lot of interaction in terms of activities in school.” “What were some of the activities?” “For starters, we used to sing a lot. And we were relating the songs to what was written on the chalkboard. For example, we would sing a song with the sentence ‘One man and a dog walking to Lusaka.’ After our singing the teacher would then put the words on the chalk board and relate the words in the song to the letters on the board. In addition, our teachers devised a system where we could say ‘did da did da’ which they used for teaching us the phonology of words. As a result, we could read a word without even understanding it.” “While in junior primary school did you yourself do any reading at home?” I asked. “Quite considerably. Actually, what happened was that, when I started grade one, I was living right in the heart of the city. Although the primary school I went to had a school library, there was also a public library close to my home. And I used to read books from this public library. At the time my favourite cartoon was Tintin. I greatly enjoyed reading the thrilling adventurous escapades of Tintin. “By the time I reached grade five, I had enrolled with a Bible Correspondence College. As a result, I used to receive and read pamphlets and thereafter respond to questions that were sent to me from time to time. Besides, I was also a member of the Sunday school at my church where we used to get a lot of Christian pamphlets and leaflets which also engaged me a lot. At my household level, beginning with my junior primary school, these are some of the things that informed my reading pattern,” Lumbani said. “Beginning with junior primary school how did your reading habit unfold?” “As I indicated earlier on,” Lumbani explained, “in junior primary school I was captivated by cartoons with Tintin being my favourite. However, when I moved into senior primary school my affinity went to social studies. Reading about citizenship, different countries, and government was what stimulated my reading appetite a great deal. While I was still in Zambia I also read a number of magazines; the one I enjoyed reading the most was Obet. But here in Malawi, while in both primary and secondary school, Moni magazine was my favourite. Particularly I enjoyed reading the Chatsalira cartoon and the column titled “Think Twice” written by Selso Kalilombe. “Interestingly, when I went to secondary school, I got selected to be a member of my school’s Top of the Class Quiz Competition team member. This membership gave additional pressure to read more and to read widely as part of our preparations for competitions with other secondary schools. My reading was now no longer confined to subjects being studied in school. Instead, I was now reading that plus anything I could lay my hands on because the competition had one round called Mixed Bag in which one’s ability to correctly answer questions depended on how wide their general knowledge was. “Furthermore, the presence of a school library gave me additional impetus to read a lot. And my membership to the school’s Top of the Class team was extra fuel that energized me to read more. Consequently, due to my incessant borrowing of books from the school library, I was appointed by teachers to become the Library Prefect. And that made me read a great deal. That is the time I moved into fiction. I went into reading James Hardly Chase’s novels. I also read Mark Twain’s books including *The Adventures of Tom Sawyer*. Francis Selormey’s *The Narrow Path*, plus *Weep Not Child* and *A Grain of Wheat* by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, are among the African Writers Series books published by Heinemann that I read at this time,” Lumbani explained. “Did your reading pattern change when you went to university?” I asked. “Yes, it did. You see, when I went into college, I moved into Humanities which actually demanded a great deal of reading. At that time I moved into political literature,” Lumbani replied “Why?” I further asked. “At this time I became a convinced Marxist. I read a lot of Karl Marx’s works, Franz Fannon’s books, and works of major politicians like Mikhael Gorbachev’s *The Perestroika*. Besides, I was also an avid reader of newspapers both national and international plus several magazines including *The Muse* and *The University Harvester*,” he replied. “As a child, how did your ability to write take root?” I inquired. “I think I was in a unique situation that turned out to be advantageous to me. You see, I started primary school at the age of more or less eight which was certainly later than my age mates.” “Why?” “This happened because every time my father took me to school to have me registered, the school head teacher would say ‘This boy is too young.’ It would appear I had a body that was smaller than my age in terms of physique. As a result, it was in the eighth year that I was accepted into grade one to start my primary education. But that does not mean I was just at home all that time. No. I actually spent much of my time in nursery school where many of our activities involved singing and drawing.” “Does that mean that when you finally got into primary school you were already able to write your name?” “No. I think it was when I got to grade two that I was now able to write my name.” “What else do you remember writing while you were in junior primary school?” “We used to write assignments. I remember quite well that we used to work in groups. In those days we used to receive all school textbooks in advance. As such, together with my group, we were able to figure out which assignments would be coming when. Therefore, my group members and I read and worked out the problems in advance, that is, before the day the exercises were to be done in class.” “Who made up the group?” “Well, these were my school mates, actually, my classmates to be precise. Interestingly, though, these members of my group were neither my playmates at home nor, indeed, residents of my neighbourhood.” “What can you say about your writing in senior primary school?” “I remember winning a writing competition and was awarded crayons and pencils for being able to write figures and letters so well. I guess this was the case because by the time I was going into senior primary school I had mastered most of the spellings at that stage and was able to write most of the spellings, good paragraphs and easily respond to questions, especially in social studies and mathematics. Therefore, in senior primary school classes I was comfortable. “But I think the interesting bit is that at the time that I went into senior primary school, I still did not know how to write anything in vernacular. You know, I left Zambia after completing standard five. When I came to Malawi I got into standard six. And this is when I started learning vernacular syllables, consonants, and vowels A E I O U. Actually it just took a brother and few friends telling me ‘this is A E I O U.’ Hence, although I started learning how to read and write vernacular quite late, I was able to handle it. What may even be more interesting is that when I went into secondary school, I passed Chichewa at the Junior Certificate of Education level and also got a very good credit at my Malawi School Certificate of Education level. I must say that this was largely due to my personal hard work and initiative because looking at my background in vernacular, even my teachers were not hopeful that I could pass the subject, let alone pass it well.” “Going back to your earliest days, what do you remember to be the first things you wrote?” “Starting way back when I was in junior primary school, I started writing an autobiography, a journal that is. I was writing about whatever was happening in my life including how we moved from Zambia to Malawi and how we settled down when we got here. I kept that journal right through secondary school. And when I went to university, I used to record most of the daily happenings on pieces of paper some of which I still have to this day. “While in secondary school, I remember that one of the things we used to do was writing book reports. We had a teacher called Mr. Banda who was quite enthusiastic at ensuring that we read as many books as possible. And every time we finished reading a book, he demanded a book report. One thing that he kept emphasizing was that whenever one was writing a piece, even a short story, one needed to have a strong opening. “Of course, one of the things I did frequently was writing letters to parents, relatives and friends. I did much of this when I went to secondary school. The basic reason I used to correspond a lot while in secondary school was because my parents and brothers were in Mzuzu while I was in Chikwawa. The seven hundred plus kilometre distance between us necessitated that I write a great deal of letters.” “What language did you use in your correspondence?” “I wrote my parents in either Tumbuka or Tonga. However, when writing my friends, especially those in Zambia, I corresponded in English.” “Earlier on you talked about writing book reports. Did this and the enthusiasm of Mr. Banda or indeed any other teacher like him have any impact on you?” “Of course, yes. One thing for sure is that it developed the urge in me to begin writing fiction. One of the first pieces that I wrote and published in 1983, while I was in secondary school, is a short story entitled ‘The Folly of Disobedience.’ And one of the unpublished ones that I still have is entitled ‘Completely Alone in the World I Am.’ Besides, I also wrote some sketch plays.” “What issues did you tackle in your writing?” “Basically, I wrote on moral issues, behaviour, that is. For instance, ‘The Folly of Disobedience’ is a story of a child who is raised up properly but who, later, starts misbehaving, loses his job and marriage all because he decided to disobey his parents’ good advice.” “Now, when you went to university, what was your writing like?” “At Chancellor College, I found that there existed the Writers’ Workshop. This was a forum where writers gathered weekly to critique literary pieces presented for discussion. Upon my arrival I immediately became a member of the Writers’ Workshop. “In terms of my writing at that time, I had generally moved into poetry. As such, most of the pieces I contributed to the Writers’ Workshop were poems. Actually, one of the poems I contributed won a Delta Baxter Award in 1989. This award came with four hundred and twenty-five Kwacha prize money. Although the amount is small by today’s standards, at the time it was quite considerable. That same poem has appeared this year in a new poetry anthology by Anthony Nazombe.” “What were the themes your poems ran along?” “Basically, my poems touch three areas: love, religion, and politics. However, most of the poems I contributed to the Writers’ Workshop hinged on political liberation. Such was the case because at the time Malawi was a one party state and we had a dictatorship. If you look at most of my poems written during that era, they were in cryptic. They have geographical and religious imagery but commenting on the political situation of the time.” “Do you still do that?” “No, I don’t. Writing in cryptic went with the demise of the dictatorship and the end of the one party state in 1994. The issue of talking in cryptic or idioms does not carry weight any longer because we now have freedom of expression. No one can appreciate that type of writing any more. Of course, cryptic writing can transcend time as the talk about political conditions can exist either in a dictatorship or a democracy. But the fact is that the impetus to question political issues through poems has worn off now that we are able to raise the same issues in prose so that they are easily understood by all. “Let me also hasten to add that while at university I turned out to be an editorial board member of the magazine called *The Muse*, which was produced by the English Department at Chancellor College. In this magazine, contributors analyzed novels, poems, short stories, and presentations at the Writers’ Workshop, alongside other literary issues. I used to contribute articles to this magazine. In addition, during my time at university I was also a contributor to a university magazine called *The Harvester*. This one used to contain discussion of intellectual issues including literary works.” “Currently, what sort of reading and writing do you do?” “Basically, almost every weekend I get the weekend newspapers which my sixth grade daughter enjoys reading. My wife also reads the papers sometimes. Unfortunately or fortunately, because of my involvement in Curriculum issues at present I am more or less working on four books at the same time. Right now I am writing a Life Skills book for junior secondary school and a Social Studies book for senior primary school. “What this means is that even at home I am always on the computer. Of course, when my daughter wants to play on the computer I give her space. And I also request that she gives me space when I have a lot of work to do and must use the computer.” “How did you acquire computer literacy?” “Well, in terms of computer literacy development what happened is that when I joined the university in 1986 I became a member of the Computer Society that existed at the college. During this time I learned how to log on, work in Word, and shut down. However, after graduating from the university I did not touch a computer until 1998 when I was working with Mike Kienan, a Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) Education Advisor. He taught me some things but I learnt most of the other things on my own.” “Is your wife also comfortable with computers?” “She tells me that she is computer literate. However, I have not yet seen her spending time on the home computer.” “I gather from what you have said that you do a lot of reading almost on a daily basis. Do you also read to your children?” “Well, I wouldn’t say that I read to my children and neither does my wife. But of late, I have been instructing my standard one child by using the home computer. What I do is that I write, in Word, numbers 1 2 3 up to 5 and then make him read to me what number it is when I point to a number and ask him: ‘What is this?’” “You know, although this is a practice I have just started, some two weeks ago, he is doing quite well. And more so now that we are doing with words the same thing we were initially doing only with numbers. Sometimes I make dots and ask him to join the dots to come up with a letter.” “You have said that neither you nor your wife reads to your children. Does this come about because your own parents never read to you when you were a child?” “No. It’s not really a tradition. Indeed, both my father and mother never read to me, in terms of stories that is. But having gone through education, having done the Master’s programme which included a course on Literacy Development, I know that there is a lot of research that advocates reading to children even to the one still in the womb. I am aware of all that. “And, you know, some two weeks ago I placed my daughter in a nursery school. The teacher there advised that we should be speaking English in the family so that the child gets to know certain English words which will ease her more smoothly into the nursery school environment. I passed on the teacher’s request to my wife. And although we do not normally speak English in the home, we are now trying to speak to the children in English. Of course, sometimes I lapse into vernacular.” “Who or what played a significant role in your becoming who and what you are?” I asked. “If we talk of a person who has had very significant influence on me in terms of literacy development, I think that person is my secondary teacher of English, Mr. Banda. He played a very significant role in encouraging me to write. He used to check whatever I wrote and, I must say that, he was quite impressed by the pieces I wrote. “But when I entered university, the Writers’ Workshop was one of the major influences by giving me a broader outlook on issues especially in writing. You know, every time I write I hesitate to come out because I am afraid maybe the piece will be criticized. That in itself has made me realize that when you are writing a piece, you have to look at it from many angles.” “What advice would you give parents and teachers as far as children’s literacy development is concerned?” I asked. “I think it is important for parents to provide a literacy rich environment within the home. Children should get to know books even before they start using them. It’s interesting that my children don’t tear books. They have got a lot of books in the home but not even the smallest child can tear a page. Instead, the child just takes a book, opens it, and closes it. This is a thing I find interesting. Therefore, if children are given an environment where there are books, magazines or newspapers in the home, you actually prepare them to develop interest in reading and writing. “As for teachers, I think there are a lot of things that need to be done to ensure that children develop literacy wise. One such thing is that teachers should give assignments related to book reading in which children should give reports of what they have read to their classmates or teachers either orally or in writing. Another thing is making the classroom itself literacy rich. You know, the walls of most classrooms are just empty. Now, if teachers placed literacy materials, that is, wall hangings or posters related to subjects being studied or materials related to entertainment on the walls, that should reinforce some of the things that are covered in class and be reminders of aspects that would otherwise have been easily forgotten,” Lumbani said. “What do you think about the curriculum you went through in primary school as well as in secondary school?” I asked. “Our curriculum seems to emphasize the use of one standard book per subject. In other words, if students are not using that book they think that they are lost. But I wish our curriculum was one that invites or leads students to read any other sources. That would really assist in ensuring that they are not only stuck to one thing. In fact, the style of writing in one text may be repulsive to one student who may, therefore, not enjoy it. Hence, if given a variety of materials, it is possible that such a student would enjoy reading a different text which would certainly assist them in their literacy development. “In addition, I think one of the major things I would advise is that stories that students are exposed to should be captivating. Unfortunately, I find most of our books, especially those in primary school, wanting in this aspect. For instance, most of the poems found in the books are foreign in origin. Besides, the stories are not that captivating. I strongly think that we need to give children stories they can relate to. For example, poems or songs like ‘Twinkle twinkle little star’ were developed in a context different from ours. The point here is that things coming into the classroom at the initial stage of literacy development should be those coming from the children’s environment. This means, therefore, that we must come up with things that will easily make sense to the children,” Lumbani said. “Well, let me sincerely thank you for sparing your time to have this conversation with me. I am most grateful,” I said steering the conversation to its end. “It’s a pleasure,” Lumbani said. With that we concluded our interview and left the Audio-Visual Centre with Lumbani returning to his office as I headed back home. Sarah’s story At the time I was arranging for this interview Sarah had suggested that we meet at her office at 10 o’clock on this particular Friday morning. She had said she had a couple of hours she could spare before lunch on this day. Therefore, not wanting to keep her waiting, I arrived some two minutes before the scheduled time. I met dark complexioned jovial five foot seven Sarah in the corridor leading to her office from the college’s reception area as she was coming from her morning class. Once inside her office, she offered me a seat as we exchanged greetings while she herself remained standing. Seeing that I was comfortable, she excused herself and went out. Within three minutes she returned and informed me that we had to move to the college’s language laboratory. She said that she was afraid we would not be without interruptions if we remained in her office particularly because she shared the office with a colleague. We found the language laboratory empty and settled into chairs facing each other. As we settled into our seats, I thanked her for accepting to inform my investigation and once again explained that the purpose of the conversation was for her to afford me the opportunity to learn her literacy development story. “What is your nationality Sarah, if I may ask?” I got things started. “I am a Malawian national. I was born of Malawian parents on September 4 of 1960. My eyes first opened to the world right here in Malawi at Lake View, a Seventh-day Adventist Mission station in Ntcheu District. This is the most southern of Malawi’s Central Region districts.” “Any siblings?” I asked. “Well, I come from a family of seven children, that is, one brother and six sisters. Except for my father and brother who passed away in late 1990s and June 2004, respectively, my six sisters and my mother are still around.” “Do you belong to some specific religious leaning?” “My religious colours are that I am of the Christian faith and the Seventh-day Adventist conviction. My immediate family members, my grandparents of both sides, and most of my distant family members are, or have mostly been Seventh-day Adventist Christians as well.” “What was your father, professionally?” I inquired. “Professionally, my father was an educationist. He had a first degree in Education plus other certificates which were basically Education oriented as well. He worked as an educator. In fact, I understand he was an Inspector of Schools dating back to Malawi’s pre-independence era. Later on when Malawi became independent in 1964, my father went on to become an Education Officer with the Ministry of Education. Thereafter, he rose through the ranks of the Malawi Civil Service to become Regional Education Officer before holding several other senior positions at the Ministry of Education Headquarters.” “How about your mother, what was she?” “Although my mother also got some education and could have worked in formal employment, she was simply a home manager. Her upbringing was such that she had an exposed life. Actually, she could read and converse pretty fluently in English. I suppose this can be attributed to the fact that she was brought up by English speaking white missionaries working at Mwami Seventh-day Adventist Mission.” “And talking about you, what are you professionally?” I inquired. “I am a college lecturer or I should say that I am in teaching, rather.” “How far up the academic ladder have you gone?” “Currently, I hold a Master of Education degree as my highest academic qualification.” Sarah said. “Going back to the time you were growing up as a child, how much value do you think your parents placed on education?” I asked. “Both my parents placed a very big value on education. In fact, when I look back to what I have become, including being quite fluent in both my written and spoken language and holding a Master’s of Education degree, I realize that I owe all that to them and the exemplary upbringing I had in our home. I must admit that my father and mother were good examples of parents. They truly had their children’s education welfare very close to heart.” “Did they ever read to you in the home?” I inquired. “Yes they did. They both read to us stories every evening before bedtime. Of course, father did most of the reading. My father was such a good story reader. He packed so much expression and emotion in each story he read to us. And just the thought of it, I am able to kind of vividly picture him in my mind doing just that. I guess because of that, I can say that my sisters and I have all become good readers as I have come to observe that we also read to our children with gestures, expression, and non-verbal cues. However, whenever father was away, mother stepped in and read to us a story either from the Bible or from a bedtime children’s stories book,” Sarah said with such big smile across her face. “When you started school, did your parents show any interest in what you did at school?” I asked. “Very much so. You know, after we started going to school, my father made it a point every evening of school days that he perused through our school exercise books to have a feel of what we had done at school that day. Whatever we had got wrong at school, he saw to it that we made corrections before going to bed to show that we now understood why we had had it wrong and could now do it right. He also started encouraging us to be doing some reading and writing at home from quite an early age. “In addition, I guess to ensure that we developed this appetite for books, my father registered us with the National Library Service. Thereafter he often took us to the library to borrow books. After reading a book we were asked to summarize the story to him. At the end of some of these books there were comprehension questions based on the story. I remember father used to encourage us to answer some of these questions.” “Why did he encourage you to do so much reading?” I asked. “At the time, I guess he knew what he was doing but for us it was just like we were having fun. It was later on when I got to understand why he encouraged us to read, read, and still read more. I actually recall father telling us later on that we should read because it was only through reading that we could pass our examinations. He kept emphasizing that if we did not read there was no way that we would know. After all, the knowledge the teachers were passing on to us in school was in books. They taught us the same things that were in the books. Yes, the very things we were reading about. Therefore, it was like he was telling us that there was really nothing new that our teachers would tell us in class if we read. He made us feel that we would know a lot of things through reading because they were the same things that the teachers would be talking about in class. “What are your earliest primary school experiences recollections?” I probed. Sarah paused for a moment and then responded, “I started my primary education in what was then called an integrated school. The school was attended by Asian, White and indigenous Malawian children. The teachers at the school were good and gave lots of class work. We knew that, every time we were given something to read, a writing exercise would follow. Such exercises ranged from comprehension questions, gap filling exercises, oral presentations, and discussions. I remember that even back then, when I was in standard one and two, we normally sat in groups. Our desks were grouped together and that facilitated group learning.” “Do you remember what it was like the day you first came to realize that you were able to really read something?” I asked. “My ability to read came in quite a dramatic fashion. Even today, some forty-something years later, I still have a vivid picture of the happenings on the day that I first came to know how to read. I was in standard two and it was during the third and last semester of the year. “Let me begin by saying that in standard one and the first and second term of standard two my reading was hazy. Of course I knew my alphabet by the time I got to standard two. However, what used to happen during that time was that whenever the teacher told us to read, I was only able to pick a few syllables and words here and there, the most common words that is. Sometimes, I did this just by imitation thinking that because my classmate had said this, then the word I was asked to read had to be the same one my classmate had read. “However, on this unique day, it was during the evening just before bedtime, my father asked me to get my standard two English textbook and open on a page towards the end of the book and read to him. He knew it was the third term and we had by now read almost the whole book. I failed abysmally. I found the text he had asked me to read very difficult because it was full of words that confused me. For instance, I still remember the word brother. I was pronouncing it as BRO-TE-HE-RA. This evening my father was in a very uncompromising mood. He emphatically told me that I was not going to bed that night. The two of us were going to sit right there at the table until I showed him that I knew how to read. “Knowing that he meant what he said, I found myself in a fix. As a way forward, I asked him to allow me to start reading from the beginning. I felt that if I began from the very beginning, perhaps what I read first would give me clues to reading the difficult words that were coming later. He accepted my request. I had my book and he had his own copy of the same text book. I began to read slowly making up my words as I went. Somehow, something just clicked in place to say that the sounds were not isolated. Suddenly, the first thing that registered in my head was that the sounds were showing that these things were the same. Even when I happened not to know the meaning of a word, the pronunciation was what I had already come across in another sound somewhere. So, whenever I saw a word with some sound that I knew, I capitalized on the main sound, then brought about the other unknown sounds. Fortunately, because by this time I already knew my English alphabet, it turned out to be somewhat easy to just sweep across a word,” Sarah explained with much excitement. “How did your father take it?” I asked. “You should have seen him. He was happily shocked and so too was I as with much ease I now read page after page. It was just coming naturally. With my father now satisfied that I was able to read, we retired for the night. However, I was over the moon. I just wanted to read and continue reading. In fact, that night I hardly slept a wink for sleep vehemently eluded me. Come morning, the first thing I did was to tell my elder sister that I now knew how to read. Thinking that I was just joking, she took out her textbook which was for a class higher than mine and pointed to a text that she asked me to read. To her amazement, I did. When I went to school that day, I went straight to my class teacher and announced that I was now able to read. The teacher’s joy was not veiled. That day I wanted to override my classmates as I volunteered for every reading assignment.” “From then on, I got glued to books. And my becoming a registered member of the National Library Service brought me into a whole new world, that of books. In fact, each time I got books from the library I finished reading them the very day. The following day I would be urging my father to take my back to the library so that I could borrow another pile. And it was not uncommon to see me arguing with the librarian over the number of books I was borrowing because I always wanted to get more than the number I was permitted to get at any one time. I just wanted to read more.” “Did your primary school have a library?” “Providentially, the integrated primary school I attended from standard one to four had a school library which I frequented very much. But the public school I attended from standard five to eight did not have a library. As such, I entirely depended on the public library for my reading materials. The situation improved when I went into secondary school because I went to one of those good secondary schools in the country where I found a well-stocked school library.” “What books do you remember reading while you were in primary school?” I asked. “At that early age, while in primary school, I remember reading Cinderella, Billy the Goat and a lot of the most famous folktales and fables that I was able to lay my hands on.” “How about when you went to secondary school, what did you read?” “In secondary school, I read almost all the novels that were in the school library. I remember reading Chinua Achebe’s books including Things Fall Apart, Ngugi wa Thiongo’s books and several African Writers Series novels published by Heinemann. Also I read Mills and Boon, and James Hardly Chase books. I read almost all the biology books that were in the library because that was one of the subjects that I found very interesting. All in all, I can say that when I became a reader, I saw that books ushered me into a totally different world where only those who were able to read could get into.” “Can you recall any specific happenings at the time you were growing up as a young girl, who was a reader, that you got to know about because you were able to read?” I asked. Sarah paused and then thoughtfully said, “Yes I can. You know, the magnitude of the importance of being able to read can indeed be illustrated using two incidents that happened while I was young and still in primary school. These are things I got to know about basically because I was able to read. “The first incident happened in 1975; the year cholera got to be really known in Malawi. I came to know what caused cholera, how it was spread and how we could protect ourselves from catching it. All this I learnt from reading newspaper articles that appeared in large numbers in the press then. In some articles maps were actually drawn to show where cholera had originated from and how it was contaminating all this area as it was being carried by water, particularly during the rain season.” Sarah paused briefly and then continued, “The second incident took place while I was in standard five. One day, I read from a newspaper my father brought home after knocking off from work, about a case that was starting in the High Court the following day. This was the case of Kawisa who happened to have masterminded the Chilobwe murders that involved the killing and siphoning of the victims’ blood. Hence, when the day came I urged my sisters that we should go to the High Court which was, after all, not very far from home as it was just across the road. We were also fortunate that the case was taking place while school was on recess; otherwise, it would not have been possible to skip school and go to the High Court. And although we were not able to follow the proceedings, we were happy simply to have seen Kawisa, the man whose name created fear in people all over Blantyre, if not the entire country.” “Can you recall a time that, once you were able to read, you really got lost in a book?” I asked. She paused momentarily before saying, “Yes. There was an incident that happened when my father bought and brought home a five-volume set of biology books. This incident typically depicts the times when I found myself lost and locked in a world of my own as I read. “You know, at the back of each volume of this set of biology books was a synopsis of what the other volumes contained. I read through volume one followed by two then three in quick succession. As I read through each following volume I could make connections as concepts from a previous volume got magnified and detailed in the next one. Unfortunately, when I finished reading volume three, volume four and five were nowhere to be seen. The synopsis on the volumes I had read indicated that volume four dealt with sexual concepts of man, that is, the growing and changing of the woman and the man’s body. When I informed my father that I was through with volumes one through three and was looking for volumes four and five, he told me that for some reason unknown to him these two volumes had not been sent together with those that I had finished reading although he had ordered the entire set. For some unexplained reason, I was not convinced and felt he was not telling the truth. “One day father and mother left home together without locking their bedroom door. Intuition told me that the books I was looking for were somewhere in that room. Therefore, I went in and started searching. Before long I found the books. Notwithstanding the fact that I was not in my bedroom, I simply sat down and started reading. I got so engrossed in absorbing these new concepts which were more or less shocking to me that I neither heard them drive in nor walk into their bedroom. What startled me was my father’s voice who asked what I was doing in their bedroom. But instead of answering his question I countered with an accusation about why he had told me that the volumes in my hands had not been sent together with the others. We argued for a while with father, but I insisted in saying that I needed to know about the things I was reading about, that is, puberty and growing up. I was wondering whether the things said in the book were indeed going to happen to me when I grew up. My father was at a loss for words.” “Why do you think he had said that?” I asked. “I suppose my parents did not want us to be exposed to these concepts at that age. I am sure though that after that incident my father urged my mother to start telling us, the older girls, what girlhood, womanhood, and manhood are all about because she now started doing so. But as of that particular day, I now really came to fully realize that books contained things a person would never know unless they read.” “Do you still do a lot of reading?” “Reading is a habit that has remained with me to this very day. I remain a very avid reader of books,” she said. “Remembering that as a child you were read to, have you done likewise as an adult now?” Sarah was quite quick to respond. “Yes, I read to my daughter and other children that I have brought up in my home. I am glad to say that my sisters and I took after our father when it comes to reading stories to children in that we also pack the stories with emotions and non-verbal cues. Another thing that pleases me greatly is that my love for reading has rubbed off on my daughter and other children that I have brought up in my home. They too have naturally cultivated this affinity for books because, unless otherwise stated, they always see me having a book in my hand whenever I am home. They also do likewise. Even when chatting, we each have something to read in our hands. When we become quiet, each one gets busy reading. Fortunately for them, there are more books in the home to whet their reading appetite than what I had in our home when I was growing up.” When I asked Sarah about how she learned how to write, she admitted, “When it comes to learning to write, it was less dramatic. I remember of course being encouraged to write the English alphabet as being the first things I did in writing. I do not remember writing things just for the sake of writing as I read just for reading’s sake. My writing in school was basically related to class work. It was obvious in primary school that every time we were given something to read we knew that a writing exercise would follow. “I grew up with the thought that one had to write on things that were worthwhile, things that would be appreciated by the teacher and would be graded. Therefore, as I grew up I suppose what became important to me was writing things that mattered, that is, things that were needed by my class teachers.” “Does that mean that your parents did not give you as much support in your writing development as they did with your reading development?” I asked. After a pause, Sarah said, “I am afraid, I think no. They didn’t. And come to think of it, I now realize that I lacked support from both my family and teachers to enable me to develop writing in areas outside the classroom.” “You didn’t even get involved in letter writing at all?” I asked. Sarah quickly responded, “Of course I did. You know, beginning from the time when I was in senior primary school to the time I was in secondary school and beyond, letter writing was unavoidable. While in primary school I wrote letters to friends. And while in secondary school, besides writing letters to friends and sisters to keep in touch with them, I also wrote my parents. You know, with parents automatically one had to write them. I had to write them to send pocket money or transport money when school was about to close or when there was need to make contribution to a certain club or towards a school trip. “While in secondary school, however, what I consider to be the only serious kind of writing outside the classroom that I did was writing an entry to an essay writing competition in which one was selling Malawi to tourists. We were requested to write on some tourist attraction that we had visited. And by this time, my family and I had visited several tourist attractions in the country.” “What did you write on?” I inquired. “I wrote about Kasungu Game Reserve, which I had just visited with my family earlier on that same year. Of course, I did not scoop the main prize but only managed to get a consolation prize comprising notebooks and writing materials. But the fact that I got a consolation prize against all other competitors was something I am sure.” “Do you do some writing nowadays?” I asked. “Yes, of course I do. Right now, being a college lecturer, writing is the other side of my work. What I mean is that writing is just unavoidable in my teaching profession. One has to read, write, and teach. I also know the importance of doing research. However, just the thought of it becomes quite unnerving when I think of writing proposals, research papers, and research reports. I must admit that I find this difficult.” “Why is it that you find such kind of writing difficult?” I asked. Sarah took a short pause before saying, “Well, I think I find writing difficult principally because my background in serious kind of writing was quite unimpressive. I know I just managed to get through my graduate work and have also just scraped through my postgraduate studies. I guess I need to put much effort into developing my writing skills.” “Well, let me thank you so much for sparing your time. I hope you won’t mind if at some point I come back to ask one or two more questions,” I said. “No. No problem at all.” Sarah replied. I once again expressed my gratitude to her for having granted me the opportunity to talk with her. With that we came to the close of our interview. Sarah returned to her office as I headed back home. CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS From an analysis of the literacy stories that were developed from interviews of six Malawian teacher educators, five major themes emerged. While there were similarities across the stories, there were also differences in the influential factors for their literacy development. But even more important was that the analysis suggested that literacy hinges on multiple factors that are interdependent and complimentary. However, the discussion of these themes must of necessity appear linear in that each is presented and explained in turn. The major themes that emerged were parental involvement in children’s literacy development, influence of teachers on developing literacy, the role of peers and siblings as learners develop literacy, presence of text in the environment, literacy practices of participants as they grew up, and participants’ perceptions of literacy and its development. Parental Involvement in Children’s Literacy Development The involvement of parents is important when it comes to children becoming literate. The study has confirmed that parental involvement played a central role in children’s literacy development. Of course, the type and level of involvement differed, but it was there somehow in the lives of these six Malawi teacher educators. Both fathers and mothers participated in helping their children to become literate. Notably, though, in the Malawian context, the study showed that it was mostly fathers that had much more significant direct involvement. The role of mothers in this context was mostly one of complementing what the father did both directly and indirectly. For these Malawian educators, the fathers’ involvement came through mainly in three dimensions. To begin with, fathers were role models for these children as they started on the path to becoming literate individuals. Sarah voiced that opinion when she said: “My father was such a good story reader. He packed so much expression and emotion in each story he read to us. And just the thought of it, I am able to kind of vividly picture him in my mind doing just that. I guess because of that, I can say that my sisters and I have all become good readers as I have come to observe that we also read to our children with gestures, expression, and non-verbal cues.” Benson also pointed out how his father modeled his literate life: “You know, I bothered my parents quite a lot. For instance, when my father was reading a newspaper I wanted to find out what he was doing. And he would then tell me what it was. As he did that, I then would be recording in my mind what it was.” Moreover, fathers influenced their children’s literacy development in that they were essentially the ones who performed the role of provider of materials and supplies. The participants in this study were in school during the era when school fees had to be paid in Malawi. Basically it was their fathers who sourced and paid these fees because during those times fathers were the breadwinners in the homes and mothers usually stayed home or, if employed, their income was much lower than that of the male parents. Therefore, this meant that had the fathers not provided school fees the likelihood of the participants becoming literate individuals would have been very remote, as the latter would have had no money for school fees and, consequently, would not have gone to school. However, payment of fees aside, this investigation revealed that the participants’ fathers actually provided reading materials that turned out to be essential in the literacy development of the study’s informants. Joshua explained this in the following way: “I also remember that once every month, my father used to go to the city of Lilongwe to buy merchandise for the groceries shop he used to run. Although he himself hardly did any serious reading, he used to buy me several monthly magazines and old copies of weekly newspapers. Therefore, I used to look forward to his trips to the city because of their predictable benefits to me.” Emmie also told about her father’s role as a provider of reading materials and supplies: “He encouraged us to read. He used to borrow storybooks from the library and give them to us to read.” Furthermore, fathers were also influential in their children’s literacy development in that they cultivated, nurtured, and encouraged their children to engage in literacy development activities. Lumbani recalled getting his father’s support: “But in terms of literacy support there is not much except that he paid my library subscription fees when I joined the library services. In addition, he allowed me to go to the library to read… Presumably, he wanted me to go through education. And I suppose by doing that he must have felt he was helping me to excel in my studies.” Sarah also told of the encouragement her father provided to her and her siblings in their literacy development as they were growing up: “You know, after we started going to school, my father made it a point every evening of school days that he perused through our school exercise books to have a feel of what we had done at school that day. Whatever we had got wrong at school, he saw to it that we made corrections before going to bed to show that we now understood why we had had it wrong and could now do it right. He also started encouraging us to be doing some reading and writing at home from quite an early age. In addition, I guess to ensure that we developed this appetite for books, my father registered us with the National Library Service. Thereafter he often took us to the library to borrow books. After reading a book one was asked to summarize the story to him. At the end of some of these books there were comprehension questions based on the story. I remember father used to encourage us to answer some of these questions.” Similarly, Emmie noted the interest her father showed and the encouragement he gave to ensure that the children really progressed in their literacy development: “He was very much interested in seeing to it that his children’s writing abilities were developed. Just as a case in point, you may be pleased to note that when I was in primary school, he used to check whatever we had written at school that day. In fact, he used to mark whatever we had written and then tell us what we should have written. Whenever he found that we had written something wrongly, he would say ‘you should have written it like this.’ Furthermore, he continued with this practice while I was in secondary school. For instance, he used to keep all the letters that I wrote him while at school. He then marked the letters for language, punctuation and grammar. Now, when I returned home, say, on school recess, he brought out the edited letters and went, ‘What did you mean here?’ or ‘you should have done it this way.’” Despite this apparent influential dominance in children’s literacy development by fathers, it must be acknowledged that mothers’ contribution was also immense albeit made in a somewhat modest way. As is the case in almost all societies and cultures, mothers in Malawi have the responsibility of introducing children to the world around them. For instance, it is mothers who first introduce children to language, human interaction practices and all that goes with early childhood development. Beyond the emotional support and basic provisions, mothers of these participants also provided support and encouragement for literacy development. For instance, while acknowledging that her father was the one who mostly read to the children, Sarah had this to say about her mother when it came to reading in the home: “However, whenever father was away, mother stepped in and read to us a story either from the Bible or from a bedtime children’s stories book.” Benson’s mother also provided a lot of support and encouragement that he needed as he began his journey to becoming a literate individual. In his own words Benson encapsulated his mother’s support: “My earliest episodes in writing were done on the ground, particularly during the rain season when the ground was soft. I used to write A, B, and so on and then call my mother to come and check whether or not what I had written was actually correct.” In a different sort of way, Joshua’s mother encouraged him to develop an interest in reading so that he could read on his own the fascinating stories his mother used to read from the Bible: “I recall being fascinated with listening to my mother as she read to herself. There were times when I sat by her side as she read aloud stories from the Bible. Such times were very special to me and, honestly, I still cherish the memories. I remember bubbling over and bombarding her with questions when she read from the Bible stories of the three Hebrew young men who were thrown in a fiery furnace, Daniel who was thrown in a den of lions and Jesus walking on water, among others.” The importance of parents in literacy development became evident in other ways as well. For example, the literacy level of the parents were for the most part fairly similar among these six teacher educators. Except for Lumbani’s mother, these study participants’ parents were themselves literate although their levels varied. For instance, Benson had the following to say about his parents: “My father was a qualified Clinical Officer. He was very professionally sound and rose within the ranks in Government because he was a very intelligent person who, perhaps, never made it to Medical School because he came from a disadvantaged background. But whatever training he got, he made very good use of it… My mother didn’t go very far with education basically because of financial limitations… But in terms of potential, she is quite an intelligent woman… At the time I was growing up, my mother was studying for the Junior Certificate of Education examinations by correspondence. So, she had lots of lecture notes from the Malawi Correspondence College, now known as the Malawi College of Distance Education, which she used to read.” Dalitso told about his parents’ professional standing, an indicator of their literacy levels, in the following way: “They were both teachers. I know academically my father had a Malawi School Certificate of Education before obtaining a teaching certificate. As for my mother, she had a lower education certificate and a teaching certificate of a lower class than that of my father. It could have been T3 or T4 but I am not certain which one of these it must have been.” As for Sarah, she had this to say about her parents: “Professionally, my father was an educationist. He had a first degree in Education plus other certificates that were basically Education oriented as well. He worked as an educator… Although my mother also got some education and could have worked in formal employment, she was simply a home manager. Her upbringing was such that she had an exposed life. Actually, she could read and converse pretty fluently in English. I suppose this can be attributed to the fact that she was brought up by English speaking white missionaries working at Mwami Seventh-day Adventist Mission.” Like the parents’ education levels, the home economic standing was also a somewhat similar factor. The participants in this study came from families that were economically comfortable. When asked to recall the financial standing of his family as he grew up, Benson replied: “Well, I wouldn’t say very well off. You may recall that there were eight of us, that is, children in the family and my father was a member of what we would call the Malawian middle class. Therefore, because of the size of the family, we cannot say that there was too much cash to spare. Nonetheless, we were reasonably comfortable.” When asked to recall the financial status of her family while she was growing up Emmie expressed the same thought when she said: “It is difficult to say we had little or no money…. But I think we were comfortable. I say this because we did not lack food and we were living in good houses. Besides, our father could take us on trips to see places of interest. Therefore, I think we were comfortable.” Even Lumbani, who was born while his family was living outside the country and relocated back home after he was in senior primary school, recalled his family’s economic standing this way: “I think there was a progression. Initially, at the time I was born, that is, my father was a low income earner. But over time, that is, by the time I was in grade one, my father had moved into the middle income bracket. Such was the case because, for example, we were now occupying a three bedroom house in the city. This shift connotes that we had moved from a low income section to a middle income section.” The findings have also indicated that parents of children who become literate take the step of introducing their children to the world of print. In different and yet somewhat similar ways, parents of the study participants introduced their children to print in their homes. Dalitso, for instance, was introduced to the world of print in the following way: “My parents being teachers, we had shelves full of books in the home. My father just let me read any book I wanted. In fact, he used to say that all the books on the shelves were mine… Of course, I recall that I used to get a book from a shelf and maybe ask my father what that story was all about.” Benson simply acknowledged the availability of print in the home while he was growing up and learning to read and write by saying that “there was a lot to be read within the home.” Another important factor about the role of parents was that the value they placed on literacy practices and education directly influenced their children’s literacy development. Parents who valued education saw to it that their children should also see education and being literate in the same light. While some parents explicitly told their children the importance of getting an education, others simply urged the children to work hard on literacy development activities without much direct involvement. Sarah explained how much her parents valued reading: “Both my parents placed a very big value on education… I actually recall father telling us later on that we should read because it was only through reading that we could pass our examinations. He kept emphasizing that if we did not read there was no way that we would know. After all, the knowledge the teachers were passing on to us in school was in books. They taught us the same things that were in the books. Yes, the very things we were reading about. Therefore, it was like he was telling us that there was really nothing new that our teachers would tell us in class if we read. He made us feel that we would know a lot of things through reading because they were the same things that the teachers would be talking about in class.” Benson also pointed out that his parents highly valued education and wished their children nothing but the available best the children could access: “I must say that my father was highly committed to seeing to it that we all got a good education… I should think because he himself had seen the benefits of good education. And because my mother too was converted to the view that if we were to be comfortable in life, we needed education, she too saw to it that whatever little education she had herself, was actually shared with us.” Emmie also provided an indication of the importance her father placed on his children’s reading and writing abilities: “I believe that he placed a lot of importance on reading. For instance, whenever we were traveling he made us look at road signs and read billboards or posters. He always made it a point to explain to us what they meant.” However, in a different sort of way, Lumbani’s father without explicitly telling him the value of education just went on to pay for the child’s membership to a local library. Lumbani commented on his father’s gesture, “He allowed me to go to the library to read… Presumably, he wanted me to go through education. And I suppose by doing that he must have felt he would be helping me to excel in my studies.” Joshua also said something along the same lines when asked why his father bought him reading materials time and again despite the fact that the latter did not really read much himself: “I would say that he probably wanted to achieve through me what he had not achieved himself, that is, get a good education. Hence he must have felt that by helping me to get exposed to such reading material I would be what he desired I should be. Actually, when I was in standard three, I remember my father this other day asking me to tell him how many heads of cattle he had. I told him ‘none’ because he did not have any. He then asked the same question about my uncles and my grandparents. The answer was the same: none. At the end he told me that he had asked me that question to tell me that my future lay in my own hands. He asked me to work hard in school because that was the only way to a meaningful future for me and my brothers because there was no inheritance awaiting us in form of heads of cattle as was the case with my peers.” Although the influence of parents on children’s literacy development was crucial, the analysis revealed some differences among parents’ practices. For instance, on the one hand were parents who read to their children. Emmie’s father fell in this group because besides bringing books home from the library so that his children had reading materials in the home, Emmie said, “He also read stories to us.” Likewise, Sarah mentioned that her father and mother “both read to us stories every evening before bedtime. Of course, father did most of the reading.” However, there were some parents who did not take time to actually read to their children. Of course, they offered the necessary encouragement and support their children needed for literacy development. Nevertheless, they neither read to nor told the children stories. For example, Dalitso called: “I don’t really remember sitting down with my parents and one of them reading a story to me or to us children in the home… As for stories such as stories about animals, folktales, that is, these were told in the community. Such stories were quite common and I still remember them. But in the case of my parents reading to us children, no, they did not.” In the same way, when asked whether his parents read to him while he was a child, Joshua replied, “No. None of them ever read to me when I was a child.” As these parents helped their children toward literacy, some of them were keen to know the progress of their children academic performance. These parents eagerly checked what their children were doing in their studies, sometimes time lending them a hand so as to ensure they were not left behind in their studies. Sarah related her father’s interest in the following way: “You know, after we started going to school, my father made it a point every evening of school days that he perused through our school exercise books to have a feel of what we had done at school that day. Whatever we had got wrong at school, he saw to it that we made corrections before going to bed to show that we now understood why we had had it wrong and could now do it right.” Benson’s father also took the initiative of correcting his children’s spoken English whenever they made errors as they spoke it in the home. He spoke of his father’s help thusly: “Apart from that, my own father realized at an early stage that being fluent in English would give one an advantage in life as one grew. Consequently, much as in the home we spoke Chichewa, from time to time he corrected us when we made mistakes in English. Besides, he regularly spoke to us in English. And in the process, I found out that I was able to communicate in both languages.” On the other hand, other parents neither take the trouble of going through their children’s schoolwork nor helped the children with their school work in areas that the children had problems. Recalling whether or not his parents assisted him with his homework, Joshua said, “Even after I started going to school, both my parents… never took time to instruct me in school related activities.” As for Lumbani, while acknowledging that his father paid library membership fees for him, he also explained that his parents did not get directly involved in his schoolwork. Lumbani recalled, “But in terms of literacy support there is not much except that he paid my library subscription fees when I joined the library services.” **Influence of Teachers in Learner’s Literacy Development** Purcell-Gates (2002) asserted that teachers must intentionally work to move print in its various functions and forms into the learners’ life so that as language learners the latter should acquire written language concepts from which they are to productively interpret reading and writing instructions. Basically, cultural practices are learned implicitly through participating within the culture. For those new to a culture, though, the implicit must be made explicit to the degree to which the new participants can appropriately interpret behaviours and ways of seeing that are unknown to them (Purcell-Gates, 2002). It is accepted that schools have a culture of their own. As such, when children start school, they are introduced to a whole new world that is quite distinct from their home or community setting. This new community has its own norms and practices that articulate new beliefs the newcomers will have to eventually embrace. Teachers are, in a way, the gatekeeper of this new community where reading and writing are top of the list of cultural practices. Therefore, teachers are largely responsible for ensuring that children become members of this new community and possess the literacy skills required for the learners’ survival and prosperity. As such, the work of teachers was prominent in these literacy stories. In any formal education setting, teachers are at the helm of learning as they introduce learners to reading and writing. As a case in point, Lumbani explained his teachers’ influence on his becoming a reader and writer: “Between grades three and four is the time that I was so confident that I knew how to read. I should think that because of the phonology activities the teachers involved us in, I could read the word ‘disappointment’ by grade three although I could not tell what it meant. By that time, I could just look at a word, see its composition, and read it. I still remember that I could read the word ‘point’ without understanding what it meant.” Likewise, Joshua gave credit for his becoming literate to his teachers when he said: “My junior and senior primary school teachers get the credit for introducing me to letters, words, sentences, and numbers. Without them, it is doubtful that I would have become literate. And I guess special mention should be made of my secondary school teacher of English, Mrs. Pearson, who introduced me to the world of children literature by lending me her own books.” Sarah also had lots of praise for her junior primary school teachers. They seemed to have been very practical, creative and enthusiastic in their teaching practices, something that students found helpful, encouraging and motivating. She talked about her teachers: “I started my primary education in what was then called an integrated school. The school was attended by Asian, white and indigenous Malawian children. The teachers at the school were just good and gave lots of class work. We knew that every time we were given something to read, we knew that a writing exercise would follow. Such exercises ranged from comprehension questions, gap filling exercises, oral presentations, and discussions. I remember that even back then, when I was in standard one and two, we normally sat in groups. Our desks were grouped together and that facilitated group learning.” Furthermore, some teachers became role models for their learners. Benson illustrated the impact one of his teachers had on him, a thing that set the tone for what he was to become, that is, a very expressive writer in both English and Chichewa. “You know, among the teachers who taught me there was one Andrew Kulemeka who was a very good short story writer. At the time, he had been publishing in *Star Magazine*, which was edited by one Innocent Banda and produced and published by Blantyre Print. Each copy was a collection of short stories written in English by Malawian graduates. The stories were fantastic. I, therefore, found it fascinating to see my own teacher contributing to that magazine. And I wanted to be like him.” In addition to being a role model, the support and encouragement teachers gave to these students was important to their literacy development. Lumbani gave an example: “While in secondary school, I remember that one of the things we used to do was writing book reports. We had a teacher called Mr. Banda who was quite enthusiastic at ensuring that we read as many books as possible. And every time we finished reading a book, he demanded a book report. One thing that he kept emphasizing on was that whenever one was writing a piece, even a short story, one needed to have a strong opening.” **Peers’ and Siblings’ Influence in Learner’s Literacy Development** It is argued that our private thought and language are originally shaped through the way we learn to interact with others (Vygotsky, 1962). Being born in particular communities and societies shape children’s earliest interactions. Of course, those who play with a child are involved in shaping the thoughts of the child, as they are the ones the child can relate to. And in the context of a home or community, children learn from one another as they play together. The analysis of these literacy stories found, though, that besides simply passing time together some peers or siblings made it a point to help in the literacy development of those younger than themselves. While having fun and being helpful, a sibling or a peer also introduced younger children to literacy activities that assisted them in becoming literate persons. For example, Emmie recalls, “I think I learnt to read before I went to school. It’s actually my parents and brothers who taught me how to read. As you already know, there were many of us.” Benson also captures the same sentiment of being assisted by siblings when he says: “My earliest episodes in writing were done on the ground, particularly during the rain season when the ground was soft. I used to write A, B, and so on and then call my mother to come and check whether or not what I had written was actually correct. I did the same with my sisters.” The analysis has also shown that peers and siblings played a role in teaching a learner language that is essential in literacy development. For instance, Dalitso told about how he came to learn speaking English, which turned out to be a language that eventually facilitated his literacy development. “Perhaps something I consider interesting and worth sharing with you is how I learned to speak English at quite an early age. At the time … our house was next to that of English speaking White people. And as a boy, the sons of these White people were my very first friends. My association with these … hastened my English language acquisition and fluency… What is clear, though, is that from my interaction with them I learnt their language.” The influence of peers and siblings in literacy development also comes out powerfully in that sometimes they actually go into teaching the learner actual letters of the alphabet. This is demonstrated by Lumbani in the following story: “In those days we used to receive all school textbooks in advance. As such, together with my group, we were able to figure out which assignments would be coming when. Therefore, my group members and I read and worked out the problems in advance, that is, before the day the exercises were to be done in class… But I think the interesting bit is that at the time that I went into senior primary school, I still did not know how to write anything in vernacular. You know, I left Zambia after completing standard five. When I came to Malawi I got into standard six. And this is when I started learning vernacular syllables, consonants, and vowels A E I O U. Actually it just took a brother and few friends telling me ‘this is A E I O U.’ Hence, although I started learning how to read and write vernacular quite late, I was able to handle it.” In other cases, children played games that turned out to be literacy development games. This happened in the school and at home as well as in community setting. Emmie, for instance, recalled: “Sometimes, when looking back at my past, I recall the games we were playing as children. I now realize that some of them were, in fact, literacy development games. For example, there was a game which involved skipping a string. While skipping the string we used to sing: ‘Fish, fish spell your name. F-I-S-H.’ It is now that I realize we were actually playing literacy development games.” It other times peers and siblings augmented teachers’ work in the home or community environment. During creative play, children helped their peers by playing the role of teacher and instructor in the spirit of fun and games. This playing, of course, contributed to some children’s literacy development in that there was remedial work done on what was learnt at school. What Emmie experienced, illustrated this point well. “It so happened that sometimes we used to have a class among ourselves, the children that is, at home. What used to happen was that one of us children would play teacher with the rest of us children playing students… I don’t remember teaching one of the classes but I just remember we used to play such school games.” **Presence of Text in the Environment** Being literate entails having the requisite skills for coding, decoding and interpreting messages conveyed in a particular society. Text must be available in the environment in order for learners to become literate. The first available text that participants in this investigation were exposed to was the oral word. And as they grew, they were told stories by parents, peers or other members of the community. Killam and Rowe (2000) argued that in Africa many of the traditional recitatives of clan lore – folk legends, songs, riddles, ancestral sagas, cautionary anecdotes, and heroic panegyrics – are integral to the life of the community. Therefore, the oral tradition is the first text that Malawian children come across in their introduction to the world of the literate. The participants in this study also came to listen to and know stories presented to them orally before they were able to see stories in print. Dalitso, for instance, recalled having listened to stories while young: “As for stories such as stories about animals, folktales, that is, these were told in the community. Such stories were quite common and I still remember them.” Benson also recalled the storytelling sessions he had in the home as a child: “My mother was a very good storyteller. Usually, she told us folktales in the evenings. In her storytelling, she had the ability to hold her audience spellbound. And from an early age I quickly picked up that element. As a result, whenever a storytelling session began in my class, I was the preferred candidate to kick it off. I should think that this was because I had lots of self-confidence derived from what I had learnt from my mother.” What could be seen as a variation of oral text within the environment was the presence of people who simply took it upon themselves to help the upcoming literate persons by engaging with them orally. The home use of the oral language by parents and siblings was the basis for the participants’ introduction to their mother tongue as their first medium of communication. However, besides interaction with peers who significantly influenced Dalitso’s literacy development, adults also played a role in helping learners polish their use of language that would be used in text. Benson explained how the presence of such interactive adults helped him advance significantly in his spoken English: “Well, you see, the time I was going to junior primary school was the very time Malawi had large numbers of American Peace Corps teaching in secondary schools. And so it happened that my primary school was closer to a secondary school where some of these people taught. Part of our fun as children was to taste our rudimentary English, learnt in junior primary school, on the American Peace Corps as they cycled to the secondary school. And they would respond to us. Now, the more they responded to us the more we got encouraged to engage them. With time, we moved from greeting them by the roadside and followed them into their homes. (laughter) I must say that these were people of generous heart because they were able to notice and become helpful when they realized that my friends and I were eagerly determined and fascinated to master the English language at such an early stage. So, whenever we got into their houses, they engaged us, they talked to us more in English. And I noticed that by the time we were getting to standard four and five, the level of English we had acquired was relatively higher than what an average Malawian child without exposure would ordinarily have. Therefore, I believe that that kind of kick start laid the foundation on which I built when I got into the upper classes in primary and secondary school.” The participants in this investigation surely needed a way of learning and perfecting their code breaking and interpreting skills as literate individuals. Therefore, while acknowledging the deprivations that might have been experienced as these participants grew up in an environment where, generally, print was in very short supply, they still recalled having had access to reading materials in the home as well as in the school set up. To begin with, Malawi is essentially a religious country with the majority being Christians belonging to different denominations, a good percentage belonging to the Islamic faith, and then a sizeable percentage of those who adhere to indigenous religious practices. The analysis revealed that as the participants were growing up, among the texts they found in their homes were religious literature. Joshua remembered the presence of the Bible in his home: “I recall being fascinated with listening to my mother as she read to herself. A leader in the women’s arm of her church congregation, she frequently read her Bible and wrote her sermons and teaching lessons’ outlines.” Sarah also recalled her mother reading stories to the children from a religious book: “However, whenever father was away, mother stepped in and read to us a story either from the Bible or from a bedtime children’s stories book.” In addition to the Bible, Lumbani remembered reading other religious materials: “By the time I reached grade five, I had enrolled with a Bible Correspondence College. As a result, I used to receive and read pamphlets and thereafter respond to questions that were sent to me from time to time. Besides, I was also a member of the Sunday school at my church where we used to get a lot of Christian pamphlets and leaflets which also engaged me a lot.” Another form of text available in the participants’ environment at the time the participants were growing up turned out to be newspapers. The most common newspaper that participants seemed to have while growing up was *Boma Lathu*. Benson said that “because we were always at a District centre, it was somewhat easy to access *Boma Lathu*, a national Government newspaper. We used to go to the Information Department to collect *Boma Lathu* for free.” Dalitso also recalled reading the same *Boma Lathu* newspaper while growing up: “You know, there used to be a monthly Government newspaper called *Boma Lathu*. My father received a copy of this newspaper every month. Each time a copy arrived, I read it from cover to cover.” And Joshua has the following to say about *Boma Lathu*: “There was also *Boma Lathu*, a free national Government newspaper published by the Department of Information. This newspaper covered development issues across the country as well as humorous anecdotes from around the country with eye-catching titles like ‘Man fights with a hyena’, and a not-so-wise slow-learning cartoon character called Ajojo. I got hold of copies by chance once in a while from those who were either on the publisher’s mailing list or were able to collect it from the Department of Information’s office at the distant district headquarters.” Besides *Boma Lathu*, other newspapers were also found in the homes at the time the investigation participants were growing up in their parents’ homes. Benson had the following recollections about the texts his father provided: “He brought home *Time Magazine, Newsweek Magazine, The Daily Times* as well as *Malawi News*. And from time to time, he bought books of general interest.” Although children’s storybooks were not a very common feature in the lives of these participants, school textbooks were at least available. Hence, school texts being the basic and almost only ready resource, teachers relied heavily on them when helping their students learn and develop reading and writing skills. When Emmie was a young child, she read books that were brought home by her father. However, she also said she was dependent on school textbooks: “During my early days I depended on my father to bring me stories to read. Other than that, I read school curriculum prescribed textbooks that were given to students in school. These books comprised Chichewa, English, and Mathematics textbooks. These were the books that, generally, I read.” From the literacy stories it is evident that, although print was in very short supply for the majority of Malawian children, some children were lucky in that they found themselves in the midst of an abundance of print. Dalitso was a representative of the latter group: “My parents being teachers, we had shelves full of books in the home. My father just let me read any book I wanted. In fact, he used to say that all the books on the shelves were mine. So, I had a wide choice when it came to what to read. Obviously, some of the books were quite advanced. As a result, I generally picked the ones I could easily follow. But with time, I also got to read even advanced books, ones that had higher vocabulary at an early age.” Benson also elaborately articulated the presence of text in his environment and the impact it had on him and his siblings: “You know, when my sisters went to secondary school, I was still in primary school then, and was curious to find out what they were doing in secondary school. So, whenever they came home they brought with them, certainly, more advanced books. I remember reading Camara Laye’s *The African Child* while I was in standard eight basically because of its availability in the home. The other literary works by respected African writers I got exposed to while in standard eight included *Cry the Beloved Country, The River Between* and *Things Fall Apart*. So, I got exposed to the kind of literature my sisters brought home… I benefited from my sisters and when I made it to secondary school, I was like the role model for my brothers. As such, anything of interest I brought home that was readable tended to be shared with my brothers. Therefore, they read more at the stage where I didn’t read much because I didn’t have too much to read… When I went to university, that is, books I never read myself were available to my brothers right at an early age for them. Particularly my last born brother… read a lot. You can imagine, even while in standard eight, he was pestering me about ‘who is this Plato in *The Republic*?’ ‘What is Mimesis?’” However, it was interesting to note that some parents, when taking their children around, used the text they found wherever they went as a means for helping their children’s literacy development get rooted. Emmie remembered her father doing the following whenever her family went traveling: “Whenever we were traveling he made us look at road signs and read billboards or posters.” For those participants who grew up with a library within their vicinity, they had quite a sizeable amount of print available to them besides school texts. Although the country as a whole fits into the description of being print-deprived, exceptions were (and still are) available. For instance, Sarah remembered starting primary education at a school that had a school library: “Providentially, the integrated primary school I attended from standard one to four had a school library which I frequented very much. But the public school I attended from standard five to eight did not have a library.” The school where Lumbani started his primary education also had a school library. In addition, the neighbourhood he lived in prided itself on having a public library. These two places provided the needed texts in the environment that greatly assisted in spurring Lumbani’s literacy development. He talked about these two places: “Although the primary school I went to had a school library, there was also a public library close to my home. And I used to read books from this public library.” One common denominator for Malawians who attend a secondary school or add a post-secondary school education is that they certainly find themselves in some abundance of text. All the participants in the study said that the secondary schools as well as colleges they went to had school libraries. The presence of these libraries provided an enormous volume of reading material and, thereby, tremendously added to the pace and progress of their literacy development. Benson made the following recollection regarding his secondary school library: “…the secondary school I went to had a beautiful well-stocked library. And my problem was that I felt I didn’t have enough time to (laughter) read everything I thought was of great interest.” Lumbani also had poignant recollections of the impact his secondary school library had on him in the following way: “Furthermore, the presence of a school library gave me additional impetus to read a lot. And my membership to the school’s Top of the Class team was extra fuel that energized me to read more. Consequently, due to my incessant borrowing of books from the school library, I was appointed by teachers to become the Library Prefect. And that made me read a great deal.” Some participants had neighbours with books which they kindly lent the young readers. For instance, Benson talked of a kind neighbour’s assistance: “We had a neighbour, a missionary woman, whom I deliberately befriended when I saw a big shelf of books in her house. I used to run errands for her and in return she used to lend me books. I would read a book a week, finish, go and collect a new one. Actually, I can say that between standard seven and eight, I read quite a bit.” Joshua also recalled benefiting from a neighbour who lent him books: “While in standard six, I also read Charles Dickens’ *David Copperfield* which I borrowed from our next door neighbour.” **Literacy Practices of Participants as They Grew Up** The analysis of the literacy stories unraveled a number of commonalities in terms of literacy development practices that the study participants engaged in as they were growing up. One practice that ran through the lives of the study participants was listening to stories. Being born and growing up in a culture that is rooted mostly in the oral tradition, it was just inescapable for the participants to get immersed in listening to stories. Stories were told in the home, in primary school, and in the community at large. While some of the stories were from children’s storybooks, others were from the Bible, and yet others were those handed down from generation to generation through the cultural oral tradition. Remembering the stories told in the home by her father and for how long she listened to them as a child, Emmie recalled: “I just remember that he read stories to us…I think I was a drop out somewhere around standard five or six. I stopped listening while the young ones continued listening to him read stories to them. At that time I was confident and felt I knew how to read. I considered listening to stories read by my father as something done by children.” Benson also related the storytelling times that prevailed in his home while he was a child: “My mother was a very good storyteller. Usually, she told us folktales in the evenings. In her storytelling, she had the ability to hold her audience spellbound.” Recalling his childhood, Dalitso remembered that he listened to “stories about animals, folktales, that is, these were told in the community. Such stories were quite common and I still remember them.” These six teacher educators indicated that they did a great deal of reading both in school as well as in the home. Sarah described her involvement in reading once she became a reader: “I got glued to books. And my becoming a registered member of the National Library Service catapulted me into a whole new world, that of books. In fact, each time I got books from the library I finished reading them the very day. The following day I would be urging my father to take my back to the library so that I could borrow another pile. And it was not uncommon to see me arguing with the librarian over the number of books I was borrowing because I always wanted to get more than the number I was permitted to get at any one time. I just wanted to read more.” Lumbani also fondly recalled his very strong affinity to books and text in general once he became a reader: “In junior primary school I was captivated by cartoons with Tintin being my favourite. However, when I moved into senior primary school my affinity went to Social Studies. Reading about Citizenship, Countries, and Government was what stimulated my reading appetite a great deal. While I was still in Zambia I also read a number of magazines the one I enjoyed reading the most was Obet. But here in Malawi, while in both primary and secondary school, Moni magazine was my favourite. Particularly I enjoyed reading the Chatsalira cartoon and the column titled Think Twice written by Selso Kalilombe.” When he went into secondary school education, he talked about the amount of reading that he did; “The presence of a school library gave me additional impetus to read a lot. And my membership to the school’s Top of the Class team was extra fuel that energized me to read more. Consequently, due to my incessant borrowing of books from the school library, I was appointed by teachers to become the Library Prefect. And that made me read a great deal. That is the time I moved into fiction. I went into reading James Hardly Chase’s novels. I also read Mark Twain’s books including *The Adventures of Tom Sawyer*. Francis Selormey’s *The Narrow Path*, plus *Weep Not Child* and *A Grain of Wheat* by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, are among the African Writers Series books published by Heinemann that I read this time.” Writing was another one of the practices that the participants engaged in as they entered the world of the literate. They started writing scribbles even before they entered primary education. Benson had the following recollections about his earliest practices in writing: “…it was quite common for me to write on the ground as we did not have much access to paper then… As indicated earlier, my earliest episodes in writing were done on the ground, particularly during the rain season when the ground was soft.” Dalitso talked further about how he got started as a writer: “Actually, with me writing started with simple drawings, patterns and then different images on sand.” When the participants started going to school, they also engaged in practices that entailed writing that enhanced their learning. They used to do a lot of classroom writing exercises. In primary school Sarah recalled that writing “was basically related to class work… that every time we were given something to read we knew that a writing exercise would follow.” Emmie had somewhat similar recollections of her earliest writing episodes: “As far as I can remember, I wrote whatever my teachers asked us to write. Even in the early days, say, in classes two, three and four, I always wrote what the teacher asked me to. I remember we wrote exercises. In primary school we usually answered comprehension questions based on a given passage. We also did some gap filling exercises as well as changing sentences from present tense to past tense, or some other grammar exercise. The practice was more or less the same in secondary school.” Lumbani’s early primary school writing experiences were also similar to those of Sarah and Emmie: “We used to write assignments. I remember quite well that we used to work in groups. In those days we used to receive all school textbooks in advance. As such, together with my group, we were able to figure out which assignments would be coming when. Therefore, my group members and I read and worked out the problems in advance, that is, before the day the exercises were to be done in class.” Most writing entailed copying lesson notes and writing of exercises that teachers marked and graded. Starting from early primary school right through senior primary school and secondary school, they copied notes that teachers gave them in all the content areas they studied. They also wrote exercises, usually daily. Among the writing practices were compositions. Benson captured his secondary school composition writing experience: “But when I got into secondary school, what was noticeable was that my compositions were always quite different from the rest of the class because of the kind of expressions I was able to bring into them. Usually, I had more advanced expression than the stage I was at. And I suppose this was basically due to the advanced reading I used to do. In fact, I remember my Form Two teacher telling me to slow down a bit because he felt I was getting too involved in fairly sophisticated writing before knowing the basics.” When the participants went to college, this practice of academic related writing continued as they went on to take notes during lectures and read various prescribed and related course texts plus journals. Course assignments and examinations were also some of the writing practices that all participants engaged in right through their academic lives. Of the six teacher educators, it was interesting to note that the two women did not engage in composing creative pieces or enjoy writing. Emmie said that “throughout my growing up I did not take the initiative to write things like short stories or poems. Anything I wrote was school related. The only things I personally took the initiative to write were letters I wrote friends and my father. Otherwise, even at university I did not write for pleasure.” Although Sarah at one point in secondary school wrote an essay on Kasungu Game Reserve as a tourist attraction, a piece that won her a consolation prize of notebooks and writing materials, she considered that the only serious kind of writing she ever did outside the classroom content area kind of related writing. Sarah says about herself: “I do not remember writing things just for the sake of writing as I read just for reading’s sake. My writing in school was basically related to class work… I grew up with the thought that one had to write on things that were worthwhile, things that would be appreciated by the teacher and would be graded. Therefore, as I grew up I suppose what became important to me was writing things that mattered, that is, things that were needed by my class teachers.” On the contrary, the male teacher educators were more likely to take the initiative and get involved in creative writing outside of school related writing practices. They were likely to engage in poetry and prose writing that was not teacher sanctioned. Joshua explained what he did in the following way: “But in standard five and six I had a teacher who brought story telling into the classroom… This led me to start writing stories of my own either documenting those told by my grandfather or my own creations. As a result, by the time I finished standard six, I had two eighty-page notebooks filled with my own created short stories… I basically wrote for myself. Even when I went to secondary school, I wrote a number of sketch plays that I didn’t show any teacher but simply narrated the plots to some close friends with whom I acted these stories out during Variety Show weekends… at university… I started writing a story that was completed after I graduated with my Bachelors. It is a 219 page story for late teens and young adults… I must say that while doing my Bachelors, I wrote four love poems. When I was studying for my master’s, I wrote four poems depicting my experience in a foreign land. Two of them were published in the University’s *Challenge* magazine. While studying for my doctoral degree, I wrote four poems, three of them for my professors in three courses that I took, expressing my sentiments about those courses.” Dalitso explained his getting into creative kind of writing right from senior primary school onwards: “However, in senior primary school, while still doing what I used to do in junior primary school I remember to have written few very short stories. I should think this came about because I used to read a lot of stories and sometimes just thought of creating one myself once in a while… What I remember writing in secondary school were class exercises, notes, and homework…. However, every once in a while I would write a poem… I went to university on sponsorship. I was told by my sponsored that they would sponsor me if I were to study Education with a Religious major. I could not even have chosen to do Sciences as my path was clearly stipulated. Therefore, outside academic writing, I independently wrote a few poems. But since I was not taking a Creative Writing course, I simply wrote for my friends. At the time I used to like going sight seeing, observe sunrise or sunset and nature. So, I wrote quite a lot on that.” Lumbani acknowledged that one of the most important influences on him was a secondary school teachers who ignited in him the quest for creative writing: One of the first pieces that I wrote and published in 1983, while I was in secondary school, is a short story entitled: ‘The Folly of Disobedience.’ And one of the unpublished ones that I still have is entitled: ‘Completely Alone in the World I Am.’ Besides, I also wrote some sketch plays… Basically, I wrote on moral issues, behaviour, that is. For instance, ‘The Folly of Disobedience’ is a story of a child who is raised up properly but who, later, starts misbehaving, loses his job and marriage all because he decided to disobey his parents’ good advice… At Chancellor College I found the Writers Workshop. This was a forum where writers gathered weekly to critique literary pieces presented for discussion. Upon my arrival I immediately became a member of the Writers Workshop… In terms of my writing, I now generally moved into poetry. As such, most of the pieces I contributed to the Writers Workshop were poems. Actually, one of the poems I contributed won a Delta Baxter Award in 1989. This award came with four hundred and twenty five Kwacha prize money. Although the amount is small by today’s standards, at the time it was quite considerable. That same poem has appeared this year in a new poetry anthology by Anthony Nazombe… In addition, during my time at university I was also a contributor to a university magazine called *The Harvester*. This one used to contain discussion of intellectual issues including literary works.” Benson also showed that he too got involved in creative writing early and in quite a sophisticated kind of way. In secondary school he mostly wrote short stories because at the time no Chichewa or English poetry was taught and the available literature was mostly prose: “That’s why my interest in poetry really flourished when I started university where there was a shift as I concentrated in poetry for some time before I later balanced up the two… Well, in secondary school, the kind of stories I wrote were, largely, instructive. They talked about students that were anti-establishments and how such students ended badly by losing an opportunity to continue with their education and so on… During my time, the secondary school I went to had a school magazine. And my contribution to the school magazine was usually short stories… I think during the first two or three years of university a larger part of my writing was poetry. The quarter bit of what I wrote was short stories I think. But by the time I got to the fourth and fifth year, I had struck equilibrium as it was now half-half. Yes. When a subject was better expressed in poetry, I tackled it poetically. However, if I thought the subject would be better managed in prose, I did it in a short story form… I suppose it is also worth mentioning that when I got to the university, I discovered that there was a kind of renaissance, people going back to Chichewa poetry, Chichewa short story writing. I must say that I became part of that renaissance… I do not have an anthology for those pieces I wrote in primary and secondary school but certainly for those in university. Actually, I have produced two anthologies. The first one was published in 1990 and the second one in 2001. They are both Chichewa pieces anthologies.” **Participants’ Perceptions of Literacy and Its Development** Because my participants were teacher educators, I was interested in their perceptions of literacy and its development. They expressed their views in terms of their own roles as parents as well as their roles as teachers. Speaking from the point of view of a parent, Benson’s articulated his perspective about literacy development: “Children should be encouraged to read more. You know, what reading does is that it opens up avenues to a lot of information that may be of interest to the child without even the mother or father knowing that the child is interested in such and such things. And by the time the child says, ‘I want to become a Medical Doctor,’ for instance, the parents can be sure that the choice is made from a position of reasonable knowledge other than sheer fantasy.” Joshua went further in describing parents’ contributions to children’s literacy development: “I would say that they should spare time to read or tell stories to their preschool and junior primary school children. That generates curiosity and interest in the children who are by nature inquisitive. Parents should also provide literacy material in the home so that children get to know the printed word before they are even able to read. In addition, parents should read in the home so that children can see the value of books and other printed texts. You know my son, for example, starting from the time he was able to walk and get to church with me, he used to carry a pocket Bible and hymn book. Whenever, the congregation was reading a text, or singing a hymn, he too would open his to some page, and sometimes his book would be upside down. But I guess that didn’t matter so long he too was in line with the rest of us. As such, my children never tore books or newspapers when they were young because I guess they considered them valuable. One thing that my parents didn’t do but I have done and urge other parents to do is to help their children with they reading and schoolwork in general. If we appear interested in their work and eager to help, children will realize that we value what they do and would work harder.” Thinking along the same lines, Lumbani, as a parent, gave the following perspective of literacy that parents need to have: “I think it is important for parents to provide a literacy rich environment within the home. Children should get to know books even before they start using them. It’s interesting that my children don’t tear books. They have got a lot of books in the home but not even the smallest child can tear a page. Instead, the child just takes a book, opens it, and closes it. This is a thing I find interesting. Therefore, if children are given an environment where there are books, magazines or newspapers in the home, you actually prepare them.” Dalitso’s viewed parents’ place in children’s literacy development as a crucial one: “I believe that even the illiterate or uneducated parents can still foster or encourage their children to read if they are only exposed to ways how they can encourage them. Actually, I have seen some parents, when I go to work with children and teachers in primary schools, who get books and give them to their children to read. Some parents even go to the extent of forcing their children to sit down and read…. Unfortunately, these parents don’t guide the children. They don’t create the curiosity in them. Such adults don’t trigger the interest to read in the children who unavoidably become bored. They become bored because they are forced to read by their parents and do not see the need for it in themselves. But I think that if parents were helped and led to see how they can facilitate the development of reading skills in their children, they could play an active role. Certainly, the initiative of children is important. However, this initiative of children needs the support of teachers at school and parents or guardians in the home situation to foster interest.” Teachers’ beliefs and philosophies have a direct bearing on their practice. Therefore, teachers’ perceptions of literacy influence what they do and how they relate to their students in the process of the teaching-learning encounter. The participants in this study expressed what they consider important things teachers must do to help children establish their foothold in literacy practices. For instance, Lumbani gave quite a comprehensive view of desired teacher practices alongside a snapshot of the Malawi school curriculum: “As for teachers, I think there are a lot of things that need to be done to ensure that children develop literacy wise. One such thing is that teachers should give assignments related to book reading in which children should give reports of what they have read to their classmates or teachers either orally or in writing. Another thing is making the classroom itself literacy rich. You know, the walls of most classrooms are just empty. Now, if teachers placed literacy materials, that is, wall hangings or posters related to subjects being studied or materials related to entertainment on the walls, that should reinforce some of the things that are covered in class and be reminders of aspects that would otherwise have been easily forgotten. “Our curriculum seems to emphasize the use of one standard book per subject. In other words, if students are not using that book they think that they are lost. But I wish our curriculum was one that invites or leads students to read any other sources. That would really assist in ensuring that they are not only stuck to one thing. In fact, the style of writing in one text may be repulsive to one student who may, therefore, not enjoy it. Hence, if given a variety of materials, it is possible that such a student would enjoy reading a different text which would certainly assist them in their literacy development. “In addition, I think one of the major things I would advise is that stories that students are exposed to should be captivating. Unfortunately, I find most of our books, especially those in primary school, wanting in this aspect. For instance, most of the poems found in the books are foreign in origin. Besides, the stories are not that captivating. I strongly think that we need to give children stories they can relate to. For example, poems or songs like ‘Twinkle twinkle little star’ were developed in a context different from ours. The point here is that things coming into the classroom at the initial stage of literacy development should be those coming from the children’s environment. This means, therefore, that we must come up with things that will easily make sense to the children.” Joshua also viewed teacher practices as being quite central in helping children’s literacy development. He illustrated what teachers need to bear in mind while carrying out their professional practice: “…children should not see learning as laborious but fun. Teachers should make every effort to make their lessons as involving as possible for children. They should also be ready to offer help to children who seem to be struggling because for most children the only help they get with their schoolwork is that which comes from teachers. Furthermore, children should be encouraged to read widely to broaden their view of the world they live in by giving them more reading material outside their prescribed curriculum texts. Teachers should involve children in oral and written activities because the only way children can develop their spoken language fluency is when they practice the language, probably having teachers themselves as role models. Moreover, teachers should give students a lot of meaningful written work to develop children’s writing competency.” In conclusion, the themes that emerged from the analysis of the six literacy stories of the selected Malawi teacher educators were not, for the most part, surprising. However, the themes do reinforce current knowledge about literacy development in general but more specifically the themes address the issues of becoming literate in a print-deficit culture. For example, the importance of parents, teachers, and siblings in literacy development was not surprising. On the other hand, the variation in the ways that the participants acquired literacy materials throughout their literacy development reinforced the need for resources in this context as teachers and teacher educators struggle with enhancing literacy practices. CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH In order to study the conditions that promote literacy development in a print-limited environment, I interviewed six Malawian teacher educators with master’s degrees. Whereas print and electronic texts are resources available for promoting literacy in many countries, Malawi, one of the poorest countries in the developing world in the southern part of Africa, has a scarcity of these resources. Furthermore, Malawi’s 56 percent literacy rate in a country of 12 million people does not paint an impressive picture. Beginning in 1994 primary school enrolment more than doubled from 1.6 million to over 3 million students due to the introduction of free primary education (National Statistical Office, 2002). Unfortunately, this increase in primary school enrolment has created a strain on the Malawi primary school education system because the influx did not come with an equal increase in teaching resources, classrooms, and teachers. The lack of teaching and learning resources has resulted in over 70 percent of those children who reach standard eight, leaving without having read anything other than their classroom texts while in primary school (Mchazime, 1994). Unless standard eight students go on to secondary school, it is very unlikely that would read any book after leaving primary school. From the interviews I developed six literacy stories presented in Chapter 4. From the analysis of those stories, six major themes emerged, which are explained in Chapter 5. The discussion of the findings in this chapter is in relation to the three specific research questions: (1) What were the influences that led to literacy development for these teacher educators in a country that is print-limited? (2) What kinds of experiences did these teacher educators have as children that led to literacy development in a country that is print-limited? (3) What were the personal relationships that evolved during the literacy development of these teacher educators? Following that discussion, implications for teacher education are proposed. Finally, suggestions for future research emerging from this study are also discussed. Discussion of the Findings Literacy acquisition is a complex developmental phenomenon that emerges from a combination of factors. However, certain conditions facilitated these individuals’ developing literacy. Some of the influences, experiences, and relationships remained constant across the phases of development from infancy and early childhood through tertiary education (see Table 1). Furthermore, other influences, experiences, and relationships emerged or became more or less pronounced for these participants’ literacy development in some phases of their lives than in others. Table 1: Interconnectedness of literacy development influences, experiences, and evolving relationships during a learner’s different development phases | Phase | Literacy Development Influences | Literacy Development Experiences | Evolving relationships | |------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Infancy – Early childhood | • People | • Home environment | • Text availability | • Meaningfulness | • Intrinsic motivation | • Oral language | • Listening to oral stories | • Being read to | • Interacting with print | • Scribbling | • Literacy games | • Mother | • Siblings | • Father | • Significant others | • Peers | | (ages 0-5) | | | | | Primary school | • People | • Text availability | • Meaningfulness | • Intrinsic motivation | • Home environment | • Oral language | • Storytelling | • Independent reading | • Being read to | • Reading along | • Writing class notes | • Answering questions | • Literacy games | • Singing alphabets songs | • Teachers | • Peers | • Siblings | • Father | • Mother | • Significant others | | (ages 6-13) | | | | | Secondary school | • People | • Text availability | • Intrinsic motivation | • Meaningfulness | • Home environment | • Oral language | • Content area reading | • Independent reading | • Answering questions | • Writing class notes | • Independent writing | • Teachers | • Peers | • Siblings | • Father | • Mother | • Significant others | | (ages 14-17) | | | | | Tertiary | • People | • Text availability | • Intrinsic motivation | • Meaningfulness | • Oral language | • Content area reading | • Independent reading | • Academic writing | • Independent writing | • Academic discussion | • Intellectual discussion | • Teachers | • Peers | • Significant others | • Siblings | • Father | • Mother | | (ages 18 +) | | | | Influences that Led to Literacy Development People were an indispensable influence in these learners’ literacy development. The term *people* refers to parents, siblings, peers, teachers and significant others that the learner interacts with. These people not only made the initial connections to literacy but also turned out to be both sources and targets of interactions. The presence of people, specifically parents and siblings, was particularly crucial in the early literacy development stages because it is the time the learner is mostly dependent on others for text availability and introduction to requisite literacy skills of reading and writing (Leseman & de Jong, 1998). It is people who provide the context, content, and reason for a learner’s connection to literacy as they are the ones who connect the learner to the world of literacy. They share stories that may or may not contain cultural nuances the learner needs to know. The significance of these interactions, as argued by Purcell-Gates (2002), is that forms of oral language associated with literacy are orally transmitted and, once acquired, facilitate the acquisition of literacy-related skills and success in formal education. Parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and significant others play their role in influencing a learners literacy development. The findings suggested that, generally, parents who are literate make every effort to ensure that their children become literate too (Bus, van Ijzendoorn & Pellegrini, 1995; Lancy, Draper, & Boyce, 1989; Morrow, 1983; Teale, 1978). Except for one, the parents of these participants were literate. Furthermore, all parents saw to it that their children went to school and had literacy development resources or access to such resources. For example, besides bringing books and newspapers home, Sarah’s father personally introduced her to a public library. Lumbani’s father also provided library membership fees so that his son could use the facility. In addition to setting standards they wanted their children to attain, these parents complemented teachers’ role as they helped their children with homework or simply added to what teachers had already done in school. In this study, Emmie’s father, for example, often helped his children do their homework while they were in primary school. While Emmie was in secondary school, all the letters she wrote her father were read and meticulously marked for language and punctuation errors. Siblings and peers played an influential role in these participants’ literacy development. For example Lumbani arrived in Malawi from Zambia, where he had been born, and started school already in senior primary school without knowing how to read and write Chichewa, the Malawian national language. Lumbani was taught to read and write Chichewa by brothers and peers and not by teachers or parents. Another fascinating example of peer influence was Dalitso. Because Dalitso’s parents were both primary school teachers one might have expected that they would introduce him to English. However, Dalitso was introduced to the English language by sons of an English speaking, white family that lived next door. His oral interactions while playing with these peers when he was an infant enabled Dalitso to become a fluent English speaker before he could even write a sentence in his own vernacular. Older siblings were also a great influence on younger children. Some of the siblings took time to provide instruction that was helpful in enabling a learner become literate. Other siblings actually provided literacy development resources. For instance, Benson aspired so much to be able to read like his elder sisters who helped him out with his alphabet and figures. In addition, when he became a reader, he always desired and managed to read what his sisters were reading. As such, while he was still in primary school, he was reading secondary school materials brought home by his sisters whenever school was on recess. Likewise, when he himself went to secondary school and thereafter to university, he encouraged his younger brothers to read what he himself had been exposed to, a thing that greatly assisted in accelerating his younger brothers’ literacy development as well. However, literacy development for some of these participants occurred outside the learner’s immediate family circle. In this study where parents were unable to provide printed text, significant others stepped in and performed the role of provider of text. One example was a missionary lady who lived in Benson’s neighbourhood when he was still in primary school. She lent Benson her personal books over a period of years because at the time Benson’s father was at the time unable to buy books. Likewise, Joshua was introduced to the world of English literature through the writings of Charles Dickens, which were lent to him by a neighbour. Teachers were also a vital influence in these participants’ literacy development. However, teachers played different roles as these learners moved through the literacy development process. One such critical role was that of helping learners connect with print through reading and writing. Joshua acknowledged that at home neither his parents nor siblings introduced him to numbers and letters. He started school as a non-reader. The teachers in junior primary school were the ones who helped him learn his numbers and letters. Similarly, it was the encouragement and support that teachers gave to Limbani, Joshua, and Benson, as they developed their writing skills, that has enabled them to published some of their poems and stories for which they have won awards. The home environment was another influence in literacy development. For these participants the importance of early environment for later development and academic success was evident. Factors such as parents’ educational level, the use of print in the home, the availability of print in the home, and the frequency of child-parent storytelling or story reading sessions were a significant plus in these learners’ literacy development. Purcell-Gates (2002) asserted that print knowledge results from explicit focusing on as well as teaching by parents within the context of home literacy activities. In the same vein, Lancy, et al. (1989) contended that children who receive instruction from parents in letter naming score higher on tests of letter recognition than those who do not. The parents in this study, while facilitating the establishment of a conducive literacy developing home environment for their children, also made sure that their children started formal schooling as early as possible. In this study, all parents made the home environment literacy development friendly. For instance, the parents saw to it that their children had print whether bought by themselves or borrowed from public libraries. In half of the families, parents actively took a personal interest in their children’s learning to read and write by, sometimes, taking up the teacher role. They either instructed or checked what their children had done in school. Because parents were seen reading in the home, older children read as well and, in due course, the younger ones joined in too. In four of the families, story reading and storytelling were a common feature as well. The reading done in the home by parents and siblings greatly influenced Sarah who also eventually became an avid reader. Likewise, the spectacular way in which Benson’s mother told stories in the home greatly influenced Benson who also mesmerized his peers in school with his wonderful storytelling and today has established himself as a nationally celebrated poet and storyteller. Both of these participants ascribed much of their literacy development to the influence of their home environment. Purcell-Gates (2002) contended that the many ways in which children experience and learn from home literacy practices suggests that these practices are facilitative of later literacy achievement in school and at least some of the difference in literacy achievement among children can be explained by different experiences with print in their homes. Availability of text was another essential influence and component of the literacy development process. Living in a world of print has a positive influence on a child’s path to becoming literate persons (Allington, 2002; Purcell-Gates, 2002; Ohanian, 2000; Graves, 2001). However, for that interaction to occur, text in its varied forms must first and foremost be available. It did not matter where the text came from or who provided it. What was important was that text, whether oral or print, was available as these participants gained literacy. For example, the oral text that these learners interacted with through storytelling connected them to the concept of story. Parents, teachers, peers, and significant others told stories. Although these people’s reasons for telling stories and their storytelling techniques as well as types and sources of their stories were different, they told stories which the learners interacted with. In addition to the oral text, the learner must also interact with the printed word. The printed text came through storybooks as well as school content area textbooks. In this study, all the participants recalled their interaction with print as going far back to their earliest childhood. Half the study participants were read to at home. Once the participants learned how to read, they interacted with print through books, magazines, newspapers, and religious leaflets. These interactions took place at home, in class at school, and in libraries. The reading materials were provided by parents, teachers, siblings, and significant others in the community or sourced by learners themselves whenever such opportunities arose. Intrinsic motivation was another crucial influence on literacy development. Guthrie and Wigfield (2002) argued that motivation is crucial to engagement because motivation is what activates behaviour. It is obvious that no one eats on another person’s behalf. Each individual must eat so as to pacify the pangs of hunger that grip him. Likewise, learners have an important role in their own literacy development. It is crucial that learners have a good amount of intrinsic motivation in order for them to move forward on the literacy development path. The findings in this study suggested that learners progress a lot when they put a lot of effort into their learning experiences. For example, Dalitso enjoyed learning science so much that he found from within himself the energy to keep replicating at home the experiments that were done in school. Also Guthrie and Wigfield (2002) contended that intrinsic motivation refers to the dual qualities of enjoyment or interest in performing an activity, such as reading, and the disposition or intention to participate in the activity when it is appropriate. Learners read a lot because either they enjoy what they read or they want to please parents or teachers who have requested them to read particular texts. The more such learners read the more they get to know more and want to read more. With time, such learners turn into persons who get lost in the world of print. The experience of Sarah when she established her foothold in reading is a case in point. She plunged herself into any book that she got hold of whether from the library or brought home by her parents. One day she became so engrossed in reading one of the biology books that her parents had hidden from the children that she did not hear her parents drive into the yard and only knew about their presence when the father asked her what she was doing in their bedroom. This strong desire of wanting to know is what enabled her turn into an avid reader in life. Another example of intrinsic motivation was that of Benson who started mesmerizing his classmates and peers with his storytelling skill before he started writing stories and poems of his own. Because he wanted to become a writer and poet, he learned the strategies employed by writers and poets as he read other people’s literary works while going through primary school, secondary school, and university. Even when a secondary school teacher advised him to slow down because his writing style had become sophisticated, he did not but continued writing creative pieces because writing was to him just as enjoyable as reading had become. However, two of the participants reported deriving no enjoyment from writing that was not required by school. They were not intrinsically motivated to developed creative writing skills and even as adults find it difficult to engage in creative writing. Meaningfulness of the literacy development practices was another one of the influential factors in the process. Allington (2002), Purcell-Gates (2002), Ohanian (2000), Graves (2001), and Wells (1986) argued that children learn faster when they are presented with activities and concepts that show that what they are doing is relevant to their day to day life. Whatever the learner engages in, there must be some meaning the learner can draw from the experience. It may be that the learner engages in reading or writing certain things because a parent or teacher has said so and the learner complies so as to avoid being regarded as disobedient if they do not. For example, Emmie said that she essentially went through school and college prescribed texts just because the teachers said she should. As such, she hardly spent time reading for pleasure and never engaged in writing any creative work just for the joy of it. She neither read nor wrote for pleasure because she saw no reason for doing that since such pieces were not part of the things teachers asked her to write. However, other participants reported that getting lost in the world of print or writing for pleasure was part of their literacy development. Sarah, for example, found reading meaningful because her father had told her that if she read she would know things that her teachers knew because what the teachers taught in class came from the very books that were available to her in the home. Benson, while still in primary school, found meaning and delight in reading books that his older sisters brought home from secondary school. Part of the meaningfulness for him was understanding the books his sisters had also read. What seemed crucial to literacy development, though, was that irrespective of the types of literacy encounters, meaningfulness kept the learners engaged and wanting to continue. In summary, these findings suggested that there were influential and complementary conditions that supported the literacy development of these participants. However, there were different permutations of how the essential elements came together. For instance, while the availability of text was critical for supporting the learners’ literacy, the source or the supplier of the text could be parents, siblings, teachers or any significant other person in the community. In addition, whereas having parents who were themselves highly literate facilitated the literacy process for these participants, the literacy stories suggested that learners whose parents were illiterate could become highly literate if other conditions. **Literacy Development Experiences** Learners go through a progression in their literacy development. This progression involves sequentially interconnected experiences that embrace infancy, early childhood, junior primary, senior primary, secondary, and adulthood. The participants in the study had access to such experiences. These literacy development experiences can be categorized as home or family experiences, experiences with peers, school experiences, and away from home experiences (see Figure 1). The *home* or immediate family circle is where a learner’s literacy development process begins (Leseman & de Jong, 1998). The home environment is where they learn their first language, which becomes their initial medium of communication in the literacy development process. All the participants in this study had this foundational cornerstone of literacy experiences. They learnt to speak and understand the inherent cultural nuances of their first language from parents and siblings. However, in half of the participants’ families, parents spoke to their children in English to encourage them to speak English, which gave them the opportunity to practice using the English language they were learning in school. It was also at home where the participants heard their first stories, which were generally told by parents. While some of the stories were oral folktales, others were taken from storybooks or the Bible and read to the children. For the study participants storytelling generated an interest in stories and also the ability to tell and eventually, for some like Benson, Lumbani, and Joshua, to write stories of their own. Another home environment literacy experience was the participants’ interaction with print. It was at home where they first saw and learned to value the printed word. Dalitso, Sarah, Emmie, and Benson agreed by saying that because they grew up in homes where there were substantial numbers of books that were valued by parents and siblings, they also came to highly value print as well. This is in agreement with what Morrow (1983) asserted that children exposed to books early and frequently become aware that printed words have sounds, and they recognize that print carries meaning. As the study participants were read to at home, they came to experience knowledge and the different worlds that exist only in books. It was also at home where these study participants started reading independently after they became readers. Although, a lot of reading had to do with school work, they also read books, magazines, and newspapers of their choice. Cunningham and Allington (1994) said that children need to be engaged in meaning-seeking communication activities and be guided through a variety of activities that increase their competence and develop their metacognitive awareness of what they are actually trying to achieve as they read independently. The study participants recalled home as being the place they experienced getting lost in books. All the study participants agreed that they had their first writing experience at home. Of course, this writing was in the form of sketches and drawings before they came to write letters and words. Benson and Dalitso recalled the times they were writing, sketching, and drawing in the sand. Four of the study participants knew how to write letters of the English alphabet before they started school. In fact, two of them were able to write their names by the time they started primary school. The participants first held and scribbled with pens and pencils on paper at home before they started going to school. The study participants also went through literacy development experiences while interacting with peers and siblings. One common experience was playing school with peers from the neighbourhood after classes or when school was on recess. They also played literacy games like a rope skipping game that involved spelling a word that had been called out. All the participants played these and other games. Actually, Lumbani recalled that he together with some close friends among classmates formed a group that always worked together in class related activities. This group worked in advance on sections of content areas that were yet to be covered in class, a thing that helped him and his group be ahead of their classmates in class work. A learner also comes to develop competence in language use by interacting with peers (Kamhi & Catts, 1998). What might be viewed as an extreme example is that of Dalitso who started learned speaking English from peers who were children of the next door family neighbours. Just through interaction during playing times Dalitso picked up the English language and was able to sustain a meaningful animated conversation in this language way before he even started school. Furthermore, the study participants also had a lot of literacy development experiences while in school. Duffy (1982) suggested that reading instruction ought to consist of spontaneous, joyful and creative encounters with print. Two of the participants first learned their letters and numbers in school. At school, participants listened to stories told by both teachers and fellow students. They also interacted a lot with print particularly in content areas as they read through school textbooks during read aloud, read along, and silent reading sessions. Imbedded in the school literacy development experiences were writing related ones. There were a lot of answering both oral and written comprehension, mathematics, and other content areas questions. These were done virtually every day in school. The participants in this study recalled that almost every time a teacher gave a reading exercise, almost automatically what followed were comprehension questions. Likewise, every time a teacher demonstrated on the chalkboard how a particular mathematics problem could be solved, what followed were several problems that they had to solve showing all the appropriate calculations clearly written down step by step. During these times, there were also occasions when learners marked and graded work of fellow students, a thing that was done after the teacher had given and written expected answers on the chalkboard. Later on, particularly in secondary school years, some participants ended up writing creative pieces for school magazines. In college, half of the participants wrote short stories and poems for magazines and newspapers as well as for critiquing at a writers’ club forum. Another experience the participants had in school was that of singing songs that had some content area message in them. They sang, for instance, the English alphabet song as well as the Chichewa language vowel and consonant song. This meant that while the learners enjoyed the vocal and animated singing they went through, what was of greater value beside the enjoyment they derived from the singing was that through the singing they were able to learn their alphabets without the conscious realization they were doing so. Oral language usage experiences were also had in school. Story telling was one of such experiences that participants had. There were occasions when students listened to their classmates tell stories. Most of these stories were folktales. Sometimes, the participants took part in poetry recitals, which took place mostly at the end of a school academic year. Two of the study participants recalled taking part in classroom storytelling sessions as well as doing poetry recitals at the end of the school year’s farewell function. Finally, participants also had some literacy development experiences away from both home and school. Actually, Sarah and Emmie recalled that, while driving with the rest of their families to some tourist attraction sites, they engaged in reading road signs as they went driving past them. There were times when these study participants interacted with significant others in their communities. Benson recalled visiting with American Peace Corps volunteers who were in the neighbourhood teaching at a nearby secondary school. The basic reason for visiting with them was to practice his spoken English language on them, a thing that helped him to significantly improve his knowledge and usage of the English language. Evolving Relationships The findings of this study suggested that a learner’s literacy development depends on evolving relationships that are dynamic because they change over time as the learner goes through the different developmental phases. The involvement of parents, family members, and significant others was not necessarily the same because at each point some relationships tended to be more involved than others (see Table 1). The phases were categorized as before the child goes to school, when the child starts to school, and as the child advances in school. Before the child goes to school. This category encompasses two phases: the infancy phase followed by the childhood phase. During the infancy phase, it is family members who interact with the child in the home. In the Malawian cultural setting, it is generally the mother and siblings who spends more time with the child, than does the father during infancy. As such, it is the mother and older siblings who provide most of the oral text to the child during the infancy phase. Whereas the mother talks to, plays with, and even sings lullabies to the baby, the father is hardly anywhere in the picture. However, during the early childhood literacy acquisition stage, the child’s siblings and the father, in somewhat a small way, come into the picture as they talk and play with the child. Purcell-Gates (2000) pointed out that during this preschool stage a child learns the natures, characteristics, and language forms from family members. At this point it is worth noting that the home is an essential locus of learning about print for young children. When the child starts to school. This phase principally embraces the duration of the learner’s formative years, that is, the years spent in junior primary school. During this phase the mother-child relationship remains very strong as she is the care provider in terms of nutrition and emotional support. This is also the time the father-child relationship begins to pick up momentum. The father, who is generally the breadwinner, has the role of provider of resources. In this study, it was the study participants’ fathers who brought home books, newspapers, magazines and paid school fees. During this stage the father also provided the learner with sources of text such as libraries. The guardian flavour in the father-child relationship was pronounced in this phase too. For example, when Limbani’s started going to school, it was his father who accompanied and got him enrolled in school. During this period, the mother-child relationship started taking a backseat in influencing the literacy development of a child while the father-child relationship grew stronger. Moreover, what was noticeable in these Malawian teacher educators’ literacy stories was that the home was the base that supported literacy development throughout primary school. It was generally parents who sourced text for the children. All the study participants, in their stories recalled that they had a lot of literacy development experiences in the home as they all seemed to remember much regarding their parental, siblings, peers, and significant others’ contribution. However, all the participants recalled that primary school experiences were things to do with tedious routine class exercises, like gap filling, answering comprehension questions, copying notes written by the teacher on the chalkboard, and sometimes round robin reading sessions. Almost everything was school or examination related, and there was hardly anything done for pleasure. Those who wanted to venture into creative writing generally did so without much support from the primary schooling system. It should also be noted that during this stage, teachers became part of the scene. Teachers were the ones who introduced the children to the formal world of schooling, books, numbers, as well as foreign languages. They introduce the learner to school literacy, which is most useful beyond the home and immediate community. As far as their learning was concerned, learners during this phase established a stronger relationship with their teachers, while the relationship with parents weakened. This new relationship seemed to be an outcome of spending longer time with teachers than with parents, siblings and significant others. As the child advances in school. This is a phase that includes senior primary, secondary school, college and beyond. The findings in this study suggested that mother-child and father-child relationships relaxed more and more as the child grew. As these participants became readers and writers, they started becoming more and more independent as they, in a way, sought to detach themselves from parental strings. For example when Emmie reached a stage when she was able to read for herself, she stopped listening to her father’s evening story reading sessions in the home. Her reason for doing that was that since she was now able to read on her own, she saw no reason to continue listening to her father reading stories to the children. Furthermore, when these learners entered secondary school, the school took over the responsibility from home as the support base for the learner’s literacy development. Secondary schools provided literacy texts ranging from content area textbooks to works of fiction as well as newspapers and magazines. In secondary school the learners were actually encouraged to get involved in literacy development activities like English drama and debate clubs which were aimed at helping learners polish their spoken English language. The presence of writers’ clubs also assisted immensely. In this period of literacy development, it was teachers who had a lot more influence on the learners. During this phase learners spent more time in contact with teachers than with their parents. For instance, when Joshua went into secondary school, he relied on his teacher of English for texts because the latter had engaging books. This was also the time that learners provided support to others while they also received assistance from others with their literacy development. For example, when Benson was getting support from his teachers in college, every time he went back home, he shared his texts with his younger brothers who derived much pleasure from reading these texts their elder brother was studying at university. Implications for Teacher Education A number of issues emerging from the study have noticeable implications for teacher education. It appears that the classrooms should be a platform where there are a lot of literacy experiences that learners should interact with (Routman, 2002). There must be a lot of reading, talking and writing. Bearing in mind that both oral and written language are only perfected through practice, it is imperative that classrooms must be awash with meaningful speaking and writing experiences. In this study, Sarah acknowledged that her English language fluency had much to do with the engaging classroom activities she had experienced particularly in early primary school. In addition, teacher educators should serve as models for teacher trainees. In other words, what teacher educators do in their interaction with teacher trainees must mirror what the teacher trainees are to become when they take their place in the classroom. In the study, Joshua, Benson, and Lumbani point to teachers who had lasting impact on their lives because of what they did. Those wonderful teachers provided the desired encouragement and were themselves splendid role models. For instance, Benson strongly aspired to become a writer upon seeing that his teacher was publishing in local newspapers and magazines very captivating stories. He has published several stories and poems in both international and national journals and magazines as well as national newspapers. He also became a teacher educator hoping to inspire teacher trainees. One of the important implications for teacher education is that teacher educators should display professionalism and encourage teachers to set high standards for themselves. Teacher educators must demonstrate that they are avid readers, resourceful, creative and interactive professionals if prospective teachers are to acquire these characteristics of a caring literate adult and display the same to their prospective students. By writing literacy stories of their own, teacher educators would not only learn about their literacy experiences from such a self-reflection but also provide a model for their prospective teachers. Such a process would inform the teacher educator’s practice. Similarly, in order to enable prospective teachers to understand how they developed their own literacy, teacher education programs could have them write their literacy autobiographies. Such reflection could help them identify factors that influenced their own literacy development. Drawing from their personal experiences and the experiences that their colleagues share, prospective teachers would then be able to better appreciate the variety of factors that enhance literacy development. Listening to oral stories was one of the earliest literacy development experiences that some of these study participants engaged in and enormously enjoyed. However, it was noted that some of the study participants’ parents did not tell them stories. The implication here for teacher education is to imbued in teacher training curricula an oral literature component. Since oral stories are part and parcel of Malawi’s cultural heritage, it is appropriate that this rich body of literature is brought into the classroom. Story telling sessions would be just as engaging in the classrooms as they are in the homes and communities and thereby greatly contribute to learners literacy development. It is also important to note that, for those children who, unfortunately, come from homes where no story telling sessions take place, having story telling sessions in the classroom would provide such experiences for literacy development. The study also suggests that the participants did a lot of reading in their homes because somehow print was available. But understanding that for the majority of children in a print-limited environment access to print in the home is difficult because some parents cannot afford to purchase such resources, teacher educators should expose teacher trainees to the tenets of storybook writing. With such knowledge, teacher trainees should be in a position to create their storybooks, which may then be used in class. An added advantage is that such stories would be culturally relevant to the community and school environment. This kind of writing ensures that the teacher has a resource for teaching that is also capable of capturing the interest of the children. Another helpful strategy is that of helping students write their own stories, which are then used as a learning resource in class. In this study, Dalitso and Benson very strongly advocated this approach. The contribution of this kind of writing that is done by students themselves to their literacy development cannot be overemphasized. Not only will the classroom have more reading materials but also the connections between reading and writing will promote students’ literacy development. While ensuring that resources are created within the classroom environment, this practice will also dispel the myth that writing is a domain of some people with out-of-reach abilities. There is another important aspect of writing that would be helpful in literacy development in a country like Malawi. To begin with, Malawian writers hardly write for children. These writers should take the challenge of producing works that are as captivating as they are entertaining and relevant to the cultural world of Malawian children. The teacher educators in this study agreed that most of the content areas books and storybooks have an underlining cultural perspective that is basically alien because the books came from alien cultures. As such, it is not surprising that children do not feel attracted to read because the reading material does not connect with them. Teacher educators need to become proactive in not only assisting teacher trainees in developing culturally appropriate materials but also to develop awareness of the impact of such culturally inappropriate materials on the literacy and content learning of students. The participants in this study acquired a variety of reading materials from parents and significant others. Teacher educators should promote strategies that lead to the use of locally available print resources like old magazines or newspapers. While it is hoped that eventually, texts would be available for students in all content areas, even then additional reading materials would need to be provided so that classroom in Malawi would truly reflect an environment that promoted literacy. Therefore, writing is certainly important in an environment where print is scarce. Besides promoting thinking, analysis, subject matter retention, and writing skills development, writing also makes available to the learners culturally relevant teaching resources. As such, the importance of writing to literacy development can and should not be underestimated. The emergence in Malawi of organizations that promote literacy development, including the Girls’ Attainment in Basic Literacy and Education (GABLE), and the Malawi Government’s implementation of the Free Primary Education concept, attest to the need for and importance of literacy development. Perhaps that is a strong indication that early primary school education should concentrate on literacy development. Currently, the primary school curriculum is characterized by a fragmented delivery of content, for example there are time slots for science, mathematics, social studies, and Chichewa. The focus in the teaching of these subjects is on specific content that will be on end-of-term and end-of-year examinations. Such an emphasis on memorizing content leaves little time for developing literacy skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Shifting the emphasis to literacy within the teaching of the content would provide learners with more extensive opportunities to practice with language and interact with text, which is essential and crucial in literacy development (Their, 2002). Therefore, teacher educators need to understand how to develop curriculum and instruction that integrates content teaching with literacy development. Considering that literacy is the key to national development, this study suggests that primary school teachers neither read a lot themselves nor read a lot to their students. This may be the case because teachers are themselves not hooked on reading and, consequently, do not know how to become their students’ reader role models. By extension, the study also suggests that teachers do not read to their students, perhaps because they do not know how to read aloud dramatically nor do they understand the value of reading aloud in literacy development. Primary school teacher educators should include in the teacher preparation programs both theory and practice in reading aloud as an essential support for literacy development. **Suggestions for Further Research** The purpose of this study was to find out the literacy stories of six teacher educators who became highly literate in a print-limited country. While these six stories provided useful information, it could be worthwhile to interview more teacher educators to see whether the findings in this investigation would be similar or different to those in a study involving a much larger study population. These participants appeared to have more economic advantages than many in the general population. Therefore, studying a larger population might shed light on whether there are other important factors that promote literacy in such an environment. Further research with people in other professions such as lawyers, medical doctors, engineers, accountants, politicians, journalists, and bankers might help to see if their literacy development stories have similarities or differences with those of teacher educators. This study was qualitative and used a purposefully small, similar sample. Using the results from this study, a questionnaire could be developed and administered to a larger population of people that included different professions and cultural backgrounds. The findings of such a quantitative study could help educators understand the range of literacy development in Malawi. One of the findings of this study was that a child’s parents were a vital influence in their literacy development. In the context of this study all the participants grew up in homes where their fathers assumed direct responsibility for their upbringing. However, in some Malawian cultural settings, such as the Lomwe of the Southern Region and the Chewa of the Central region of the country, a child’s uncle’s influence overrides that of the child’s father. As such, a study that investigated how this uncle’s cultural influence comes to bear on one’s literacy development could provide more information for teachers and teacher educators as they develop instruction for schools in those areas. Currently, Malawi is grappling with the HIV and AIDS pandemic. One of the sad effects of this on the children is that many are being orphaned at a very young age. One study may be conducted on orphans who happen to be looked after by relatives. Another one may be on those orphans who happen to be in orphanages. And yet another study may be a comparative study of the two groups. The aim of such studies would be to find out how these children develop literacy in the absence of their biological parents. Another possible research avenue would be studying literacy development influences of current Standard 8, Form 2 or Form 4 students, who have achieved literacy. Such students would have come through public schooling under the free primary education introduced in 1994, which is currently being blamed for low standards because of large numbers and few resources. It would be enlightening to find out their literacy stories and the influences that contribute to literacy development in the current environment. Malawi, like other African cultures, is rich in oral literature. A study that looks into the use of story telling in school to enhance literacy development would be worthwhile. A comparative study could be made of two early primary school groups, one in which storytelling is used and another where no storytelling is used. A study of this nature could enlighten and inform teacher education on the place of storytelling in the school and, if seen to be significant, how storytelling could be incorporated into the primary school teacher preparation curriculum and the primary school curriculum to help with children’s literacy development. In this study two of the six participants had learnt English prior to entering school. Three of them learned English concurrently with Chichewa in school, and one learned Chichewa in standard six. However, all eventually became proficient in both English and Chichewa. In Malawi, the education policy is that students will learn to read and write in their vernacular prior to beginning to learn English. However, in practice most Malawi primary schools begin some English instruction in standard one. Currently, Malawi primary school education is experimenting with Breakthrough to Literacy concepts where children’s literacy is developed first only through their vernacular. Given the incongruence between public education policy, school curriculum, and the interest in Breakthrough to Literacy, more research should be conducted on the effects of learning English at different stages and with different approaches in primary school. Replicating this study in another developing country, such as in the Southern Africa region would also be an area of investigation. Such a study would look into literacy development stories of six teacher educators of a chosen country. It would be enlightening to see the influences and experiences of the participants of such a study and to see the nature of the similar and differences. **Summary** This study investigated factors that influence literacy development in an environment that is print-limited. Literacy development stories of six Malawian educators were collected and analyzed. The study suggests that literacy development is influenced by people, text availability, home environment, school environment, a learner’s intrinsic motivation, and dynamic relationships. During the literacy development process, the learner goes through different interconnected phases from early childhood to adulthood. The study also suggests that there are different experiences that a learner goes through that play a significant role in a learner’s literacy development process. Furthermore, as the learner interacts with people, text, peers and all other influences, the intensity of relationships changes with time. The learner moves from being totally dependent to independent with some element of interdependence. Furthermore, the participants in this investigation represented a highly literate group of people in a print-limited country. In a country of 12 million people, their literacy level represents a small minority. Nevertheless, their literacy stories can be used to inform teacher educators as they develop curriculum and course work that focuses on literacy acquisition in primary education. REFERENCES Abbs, P. (1976). *Root and blossom: Essays on the philosophy, practice and politics of English teaching*. London: Heinemann. Adams, M. J. (1994). *Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Allington, R.A. (2002). *Big brother and the national reading curriculum: How ideology trumped evidence*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Allor, J. & McCathren, R. (2003). Developing emergent literacy skills through storybook reading. *Intervention in School and Clinic, 39*(2), 72-79. Anderson, K. & Jack, D.C. (1991). Learning to listen: Interview techniques and analyses. In S.B. Gluck & D. Patai (Eds.), *Women’s words: The feminist practice of oral history* (pp. 11–26). New York: Routledge. Anderson, V. (1992). A teacher development project in transactional strategy instruction for teachers of severely reading-disabled adolescents. *Teaching and Teacher Education, 8*, 391–403. Anderson. V. & Roit, M. (1993). Planning and implementing collaborative strategy instruction for delayed readers in grades 6–10. *Elementary School Journal, 94*, 121–37. Baker, C. and Luke, A. (1991). *Towards a critical sociology of reading pedagogy*. Philadelphia: Johns Benjamins. Baxter Magolda, M. B. (1999). *Creating contexts for learning and self-authorship: Constructive-development pedagogy*. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press. Behar, R. & Gordon, D. A. (Eds.). (1995). *Women writing culture*. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Bhola, H.S. (1989). International literacy year: A summons to action for universal literacy by the year 2000. *Education Horizons, 67*, 62–67. Borland, K. (1991). “That’s not what I said”: Interpretive conflict in oral narrative research. In S.B. Gluck, & D. Patai (Eds.), *Women’s words: The feminist practice of oral history*. (pp. 63–75). New York: Routledge. Bredo, E., (2000). Reconsidering social constructivism: The relevance of George Herbert Mead’s interactionism. In D.C. Phillips (Ed.), *Constructivism in education*. (pp. 127–157). Chicago: Chicago University Press. Britton, J. (1981). English teaching: Prospect and retrospect. *English in Education, 15*(2), 2-10. Brooks, J. G. & Brooks, M. G. (1999). *In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms*. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Brown, R., Pressley, M., Van Meter, P., & Schuder, T. (1996). A quasi-experimental validation of transactional strategies instruction with low-achieving second grade readers. *Journal of Education Psychology, 88*, 18-37. Bus, A. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Pellegrini, A. D. (1995). Joint book reading makes for success in learning how to read: A meta-analysis on intergenerational transmission of literacy. *Review of Educational Research, 65*(1), 1-21. Chall, J. C. (2002). *The academic achievement challenge*. New York: Guilford Press. Chamberlain, M. (2000). The global self: Narratives of Caribbean migrant women. In T. Cosslett, C. Lury, & P. Summerfield (Eds.), *Feminism and autobiography: Texts, theories, methods.* (pp. 154-166). London: Routledge. Chanfrault-Duchet, M. (2000). Textualisation of the self and gender identity in the life-story. In T. Cosslett, C. Lury, & P. Summerfield (Eds.), *Feminism and autobiography: Texts, theories, methods.* (pp. 61-75). London: Routledge. Clandinin, D.J. & Connelly, F. M. (2000). *Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research.* San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Cochran-Smith, M. (1986). Reading to children: a model for understanding texts. In E. Schieffelin & B. B. Gilmore (Eds.), *The acquisition of literacy: Ethnographic perspectives.* (pp. 35-54). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Collins, A. M. (1991). Reading instruction that increases thinking abilities. *Journal of Reading, 34,* 510-16. Creswell, J. W. (1998). *Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among the five traditions.* Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Crystal, D. (1992). *An encyclopedic dictionary of language and languages.* London: Penguin. Cunningham, P.M. & Allington, R.L. (1994). *Classrooms that work: They can all read and write.* New York: Harper Collins Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. (1998). Introduction: Entering the field of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), *Strategies of qualitative inquiry.* (pp. 1-34) London: Sage Publications. Duffy, G.G. (1982). Fighting off alligators: What research in real classrooms has to say about reading instruction. *Journal of Reading Behaviour. XIV.* 4. 357-373 Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L., Sivan, E., Rackliffe, G., Book, C., Meloth, M., Vavrus, L., Wesselman, R., Putnam, J., & Bassiri, D. (1987). Effects of explaining the reasoning associated with using reading strategies. *Reading Research Quarterly, 22,* 347-368. Duffy, G.G. 1992. Let’s free teachers to be inspired. *Phi Delta Kappan. February,* 442-447 Duffy, G. G. (2003). *Explaining reading: A resource for teaching concepts, skills, and strategies.* New York: Guilford Press. Edwards, L. (2003). Writing instruction in kindergarten: Examining an emerging area of research for children with writing and reading difficulties. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36*(2), 136-148. Eggen, P. and Kauchak, D. (2001). *Educational Psychology: Windows on classrooms.* Columbus: Merrill Prentice Hall. Fingereit, A.H. (1987). Directions in ethnographic adult literacy research: Paper presented at the thirty second annual convention of the International Reading Association. Anaheim. California USA. Freire, P. (1985). Reading the world and reading the word: An interview with Paolo Freire. *Language Arts, 61*(1), 15-21. Glaserfeld, E. von. (2002). *Radical constructivism: A way of knowing and learning.* New York: Routledge/Falmer. Graham, R. (1998). *Reading and writing the self: Autobiography education and the curriculum.* New York: Teachers College Press. Graves, D. (2001). *The energy to teach*. Portsmouth: NH: Heinemann. Gray, W.S. (1956). *The teaching of reading and writing*. Chicago: Scott, Foresman. Green, J., Dixon, C., Lin, L., Floriani, A., Bradley, M., Paxton, S., Mattern, C., and Bergamo, H. (2001). Constructing literacy in classrooms: Literate action as social accomplishment. In R.B. Ruddell, M.R. Ruddell, and H. Singer (Eds.), *Theoretical models and processes of reading*. (pp. 124-154). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Griffin, E. A. & Morrison, P. J. (1997). The unique contribution of home literacy environment to differences in early literacy skills. *Early Child Development and Care*, 127-128, 233-243. Gusdorf, G. (1980). Conditions and limits of autobiography. In J. Olney (Ed.), *Autobiography: Essays theoretical and critical*. (pp.28-48). Princeton: Princeton University Press. Guthrie, J. T. & Wigfield, A. (2002). How motivation fits into a science of reading. *Scientific Studies of Reading*, 3, 199-205. Harris, T. L. & Hodges, R. E. (Eds.). (1995). *The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of Reading and writing*. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Harwayne, S. (2001). *Writing through childhood: Rethinking process and product*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Hautecoeur, Jean-Paul. (1992). Introduction. In J. Hautecoeur (Ed.), *Alpha 92: Current research in literacy*. (pp. 1-8). Montreal: Quebec Ministry of Education; Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education. Howarth, W.L. (1980). Some principles of autobiography. In J. Olney (Ed.), *Autobiography: Essays theoretical and critical*. (84-114) Princeton: Princeton University Press. Ives, E. D. (1995). *The tape-recorded Interview: A manual for fieldworkers in folklore and oral history, Second edition*. Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press. Jenkins, K. (2002). *Re-thinking history*. London: Routledge. Johnson, P. (1993). *Literacy through the book arts*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Kamhi, A. G., & Catts, H. W. (1999). Language and reading: Convergence and divergence. In H. W. Catts & A. G. Kamhi (Eds.), *Language and reading disabilities*. (pp. 1-24). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Keene, E. O. & Zimmerman, S. (1997). *Mosaic of thought: Teaching comprehension in a reader’s workshop*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Kintsch, W. (1998). *Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition*. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lancy, D. F., Draper, K. D., & Boyce, G. (1989). Parental influence on children's acquisition of reading. *Contemporary Issues in Reading*, 83-93. Lawrence-Lightfoot, S., & Davis, J. H. (1997). *The art and science of portraiture*. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications. Leseman, P. P. M. & de Jong, P. F. (1998). Home literacy: Opportunity, instruction, cooperation and social-emotional quality predicting early reading achievement. *Reading Research Quarterly*, 33, 294-318. Luke, A. (1995). When basic skills and information processing just aren’t enough: Rethinking reading in new times. *Teachers College Record*, 97(1), 95-115. Luke, A. (1998). Getting over method: literacy teaching as work in “New Times”. *Language Arts, 75*(4), 305-312 Luke, A. (2002). Critical literacy in Australia. *Journal of Adolescent and Adult literacy. 43*. July 26, 2003. [www.btr.qld.edu.au/papers/critlit.htm](http://www.btr.qld.edu.au/papers/critlit.htm). Manning, P.K., and Cullam-Swan, B. (1994). Narrative, content and semiotic analysis. In N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), *Handbook of qualitative research*. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Mason, J. (1996). *Qualitative researching*. London: Sage Publications. McGee, L. M. & Richgels, D. J. (2000). *Literacy’s beginnings (3rd Edition)*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Mchazime, H.S. (1994). *A study of reading habits of primary school graduates in Malawi*. Domasi, Zomba: Malawi. Malawi Institute of Education Mercier, L. & Murphy, M. (1991). Confronting the demons of feminist public history: Scholarly collaboration and community outreach. In S. B. Gluck, & D. Patai (Eds.), *Women’s words: The feminist practice of oral history*. (pp. 175-187). New York: Routledge. Merriam, S. B. (1998). *Qualitative research and case study applications in education*. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications. Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1990). Animadversions and reflections on the uses of qualitative inquiry. In E. W. Eisner & A. Peshkin (Eds.), *Qualitative inquiry in education: The continuing debate*. (pp. 339-357). New York: Teachers College Press. Morgan, C.G. (1987). The writing/learning connection for L.D. students. *Plain talk*. (pp. 60-68). Richmond, VA: Virginia Department of Education. Morrow, L. M. (1983). Home and school correlates of early interest in literature. *Journal of Educational Research, 76*, 221-230. National Reading Panel (NRP). (2000). *Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read*. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. National Statistical Office (NSO). (2001). *Malawi demographic and health survey*. Zomba: Malawi National Statistical Office (NSO). (2002). *Statistical yearbook*. Zomba: Malawi. Newman, A.P. and Beverstock, C. (1990). *Adult literacy: Contexts and challenges*. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Oczkus, L. D. (2003). *Reciprocal teaching at work: Strategies for improving reading comprehension*. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Ohanian, S. (2001). *Caught in the middle: Nonstandard kids and a killing curriculum*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus. (1996). New York: Oxford University Press. Palincsar, A. M. (2003). Collaborative approaches to comprehension instruction. In A. P. Sweet & C. E. Snow (Eds.), *Rethinking reading comprehension*. (99-114). New York: Guilford Press. Palincsar, A. M. & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and monitoring activities. *Cognition and Instruction, 1*, 117-175. Palmer, P.J. (1998). *The courage to teach: Exploring the landscape of a teacher’s life*. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications Papen, U. (2000). Literacy: Your key to a better future. *Ethnographic Perspectives*, 40-59. Patton, M.Q. (1985). Quality in qualitative research: Methodological principles and recent developments. Invited address to Division J of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago. April 1985. Pearson, P. D. & Dole, J. A. (1987). Explicit comprehension instruction: A review of research and a new conceptualization of instruction. *Elementary School Journal*, 88, 151-165. Pearson, P. D. & Duke, N. K. (2002). Comprehension instruction in the primary grades. In C. Collins-Block and M. Pressley (Eds.), *Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices*. (pp. 247-258). New York: Guilford Press. Pearson, P. D. & Fielding, L. (1991). Comprehension instruction. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), *Handbook of reading research, Vol. 2*. (pp. 815-860). New York: Longman. Piaget, J. (1937). *The construction of reality in the child*. New York: Basic Books. Piaget, J. (1970). *Genetic epistemology*. New York: Columbia University Press. Prawat, R. S. (1996). Constructivisms, modern and postmodern. *Educational Psychologist, 31*(3/4), 215-225 Pressley, M. (2000) What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of? In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson & R. Barr (Eds.), *Handbook of reading research, Vol. III*. (pp. 545-561). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Purcel-Gates, V. (1997). *Other people’s words: The cycle of low literacy*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Robinson, J. (1987). Literacy in society: Readers and writers in the worlds of discourse. In D. Bloome, (Ed.) *Literacy and schooling*, (pp. 327-353). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Roehler, L. R., & Duffy, G. G. (1989). Direct explanation of comprehension processes. In G. G. Duffy, L. R. Roehler, & J. Mason (Eds.), *Comprehension instruction: Perspectives and suggestions*. (pp. 265-80). New York: Longman. Rosenshine, B. & Meister, C. (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research. *Review of Educational Research, 64*, 4, 479-530. Routman, R. (2000). *Conversations*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Routman, R. (2002). *Reading essentials*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Salinger, T. & Fleischman, S. (2005). Teaching students to interact with text. *Educational Leadership, 63*(2), 90-2. Seidman, L. (1998). *Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences*. New York: Teachers College Press. Self, J. (1987). Introduction: Getting the whole picture. *Plain talk*. (pp. 1-6). Richmond, VA: Virginia Department of Education. Self, J. (1987) The picture of writing to learn. *Plain talk*. (pp. 9-20). Richmond, VA: Virginia Department of Education. Sherman, R.R., and Webb, R.B. (1988). Qualitative research in education: A focus. In R.R. Sherman and R.B. Webb (Eds.), *Qualitative research in education: Focus and methods*. Bristol: Falmer Press. Silverman, D. (2000). *Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook*. London: Smetana, L. (2005). Collaborative storybook reading: Bring parents and at-risk kindergarten students together. *Reading Horizons, 45*(4), 283-320. Smith, F. (1998). *The book of learning and forgetting*. New York: Teachers College Press. Smith, S.K. (2000). Sensitive issues in life story research. In D. Moch & M. Gates (Eds.), *The researcher experience in qualitative research*. (pp. 13-21). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Smolin, L.I. & Lawless, K.A., (2003). Becoming literate in the technological age: New responsibilities and tools for teachers. *The Reading Teacher, 56*(6), 570-577. Snow, C. E., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). *Preventing reading difficulties in young children*. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Stephens, E. C. & Brown, J. E. (2004). *A handbook of content literacy strategies* (*2nd Edition*). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers. Strauss, A. L. (1996). *Qualitative analysis for social scientists*. New York: Cambridge University Press. Strickland, K. & Strickland, J. (2002). *Engaged in Learning*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Summerfield, P. (2000). Dis/composing the subject: Intersubjectivities in oral history. In Cosslett, T., Lury, C. and Summerfield, P. (Eds.), *Feminism and autobiography: Texts, theories, methods* (pp. 90-106). London: Routledge. Teale, W. H. (1978). Positive environments for learning to read: What studies of early readers tell us. *Language Arts, 55*, 922-932. Their, M. (2002). *The new science literacy*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Tonjes, M.J. and Zintz, M.V. (1992). *Teaching reading thinking study skills in content classrooms*. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Publishers Turner, J. (1995). The influence of classroom contexts on young children’s motivation for literacy. *Reading Research Quarterly, 30*, 410-441. Venezky, R. L., Wagner, D.A. & Ciliberti, B.S. (1990). Introduction. In R. L. Venezky, D.A. Wagner, & B. S. Ciliberti. *Toward defining literacy*. (pp. iv-xii). Newark. DE: International Reading Association. Venezky, R. L. (1990). Definitions of literacy. In R. L. Venezky, D.A. Wagner, & B. S. Ciliberti. *Toward defining literacy*. (pp. 2-16). Newark. DE: International Reading Association. Verhoeven, L. (1993). Literacy development in a multilingual context. In L. Eldering and P. Leseman (Ed.), *Early intervention and culture: Preparation for literacy the interface between theory and practice*. (pp. 61-75) Netherlands National Commission for UNESCO. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). On inner speech. In E. Hanfman and G. Vakar (Eds.), *Thought and language*. (pp. 130-138). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). *Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Weinstraub, K. J. (1975). *The value of the individual: Self and circumstance in autobiography*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wells, G. (1986). *The meaning makers: Children learning language and using language to learn*. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Whitehurst, G.J. and Lonigan, C.J. (2002). Emergent literacy: Development from prereaders to readers. In S.B. Neuman and D.K. Dickinson. (Eds.) 2002. *Handbook of early literacy research*. (pp. 11-29). New York. Guilford Press. Wildman, T. M., Niles, J. A., Magliaro, S. G., & McLaughlin, R. A. (1989). Teaching and learning to teach: The two roles of beginning teachers. *The Elementary School Journal, 89*(4), 471-493 Wilhelm, J., Baker, T. N., & Dube, J. (2001). *Strategic reading*. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers. Wolcott, H. F. (1995). *The art of fieldwork*. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. APPENDIX A VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY Informed Consent for Participants in Research Projects Involving Human Subjects Title of Project: Retracing footsteps of the literati: Towards an understanding of literacy through stories of Malawian teacher educators Investigator: Manuel Boyd Kazembe and Patricia P. Kelly I. Purpose of this Research/Project The purpose of this study is to investigate literacy development of teacher educators in Malawi. Interview transcripts will provide the data for this study. II. Procedures The researchers will interview participants. The participants will tell their stories in response to the prompt “tell me about yourself as a reader and writer in the past and now.” The data collection will take place at venues suggested by participants. After the first interview, there may be one or more follow up interviews. Each interview should last approximately one hour. III. Risks There are no expected risks related to participation in this study. IV. Benefits There are no specific benefits for volunteers related to participating in this study. The researchers wish to engage in an open study of literacy development of teacher educators in Malawi. Previous studies of this nature have not been conducted. Therefore, the goal is to inform educators about literacy development in Malawi. No promise or guarantee of benefits has been made to encourage participation in the study. V. Anonymity and Confidentiality Participants will not be asked to give their names and no identifying information will be collected other than their profession. Pseudonyms will be used in the writing of the research report. Although total anonymity cannot be guaranteed, the collected information will be treated very confidentially. The recorded audio tapes will be erased one month after the completion and submission of the study report. VI. Compensation There is no compensation for participation in the study. VII. Freedom to withdraw Participants are free to withdraw from this study at any time. Participants are free not to answer any questions. In addition, participants may ask that the tape recorder be turned off at any time during the interview. VIII. Approval of Research This research has been approved, as is required, by the Institutional Review Board for Research Involving Human Subjects at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, by the Department of Teaching and Learning. IX. Participant’s Responsibilities I voluntarily agree to participate in this study. I will complete the interviews. Signature of Participant : ____________________________ Name of Participant : ____________________________ Date : ____________________________ APPENDIX B Semi-structured interview guide I. Demographic data 1. Name: 2. Place and date of birth 3. Nationality: 4. Highest academic qualification: 5. Occupation: 6. Religion / denomination (optional): 7. Immediate family members: 8. Parents’ / guardians’ education and professions: 9. How would you describe your family economic circumstances when you were growing up? (e.g. we had very little money, we were comfortable, we were well off, we were extremely well off) II. Family literacy values and practices 1. What value did your parents/grandparents/guardians place on reading/writing? 2. What were their thoughts about education? What stories did they tell you about reading/writing? 3. Did your parents and grandparents go to school? To what level? (treat mother, father, and grandparents separately) 4. Did your mother and father/grandparents read at home? If yes, what? (newspapers, magazines, the Bible / Koran or other religious texts, pamphlets, etc.) 5. Did your mother or father/grandparents write on a regular basis? If yes, what? (letters, shopping lists, religious documents, community or organizational material) 6. How important did your parents think reading and writing were? What kind of values did they place on reading and writing? 7. Can you remember anything that your mother or father/grandparents said about reading, writing, or education? III. Early literacy practices/values 1. Did your parents read to you? 2. Did your parents ask you to read to them? 3. When did you learn to read? To write? Who taught you? 4. Tell the story of how you first learned to read/to write. 5. What kind of things did you read at home when you were young? (e.g. comics, magazines, pamphlets, school texts, library books, computer games) 6. What kind of things did you write at home when you were young? (e.g. stories, sketches.) 7. How about when you were an older child? An adolescent? 8. Where and when did you read and write whey you were a young child? An older child? An Adolescent? 9. How did you get access to books? Was there a library in your school or near your house? If yes, did you use it? When? How frequently? IV. School literacy practices 1. What kind of reading/writing activities did you learn/do in English classes in primary school/secondary school/college? 2. What kinds of reading/writing did you do for other classes in primary school/secondary school/college? V. Current literacy practices 1. What kind of reading/writing/speaking activities do you do? VI. Historical/cultural/social/familial events that provided content for literacy 1. What important historical/political/social events were happening in Malawi or around the world when you were a child growing up? When you were a teenager? 2. What important family events happened when you were a child growing up? When you were a teenager? Manuel Boyd Kazembe obtained a Bachelor of Education degree with English as a major from the University of Malawi in 1986. He received a Master of Education degree in Management and Human Resource Development from the University of Sydney in March 2000. He taught English and History at three secondary schools in Malawi from October 1986 through February 1993. Thereafter, he joined Staff Development Institute, a Malawi government’s human resource development institution, to teach English and Business Communication. Since joining Staff Development Institute, he has designed, developed, delivered, and evaluated many training programs in the areas of Human Communication and Information Systems, Business and Organizational Communication, Human Resource Development, Training and Development, Training of Trainers, Corporate Procurement Fraud Detection and Prevention, Customer Care, and Business Etiquette. He has participated in teacher education beginning with the implementation of the Malawi Special Teacher Education Program that started in the early 1990s. In the mid-1990s he also participated in the designing and implementation of an English Language Fluency Development program for Malawian Court Interpreters on behalf of the British Council office in Malawi. Over the years he has been a teacher of English, teacher educator, head of Languages Department, deputy head teacher, head of the English and Communication Department, as well as a management development and training consultant. He has co-authored a book, *A Guide to Scarlet Song*, published by Longman with first publication in March 1993. He has also published several articles on education, cultural, and political issues in Malawi. He continues to be a panelist on a weekly talk-show program that discusses topical issues in Malawi. Manuel B. Kazembe was born in Dowa, Malawi, in Southern Africa. He is married and has three children: Sharon Atikonda, Carolyne Tisungeni, and Manuel Jr.
f887b233-4796-4049-bc87-7cc9605f2562
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/a8572aa0-c655-4f6f-916c-a3c92535d626/content
2024-11-08T08:09:33+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477028032.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20241108070606-20241108100606-00204.warc.gz
555,622,764
81,012
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.973475
eng_Latn
0.997877
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 593, 3195, 3564, 6713, 7170, 8337, 10161, 10604, 13438, 16667, 19800, 22749, 24604, 27317, 30861, 34130, 37538, 40453, 40676, 44044, 47194, 50591, 53626, 57130, 60433, 63552, 66901, 69688, 72988, 76377, 79695, 81216, 83926, 87552, 90733, 93695, 96944, 100211, 103378, 106341, 109164, 111702, 114998, 118381, 121793, 125503, 128802, 132331, 135284, 138686, 142231, 145930, 149568, 153016, 156468, 159786, 163187, 166591, 169799, 172916, 176573, 180050, 183623, 187185, 190755, 194120, 197591, 200835, 204293, 207272, 210710, 214181, 217509, 220765, 224199, 227738, 231062, 234137, 237640, 241154, 244654, 248049, 251494, 252944, 255556, 258672, 261873, 264851, 267861, 271032, 273994, 277218, 280349, 283112, 286346, 289661, 292726, 295879, 298846, 301974, 305201, 308447, 311286, 314398, 317449, 319384, 322194, 327672, 331029, 334487, 338002, 341608, 344605, 348118, 351229, 354402, 357587, 361109, 364642, 367792, 371084, 372796, 375695, 378738, 381783, 384847, 387926, 390938, 391551, 394289, 396293, 397127, 399101 ]
[ 1.140625, 2.546875 ]
1
0
Action Pack 12 Units 4 - 9 - 10 مكتف اللغة الإنجليزية الثقافات المهنية (الصناعي والاقتصاد المنزلي) امتحانات تجريبية Emad Abu Alzumar 0785915568 0796145755 عماد ابو الزمر 1. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C or D: Mega projects are extremely large investment projects, which are designed to encourage economic growth and bring new benefits to cities. Although megaprojects vary in terms of size and cost, they are all, by definition, expensive, public projects that attract a high level of interest and media coverage. Projects range from motorways, airports, stations, tunnels, bridges, etc. to entire city complexes. The concept of a megaproject is always based on the benefits it brings to a community. However, many megaprojects have been criticised because of their negative effects on a community or the environment. This essay will look at issues with regard to Masdar City, a megaproject in Abu Dhabi. 1. There are two benefits of creating megaprojects. What are they? a. Encourage economic growth and bring new benefits to cities. b. Attract a high level of interest and media coverage. c. Bring new benefits to cities and attract a high level of interest. d. Encourage economic growth and attract a high level of interest. 2. Masdar city is a -------------------------------. a. community b. mega project c. a station d. a funnel Masdar City, which began its development in 2006 CE, will be the world’s first carbon-neutral, zero waste artificially-created city. Covering an area of six square kilometres, when it is completed in 2025 CE, it is expected to house more than 40,000 residents, 50,000 commuters, and 1,500 businesses involved in mainly environmentally-friendly products. The city will run entirely on renewable energy sources. It is built on an advanced energy grid which monitors exactly how much electricity is being used by every outlet in the complex. Furthermore, in order to reduce its carbon footprint, Masdar City will be a car-free zone, designed to be pedestrian and cycle-friendly. Electric, driverless cars will operate as public transport vehicles, and the city will be connected to other locations by a network of roads and railways. 3. Choose the two procedures that will be implemented to reduce carbon footprint in Masdar city. a. Masdar City is expected to house more than 40,000 residents, 50,000 commuters, and 1,500 businesses. b. Masdar City will run entirely on renewable energy sources and is built on an advanced energy grid. c. Masdar City will be a car-free zone and electric, driverless cars will operate as public transport vehicles. d. Masdar City will be connected to other locations by a network of roads and railways. Energy will be provided by solar power and wind farms, and there are also plans to build the world’s largest hydrogen plant. A desalination plant will be used to provide the city’s water, with 80% of water used being recycled. Biological waste will be used as an energy source too, and industrial waste will be recycled. The current residents of Masdar City are all students at the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology. It is a university whose students are fully committed to finding solutions to the world’s energy problems. While the project has the support of many global, environmental and conservation Organisations, there is some criticism of it. It is felt that, instead of building an Artificial sustainable city, sustainability should be made a priority of existing cities. 4. The following two sources of energy will provide Masdar City. a. Solar power and biological waste. b. Wind farms and the desalination plant. c. Solar power and the industrial waste. d. Wind farms and recycling. In conclusion, the benefits of Masdar City for the community and the environment greatly outweigh any disadvantages. If the aims of the developers are realised, Masdar City will be a blueprint for future urban planning that will inspire similar megaprojects in other countries. 5. The underlined word “outweigh” means: a. To be less important than something else. b. To be as important as any disadvantage. c. To be a blueprint for future. d. To be more important than something else. Ibn Bassal was a writer, a scientist and an engineer who lived in Al-Andalus in the eleventh century CE. He worked in the court of Al-Ma’mun, who was the king of Toledo. His great passions were botany, which is the study of plants and agriculture. Although he was a great scholar, he was also a practical man and all of his writing came from his own “hands-on” experience of working the land. 6. The most two great interests for Ibn Bassal are ---------------------- . a. working in the land and writing. b. writing and engineering. c. botany and agriculture. d. science and engineering. 7. Choose the sentence which indicates that Ibn Bassal was a polymath. a. His great passions were botany, which is the study of plants and agriculture. b. Ibn Bassal was a writer, a scientist and an engineer who lived in Al-Andalus in the eleventh century CE. c. He worked in the court of Al-Ma’mun, who was the king of Toledo. d. Ibn Bassal was a writer, a scientist and an engineer. One of the many things which Ibn Bassal achieved was A Book of Agriculture. The book consisted of sixteen chapters which explain how best to grow trees, fruit and vegetables, as well as herbs and sweet smelling flowers; perhaps the most famous chapter of all was the one that described how to treat different types of soil. Ibn Bassal also worked out how to irrigate the land by finding underground water and digging wells. He designed water pumps and irrigation systems. All of these things were passed on through his writing. 8. Two of Ibn Bassal’s achievements are -------------------------------. a. writing a book of agriculture and growing trees. b. growing trees and designing water pumps. c. writing a book of agriculture and designing water pumps and irrigation systems. d. writing a book of agriculture and growing fruit and vegetables. 9. Ibn Basal worked out how to irrigate the land by two ways. What are they? a. Finding underground water and digging wells. b. Growing trees and designing water pumps. c. Writing a book of agriculture and digging wells. d. Writing a book of agriculture and growing trees. The influence of Ibn Bassal’s book was enormous. As farmers down the generations followed his instructions and advice, the land became wonderfully fertile and produced more than enough food for the fast-growing population. The irrigation systems that he and his followers put in place are still in evidence in Spain. Although his name is not widely known, Ibn Bassal’s legacy to the world has been great. 10. The land became wonderfully fertile because --------------------------. a. the land produced more than enough food for the fast-growing population. b. farmers down the generations followed his instructions and advice. c. his name is not widely known. d. his legacy to the world has been great. 2. Choose the suitable item from those given to complete each of the following sentences. 11. If a city recycles everything and doesn’t throw anything away, it is zero ------------------. a. renewable b. pedestrian c. urban planning d. waste 12. We learn about shapes, lines and angles when we study ---------------------. a. Arithmetic b. Geometry c. Linguistics d. physician 13. A place where no cars are allowed is a car free zone, and it is --------------------- friendly. a. renewable b. pedestrian c. urban planning d. waste 14. The need for more effective --------------- is evident when we consider modern day problems like traffic. a. economic growth b. negative effects c. public transport d. urban planning 15. When you stay calm and take your time, you are being ------------------------. a. responsible b. rewarding c. conflict d. patient 3. Choose A, B, C or D: 16. The Middle East is famous for the ----------------- of olive oil. a. produce b. productive c. production d. productively 17. My father bought our house with an -------------- from his grandfather. a. inherit b. inheritance c. inherited d. inheritedly. 18. -----------------, a man proposes to a woman, not the other way round. a. traditional b. tradition c. traditionally d. traditions 19. Do you think the wheel was the most important --------------- ever? a. invent b. invention c. inventor d. invented 21. There is a particular Bedouin style of---------------- that buyers find very attractive. a. weaves b. weaver c. weave d. weaving 22. Pollution has some serious ------------ effects on the environment, such as the death of wildlife and plant life. a. negative b. biological c. urban d. public 23. Nasser has applied to --------------------- where his father works. a. ask questions b. join the company c. shake hands d. earn the respect 24. London, --------------------- is the capital of the UK, is a huge city. a. when b. where c. which d. when 25. If you are polite, you won’t -------------- offence or upset anybody. a. make b. join c. cause d. do 26. Babies are usually happy --------------------- they are hungry or tired. a. provided that b. as long as c. unless d. even if 27. A: I would like to get a job as a teacher of English. B: ----------------------------------------------- ? a. Why don’t you study hard b. If I were you, I would study hard c. You could study hard d. You should study hard 4. Choose A, B, C or D to complete the following sentences: 28. I regret going to bed late last night. I wish I ------------ late. a. went b. didn’t go c. had gone d. hadn’t gone 29. I couldn’t understand anything. If only I ------------ Chinese! a. studied b. didn’t study c. had studied d. hadn’t studied 30. I -------------- you with your homework, as long as you help me with mine! a. help b. helps c. will help d. would help 31. If you ------------ Medicine, your job prospects would have been better. a. study b. studies c. had studied d. studied 32. Do you usually go home or meet your friends when school ------------? a. finish b. finishes c. finished d. will finish 33. The person who has influenced me most ------------ my father. a. is b. was c. has d. had 5. Choose A, B, C or D to complete each of the following sentences: 34. The country -------------- Jabir Ibn Hayyan did his research was Iraq. a. when b. where c. which d. when 35. You will not pass your exams -------------- you study hard. a. provided that b. as long as c. unless d. even if 36. Babies are usually happy -------------- they’re hungry or cold. a. provided that b. as long as c. unless d. even if 6. Choose one of the following items so that the new item has a similar meaning: 37. You should practise the presentation several times. a. If I were you, I should practise the presentation several times. b. If I were you, I would practise the presentation several times. c. If I was you, I would practise the presentation several times. d. If I was you, I should practise the presentation several times. 38. The Egyptians built the pyramids. a. It is the Egyptians that built the pyramids. b. It is the Egyptians which built the pyramids. c. It was the Egyptians that built the pyramids. d. It was the Egyptians when built the pyramids. 39. London is a huge city. It’s the capital of the UK. a. London, where is the capital of the UK, is a huge city. b. London which is the capital of the UK is a huge city. c. London, which is the capital of the UK, is a huge city. d. London, which was the capital of the UK, is a huge city. 40. Sultan forgot to do his science homework. a. If only Sultan forgot to do his science homework. b. If only Sultan didn’t forget to do his science homework. c. If only Sultan had forgotten to do his science homework. d. If only Sultan hadn’t forgot to do his science homework. 41. Oh no! I’ve forgotten my library book. I left it at home. a. I wish I had forgotten my library book. b. I wish I have forgotten my library book. c. I wish I didn’t forget my library book. d. I wish I hadn’t forgotten my library book. 42. I regret going to bed late last night. a. I wish I had gone earlier. b. I wish I went earlier. c. I wish I hadn’t gone earlier. d. I wish I didn’t go earlier. 43. If you don’t water the plants, they will die. a. Unless you water the plants, they will die. b. Unless you water the plants, they won’t die. c. Unless you don’t water the plants, they will die. d. Unless you don’t water the plants, they won’t die. 44. I should have studied hard before the exam. a. I wish I have studied hard before the exam. b. I wish I hadn’t studied hard before the exam. c. I wish I didn’t study hard before the exam. d. I wish I had studied hard before the exam. 45. I didn’t know your phone number, so I wasn’t able to contact you. a. If I knew your phone number, I would contact you. b. If I hadn’t known your phone number, I would have contacted you. c. If I had known your phone number, I would contact you. d. If I had known your phone number, I would have contacted you. 46. Al-Jazari invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century. a. The period when AL-Jazari invented the mechanical clock was the twelfth century. b. The period when AL-Jazari invented the mechanical clock is the twelfth century. c. The period where AL-Jazari invented the mechanical clock was the twelfth century. d. The period which AL-Jazari invented the mechanical clock was the twelfth century. 7. Choose A, B, C or D to correct the underlined mistakes in the following paragraph: The Girladta Tower(47) which was originally a (48) minoret , is one of the most important buildings in Sevilla, Spain. stands at just over 104 meters tall. The person who was believed to be responsible of the design of the tower, who was a (49) Mathematitian and astronomer, was Jaber Bin Aflah. The architect of the tower was Ahmad bin Baso, who (50) begins work in 1184CE. 47. a. / . / b. / ! / c. / , / d. / ; / 48. a. menaret b. minaret c. minarit d. menarat 49. a. Mathematitien b. Mathematician c. Mathamatician d. Mathamatecian 50. a. begin b. beginning c. began d. begun 8. Choose A, B, C or D to form meaningful sentences using the information in the following table. Why people should read more books ......... - develop verbal abilities - increase focus and concentration - refresh money - improve imagination skills There are many (1) _______________ that make people read more books such as (2) _______________ verbal abilities, increasing focus and concentration (3) _______________ refreshing money, too. (4) _______________, another reason is improving imagination skills. 1. a. ways b. reasons c. disadvantages d. problems 2. a. increse b. increases c. increasing d. increased 3. a. in addition b. too c. and d. also 4. a. Such as b. Too c. And d. Also An Informal Letter In informal letter: 1. We use language that is similar to spoken English. 2. We use abbreviations = hadn’t - I’d 3. Informal letters usually have idioms and phrasal verbs. 4. Informal letters usually use active rather than passive verbs. 4. In the UK, there is a central government, but there are also ____________ councils around the country. a. rigional b. reginial c. regional d. rigonal ) 5. “Scientists say that exercise is not only important for general fitness; but that it also good for the brain.” The correct punctuation mark for the underlined misused one is _________________. a. ! b. ? c. . d. , 6. London ______________ which is the capital of the Uk, is a huge city. a. ! b. ; c. . d. , 7. If you send money to charity __________ you will make a difference to a lot of lives. a. ! b. . c. , d. ? 8. In business __________ when you meet someone for the first time __________ it’s polite to shake hands. a. ! / , b. , / , c. ? / , d. . / , 9. There are many reasons that make people read more books such as __________ money and __________ imagination skills. a. refresh / improve b. refreshes / improves c. refreshed / improves d. refreshing / improving اسأل الله العلي القدير لكم النجاح والتفوق والتوفيق Emad Abu Alzumar PART ONE : READING COMPREHENSION : Read the following text carefully, and then in your ANSWER BOOKLET answer all the questions that follow. Your answer should be based on the text. Don’t come away from a sales pitch wishing you had been better prepared. It is essential to know everything about your product. Do you know when it was developed, and where it is produced? You also need to know who the target market is – for example, the age group or income of the people who might buy it. Not only that, you should know all about the competition – that is, similar products on the market. Why is your product superior to others and why does it have better value? 1. There are many things that you should know about your product. Choose two of them. a. To know everything about your product and the target market. b. To know when it was developed, and where it is produced. c. To know the age group or income of the people who might buy it. d. Why is your product superior to others and why does it have better value? 2. Find a phrase in the first text which means "people who are identified as possible customers" mean? a. target market b. age group c. income d. similar products In addition, you should know exactly which people you are speaking to, and what their needs are. For example, if they represent a middle-class department store in a humble neighbourhood, be ready to explain why your particular product would suit customers who do not have lots of money. What makes your product perfect for them? Most of all, you need to believe in what you’re selling, and the best way to do that is to use it! 3. In order to believe in what you’re selling, you should ________________________. a. buy it b. sell it c. use it d. know it Plan your presentation carefully, not just what you will say, but how you will say it. Will you read it word by word, use notes or memorise it? Whatever you decide, it is always a good idea to have a list of your main points, in case something interrupts you, or you simply freeze with nerves (it happens!). Then practise it, if possible in front of colleagues. Make changes and practise it again. 4. There are two ways to plan your presentation carefully. Choose them. a. To read it word by word and use notes. b. To use notes and have a list of your main points. c. What you will say and how you will say it. d. To make changes and practice it again. 5. You should have a list of your main points for the following two reasons. a. To make changes and practice it again. b. To use notes and have a list of your main points. c. Not just what you will say and how you will say it. d. In case something interrupts you, or you simply freeze with nerves Keep your presentation short and simple. Start with some friendly comments. For example, thank your hosts for allowing you to speak to them, and compliment their company. Remember to speak slowly and clearly. It is important to appear confident (even if you’re nervous!). While you’re speaking, don’t keep your head down. Instead, look round the room and make eye contact with your audience. Smile! When you’ve finished speaking, invite questions. If you don’t know the answers, don’t pretend! Thank the questioner and promise to find out the answer (and do it!). Finally, have a summary of your presentation ready to hand out at the end of the session. I wish I had known all this when I started out in business! Good luck! 6. There are two ways to plan your presentation carefully. Choose them. a. To read it word by word and use notes. b. To use notes and have a list of your main points. c. What you will say and how you will say it. d. To make changes and practice it again. My name is Fatima Musa and I have worked as an interpreter for five years. Many students have emailed me about my work because they want to know what it would be like to do my job. So here is my reply. I have always been fond of languages. My father worked in many different countries when I was young and we usually travelled with him. When we visited a country, I always wanted to learn the language. At school I was very good at English. Therefore, I decided on a career as an interpreter. 7. Many students have emailed Fatima for the following reason: a. She has worked as an interpreter for five years. b. They want to know what it would be like to do her job. c. She has always been fond of languages. d. She always wanted to learn the language. My job now involves going to important conferences and seminars around the world. When a person speaks in English at a conference, I listen to what they say through headphones. I then translate into Arabic while the speaker is talking. I give the translation through headphones to other people at the meeting. This means that anyone in the room who speaks Arabic can understand what people are saying. 8. Fatima gives the translation and listens through ________________. a. conferences b. seminars c. headphones d. speakers Is it an easy job? Not at all. English is not the same in all English-speaking countries. For example, the English words that are used in India are sometimes different to the words that people use in the UK, the USA or Australia. As well as knowing regional English, you also need to know a lot of specialist language. Some of the words that are used to talk about business, science or law, for example, make it almost a different language! 9. The job of an interpreter is not easy for the following reasons: a. English is not the same in all English-speaking countries. b. You don’t have to know the regional English. c. Some of the words that are used to talk about business, science or law don’t make it almost a different language! d. English is the same in all English-speaking countries. Unless you have a language degree, you will not be able to become an interpreter. Provided that you have a postgraduate qualification, you will probably get a job as an interpreter quite quickly. If you get an interview for a job, you will need to show that you have good listening skills and a clear speaking voice. You will also need to show that you can think quickly and that you are able to concentrate for long periods of time. If you are successful, it is a secure and rewarding job. You will probably need to travel a lot, but that is not a problem as long as you enjoy visiting other countries. It is a very responsible job. I am aware that if I translate things badly, it could affect an important law or trade agreement between countries. However, you get a huge feeling of satisfaction when you know that people understand everything that you translate. 10. Find a word in the text which has a similar meaning as ‘giving personal satisfaction’. a. interview b. rewarding c. secure d. successful 11. The qualifications an interpreter should have to get the job quickly are ________________. a. secure and rewarding. b. good listening skills and a clear speaking voice. c. a language degree and a postgraduate qualification. d. Thinking quickly being able to concentrate for long periods of time. 2. Choose the suitable item from those given to complete each of the following sentences. 12. When you can prove that you have experience, you have a ________________. a. clients b. track record c. pensions d. exported 13. Jordan has _______________ many goods to the EU for many years. a. clients b. track record c. pensions d. exported 14. My job was to follow up web enquiries, and send out further information to possible ________________. a. clients b. track record c. pensions d. exported 15. In order to work in finance, you need to be a very ________________ person. a. successful b. responsible c. dominated d. recommendations 16. Many large companies offer graduate training _______________, which are a kind of apprenticeship. a. desalination b. fertile c. schemes d. qualifications 17. In Jordan, the majority of the economy is ________________ by services, mostly travel and tourism. a. successful b. responsible c. dominated d. recommendations 18. Before I visit a company in China, I send ________________ from previous clients. a. successful b. responsible c. dominated d. recommendations 3. Choose A, B, C or D: 19. Sheep’s wool, and goat and camel hair are used by Bedouin tribes to ________________ rugs. a. produce b. productive c. production d. productively 20. Congratulations on a very ________________ business deal. a. success b. succeed c. successful d. successfully 21. Developing ________________ thinking is being encouraged at schools in Jordan. a. create b. creative c. creation d. creatively 22. When do you ________________ to receive your test results? a. expect b. expectancy c. expectedly d. expected 23. It’s ________________ to take regular breaks when revising. a. benefit b. beneficial c. beneficially d. benefits 24. By working hard, you will earn the ---------------------- of your boss. a. questions b. hands c. respect d. company 25. A: I don’t understand what we have to do for homework. B: -----------------------------, I would ask the teacher. a. Why don’t you b. If I were you c. You could d. You should 4. Choose A , B , C or D to complete the following sentences : 26. I want to go out this afternoon, but I don’t feel well. If only I ---------------------- a headache. a. didn’t have b. had c. hadn’t d. had had 27. We will go to our favourite restaurant on Friday unless it ------------------ closed. a. was b. is c. were d. are 28. We need umbrellas when it ------------------------ . a. rain b. rains c. rained d. will rain 29. Ahmad would have passed his exams if he ------------------------ hard. a. study b. studies c. had studied d. studied 30. Huda ------------------------ the person who won the Prize for Art last year. a. was b. is c. were d. are 31. You can get high marks as long as you ------------------------ well. a. study b. studies c. had studied d. studied 34. I wish I ------------------------ a millionaire, I would buy a palace. a. am b. were c. has been d. have been 35. If only I ------------------------ the deal yesterday. a. did b. hadn’t done c. does d. will do 36. Your job as an interpreter won’t be a problem as long as you ------------------------ travelling. a. enjoyed b. enjoy c. enjoys d. had enjoyed 6. Choose one of the following items so that the new item has a similar meaning: 37. I regret buying this old car. a. I wish I had bought this old car. b. I wish I bought this old car. c. I wish I didn’t buy this old car. d. I wish I hadn’t bought this old car. 38. I think you shouldn’t worry so much. If -----------------------------------------------. a. I were you, I wouldn’t worry so much. b. I were you, I would worry so much. c. I were you, I shouldn’t worry so much. d. I were you, I should worry so much. 39. I like Geography most of all. a. The subject which I like most of all was Geography. b. The subject when I like most of all was Geography. c. The subject which I like most of all is Geography. d. The subject where I like most of all was Geography. 40. I stopped working at 11 p.m. a. It is 11 p.m. when I stopped working. b. It was 11 p.m. when I stopped working. c. It was 11 p.m. which I stopped working. d. It was 11 p.m. where I stopped working. 41. Our team didn’t play well yesterday. a. I wish our team hadn’t played better. b. I wish our team played better. c. I wish our team didn’t play better. d. I wish our team had played better. 42. Unless she studies hard, she won’t succeed. a. If she studies hard, she won’t succeed. b. If she doesn’t study hard, she will succeed. c. If she doesn’t study hard, she won’t succeed. d. If she doesn’t study hard, she won’t succeeded. 43. Samia regrets being angry at breakfast time. a. Samia wishes she had been angry at breakfast time. b. Samia wishes she weren’t angry at breakfast time. c. Samia wishes she hadn’t been angry at breakfast time. d. Samia wishes she wasn’t angry at breakfast time. 44. I didn’t come early to the party, so I didn’t see all my friends. a. If I came early to the party, I would see all my friends. b. If I came early to the party, I wouldn’t see all my friends. c. If I hadn’t come early to the party, I wouldn’t have seen all my friends. d. If I had come early to the party, I would have seen all my friends. 45. Ricky works in a small company. a. Ricky wishes he had worked in a small company. b. Ricky wishes he hadn’t worked in a small company. c. Ricky wishes he worked in a small company. d. Ricky wishes he didn’t work in a small company. 46. Ali has bought a new bag before starting school. a. The thing which Ali has bought before starting school was a new car. b. The thing which Ali has bought before starting school is a new car. c. The thing when Ali has bought before starting school was a new car. d. The thing where Ali has bought before starting school was a new car. 47. I don’t have a camera to take some beautiful photos. a. I wish I have a camera to take some beautiful photos. b. I wish I didn’t have a camera to take some beautiful photos. c. I wish I had a camera to take some beautiful photos. d. I wish I had had a camera to take some beautiful photos. 48. It would be a good idea for you to study early in the morning. a. If I were you, I wouldn’t study early in the morning. b. If I were you, I would study early in the morning. c. Why do you study early in the morning? d. You couldn’t study early in the morning. 49. Saeed left his camera at home, so he wasn’t able to take photos of the parade. a. If Saeed hadn’t left his camera at home, he wouldn’t have been able to take photos of the parade. b. If Saeed hadn’t left his camera at home, he would have been able to take photos of the parade. c. If Saeed had left his camera at home, he wouldn’t have been able to take photos of the parade. d. If Saeed had left his camera at home, he would have been able to take photos of the parade. 4. Choose A, B, C or D to complete the following sentences: 50. My brother is really good --------------- Maths. a. on b. about c. at d. into 51. The man, -------------- son is a doctor, lives nearby. a. who b. which c. when d. whose 52. The man will get a secure job --------------- he works hard. a. as long as b. unless c. when d. even if 53. You won’t get the job quickly --------------- you have a postgraduate qualification. a. as long as b. unless c. when d. even if 54. Fadi has lost his wallet. I wish he --------------- more careful. a. have been b. has been c. when d. had been 1. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- My name is Fatima Musa and I have worked as an interpreter for five years. Many students have emailed me about my work because they want to know what it would be like to do my job. Why have many students emailed Fatima Musa? a. My name is Fatima Musa. b. They want to know what it would be like to do my job. c. I have worked as an interpreter for five years. d. Many students have emailed me about my work. 2. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- It was a company that provides financial products – savings and pensions, mostly. At first I just ‘shadowed’ different people, watching what they were doing. Then I did quite a lot of checking for them – you know, checking their calculations. When I went back in the summer, I was in the sales department. My job was to follow up web enquiries, but they weren’t in the same year. I enjoyed it, and I wouldn’t have had that opportunity if I hadn’t done the work experience first. What kind of company did Ricky Miles work for last summer? a. a company that provides financial products. b. a company that follows up web enquiries. c. a company that checks people’s calculations. d. a company that watches different people. 3. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- Yes! I wish I had researched Chinese culture before I visited the country. In order to be successful in China, you need to earn their respect. Chinese business people will always ask about a company’s successes in the past. However, because I worked for a new company, I could not talk about its track record. We did not do any business deals on that first trip.’ ‘I joined a larger company and they sent me on a cultural awareness course. On my next visit to China, it felt as if I hadn’t known anything on my first visit! How did the writer learn about the Chinese culture? a. I had researched Chinese culture. b. I worked for a new company. c. I visited the country. d. I joined a larger company and they sent me on a cultural awareness course. 4. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- In my spare time, I help elderly people, and I can see the difference that medicines can make to their lives. I am very keen to join a company that can really help people. Find a word in the above text which means “having or showing eagerness or interest”. a. spare b. medicines c. keen d. join 5. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- If you get an interview for a job, you will need to show that you have good listening skills and a clear speaking voice. You will also need to show that you can think quickly and that you are able to concentrate for long periods of time. If you are successful, it is a secure and rewarding job. You will probably need to travel a lot, but that is not a problem as long as you enjoy visiting other countries. Find a word in the text which has the same meaning as “giving personal satisfaction”. a. interview b. rewarding c. secure d. successful 6. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- Now let’s look at imports. Unlike some other countries in the Middle East, Jordan does not have large oil or gas reserves. For that reason Jordan has to import oil and gas for its energy needs. Its other main imports are cars, medicines and wheat. In 2013 CE, 23.6% of Jordan’s imports were from Saudi Arabia. This was followed by the EU, with 17.6% of its imports. Other imports have come from China and the United States. Quote the sentence which indicates the country that supplied Jordan with nearly a quarter of its imports in 2013. a. Jordan has to import oil and gas for its energy needs. b. Other imports have come from China and the United States. c. This was followed by the EU, with 17.6% of its imports. d. In 2013 CE, 23.6% of Jordan’s imports were from Saudi Arabia. 7. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- Unlike some other countries in the Middle East, Jordan does not have large oil or gas reserves. For that reason, Jordan has to import oil and gas for its energy needs. Its other main imports are cars, medicines and wheat. In 2013 CE, 23.6% of Jordan’s imports were from Saudi Arabia. This was followed by the EU, with 17.6% of its imports. Other imports have come from China and the United States. What does the underlined word “its” refer to? a. Jordan b. Saudi Arabia c. China d. United States 8. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- Not surprisingly, two of Jordan’s largest exports are chemicals and fertilisers. Pharmaceuticals and other industries represent 30% of Jordan’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and 75% of Jordan’s pharmaceuticals are exported. However, the majority (65%) of the economy is dominated by services, mostly travel and tourism. Most of Jordan’s exports go to Iraq, the USA, India and Saudi Arabia. Most of Jordan’s exports mainly go to four countries. What are these countries? a. Iraq, Syria, India and Saudi Arabia b. Iraq, the USA, India and Saudi Arabia c. Iraq, the USA, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia d. Iraq, the USA, India and Egypt. 9. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Farmers --------------- their fields because more food means better harvest. a. fertilise b. fertilizer c. fertile d. fertilisation 10. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Please list your educational --------------------- and work experience. a. qualify b. qualification c. qualifies d. qualified 11. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Children are often more --------------------- than adults. a. adapt b. adaptation c. adaptable d. adapted 12. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Compromise is reached by a process of ---------------------. a. negotiate b. negotiated c. negotiation d. negotiable 13. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. After the talk, there will be a chance for you to --------------------- about anything you don’t understand. a. ask questions b. shake hands c. earn respect d. cause offence 14. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. The majority of Jordan’s economy is --------------------- by services, mostly travel and tourism. a. exported b. dominated c. imported d. reserved 15. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. My friend has just got a --------------------- at our local bank. a. job b. work c. successful d. responsible 16. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. After a long ---------------------, we managed to do a deal. a. meeting b. agreement c. secure d. rewarding 17. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. I regret the deal now. I wish we ________________ done it. a. had b. hadn’t c. wish d. only 18. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. I wish I had known more about the company. If only I ______________________ some research! a. had done b. have done c. has done d. do 19. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Sultan forgot to do his science homework. If only he _________________ to do it. a. hasn’t forgotten b. has forgotten c. had forgotten d. hadn’t forgotten 20. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. My brother and I never want to watch the same TV programme. I wish we ___________________________. a. have liked the same things. b. has liked the same things. c. liked the same things. d. like the same things. 21. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. I am looking at a beautiful view, and I’d love to take a photo. If only I ________________________________. a. had a camera with me. b. has a camera with me. c. have a camera with me. d. hadn’t a camera with me. 22. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Fadi mustn’t drive ________________________ he has a driver’s license. a. when b. unless c. even if d. provided that 23. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following question. Don’t sign the document ________________________ you read it carefully. a. if b. unless c. as long as d. even if 24. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. We will cancel tomorrow’s tennis match ____________ it rains. a. even if b. if c. unless d. provided that 25. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. If you had bought fresh green vegetables, your salad ______________________ better. a. tasted b. will taste c. taste d. would have tasted 26. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. The teacher ________________________ if I write a good essay. a. was pleased b. will be pleased c. were pleased d. is pleased 27. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. It’s important to have an ______________________ of difference countries. a. awareness b. awerness c. awarnes d. avernise 28. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. We can all work hard to reduce our ____________ by living a more environmentally-friendly lifestyle. a. public transport b. economic growth c. carbon footprint d. urban planning 29. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. If you are polite, you won’t __________________________ or upset anybody. a. make a mistake b. cause offence c. do exercise d. ask questions 30. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. After the talk, there will be a chance for you to ______________________t anything you don’t understand. a. make a mistake b. cause offence c. do exercise d. ask questions 31. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Before you apply for a job, check that you have the correct ____________________. a. qualify b. qualifies c. qualified d. qualifications 32. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. These shoes hurt my feet. I wish I ----------------- these shoes. a. bought b. hadn’t bought c. had bought d. don’t buy 33. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Nasser will come out with us tomorrow unless he ----------------- help his father. a. has to help b. have to help c. had to help d. help 34. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Al-Kindi is especially famous for his work in geometry. a. It is for his work in Geometry when AlKindi is especially famous. b. It is for his work in Geometry that AlKindi is especially famous. c. It is for his work in Geometry that AlKindi was especially famous. d. It is for his work in Geometry where AlKindi is especially famous. 35. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. The city ----------------- was considered one of the World's Heritage Site was Petra. a. who b. which c. where d. when 36. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Al-Kindi is a physician, philosopher, mathematician, chemist, musician and astronomer – a true -----------------. a. bolymath b. pulymath c. polymeth d. polymath 37. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Unlike some other countries in the Middle East----------------- Jordan does not have large oil or gas reserves. a. . b. , c. ! d. ; 38. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. I feel ill ----------------- I wish I hadn’t eaten so many sweets! a. ! b. . c. d. ? 39. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. How can I get work ----------------- without getting a job first? a. experience b. experiense c. eksperience d. exberience 40. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. What do you think you will need to show if you have an interview for a job ----------------- a. ! b. . c. , d. ? Action Pack 12 Units 4 - 9 - 10 الامتحانات التجريبيه الثقافات المهنية ( الصناعي والاقتصاد المنزلي ) الاجابات Emad Abu Alzumar 0785915568 0796145755 عماد ابو الزمر 1. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C or D: Mega projects are extremely large investment projects, which are designed to encourage economic growth and bring new benefits to cities. Although megaprojects vary in terms of size and cost, they are all, by definition, expensive, public projects that attract a high level of interest and media coverage. Projects range from motorways, airports, stations, tunnels, bridges, etc. to entire city complexes. The concept of a megaproject is always based on the benefits it brings to a community. However, many megaprojects have been criticised because of their negative effects on a community or the environment. This essay will look at issues with regard to Masdar City, a megaproject in Abu Dhabi. 1. There are two benefits of creating megaprojects. What are they? a. Encourage economic growth and bring new benefits to cities. b. Attract a high level of interest and media coverage. c. Bring new benefits to cities and attract a high level of interest. d. Encourage economic growth and attract a high level of interest. 2. Masdar city is a -------------------------------. a. community b. mega project c. a station d. a tunnel Masdar City, which began its development in 2006 CE, will be the world’s first carbon-neutral, zero waste artificially-created city. Covering an area of six square kilometres, when it is completed in 2025 CE, it is expected to house more than 40,000 residents, 50,000 commuters, and 1,500 businesses involved in mainly environmentally-friendly products. The city will run entirely on renewable energy sources. It is built on an advanced energy grid which monitors exactly how much electricity is being used by every outlet in the complex. Furthermore, in order to reduce its carbon footprint, Masdar City will be a car-free zone, designed to be pedestrian and cycle-friendly. Electric, driverless cars will operate as public transport vehicles, and the city will be connected to other locations by a network of roads and railways. 3. Choose the two procedures that will be implemented to reduce carbon footprint in Masdar city. a. Masdar City is expected to house more than 40,000 residents, 50,000 commuters, and 1,500 businesses. b. Masdar City will run entirely on renewable energy sources and is built on an advanced energy grid. c. Masdar City will be a car-free zone and electric, driverless cars will operate as public transport vehicles. d. Masdar City will be connected to other locations by a network of roads and railways. Energy will be provided by solar power and wind farms, and there are also plans to build the world’s largest hydrogen plant. A desalination plant will be used to provide the city’s water, with 80% of water used being recycled. Biological waste will be used as an energy source too, and industrial waste will be recycled. The current residents of Masdar City are all students at the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology. It is a university whose students are fully committed to finding solutions to the world’s energy problems. While the project has the support of many global, environmental and conservation Organisations, there is some criticism of it. It is felt that, instead of building an Artificial sustainable city, sustainability should be made a priority of existing cities. 4. The following two sources of energy will provide Masdar City. a. Solar power and biological waste. b. Wind farms and the desalination plant. c. Solar power and the industrial waste. d. Wind farms and recycling. In conclusion, the benefits of Masdar City for the community and the environment greatly outweigh any disadvantages. If the aims of the developers are realised, Masdar City will be a blueprint for future urban planning that will inspire similar megaprojects in other countries. 5. The underlined word “outweigh” means: a. To be less important than something else. b. To be as important as any disadvantage. c. To be a blueprint for future. d. To be more important than something else. Ibn Bassal was a writer, a scientist and an engineer who lived in Al-Andalus in the eleventh century CE. He worked in the court of Al-Ma’mun, who was the king of Toledo. His great passions were botany, which is the study of plants and agriculture. Although he was a great scholar, he was also a practical man and all of his writing came from his own “hands-on” experience of working the land. 6. The most two great interests for Ibn Bassal are ---------------------- . a. working in the land and writing. b. writing and engineering. c. botany and agriculture. d. science and engineering. 7. Choose the sentence which indicates that Ibn Bassal was a polymath. a. His great passions were botany, which is the study of plants and agriculture. b. Ibn Bassal was a writer, a scientist and an engineer who lived in Al-Andalus in the eleventh century CE. c. He worked in the court of Al-Ma’mun, who was the king of Toledo. d. Ibn Bassal was a writer, a scientist and an engineer. One of the many things which Ibn Bassal achieved was A Book of Agriculture. The book consisted of sixteen chapters which explain how best to grow trees, fruit and vegetables, as well as herbs and sweet smelling flowers; perhaps the most famous chapter of all was the one that described how to treat different types of soil. Ibn Bassal also worked out how to irrigate the land by finding underground water and digging wells. He designed water pumps and irrigation systems. All of these things were passed on through his writing. 8. Two of Ibn Bassal’s achievements are -------------------------------, a. writing a book of agriculture and growing trees. b. growing trees and designing water pumps. c. writing a book of agriculture and designing water pumps and irrigation systems. d. writing a book of agriculture and growing fruit and vegetables. 9. Ibn Basal worked out how to irrigate the land by two ways. What are they? a. Finding underground water and digging wells. b. Growing trees and designing water pumps. c. Writing a book of agriculture and digging wells. d. Writing a book of agriculture and growing trees. The influence of Ibn Bassal’s book was enormous. As farmers down the generations followed his instructions and advice, the land became wonderfully fertile and produced more than enough food for the fast-growing population. The irrigation systems that he and his followers put in place are still in evidence in Spain. Although his name is not widely known, Ibn Bassal’s legacy to the world has been great. 10. The land became wonderfully fertile because --------------------------. a. the land produced more than enough food for the fast-growing population. b. farmers down the generations followed his instructions and advice. c. his name is not widely known. d. his legacy to the world has been great. 2. Choose the suitable item from those given to complete each of the following sentences. 11. If a city recycles everything and doesn’t throw anything away, it is zero ----------------- a. renewable b. pedestrian c. urban planning d. waste 12. We learn about shapes, lines and angles when we study ------------------- a. Arithmetic b. Geometry c. Linguistics d. physician 13. A place where no cars are allowed is a car free zone, and it is ------------------ friendly. a. renewable b. pedestrian c. urban planning d. waste 14. The need for more effective --------------- is evident when we consider modern day problems like traffic. a. economic growth b. negative effects c. public transport d. urban planning 15. When you stay calm and take your time, you are being ------------------------. a. responsible b. rewarding c. conflict d. patient 3. Choose A, B, C or D: 16. The Middle East is famous for the ----------------- of olive oil. a. produce b. productive c. production d. productively 17. My father bought our house with an -------------- from his grandfather. a. inherit b. inheritance c. inherited d. inheritedly. 18. -----------------, a man proposes to a woman, not the other way round. a. traditional b. tradition c. traditionally d. traditions 19. Do you think the wheel was the most important --------------- ever? a. invent b. invention c. inventor d. invented 21. There is a particular Bedouin style of---------------- that buyers find very attractive. a. weaves b. weaver c. weave d. weaving 22. Pollution has some serious ------------ effects on the environment, such as the death of wildlife and plant life. a. negative b. biological c. urban d. public 23. Nasser has applied to --------------------- where his father works. a. ask questions b. join the company c. shake hands d. earn the respect 24. London, --------------------- is the capital of the UK, is a huge city. a. when b. where c. which d. when 25. If you are polite, you won’t -------------- offence or upset anybody. a. make b. join c. cause d. do 26. Babies are usually happy --------------------- they are hungry or tired. a. provided that b. as long as c. unless d. even if 27. A: I would like to get a job as a teacher of English. B: --------------------------------------------------------------- ? a. Why don’t you study hard b. If I were you, I would study hard c. You could study hard d. You should study hard 4. Choose A, B, C or D to complete the following sentences: 28. I regret going to bed late last night. I wish I ----------------- late. a. went b. didn’t go c. had gone d. hadn’t gone 29. I couldn’t understand anything. If only I ----------------- Chinese! a. studied b. didn’t study c. had studied d. hadn’t studied 30. I ----------------- you with your homework, as long as you help me with mine! a. help b. helps c. will help d. would help 31. If you ----------------- Medicine, your job prospects would have been better. a. study b. studies c. had studied d. studied 32. Do you usually go home or meet your friends when school ----------------- ? a. finish b. finishes c. finished d. will finish 33. The person who has influenced me most ----------------- my father. a. is b. was c. has d. had 5. Choose A, B, C or D to complete each of the following sentences: 34. The country ----------------- Jabir Ibn Hayyan did his research was Iraq. a. when b. where c. which d. when 35. You will not pass your exams ----------------- you study hard. a. provided that b. as long as c. unless d. even if 36. Babies are usually happy ----------------- they’re hungry or cold. a. provided that b. as long as c. unless d. even if 6. Choose one of the following items so that the new item has a similar meaning: 37. You should practise the presentation several times. a. If I were you, I should practise the presentation several times. b. If I were you, I would practise the presentation several times. c. If I was you, I would practise the presentation several times. d. If I was you, I should practise the presentation several times. 38. The Egyptians built the pyramids. a. It is the Egyptians that built the pyramids. b. It is the Egyptians which built the pyramids. c. It was the Egyptians that built the pyramids. d. It was the Egyptians when built the pyramids. 39. London is a huge city. It’s the capital of the UK. a. London, where is the capital of the UK, is a huge city. b. London which is the capital of the UK is a huge city. c. London, which is the capital of the UK, is a huge city. d. London, which was the capital of the UK, is a huge city. 40. Sultan forgot to do his science homework. a. If only Sultan forgot to do his science homework. b. If only Sultan didn’t forget to do his science homework. c. If only Sultan had forgotten to do his science homework. d. If only Sultan hadn’t forgot to do his science homework. 41. Oh no! I’ve forgotten my library book. I left it at home. a. I wish I had forgotten my library book. b. I wish I have forgotten my library book. c. I wish I didn’t forget my library book. d. I wish I hadn’t forgotten my library book. 42. I regret going to bed late last night. a. I wish I had gone earlier. b. I wish I went earlier. c. I wish I hadn’t gone earlier. d. I wish I didn’t go earlier. 43. If you don’t water the plants, they will die. a. Unless you water the plants, they will die. b. Unless you water the plants, they won’t die. c. Unless you don’t water the plants, they will die. d. Unless you don’t water the plants, they won’t die. 44. I should have studied hard before the exam. a. I wish I have studied hard before the exam. b. I wish I hadn’t studied hard before the exam. c. I wish I didn’t study hard before the exam. d. I wish I had studied hard before the exam. 45. I didn’t know your phone number, so I wasn’t able to contact you. a. If I knew your phone number, I would contact you. b. If I hadn’t known your phone number, I would have contacted you. c. If I had known your phone number, I would contact you. d. If I had known your phone number, I would have contacted you. 46. Al-Jazari invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century. a. The period when AL-Jazari invented the mechanical clock was the twelfth century. b. The period when AL-Jazari invented the mechanical clock is the twelfth century. c. The period where AL-Jazari invented the mechanical clock was the twelfth century. d. The period which AL-Jazari invented the mechanical clock was the twelfth century. 7. Choose A, B, C or D to correct the underlined mistakes in the following paragraph: The Girladta Tower(47) which was originally a (48) minoret , is one of the most important buildings in Sevilla, Spain. stands at just over 104 meters tall. The person who was believed to be responsible of the design of the tower, who was a (49) Mathemtitian and astronomer, was Jaber Bin Aflah. The architect of the tower was Ahmad bin Baso, who (50) begins work in 1184CE. 47. a. / . / b. / ! / c. / . / d. / ; / 48. a. menaret b. minaret c. minarit d. menarit 49. a. Mathematitien b. Mathematician c. Mathamatician d. Mathamatecian 50. a. begin b. beginning c. began d. begun 8. Choose A, B, C or D to form meaningful sentences using the information in the following table. Why people should read more books ....... - develop verbal abilities - increase focus and concentration - refresh money - improve imagination skills There are many (1) _______________ that make people read more books such as (2) _______________ verbal abilities, increasing focus and concentration (3) _______________ refreshing money, too. (4) _______________, another reason is improving imagination skills. 1. a. ways b. reasons c. disadvantages d. problems 2. a. increse b. increases c. increasing d. increased 3. a. in addition b. too c. and d. also 4. a. Such as b. Too c. And d. Also An Informal Letter In informal letter: 1. We use language that is similar to spoken English. 2. We use abbreviations = hadn’t - I’d 3. Informal letters usually have idioms and phrasal verbs. 4. Informal letters usually use active rather than passive verbs. 4. In the UK, there is a central government, but there are also ____________ councils around the country. a. rigional b. reginial c. regional d. rigonal ) 5. “Scientists say that exercise is not only important for general fitness; but that it also good for the brain.” The correct punctuation mark for the underlined misused one is _________________. a. ! b. ? c. . d. , 6. London ______________ which is the capital of the Uk, is a huge city. a. ! b. ; c. . d. , 7. If you send money to charity __________ you will make a difference to a lot of lives. a. ! b. . c. . d. ? 8. In business __________ when you meet someone for the first time __________ it’s polite to shake hands. a. ! / , b. . / . c. ? / . d. . / , 9. There are many reasons that make people read more books such as __________ money and __________ imagination skills. a. refresh / improve b. refreshes / improves c. refreshed / improves d. refreshing / improving اسأل الله العلي القدير لكم النجاح والتفوق والتوفيق Emad Abu Alzumar PART ONE : READING COMPREHENSION : Read the following text carefully, and then in your ANSWER BOOKLET answer all the questions that follow. Your answer should be based on the text. Don’t come away from a sales pitch wishing you had been better prepared. It is essential to know everything about your product. Do you know when it was developed, and where it is produced? You also need to know who the target market is – for example, the age group or income of the people who might buy it. Not only that, you should know all about the competition – that is, similar products on the market. Why is your product superior to others and why does it have better value? 1. There are many things that you should know about your product. Choose two of them. a. To know everything about your product and the target market. b. To know when it was developed, and where it is produced. c. To know the age group or income of the people who might buy it. d. Why is your product superior to others and why does it have better value? 2. Find a phrase in the first text which means "people who are identified as possible customers" mean? a. target market b. age group c. income d. similar products In addition, you should know exactly which people you are speaking to, and what their needs are. For example, if they represent a middle-class department store in a humble neighbourhood, be ready to explain why your particular product would suit customers who do not have lots of money. What makes your product perfect for them? Most of all, you need to believe in what you’re selling, and the best way to do that is to use it! 3. In order to believe in what you’re selling, you should ________________________. a. buy it b. sell it c. use it d. know it. Plan your presentation carefully, not just what you will say, but how you will say it. Will you read it word by word, use notes or memorise it? Whatever you decide, it is always a good idea to have a list of your main points, in case something interrupts you, or you simply freeze with nerves (it happens!). Then practise it, if possible in front of colleagues. Make changes and practise it again. 4. There are two ways to plan your presentation carefully. Choose them. a. To read it word by word and use notes. b. To use notes and have a list of your main points. c. What you will say and how you will say it. d. To make changes and practice it again. 5. You should have a list of your main points for the following two reasons. a. To make changes and practice it again. b. To use notes and have a list of your main points. c. Not just what you will say and how you will say it. d. In case something interrupts you, or you simply freeze with nerves Keep your presentation short and simple. Start with some friendly comments. For example, thank your hosts for allowing you to speak to them, and compliment their company. Remember to speak slowly and clearly. It is important to appear confident (even if you’re nervous!). While you’re speaking, don’t keep your head down. Instead, look round the room and make eye contact with your audience. Smile! When you’ve finished speaking, invite questions. If you don’t know the answers, don’t pretend! Thank the questioner and promise to find out the answer (and do it!). Finally, have a summary of your presentation ready to hand out at the end of the session. I wish I had known all this when I started out in business! Good luck! 6. There are two ways to plan your presentation carefully. Choose them. a. To read it word by word and use notes. b. To use notes and have a list of your main points. c. What you will say and how you will say it. d. To make changes and practice it again. My name is Fatima Musa and I have worked as an interpreter for five years. Many students have emailed me about my work because they want to know what it would be like to do my job. So here is my reply. I have always been fond of languages. My father worked in many different countries when I was young and we usually travelled with him. When we visited a country, I always wanted to learn the language. At school I was very good at English. Therefore, I decided on a career as an interpreter. 7. Many students have emailed Fatima for the following reason: a. She has worked as an interpreter for five years. b. They want to know what it would be like to do her job. c. She has always been fond of languages. d. She always wanted to learn the language. My job now involves going to important conferences and seminars around the world. When a person speaks in English at a conference, I listen to what they say through headphones. I then translate into Arabic while the speaker is talking. I give the translation through headphones to other people at the meeting. This means that anyone in the room who speaks Arabic can understand what people are saying. 8. Fatima gives the translation and listens through ________________. a. conferences b. seminars c. headphones d. speakers Is it an easy job? Not at all. English is not the same in all English-speaking countries. For example, the English words that are used in India are sometimes different to the words that people use in the UK, the USA or Australia. As well as knowing regional English, you also need to know a lot of specialist language. Some of the words that are used to talk about business, science or law, for example, make it almost a different language! 9. The job of an interpreter is not easy for the following reasons: a. English is not the same in all English-speaking countries. b. You don’t have to know the regional English. c. Some of the words that are used to talk about business, science or law don’t make it almost a different language! d. English is the same in all English-speaking countries. Unless you have a language degree, you will not be able to become an interpreter. Provided that you have a postgraduate qualification, you will probably get a job as an interpreter quite quickly. If you get an interview for a job, you will need to show that you have good listening skills and a clear speaking voice. You will also need to show that you can think quickly and that you are able to concentrate for long periods of time. If you are successful, it is a secure and rewarding job. You will probably need to travel a lot, but that is not a problem as long as you enjoy visiting other countries. It is a very responsible job. I am aware that if I translate things badly, it could affect an important law or trade agreement between countries. However, you get a huge feeling of satisfaction when you know that people understand everything that you translate. 10. Find a word in the text which has a similar meaning as ‘giving personal satisfaction’. a. interview b. rewarding c. secure d. successful 11. The qualifications an interpreter should have to get the job quickly are ________________. a. secure and rewarding. b. good listening skills and a clear speaking voice. c. a language degree and a postgraduate qualification. d. Thinking quickly being able to concentrate for long periods of time. 2. Choose the suitable item from those given to complete each of the following sentences. 12. When you can prove that you have experience, you have a ________________. a. clients b. track record c. pensions d. exported 13. Jordan has _______________ many goods to the EU for many years. a. clients b. track record c. pensions d. exported 14. My job was to follow up web enquiries, and send out further information to possible ________________. a. clients b. track record c. pensions d. exported 15. In order to work in finance, you need to be a very ________________ person. a. successful b. responsible c. dominated d. recommendations 16. Many large companies offer graduate training _______________, which are a kind of apprenticeship. a. desalination b. fertile c. schemes d. qualifications 17. In Jordan, the majority of the economy is ________________ by services, mostly travel and tourism. a. successful b. responsible c. dominated d. recommendations 18. Before I visit a company in China, I send ________________ from previous clients. a. successful b. responsible c. dominated d. recommendations 3. Choose A, B, C or D: 19. Sheep’s wool, and goat and camel hair are used by Bedouin tribes to ________________ rugs. a. produce b. productive c. production d. productively 20. Congratulations on a very ________________ business deal. a. success b. succeed c. successful d. successfully 21. Developing ________________ thinking is being encouraged at schools in Jordan. a. create b. creative c. creation d. creatively 22. When do you ________________ to receive your test results? a. expect b. expectancy c. expectedly d. expected 23. It’s_______________________ to take regular breaks when revising. a. benefit b. beneficial c. beneficially d. benefits 24. By working hard, you will earn the ---------------------- of your boss. a. questions b. hands c. respect d. company 25. A: I don’t understand what we have to do for homework. B: -----------------------------, I would ask the teacher. a. Why don’t you b. If I were you c. You could d. You should 4. Choose A , B , C or D to complete the following sentences : 26. I want to go out this afternoon, but I don’t feel well. If only I ---------------------- a headache. a. didn’t have b. had c. hadn’t d. had had 27. We will go to our favourite restaurant on Friday unless it ----------------- closed. a. was b. is c. were d. are 28. We need umbrellas when it ------------------------ . a. rain b. rains c. rained d. will rain 29. Ahmad would have passed his exams if he -------------------------- hard. a. study b. studies c. had studied d. studied 30. Huda --------------------- the person who won the Prize for Art last year. a. was b. is c. were d. are 31. You can get high marks as long as you ---------------------- well. a. study b. studies c. had studied d. studied 34. I wish I ---------------------- a millionaire, I would buy a palace. a. am b. were c. has been d. have been 35. If only I --------------------- the deal yesterday. a. did b. hadn’t done c. does d. will do 36. Your job as an interpreter won’t be a problem as long as you ---------------------- travelling. a. enjoyed b. enjoy c. enjoys d. had enjoyed 6. Choose one of the following items so that the new item has a similar meaning: 37. I regret buying this old car. a. I wish I had bought this old car. b. I wish I bought this old car. c. I wish I didn’t buy this old car. d. I wish I hadn’t bought this old car. 38. I think you shouldn’t worry so much. If -----------------------------------------------. a. I were you, I wouldn’t worry so much. b. I were you, I would worry so much. c. I were you, I shouldn’t worry so much. d. I were you, I should worry so much. 39. I like Geography most of all. a. The subject which I like most of all was Geography. b. The subject when I like most of all was Geography. c. The subject which I like most of all is Geography. d. The subject where I like most of all was Geography. 40. I stopped working at 11 p.m. a. It is 11 p.m. when I stopped working. b. It was 11 p.m. when I stopped working. c. It was 11 p.m. which I stopped working. d. It was 11 p.m. where I stopped working. 41. Our team didn’t play well yesterday. a. I wish our team hadn’t played better. b. I wish our team played better. c. I wish our team didn’t play better. d. I wish our team had played better. 42. Unless she studies hard, she won’t succeed. a. If she studies hard, she won’t succeed. b. If she doesn’t study hard, she will succeed. c. If she doesn’t study hard, she won’t succeed. d. If she doesn’t study hard, she won’t succeeded. 43. Samia regrets being angry at breakfast time. a. Samia wishes she had been angry at breakfast time. b. Samia wishes she weren’t angry at breakfast time. c. Samia wishes she hadn’t been angry at breakfast time. d. Samia wishes she wasn’t angry at breakfast time. 44. I didn’t come early to the party, so I didn’t see all my friends. a. If I came early to the party, I would see all my friends. b. If I came early to the party, I wouldn’t see all my friends. c. If I hadn’t come early to the party, I wouldn’t have seen all my friends. d. If I had come early to the party, I would have seen all my friends. 45. Ricky works in a small company. a. Ricky wishes he had worked in a small company. b. Ricky wishes he hadn’t worked in a small company. c. Ricky wishes he worked in a small company. d. Ricky wishes he didn’t work in a small company. 46. Ali has bought a new bag before starting school. a. The thing which Ali has bought before starting school was a new car. b. The thing which Ali has bought before starting school is a new car. c. The thing when Ali has bought before starting school was a new car. d. The thing where Ali has bought before starting school was a new car. 47. I don’t have a camera to take some beautiful photos. a. I wish I have a camera to take some beautiful photos. b. I wish I didn’t have a camera to take some beautiful photos. c. I wish I had a camera to take some beautiful photos. d. I wish I had had a camera to take some beautiful photos. 48. It would be a good idea for you to study early in the morning. a. If I were you, I wouldn’t study early in the morning. b. If I were you, I would study early in the morning. c. Why do you study early in the morning? d. You couldn’t study early in the morning. 49. Saeed left his camera at home, so he wasn’t able to take photos of the parade. a. If Saeed hadn’t left his camera at home, he wouldn’t have been able to take photos of the parade. b. If Saeed hadn’t left his camera at home, he would have been able to take photos of the parade. c. If Saeed had left his camera at home, he wouldn’t have been able to take photos of the parade. d. If Saeed had left his camera at home, he would have been able to take photos of the parade. 4. Choose A, B, C or D to complete the following sentences: 50. My brother is really good --------------- Maths. a. on b. about c. at d. into 51. The man, -------------- son is a doctor, lives nearby. a. who b. which c. when d. whose 52. The man will get a secure job --------------- he works hard. a. as long as b. unless c. when d. even if 53. You won’t get the job quickly --------------- you have a postgraduate qualification. a. as long as b. unless c. when d. even if 54. Fadi has lost his wallet. I wish he -------------- more careful. a. have been b. has been c. when d. had been 1. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- My name is Fatima Musa and I have worked as an interpreter for five years. Many students have emailed me about my work because they want to know what it would be like to do my job. Why have many students emailed Fatima Musa? a. My name is Fatima Musa. b. They want to know what it would be like to do my job. c. I have worked as an interpreter for five years. d. Many students have emailed me about my work. 2. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- It was a company that provides financial products – savings and pensions, mostly. At first I just ‘shadowed’ different people, watching what they were doing. Then I did quite a lot of checking for them – you know, checking their calculations. When I went back in the summer, I was in the sales department. My job was to follow up web enquiries, but they weren’t in the same year. I enjoyed it, and I wouldn’t have had that opportunity if I hadn’t done the work experience first. What kind of company did Ricky Miles work for last summer? a. a company that provides financial products. b. a company that follows up web enquiries. c. a company that checks people’s calculations. d. a company that watches different people. 3. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- Yes! I wish I had researched Chinese culture before I visited the country. In order to be successful in China, you need to earn their respect. Chinese business people will always ask about a company’s successes in the past. However, because I worked for a new company, I could not talk about its track record. We did not do any business deals on that first trip. ‘I joined a larger company and they sent me on a cultural awareness course. On my next visit to China, it felt as if I hadn’t known anything on my first visit! How did the writer learn about the Chinese culture? a. I had researched Chinese culture. b. I worked for a new company. c. I visited the country. d. I joined a larger company and they sent me on a cultural awareness course. 4. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- In my spare time, I help elderly people, and I can see the difference that medicines can make to their lives. I am very keen to join a company that can really help people. Find a word in the above text which means “having or showing eagerness or interest”. a. spare b. medicines c. keen d. join 5. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- If you get an interview for a job, you will need to show that you have good listening skills and a clear speaking voice. You will also need to show that you can think quickly and that you are able to concentrate for long periods of time. If you are successful, it is a secure and rewarding job. You will probably need to travel a lot, but that is not a problem as long as you enjoy visiting other countries. Find a word in the text which has the same meaning as “giving personal satisfaction”. a. interview b. rewarding c. secure d. successful 6. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- Now let’s look at imports. Unlike some other countries in the Middle East, Jordan does not have large oil or gas reserves. For that reason Jordan has to import oil and gas for its energy needs. Its other main imports are cars, medicines and wheat. In 2013 CE, 23.6% of Jordan’s imports were from Saudi Arabia. This was followed by the EU, with 17.6% of its imports. Other imports have come from China and the United States. Quote the sentence which indicates the country that supplied Jordan with nearly a quarter of its imports in 2013. a. Jordan has to import oil and gas for its energy needs. b. Other imports have come from China and the United States. c. This was followed by the EU, with 17.6% of its imports. d. In 2013 CE, 23.6% of Jordan’s imports were from Saudi Arabia. 7. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- Unlike some other countries in the Middle East, Jordan does not have large oil or gas reserves. For that reason, Jordan has to import oil and gas for its energy needs. Its other main imports are cars, medicines and wheat. In 2013 CE, 23.6% of Jordan’s imports were from Saudi Arabia. This was followed by the EU, with 17.6% of its imports. Other imports have come from China and the United States. What does the underlined word “its” refer to? a. Jordan b. Saudi Arabia c. China d. United States 8. Read the following text carefully then answer the question that follows:- Not surprisingly, two of Jordan’s largest exports are chemicals and fertilisers. Pharmaceuticals and other industries represent 30% of Jordan’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and 75% of Jordan’s pharmaceuticals are exported. However, the majority (65%) of the economy is dominated by services, mostly travel and tourism. Most of Jordan’s exports go to Iraq, the USA, India and Saudi Arabia. Most of Jordan’s exports mainly go to four countries. What are these countries? a. Iraq, Syria, India and Saudi Arabia b. Iraq, the USA, India and Saudi Arabia c. Iraq, the USA, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia d. Iraq, the USA, India and Egypt. 9. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Farmers --------------- their fields because more food means better harvest. a. fertilise b. fertilizer c. fertile d. fertilisation 10. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Please list your educational --------------------- and work experience. a. qualify b. qualification c. qualifies d. qualified 11. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Children are often more --------------------- than adults. a. adapt b. adaptation c. adaptable d. adapted 12. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Compromise is reached by a process of ---------------------. a. negotiate b. negotiated c. negotiation d. negotiable 13. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. After the talk, there will be a chance for you to --------------------- about anything you don’t understand. a. ask questions b. shake hands c. earn respect d. cause offence 14. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. The majority of Jordan’s economy is --------------------- by services, mostly travel and tourism. a. exported b. dominated c. imported d. reserved 15. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. My friend has just got a --------------------- at our local bank. a. job b. work c. successful d. responsible 16. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. After a long ---------------------, we managed to do a deal. a. meeting b. agreement c. secure d. rewarding 17. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. I regret the deal now. I wish we _________________ done it. a. had b. hadn’t c. wish d. only 18. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. I wish I had known more about the company. If only I ________________________ some research! a. had done b. have done c. has done d. do 19. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Sultan forgot to do his science homework. If only he _______________ to do it. a. hasn’t forgotten b. has forgotten c. had forgotten d. hadn’t forgotten 20. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. My brother and I never want to watch the same TV programme. I wish we __________________________. a. have liked the same things. b. has liked the same things. c. liked the same things. d. like the same things. 21. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. I am looking at a beautiful view, and I’d love to take a photo. If only I ________________________________. a. had a camera with me. b. has a camera with me. c. have a camera with me. d. hadn’t a camera with me. 22. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Fadi mustn’t drive ________________ he has a driver’s license. a. when b. unless c. even if d. provided that 23. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following question. Don’t sign the document ______________________ you read it carefully. a. if b. unless c. as long as d. even if 24. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. We will cancel tomorrow’s tennis match ____________ it rains. a. even if b. if c. unless d. provided that 25. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. If you had bought fresh green vegetables, your salad ______________________ better. a. tasted b. will taste c. taste d. would have tasted 26. Choose the correct answer from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. The teacher ________________________ if I write a good essay. a. was pleased b. will be pleased c. were pleased d. is pleased 27. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. It’s important to have an ________________________ of difference countries. a. awareness b. awerness c. awarnes d. avernise 28. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. We can all work hard to reduce our __________ by living a more environmentally-friendly lifestyle. a. public transport b. economic growth c. carbon footprint d. urban planning 29. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. If you are polite, you won’t __________________________ or upset anybody. a. make a mistake b. cause offence c. do exercise d. ask questions 30. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. After the talk, there will be a chance for you to ________________ about anything you don’t understand. a. make a mistake b. cause offence c. do exercise d. ask questions 31. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Before you apply for a job, check that you have the correct ________________. a. qualify b. qualifies c. qualified d. qualifications 32. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. These shoes hurt my feet. I wish I _______________ these shoes. a. bought b. hadn’t bought c. had bought d. don’t buy 33. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Nasser will come out with us tomorrow unless he _________________ help his father. a. has to help b. have to help c. had to help d. help 34. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Al-Kindi is especially famous for his work in geometry. a. It is for his work in Geometry when AlKindi is especially famous. b. It is for his work in Geometry that AlKindi is especially famous. c. It is for his work in Geometry that AlKindi was especially famous. d. It is for his work in Geometry where AlKindi is especially famous. 35. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. The city ________________ was considered one of the World’s Heritage Site was Petra. a. who b. which c. where d. when 36. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Al-Kindi is a physician, philosopher, mathematician, chemist, musician and astronomer – a true _____________. a. bolymath b. pulymath c. polymeth d. polymath 37. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. Unlike some other countries in the Middle East______________ Jordan does not have large oil or gas reserves. a. . b. , c. ! d. ; 38. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. I feel ill ________________ I wish I hadn’t eaten so many sweets! a. ! b. . c. , d. ? 39. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. How can I get work ________________ without getting a job first? a. experience b. experiensse c. eksperience d. exberience 40. Choose the correctly spelt word from A, B, C OR D to complete the following sentence. What do you think you will need to show if you have an interview for a job ________________ a. ! b. . c. , d. ? | Collocations | Arabic | Collocations | Arabic | |-------------------------------|----------------------|-------------------------------|----------------------| | public transport | المواصلات العامة | carbon footprint | انثر الكربون | | urban planning | التخطيط العمراني | biological waste | النفايات البيولوجية | | economic growth | النمو الاقتصادي | negative effect | الآثار السلبية | | Collocations | Arabic | Collocations | Arabic | |-------------------------------|----------------------|-------------------------------|----------------------| | make - a mistake | يترك خطأ | earn - respect | يكسب الاحترام | | ask - questions | يسأل أسئلة | join - a company | ينضم إلى شركة | | shake - hands | يصافح امساكه | cause - offence | يسبب اضاعة | 1. When people talk about **economic growth**, they can mean either an improvement in the average standard of living, or an increase in the value of a country’s products. 2. Pollution has some serious **negative effects** on the environment, such as the death of wildlife and plant life. 3. We can all work hard to reduce our **carbon footprint** by living a more environmentally-friendly lifestyle. 4. If we take **public transport** more often, there will be fewer cars on the roads, which will result in cleaner air in our cities. 5. Hospitals need to dispose of a lot of **biological waste**, and it should be carefully managed because it can be dangerous. 6. The need for more effective **urban planning** is evident when we consider modern day problems like traffic. 7. Be very careful when you answer the questions, and try not to **make a mistake**. 8. If you are polite, you won’t **cause offense** or upset anybody. 9. Before the serious discussion starts, we always **make small talk**; it’s often about the weather! 10. Nasser has applied to **join the company** where his father works. 11. In business, when you meet someone for the first time, it’s polite to **shake hands**. 12. After the talk, there will be a chance for you to **ask questions** about anything you don’t understand. 13. By working hard, you will **earn the respect** of your boss. 14. Would you like to work **as** a teacher in a big school? 15. We need to decide **on** a place to meet. 16. Can you translate this Arabic **into** English for me, please? 17. I’d like to talk **about** the film I’ve just seen; it was brilliant! 18. The teacher asked us **about** our favourite books. 19. My sister is really good **at** drawing and painting. --- ### Functions #### 1. Giving Advice - **a.** You could + V-inf. b. Why don’t you + V-inf.? c. If I were you, I would … (should – ought to – It would be a good idea for you to) #### 2. To emphasize certain pieces of information Almud is the person who study in the USA. - cleft sentence There are many animals which have four legs. Defining relative clauses The Sahara desert, which is in Africa, is very hot. Non-defining relative clauses #### 3. To give more detail about a particular person, place or thing that is being talked about I wish I had done more work for my exam. I wish I knew the answer. If you boil water, it evaporates. If you study hard, you will succeed. If I had stayed at home, I would have celebrated. #### 4. To express regrets about the past. I wish I had done more work for my exam. I wish I knew the answer. If you boil water, it evaporates. If you study hard, you will succeed. If I had stayed at home, I would have celebrated. #### 5. To express wishes about the present. I wish I had done more work for my exam. I wish I knew the answer. If you boil water, it evaporates. If you study hard, you will succeed. If I had stayed at home, I would have celebrated. #### 6. To describe something that always happens. I wish I had done more work for my exam. I wish I knew the answer. If you boil water, it evaporates. If you study hard, you will succeed. If I had stayed at home, I would have celebrated. #### 7. To describe a future outcome of a certain future action or event. I wish I had done more work for my exam. I wish I knew the answer. If you boil water, it evaporates. If you study hard, you will succeed. If I had stayed at home, I would have celebrated. #### 8. To imagine past situations. I wish I had done more work for my exam. I wish I knew the answer. If you boil water, it evaporates. If you study hard, you will succeed. If I had stayed at home, I would have celebrated. --- ### Complete the following mini-dialogue by giving advice: A: I would like to get a job as a teacher of English. B: **Why don’t you** study English at university? A: I want to learn Chinese, but they don’t teach it in my school. B: **You could** do a Chinese course online. A: I don’t understand what we have to do for homework. B: **If I were you**, I would ask the teacher. ### Complete the sentences with words formed from the words in brackets. 1. The Middle East is famous for the ________________ of olive oil. (produce - productive - production) (produce) 2. Ibn Sina wrote ________________ textbooks. (medicine - medical - medically) (medicine) 3. Fatima al-Fihri was born in the _____________ century. (nine - ninth) (nine) 4. My father bought our house with an ___________ from his grandfather. (inherit - inherited - inheritance) (inherit) 5. Scholars have discovered an ____________ document from the twelfth century. (origin - original - originally) (origin) 6. Do you think the wheel was the most important ____________ ever? (invention - invented - invent) (invent) 7. Al-Khindi made many important mathematical ________________. (discover - discoveries - discoverer) (discover) 8. Who was the most ________________ writer of the twentieth century? (influence - influentially - influential) (influence) 9. Developing ________________ thinking is being encouraged at schools in Jordan. (create - creative - creation) (create) 10. When we go to on school trips, we always learn new things because the trips are ___________. (education - educational - educate) (education) 11. Maha shows great ____________ for her new job as a lawyer. (enthusiasm - enthusiastic - enthusiastically) (enthusiasm) 12. ________________, the whole process of producing rugs is done by hand. (Tradition - Traditional - Traditionally) (Tradition) 13. Before you apply for a job, check that you have the correct ________________. (quality - qualified - qualification) (quality) 14. The company is pleased with your work and is happy to give you a ________________. (recommend - recommended - recommendation) (recommend) 15. Congratulations on a very ________________ business deal. (success - succeed - successful) (success) 16. We should always be ready to listen to good ________________. (advise - advice - advisable) (advice) 17. My father often talks about what he did in his _________________. ( young - youth ) 18. It’s important to have an _________________ of different countries’ customs. ( aware - awareness ) 19. The graduation ceremony was a very ______________ occasion for everyone. ( memory - memorise - memorable ) 20. Nuts contain useful _________________ such as oils and fats. ( nutrition - nutrients - nutritious ) | بحث الكلمات | ترجمة | |--------------|------| | headphones | موسوعة | | negotiate | جريجي | | talent | طبقة | | seminar | مستخدم | | scale | مفهوم | | prepared | بفرش | | power | مترجم | | rewarding | جندي | | founder | مترجم | | translation | مترجم | | compromise | مترجم | | مخازن | ثروة | |-------|------| | conflict | مترجم | | interpret | مترجم | | patial | مترجم | | ground-breaking | مترجم | | desalination | مترجم | | criticize | مترجم | | outweigh | مترجم | | irrigate | مترجم | | fertile | مترجم | | legacy | مترجم | | reserve | مترجم | | مصطلحات | مهنة | |----------|------| | regional | مترجم | | previous | مترجم | | extraction | مترجم | | chemist | مترجم | | agreement | مترجم | | benefit | مترجم | | farms | مترجم | | footprint | مترجم | | dominate | مترجم | | career | مترجم | | free | مترجم | | friendly | مترجم | | مصطلحات | مهنة | |----------|------| | neutral | مترجم | | pedestrian | مترجم | | domestic | مترجم | | renewable | مترجم | | waste | مترجم | | minerals | مترجم | | marketing | مترجم | | recruiting | مترجم | | pensions | مترجم | | web imputies | مترجم | | knightwear | مترجم | | مصطلحات | مهنة | |----------|------| | philosopher | مترجم | | arithmetic | مترجم | | polymath | مترجم | | track record | مترجم | | windmills | مترجم | | geometry | مترجم | | Mathematician | مترجم | | physician | مترجم | | astronomers | مترجم | | exported | مترجم | | مصطلحات | مهنة | |----------|------| | meeting | مترجم | | secure | مترجم | | job | مترجم | | satisfaction | مترجم | | responsible | مترجم | | taking | مترجم | | advertising | مترجم | | banking | مترجم | | career advisor | مترجم | | coffee | مترجم | | chess | مترجم | | مصطلحات | مهنة | |----------|------| | flying | مترجم | | clock | مترجم | | windmills | مترجم | | algebra | مترجم | | soap | مترجم | | fountain pen | مترجم | | crystal glasses | مترجم | | inoculation | مترجم | | cheques | مترجم | | carpets | مترجم | | surveyor | مترجم | | مصطلحات | مهنة | |----------|------| | be prepared for detailed questions | مترجم | | do a deal | مترجم | | give a business card | مترجم | | tell a joke | مترجم | | export | مترجم | | import | مترجم | | fertilisers | مترجم | | lawyer | مترجم | 1. Please listen to the music through ____________, so that you don’t disturb anybody. 2. I have just read a ___________ of a book by a Japanese author. 3. In the UK, there is a central government, but there are also ___________ councils around the country. 4. My uncle is fluent in several languages. He is often able to ___________ for us during conversations with foreigners. 5. Nada made a successful presentation at a ___________ in Irbid last month. 6. Doing volunteer work can be a very ___________ experience. 7. When you talk about business and try to do a deal, you ___________. 8. When you are ready for something, you are ___________ for it. 9. When you can prove that you have experience, you have a ___________. 10. When two sides disagree and argue, there is a ___________. 11. When each side changes their position a little so that they can agree, they have managed to ___________. 12. When you stay calm and take your time, you are being ___________. 13. In hot countries, solar ___________ is an important source of energy. 14. Green projects are environmentally ___________. 15. Wind ___________ are an example of ___________ energy. 16. If a city recycles everything and doesn’t throw anything away, it is zero ___________. 17. We burn carbon whenever we use oil, coal or gas. This is known as our carbon ___________. 18. If we replace as much carbon as we burn, we are carbon ___________. 19. A place where no cars are allowed is a car ___________ zone, and it is ___________ friendly. 20. My father teaches Maths. He’s a ___________. 21. You must not take in medicine without consulting a ___________. 22. We learn about shapes, lines and angles when we study ___________. 23. Mr Shahin is a true ___________, working in all kinds of creative and scientific fields. 24. Ramzi is very good with numbers and calculations. He always scores high in ___________. 25. A is someone who thinks and writes about the meaning of life. ___________ 26. A ___________ is someone who works with numbers. 27. Geometry and ___________ are subjects which are studied by mathematicians. 28. ___________ is an old-fashioned word which means ‘doctor’ 29. A ___________ is a person who works in a laboratory. 30. The stars and planets are things which ___________ study. 31. Smaller amounts of food, live animals and machinery were ___________ to the EU. 32. Ali is thinking of ___________ a course in agriculture. 33. I get a feeling of ___________ after a hard day’s work. 34. Make sure your online passwords are ___________. 35. In order to work in finance, you need to be a very ___________ person. 36. My friend has just got a ___________ at our local bank. 37. After a long ___________, we managed to do a deal. Ways to foster creativity in children - create a creative atmosphere - allow children the freedom to explore their ideas - encourage children to read for pleasure - give children the opportunity to disagree with you There are many ways to foster creativity in children. Creating a creative atmosphere, allowing children the freedom to explore their ideas and encouraging children to read for pleasure, too. Another way is giving children the opportunity to disagree with you. | Name | Ibn Bassal | |------------|------------| | Date | 11th century BC | | Location | AlAndalus | | Profession | Writer, scientists, engineer | | Interests | Botany and agriculture | | Achievements | A book of agriculture – water pumps – irrigation system | | Legacy | Advice and instructions to farmers | Ibn Bassal lived in AlAndalus in the eleventh century. He was a writer, a scientist and an engineer. He was interested in botany and agriculture, so he made many achievements such as a book about agriculture and water pumps and irrigation systems. Ibn Bassal’s legacy was great because all the farmers followed his advice and instructions. Qasir Bashir | Location | Jordanian Desert | |-------------------|------------------| | Date of construction | beginning of the 4th century | | Purpose of building | protection of the Roman borders | | Description of the building | huge towers, 23 rooms | Qasir Bashir is located in the Jordanian Desert. It was built at the beginning of the 4th century. It was built to protect the Roman borders. Also, it has huge towers and twenty-three rooms. Choose the correct form of the verbs in brackets: 1. Be very careful when you answer the questions, and try not to make a mistake. 2. If you are polite, you won’t cause or upset anybody. 3. Before the serious discussion starts, we always have small talk. It’s often about the weather! 4. Nasser has applied to join the company where his father works. 5. In business, when you meet someone for the first time, it’s polite to shake hands. 6. After the talk, there will be a chance for you to ask questions about anything you don’t understand. 7. By working hard, you will earn the respect of your boss. 8. Saleem began the meeting by making a small talk about his interesting experiences in Egypt. 9. I didn’t do much work for my exam. I wish I had done more work for my exam. 10. We’re late. If only we had taken the earlier bus. 11. I slept too long. I wish I hadn’t slept too long. 12. These shoes hurt my feet. I wish I had bought these shoes. 13. We live in a small flat. I wish we lived in a bigger flat. 14. He is not tall enough. He wishes he was taller. 15. Ali did not pass his exams. If only he studied harder last year. 16. It was too hot to go to the beach yesterday. If only it was cooler. 17. I feel ill. I wish I had eaten so many sweets! 18. Zain is not very good at basketball. He wishes he was taller! 19. I can’t do this exercise. I wish I understood it. 20. Jordan needs to import a lot of oil. If only it had larger oil reserves. 21. If only I hadn’t lost my ticket! 22. Mr Haddad does not understand the Chinese businessman. If only he spoke Chinese! 23. I couldn’t understand anything. If only I had studied Chinese! 24. Ibrahim was right and I was wrong. I wish I had listened to him. 25. I am very hungry! I wish I had eaten before I went to the conference. 26. I regret the deal now, I wish we had done it. 27. Sultan forgot to do his Science homework. If only he had done it. 28. I regret going to bed late last night. I wish I had gone earlier. 29. Nahla could not find her way round the city very easily. If only she had a map. 30. Oh no! I’ve forgotten my library book. I left it at home. I wish I had forgotten it. 31. Our team didn’t play very well yesterday. If only they played better. 32. I’m cold. If only I had brought a coat. 33. We’re late. I wish we had gone earlier. 34. Fadi has lost his wallet. Fadi wishes he was more careful. 35. I’ve broken my watch. I wish I had dropped it. 36. Our house is small. If only we lived in a big house. 37. My cousins don’t live near here. I wish they weren’t so far away. 38. I am sorry that I didn’t read that book. I wish I had read that book. 39. If you want to learn a new language, you need to be motivated. 40. Ali is thinking of taking a course in Agriculture. 41. If plants get enough sunlight, they die. 42. Water -------------- to ice if the temperature falls below zero. 43. When you ------------ water to 100°C, it boils. 44. Do you usually go home or meet your friends when school ------------? 45. During Ramadan, we eat when the sun ---------------. 46. I’ll buy the book provided that it ------------ too expensive. 47. Nasser will come out with us tomorrow unless he ------------ help his father. 48. I -------------- you with your homework, as long as you help me with mine! 49. Even if Omar ------------ his driving test this afternoon, he won’t have his own car. 50. We should always be polite even if we ------------ tired. 51. If I -------------- at home that day, I would have missed the celebration. 52. I -------------- to the library if my friend hadn’t invited me. 53. If Huda ------------ ill yesterday, she wouldn’t have missed the exam. 54. If I were you, I -------------- the presentation several times. Choose the correct answer: 1. The students -------------- cleaned the street are from our school. 2. The prize -------------- Huda won last year was for Art. 3. The person -------------- has influenced me most is my father. 4. The country -------------- Jabir Ibn Hayyan did his research was Iraq. 5. The person -------------- won the prize for art last year was Huda. 6. The year in -------------- Petra was made a World Heritage Site was 1985 CE. 7. It was the month of Ramadan -------------- IbnSina died, in June 1037 CE. 8. As you want to be an English teacher, -------------- study English? 9. -------------- you heat water to 100°C, it boils. 10. You will not pass your exams -------------- you study hard. 11. -------------- you don’t water the plants, they will die. 12. Do you usually go home or meet your friends -------- school finishes. 13. Your new computer will last a long time -------you are careful with it. 14. Ice cream melts -------------- it gets warm. 15. We need umbrellas -------------- it rains. 16. The teacher will be pleased -------------- I write a good essay. 17. Our team will celebrate -------- they win the match. 18. -------------- everyone works hard, we’ll all pass our exams. 19. Babies are usually happy -------- they’re hungry or cold. 20. We should always be polite -------------- we feel tired. 21. During Ramadan, Muslims eat -------------- the sun sets. 22. I’ll phone you -------------- I miss the bus, so that you pick. 23. We’ll go out to our favourite restaurant -------------- it’s closed. 24. I’ll take the job offer ----- it’s part time – I haven’t finished my university studies yet. 25. We have to go to school -------- we’re tired. 26. When Omar gave a speech, the class looked at -------------- in admiration. 27. Did you leave Fatima out? Remember, -------------- is invited. 28. We need to decide -------------- a place to meet. Rewrite the following sentences: 1. You should practise the presentation several times. If I were you, I would practice the presentation several times. 2. It would be a good idea for you to make a list of questions. You could make a list of questions. 3. You ought to get some work experience. Why don’t you get some work experience? 4. I think you should go to the doctor. If I were you, I would go to the doctor. 5. My father has influenced me most. The person who has influenced me most is my father. 6. The Egyptians built the pyramids. It was the Egyptians that built the Pyramids. 7. London is a huge city. It’s the capital of the UK. London, which is the capital of the UK, is a huge city. 8. Sultan forgot to do his Science homework. If only Sultan had forgotten to do his science homework. 9. Oh no! I’ve forgotten my library book. I left it at home. I wish I hadn’t forgotten my library book. 10. Our team didn’t play very well yesterday. If only our team had played better. 11. I regret going to bed late last night. I wish I had gone to bed earlier. 12. If you don’t water the plants, they will die. Unless you water the plants, they will die. 13. Unless you are clever, you will fail. If you aren’t clever, you will fail. 14. If I travel a lot, I will buy many things. Even if I travel a lot, I won’t buy anything. 15. Alia won’t finish her work unless she gets her money. If Fatima don’t get her money, she won’t finish her homework. 16. Samia regrets being angry at breakfast time. If only she hadn’t been angry at breakfast time. 17. I should have studied hard before the exam. I wish I had studied hard before the exam. 18. I regrets I didn’t study English when I was young. I wish I had studied English when I was young. 19. I regret living abroad for a long time. I wish I hadn’t lived abroad for a long time. 20. Mohammad didn’t consult his career advisor, so he felt sorry. Mohammad wishes he had consulted his career advisor. 21. I have broken my watch. I wish I hadn’t broken my watch. 22. Nader should have been more careful with his essay. He didn’t get a good mark. Nader wishes he had been more careful with his essay. 23. I had a headache yesterday, and I didn’t do well in the Maths test. (If, would) If I hadn’t had a headache yesterday, I would have done well in the Maths test. 24. I didn’t know your phone number, so I wasn’t able to contact you. If I had known your phone number, I would have been able to contact you / -, I would have contacted you. 25. If I hadn’t come to this school, I could have taken English. I came to this school, so I didn’t take English. 26. I got top marks because I worked really hard the day before the exam. (If, would not) If I hadn’t worked really hard the day before the exam, I wouldn’t have gotten top marks. 27. Huda won the prize for art last year. The prize which Huda won last year was for art. 28. The Olympic Games were held in London in 2012 CE. The event which took place in London in 2012 CE was The Olympic Games. 29. The Great Mosque in Cordoba was built in 784 CE by Abd al-Rahman I. The person who built The Great Mosque in Cordoba in 784 CE was Abd al-Rahman I. 30. Al-Jazari invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century. The period when Al Jazari invented the mechanical clock was the twelfth century. 31. Jabir Ibn Hayyan did his research in a laboratory in Iraq. The country where Jabir Ibn Hayyan did his research in a laboratory was Iraq. 32. Al-Kindi is especially famous for his work in geometry. It is for his work in Geometry that Al-Kindi is especially famous. 33. The first athletic event for disabled athletes took place in 1948 CE. The year when the first athletic event for disabled athletes took place was 1948 CE. 34. Taha Hussein is especially famous for his work in literature. It is Taha Hussein that is especially famous for his work in literature. 35. Petra was made a World Heritage Site in 1985 CE. The year when Petra was made a World Heritage Site was 1985 CE. 36. My neighbours’ generosity impresses me more than anything else. The thing that impresses me most of all is my neighbour’s generosity. 37. The Second World War ended in 1945 in Europe. The year when the Second World War ended in Europe was 1945. 38. I would like to visit Petra next month. What I would like to do next month is visit Petra. 39. I stopped working at 11 p.m. It was 11 p.m that / when I stopped working. 40. Queen Rania opened the Children’s Museum of Jordan in 2007 CE. It was Queen Rania that opened the Children’s Museum of Jordan in 2007 CE. 41. My father has influenced me most. The person who has influenced me most is my father. 42. I like Geography most of all. The subject which I like most of all is Geography. 43. The heat made the journey unpleasant. It was the heat that made the journey unpleasant. 44. Ali did not pass his exams. If only he had studied harder last year. (study) 45. Ziad did not know about Chinese culture when he went on a business trip to China. He wishes he had done a cultural awareness course. (do) 46. It was too hot to go to the beach yesterday. If only it had been cooler. (be) 47. I feel ill. I wish I hadn’t eaten so many sweets! (not eat) 48. I didn’t bring a coat, and now I am cold. I wish I had brought a coat. 49. We didn’t get up earlier, and now we’re late. If only we had got up earlier. 50. I feel ill because I ate so many sweets. I wish I hadn’t eaten so many sweets. 51. Fadi keeps losing his wallet. He should be more careful. If only Fadi had been more careful. 52. Huda was too busy yesterday. She wasn’t able to come. If only she had been able to come. 53. I’ve broken my watch because I dropped it. I wish I hadn’t dropped it. Write the following sentences in three different ways, emphasizing the parts underlined in each case. 1. Al-Jazari invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century. The person who invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century was Al-Jazari. Al-Jazari was the person who invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century. It was Al-Jazari who invented the mechanical clock in the twelfth century. 2. The Great Mosque in Cordoba was built in 784 CE by Abd al-Rahman I. The mosque which was built in 784 CE by Abd Al-Rahman I was The Great Mosque in Cordoba. The year when The Great Mosque in Cordoba was built by Abd Al-Rahman I was 784 CE. Abd al-Rahman I was the person who built The Great Mosque in Cordoba in 784 CE. that - which - where - who Qasr Bashir is an extremely well-preserved Roman castle which / that is situated in the Jordanian desert, and is about eighty kilometres south of Amman. The walls and huge corner towers of the castle, which was built at the beginning of the fourth century CE, are still standing thought that Qasr Bashir was built to protect the Roman border. Apart from the rooms in the castle, there are also about twenty-three stables where horses may have been kept. People who love exploring historical Roman ruins will certainly find a visit to Qasr Bashir very rewarding. Once inside the building, one can imagine very vividly what it would have been like to live there during the times of the Roman Empire. Identify the defining and non-defining relative clauses in the text. The Giralda The Giralda tower, which is one of the most important buildings in Seville, Spain, stands at just over 104 metres tall. The person who is believed to be responsible for the design of the tower, which was originally a minaret, is the mathematician and astronomer Jabir ibn Aflah. The architect of the tower was Ahmad Ben Baso, who began work in 1184 CE. He died before the tower was completed in 1198 CE. The design of the tower is believed to be based on the Koutoubia Mosque, which is in Marrakesh, Morocco, and the Hassan Tower in Rabat. Complete the text about Ibn Sina, using the relative pronouns in the box one pronoun is used twice. Add commas for the non-defining relative clauses. that / when / which / who Ibn Sina (1), who is also known as Avicenna, was a polymath. Ibn Sina was influenced as a young man by the works of the philosopher Aristotle. He wrote on early Islamic philosophy (2), which included many subjects, especially logic and ethics. He also wrote ALQanun fi-Tibb, the book (3) which became the most famous medical textbook ever. In the last ten or twelve years of his life, Ibn Sina started studying literary matters. His friends (4), who were worried about his health, advised him to relax. He refused and told them ‘I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length.’ It was the month of Ramadan (5) when Ibn Sina died, in June 1037 CE. The importance of Islamic achievements in history Jabir ibn Hayyan (born 722 CE, died 815 CE) The Arab world has many famous chemists in its history, but the person who is known as the founder of chemistry is probably Jabir ibn Hayyan. He is most well known for the beginning of the production of sulphuric acid. He also built a set of scales which changed the way in which chemists weighed items in a laboratory: his scales could weigh items over 6,000 times smaller than a kilogram. Ali ibn Nafi’ (Ziryab) (born 789 CE, died 857 CE) Ali ibn Nafi’ is also known as ‘Ziryab’ (or ‘Blackbird’, because of his beautiful voice). He was a gifted pupil of a famous musician from Baghdad, and it was his talent for music that led him to Cordoba in the ninth century CE. He was the guest of the Umayyad ruler there. He is the person who established the first music school in the world in Cordoba, Al-Andalus, teaching musical harmony and composition. revolutionized musical theory, and is also the person who introduced the oud to Europe. Fatima al-Fihri (born early 9th century, died 880 CE) Fatima al-Fihri was the daughter of a wealthy businessman. She used her father’s inheritance to build a learning centre in Fez, Morocco. This learning centre became Morocco’s top university, and it is where many students from all over the world come to study. Moreover, it was Fatima’s sister, Mariam, who supervised the building of the Andalus Mosque, which was not far from the learning centre. Al-Kindi (born around 801 CE, died 873 CE) Al-Kindi was a physician, philosopher, mathematician, chemist, musician and astronomer – a true polymath. He made ground-breaking discoveries in many of these fields, but it is probably his work in arithmetic and geometry that has made him most famous. Our country’s imports and exports In this report, we will look at the countries that Jordan trades with and what goods it exports and imports. First, let’s look at exports. Jordan is rich in potash and phosphate, and the extraction industry for these minerals is one of the largest in the world. Not surprisingly, two of Jordan’s largest exports are chemicals and fertilisers. Pharmaceuticals and other industries represent 30% of Jordan’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and 75% of Jordan’s pharmaceuticals are exported. However, the majority (65%) of the economy is dominated by services, mostly travel and tourism. Most of Jordan’s exports go to Iraq, the USA, India and Saudi Arabia. Now let’s look at imports. Unlike some other countries in the Middle East, Jordan does not have large oil or gas reserves. For that reason, Jordan has to import oil and gas for its energy needs. Its other main imports are cars, medicines and wheat. In 2013 CE, 23.6% of Jordan’s imports were from Saudi Arabia. This was followed by the EU, with 17.6% of its imports. Other imports have come from China and the United States. Jordan has more free trade agreements than any other Arab country, and it trades freely with many countries, including the USA, Canada and Malaysia. Which other areas are important for Jordan’s trade? Jordan first signed a trade agreement with the EU in 1997 CE. It signed a free trade agreement with Egypt, Morocco and Tunisian in 2004 CE. In 2011 CE, another trade agreement was made with the EU, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. Trade with the EU and North Africa in particular is likely to grow. The world of business Today, we talk to Mr Ghanem, a businessman based in Amman who often visits China. We asked him when he first started doing business with China. ‘I’ve been doing business with China for many years. My first trip there was in 2004 CE, and it was not very successful.’ Why was it not successful? ‘I worked for a small computer company in Amman. They sent me to China when I was still quite young. If only the company had realised that the Chinese respect age and experience more than youth!’ Did you make any mistakes on that visit? ‘Yes! I wish I had researched Chinese culture before I visited the country. In order to be successful in China, you need to earn their respect. Chinese business people will always ask about a company’s successes in the past. However, because I worked for a new company, I couldn’t not talk about its track record. We did not do any business deals on that first trip.’ When did you learn how to be successful in China? ‘I joined a larger company and they sent me on a cultural awareness course. On my next visit to China, it felt as if I hadn’t known anything on my first visit!’ What advice can you give to people wanting to do business in China? ‘Before I visit a company, I send recommendations from previous clients. I also send my business card with my job position and qualifications translated into Chinese.’ Can you tell us about your last meeting in China? ‘Of course! I arrived on time. You must not arrive late, as this shows disrespect. Then, when I met the company director, I shook hands with him gently. I began the meeting by making small talk about my interesting experiences in China. During the meeting, I made sure that my voice and body language were calm and controlled. I never told a joke, as this may not be translated correctly or could cause offence.’ Was it a successful meeting? ‘Yes, it was. I knew that the director had researched my business thoroughly before the meeting, so I was prepared for his detailed questions. When I began negotiating, I started with the important issues. The Chinese believe in avoiding conflict. It is always important to be patient. I was prepared to compromise, so in the end, the meeting was successful.’ عماد ابو الزهر 0785915568
cb95aa16-9842-49af-843e-2386b059ebf6
CC-MAIN-2021-10
https://www.awa2el.net/system/files/2020-07/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%20%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A9%20%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%20%D9%85%D9%86%20%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%AF_1.pdf
2021-03-05T10:12:47+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178370752.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20210305091526-20210305121526-00545.warc.gz
677,456,057
29,692
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.941919
eng_Latn
0.999535
[ "arb_Arab", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "arb_Arab", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 173, 4234, 8040, 10917, 13864, 16645, 21146, 25672, 28417, 31682, 34853, 38694, 41981, 44427, 44596, 48663, 52461, 55392, 58339, 61117, 65619, 70151, 72885, 76068, 79178, 83019, 86295, 88727, 96102, 101459, 105859, 109611, 113499, 117542, 123164, 123191 ]
[ 4.40625, 3.921875 ]
2
0
Spectrum Literary Magazine Renaissance 2023-2024 “Renaissance” - Stacie Hueter Since COVID-19, the Spectrum Literary Magazine hasn’t been the same in the sense that it has left many students, especially underclassmen unaware of our club. However, the art we do receive toward the latter end of each year tend to be of amazing quality. But because of certain setbacks perpetuated by COVID, people don’t know that there are opportunities to get published here. So this year, me and my Co-President, Raida Faiza, have decided to make our theme “Renaissance.” Historically, the Renaissance is a European movement taking place starting in the 14th century, where literature, science, art, and innovation flourished. Many figures that we study in our curriculum today, like William Shakespeare, Leonardo Da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, and many more, dominated this era. Our intention through this theme is not only to spark imagination and creation from our club members, but to remind the school on the greatness in the amount of pride and satisfaction one gets from submitting to a Art and Literary Magazine. Together, as a school, we represent our creative energy and innovation through these pages. It also documents our school’s values, culture, and history throughout the years for future generations to marvel at. I hope this inspires many artists, writers, photographers, and many more creative individuals to contribute to the magazine, and to help us create a new Renaissance, here, at Morris Knolls! “Thank Yous” - Raida Faiza Renaissance to me, is a time of all things beautiful. It is not only one of my favorite time periods in all of art history, but it also represents a deeper truth which I wish to embody: how much any person, even those as barbaric as during the Middle Ages, can be transformed with enough effort and innovation. The reason we chose Renaissance to be this year’s theme is because we hoped this year’s issue would mark a new turn for the magazine, transforming it into something even more wondrous than it was before. There are so many people I want to thank for making this goal some to fruition, namely: Mr. Collinsworth for always keeping us on schedule; Mr. Flake for helping out, no matter how busy he may be; My best friends Rosaanny, Krisha, Emily, and Christina for making club meetings livelier even on sparse days; Julia, for lending her talent in numerous occasions, ranging from making the coolest posters to helping me pick a font; and all the members of the club, for joining and submitting their amazing artwork. This truly would not have been possible without all of you! A Formal Invitation to the Renaissance Dear reader, Thou hath been cordially invited to a trip back in time. The Year is 1401, marking the start of a new intellectual era known better as the Renaissance. The time of Elizabethan Era, the time of the titular Queen Elizabeth I, Stabilizing the Church of England and exploring the enigma that was the New World. When famous writers like William Shakespeare, Geoffrey Chaucer, and Miguel de Cervantes expressed their wisdom through words. Who wrote beloved pieces of literature like Romeo and Juliet, The Canterbury Tales, and Don Quixote. With the boom in literature So came forth the invention of the Gutenberg Printing Press in 1494 Literacy wasn’t a luxury, but an opportunity given to everyone, further passing around the magic of the Renaissance No wonder it lasted centuries! The flourishing of art, where artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello, Michelangelo Created their magnum opuses; the Mona Lisa, and David, and Michaelangelo’s David Works inspiring future generations, breathing new life into their artworks. Science too, alongside the queen and creativity, made its great reign; Copernicus discovered heliocentrism While Da Vinci exploded with ideas, his inventions, Like the ornithopter and his aerial screw Help us unlock a portal into his cogs. A world seemingly foreign, but very much the same place. Connected by simple, four-number strings. But regardless, there are still different values, customs, people, and environments. The same things one would find in a world differing from their own. But, we’d love for you to take a dive And stay a while... Now, what is thy response? - Stacie Hueter Beautiful World The universe has blessed us with many wonders of the natural world that all creatures can’t help but marvel at: The grandeur of a tree: from seedling to maturity They’re faithful green guardians assigned by Mother Nature to give us air and shade, both coolness on hot, summer afternoons, and warmth on days with chilly, whirling winds The trees during winter Decorated with pasty frosting that creates an ethereal wonderland The sky: the stage of many entertaining sights Meteor showers, the Aurora Borealis, and the many gorgeous forms that the sky takes from dusk to dawn The colors of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet They make up the very essence of perception and create the intricate tapestries of reality to even enjoy these phenomena Colorful meadows, especially during the springtime, They are filled with lovely flowers like lavenders, daisies, asters Could this be the green goddess’ dress? Oh, how beautiful she would look. It’s funny to think that the universe has provided the perfect circumstances for all of humanity to be able to live and have the capacity to see everything, Yet, we don’t take the time to appreciate the beauty of this world we’re blessed with. Now, dear readers, explore nature in as much depth that a person is humanly capable of. And let us strive to see every exhibit of this wondrous museum called “Earth.” Anonymous In halls where time stands still, you find yourself drawn in, To a painting of the past, now worn out yet still in its glory Each brushstroke tells a tale untold In colors so gentle to the eye and touching to the soul In the sacred realm of canvas divine, Religious figures in robes entwine, Their faces were full of might and purpose, Their celestial presence bringing the paint to mortal life These godly individuals present themselves in their truest form Bare to the bone with little skin to hide or be ashamed of Embodying the bodies given to them by their Creator Clouds, like wisps of spun cotton, cradle the divine figures in a soft embrace Dancing over the landscape in a heavenly arrangement The light blue sky casts itself through, reminding Angelic forms hang across the page watching over you, With wings that span both time and space Their existence lingers with whispers of grace With every brushstroke, a trace of heaven on earth Above them, the doors of heaven are open wide Where clouds and beams of sunlight beam through Feelings of vulnerability and humanness form a bond One absorbs all of its beauty and delicate nature You catch yourself in a moment of paradise, Illustrations of heavenly scenes encompassing your mind The pastel shades across the page sealed in never to escape The canvas again, yet in some ways it does Moods of realism and raw human emotion linger in the painting Into our bodies, a new sense of meaning is established The life of the once-dead painting is rejuvenated as First-time viewers ignite the spark needed To bring the painting back to life Nataly Camilo Sophia Vandermark Sophia Vandermark Angelique Prudencio Osorio Sam Antonelli In one of the pillars of society, we see fault Education is suffering in its foundation, cracks seeping from crevasses hidden to the human eye, yet felt by students from all over In halls of learning, where minds should soar A race is taking place, one that is becoming hard to contain One for exceptional grades, a thirst for more Competition is breeding as a relentless tide, wrestling with the developing mindset of adolescent beings School has become a place where learning's joy is denied Access to expression and passion are warded off by bright yellow caution tape In the pursuit of scores, we have lost sight, Of the true purpose, fading from the light For the essence of education should not lie in ranks, But rather in the nurturing of minds and the filling in of blanks Our system of education is closing the imagination of young people Leaving them blank of individual thoughts like a closed book Memorization has established its overpowering importance In our lives as the absorbing of information leaves us with Little to no reflection nor application in the real world No longer shall we measure our worth by the letter on a page Or a certain percentage Let us embrace and revive the idea of learning Not just of new facts and information, but learning how to learn Education should serve as a guiding torch, a beacon of hope, A step to work towards and way of learning more about oneself It should ignite minds rather than rattle them on their stance For in this rebirth, we will rediscover, The excitement of learning and the thrilling feeling Of what it means to wonder because Curiosity should be the purpose that echoes through education. Mia Mejia Anonymous Katherine Udud Vibha Akula Photos Taken By: Emily Wagner Cherry blossoms in full bloom, with sunlight filtering through the branches. My brother’s faced gleamed with pure joy when my father handed him the plastic bag, He squealed and lifted the bag to his eyes. “He’s blue, Daddy! He’s blue!” Mom made eye contact with Dad and gave the look of, That fish will die in the next two weeks. Which was true, but my brother sure made use of that two weeks, Glen, (that was the fish’s name), went everywhere with him for the fifteen days of that July. Maybe since I was a lot older than my brother, Glen didn’t amuse me as much as it did to the family, But I knew that my brother fell in love with Glen, and that he was attached. Unfortunately, on 19th of July, everyone woke up from the sound of my brother screaming at 5:18 in the morning, Glen was dead. “I didn’t know Glen could float” My brother had said, “But he isn’t moving, Daddy.” My brother had received one of the most famous conversations that will happen in adolescence. Sure, he was pretty upset, but he was six, and moved on quickly that summer, I had thought Glen wouldn’t be talked about at the dinner table again, but Glen was yet again discussed. “Do you think Glen liked his life? His fish bowl?” My brother asked, My parents reassured him and they forgot about the topic, but I didn’t. I remember asking myself while thinking about the blue betta fish swimming at different paces, My brother never really knew how to take care of things, actually, he didn’t know how to take care of anything. Not even his own pets, He was disorganized and always lost. Never aware of his surroundings. But what I remember the most about that childhood fish, is how the fish must have felt, It’s almost like I related to that fish itself. Circling, sometimes fast, sometimes slow, A cycle that doesn’t stop till death. Passing the same rocks and same water Glen swam the day before and before, The pebbles would stay the same everyday, the obsidian rock next to the stone and the stone next to the teal. Nothing changed for that fish, Only one thing it may have looked forward to, is the sprinklings of protein and even maybe its own death. Someone should have helped that fish to swim, jump or end the life of a fish in a fish bowl, For its life deserved to be carefree in the ocean. With its fish family and fish friends. For I do remember the fish in the fish bowl, I remember exactly how the fish felt during that summer, Because I was, I felt, and I still am, The fish in the fish bowl. "Silent From: The UnSpoken Depths" Mia "Twin Flame" Mejia “Resurrection’s Embrace” Nataly Camilo Sam Antonelli Sophia Vandermark Stacie Hueter A serene winter scene with snow-covered ground and a body of water reflecting the lights from nearby trees. The atmosphere is calm and peaceful, with a soft glow from the lights adding to the tranquil ambiance. "As the world coming to a chilling standstill, winter takes a grasp At all the delicacies of life, both green and growing The air is crisp, creating puffs of clouds with every breath A blanket of snow, pristine and white, Transforms the landscape into a scenery of pure beauty We are enveloped in flakes of crystallized snow In a precious, dreamlike winter wonderland, Captured so magically within a snowglobe" - Rosanny Camilo Photo Taken By: Anonymous As winter rears its end, the frost gives way to the thawing earth Nature awakens in a tapestry of gold rays Flowers start to bloom and birds take flight, The days grow in length as the sun takes its time in the sky Inviting people to join in its warm embrace Rain washes over the land as a mark of a new beginning - Rosanny Camilo "Seasons of Renewal" Photo Taken by: Emily Wagner Gaillardia aristata 'Arizona Sun' (Blanket Flower) “Summer reigns with its golden hue, The heat of the season melts away one’s worries A sweet mood hangs in the air The taste of ice cream, melting in your hands, Brings a moment of delight, where time feels everlasting Each second feels richer and full of anticipation A time when we savor the simplicity of life” - Rosanny Camilo, “Seasons of Renewal” Photo Taken by: Max Minervini “Fall swoops in from underneath our feet, Leaves trickling down tree trunks on their way elsewhere Shades of crimson, yellow, and brown all scattered Across the ground with warm delight Autumn is the mood that stirs intrigue in the soul And encourages people to wander outside and appreciate all that Earth has to offer” - Rosanny Camilo “Seasons of Renewal” Photo Taken by: Emily Wagner Hello! I hope you're having a great day. I wanted to share with you some beautiful images that I've been enjoying lately. These are just a few examples of the lovely things I've come across. If you have any questions or need further assistance, please don't hesitate to ask. I'm here to help! Best regards, [Your Name] Easter Egg Bouquet $45.00 A beautiful Easter egg is nestled in a bouquet of bright and cheerful flowers. Perfect for any Easter celebration! “In the changing of seasons, we find the purity Of rebirth’s dance and self-reflection Though the cycle may seem predictable and planned Our perceptions evoke and refine with the passage of time Traditions we used to hold dear shift and morph before our own eyes As the renaissance of each season unfolds, it serves as a testament to the beauty of life and evolution” - Rosanny Camilo “Seasons of Renewal” Photo Taken by: Mackenzie Loder Giustino Pisani was known for his exquisite art pieces. Oftentimes when people gazed upon his artwork they called him “The Medusa” for his artwork looked too realistic to be fake. His work, which was painted to resemble the many works that were used during the age of rebirth, was used with what he claimed to be oil pastel. He painted people of all ages and colors. Some with blemishes and some with skin so flawless it looked like they were angels trapped in a canvas. His artwork, like most people of the time of the rebirth and the beginning of new times and ideas, caught the attention of the public, and in particular, one young woman named Lady Antoinette Bernard. Although she could not paint, she often found herself dumbstruck by his works which she found being sold at the market or at other nobles’ homes. She loved looking into the soft eyes of his paintings and seeing the agony or the fear of the people in them. Whether it was smart or not, she thought it best to interrogate Lord Pisani and try her best to gather and write about him because not much was known about his whereabouts or where he came from. So, when she heard about his presence in Grosseto, Italy, and how he was painting the walls of a long forgotten cathedral, she quickly gathered her things and traveled from France to Italy to find him. As soon as she came across artwork that littered the streets of Grosseto, she smiled with glee. She found him only mere minutes after walking the streets of Grosseto, working on the wall of the cathedral, using some sort of liquid to paint another face. Although as she gazed at his working hand she realized that it almost seemed that the liquid moved by itself, somehow molding a painting without the hand of an artist. “Lord Pisani?” she began, speaking hesitantly. Lord Pisani, who was busy looking at his painting with indecisiveness, looked up at her, his brown eyes almost seeming to debate whether she would be a great painting or not. “Um.. I was wondering if I could talk to you. I’m writing an article about your works and I feel it would be wonderful if you could say a few words about yourself.” He seemed to ponder the question before he flashed her a quick smile and spoke. “Of course, Lady…” “Lady Antoinette Bernard sir,” she bowed as politely as could “Lady Bernard, please come right this way. I would like it if we could talk in more of a private setting, for I fear what others may think.” Now, I would love to say our Lady Bernard became a little nervous when he led her into a small side room in the cathedral alone, but as I have brought up before, she was a great fan of Lord Pisani’s works. And sometimes when obsession gathers, you forget to have a clear mind. Anyways, as our Lady Bernard was led into this far room she found nothing much but a few couches, a sole drawer and blank canvas on a pedestal, almost aching to be painted on. Yet… Lady Bernard was confused, for there were no paints near the base and there were no paintbrushes. When she dared to ask about this, all he said was, “There are many ways to paint without paint and paintbrushes m’dear”. Oh, how true he was. She walked to one of the sofas on the side of the room and sat in it. She admired how this sofa seemed to be in a lot of the paintings. Some people declared it creepy how he incorporated his furniture into his own works, but it was one of the great things she admired about the man; the simple fact that he drew what he saw on a day to day basis. "Tell me, why did you go into painting, Lord Pisani?" she asked, pulling her notepad from her purse. He smiled and sat on the sofa across from her, which was also seen in a few of his paintings. "Well, I have to say Lady Bernard, it was most likely when I was older in life, around the age of twenty-five, after I had found a cave in one of the mountain tops I was traveling in." His words were very sweet and articulate, almost as though he had planned them out. "What about this cave made you interested in paintings like Leonardo di vinci or Michelangelo?" Lord Pisani stared out the window then said, "Well, Lady Bernard, when I was young I truly had no care for the arts, or for anything that would evoke emotion in a person at all. Some might call me a 'barbaric man from the middle-ages'. Although, as I traveled into this cave without a care for anything at all, I stumbled across something. Something that helped me realize that art not only captures the emotions of a person, but it's very soul." Lady Bernard leaned in intrigued, "Oh, and what may that be?" Lord Pisani just laughed and looked at her, "Well that's the secret that's kept me famous isn't it?" He got up from his chair and opened a drawer, where there lay a flask filled with some sort of liquid, "Would you like a drink m'lady? It is from the far east of Africa in an area so far no one can find it." Lady Bernard could barely hold back her excitement as she jumped up and went for the flask. "Oh, yes of course! Oh, how I love to travel!" He cast her another one of his peculiar grins before he poured it into a second glass, also in his drawer for some reason. "Now tell me this at least," Lady Bernard began, "Why do all your paintings have furniture from this room?" Lord Pisani handed her the glass and sat down. Darling, I paint furniture from all over the world, these are just a few of the ones I have painted." Lady Bernard drank the Liquid as she listened. "You see, the place where I mainly live is Rome, Italy, where the age of rebirth period began." Lady Bernard stopped drinking, why was her stomach feeling gloopy? "Actually it's right near the cave that began my interest in painting!" Lord Pisani began, ignoring her. Lady Bernard stared down at her hands, she fancied that her eyes must be playing tricks on her, for some reason, they were looking droopy, as though they were melting into a swirl of different colors. "You see the secret about my paintings aren't in the paintings, but in the simple fact that I don't know how to paint at all." He walked towards her and she now realized the glass he was holding was empty, she looked around the room as it swirled in different colors. Lady Bernard gazed at her dress, which was also now molding together with her legs into a pile of mush. "What?" she mustered before her body began deforming into a pile of gloop. Lord Pisani let out a cold hollow chuckle before he said, "I never painted those canvases, Lady Bernard." Lady Bernard's eyes widened as she realized what was going on. "What I found in the cave was a drink that turned a person's body or essence as you would say, into a painting, preferably realistic oil paintings, because they are quite loved nowadays, and they would become the most well-known paintings of all time." Slowly he started opening the cup and she felt her body dripping into it. "Why me?" she finally asked, her voice being suffocated by the gurgling of the liquid. "Because," he smiled, "you would be perfect for my newest painting that'll be on the cathedral wall." Emily Wagner Max Minervini Sam Antonelli Malia Milik The Sound of Music By: Rosanny Camilo Music is an extraordinary gift to the world Wrapped up in sturdy paper of safety and a shiny ribbon of hope It seeps its way into our lives each note at a time The melody and lyrics staying with us long after the song comes to an end Musical sound acts as a language of emotions Sorrow and regret all written in the lyrics Excitement and moments of happiness weaved into the voices of those who chose to put their hearts on the line With each chord stuck and each line sung, A wave of soothing, yet intense feelings stir, in every tongue, A universal way of understanding both young and old In tune with ourselves, our senses awake As if to say hello, our souls partake Through the soul as if to say hello Each chord a thread, each sound surging a light, In concert venues, where we dare to dream, A renaissance has been born, a timeless scheme, Where your mind wonders off and life’s reflections brightly gleam Through music, we leave ourselves behind, discarded along with the person we once were Music opens up wounds that we dare not face Yet soothes our pain, with gentle touch and grace It gives us the time of day to think, accept, embrace, consume It builds us up from whatever is holding us back Acting as a guiding hand to what is truly out there A rebirth of the mind’s own flight In music, we are igniting our sight Through the blank canvas of life, we use music to paint our truth Expression boundless and uncaged In music, we are igniting our sight The Aeroscrew Andrew Popkin Anonymous There was an artist who filled pages with ink, and air with music. By day, she stayed out in the city, boarding trains to nowhere and walking through parks. Empty museums with faded pictures and old inscriptions on walls, and by night, she returned home to her lover, singing to him. She would bare her heart, asking anxiously, silently, for kind words. Then, he left her. And Huỳnh’s heart scattered into lines of ink on paper, freely into the wind. “It doesn’t matter that she left me,” Huỳnh had said simply, and was met with doubt. “For all the emotion you portray” - They told her, “it seems as if you never feel it yourself.” Huỳnh clenched her fists as disappointment washed over her. Don’t cry, she remembered. So she went home, and as she walked, the streets were darkening. The rush of people never ceased, but it was calmer. Lights flickered over old signs, some a fresh, neon color. The occasional group passed by her, laughing loudly, drinks in hand and skin glistening with sweat and makeup and Huỳnh could imagine the sticky feeling of clothes from body heat, yet she was sure of the clean and floral scent of their perfume. Coming home, she passed through the doorway and kept her gaze away from the empty corner of the room. The blinds were down, so she pulled them open. The night sky was empty of stars, the moon nearly full. Skyscrapers lit themselves up and the ground was dotted by lights blurring together into a mess of yellow and white. Huỳnh strained against the lever for a moment before the window opened with a loud creak, letting cold air strike her abruptly. Moving away from the window, she turned off the thermostat and sat down, pulling out her notebook again. She peered through the crack, dark as it was, and whispered as loud as she dared “Where are you, where are you?” But there was no reply as she desperately waited, her thoughts an endless stream- ‘-it’s cold here.-’ ‘-I am not good enough-’ ‘-tell me your dreams and thoughts-’ ‘-let me spin them into something you can touch and see-’ ‘-Be my muse for a little while. Let me show you the proof of my devotion.’ Huỳnh woke with a start, shivering for a moment before straightening in her seat. It had been but a couple of hours since she had come home. The window was still open, and she exhaled at the sight of leaked ink from her fountain pen staining the desk. Her notebook still lay open with half littered thoughts and incomplete lines. She closed the window and, lost, went to do what she always did. Huỳnh stepped towards the door to leave again, then turned. Seems as if you never feel it yourself And looked at the empty corner where he used to be. Suddenly she remembered her, a rush of memories where they were laughing together, their hardships, their sadness, their happiness. Her mouth went dry as she stared at the void where her lover had been. Countless nights of staying up and writing, pages and pages that had been filled from just a month’s worth of knowing each other. Then, she thought of the tragedies that had been written countless times. She left the apartment. Running down the steps, the moon rose ever higher in the sky as Huỳnh brushed past people and walked through street after street. She turned a corner, and there a mulberry tree in some forgotten corner of the city. She stood in front of the tree. The memories and emotions came back slowly, then rushing in all at once. With shaking hands, she fumbled with her pen and flipped to a new page. Unwritten music flowed through her head, and Huỳnh felt the warm embrace of devotion as it wrapped around her with the feeling of cold steel. And alas, the artist began to bleed onto paper, pouring her heart out until pages were stained with blood instead of ink. Whimsical Ripples Into Reality By: Rosanny Camilo Whether it were told by a parent or teacher, they carry on a Faint yet everlasting whisper of the past Presented to you in the form of a dreamy tale Filled with dark and eerie themes that would have made You wished you had never asked Timeless stories capturing the essence of a particular region With underlying morals of life that come together showing a sense of cohesion As a listener, the silly and whimsical characters draw you in But don’t be fooled by the trickery and sin that lies within With a simple flip of a page You become nothing but engaged A girl whose fantasy must end at the strike of a bell At the bite of a savory apple, another fell under an enchanting spell The sly and cunning wolf lured the girl hooded in red All while another lied beautifully for an eternal sleep on her lavish bed A mysterious gnome-like figure willing to spin straw to gold A house of candy galore owned by a witch both deceitful and old One who sacrificed her ability to sing for a pair of legs A brave boy made his way up the neverending beanstalk With a mission to capture an assortment of golden eggs Ultimate access to free porridge and a place to rest An innocent daughter taken hostage with the invite of a beastly Creature to be his guest The prompt of one girl to let down her luxurious, lengthy hair Despite all odds, the tortoise breezed past the hare with visible air A boy whose last cry held onto notes of sincerity and truth The third pig’s intelligent plan allowing them all to live past their youth In these layers of folk tales, truths are spun and told Lessons hidden within each story, both ageless and old Katherine Udud
ae32380e-bf8c-4c57-8626-4fad1baa0d7d
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://www.mhrd.org/cms/lib/NJ01000236/Centricity/ModuleInstance/306/Spectrum%20-%20Renaissance%20Magazine.pdf
2024-07-22T02:36:46+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763517805.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20240722003438-20240722033438-00746.warc.gz
755,847,296
6,508
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.995343
eng_Latn
0.998561
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 48, 1505, 2620, 3455, 4297, 5700, 5711, 6467, 7357, 7372, 7391, 7410, 7438, 7453, 9174, 9179, 9186, 9197, 9213, 9226, 9257, 9335, 10556, 11749, 11790, 11811, 11852, 11867, 11886, 11901, 12113, 12570, 12954, 13006, 13393, 13784, 14106, 14250, 14691, 18185, 21756, 21763, 21771, 21786, 21801, 21814, 23321, 23351, 23362, 25066, 27125, 28801, 28817 ]
[ 2.125, 0.66015625 ]
1
0
ZARIDI AFRIKA CHILDREN & YOUNG PEOPLE SAFEGUARDING POLICY & PROCEDURES Safeguarding Policy Statement 1 & 2 PROCEDURES 1. Recruitment & Training 2 & 3 2. Complaints, Concerns & Allegations 3 & 4 3. Flow Charts 4 & 5 4. Emergencies & Incidents 5 & 6 5. Supervision 6 6. Good Practice Guidelines 6 - 8 CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE SAFEGUARDING POLICY INTRODUCTION Everyone working with children and young people has a responsibility for keeping them safe, irrespective of their role, whether they are paid members of staff, coaches or volunteers. Zaridi Afrika is committed to ensure that all participants in our tours and mentorship programs can thrive in a safe environment and that all children and young people have an enjoyable and positive experience. KEY PRINCIPLES - The welfare of children is paramount. - A child is defined by law in Kenya as a person under the age of 18 years. - All children, regardless of their Age, Race, Religion or Belief, Disability, Gender identity or Sexual Orientation, have the right to protection from abuse. - All concerns and allegations of abuse and poor practice will be taken seriously and responded to swiftly and appropriately. - All children have the right to be safe. - All children have the right to be treated with dignity and respect. - Zaridi Afrika will work with children, their parents/guardians and external organizations to safeguard the welfare of children participating in all our projects and activities. - We recognize and are committed to complying with the Children Act of the Kenyan Law, and to diligently adhere to and practice the universal minimum standards and guidelines on protection and safeguarding of children, based on the convention on rights of the child (1989). - Zaridi Afrika is committed to working in partnership with other key child protection agencies to continually improve and to promote safeguarding initiatives across all our tours, projects and activities. - Zaridi Afrika owes a legal duty of care to children and teens who engaged in our activities. That duty is to take reasonable care to ensure their reasonable safety and the duty is higher than it would be for adults. OBJECTIVES Zaridi Afrika aims to: - Provide a safe environment for children and young people participating in all our activities and try to ensure that they enjoy the experience. - Ensure robust systems are in place to manage any concerns or allegations. - Support adults (staff, volunteers, mentors and coaches) to understand their roles and responsibilities with regard to their duty of care and protection of children. - Provide appropriate level training, support and resources for staff, volunteers & coaches to make informed and confident responses to specific safeguarding issues and fulfill their role effectively. - Ensure that children and their parents/guardians are informed and consulted and, where appropriate, fully involved in decisions that affect them. - Reassure parents and guardians that all children and young people will receive the best care possible whilst participating in all tours & activities and communicate Policy and Procedure to them through website/letter/consents. RESPONSIBILITIES AND IMPLEMENTATION Zaridi Afrika will seek to promote the principles of safeguarding children by: - Reviewing our policy and procedures every two (2) years or whenever there is a major change in legislation. - Conducting a risk assessment of all projects and activities with regard to safeguarding and take appropriate action to address the identified issues within suitable timescales. - Using appropriate recruitment procedures to assess the suitability of volunteers and staff working with children and young people in line with our policies and the Kenyan Law. - Following National Council for Children’s Services procedures to report concerns and allegations about the behavior of adults and ensuring that all staff, volunteers, parents and children are aware of these procedures. - Directing staff, volunteers & coaches to appropriate safeguarding training and learning opportunities, where this is appropriate to their role. 1. RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING Zaridi Afrika will endeavor to ensure that all volunteers and staff working with children and young people are appropriate and suitable to do so, and that they have all the information they require to undertake their job effectively and appropriately. Each role which involves an element of responsibility with regard to children, particularly those involving the regular supervision of children, whether voluntary or paid, shall be assessed by the recruiting body to establish which qualifications, checks and other requirements are necessary. These will include the following: - An application form. - A self-disclosure form. - References from 2 people. - A recent good conduct certificate. - A signed Code of Conduct (Appendix 1) Details of the requirements and the qualifications and checks of individuals will be recorded by the Company Human Resource Officer who will also hold copies of the necessary Safeguarding and Protecting Children (SPC) certificates. The nominated person will possess all relevant and appropriate contact details of all staff / volunteers and other relevant bodies. All staff, volunteers & coaches will be offered access to appropriate child protection training. An online coaching refresher course should be completed and repeated every three years for those involved in “Regulated Activity.” All staff, volunteers & coaches working with children and young people will be asked to read and become familiar with the Safeguarding Policy and Procedures of Zaridi Afrika. All staff, volunteers & coaches involved with children and young people will be asked to read The Zaridi Afrika Code of Conduct relevant to their role, and sign to indicate their understanding and agreement to act in accordance with the code. The code is linked to Zaridi Afrika’s Disciplinary Procedures. (Codes of Conduct-Appendix 1, 2, 3) At Zaridi Afrika we are committed to the fact that every child/teen should be afforded the right to thrive in life through mentorship on morals, discipline & character and learning of critical life values & ethics, in an enjoyable, safe environment, and to always be protected from harm. We acknowledge the additional vulnerability of some groups of children (e.g. disabled, looked after children, those with communication differences). Zaridi Afrika ensures that the environment is appropriate for the child, and tailored to their needs so that they have a positive-enjoyable learning experience without risk of harm. 2. **COMPLAINTS, CONCERNS AND ALLEGATIONS** 2.1 If a coach, parent/guardian, member of staff or volunteer has a concern about the welfare of a child, or the conduct of another child/young person or an adult (whether they are a parent, coach, staff, or otherwise), these concerns should be brought to the attention of the Company Welfare Officer without delay. The person reporting the concern is not required to decide whether abuse has occurred, but simply has a duty to pass their concerns and any relevant information to the Welfare Officer. Please refer to Flowcharts 1 & 2 for further details (see below). 2.2 All concerns will be treated in confidence. Details should only be shared on a “need to know” basis with those who can help with the management of the concern. 2.3 Concerns will be recorded on an Incident Report Form and sent to the Company Welfare Officer and retained confidentially within the company. 2.4 Zaridi Afrika will work closely with lawful external agencies to take appropriate action where concerns relate to potential abuse or serious poor practice. Our internal disciplinary procedures will be applied and followed where possible. 2.5 In the event of a child making a disclosure of any type of abuse, the following guidance is given: - Reassure them that they have done the right thing to share the information. - Listen carefully. - Do not make promises that cannot be kept, such as promising not to tell anyone else. - Do not seek to actively question the child or lead them in any way to disclose more information than they are comfortably able to: this may compromise any future action. Only ask questions to clarify your understanding where needed e.g. can you tell me what you mean by the word xxxxx? - Record what the child has said as soon as possible on an incident report form. - You should explain to children, young people and families at the outset, openly and honestly, what and how information will, or could be shared and why, and seek their agreement. - Parents or guardians should be informed. - The exception to this is where to do so would put that child, young person or others at increased risk of suffering significant harm or an adult at risk of serious harm, or if it would undermine the prevention, detection or prosecution of a serious crime including where seeking consent might lead to interference with any potential investigation; 2.6 Safeguarding children and young people requires everyone to be committed to the highest possible standards of openness, integrity and accountability. Zaridi Afrika supports an environment where staff, volunteers, parents/guardians and the public are encouraged to raise safeguarding and child protection concerns. Anyone who reported a legitimate concern to the company (even if their concerns subsequently appear to be unfounded) will be supported. All concerns will be taken seriously. *(Whistleblowing Policy-Appendix 10)* **FLOWCHART 1** What to do if you are worried about the well-being and general welfare of your child/teen. Contact the Club Welfare Concern identified about a child Officer, Tel: 112096064 who will provide you with information concerning your child/teen. Email: *email@example.com* If the Club Welfare Officer is not available contact Miss. Imelda Nyangate Machuka, the company’s Project Coordinator, Tel: +254702179921 Email: *firstname.lastname@example.org* If the Club Welfare Officer is not available contact Mr. Ian Mwathi Njau, the company’s Chief Security Officer, Tel: +254707704110 Email: *email@example.com* In case of any further inquiries contact our team on, Tel: 112096064 Email: *firstname.lastname@example.org*) within 24 hours. 3. EMERGENCIES AND INCIDENTS 3.1 Parental Consent Forms will be obtained and retained by Zaridi Afrika for all children and teens who are participating in our tours, projects and activities. These forms will be treated in confidence and only shared with those who require the information they contain, to perform their role effectively. 3.2 In the event of a child requiring medical attention: - The parents/guardians will be contacted immediately. - In the event of failure to contact parents/guardians, the alternative emergency contacts will be used. - The consent form will be consulted to establish whether parents/guardians have given their consent for a company representative to act in loco parentis. - An adult representative will accompany the child to seek medical attention, if appropriate, ensuring that they take the consent form with them. - A record of the action taken will be made and retained by a representative of Zaridi Afrika. 3.3 Where a parent/guardian is late in collecting their child the following procedure will apply: - Attempt to contact the parent/guardian using the contact details on the Parental Consent Form. - Attempt to contact the first, then the second emergency contact nominated on the Consent Form. - Wait with the young person(s) at the venue with, wherever possible, other staff/volunteers or parents. - If no one is reachable, contact the Club’s Welfare Officer for advice. - If all attempts to make contact fail, consideration should be given to contacting the police for their advice. Staff, volunteers and coaches should try to avoid: - Taking the child home or to another location without consent. - Asking the child to wait in a vehicle or the pick-up venue with them alone. - Sending the child home with another person without permission. 4. **SUPERVISION** 4.1 During coaching sessions, coaches should conduct a risk assessment to inform decision making about appropriate supervision levels. Regardless of the recommended ratio of adults to participants, it is recommended that a minimum of two adults should be present. This ensures at least basic cover in the event of something impacting on the availability of one of the adults during the activity. 4.2 Parents/guardians may be encouraged to attend coaching/training & other events where their children are of an age where greater levels of parental supervision are required. 4.3 Adults will avoid changing or showering at the same time as children even with limited changing room space and at no point will they share the facilities. 4.4 During all away trips parents/guardians will receive real-time updates about the well-being of their children and the progress of the project in terms of the activities that have been completed successfully. *(Managing Young People on Away Trips-Appendix 8)* 5. **GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES** 5.1 **Behavior of adults and children** Adults who work with children and teens are placed in a position of trust in relation to children, and therefore it is important they behave appropriately and provide a strong positive role model for children, both to protect children and those working with children from false allegations of poor practice. Codes of conduct will be issued to the young people & adults working with them to promote good practice. Zaridi Afrika requires that all staff, coaches and volunteers working with children and young people adhere to the standards set out in the Code of Conduct relevant to their role. Similarly, children are expected to follow their own Code of Conduct to ensure the enjoyment of all participants and assist the company in ensuring their welfare is safeguarded. Zaridi Afrika requires that all staff, coaches and volunteers working with children adhere to the guidelines on Managing Challenging Behavior. *(Managing Challenging Behavior-Appendix 4)* Parents and guardians should also work together with the company to ensure that the welfare of all children and teens is safeguarded. A sheet on “Parental Guidance” is provided to assist them in understanding how they can best assist the company *(Parental Guidance-Appendix 7)*. 5.2 Adults and Children working together At Zaridi Afrika we believe learning, training and impartation of moral values to children is not restricted by ability, age or gender. Responsible interaction between adults and children helps bring mutual respect and understanding and will be encouraged as part of all company projects and activities. Adults should always be aware however that age related differences do exist and conduct themselves in a manner that both recognizes this and prioritizes the welfare of any children and teens involved. 5.3 Physical Contact Physical contact with children by coaches, staff or volunteers should always be intended to meet the needs of the child and the training process, not the adult. It should always take place in an open environment, and should not, as a general principle, be made gratuitously or unnecessarily. 5.4 Transport The company believes it is primarily the responsibility of parents/guardians to transport their child/children/teens to and from the pick-up and drop-off venue. The company may make arrangements for transport in exceptional circumstances. Where this is the case, the written permission of the parents/guardians of the relevant children will be sought. The drivers used will be checked for their suitability to transport and supervise children (See Section 1 Recruitment and Training). The safety of all children/teens will be of first priority. Zaridi Afrika has set out various strategies of ensuring this e.g. having a safety driver on board of all our transport vans/buses just in case the main driver feels fatigued. We also ensure strict adherence to all guidelines set out by the National Transport and Safety Authority (NTSA). 5.5 Photography / Videoing Permission will be sought from parents/guardians prior to the publication or use of any video or photographic images of their child/teen, for instance in newspapers, websites or for coaching purposes. The personal details of the child will not be used in any promotional material. Any press/official photographers attending events will be required to seek permission from the company before taking photographs and also permission of parents/guardians to use the images. (Photography Policy – Appendix 12) 5.6 Social Media Social media provides unique opportunities for the company to engage and develop relationships with people in a creative and dynamic forum where users are active participants. It is important that all staff, volunteers, coaches, officials, board members, or anyone working on behalf of Zaridi Afrika are aware of the company’s Social Media policy (Social Media Guidance–Appendix 9). 5.7 Anti-bullying procedures Zaridi Afrika does not tolerate bullying in any form. To mitigate against such behavior every effort will be made to supervise and brief all juniors on this issue. Our staff & volunteers will actively observe the behavior of individuals and groups and promote an open environment where children and teens can voice any concerns they may have. We believe that every effort must be made to eradicate bullying in all its forms. Bullying can be difficult to define and can take many forms which can be categorized as; - Physical – hitting, kicking, theft. - Verbal – homophobic or racist remarks, threats, name calling. - Emotional – isolating an individual from activities or a group. All forms of bullying include; - Deliberate hostility & aggression towards an individual(s). - A victim who is weaker and less powerful than the bully or bullies. - An outcome which is always painful & distressing for the victim. Bullying behavior may also include; - Other forms of violence. - Sarcasm, spreading rumors, persistent teasing. - Tormenting, ridiculing, humiliation. - Racial taunts, graffiti, gestures. - Unwanted physical contact or abusive or offensive comments of a sexual nature. The Company and its Staff, Volunteers & Coaches will not tolerate bullying in any of its forms during any of our activities or at any other time. We will: - Provide a point of contact where those being bullied can report their concerns in confidence – The Company Welfare Officer. - Take the problem seriously. - Investigate any and all incidents and accusations of bullying. - Talk to bullies and their victims separately along with their parents/guardians. - Impose sanctions where appropriate. - Keep a written record of all incidents. - Have discussions about bullying and why it matters. Suspicions/allegations of bullying or harassment will be handled in the same way as other forms of abuse by referring them to the Disciplinary Committee. 5.8 Confidentiality All personal information provided to Zaridi Afrika will be held securely in the Secretary’s office and only authorized persons will be permitted to access and use such information. All concerns/allegations will be dealt with confidentially by the company and information will only be shared on a need to know basis, either internally or externally depending on the nature/seriousness of the concern/allegation. | Category | Page | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | 1. Code of conduct for coaches & volunteers | 11 | | 2. Code of conduct for teens (Above 18) | 12 | | 3. Code of conduct for parents/guardians | 13 | | 4. Managing challenging behavior | 14 - 16 | | 5. Incident Report Form | 17 & 18 | | 6. Accident Report Form | 19 & 20 | | 7. Guidance for parents | 21 & 22 | | 8. Managing young people on away tours | 22 & 23 | | 9. Social media guidance | 24 & 25 | | 10. Whistleblowing policy | 25 - 27 | | 11. Categories of child abuse | 27 - 29 | | 12. Photography policy | 30 & 31 | | 13. Anti-bullying policy | 32 & 33 | APPENDIX 1 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR STAFF, COACHES & VOLUNTEERS All staff, coaches and volunteers should read through these carefully. - Respect the rights, dignity and worth of every person within the company. - Treat everyone equally and do not discriminate on the grounds of age, gender, race, religion or belief, sexual orientation or disability. - If you see any form of discrimination, do not condone it or allow it to go unchallenged. - Place the well-being and safety of the young person above the development of performance. - Develop an appropriate working relationship with young people, based on mutual trust and respect. - Ensure that physical contact is appropriate and necessary and is carried out within recommended guidelines with the young person's full consent and approval. - Always work in an open environment (e.g. avoid private or unobserved situations and encourage an open environment). - Do not engage in any form of sexually related contact with a young person. This is strictly forbidden as is sexual innuendo, flirting or inappropriate gestures and terms. - You should not have regular contact outside your role with the juniors and should not engage in regular communication through text, email or social network sites. - Know and understand Safeguarding Policies and Procedures of Zaridi Afrika. - Respect young people’s opinions always. - Be aware of and report any conflict of interest as soon as it becomes apparent. - Display high standards of language, manner, punctuality, preparation and presentation. - Do not smoke, drink or use recreational drugs while actively working with young people. This reflects a negative image and could compromise the safety of the children and young people. - Do not give young people alcohol when they are under the care of Zaridi Afrika. - Hold relevant qualifications and insurance cover if possible. All Staff, Volunteers & Coaches who work regularly with children and teens must have a recent police clearance certificate. - Ensure the activities practiced are appropriate for the age, maturity, experience and ability of the individual. - Promote positivity during all activities and competitions e.g. fair play. - Display high standards of behavior and appearance. - Follow company procedures & good practice guidelines. - Ensure that you attend appropriate training to keep up-to-date with your role and the welfare of young people. - Report any concerns you may have in relation to a child or the behavior of an adult, following reporting procedures laid down by Zaridi Afrika. SIGNED: ................................................................. DATE: ........................................................ NAME: ........................................................................................................................................... APPENDIX 2 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR TEENS (ABOVE 18) As a teen taking part in activities of Zaridi Afrika, you should: • Help create and maintain an environment free of fear and harassment. • Demonstrate fair play and apply good standards during all activities. • Understand that you have the right to be treated as an individual. • Respect the advice that you receive. • Treat other teens, volunteers, staff and coaches as you would wish to be treated yourself. • Respect other people and their differences. • Look out for yourself and for the welfare of others. • Speak out (to your parents or any company representative) if you consider that you or others have been poorly treated. • Be organized and on time. • Tell someone in authority if you plan on leaving the venue. • Accept that these guidelines are in place for the well-being of all concerned. • Treat organizers and coaches with respect. • Observe instructions or restrictions requested by the adults looking after you. You should not take part in any irresponsible, abusive, inappropriate or illegal behavior which includes: • Smoking. • Using foul language. • Publicly using critical or disrespectful descriptions of others either in person or through text, email or social network sites. • Consuming alcohol and other illegal substances. • Engaging in inappropriate behavior. Dress Code During all tours, projects and activities, ensure you are dressed decently to fit the occasion. APPENDIX 3 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR PARENTS/GUARDIANS As parents/guardians you are expected to: • Positively reinforce your child and show an interest in their dreams. • Do not place your child under pressure or push them into activities they do not want to do. • Be realistic and supportive. • Promote your child’s participation in activities that build him/her to be a better being. • Report and update Zaridi Afrika with any changes relevant to your child’s health and well-being. • Deliver and collect your child punctually before and after each tour. • Ensure your child has clothing and apparel appropriate to the weather conditions. • Ensure your child has appropriate equipment that he/she might need. • Ensure that your child understands the rules and codes of conduct. • Teach your child that they can only do their best. • Behave responsibly at all times; do not embarrass your child. • Show appreciation and support the coaches, volunteers and staff at Zaridi Afrika. • Accept the decision and judgement of the officials during events and activities which involve a competition. As a parent/guardian you have the right to: • Be assured that your child is safeguarded during their participation in each tour & project. • Be informed of problems or concerns relating to your child. • Be informed if your child is injured. • Have consent sought for issues such as trips and photography. • Contribute to the decisions of the company. • Have any concerns about any aspect of your child’s welfare listened to and responded to. Any breaches of this code of conduct will be dealt with immediately by the Company Welfare Officer. The ultimate action should a parent/guardian continue to breach the code of conduct may be Zaridi Afrika regrettably asking your child/teen to leave the tour or project. APPENDIX 4 MANAGING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOR Staff, coaches and volunteers who deliver mentorship to children may, on occasions, be required to deal with a child’s challenging behavior. These guidelines aim to promote good practice and are based on the following principles: - The welfare of the child is the paramount consideration. - Children must never be subject to any form of treatment that is harmful, abusive, humiliating or degrading. - The specific needs a child may have (e.g. communication, behavior management, comprehension and so on) should be discussed with their parent/guardian and where appropriate the child, before activities start. Where appropriate it may be helpful to record the details of any agreed plan or approach and provide copies to all parties. - Every child/teen should be supported to participate. Consideration to exclude a child from activities should apply only as a last resort and after all efforts to address any challenge have been exhausted, in exceptional circumstances where the safety of that child or of other children cannot be maintained. Planning Activities Planning for activities should include consideration of whether any child involved may need additional support or supervision to participate safely. This should address: - Assessment of additional risk associated with the child’s behavior. - Appropriate supervision ratios and whether numbers of adults should be increased. - Information sharing for all trainers, coaches and volunteers on managing any challenging behavior to ensure a consistent approach. - Specialist expertise or support that may be needed from parent/guardian or outside agencies. This is particularly relevant where it is identified that a child may need a level of physical intervention to participate safely. (see below) Agreeing Acceptable and Unacceptable Behaviors Staff, volunteers, children, young people and parents/guardians should be involved in developing an agreement about: - What constitutes acceptable and unacceptable behavior (code of conduct) - The range of sanctions which may be applied in response to unacceptable behavior. This can be done in advance of a tour or as part of a welcome session at a residential camp. It should involve the views of children and young people to encourage better buy in and understanding. Where challenges are anticipated in light, for example of a child’s impairment or other medical condition, a clear plan/agreement should be established and written down. Ensure that parents/guardians understand the expectations on their children, and ask them to reinforce this ahead of any trip or activity. Managing Challenging Behavior In responding to challenging behavior the response should always be: - Proportionate to the actions you are managing. - Imposed as soon as is practicable. - Fully explained to the child/teen and their parents/guardians In dealing with children who display negative or challenging behaviors, staff and volunteers might consider the following options: - Time out - from the activity, group or individual work. - Reparation - the act or process of making amends. - Restitution - the act of giving something back. - Behavioral reinforcement - rewards for good behavior, consequences for negative behavior. - De-escalation of the situation - talking with the child/teen and distracting them from challenging behavior. - Increased supervision by staff/volunteers. - Use of individual ‘contracts’ or agreements for the child’s future or continued participation. - Sanctions or consequences e.g. missing an outing. - Seeking additional/specialist support through working in partnership with other agencies. - Temporary or permanent exclusion. The following should never be permitted as a means of managing a child’s behavior: - Physical punishment or the threat of such. - Refusal to speak to or interact with the child. - Being deprived of food, water or access to essential facilities. - Verbal intimidation, ridicule or humiliation. Staff/volunteers and coaches should consider the risks associated with employing physical intervention compared with the risks of not employing physical intervention. The use of physical intervention should always: • Be avoided unless it is absolutely necessary to prevent a child injuring themselves or others, or causing serious damage to property. • Aim to achieve an outcome that is in the best interests of the child/teen whose behavior is of immediate concern. • Form part of a broader approach to the management of challenging behavior. • Be the result of conscious decision-making and not a reaction to an adult's frustration. • Employ the minimum force needed to avert injury to a person or serious damage to property - applied for the shortest period of time. • Used only after all other strategies have been exhausted. • Be recorded as soon as possible using the appropriate company reporting form and procedure. Parents should always be informed following an incident where staff, a coach, trainer or volunteer has had to physically intervene with their particular child/teen. Physical intervention must not: • Involve contact with buttocks, genitals and breasts. • Be used as a form of punishment. • Involve inflicting pain. **Views of the child** A timely de-brief for staff/volunteers, the child and parents/guardians should always take place in a calm environment following an incident where physical intervention has been used. Even children who haven’t directly been involved in the situation may need to talk about what they have witnessed. There should also be a discussion with the child and parents about the child’s needs and continued safe participation in the projects and activities. APPENDIX 5 INCIDENT REPORT FORM Recorder's Name: Address: Postal Code: Mobile No: Child's/Teen's Name: Address: Postal Code: Mobile No: Complainant's Name: Address: Postal Code: Mobile No: Details of the allegations: [include: date; time; location; and nature of the incident] Additional information: [include: witnesses ; corroborative statements] Case Number [If Allocated] Name of person spoken to: Date: Time: Action Taken: Date: Time: Signature of Recorder: Signature of Complainant: Data protection: Zaridi Afrika may use the information in this form (together with other information it obtain as a result of any investigation) to investigate the alleged incident and to take whatever action is deemed appropriate, in accordance with their Children and Young People Safeguarding Policy and Procedures. Strict confidentiality will be maintained and information will only be shared on a “need to know” basis in the interests of safeguarding and in accordance with the company’s data protection policy. This may involve disclosing certain information to a number of organizations, agencies and individuals including relevant individuals that are the subject of an investigation and/or Statutory agencies such as the Police and Children's Social Care. APPENDIX 6 ACCIDENT REPORT FORM Recorder's Name: Address: Postal Code: Mobile No: Name of Injured person [s]: Address: Postal Code: Mobile No: Nature of injury sustained: Where did the Accident occur: [include: date; time; location; and nature of the accident] How did the Accident occur: [include: names; telephone numbers; etc.] Were there any witnesses to the Accident: [include: names; statements, etc] What action was taken: [include: treatment administered, by whom, etc.] Were any other Agencies involved: [e.g. Ambulance service?] Give details. Have the Parents / Guardians been contacted? YES NO [Please circle] Date: Time: Signature of Recorder: Data protection: Zaridi Afrika may use the information in this form (together with other information it obtain as a result of any investigation) to investigate the alleged incident and to take whatever action is deemed appropriate, in accordance with their Children and Young People Safeguarding Policy and Procedures. Strict confidentiality will be maintained and information will only be shared on a “need to know” basis in the interests of safeguarding and in accordance with the company’s data protection policy. This may involve disclosing certain information to a number of organizations, agencies and individuals including relevant individuals that are the subject of an investigation and/or Statutory agencies such as the Police and Children’s Social Care. APPENDIX 7 GUIDANCE FOR PARENTS Zaridi Afrika is delighted to welcome you and your child to what we hope is the first of many educative projects/tours that you will be taking part in. The positive effect of your support, as a parent/guardian, can’t be overstated. Your behavior has a real influence on the way your child/teen faces life and its challenges. First things first – why is your child/teen showing an interest in our educative tour? Is it to learn something new? To hang out with friends? Because others are participating? Or because of you? Make sure they’re participating for their own reasons and self-will, not yours. To enable us to provide the best possible experience for you and your child, we kindly request that you read through the following guidance: • Take an interest in your child’s activity and progress and be supportive. • Familiarize yourself with Zaridi Afrika’s Safeguarding Policy. Familiarize yourself with: a. Codes of Conduct for parents, coaches, children and young people. b. Transport Policy. c. Photography, Videoing and the use of Social Media Policies. • Complete the attached Parental Consent Form which will enable event organizers to cater for any particular needs that your child may have (e.g. medical conditions and medications, allergies, learning difficulties etc.), as well as contact you in the unlikely event of an emergency. • Go through the Code of Conduct with your child. • Be punctual when dropping off and picking up your child from tours & events. It is important to communicate with the company if collecting your child after a tour/event may cause a problem. • Introduce yourself to the adults involved in the supervision of your child. • When leaving your child/teen, make sure they have the necessary provisions for the tour, including the ability to meet the requirements of changing weather conditions. Please ensure that your mobile is switched on, so that you can be contacted in an emergency. • Encourage your child to take part and support mentorship and training activities. • Help your child to arrange educative activities with other juniors away from Zaridi Africa’s organized projects so as to better themselves. As a parent/guardian you are encouraged to: - Discuss any concerns regarding the organization of activities or the behavior of adults towards your child with the Company Welfare Officer, who will treat any concerns you or your child/teen may have in the strictest confidence. **APPENDIX 8** **MANAGING YOUNG PEOPLE ON AWAY TRIPS** The following good practice guidelines are used during all tours. - The following good practice guidelines are used during all tours. - We appoint a team manager with clear roles and responsibilities. - We appoint a designated safeguarding lead contact (not the team manager) who is appropriately trained and competent for the role and responsibilities. - We establish well in advance all destinations to be visited. - We ensure availability of sufficient staff to manage and look after the juniors. - We obtain a written permission from the parent/guardian for participation, transporting and supervising. An up to date photograph of each child must be attached to the parental consent form (for use in the event of any child going missing). - We ensure that a welfare plan has been written and communicated to staff, participants and coaches. - We ensure all staff responsible for the children/teens have had a thorough background check and have received the appropriate safeguarding training. - We ensure that a risk assessment has been conducted. - We ensure that there is a contact available e.g. a staff member who is not travelling away, who will act as the key contact point if required. **Accommodation** Wherever the accommodation is, it is the duty of the team manager to ensure that the children/teens are safe and taken well care of. On arrival we at all times discuss the code of conduct and discipline policy with the staff at the accommodation. We also make sure that all children and teens are aware of the rooms staff are in and how to contact them if required. If the event that rooms are equipped with satellite TV and inappropriate programs may be available, we make certain that these programs are disconnected. If rooms have fridges, all alcoholic beverages must be removed. We see to it that all accommodation venues are kept clean, neat and have access to sufficient toilet and bathing facilities. It is not acceptable: • For more than two (2) children to share a bed. • For male and female children to share a room. • For staff to share a room with children/teens. Checks must be made to ensure that the needs of children and teens with disabilities are met. For wheelchair users, we guarantee easy accessibility to all buildings, rooms and bathroom facilities. **Overnight Stays** The purpose of the tour will always be shared beforehand and Zaridi Afrika will confirm the dates, location, and duration. We also conduct a risk assessment, identify suitable venues and ensure the best available accommodation is offered. We consider the following: • Purpose of the trip. • The age group of the children or teens attending. • How much will it cost? How much spending money is required? • Supervision of children. • Catering for all food requirements. • Communication with parents. • We ensure that there are emergency contact numbers for all the team and staff. • An itinerary giving as much detail as possible. • Emergency procedures and telephone contacts. • Codes of contact for both staff, children and teens. • Welfare and child protection procedures. APPENDIX 9 SOCIAL MEDIA GUIDANCE This guidance gives procedures that will support and underpin the use of social networking and other online services within Zaridi Afrika. It is important that all members of staff, volunteers, coaches, officials, board members, or anyone working on behalf of Zaridi Afrika are aware of this policy and agree to the following terms: Advice for Individual • Do not accept children as contacts on social networking sites if you hold a position of trust with children/young people. • Where contact through social networking sites is used for professional reasons, restrict the communication to professional content and obtain written consent from parents/guardians prior to establishing contact. • Include a third party in any communications to children, e.g. copy parents/guardians into communications. • Use the privacy settings on the various sites to ensure that your content will only be viewed by appropriate people. • Ensure that any content you place on a social networking site is age-appropriate. Do not use the site to criticize or abuse others. • Know where to direct juniors and their parents/guardians for information. • Know how to report concerns. • Know how to keep data safe and secure. This should include the personal contact data of individuals, such as mobile numbers, email addresses and social networking profiles. Advice for Children and teens • Consider carefully who you invite to be your friend online and make sure they are who you actually think they are. • There are websites that offer advice about protecting yourself online, use them. • Make sure you use privacy settings so that only friends can view your profile. • Remember that anything you post on websites may be shared with people you don’t know. • Never post comments, photos, videos, etc., that may upset someone, that are untrue or that are hurtful. Think about whether you may regret posting the content at a later date. • If you are worried or upset about something that’s been posted about you, or by texts you receive from other juniors or adults involved with the company, raise this with the Welfare Officer. Do not suffer alone. You will be listened to and your concerns will be taken seriously. • If you want to talk to someone anonymously, contact one of our counsellors they are more than willing to hear you out. Advice for Parents • Make yourself knowledgeable about social networking platforms and how they work. • Go on the internet with your child/teen and agree what sites are acceptable to visit. Regularly check that they are staying within the agreed limits. • Encourage your child/teen to talk to you about what they have been doing on the internet. • Make sure they feel able to speak to you if they ever feel uncomfortable, upset or threatened by anything they see online. • Encourage children to look out for each other when they’re online. Explain that it’s all part of staying safe and having fun together. • Explain to children that it’s not safe to reveal personal information, such as their name, address or phone number on the internet. Encourage them to use a cool nickname rather than their own name. • Attachments and links in emails can contain viruses and may expose children and young people to inappropriate material. Teach children to only open attachments or click on links from people they know. APPENDIX 10 WHISTLEBLOWING POLICY Safeguarding children, young people and adults at risk requires everyone to be committed to the highest possible standards of openness, integrity and accountability. As a company, we are committed to encouraging and maintaining a culture where people feel able to raise a genuine safeguarding concern and are confident that it will be taken seriously. You may be the first to recognize that something is wrong but feel that you cannot express your concerns as this may be disloyal to your colleagues or that you will be the victim of harassment or victimization as a result. Children, Young People and Adults at risk need someone like you to safeguard their welfare. What is whistleblowing? In the context of safeguarding, “whistle blowing” is when someone raises a concern about the well-being of a child, teen or an adult at risk. A whistle blower may be: • A volunteer; • A coach; • Other member of staff; • An official; • A parent/guardian; • A member of the public. **Reasons for whistle blowing:** Those involved in projects and activities of Zaridi Afrika must acknowledge their individual responsibilities and bring matters of concern to the attention of the relevant people and/or agencies. Although this can be difficult it is particularly important where the welfare of children/teens may be at risk. Each individual has a responsibility for raising concerns about unacceptable practice or behavior: • To protect or reduce risk to others. • To prevent a problem from becoming worse or more widespread. • To prevent becoming implicated yourself. **What prevents those individuals from whistleblowing?** • Starting a chain of events that they have no control of. • Disrupting work or training. • Fear of getting it wrong or making a mistake. • Fear of repercussions. • Fear of damaging careers. • Fear of not being believed. If a child, teen or an adult at risk is in immediate danger or risk of harm, the police should be contacted by calling 999. Where a child, teen or an adult at risk is not in immediate danger the first person you should report your suspicion or allegation to is your Company Welfare Officer. If for any reason you cannot, or do not wish to report the matter to your Company Welfare Officer please contact Mr. Ian Mwathi Njau our Chief of Security on +254-707704110 or email email@example.com Alternatively you can contact the Project Coordinator, Miss. Imelda Nyangate Machuka on +254-702179921 or email firstname.lastname@example.org Information to include when raising a concern The whistle blower should provide as much information as possible regarding the incident or circumstance which has given rise to the concern, including: - Their name and contact details (unless they wish to remain anonymous); - Names of individuals involved; - Date, time and location of incident/circumstance; and - Whether any witnesses were present. Zaridi Afrika assures that all involved will be treated fairly and that all concerns will be properly considered. In cases where suspicions prove to be unfounded, no action will be taken against those who report their concerns, provided they acted in good faith and without malicious intent. What happens next? - You should be given information on the nature and progress of any enquiries – this may vary depending on the nature and result of the investigations. - All concerns will be treated in confidence. During the process of investigating the matter, every effort will be made to keep the identity of those raising the concern to the minimum number of individuals practicable. - We have a responsibility to protect you from harassment or victimization. - No action will be taken against you if the concern proves to be unfounded and was raised in good faith. - Malicious allegations may be considered a disciplinary offence. APPENDIX 11 CATEGORIES OF CHILD ABUSE Abuse can happen on any occasion or in any place where children and young people are present. Child abuse is any form of physical, emotional or sexual mistreatment or lack of care that leads to injury or harm. Children may be abused in a family or in an institutional or community setting by those known to them or, more rarely, by a stranger. Children can be abused by adults, either male or female, or by other children. Safeguarding is defined as: - Protecting children from maltreatment; - Preventing impairment of children’s health or development; - Ensuring that children are growing up in circumstances consistent with the provision of safe and effective care; and - Taking action to enable all children to have the best life chances. Child Protection is the activity that is undertaken to protect specific children who are suffering, or are likely to suffer significant harm. There are 4 main types of abuse: neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse and emotional abuse. Children and young people can also be harmed through poor practice and bullying. **Neglect** is when adults consistently or repeatedly fail to meet a child’s basic physical and/or psychological needs which could result in the serious impairment of the child’s health or development e.g. failure to provide adequate food, shelter and clothing; failing to protect a child from physical harm or danger; or the failure to ensure access to appropriate medical care or treatment. It may also include refusal to give love, affection and attention. Examples could include a coach, supervisor or staff repeatedly failing to ensure children are safe, exposing them to undue cold, heat or extreme weather conditions without ensuring adequate clothing or hydration; exposing them to unnecessary risk of injury e.g. by ignoring safe practice guidelines, failing to ensure the use of safety equipment, or by requiring young people to participate when injured or unwell. **Physical abuse** is when someone physically hurts or injures children by hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning, biting, scalding, suffocating, drowning or otherwise causing harm. Physical harm may also be caused when a parent or guardian feigns the symptoms of, or deliberately causes, ill health to a child whom they are looking after. Examples may be when the nature and intensity of training and learning exceeds the capacity of the child’s immature and growing body; if children/teens are required to participate when injured; or when sanctions used by coaches imposed involve inflicting pain. **Sexual abuse** is where children and young people are abused by adults (both male and female) or other children who use them to meet their own sexual needs. This could include full sexual intercourse, masturbation, oral sex, anal intercourse, kissing and sexual fondling. Showing children pornographic material (books, videos, pictures) or taking pornographic images of them are also forms of sexual abuse. Sexual abusers groom children, protective adults and companies/organizations in order to create opportunities to abuse and reduce the likelihood of being reported. Examples may include coaching/training techniques involving physical contact with children creating situations where sexual abuse can be disguised and may therefore go unnoticed. The power and authority of, or dependence on, the coach if misused, may also lead to abusive situations developing. Contacts made within projects and pursued e.g. through texts, Facebook, Instagram or Twitter have been used to groom children for abuse. Child Sexual Exploitation is a form of child sexual abuse. It occurs where an individual or group takes advantage of an imbalance of power to coerce, manipulate or deceive a child or young person under the age of 18 into sexual activity; (a) In exchange for something the victim needs or wants, and/or (b) For the financial advantage or increased status of the perpetrator or facilitator. The victim may have been sexually exploited even if the sexual activity appears consensual. Child sexual exploitation does not always involve physical contact; it can also occur through the use of technology. Emotional abuse is the persistent emotional ill-treatment of a child so as to cause severe and persistent adverse effects on the child’s emotional development. It may involve conveying to children that they are worthless or unloved, inadequate, or valued only insofar as they meet the needs of another person. It may feature age or developmentally inappropriate expectations being imposed on children or even the over protection of a child. It may involve causing children to feel frightened or in danger by being constantly shouted at, threatened or taunted which may make the child very nervous and withdrawn. Some level of emotional abuse is involved in all types of ill-treatment of a child. Examples may include children who are subjected to constant criticism, name-calling, sarcasm, bullying, racism or pressure to perform to unrealistically high expectations; or when their value or worth is dependent on activity success or achievement. What should I do if I’m concerned about a child or young person? A concern may involve the behavior of an adult towards a child/teen, or something that has happened to the child outside the company. Children and young people may confide in adults they trust, in a place where they feel comfortable. An allegation may range from verbal bullying, to inappropriate contact online, to neglect or emotional abuse, to physical or sexual abuse. If you are concerned about a child, it is not your responsibility to investigate further, but it is your responsibility to act on your concerns and share them. Pass the information to The Company Welfare Officer of Zaridi Afrika who will follow the club’s Safeguarding procedures. If you believe the child is at immediate risk of harm, call the Police. APPENDIX 12 PHOTOGRAPHY POLICY Whilst Zaridi Afrika does not seek to prohibit those with a legitimate interest in filming or photographing children participating in its activities, it recognizes that such activity should take place within an appropriate policy framework. This policy applies at any Zaridi Afrika tour, project or event at which children under the age of 18 are participating. POLICY Zaridi Afrika photography policy is as follows; The welfare of children taking part in all activities is paramount. Children and their parents/guardians and/or Zaridi Afrika as a company should have control over the images taken of children during all tours, projects and events. Tours and projects should not be misused purely for the purpose of obtaining images of children. Images should not be sexual or exploitative in nature or open to misinterpretation and misuse. The identity of children/teens in a published image should be protected so as not to make the children vulnerable. (If the name of a junior is published with their photograph to celebrate an achievement other personal contact details should never accompany the picture). PROCEDURE Official/professional photographers and those using ‘professional’ equipment Zaridi Afrika requires that anyone wishing to take photographic or video images, at any of our tours/events at which children under the age of 18 are participating, in an official or professional capacity or using ‘professional’ camera or video equipment registers their details with the Zaridi Afrika Main Office. This must be done before carrying out any such activity during projects. Once registered an identification label will be issued as confirmation of registration. Anyone found using photographic or video equipment without an appropriate identification label will be questioned. Zaridi Afrika reserves the right to refuse to grant permission to take photographic or video images if it sees fit. Photographers must obtain consent from parents/guardians to take and use their child's image. **Parents/guardians/family members of participants** In the event that Parents, guardians and family members are in attendance of a Zaridi Afrika project, taking occasional informal photographs with mobile devices of their own child, teen, ward or family member does not require registration. If such photographs include other children (e.g. at a certificate award ceremony) they should not be publicly displayed or published on social media unless the prior permission of the parents/guardians of all the children in the photographs has been obtained. **CONCERNS** If participants or parents have any concerns they should raise them by contacting the Zaridi Afrika Main Office immediately. Zaridi Afrika will notify the relevant authorities should it have any doubts as to the authenticity of any individual taking photographs. APPENDIX 13 ANTI-BULLYING POLICY Zaridi Afrika will: • Recognize its duty of care and responsibility to safeguard all participants from harm. • Promote and implement this anti-bullying policy in addition to our safeguarding policy and procedures. • Seek to ensure that bullying behavior is not accepted or condoned. • Require all members of Zaridi Afrika to be given information about, and sign up to, this policy. • Take action to investigate and respond to any alleged incidents of bullying. • Encourage and facilitate children and young people to play an active part in developing and adopting a code of conduct to address bullying. • Ensure that staff, volunteers and coaches are given access to information, guidance and/or training on bullying. Each participant, coach, volunteer or official will: • Respect every child’s need for, and rights to, an environment where safety, security, praise, recognition and opportunity for growth and learning are available. • Respect the feelings and views of others. • Recognize that everyone is important and that our differences make each of us special and should be valued. • Show appreciation of others by acknowledging individual qualities, contributions and progress. • Be committed to the early identification of bullying, and prompt and collective action to deal with it. • Ensure safety by having rules and practices carefully explained and displayed for all to see. • Report incidents of bullying they see – by doing nothing you are condoning bullying. Bullying • All forms of bullying will be addressed. • Everybody under Zaridi Afrika has a responsibility to work together to stop bullying. • Bullying can include online as well as offline behavior. • Bullying can include: a. Physical pushing, kicking, hitting, pinching etc. b. Name calling, sarcasm, spreading rumors, persistent teasing and emotional torment through ridicule, humiliation or the continual ignoring of individuals. c. Posting of derogatory or abusive comments, videos or images on social network sites. d. Racial taunts, graffiti, gestures, sectarianism - sexual comments, suggestions or behavior. e. Unwanted physical contact. • Children with a disability, from ethnic minorities, or those with learning difficulties are more vulnerable to this form of abuse and are more likely to be targeted. **Support to the child** • Children should know who will listen to and support them. • Systems should be established to open the door to children/teens wishing to talk about bullying or any other issue that affects them. • Potential barriers to talking (including those associated with a child’s disability or impairment) need to be identified and addressed at the outset to enable children to approach adults for help. • Children should have access to helpline numbers. • Anyone who reports an incident of bullying will be listened to carefully and be supported. • Any reported incident of bullying will be investigated objectively and will involve listening carefully to all those involved. • Children being bullied will be supported and assistance given to uphold their rights and live in a safe environment which allows their healthy development. • Those who bully will be supported and encouraged to stop bullying. • Sanctions for those bullying others that involve long periods of isolation, or which diminish and make individuals look or feel foolish in front of others, will be avoided. **Support to the parents/guardians** • Parents/guardians to be advised on Zaridi Afrika’s anti-bullying policy and practice. • Any incident of bullying will be discussed with the child’s/teen’s parents/guardians. • Parents/guardians will be consulted on action to be taken (for both victim and bully) and agreements made as to what action should be taken. • Information and advice on coping with bullying will be made available. • Support should be offered to the parents/guardians including information on other agencies or support lines. Suspicions/allegations of bullying or harassment will be handled in the same way as other forms of abuse by referring them to the Disciplinary Committee.
e8ef0c04-bd2d-4daf-8529-e035ebea370c
CC-MAIN-2025-08
https://zaridiafrika.com/uploads/default/files/Safe_guarding_policy.pdf
2025-02-13T03:40:04+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831951768.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20250213014327-20250213044327-00892.warc.gz
975,666,438
11,940
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.963197
eng_Latn
0.996871
[ "dag_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 300, 3167, 5997, 9040, 10331, 11898, 14493, 17145, 19545, 20827, 23667, 25118, 26922, 29051, 31139, 32641, 33003, 33923, 34342, 35365, 37562, 39702, 40991, 43346, 45289, 46885, 49007, 51820, 54167, 56003, 57047, 59179, 61173 ]
[ 1.2734375, 2.25 ]
1
0
Managing Plant Pathogens Introduction 373 Lecture 1: Managing Plant Pathogens 375 Demonstration 1: Practical Plant Disease Diagnosis, Biology and Management Instructor’s Demonstration Outline 381 Students’ Step-by-Step Instructions 383 Assessment Questions and Key 385 Resources 387 Supplement 1: The Importance of Farmer-to-Farmer Social Networks 389 Part 1 – 372 | Unit 1.9 Managing Plant Pathogens Prevention and early diagnosis are critical to limiting damage by plant pathogens. This unit introduces students to the fundamental concepts and basic skills needed to identify and manage plant pathogens in certified organic production systems. Topics include the economic importance of plant pathogen management and the basic biology (especially life cycles) of bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, phytoplasmas, and parasitic higher plants that are common plant pathogens and vectors in agricultural systems. Abiotic diseases such as nutrient deficiencies and air pollution are presented, along with the interactions among environment, pathogen, and crop plant. Management techniques for each pathogen and vector are also discussed. MODES OF INSTRUCTION > LECTURE (1 LECTURE, 3.0 HOURS) The class lecture covers the basics of plant pathology: History and causes of disease, biology of causal organisms, disease diagnosis, ecological management, climatic factors. Note: as you begin the lecture, pass around 5 samples of ubiquitous plant diseases, including (at least 1) fungal, oomycete, bacterial, and viral on both herbaceous and woody plants. Choose plants and diseases the students are likely to have seen; powdery mildew and Botrytis are particularly helpful. After the discussion of the Evolutionary Ecology of Plant Diseases (point D in the lecture) is a good place to take a break. > DEMONSTRATION 1: DISEASE IDENTIFICATION (1.5 HOURS) During the disease identification demonstration, students will collect and diagnose diseases and disease-like samples they gather. Management techniques for each disease will be discussed. > ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS: (0.5–1 HOUR) Assessment questions reinforce key unit concepts and skills. > POWERPOINT See cafs.usc.edu/about/publications and click on Teaching Organic Farming & Gardening. LEARNING OBJECTIVES CONCEPTS • The economic importance of plant pathogen management • Basic biology (especially life cycles) of bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, phytoplasmas, parasitic higher plants • Abiotic diseases: Nutrient deficiencies and air pollution • The disease triangle: Interactions among environment, pathogen, and plant • Disease management from an ecological perspective SKILLS • How to collect samples of diseased plants and use diagnostic resources Part 1 – 374 | Unit 1.9 Managing Plant Pathogens Lecture 1: Managing Plant Pathogens Pre-Assessment Questions 1. What is plant disease? 2. What are the steps involved in diagnosing plant diseases? 3. Why are plant diseases rare in natural systems, yet common in agriculture? 4. What are the main causal organisms for plant diseases? 5. What is the disease triangle, and how do we use it in ecological disease management? A. Description, Economic Importance of Plant Disease 1. What is plant disease? A disruption in normal physiology—usually with some kind of negative effect on survival or fitness of the individual. For most plant pathologists, this includes infectious agents, nutrition, and air pollution. They also include nematodes as causing disease, but not insects, mites, or genetic abnormalities, unless infectious agents cause them. In practice, most plant pathologists work with infectious agents: The three most important, by far, are fungi, bacteria and viruses. 2. Economic importance of plant disease Diseases are important to humans because they cause damage to plants and plant products, commonly with an associated economic effect, either positive or negative. Negative economic effects include crop failure, incremental loss from lower quality or failure to meet market standards, elimination of crop options because of disease propagule buildup, or the costs of control methods. A positive effect is the creation of new endeavors to manage diseases. B. Disease Diagnosis Accurately diagnosing the cause of a disease is key to management. Unfortunately, professional help is frequently necessary. Fortunately, anyone can learn to collect a good sample (see Demonstration 1, Practical Plant Disease Diagnosis, Biology and Management). 1. Symptoms should exist on several individual plants and not have an obvious non-pathogen cause 2. Observe the pattern of symptoms or signs in the field, and don’t forget to look at the roots if the symptoms include wilting. A symptom is an observation of the host response to infection by the pathogen. A sign is a visible structure of the pathogen itself, and is much more diagnostic. 3. Whenever possible, collect a sample that includes the border between healthy and diseased tissue (this is likely where the pathogen is most active, making the observation of signs, and pathogen isolation in the lab, more probable) 4. Collect a range of symptoms from light to heavy. Bring as much of each diseased plant as possible, including roots; bring samples from more than one plant and note the distribution of symptoms in the field. 5. Resources to help diagnose plant diseases include Cooperative Extension services, other professionals, and pictorial disease guides (see Resources section for print and web-based diagnostic resources). It is easy to misdiagnose a disease. Be cautious diagnosing and treating diseases on your own until you have experience. C. Evolutionary Ecology of Plant Disease Plant disease has an essential role in plant evolution and ecosystems. Understanding this role helps us design more resilient farm systems. 1. Viruses are special There is a debate as to whether viruses are living organisms or not. In many ways they straddle the line between biotic and abiotic. Viruses replicate and evolve at an extraordinary rate but they cannot make their own proteins, have no nutritional requirements, and most are composed of only nucleic acids and protein. How viruses evolved is unclear but many think that viruses are remnants of the earliest forms of “life”. Viruses may lead to evolutionary changes in their hosts through transfer of genetic materials. Viruses hop in and out of different hosts and may occasionally bring along bits of host DNA with them and transfer it to a new host; they are the original genetic engineers. 2. Probable evolutionary history of non-virus pathogens A range of nutritional strategies exist for plant pathogens. The majority of fungi and bacteria exist as saprophytes (decomposers) indicating that this is likely the ancestral nutritional strategy. Early life forms died and saprophytes evolved to “clean up” and recycle their bodies. Gradually, saprophytes gained the ability to “feed” on live plants and became pathogens. Some evolved further, losing all saprophytic ability and became obligate pathogens (must have a living host). Fossil records of plant symbionts indicate that some pathogens, such as oomycetes, evolved from photosynthetic algae. 3. Obligate (must have a host) and non-obligate pathogens Non-virus plant pathogens range on a scale from completely obligate (e.g., powdery mildews) to almost completely non-obligate (e.g., Botrytis rots). Both types of pathogens are essential for ecosystem diversity and overall health. a) Obligate pathogens have evolved such that they can only live on the plant species within their narrow host range and have no saprophytic ability (i.e., cannot live on dead tissue). They cannot exist in an active form without a live host. An obligate pathogen that is extremely virulent (able to attack and kill all individuals of its host range) would result in extinction of its host, followed quickly by extinction of the pathogen itself. Thus, survival for both host and obligate pathogen depends on a dynamic, genetic relationship between host resistance and pathogen virulence, in which neither organism can gain complete domination over the other. Plants and pathogens have genetic flexibility such that sexual reproduction produces diverse individuals containing a variety of resistance and virulence genes (gene-for-gene interactions). In natural (undisturbed) ecosystems, obligate pathogens are common but do not inflict much damage on their hosts, except to the few plants that arise without resistance. b) Non-obligate pathogens don’t have or need the same close genetic relationship with their plant hosts, because they can live on organic matter and/or a wide range of host plants. In these interactions, host genetics are less important than environmental factors (e.g., humidity) in determining plant susceptibility. In undisturbed ecosystems, micro-environments vary widely, preventing non-obligate pathogens from doing much damage, but also helping to ensure no one plant species or genotype excludes all others. If a particular plant genotype dominates a natural system, plant disease will act as a “reset button” to restore diversity. Even the mighty redwoods will not dominate forever! 4. Why agriculture increases the incidence of plant disease Agriculture, and in particular the use of hybrid crop varieties and monocultures, circumvents natural checks and balances. For high yields, plants are grown close together and given abundant water: Ideal environments for obligate and non-obligate plant pathogens. Continuous, large quantities of genetically similar hosts skew natural selection to accelerate the appearance of highly virulent obligate pathogens. The associated high risk of widespread catastrophic disease can only be tolerated with effective pesticides and/or a strong plant breeding program. In contrast, ecological plant pathology attempts to decelerate the evolution and success of virulent pathogens by reducing the pathogens’ access to these hosts, and improving the micro-environment. It isn’t easy to control agricultural plant diseases ecologically because agriculture, by definition, is an unnatural environment, where we artificially favor specific plant genes and high plant density. However, we can use our knowledge of ecology and evolution to design the whole growing system to slow down, reduce, or avoid disease on plants. “Pesticide-based” agriculture has often ignored ecological principles in designing cropping systems. 5. Nutritional strategies of pathogens Bacteria and fungi do not ingest their host, but use absorptive nutrition (enzymatic degradation outside the pathogen). Nematodes use alimentary nutrition (enzymatic- and bacterial-mediated degradation inside the pathogen). Viruses are obligate intracellular molecular parasites: They do not acquire nutrition from their host, rather they use the host’s molecular machinery to make new viruses. D. How Pathogens Cause Disease 1. Enzymatic degradation Pathogens secrete enzymes, which catalyze the breakdown of host tissues, similar to the digestion of food in mammals. Symptom: Rotting. 2. Toxins Pathogens often benefit by producing toxins, which kill the tissue in advance of enzymatic degradation. In many pathogens, particularly non-obligate pathogens, toxins cause the majority of damage to the host. Symptom: Yellowing. Some pathogen products damage or plug up the plant’s plumbing (xylem or phloem). Symptom: Wilting and stunting. 3. Growth regulators Pathogens often find it advantageous to produce growth regulators (or cause the host to produce them). The most common are those that cause translocation of nutrients to host cells and/or cause host cells to enlarge or divide in the vicinity of the pathogen, thus providing an increase in food for the pathogen. This allows the host to go on living while providing ample food for the pathogen. Symptoms: Tumors and stunting. 4. Genetic manipulation All viruses, plus a few bacteria, are able to force the plant to produce pathogen proteins (gene products) from pathogen genetic material. This severely decreases the amount of plant protein available for normal cell function, resulting in dysfunctional cells. Symptoms: Tumors, stunting, twisting, yellowing, mosaic patterns. E. Causal Organisms 1. Bacteria Bacteria are single celled, have no nucleus, and one chromosome. They have a limited overall size, but unlimited reproduction by fission (no chromosomal segregation). This allows bacteria to reproduce faster than fungi and may result in quick epidemics. They use absorptive nutrition, and most in nature are saprophytic. Pathogens cause blights (rapid, toxic killing of plant tissue), rots (mushy breakdown), wilts (plugging of vasculature), and galls (growth regulator-mediated enlarged areas on plants). Bacteria are very sensitive to the environment. Individual actively replicating bacteria don’t have much protection from sunlight and drying; however, in nature bacteria often exist as a biofilm, which consists of a mixture of different bacteria inside a matrix of protective slimy material (dental plaque is a biofilm of mouth bacteria). When not actively replicating or within biofilms, plant pathogenic bacteria have found ways to survive unfavorable conditions such as living inside seed coats. They spread by wind, water, seeds, people and insect vectors. Examples: Fire blight on pear, crown gall on many woody plants, citrus greening disease of citrus (huanglongbing), Pierce’s disease of grape, soft rot on many herbaceous plants. 2. Fungi Fungi are connected cells with nuclei, multiple chromosomes, mitochondria, and chitin for strength. Their overall size is unlimited, but without a vascular system they don’t have good connections/“communication” among segments and easily fragment into multiple bodies. Most are able to form differentiated structures used in reproduction and dispersal, e.g., mushrooms, spores. Like bacteria, most are saprophytic. Plants infected with fungi exhibit many symptoms, including rot, blight, leaf spots, and wilts. Fungi are fairly sensitive to light and dry conditions when growing, but can make very resistant structures to survive. They spread by wind, water, seed, and vectors. Examples: Apple scab, powdery mildews, peach leaf curl. 3. Oomycetes Oomycetes are like fungi in many ways, but have a different evolutionary history, perhaps arising from photosynthetic algae that lost the ability to photosynthesize. They produce zoospores (mobile spores) and oospores (survival spores). Most are water or soil inhabitants, and favored by free water or a film of water in which zoospores can swim. Oomycetes are spread by wind, water, seed, and vectors. Examples: Downy mildew, Pythium (damping-off), Phytophthora root rots. 4. Viruses Viruses are pieces of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA) inside a protective coating usually made only of protein. Viroids are even smaller than viruses and are just small pieces of naked RNA. They are always a parasite, although not necessarily a pathogen. The nucleic acid in a virus only codes for a few proteins that the virus needs to replicate and move through the plant. Viruses are molecular parasites meaning that they take over the molecular machinery of the host cell and cause it to produce virus proteins instead of host proteins. Symptoms mimic genetic abnormalities and nutritional deficiencies and include mosaics, yellows, distortions, and death. Viruses spread by mechanical means, seed, or vectors, which is an important consideration when choosing a control method. Most plant viruses are able to cause disease on several different hosts and some viruses can infect over 1,000 different species of plant. Examples: Tobacco mosaic virus, Cucumber mosaic virus, Tomato spotted wilt virus, Beet curly top virus. 5. Nematodes Nematodes are microscopic worms; the presence of a stylet (a needle-like mouthpart that is stabbed into the host) differentiates plant parasitic nematodes from saprophytes. They occur as ecto-nematodes (all but the head is outside the plant) and endo-nematodes (the entire nematode is inside the plant), and can be sedentary or migratory. Injection of the nematode’s saliva upsets plant metabolism, causing an excess or shortage of nutrients or hormones. Symptoms include tumors and death of affected parts. Nematodes spread slowly unless carried by water or humans and occur most often in sandier soils and warmer climates. Examples: Rootknot nematode on many plants, beet cyst nematode on vegetables. 6. Phytoplasmas “Bacteria without a cell wall,” phytoplasmas are fastidious (very fussy eaters) obligate pathogens that are only able to survive inside the plant vascular system (xylem and phloem). Because phytoplasmas cannot survive outside of the plant vascular system they are only spread to new plants through grafting and insect vectors. Examples: Pear decline, aster yellows. 7. Parasitic higher plants Parasitic vascular plants rely on a host for water and minerals (green-colored leaves) and sometimes carbohydrates as well (non-green-colored leaves). Deleterious effects are usually from hormonal upset of the host rather than nutrient or water loss. These parasites occur primarily in forestry, perennials, and poorly managed annual crops. Examples: Mistletoe on trees, dodder on vegetables. 8. Abiotic Nutrient toxicities (too much) and deficiencies (too little) in a plant occur as a result of nutrient toxicities or deficiencies in the rock from which the soil formed, or from poor management. Examples: Iron, nitrogen, potassium, zinc, copper, boron toxicities or deficiencies. Air pollution: Lead, NO\textsubscript{2}, CO, HF, Ozone, SO\textsubscript{2}. F. Ecological Disease Management 1. Disease triangle (Host / Environmental Growing Conditions / Pathogen) In general, disease results from a susceptible host, a virulent pathogen, and a favorable environment. Together, these three factors make up the disease triangle. All three must occur at the same time for disease to occur. Pesticide-based agriculture concentrates on reducing the disease after it is first seen, or on a spray schedule using a calendar or forecaster that examines environmental conditions. Ecological disease management concentrates on avoiding conditions that predispose plants to disease. Note that this is quite unlike arthropod management, where a range of natural enemies can be encouraged or deployed. Organic farmers often make the mistake of assuming that the methods for disease and arthropod management are the same. Theoretically, approaches that avoid disease make more sense than those that try to fix things afterwards. Chemical fixes may have unintended effects, including plant toxicity and removal of natural enemies that were controlling other pest problems. In general, strongly growing, healthy plants are most able to resist disease, although exceptions occur. Plant susceptibility to a particular disease usually changes depending on the amount and type of physiological stress. To some extent, growers can manipulate the Disease Triangle (above)—the host, the pathogen, or environmental conditions—as outlined below. 2. **Environmental manipulations** The grower usually has most control over the cropping environment; examples include increasing plant spacing (to reduce humidity and decrease infection), regulating the amount of irrigation and drainage, choosing where the crop is grown (climate, soil, nutrition, landscape diversity, soil biodiversity), etc. 3. **Host manipulation** We often have less control of the host, since we have already chosen it in the crops we are growing. We can look for resistant cultivars, use pathogen-free planting materials (through quarantine or eradicative techniques such as hot-water seed treatment), and practice crop rotation (both temporal and spatial, such as intercropping). 4. **Pathogen manipulations** We try to keep the pathogen out of the field, or get rid of it when it is seen (either manually by removing affected host tissue, or by using chemical controls). Unlike industrial agriculture, few highly effective chemical controls are available to organic growers besides sulfur and copper. Commercial use of non-pathogenic microbes to compete with, kill, eat, and induce resistance to pathogens is far behind arthropod systems. Ecological agriculture, with its goal of both high numbers and diversity of microbes in soil and on leaves, may increase its reliance on non-pathogens for disease control in the future. 5. **Climate and weather patterns that encourage the rate of growth, development, and distribution of certain plant pathogens** In general, most plant pathogens like wet, warm weather with an abundance of free moisture on plant surfaces. However, some pathogens, such as powdery mildew, will be inhibited by rainfall, and overhead irrigation is sometimes used to control this disease. Weather that is too hot or too cold for the plant to grow properly can make the host susceptible to disease. Some pathogens, such as many of the anthracnose diseases, need rain to spread their spores; others need wind (such as the powdery and downy mildews), and some need both wind and rain (some bacterial diseases). A critical pest management step is to insure the compatibility of one’s crop and crop varieties with the regional growing climate where production will take place. Demonstration 1: Practical Plant Disease Diagnosis, Biology & Management for the instructor OVERVIEW Through this hands-on field exercise and discussion, students will learn how to collect representative samples of diseased plant tissues from their own farm and garden, observe the instructor’s methods for diagnosis, and learn management techniques for each pathogen and vector. PREPARATION AND MATERIALS 1. If possible, students should have received the lecture portion of this unit covering disease diagnosis. If not, present this material. 2. Divide the class into groups of four or fewer students and give them a half hour to collect suitable samples of plants that they think may have disease and that they are most interested in. 3. Give the students a small break and sort the samples setting aside the ones that will best illustrate important plant disease concepts. PREPARATION TIME 5 minutes DEMONSTRATION TIME 1.5 hours DEMONSTRATION OUTLINE Proceed through as many samples as you have time for. Encourage student questions. A. Diagnosis 1. Host 2. Type and extent of symptoms 3. How relatively useful the symptoms are for diagnosis 4. The importance of professional help, and lab analysis in accurate diagnosis 5. Discuss the danger of guessing B. Provide illustrations of Pathogens or Characteristic Symptoms C. Give a Synopsis of the Disease and Management Practices 1. The relative importance of actively managing the pathogen (i.e., potential agricultural and economic consequences of unchecked growth) 2. Biology: Life cycle and timing for intervention 3. Review of ecological disease management practices accepted under certified organic farming standards, using the disease triangle a) Environmental manipulations b) Host manipulations c) Pathogen manipulations Demonstration 1: Practical Plant Disease Diagnosis, Biology & Management step-by-step instructions for the students OVERVIEW The key to successful disease management is accurate diagnosis, an understanding of the biology of the causal agent, and use of the disease triangle to design a management system. These step-by-step instructions will assist you in collecting suitable samples of affected plants and allow the instructor to illustrate these concepts. PROCEDURE Collect suitable samples from plants that you think have disease and that you find interesting. • Symptoms should exist on several individual plants and not have an obvious non-pathogen cause. • Observe the pattern of symptoms or signs in the field (they can provide information about how the disease spreads) and don’t forget to look at the roots whenever possible. • Whenever possible, collect a sample that includes the border between healthy and diseased tissue. • Collect a range of symptoms from light to heavy. Bring as much of the plant as possible, including roots. Bring samples from more than one plant. Part 1 – 384 | Unit 1.9 Managing Plant Pathogens 1) List five different plant diseases, including the pathogen, plant host, and how each one interferes with normal plant physiology. 2) What are three environmental conditions that often encourage the growth, development, and distribution of bacterial and fungal blights? 3) Describe three specific environmental manipulations that farmers/gardeners may use to manage or prevent plant pathogens ecologically. 4) What are the four techniques that should always be included when taking a suitable sample for disease diagnosis? 5) Describe three specific plant host manipulations that farmers/gardeners may use to manage or prevent plant pathogens ecologically. 1) List five different plant diseases, including the pathogen, plant host, and how each one interferes with normal plant physiology. - Bacteria - Fungi - Viruses - Nematodes - Mycoplasma-like organisms - Parasitic higher plants - Nutrient deficiencies - Air pollutants 2) What are three environmental conditions that often encourage the growth, development, and distribution of bacterial and fungal blights? - High relative humidity - Warm (temperatures 55°F or higher) - Free moisture on plant surfaces 3) Describe three specific environmental manipulations that farmers/gardeners may use to manage or prevent plant pathogens ecologically. - Increase crop spacing (to reduce humidity) - Regulate amount or timing of irrigation (to reduce humidity, moisture on foliage, or soil moisture levels) - Regulate drainage (to influence soil moisture levels) - Changes to crop and soil type - Changes to soil nutrient levels - Changes to crop location relative to climate and microclimate 4) What are the four techniques that should always be included when taking a suitable sample for disease diagnosis? - Symptoms existing on several individual plants - Make observations of patterns of symptoms - Make observations of both foliage and roots - Collect samples from the border between healthy and potentially diseased plant tissues - Collect a range of samples exhibiting symptoms including heavily and lightly affected 5) Describe three specific plant host manipulations that farmers/gardeners may use to manage or prevent plant pathogens ecologically. - Select disease-resistant cultivars - Use only certified disease-free plant materials - Crop rotations in both space and time Resources PRINT RESOURCES BOOKS Agrios, George N. 2005. *Plant Pathology, Fifth Edition*. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic. *A textbook of plant pathology from general to specific topics.* Compendium of Diseases. St. Paul, MN: APS Press. *A series of publications covering diseases of many common crops, published by the American Phytopathological Society’s APS Press.* Flint, Mary Louise. 1998. *Pests of the Garden and Small Farm: A Grower’s Guide to Using Less Pesticide, Second Edition*. Publications 3332. Oakland, CA: University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. *Covers insects, mites, plant diseases, nematodes, and weeds of fruit and nut trees and vegetables. Individual sections describe the biology, identification, and control of common pests and pathogens; includes symptom-identification tables organized by crop. Recommended methods rely primarily on organically acceptable alternatives.* Flint, Mary Louise. 2012. *IPM in Practice: Principles and Methods of Integrated Pest Management, Second Edition*. Publications 3418. Oakland, CA: University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. *Great introduction to understanding and implementing integrated pest management of plant pathogens, weeds, and insects.* Flint, Mary Louiss, and Steve Dreistadt. 1998. *Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control*. Publication 3386. Oakland, CA: University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. *How-to book describes ways to combine cultural, physical, and chemical methods with biological control; to minimize pesticide impacts on natural enemies; release natural enemies and enhance their activity; and identify and use natural enemies to control pests.* Koike, Steve. 2006. *Vegetable Diseases: a Color Handbook*. Manson Publishing Ltd.: London. *Extensive, excellent photos of many common vegetable diseases.* Koike, Steve, Mark Gaskell, Calvin Fouché, Richard Smith, and Jeff Mitchell. 2000. *Plant Disease Management for Organic Crops*. Publication 7252. Oakland, CA: University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. *Describes various techniques for managing diseases in organic crops, including use of resistant plants, site selection, pest exclusion, and compost use.* Pscheidt, Jay W., and Cynthia M. Ocamh (eds.). 2015. *Pacific Northwest Plant Disease Management Handbook*. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. pnwhandbooks.org/plantdisease/node/1788/print *A ready reference guide to the control and management tactics for the more important plant diseases in the Pacific Northwest.* Schumann, Gail L., and Cleora J. D’Arcy. 2012. *Hungry Planet: Stories of Plant Diseases*. St. Paul, MN: The American Phytopathological Society. *Describes the impact of several different plant diseases and illustrates basic biological and plant pathology concepts in an easy-to-understand way.* University of California IPM Program. *Integrated Pest Management Manual Series*. Oakland, CA: University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. *Comprehensive IPM manuals for growers and pest control advisors offer detailed information on numerous agricultural crops, landscape trees and shrubs, and home gardens.* PERIODICALS Annual Review of Phytopathology *Excellent summaries of major topics.* Biocontrol Science and Technology *Presents original research and reviews in the fields of biological pest, disease and weed control.* IPM Practitioner Focuses on management alternatives for pests such as insects, mites, ticks, vertebrates, weeds and plant pathogens. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture Basic research on social and agronomic aspects of sustainable agriculture. Microbial Ecology International forum for the presentation of high-quality scientific investigations of how microorganisms interact with their environment, with each other and with their hosts. Organic Farming Research Foundation Reports Summarizes research projects (many by growers) on practical organic farming topics, including pest and disease control. Phytopathology Primary research journal. Plant Disease Primary practical research journal. WEB-BASED RESOURCES Agriculture Research Service Biological Control of Plant Diseases www.ars.usda.gov/research/programs.htm See the Crop Production and Protection programs for descriptions and reports of USDA-funded research on pests and disease control. American Phytopathological Society apsnet.org The Education section covers many specific plant pathogens and overall concepts. Includes a reference list of books, websites, videos, etc. The Illustrated Glossary provides definitions and illustrations of many technical terms used in plant pathology. The article on the Plant Disease Doughnut (http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/justcomm/TeachingArticles/Pages/PlantDiseaseDoughnut.aspx) provides a useful graphic to describe the difference between a disease and a pathogen. California Pest Management Guidelines www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/IPMPROJECT/pubsmenu.html Official guidelines for pest monitoring techniques, pesticides, and nonpesticide alternatives for managing insect, mite, nematode, weed, and disease pests in agricultural crops, floriculture and ornamental nurseries, commercial turf, and in homes and landscapes. Consortium for International Crop Protection, IPMnet www.ipmnet.org New research, links, bulletin board, newsletter, based out of Oregon State University. New York State/Cornell IPM Program www.nysipm.cornell.edu Valuable resource covering many fruit and vegetable crops, including identification information, cultural practices and inputs to manage pests and diseases. North Carolina State University Center for Integrated Pest Management www.cipm.info/ Database of resources on pest management in North Carolina. Pacific Northwest Plant Disease Management Handbook pnwhandbooks.org/plantdisease This handbook is intended as a ready reference guide to the control and management tactics for the more important plant diseases in the Pacific Northwest. UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program www.sarep.ucdavis.edu Includes reports and resources on organic farming and on SAREP-funded research projects, including Biologically Integrated Farming Systems (BIFS). See the SAREP-funded Projects Database. The three key factors that interact to determine plant pathogen activity in crops are susceptible host, virulent pathogen, and environmental conditions. As described in the lecture, the goal of an organic farming system is to slow down, reduce, or avoid disease problems by designing the system to be resilient and unfavorable to pathogens. Knowledge of local disease pressures and prevention practices shared amongst farmers can be an important element in developing a disease-resistant farming system. Of the three factors illustrated by the disease triangle, organic systems have influence over, and sometimes focus on, environmental and growing conditions. By contrast, conventional systems often focus on trying to eliminate individual pathogens through chemical control. Because certified organic growers have few options for approved chemical controls (e.g., copper, sulfur, neem), synergistic environmental and host controls are implemented to reduce or avoid the potential for an outbreak in the first place. The techniques and methods one implements in an ecological system to deter plant diseases from causing significant damage vary based on several factors, including: geography, climate, soil type, and baseline presence of the pathogen. Strong, healthy plants in microbiologically active soils provide farmers with a helpful ecological defense to disease. Selecting crops well suited to local soil and climatic conditions is thus important to building a resilient system. Season by season, farmers who select and save seeds from their most disease-resistant individual plants actively build a stronger defense against pathogen pressures. Similarly, building soil health with regular additions of compost and cover crops helps support high levels of microbial activity in soils, which may act as a deterrent and competitive force against disease-causing bacteria and fungi. Local conditions also dictate the likely presence of a disease. For example, places where cool nights and morning dew persist (e.g., coastal California) provide more favorable conditions to downy mildew than a dry, warm climate (e.g., Texas). Being informed by place is both a part of the agroecological philosophy as well as a practical skill that farmers need to continually develop in order to effectively manage pests and diseases. For new farmers, and those who move to new climates, acquiring this knowledge may be challenging. Previously learned techniques and methods from farming experiences in other locations may not always be applicable. Counties may have university-supported agricultural extension offices that offer publications on pest and pathogen management, although these resources are often geared toward a handful of commodity crops. Local cooperative extension offices mostly offer resources for conventional agriculture throughout the country, and may not be able to provide information specifically for organic systems. Federal research funding is often inadequate to support research and development for pest and pathogen management in these systems, so extension staff members may not be able to prioritize this kind of research. The location-specific nature of agroecological pathogen management and the limited availability of extension services in some areas means that established local farmers are often the best resources for new farmers on information about diseases in the area and locally adapted management techniques. **Benefits of Experiential Learning** Farmers, more so than most, benefit greatly from experiential learning. Climate, precipitation, soil nutrient availability, and seed viability are just a handful of important variables that affect crop growth and disease presence and are subject to change each season. The collective experience of a local community of farmers with these variables will always dwarf any individual’s experience in the same season. For this reason, sharing experiential knowledge with other farmers, new and old, is an important aspect of the practice of agroecology and organic farming. From this perspective, each farmer’s season growing a particular crop, say beets, is a “field trial” from which that farmer learns about his or her successes and failures in controlling pests and diseases. Taken together, a local community of beet farmers offers a wealth of knowledge on beet pest and disease management that stands to benefit all. Even in a competitive economy, sharing best practices for disease management creates mutual benefits for neighboring farmers because disease pressure on one plot (especially highly mobile bacteria and fungi) threatens every plot within that pathogen’s range of mobility. Since organic systems rely more on prevention than treatment, maintaining the integrity of the system is paramount for effective disease management. In addition to the disease management benefits of farmer-to-farmer networks, there is another important reason for these connections—empowerment. The budding Farmers’ Guild network in California (www.farmersguild.org) is one example of this type of self-supporting, farmer-helping-farmer movement, although often these networks include mostly beginning farmers and it is important to access the knowledge of long-time farmers to be most effective. Internationally, the Movimiento Campesino a Campesino (MCaC), which started in Guatemala, provides an example of the sociopolitical importance of a strong network of small, sustainable farmers and their allies. The MCaC began as an attempt to improve rural, smallholder farmers’ livelihoods through farmer-led, sustainable agricultural development, long before the term was coined in international discourse. As a result of the Green Revolution, increasing national debt, and reduced government support for traditional agriculture, campesinos (or peasant farmers) turned to each other for support and development assistance. Through loosely organized networks, farmers who learned successful cultivation, fertility, and irrigation techniques taught others the same methods. These farmers freely chose to adopt or ignore the techniques, depending on their local conditions. If adopted and successful, the second group would pass the techniques on to another set of farmers, and so on. After thirty years, the MCaC has transitioned from a practical training network into an international social movement for equity and the rights of smallholder farmers and against destruction of soil, water, and genetic diversity. The significance of knowledge discovered and shared locally cannot be overestimated. After years of marginalization by colonizers, government actors, private firms, or large landowners, campesino communities often exhibit distrust of outsiders, even those with good intentions. The MCaC, and others like it, formed and carried on by campesinos themselves, is self-empowering and provides a path towards independence and self-sustainability. Still, sustainable agriculture is the alternative, not the dominant system that guides resource distribution, and trade and environmental policy. Beyond spreading the practice of sustainable agricultural development, the MCaC must cultivate social, economic, and political power to change the institutions that shape agriculture. This will require new knowledge to be disseminated through the same farmer-to-farmer exchanges that brought sustainable practices to so many smallholder farmers in developing countries at the outset. There will also have to be much more education of citizens in developed countries, where much of the national debt of developing countries is held and significantly impacts agricultural policy of debtor nations (see Lecture 2 in Unit 3.1, Development of U.S. Agriculture). As one campesino puts it, “I think we should not fall in the trap of seeing the development of agroecology by just looking at the physical aspects of the farm or just at the economics. Agroecology is not just a collection of practices. [It] is a way of life.” **More information on farmer-to-farmer networks–** Holt-Gimenez, Eric. 2006. *Campesino a Campesino: Voices for Latin America’s Farmer to Farmer Movement for Sustainable Agriculture*. Oakland, CA: Food First Books. Holt-Gimenez, Eric. 2001. Scaling up sustainable agriculture: Lessons from the Campesino a Campesino movement. *LEISA Magazine*, Vol. 17 No. 3. www.agriculturesnetwork.org/magazines/global/lessons-in-scaling-up/scaling-up-sustainable-agriculture
efa92e05-b11e-4564-a99b-21ea2bcd6e92
CC-MAIN-2024-46
https://agroecology.ucsc.edu/about/publications/Teaching-Organic-Farming/PDF-downloads/1.9-pathogens.pdf
2024-11-07T09:32:54+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477027987.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20241107083707-20241107113707-00632.warc.gz
66,377,932
8,270
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.943148
eng_Latn
0.991999
[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 358, 408, 2723, 2773, 5656, 9625, 13305, 16934, 19189, 21424, 22368, 23265, 24352, 24402, 25066, 26750, 30255, 33124, 35943, 40844, 41589 ]
[ 3.5, 1.6796875 ]
2
0
BENEFITS of HEALTH SCREENINGS There are many factors that come into play when it comes to overall health. Living a healthy life style, which includes a balanced diet, routine exercise and rest, all work together to make a person healthy; but sometimes this may not be enough. Contributing factors to potential issues can be seen through family histories and aging. The best way to detect these issues before they become full blown medical emergencies is through screening tests. Families are wonderful, they are our first friends, they teach us how to interact with the outside world and give us the love and support we need to grow into happy healthy adults, but they can also pass on some other not so pleasant stuff like high blood pressure, high cholesterol and even some cancers. All of these illnesses can be identified then treated through routine screening tests. But that can only happen by visiting a medical provider. All children up to the age 18 should receive an annual well child check. These appointments are crucial in detecting any delays or illness that can affect a child throughout their life time. Screening medical exams start in our 20’s, and as we age some of these tests are no longer recommended and different tests are recommended. Based on your health history and having a good working relationship with your medical provider, he/she will know what tests are the most appropriate for you. Aging is a normal occurrence and should never impede with living a healthy lifestyle of balanced diet, routine exercise and rest. However, as we age we become more susceptible to illness. It is important to see a physician annually in later years as illness that a once younger body may fight off with ease may not be able to do as well in later years. Screening tests are the key to staying ahead of potentially life-threatening illness and should be taken advantage of. It can be the difference between stage I and stage III cancer!! PREVENTIVE CARE FOR ADULTS All federally qualified health plans cover the following preventive services without charging a copay or coinsurance. Check with your PCP on guidelines. Screenings for: abdominal aortic aneurysm; alcohol misuse; blood pressure; cholesterol; colorectal cancer; depression; type 2 diabetes; hepatitis B and C; HIV; lung cancer; obesity; syphilis; tobacco use and tuberculosis Immunization vaccines: diphtheria; hepatitis A and B; herpes zoster; human papillomavirus; influenza; measles; meningococcal; mumps; pertussis; pneumococcal, rubella; tetanus; varicella Go to https://www.healthcare.gov/preventive-care-adults/ for more info. REGULAR HEALTH SCREENINGS FOR MEN AND WOMEN AGES 40-64 BLOOD PRESSURE CHOLESTEROL & HEART DISEASE COLORECTAL CANCER DENTAL EXAM DIABETES EYE EXAM IMMUNIZATIONS LUNG CANCER OSTEOPOROSIS PHYSICAL EXAM SKIN EXAM ADDITIONAL SCREENINGS FOR WOMEN AGES 40-64 BREAST EXAM MAMMOGRAM PELVIC EXAM AND PAP SMEAR ADDITIONAL SCREENINGS FOR MEN AGES 40-64 PROSTATE EXAM TESTICULAR EXAM BENEFITS OF... WALKING Walking may not exactly train you for a marathon but that doesn’t mean it’s not a great form of exercise. Walking may improve your mental health. Regular exercise may actually reduce depression and anxiety. In a 2011 study of older women, those who walked on a regular basis had lower scores on the depression and anxiety scale. Walking can lower your weight. Losing weight and lowering your Body Mass Index (BMI) doesn’t necessarily require an intense workout. The American Diabetes Association suggests **30 minutes of brisk walking a day (3-4 MPH) five days a week to reduce your weight and BMI**. Walking can help lower your blood pressure. In a study published in *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, postmenopausal women who walked a mile or two a day lowered their blood pressure by about 11 points after six months. Walking may lower resting heart rate. This is a good thing, fewer beats per minute means your heart is working more effectively. A 2015 study in the Journal of Sports Medicine found that participants in a walking group showed an average heart rate drop of nearly three beats per minute. Walking can help lower cholesterol. That same study of walking groups demonstrated a drop in the participants’ total cholesterol as well. Walking can help prevent chronic health conditions. Since walking can lower your blood pressure, BMI and cholesterol, you may be less likely to develop diabetes and other conditions. Walking can improve your bone health. Regular activity can prevent loss of bone mass and reduce the risk of fractures, according to the Arthritis Foundation. And do you want to know the best part? Walking is FREE! Find a buddy - human or furry, step outside and make walking a part of your day! STEP BY STEP TO A HEALTHIER ME | STARTING LINE: | / / / | | FINISH LINE: | / / / | Need to get your blood pressure or pulse taken? Come to one of our outreach events near you! Our Community Health Workers will gladly help. See our website for scheduled outreaches - [www.rmrh.org](http://www.rmrh.org) Email us your progress at firstname.lastname@example.org and receive encouraging messages from our Community Health Workers! | MY PROGRAM* | BRISK WALKING | 3-4 Miles Per Hour | 5 DAYS A WEEK | STEP BY STEP | TO A HEALTHIER ME | |-------------|---------------|--------------------|--------------|--------------|------------------| | | DAY 1 | DAY 2 | DAY 3 | DAY 4 | DAY 5 | | Week 1 | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | | Week 2 | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | | Week 3 | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | | Week 4 | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | __ minutes | MY STATS | DAY 1 | DAY 20 | |-------|--------| | Weight | | | Waist (Inches) | | | Blood Pressure | / / | | Resting Heart Rate | | Giving to Rocky Mountain Rural Health Benefits YOU, US & OTHERS! We do not receive government support but depend on grants and donations to offer resources free of charge to the people of Park County. YOU will have the satisfaction of being a good neighbor and will be partnering with US to reach OTHERS - neighbors in need of health related services. Please consider making a gift to RMRH on Colorado Gives Day which is December 4th. You can also donate to us through them every day of the year. If you wish, your gift can be sent directly to us at RMRH, PO Box 1600, Fairplay CO 80440. THANK YOU! All donations are tax deductible to the full extent of the law.
<urn:uuid:406ba9e2-d65d-4f76-b121-df8d1f45e47b>
CC-MAIN-2018-51
http://rmrh.org/happenings/documents/2018%204th%20Qtr%20Newsletter.pdf
2018-12-14T12:00:50Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376825728.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20181214114739-20181214140239-00590.warc.gz
243,848,015
1,521
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.996968
eng_Latn
0.997149
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3001, 6712 ]
[ 2.203125 ]
1
0
Supporting the Student with Down Syndrome in Your Classroom Educator Manual # Educator Manual ## Table of Contents **Introduction** .......................................................................................................................... 1 - About the Down Syndrome Association of West Michigan (DSAWM) ........................................... 1 - About Down Syndrome .................................................................................................................. 2 - Myths and Truths about Down Syndrome ..................................................................................... 3 - People First Language .................................................................................................................... 4 **Inclusion** ................................................................................................................................. 6 - What is Inclusion? ....................................................................................................................... 6 - Conditions for Successful Inclusion .............................................................................................. 6 - Practical Tips to Achieve Inclusion ............................................................................................... 7 **Students with Down Syndrome and the General Education Classroom** ................................. 9 - Health Conditions Associated with Down Syndrome ..................................................................... 9 - Modifying the Curriculum for Students with Down Syndrome .................................................. 12 - Reading ....................................................................................................................................... 16 - Math .......................................................................................................................................... 20 - Communication .......................................................................................................................... 24 **Sensory Processing** .................................................................................................................. 29 - Sensory Processing ....................................................................................................................... 29 - Characteristics of Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) ............................................................... 30 - SPD and the General Education Classroom .................................................................................. 31 **Facilitating Friendships and Social Learning** ........................................................................ 33 - Promoting Social Inclusion ........................................................................................................... 33 - Classroom Strategies ................................................................................................................... 33 - Buddy Programs .......................................................................................................................... 38 **Extracurricular Activities** ........................................................................................................ 39 - Special Olympics ........................................................................................................................ 39 - VIP Soccer .................................................................................................................................. 39 - Challenger Little League ............................................................................................................. 40 **Positive Behavior Supports** ................................................................................................... 41 - Causes of Inappropriate Behavior ............................................................................................... 41 - Options for Behavior Management .............................................................................................. 42 **Appendices** ............................................................................................................................. 44 - Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 44 - Additional Reading ...................................................................................................................... 45 - Websites ..................................................................................................................................... 48 **Acknowledgements** ................................................................................................................ 49 Introduction About the Down Syndrome Association of West Michigan (DSAWM) The DSAWM is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that is committed to spreading awareness and educating its membership and the general public about all issues associated with Down syndrome. We are an affiliate of the National Down Syndrome Society and National Down Syndrome Congress. The mission of the Down Syndrome Association of West Michigan is to be a resource and advocacy organization promoting public awareness and supporting lifelong opportunities for individuals with Down syndrome and their families. DSAWM PRIORITY AREAS Programming and Social Events The DSAWM develops therapeutic, social, and recreational programs and services that enrich the lives of individuals with Down syndrome and their families, including the following: - For Newborns, Infants and Toddlers with Down Syndrome and Their Families - Parent to Parent Mentoring Program - Baby Sign Language Program - OT Playgroups - For School-Age Children with Down Syndrome and Their Families - Adaptive Water Ski Clinic - Buddy Up Tennis Program - iCan Bike Camp - For Teenagers and Young Adults with Down Syndrome - Cooking Capers Class - Shape Up Fitness Class - Work Skills Program - For Parents and/or Caregivers of Children with Down Syndrome - Parent to Parent Mentoring Program - Moms’ and Dads’ Night Out Social Gatherings - Aging with Down Syndrome Support Group - Social Events - World Down Syndrome Day Dance - Summer Picnic - Holiday Party Education The DSAWM works to ensure that individuals with Down syndrome receive a quality education that will help prepare them for further education, employment and/or independent living, by providing parents/caregivers and educators with information, resources and support, including the following: - DSAWM Lending Library - DSA Press Tri-Annual Newsletter - Teacher Information Packet - Workshops and Conferences Family Support The DSAWM provides social, emotional, and financial support to caregivers of individuals with Down syndrome, by way of the following: - Parent to Parent Mentoring Program - Guide for New & Expectant Parents - Hospital Meal Voucher Assistance Program - Parent Support and Social Gatherings - Member Assistance Funds - Financial Assistance - Adoption Assistance - Respite Assistance Awareness The DSAWM works to increase public awareness, acceptance, and understanding of the abilities of individuals with Down syndrome through the following: - Step Up for Down Syndrome Awareness Walk - Presentations to Classrooms, Community Groups, etc. - Promoting Possibilities Medical Outreach Program For more information on the Down Syndrome Association of West Michigan, please visit our website at www.dsawm.org. About Down Syndrome IS IT “DOWN’S” OR “DOWN” SYNDROME? Down syndrome is named after Dr. John Langdon Down, an English physician who first described the characteristic features of Trisomy 21 in 1866. People now use the term “Down syndrome” as opposed to “Down’s syndrome” because Dr. Down did not have Down syndrome, nor did he own Down syndrome. WHAT IS DOWN SYNDROME? Down syndrome is primarily caused by an error in cell division called nondisjunction, which causes a person’s cells to have forty-seven, instead of forty-six, chromosomes. In Down syndrome, there are three – not two – copies of the number 21 chromosome, resulting in the medical diagnosis of Trisomy 21. This extra genetic material causes changes in the orderly development of the body and brain, as well as the physical characteristics and delayed physical, intellectual and language development associated with Down syndrome. The cause of nondisjunction is currently unknown. MORE ALIKE THAN DIFFERENT People with Down syndrome are more like their typically developing peers than they are different. There is great diversity within the population in terms of personality, intelligence, appearance, humor, learning styles, compassion, compliance and attitude. Although persons with Down syndrome may share traits and similarities in appearance, they look more like their family members than they do one another. They have a full range of emotions and attitudes, are creative and imaginative in play, and grow up to live independent lives with varying degrees of support and accommodations. Individuals with Down syndrome establish friendships, pursue interests and are included in community activities. Children with Down syndrome benefit from the same care, attention, and inclusion in community life that help every student to grow. As with all children, quality education in neighborhood schools, preschools, and at home provides important opportunities for developing strong academic and social skills. FACTS ABOUT DOWN SYNDROME - Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality in humans. - Down syndrome occurs in every 600-800 live births and is not related to race, nationality, religion, or socioeconomic status. - While the age of the mother can be a factor in whether a child will have Down syndrome, eighty percent of people with Down syndrome are born to parents under the age of thirty-five. - Down syndrome occurs in males and females evenly. Nothing that a parent did or did not do during a pregnancy causes a baby to have Down syndrome. **THE FUTURE FOR CHILDREN WITH DOWN SYNDROME** Individuals with Down syndrome have more opportunities than ever before. As young people with Down syndrome show what they can accomplish with the support of their families, friends, and communities, and as they are integrated into mainstream programs, more and more doors open for others. We have seen a TV series starring a talented actor with Down syndrome. Two young men have authored a book, *Count Us In: Growing up with Down Syndrome*, and have impressed audiences around the country at book signings and on talk shows. *Honor Thy Son*, a fast-paced mystery by Lou Shaw, features two characters with Down syndrome who are faithfully portrayed as multidimensional young adults. A young man with Down syndrome was the winner of the 1996 Best Actor honor at the Cannes Film Festival. Along with these shining examples, thousands of people with Down syndrome across the world are quietly going about their lives without fame or fanfare. They transform their communities just by being there. They have dreams and the determination to reach their goals. They learn in regular classrooms in their neighborhood schools with the children who will one day be their coworkers, neighbors, and adult friends. Young adults hold diverse and meaningful jobs, maintain their own households, and make significant contributions to their communities every day. **References** - “Down Syndrome Facts.” National Association for Down Syndrome [http://www.nads.org/docs/DS_Facts.pdf](http://www.nads.org/docs/DS_Facts.pdf) (accessed June 4, 2007) - “Information Topics.” National Down Syndrome Society [http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1812&Itemid=95](http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1812&Itemid=95) (accessed June 4, 2007) - “Down Syndrome.” National Down Syndrome Congress [http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/dsBrochure.pdf](http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/dsBrochure.pdf) (accessed June 4, 2007) **Myths and Truths about Down Syndrome** For individuals with Down syndrome, success as adults in the community and workplace requires the opportunity to continue to grow and learn in the classroom along with those who will later be their coworkers and neighbors. Thus, it is important to dispel the myths associated with Down syndrome and recognize that the social, emotional, and educational needs of children who have Down syndrome are mostly the same as those of other children. **MYTH: PEOPLE WITH DOWN SYNDROME HAVE SEVERE MENTAL RETARDATION** Standard IQ tests score students with Down syndrome in the mild to moderate range of cognitive impairment; however, these tests do not measure many important areas of intelligence, and you will often be surprised by their memory, insight, creativity and cleverness. The high rates of learning disabilities in students with Down syndrome often mask an array of abilities and talents. Educators and researchers are still discovering the full potential of people with Down syndrome. See [www.craigblackburn.org](http://www.craigblackburn.org) for a shining example of a young adult with Down syndrome who graduated high school with a regular diploma and now travels around the country as a self advocate. Jason Kingsley, one of the authors of *Count Us In*, also graduated with a regular diploma and passed all his New York State Regents Competency exams. **MYTH: ADULTS WITH DOWN SYNDROME ARE UNEMPLOYABLE** Businesses are seeking young adults with Down syndrome for a variety of positions. They are employed in small- and medium-sized offices, by banks, corporations, nursing homes, hotels and restaurants. They work in the music and entertainment industries, in clerical positions, and in the computer industry. People with Down syndrome bring to their jobs enthusiasm, reliability and dedication. MYTH: PEOPLE WITH DOWN SYNDROME ARE ALWAYS HAPPY People with Down syndrome have feelings just like everyone else in the population. They respond to positive expressions of friendship and are hurt and upset by inconsiderate behavior. MYTH: ADULTS WITH DOWN SYNDROME ARE UNABLE TO FORM CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS LEADING TO MARRIAGE People with Down syndrome date, socialize and form ongoing relationships. Some are beginning to marry. In fact, the Best Documentary winner at the 2010 Tribeca Film Festival was *Monica and David*, a film exploring the marriage of two adults with Down syndrome. MYTH: INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME ARE STUBBORN A student with Down syndrome may not be able to tell you how she feels. This can lead to the false perception that she is “stubborn.” Behavior is communication. Consider all the circumstances. Is your student experiencing sensory or communication difficulties? MYTH: BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND DEPRESSION ARE JUST PART OF HAVING DOWN SYNDROME Often, medical or mental health problems go untreated due to the assumption that it is typical of this genetic condition. Complete examinations by appropriate health care professionals should always be pursued. MYTH: CHILDREN WITH DOWN SYNDROME “PLATEAU” Learning is a lifelong experience for people with Down syndrome, as it is for everyone. Individuals with Down syndrome learn at a slower pace, but nonetheless continue to learn. MYTH: THERE ARE NO EFFECTIVE TREATMENTS FOR DOWN SYNDROME Researchers are making great strides in identifying the genes on chromosome 21 that cause the characteristics of Down syndrome. Scientists now feel strongly that it will be possible to improve, correct or prevent many of the problems associated with Down syndrome in the future. Particularly encouraging is the establishment of the Stanford Center for Research and Treatment of Down Syndrome, whose mission is to conduct research and develop treatments related to the cognitive disabilities related to Down syndrome. MYTH: CHILDREN WITH DOWN SYNDROME WILL NEVER GROW UP TO BE INDEPENDENT Parents of individuals with Down syndrome and society-at-large are coming to understand the abilities and aspirations of persons with Down syndrome to participate in all aspects of community life: education, recreation, employment, socialization, and family life. MYTH: HAVING A SIBLING WITH DOWN SYNDROME WILL BE A HARSHDIP FOR YOUR “TYPICAL” CHILD(REN) Most families report that their “typical” kids are more compassionate, patient, and tolerant of all people because of their experiences having a sibling with Down syndrome. The sibling relationship is generally a typical one — full of love, occasional arguments and just being together. References - “Down Syndrome Myths and Truths.” National Down Syndrome Society [http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=23&id=58&Itemid=234](http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=23&id=58&Itemid=234) (accessed October 10, 2007) **People First Language** It is estimated that one in five Americans has a disability. Oftentimes, society makes assumptions, based on a person’s diagnosis, about how a student should be educated, what his potential is, where and how he will live and what “services” he needs. Negative stereotypes and the inappropriate use of medical diagnoses have led people across the country to advocate for “People First Language.” **IN YOUR LANGUAGE (BOTH WRITTEN AND ORAL), PUT THE PERSON BEFORE THE DISABILITY** - Use “My student with Down syndrome” rather than “my Downs student” or “he’s Downs.” ✓ Say “My student receives special ed services” rather than “he’s a special ed student.” ✓ Encourage all students to think of students with Down syndrome as people first. RECOGNIZE THAT WORDS CAN CREATE BARRIERS ✓ Avoid terms with obvious negative connotations, such as “retarded.” ✓ “Developmentally delayed” is preferable to potentially offensive words like “mentally retarded,” “disabled,” or “handicapped.” ✓ If you aren’t sure how to refer to the student’s condition, ask the parent. ✓ Try to describe people without disabilities as “typically-developing” rather than “normal.” USE EMOTIONALLY NEUTRAL EXPRESSIONS ✓ A person “has” Down syndrome, rather than “suffers from,” “is a victim of” or “afflicted by.” ✓ Say “My student has Down syndrome” rather than “my student suffers from Down syndrome.” AVOID USE OF STEREOTYPES ✓ Try not to use the clichés that are so common when describing an individual with Down syndrome. ✓ Avoid saying “They are so loving/happy all the time.” Individuals with Down syndrome experience a wide range of emotions and are not all alike. ✓ Recognize that a student is “a student with Down syndrome,” and an adult is “an adult with Down syndrome.” USE EXAMPLES OF WHAT CHILDREN NEED RATHER THAN LABELING THEM AS HAVING “PROBLEMS” ✓ Use “Billy needs . . .” rather than “Billy has problems or special needs.” AVOID USE OF TERMS “MILD” OR “SEVERE” ✓ A person either has Down syndrome or does not. While there are varying degrees of abilities, using “mild” or “severe” can be insulting to parents or other families who overhear. References  “Public Awareness Language Guidelines.” National Down Syndrome Congress http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/package4.php (accessed June 4, 2007)  Snow, Kathie. “People First Language.” Disability is Natural http://www.disabilityisnatural.com/peoplefirstlanguage.htm (accessed June 4, 2007) Inclusion What is Inclusion? Inclusion is a philosophy of education based on a belief in every person’s inherent right to fully participate in society. It implies acceptance of differences and access to the educational experiences that are fundamental to every student’s development. When effectively implemented, research has demonstrated that inclusion offers academic and social benefits for all students – both those who have special needs and those who do not. Friendships develop, typically-developing students are more appreciative of differences and students with disabilities are more motivated. True acceptance of diversity ultimately develops within the school environment and is then carried into the home, workplace, and community. THE EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES INCLUSION STUDY In a 1996 study conducted on behalf of the National Down Syndrome Society (NDSS), parents of children with Down syndrome described multiple benefits of successful inclusion experiences, including higher self-esteem, independence in daily living skills, greater academic achievement, positive social interactions and improved speech and communication. They reported that the following factors had the most significant relationship to successful inclusion experiences: - Teacher preparation - Format of the curriculum (lesson plans and materials) - Classroom management and curricular style of the teacher - Collaboration between special and general education - Parental confidence in professionals - Attitude of professionals (open-mindedness, enthusiasm and confidence were cited as helpful character traits for successful inclusion) - Contact, encouragement from and friendships with peers Schools that are successful in integrating students with Down syndrome have the following attributes: - Effective leadership from a head teacher who is committed to meeting the needs of all pupils - Confidence amongst staff in dealing with students’ individual needs - A sense of optimism that all pupils can succeed - Arrangements for supporting individual members of staff - A commitment to provide a broad and balanced range of curriculum for all students - A systematic procedure for monitoring and reviewing progress References - Wolpert, Gloria. “The Educational Challenges Inclusion Study.” National Down Syndrome Society. http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1955&Itemid=208 (accessed June 27, 2007) Conditions for Successful Inclusion Students with Down syndrome benefit from education in the general education classroom setting when schools implement “best practices,” such as the following: - View special education as a collection of supports and services, rather than as a place - Remove barriers that are created by dual systems (general and special education) and provide access to the resources and expertise of both - Maintain respectful attitudes toward students and their families - Encourage meaningful participation from parents as equal members of the IEP team - Have high expectations of all students - Provide access to the same academic curriculum, with or without adaptations, as students without disabilities ✓ Proactively use positive behavior support strategies ✓ Provide access to and training for assistive technology ✓ Facilitate and support peer relationships and interactions using deliberate strategies ✓ Plan and implement transition ✓ Emphasize staff development and training ✓ Foster a strong sense of community among students, staff and parents Parents also can, and should, contribute to their student’s success in inclusive settings by way of the following: ✓ Maintain the same expectations of behavior for students with Down syndrome as for any other student ✓ Teach students with Down syndrome how to behave and interact with others in a socially acceptable way, e.g., taking turns and sharing ✓ Teach appropriate reactions and responses in the school environment, e.g., greeting and asking for help ✓ Foster independence and cooperation ✓ Teach self-help and practical skills ✓ Develop an effective home-school communication system ✓ Be involved in school activities ✓ Do additional activities at home to reinforce what the student is learning at school References □ “Position Statement on Inclusive Education for Students with Down Syndrome.” National Down Syndrome Congress. http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/position5.php (accessed June 27, 2007) □ “What is Inclusive Education?” Down Syndrome South Africa. http://www.downsyndrome.org.za/main.aspx?artid=25 (accessed June 6, 2007) Practical Tips to Achieve Inclusion LONG TERM GOALS Parents should tell the IEP team that they want to prepare their child to live and work as independently as possible. This means being able to function and behave appropriately in a world of typical peers. The goals on the student’s IEP should reflect the skills necessary to achieve this — both academic and nonacademic. Parents should acknowledge their high, but reasonable, expectations and inform the IEP team that they will support them in any way possible. It is critical that the IEP team sees the student’s future through both the parents’ and the student’s eyes. DRAFTING IEP GOALS FOR INCLUSIVE SETTINGS The goals for the student drive placement decisions at IEP meetings. As long as the student can make progress toward her goals in an inclusive environment, the team should not consider a more restrictive placement. It is important that these goals be appropriate for the general education classroom. For example, if the student’s IEP includes a goal that specifically requires trips into the community, it cannot be met in an inclusive environment; if her goal is to learn to handle money in real-life situations, the goal can be written in a way that uses the cafeteria or the school store, rather than the mall or McDonald’s. It also helps to have social goals that involve interactions with typical peers, which cannot be worked on in segregated settings. The goals should not be restricted to “small group settings.” Even though small groups can be arranged in the general education classroom, the term “small group setting” is often considered to be synonymous with a special education class. PLANNING MATRIX A chart should be used to show how the student’s goals can be worked on in the different parts of a typical school day. For example, the schedule may indicate that the student will work on money at lunchtime, communication and reading skills throughout the day and one-to-one correspondence during math — by handing out dittos (assignment sheets) to each classmate. By demonstrating to the IEP team and school personnel that including a student with special needs in the general education classroom just takes a little creativity and flexibility, the concept of inclusion becomes less threatening. SUPPLEMENTARY AIDS AND SERVICES All the supports and services that the student and teacher will need should be reflected in the IEP. Examples include curriculum modifications; assistive technology; augmentative communication; paraprofessional support; a behavior plan; staff training; staff collaboration time; psychological support; and occupational, speech and physical therapy. The student’s need for these supports is not grounds for a more restrictive placement unless they cannot be provided at the school. It is not enough for the school to say it does not have these services; efforts must be made to bring the services to the school, through traveling staff or some other means. References This Section was reprinted with permission from the NDSS publication “Practical Tips to Achieve Inclusion.” National Down Syndrome Society. http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1940&Itemid=236 (accessed October 10, 2007) Students with Down Syndrome and the General Education Classroom Health Conditions Associated with Down Syndrome One factor that teachers must consider is the effect that chronic health problems have on learning. By the time they reach school-age, many young children with Down syndrome have had multiple surgical procedures. Although they seem resilient, chronic health issues can take their toll. General health may be poor, students may have problems with eating or sleeping, or they may suffer from chronic ear or sinus infections. In general, the following reminders and practices will promote improved classroom success: - Be aware of physical characteristics and health conditions that may affect classroom success. It is important to note that behaviors you witness in the classroom may have a medical or health basis. Speak with the student’s parents to identify previous health conditions and ongoing medications, as these can affect ability to listen and follow directions. Recognize that unusual behaviors or situational responses may signal an illness which the child is unable to communicate. - Ask parents to alert you to changes in their child’s health or sleeping patterns, as these factors can detract from their ability to solve problems. Schedule the most challenging academic areas in the morning. Tiredness at the end of the school day can significantly increase the time required to process information or directions and cause frustration and perceived behavior problems. - Students with Down syndrome may require additional recovery time from illness; consider alternative activities and additional periods of rest in these cases. Recognize that non-routine activities (field trips, parties, etc.) can be physically or emotionally draining for students with Down syndrome. Avoid situations that set up a student for failure. The following are some of the physical characteristics and health conditions that may affect the classroom success of students with Down syndrome: **MUSCLE HYPOTONIA** Hypotonia is a medical term used to describe decreased muscle tone (the amount of resistance to movement in a muscle). Symptoms of hypotonia include problems with mobility and posture, breathing and speech difficulties, lethargy, ligament and joint laxity, and poor reflexes. To understand the physical demands that low muscle tone places on children with Down syndrome, imagine cooking dinner while wearing socks on your hands. Students with Down syndrome can get frustrated when their abilities to complete tasks are hindered by low muscle tone. Muscle development can require repetitive training. - Allow extra time for a student with Down syndrome to complete tasks. - Provide increased opportunities for practice. - Work with physical therapists to identify and improve specific muscle development needs. - To support fine motor development, use wrist and finger strengthening activities. Multisensory activities and materials work well. Provide opportunities to practice self-help skills such as using buttons and zippers. **SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY** Speech intelligibility refers to the ability to be understood when speaking orally. This can be difficult for students with Down syndrome because of low muscle tone, jaw movement difficulties and motor planning difficulties. To understand how your student with Down syndrome may feel, imagine communicating your needs while your mouth is full. Upon evaluation, many students with Down syndrome exhibit great differences between receptive (understanding) and expressive (spoken language production) language abilities. For this reason, their intelligence is often underestimated. Recognize that situational factors can impact communication and classroom performance, e.g., an impatient listener, anxiety, perceived pressure, embarrassment or lack of confidence. Use simple questions (5Ws and H), and allow extra response time. If your student uses American Sign Language (ASL), learn basic signs and teach them to the class. Peer group acceptance may hinge on the ability to communicate intelligibly. Goals for the classroom should include teaching the student with Down syndrome to communicate, in addition to teaching peers how to engage in meaningful interactions. Work with your district’s therapists to assist students with Down syndrome: - Speech therapists can design a speech remediation component to the IEP. - Occupational therapists can work on postural control required for speech. - Audiologists measure a child’s ability to hear. - Aides can provide one-to-one instruction for articulation skills. Students may exhibit an increase in stuttering when under stress. Attempt to ease stress by increasing the comfort level of the classroom. **MEMORY** Most students with Down syndrome will have short term or working memory difficulties. This makes it harder for them to access, understand and process information at the speed of other students, but it does not prevent them from learning the same information. Individual motivation is the key to learning! Present information in a clear, ordered manner. Explain the links between information to build a system of knowledge. - Allow more time to learn. - Allow more practice to apply knowledge. **COMPACT STRUCTURE OF EAR, NOSE AND THROAT** Students with Down syndrome typically have compact bone and soft tissue structure of the ear, nose, and throat. This increases their susceptibility to, and the severity of, upper respiratory and sinus infections. It may also increase sensitivity to loud sounds or vibrations. A child with Down syndrome may cover his ears or avoid activities that create loud noises. Be aware of the activity noise levels in and around your classroom. If appropriate, headphones can limit auditory distractions. **SLEEP APNEA** Recent studies indicate that as many as forty-five percent of individuals with Down syndrome may suffer from sleep apnea. This is the term used when someone stops breathing for very short periods of time, usually ten to twenty seconds, during sleep. Sleep apnea can cause memory loss and intellectual impairment and may make a student more tired and lethargic. Alternatively, it may result in hyperactivity (which is often inaccurately interpreted as an attention deficit disorder). If you recognize these issues in a student with Down syndrome, explore sleep patterns (including snoring) with parents. Medical interventions can improve your student’s quality of life and school performance. **HEARING, VISION AND THYROID PROBLEMS** It is estimated that sixty-five to eighty percent of children with Down syndrome have conductive hearing loss, and that fifty percent have vision problems. There is also a higher rate of hypothyroidism, which can cause sluggishness, weight gain and mental impairment. Perform an annual hearing and vision screening. Note that hearing loss may fluctuate when fluid is present or when a student is experiencing ear pain. A student may not be “ignoring” your instructions, but may not be able to hear you. Inform parents of your observations. When left untreated, these problems can significantly affect a student’s ability to succeed academically and socially. The following tips and tactics are recommended to improve the listening environment: - Place the student at the front of the class. ✓ Speak directly to the student and supplement with signs, gestures, or expressions. ✓ Use visual aids, e.g., write on the board. ✓ Rephrase and repeat questions or instructions often. The following tips and tactics are recommended to support visual skills: ✓ Place the student at the front of the class. ✓ Use larger font. ✓ Use visual aids, e.g., signs on floors or walls. HEART CONDITIONS Forty to forty-five percent of children with Down syndrome have congenital heart disease. Many of these children will have to undergo cardiac surgery and can participate in classroom activities without restrictions. If a student has had or is scheduled to have surgery, ask the parents if it is appropriate to teach his or her classmates about the condition. References ☐ Bird, Gillian, et al. “Accessing the Curriculum: Strategies for Differentiation for Pupils with Down Syndrome.” (The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, UK. 2000) ☐ Bird, Gillian and S. Buckley. “Meeting the Educational Needs of Pupils with Down Syndrome in Mainstream Secondary Schools.” Down Syndrome News and Update 1, no. 4 (1999): pp. 159174. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/148/?page=1 ☐ Leshin, Len, M.D. FAAP. Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Down Syndrome. (1997) http://www.dshealth.com/apnea.htm ☐ Peoples, Susan I. Understanding How Children with Down Syndrome and Other Developmental Delays Learn. Fort Wayne: Special Offspring Publishing, 2003 Modifying the Curriculum for Students with Down Syndrome Individuals with Down syndrome have varying degrees of abilities, skills, behavior, and physical development. Their learning deficits result from different learning styles rather than learning impediments. As a general rule, students with Down syndrome need activities that are more highly structured and sequenced, small amounts of information presented at a time and a good reward system. Teachers can use some of the tips and tactics below in their classrooms to maximize the classroom experience. | AREA | LEARNING STYLE | TIPS AND TACTICS | |-------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Classroom Information and Curriculum | • Students with Down syndrome are visual learners. | • Use teaching methods that involve cues and objects. | | | | • Pair pictures with spoken words. | | | | • Present information visually, e.g., overhead projector, posters, pocket charts, chalkboard. | | | • They may suffer some degree of hearing loss and have fewer short-term memory channels. | • Use simple directions. | | | | • Break down directions into small steps. | | | • They are not proficient in auditory processing and auditory memory. | • Allow adequate response time. | | | • They have some difficulty retaining directions or information that is only processed verbally. | | | Teacher Arrangement and Instructional Methods | • They need time to process new skills they have learned before moving on to others. | • Assign fewer problems to a page. | | | • They have a slower rate of learning in comparison to their peers. | • Give students more freedom to choose their work activities. | | | | • Foster independence and self-reliance by balancing developmental and chronological needs as higher academic expectations are set in the classroom. | | | | • When presenting independent work, try to divide it into small segments, e.g., fold a test in half. | | | | • Allow extra time to complete tasks. | | | | • Reduce length of assignments. | | | • Students with Down syndrome work best with one-on-one or small group instruction. | • Avoid large group and whole class instruction, as they are least effective. | | | | | | | • Working with teaching assistants or aides can be effective. | • While aides can be effective, some parents caution that they can isolate a student and discourage peer interaction. | | | | • Provide lesson plans to assistants in advance to give them more confidence with the lesson and allow them time to develop their own ideas for suitable practical materials and resources. | | | | | | | • Computer-assisted instruction can be effective because it is interactive, self-paced and nonthreatening. | • Be aware that some students may lack the fine motor coordination to use a keyboard and mouse effectively. | | | | • Assistive and/or adaptive equipment, such as specialized key guards or an alternative keyboard, can be used. | | | | | | | • Peer tutors are sometimes effective. | • Students may work harder to be independent and accepted by their peers. | | | | | | | • Communication with parents is necessary for success. | • Use daily notebooks to communicate with parents. | | AREA | LEARNING STYLE | TIPS AND TACTICS | |----------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Materials Used | • Concrete or “hands-on” materials are most effective for students with Down syndrome. | • Workbooks are not generally effective. | | | | • Paper and pencil tasks, the computer and textbooks are sometimes effective in the upper grades. | | | | • Manipulatives are useful. | | | | • Use “hands-on” materials in creative ways, e.g., throw a soft ball at a student if you want him or her to answer a question. | | | | • Assist students with exercise before writing, e.g. push palms together, push hard on the desktop, squeeze and relax fists. | | | | • Have a variety of multilevel reading books in your class. | | | | • Homework is effective: (a) to inform parents about what child is doing in school and (b) to provide extra practice with basic concepts. | | Transitions | | • Change of location and subject teachers can be refreshing for students with Down syndrome. | | | | • Breaks between classes can allow for valuable social interaction with peers, as well as exercise. | | | | • When students are ready, or upon request, they should be allowed to change classes independently, meet aides at arranged classrooms and spend lunch and break times with their peers. | | | | • If students need assistance, it is preferable to use peer support rather than adult staff support during these times. | | Attention | • The building block of all learning is attention. | • The goal in early childhood is at least a 15-20 minute attention span. Attention can be trained. | | | • Researchers have developed a two-stage theory of attention: | • Minimize distractions. When choosing stimuli or objects, ensure that they have clear and obvious dimensions that vary on as few dimensions as possible, e.g., color, size, texture. | | | → Stage 1: Ability to attend to a task | • Use prompts, cues, and lighting to capture the student’s attention. | | | → Stage 2: Ability to identify relevant stimulus to the problem | • Try using differently colored or textured backgrounds for work. | | | • Students with Down syndrome may have a hard time paying attention to tasks, but once Stage 1 is mastered, they are able to learn the task and learn well. | • Minimize or remove distractions by placing fewer pictures on the wall or problems on a page. | | | | • Pay attention to seating. Avoid seating students with Down syndrome near a window, door, or high traffic area. | | | | • Give immediate feedback or praise to ensure that students associate rewards with their efforts. | | Sensory/Motor | • Students with Down syndrome may have difficulty processing information from many sources at once, doing more than one thing at a time or responding quickly to some situations. | • Focus on one sense at a time or completing one task at a time. | | Difficulties | | • Look at the student to give directions; look away while he is processing the request. | | | | • A student may not be able to sit on the floor without back support; use a chair, pillow, or prop. | | | | • Ensure the student is seated at a desk that is the right size, with the feet supported, elbows at a 45-degree angle from the desktop and the back supported. | | | | • Uneven surfaces may be difficult to navigate. Allow the student to practice walking on these surfaces. | | AREA | LEARNING STYLE | TIPS AND TACTICS | |-------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Memory | • Individuals with Down syndrome have poor memory ability for three reasons: 1. They are at a disadvantage for adequate short-term memory due to language delays. 2. They have a limited repertoire of memory strategies. 3. They tend to be “inactive” learners when it comes to memory. | • Use labeling or verbal associations. • Break information down into small clusters and sequence ideas. • Make tasks interesting and meaningful for the student. • Teach rehearsal strategies. • Provide opportunities to practice in different contexts and use multisensory approaches (hands-on activities tend to work best). • Show patterns and teach memory tricks. • Repetition is the key to learning! | | Concept Attainment | • Students with Down syndrome may function at a mental stage below their chronological age. • Once you figure out what mental stage a student is at, you can determine how to adapt your lessons to meet his needs and play to his strengths. • “Concept attainment” describes the difference between mental stage and chronological age. A 1997 study identified four developmental stages for the acquisition of cognitive skills (at right). | • Figure out a student’s mental stage rather than focusing on chronological age: 1. **Sensorimotor** – The environment is experienced via sensory and motor encounters. The student learns to distinguish himself from the world. 2. **Preoperational** – Concepts are absorbed via language and thought. The student remembers past events and forms future expectations. 3. **Concrete Operations** – Objects are ordered and classified through logic. The student needs to manipulate objects to solve problems or learn cause and affect relationships. 4. **Formal Operations** – Abstract reasoning develops. The student can link concepts, mentally use symbols, hypothesize and predict consequences or events. • If a student functions in the concrete operation stage, use objects and other items to help with conceptual tasks, such as math (tokens, rods, etc.). These will help students solve problems and maintain interest. • Learning is sequential. Break down tasks into steps. • Students build on what they know. Before teaching new concepts, ensure that they have the requisite background knowledge to be successful. • Repetition is the key to learning! | | Mediation Strategies and Paired Associates | • “Serial learning” describes the concept of getting from concept A to conclusion C (“If I touch the stove, I’ll get burned”). • “Paired associates” is the ability to link concepts, ideas, and words. • “Mediation strategies” are prompts or cues (the “B”). Using the example above, A to B would be “The stove is hot,” and B to C would be “If I touch something hot, it burns my hand.” • Students with Down syndrome typically need more assistance with abstract concepts, but can be taught to break down and combine concepts through use of mediation strategies. | • Introduce a mediator to break down concepts that are too abstract for your student to grasp. • Use materials that are familiar and meaningful. • Break down relationships to basic concepts or categories (size, shape, color). • Sequence activities from simple to complex. • Increase response time. • Verbalize and repeat the “B” — the link between concepts. • Repetition is the key to learning! | | AREA | LEARNING STYLE | TIPS AND TACTICS | |-----------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Transfer of Learning | • “Transfer of Learning” refers to the ability to apply old knowledge or skills in a different situation or environment, e.g., ability to do math at school but not at the grocery store. | (Generalization) | • Teachers also report that students with Down syndrome seem to forget learned skills from one day to the next, as previous learning is often not transferred to future experiences. | • Teach and practice new concepts and skills in several different environments and utilize different materials and people. Point out similarities and/or differences. | | | • Materials should be meaningful to the student. | | | • Use verbal explanations as well as hands-on activities. | | | • Repetition is the key to learning! | | Motivation | • Students with Down syndrome may need more encouragement and positive feedback than other students. | | • By the time they get to your class, they likely have experienced multiple delays, negative responses from adults or other children and frequent criticism or correction. | | • They may have developed coping mechanisms such as passive behavior, avoidance or learned helplessness (giving up and waiting for someone else to answer for them). They may also depend on external cues (“external locus of control”). | • Assign well-explained tasks that are suitable for the student’s mental stage. | | | • Materials should be meaningful and familiar. | | | • Allow students to help develop rules or the lesson design. | | | • Use positive language. Rather than saying “That’s wrong,” say, “Try another way.” | | | • Encourage peer buddies and social rewards. | | | • Reward independence. | | | • Help students maintain motivation and develop an internally-based reward system by gradually fading out your cues and rewards. | References Wolpert, Gloria. “The Educational Challenges Inclusion Study.” National Down Syndrome Society. [http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1955&Itemid=208](http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1955&Itemid=208) (accessed June 27, 2007) Reading Reading is important for all students. It provides students with means to obtain information and gain enjoyment, and it facilitates social relationships (Downing, 2005). For many students with Down syndrome, reading is strength. Research demonstrates that teaching reading to students with Down syndrome enhances and facilitates language development because typically they are visual learners. As their reading ability increases, so does articulation and vocabulary. Since reading is language made visual, it is the ideal means of helping a student with Down syndrome with expressive language, which is normally a deficit area for students with Down syndrome (Kotlinski & Kotlinski, 2002). The ability to read and the praise it elicits from others correlates with higher self-esteem and independent performance. Reading is also beneficial for the development of functional skills required for personal development, community life, a career and recreation. Teachers should strive to incorporate effective reading instruction for both practical and functional skills into the reading curriculum (DeutschSmith, 2006). READING READINESS There are several skills that can prepare students for success in reading: | SKILL | STRATEGIES FOR CLASSROOM OR HOME | |--------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Attending Skills – the ability to behave appropriately in a given situation, e.g., sitting at a desk or in a circle, looking at the teacher | • Minimize distractions. • Teach and practice the required skills. • Seat students with Down syndrome near the teacher. | | Visual Discrimination – the ability to differentiate between objects based on a set of criteria, e.g., color, shape, size • Students must also be able to grasp the concepts of same and different. | • Simplify choices. • Use meaningful visual aids, e.g., photos of items that interest the student. • Progressively make problems more difficult as the student is ready. | | Memory – the ability to recall sounds and words, and imitate them spontaneously or upon request • Students with Down syndrome tend to learn more slowly than their typically-developing peers. • They may forget previously learned skills. | • Expose a student to music and beat from an early age. • Encourage singing, clapping, and dancing. • Repeat finger plays, nursery rhymes and songs for help with retention and recollection of vocabulary. • Seek creative and active ways to build a student’s vocabulary of meaningful words. • Use visual and sensory cues, e.g., pair actions with words, finger cuing and pacing. • Use tactile approaches, e.g., sandpaper words or drawing in finger paints or sand. • Repeat instructions or break down into smaller steps, • Review and practice learned skills. | | Auditory Discrimination – the ability to identify and distinguish between different sounds | • Teach good listening skills. • Use tactile and visual cues. • Use spelling to reinforce auditory discrimination. | Likewise, a teacher’s expectations, skill, methods and flexibility contribute to a student’s overall success with reading. It is important to recognize that opportunities for reading instruction in the general education classroom are unlimited. Reading instruction and activities can be incorporated into other subjects such as math, social studies or science. Classroom Strategies: - Use materials and activities that reflect the student’s interests and are age-appropriate, i.e., as students age, materials should reflect their growth and development. - Develop a planning matrix that identifies a student’s reading opportunities during the school day. - Incorporate visual and tactile cues. ✓ Give students opportunities for practice. ✓ Review “learned” concepts frequently to encourage retention. ✓ Maintain high expectations for your student(s) with Down syndrome. **EARLY READING AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT** Language is the building block of any effective reading program. However, students with Down syndrome display significant delays in speech and language attainment relative to their nonverbal mental ability (Rondal & Buckley, 2003). Hearing loss, auditory processing and short-term memory difficulties can affect speech and cause language delays. Therefore, it is difficult for students with Down syndrome to learn language from listening to verbal communication. Reading allows students with Down syndrome to view language visually. Printed text provides students with Down syndrome a permanent transitory signal. As a result, students are allowed more time to process information and more opportunities to learn. When introduced to reading as early as two to three years of age, children with Down syndrome show significantly advanced speech, language, literacy and memory skills in childhood and teenage years (Rondal & Buckley, 2003). Therefore, it is particularly important to start reading instruction for students with Down syndrome as early as preschool. **Early Intervention Strategies for the Classroom and the Home:** ✓ Expose children to books and word games at an early age. ✓ Encourage parents to read to children regularly as part of the daily family routine. ✓ Teach children listening and attending skills. Some prerequisite skills include the ability to do the following: ▪ Sit quietly and listen to a book. ▪ Point to pictures. ▪ Request a book or read independently. ▪ Hold a book right side up and read from left to right. ▪ “Finger track.” ▪ Predict what will happen next. ▪ Paraphrase what the book is about. **TEACHING SIGHT WORDS (LOGOGRAPHIC READING)** Reading instruction for students with Down syndrome should typically begin with sight word or automatic recognition activities. Research shows that preschool students with Down syndrome are able to learn sight words at the same pace as preschool children without any disabilities (Appleton, Buckley, & MacDonald, 2002). Students with Down syndrome can learn to sight read before becoming competent verbal communicators. Those with limited verbal ability are able to expand both their receptive and expressive language skills by learning to read (Sue Buckley, 1996, 1997). Sight word instruction involves teaching the association between a word and the thing or idea that the word represents, e.g., pairing the “apple” with a picture of an apple. Sight word instruction should be meaningful and useful to the student. Start with words and concepts that the student already understands. Gradually incorporate sight words into sentences and encourage students to repeat words and sentences. **Classroom Strategies** ✓ Over time, have the student combine previously learned words to form short phrases of two to three words. ✓ Create books with students based on the sight words and sentences they are learning and give them frequent opportunities to read the books (Copeland & Calhoun, 2007). ✓ Play games using the sight words. ✓ Practice in natural settings is essential. Traditionally, sight word instruction occurs in a decontextualized way, such as through flashcards. However, students should be given ample opportunities to practice sight word recognition in natural settings. Label items in the classroom and review the words with the whole class on a daily basis. ✓ Create sentence strips or Velcro cards and have students’ progress from copying a sentence structure to creating their own sentences in response to a photo or picture. ✓ Emphasize and provide practice with connecting words, e.g., “and,” “or,” “but.” ✓ Use repetitive sentence patterns to help students match words to pictures, as well as sequence, predict and expand on their sight words, e.g., “I like…” and “May I have...” ## METHODS FOR TEACHING SIGHT WORDS | Method | Description | |-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Pair Pictures and Words** | - Pairing pictures with words is the most popular sight word instructional technique among educators. - However, there is evidence that students may subsequently associate the spoken word with the picture rather than with the printed word (Copeland & Calhoon, 2007). With “stimulus fading,” a picture is paired with a word on a flashcard. The picture is slowly faded from the flashcard, leaving only the word. - Once students can pair pictures, move on to matching words. Start with two to four words that are familiar to and meaningful for the student, e.g., family names. Make two sets of identical cards and have the student match the words. Use pictures on the back of the cards and fade them over time. | | **Match, Select and Name** | - Step 1: Matching words together - Step 2: Selecting words upon request, e.g., “Give me ‘Dog.’” - Step 3: Naming, e.g., hold up a card and ask, “What does this say?” - Start with two to four words that are meaningful for the student and gradually add words over time. | | **Copy, Cover and Compare** | - “Copy, cover and compare” is another method used in the development of reading and writing skills. - A student is given a paper arranged in three sections. Section one contains the sight word. In section two, the word is printed in dashes. The last section is left blank. After the student has stated the sight word, she traces the sight word using the dashes in section two. As the student traces the sight word, she states the letters in the sight word as well as the sight word. Once she has completed sections one and two, the letters should be covered with another piece of paper. In section three, the student must write the word from memory, again stating the sight word and the letters in the sight word. Finally, the cover is removed so the teacher and student may compare work. | | **Response Prompts** | - “Response prompts” refers to any assistance a teacher gives a student that increases the likelihood that the student will respond correctly (Copeland & Calhoon, 2007). - “Progressive time delay” is one method of response prompts. A student is given a cue to stimulate a response. The student is then given a prompt to solicit the correct answer. Gradually the prompt is delayed until, with practice, the student no longer needs a prompt to solicit the correct answer. | ## READING COMPREHENSION As a student’s sight word bank grows, it is important to introduce comprehension strategies. These will reinforce learning and ensure that the student understands the meaning behind the words he is reading. ### Classroom Strategies: - Take frequent breaks to determine the students’ comprehension level, e.g., ask questions (5Ws and 1H), request a summary of the story, predict what will happen next, clarify any text you think they may not understand. - Encourage students to ask questions when they do not understand. - For older students, use cue cards so that they can self-check their level of comprehension. This will also reinforce self-help skills. ## TEACHING PHONICS (ALPHABETIC READING) Phonics is the relationship between letter and sound. Acquiring and applying basic phonic knowledge can be helpful to students when they encounter unfamiliar words (Copeland & Calhoon, 2007). Phonics can be difficult for students with Down syndrome because they generally exhibit auditory memory deficits, and many have trouble hearing and discriminating between sounds. Many students with Down syndrome exhibit increased phonological awareness when they reach the word reading skills of a typically-developing seven- to eight-year-old, or once the student has a sight vocabulary of approximately fifty words. There are two basic approaches to teaching phonics: implicit/analytic phonics and explicit/synthetic phonics. Implicit/analytic phonics focuses on analyzing letters and sounds within familiar words. Students look at the whole word, then analyze the sounds of each letter in the word. Explicit/synthetic phonics focuses on teaching isolated letter and sound relationships. Once the student has learned the letters and sounds, she is taught to blend sounds in order to decode words. Classroom Strategies: - Provide opportunities for daily practice. - Use visual cues, e.g., an alphabet line, finger cuing; and tactile cues, e.g., popping lips, to teach students to “feel” how sounds are made. - Encourage practice in a mirror. - Use sensory-related cues, e.g., “What shape is my mouth making?” “What sound do you hear with your ears?” Older students should be given daily opportunities to write. Reading and writing are interrelated. Writing allows a student to record his thoughts and read the written text several times. Participation in writing activities allows the students to develop a deeper understanding of literacy and the use of print (Copeland, 2007). Writing does not necessarily mean that the student has to handwrite the words; he may use words, symbols and pictures. EVALUATE STUDENT PROGRESS Evaluation of a student’s progress is essential and should focus on areas of success and need for change. Standardized methods of assessment may not be effective for students with Down syndrome; thus, teachers should seek alternative assessment procedures, such as teacher-student conferences, observation of the student in the classroom or a review of past work. One type of alternative assessment procedure is to keep a portfolio of the student’s progress and work during the school year. Have high expectations for student development. Link a student’s evaluation to core curriculum standards that have been accommodated to the student’s abilities. Ensure that modifications are not so oversimplified that the original goals of the core curriculum standard(s) are lost. Finally, make reading fun. The aim is to engage the student in intellectual stimuli that promote the development of language, speech, communication, and literacy skills and provide a lifetime of enjoyment. References - Appleton, Michele et al, “The Early Reading Skills of Preschoolers with Down Syndrome and their Typically Developing Peers Findings from Recent Research.” Down Syndrome News and Update 2, no. 1 (2002): pp. 910. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, http://www.downsyndrome.org/updates/157/?page=1 - Buckley, Sue. “Literacy and Language.” In Speech and Language Intervention in Down Syndrome. ed. Jean A. Rondal & S. Buckley, pp.132153. London: Whurr Publishing Ltd., 2003 - Copeland, Susan R. “Written Communication.” In Effective Literacy Instruction: For Students with Moderate or Severe Disabilities. ed. Susan R. Copeland & Elizabeth B. Keefe, 109126. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 2007 - Copeland, Susan R. & Elizabeth B. Keefe. “Word Recognition Instruction.” In Effective Literacy Instruction: For Students with Moderate or Severe Disabilities. ed. Susan R. Copeland & Elizabeth B. Keefe, 4162. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 2007 - Downing, June E. Teaching Literacy to Students with Significant Disabilities. pp. 1120. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, 2005 - Deutsch-Smith, Deborah. Introduction to Special Education: Teaching in an Age of Opportunity. 5th ed. (Boston: Pearson Education Inc., 2006). 185221 - Kotlinski, Joe & S. Kotlinski. “Teaching Reading to Develop Language.” Down Syndrome News and Update 2, no. 1 (2002): 56. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/154/?page=1 - Laws, Glynis et al. “The Influence of Reading Instruction on Language and Memory Development in Children with Down’s Syndrome.” Down Syndrome Research and Practice 3, no. 2 (1995): 5964. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, http://www.downsyndrome.org/reports/52/?page=1 - Tien, Barbara. Effective Teaching Strategies for Successful Inclusion: A Focus on Down Syndrome. A Resource Guide for Educators and Parents. (The PREP Program, 1999) - UK Down Syndrome Education Consortium. “Education Support Pack.” (Down’s Syndrome Association: A Registered Charity, 2000). http://www.downs-syndrome.org.uk/pdfs/DSE_Special_Schools.pdf (accessed June to October 2007) Math Math skills are essential for day-to-day independent living. Unfortunately, reform in mathematics education has been slow to address the needs of students with disabilities (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2002). Traditionally, the mathematics curriculum for students with disabilities was developed using a functional curriculum approach which focuses on “life skills” (DeutschSmith, 2006). Students were taught mathematics through basic skills required for “personal maintenance and development, homemaking and community life, work and career, recreational activities, and travel within the community.” For instance, mathematics instruction would include topics such as telling time, making change, money skills and cooking measurements. However, many educators utilizing this approach tend to simplify the importance of the underlying math concept being taught. For instance, instead of a student learning how to use basic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, the lesson often turns into instruction on how to bake a cake. Students with Down syndrome can learn mathematic concepts. In fact, learning mathematic concepts will motivate students with Down syndrome to apply these skills to different situations not demonstrated in the classroom; further, teachers must provide students opportunities to practice these skills in different settings to promote the transfer of learning/generalization. It is important to recognize that deficits in learning math often reflect a lack of teaching, rather than a lack of ability to master mathematic concepts. MATHEMATIC ASSESSMENT Standardized assessment tests do not always provide educators with information regarding specific skills students have or have not mastered, nor do they specify which techniques are most effective for the student. Educators must take the extra step to evaluate student performance by analyzing each student on an individual basis: - Is the instructional format still optimal? - Is the student mastering the skills at an appropriate rate? - Is the student retaining previously mastered skills? - Is the student applying mathematic concepts to other areas in the general curriculum? Once the necessary information is gathered, an educator can develop an effective individual education plan for math instruction that addresses the student’s needs. Plans should build on students’ strengths and develop strategies for them to overcome or compensate for areas of weakness. DIFFICULTIES AND STRENGTHS IN MATHEMATICS FOR STUDENTS WITH DOWN SYNDROME Students with Down syndrome can learn mathematics at any age. They are helped most by teaching methods which incorporate research-based methods for addressing their strengths, e.g., social understanding and interactions, visual processing and visual memory, use of gestures to communicate; and weaknesses, e.g., motor skill delays, speech and language delays, auditory processing and working memory difficulties. The difficulties and strengths listed below have been observed in many students with Down syndrome, though not in all. It is important to note that many of the students who displayed difficulties were able to overcome or compensate for them with proper instruction (Martinez, 2002). | STRENGTHS | CLASSROOM STRATEGIES | |-----------|----------------------| | **Visual Processing** – Students with Down syndrome can better solve problems and follow procedures if information is presented visually. | • Teach students to sketch out problems and write the arithmetic for the solution afterwards. • Draw a graph/chart/picture. • Act problems out. • Make a step-by-step video. • Use number lines. | | STRENGTHS | CLASSROOM STRATEGIES | |-----------|----------------------| | **Practice Makes Perfect** – Practice leads to retention, and more practice (over-learning) leads to automatization. At this point, skills require less conscious effort, and working memory is freed up for mental processing during tasks. | • Review and repetition are crucial to success. • Build on prior knowledge. Review learned concepts at the beginning of each math lesson. • Practicing concepts improves memory retrieval and the amount of effort needed to complete a task. • Practice skills in different contexts and with varied materials. • Use a planning matrix to determine opportunities for teaching mathematical concepts outside of “math class.” • Practice should be fun, varied in content and relevant to real life. | | Accommodations | • Assign fewer problems. • Allow more time. • Minimize noise and distractions. • Use the student’s real word interests and experiences. • Utilize hands-on learning, e.g., manipulatives or common classroom items. • Use number lines to count number sequences. • Use classroom modeling, e.g., show the student what the completed project will look like, and make deliberate mistakes so you can model problem-solving strategies. • Encourage peer teaching. | | Junior High and High School | • Teach real world, independent living skills, e.g., using currency, banking, and budgeting, telling time, shopping, cooking. • Work on memorization of important numbers, e.g., bank card passwords, phone numbers, locker combinations. • Students with Down syndrome can be taught when and how to use technology for mathematics, i.e., computers, calculators. | | Manipulatives | • Aides can create manipulatives and encourage students to verbalize steps as they are working (this will help with math vocabulary and sequencing). • Examples of manipulatives include games, e.g., Candyland, Chutes and Ladders, Monopoly, dice, cards; felt boards; personalized books; numicon plates and materials; and sorting containers, e.g., boxes, jars, bowls. • Skills that can be taught with manipulatives include the following: → Sorting and classification, e.g., solving puzzles of increasing complexity; matching objects and pictures; sorting by color, shape, size or function; sorting by opposites or exclusion → Sequencing and patterns, e.g., beads or stacking cups; sequencing cards that teach first, next, last; pictures that tell a story or describe past events when arranged properly | | WEAKNESSES | CLASSROOM STRATEGIES | |------------|----------------------| | **Memory** – Students with Down syndrome often have difficulty with their short-term memory spans and organization, in addition to long-term memory. They may display difficulty with rote memorization of mathematical concepts, e.g. math vocabulary multiplication tables, counting backward, sequencing steps of problem solving. Also, they may display inconsistencies in learned concepts, i.e., “forgetting” skills they displayed the day before. | • Start each math lesson with a review of concepts covered in the previous lesson. Use direct teacher questioning to solicit responses from students. When appropriate, offer corrective feedback based on the student’s performance. Practicing concepts improves memory retrieval and amount of effort to complete task (Nye & Bird, 1996). | | WEAKNESSES | CLASSROOM STRATEGIES | |---------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Information Processing** — Because of difficulties processing and recalling information, timed drills can be difficult for students with Down syndrome. | • Assign fewer items and allow additional time. • Repeat group instructions. • Use visual aids. • Practice math vocabulary and steps, and review concepts often. • When presenting new material, first clarify the goals and main objective (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2002). | | **Abstract Thinking** — Concrete learning is generally a strength for students with Down syndrome, but abstract thinking skills, e.g., subtraction, the decimal system, complex calculations, values of digits, are more difficult. Many students exhibit difficulties with sequencing and problem-solving. | • Use purposeful activities that move beyond imitation and copying. Teach students what numbers actually represent. • Provide varied opportunities to distinguish differences in size, shape and quantity. • Students with Down syndrome perform well when they are given a visual illustration of the mathematical procedure. Teach them to sketch out the problem first and write the arithmetic solution on the sketch afterwards. | | **Vocabulary** — There are many terms that students must have in their vocabulary for success in mathematics, e.g., sizes, weights, units of measurement, numbers, fractions, times, money, shapes. | • Students with Down syndrome must first acquire math vocabulary. • Teach the sequence of number words through a variety of methods, e.g., matching, sorting activities, memorization, peer tutoring. • The number sequence may not be learned with comprehension at first, but will develop over time as the student performs more number activities. Though initially some students will always start the count string at “one,” you can help them use the sequence more effectively by starting counts at other numbers. • Consider counting in sign language as a multi-sensory approach. • Do not assume that your student with Down syndrome understands the vocabulary for number work. You must develop vocabulary and related concepts when they are needed. Teach them to read the word at the same time the concept is learned. Related concepts can help them to develop greater understanding. • Use visual aids to teach math vocabulary/concepts, e.g., pictures, objects, gestures. • Use a hierarchy for teaching math vocabulary. For example, using the chart below, first teach the concept, e.g., size, weight. Then teach the vocabulary, e.g., big, small, heavy, more than. | | **Fine Motor Skills** — Because of hypotonia (decreased muscle tone) and motor-planning difficulties, printing numerals can be frustrating and fatiguing, and turn a math lesson (for understanding and processing math concepts) into a handwriting lesson. | • Ensure that math instruction time is used to master math concepts. • Allow students with Down syndrome to circle correct answers or use stamps, number cards or tiles. • Assign fewer items and allow additional time. • Use computers for older students. | | **Motivation** — There is no bigger detriment to motivation than repeated failures when performing tasks perceived as too difficult. Remember that even the brightest of typically-developing students will lose her motivation and stop trying if she is overcorrected. | • Focus on the process rather than the end result or grade, i.e., “Wow! You did three problems correctly! Let’s go work on another one!” rather than “You failed.” • Apply mathematical concepts in various subject areas. • Repeat teaching concepts using different materials and methods. • Use teaching materials that reflect the students’ interests. | PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP THESE PRINCIPLES SHOULD BE DEVISED PROGRESSING ALONG THE FOLLOWING SEQUENCE* (REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION) 1. Sort and match like objects by color, size, and shape. 2. Write counting objects from one to ten. 3. Count up to ten objects in a row. 4. Associate numerals with the written words, spoken words and appropriate amounts. 5. Select up to five objects from a set of ten. 6. Match numerals one through five. 7. Select numerals one through five on request. 8. Sequence numerals one through five in correct order. 9. Sequence amounts one through five in correct order. 10. Identify and select the correct numeral on request. 11. Label amounts one through five with the correct numeral. 12. Copy numerals one through five on request. 13. Repeat items (v)(xii) using numerals one through ten. 14. Count left to right using one-to-one correspondence. 15. Organize materials so they can be counted accurately. 16. Perform one-digit addition, e.g., 3+4. 17. Count objects to twenty. 18. Perform one-digit subtraction, e.g., 4-2. *Reprinted from UK Down Syndrome Education Consortium. “Education Support Pack.” (Down’s Syndrome Association: A Registered Charity, 2000). http://www.downs-syndrome.org.uk/pdfs/DSA_Special_Schools.pdf (accessed June to October 2007). References - DeutschSmith, Deborah. Introduction to Special Education: Teaching in an Age of Opportunity. 5th ed. (Boston: Pearson Education Inc., 2006), 185-221 - Martinez, Elisabetta M. “Learning Mathematics at School . . . and Later On.” Down Syndrome News and Update 2, no. 1 (2002): 1923. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/160/?page=1 - Mastropieri, Margo A. & Thomas E. Scruggs. Effective Instruction for Special Education. 3rd ed. Austin: Proed An International Publisher, 2002 - Nye, Joanna & Gillian Bird. “Developing Number and Math Skills.” DownsEd New 6, no. 2 (1996): pp. 17. via The Down Syndrome Education Trust, http://www.he.net/~altonweb/cs/downsyndrome/index.htm?page=mathskills.html - Tien, Barbara. Effective Teaching Strategies for Successful Inclusion: A Focus on Down Syndrome. A Resource Guide for Educators and Parents. (The PREP Program, 1999) - Vincent, Marth. Teaching Math to Students with Down and Significant Cognitive Disabilities Communication Effective communication has a tremendous impact on the development of students with Down syndrome. It affects their ability to become contributing members of the classroom and the community. Students feel good when others value whom they are and what they have to say. Ability and fluency in oral communication “will to a large extent determine their opportunities and options in . . . society” (DeutschSmith, 2006). Unfortunately, for many individuals with Down syndrome, the inability to communicate with others can have a devastating effect on social and personal skills. Research indicates that the language comprehension skills in individuals with Down syndrome are almost always better than their language production; in other words, they understand messages conveyed to them, but cannot produce messages of equal complexity. Educators can help students with Down syndrome communicate by providing appropriate motivation, keeping expectations high and letting students with Down syndrome realize that all communication is valuable. “Once this basic premise is in place, specific intervention and support can produce excellent results” (Downing, 1999). ASSESSMENT AND PLANNING Goals must be achievable, measurable and meaningful. Prior to setting goals, however, you must first develop an understanding of the student’s communication skills, including how successfully the student interacts in class, on the playground and in public. A teacher must first assess the communication skills by matching language and speech of the student to comprehension ability. Students with Down syndrome do not respond well to standardized tests, which fail to provide educators with practical information that can be used for intervention purposes (Downing, 1999). General educators should observe a student’s responses to directions, commands, questions, and social interactions. Educators should also document situations during which the student used specific forms of communication. In addition, the teacher can ask parents for examples of speech heard at home and instructions the student can understand or ask the student’s aide to track speech and ability to follow instructions during the school day. Consider the following questions in determining a student’s communication skills: - What medium is the student using to communicate, i.e., oral speech, symbols, gestures, writing, etc? - Does the student have opportunities to initiate communication with others? - How do others respond to the student? - Can the student maintain conversations with others? TOTAL COMMUNICATION “Total Communication” refers to the use of all means necessary to convey your meaning. This includes cuing, pacing, sign language, visual aids (written words) or augmentative communication devices to supplement speech. Most students will fade out the use of cues over time as they master sound and word production. | TOTAL COMMUNICATION METHOD | TOTAL COMMUNICATION METHOD CLASSROOM TIPS | |-----------------------------|------------------------------------------| | Finger Cuing | • Finger Cuing is the term used when the teacher or therapist taps his or her own mouth when speaking. This alerts the student to watch the speaker’s mouth as he or she models the sounds or words. It is used primarily to evoke sounds or words. • Students will first use finger cues to talk and fade out the technique as they gain confidence to use speech spontaneously. | | TOTAL COMMUNICATION METHOD | TOTAL COMMUNICATION METHOD CLASSROOM TIPS | |-----------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **Finger Pacing** | • Finger Pacing refers to holding up one finger at a time to model the sequence of sounds, syllables, or words. This alerts a student to articulate or slow down. It is used primarily to teach sound and word sequencing. • Through repetition, a student will memorize the correct sequences and gain confidence to use in conversation. • Students may use finger pacing to help them articulate multi-syllable words or long sentences. | | **Gestures** | • Some commonly understood gestures are waving, pointing or the “okay” symbol. A student can pair these gestures with speech to help ensure he is understood. | | **Sign Language** | • Sign language builds receptive language and early communication in a visual way and can be used as a transitional communication system until the child can communicate through speech. • Signs should be accompanied by the verbal word, so that when the student masters the oral words, the sign can be faded out. | | **Reading** | • As discussed in the chapter on reading, students with Down syndrome are visual learners. • Reading positively impacts language development and is often a catalyst for increased intelligibility and sentence length. • Reading provides a visual cue to articulate, pace and use longer sentences. • Reading can improve word retrieval, auditory memory and sequencing (by providing repetition necessary to memorize and recall word order and the grammatical structures that will lengthen their sentences in speech), rate of speech and ability to follow instructions. | | **Music** | • Music can be invaluable to speech production. Not only is it a powerful motivator for many students with Down syndrome, but it enhances a student’s ability to focus on auditory stimuli (which is normally a weakness). • The intonation, beat, and rhythm of music provide cues for retrieval, sequencing, and memory. • When students repeatedly sing the songs they enjoy, they are practicing and enhancing their receptive and expressive vocabulary! • For younger students, use music during opening and closing circles and during daily routines (“clean-up”). • Older students can use chants or cheers or practice songs for seasonal performances. • Several useful classroom strategies are the following: → Sing slowly and enunciate or emphasize key words. → Pair words with actions or visual cues, e.g., pictures, stuffed animals. → Choose songs with meaningful vocabulary. → Encourage pacing by clapping or tapping to the beat. → Talk about the meaning of the song. → Use cues, e.g., mouth or omit key vocabulary words. → Use music creatively for transition times or to give instructions. | **IN THE CLASSROOM** You can teach students with Down syndrome strategies to make communication less work and more fun. The goal of most parents is for their child with Down syndrome to be able to talk to and befriend classmates; ask for help; be a part of classroom discussions and activities; make presentations; and communicate needs, feelings, and ideas. The initial goal for your classroom should be to motivate the student with Down syndrome to talk spontaneously. This can be difficult at first, because they typically take longer to adjust to changes and learn routines. It is common for them to be reserved in group settings. If they do not feel confident about their speech, they may tend to “shut down.” Focus on effort rather than results. Praise and positive reinforcements are powerful tools for students with Down syndrome. You can tell when a student is demonstrating effort if she does any combination of the following: - Initiates and maintains eye contact - Willingly faces the speaker ✓ Watches the speaker’s face intently ✓ Imitates the speaker’s words/phrases spontaneously ✓ Displays pride when praised by others, e.g., smiles, claps Students with Down syndrome need more time, practice, consistency, and reinforcement to learn communication skills. Group acceptance is a big motivator for all students. Teachers can facilitate this relationship for students with Down syndrome by fostering tolerance and understanding in the classroom, as well as refusing to allow teasing or mimicking. Ensure that aides and assistants allow students with Down syndrome to converse with their classmates. Teachers can also provide public speaking opportunities, give the student “speaking” jobs, view the student with Down syndrome as capable and provide ample opportunity for buddy activities. Positive and specific reinforcement is key, since praise is more powerful when it is a reminder of what a student has accomplished, e.g., “I like the way you _____” is more meaningful than “good talking.” Remember to make communication activities fun! | GOAL | CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES | |-------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Initiate and Maintain Eye Contact | • Model the behavior you want to see by getting down to the student’s level and initiating eye contact. • Use prompts or cues, e.g., “Look at me,” or “Chin up.” • Use visual aids, e.g., hold the object of conversation up to your own face. • Wait for the student to cease other activity and give a visual cue, e.g., point to your eyes. | | Attend to Speaker’s Face and Respond to Visual or Auditory Cues | • Model the behavior you want to see, and teach the class a “listening position,” e.g., hands on lap, chin up; or “listening technique,” e.g., “Stop, look, listen” paired with visual gestures. • Initiate eye contact with the student and wait for eye contact in return. • Use visual aids or strategies at transition times, e.g., flicker lights. • Make accommodations, e.g., consider seating the student near the speaker. • Repeat instructions. | | Watch and Imitate the Actions and Words of Others | • Model the behavior you want to see. • Use classroom peer “Buddies,” and remind students with Down syndrome to follow their Buddy’s lead, i.e., “Look at your friend. What do you need to do?” • Reinforce spontaneous imitations with praise. • Use action songs and finger plays. • Encourage the student to ask you for clarification. • Repeat. • Use cues. When using visual aids, have the student self-check his work, e.g., “Did you cover all the steps?” When giving directions, prompt the student to repeat or paraphrase what you said. | | Acknowledge Others and Initiate Greeting and Farewell Routines | • Model the behavior you want to see by establishing the words and routines you will use in your daily greeting routine, and use them consistently, e.g., shake hands or give a high five and say, “Hey! How are you today?” • Work with other school personnel to encourage a consistent appropriate greeting, i.e., if you teach your student to greet others by giving a high five, you don’t want other staff to greet her by hugging. • Teach students the names of their classmates using various methods, e.g., photo books of classmates. | | GOALS | CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES | |--------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Take Turns During Conversation | • Model the behavior you want to see, and teach turn-taking behaviors in small groups, e.g. “My turn,” “Wait for your turn.” “Raise your hand.” • Use cues, i.e., call on the student to take turns. • Set and consistently enforce consequences for interrupting. | | Increase Vocabulary in Order to Enhance Class Participation | • Review theme words and give parents a set to reinforce at home. • Use visual strategies, e.g. word banks, personal dictionaries, word webs. • Assign theme-related reading. | | Recall Previously Learned Vocabulary When Cued | • Use prompts, i.e., “Tell/show me,” by sound/first part of word, or mouth the word with no sound. • Use visual cues or signs. • Use word associations, e.g., “It’s not night, it’s _____.” • Rhyme, e.g., “Sounds like cat.” | | Speak Clearly and Intelligibly | • Remind the student to speak slowly or augment speech with signs or gestures. • Ask the student to repeat herself. • Model slow, clear speech. • Use pacing methods, e.g., finger or clapping. | | Lengthen Sentences | • Use pacing methods, e.g., say and clap “I want to eat.” • Use cues, e.g., “Tell me more/in a sentence.” • Use prompts, e.g. “And then I ________.” • Practice and repeat. • Provide visual aids, e.g., sentence patterns. | | Regulate the Volume of the Voice, and Speak Appropriately in Different Situations | • Model the behavior you want to see. • Teach concepts of quiet and loud, i.e., “inside” vs. “outside” voice, in a variety of different contexts, e.g., PE, recess, library. • Use cues or prompts, e.g., hold your finger to your mouth; say “Shhh…” “I can’t hear you,” or “Inside voice please.” | | Speak Smoothly or Fluently | • Model the behavior you want to see by (1) allowing the student to finish speaking, and (2) maintaining attention and eye contact while he is speaking. • Encourage turn-taking and listening skills. | | Express Emotions or Feelings | • Model the behavior you want to see by using “feeling” words, e.g., “You look sad. Tell me about it.” • Cue students to use words rather than expressing their feelings through actions. • Problem solve, e.g., “What upset you?” “What can you do next time?” • Use a visual aid such as a “feelings chart.” | | Stay On Topic During Social Conversations | • Use cues, e.g., “Answer the question.” • Use redirections, i.e., “We’re on ____ now.” • Use visual cues to start conversations. • Practice and repeat a bank of social questions and appropriate social responses, e.g., “How are you doing today?” “What are you doing this weekend?” “What music do you like?” | **SPEECH AND BEHAVIOR** Effective communication skills and socially appropriate behavior are interrelated. A student’s IEP goals must address behavioral expectations with regard to listening and attention because these are crucial to speech development. Students with Down syndrome can learn behavior skills when they are clearly taught and consistently enforced. It is important for educators and parents to work together on communication and behavioral concerns, as these will negatively impact a student’s learning or ability to interact socially with peers. References - Downing, June E. *Teaching Literacy to Students with Significant Disabilities*. pp. 1120. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, 2005. - DeutschSmith, Deborah. *Introduction to Special Education: Teaching in an Age of Opportunity*. 5th ed. (Boston: Pearson Education Inc., 2006), 149183. - Leddy, Mark. “The Biological Bases of Speech in People with Down Syndrome.” In *Improving the Communication of People with Down Syndrome*. ed. Jon F. Miller, Mark Leddy, & Lewis A. Leavitt, 6181. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 1999. - Miller, Jon F., Mark Leddy, and Lewis A. Leavitt. “Introduction: The Communication Challenges that People with Down Syndrome Face.” In *Improving the Communication of People with Down Syndrome*. ed. Jon F. Miller, Mark Leddy, & Lewis A. Leavitt, pp. 19. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 1999. - Miller, Jon F. “Profiles of Language Development in Children with Down Syndrome.” In *Improving the Communication of People with Down Syndrome*. ed. Jon F. Miller, Mark Leddy, & Lewis A. Leavitt, pp. 1141. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 1999. - Tien, Barbara. *Effective Teaching Strategies for Successful Inclusion: A Focus on Down Syndrome. A Resource Guide for Educators and Parents* Sensory Processing Sensory processing, also called sensory integration, refers to the normal neurological process of organizing and interpreting information from the environment (Wheble and Hong, 2006). In our everyday lives, we obtain and process information through the senses, which include sight (vision), smell (olfactory), taste (gustatory), touch (tactile) and hearing (auditory), as well as movement (vestibular) and body position (proprioception). The tactile, vestibular and proprioceptive senses are the lesser known of the senses; however, these senses are the most important for daily functioning. They can affect academics, attention, balance, bilateral coordination, body awareness, emotional and gravitational security, coordination, fine and gross motor skills, hand preference, self-comforting, self-esteem, social skills, speech and tactile discrimination. Challenges in this area can lead to behavioral problems as well. Educators should be aware of Sensory Processing Disorder when examining and reacting to the classroom behavior of a student with Down syndrome. | THE TACTILE SYSTEM | THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM | THE PROPRIOCEPTION SYSTEM | |--------------------|-----------------------|--------------------------| | **Protective Touch** – The tactile system helps us to discriminate between threatening and nonthreatening touch sensations. Furthermore, the tactile system provides information about objects, e.g., texture, shape, and size. | **Coordination** – The vestibular system helps us coordinate the movement of our eyes, head and body (Wheble and Hong, 2006). In addition, the vestibular system controls our body’s relation to gravity. | **Motor Skills** – “The proprioception system consists of components of muscles, joints and tendons that provide us with a subconscious awareness of our body; for example, it enables us to sit properly in a chair and to step off a curb smoothly” (Wheble and Hong, 2006). | | Characteristics of a Child with a Hypo- or Hyper-reactive Tactile System: • Withdraws from being touched • Dislikes certain textures • Prefers to wear loose clothing • Complains about or resists efforts at washing hair, brushing teeth or washing face • Often is unable to determine where something is touching their body (Rosinia, 2006) | Characteristics of a Child with a Hypo- or Hyper-reactive Vestibular System: • Displays spinning and rocking behavior • Frequently falls and trips • Exhibits poor eye control and concentration • Shows increased emotional sensitivity (Rosinia, 2006) | Characteristics of a Child with a Hypo- or Hyper-reactive Proprioception System: • Is often clumsy • May display hand flapping • May hold objects tightly or loosely • Hugs tightly • Walks very heavily • Seeks deep pressure by wearing heavy cloths or placing heavy objects upon the body | Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD), also referred to as Sensory Integration Disorder or Dysfunction, occurs when an individual’s brain inefficiently processes sensory messages from the environment. Individuals with SPD have difficulty responding to sensory experiences. A child may have a sensory input that is either unusually high or low. Children can fluctuate between the two extremes. Children with SPD usually display symptoms with frequency, i.e., several times per day; intensity, i.e., degree of reaction or avoidance; and duration, i.e., period of symptoms. | CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN WITH SPD | |-------------------------------------| | **OVERLY SENSITIVE** | **UNDERSENSITIVE** | | Touch: | Touch: | | • Child avoids contact with people | • Child is unaware of being touched | | and objects | or bumped | | • Reacts negatively and emotionally | • May be unaware of messiness on | | to touch | face from food or runny nose | | • Is picky about personal hygiene, | | | particularly relating to clothes | | | • Intentionally avoids certain | | | textures and temperatures | | | Movement: | Movement: | | • Child avoids movement | • Child is in constant movement | | • May avoid activities that are not| • Craves fast and spinning | | earthbound, e.g., running, | movements, e.g., child may flap | | climbing, swinging | arms | | Body Position: | Body Position: | | • Child is insecure with body | • Child is frequently clumsy | | movement | • Displays a lack of coordination | | Sights: | Sights: | | Child lacks control of eye | • Child often misses important | | movement | visual cues, e.g., facial | | May have difficulty concentrating | expressions, gestures, signposts, | | on objects | written directions | | May overreact to light. | | | Sounds: | Sounds: | | • Child prefers silence | • Child has a poor attention span | | • Often complains about heavy | • Has poor auditory comprehension | | noise. | | References - Rosinia, J. M. “Looking at Children with New Eyes: Sensory Processing and The Theory of Sensory Integration.” Kid Links Unlimited, Inc. [http://www.nads.org/docs/conf_handouts/Rosinia.pdf](http://www.nads.org/docs/conf_handouts/Rosinia.pdf) (accessed on October 06, 2007) - Wheble, J. and Chia S. Hong. “Apparatus for Enhancing Sensory Processing in Children.” International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation 13, no. 4 (April 2006): 177178 SPD and the General Education Classroom Children with SPD usually have difficulty in adapting to the general education classroom at first. However, there are several strategies a teacher can utilize to include a student with SPD in the general education classroom. Assessment is crucial for managing sensory problems in the classroom. Standardized assessment can be used, but authentic assessment, which requires students to perform real-world tasks, is more effective. Teachers must first identify a real-world task and then identify or set the standards for correct performance of the task. Next, break down the task into subtasks. Once the teacher has identified criteria, a rubric can be created. Example of Authentic Assessment for Sensory Processing: SENSORY PROCESSING: PROPER HAND WASHING TECHNIQUE Teacher’s Name: ____________________________________________________________ Student’s Name: ____________________________________________________________ | CATEGORY | EXCELLENT | GOOD | POOR | |------------------------|-----------|------|------| | Used Soap | | | | | Rubbed Hands Together | | | | | Duration of Rubbing Hands | | | | | Water Use | | | | | Paper Towel Use | | | | USUAL THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION - Identify child’s sensory processing problems, e.g., registration, modulation, emotional and behavioral responses - Develop a sensory processing team made up of relevant individuals, e.g., parents, caregivers, educational staff, school therapists - Develop a sensory diet, i.e., a schedule of daily activities that promote sensory integration and provide useful feedback - Use activities that calm or alert the system (see chart below) - Utilize environmental modifications, e.g., light boxes, headphones, trampolines - Frequently assess student’s progress MANAGING SENSORY PROBLEMS It is beyond the scope of this manual to describe the whole management process for children with Sensory Processing Disorder. If you suspect that your student may have sensory processing difficulties, please consult the student’s parents and your school’s therapists. | SENSORY SYSTEM | TO CALM | TO ALERT | |---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Tactile | • Deep pressure touch | • Light touch (especially to face, palms and stomach) | | | • Swaddling | • Touch that involves movement | | | • Rhythmic patting/stroking (massage) | • Taking a shower | | | • Hugs (holding firmly) | | | | • Taking a bath | | | Vestibular | • Rhythmic movement | • Non-rhythmic movement | | | • Slow rocking | • Jiggle, bounce or jump | | | • Maintaining head or body position | • Upright positioning | | | • Sustained movement | | | Proprioceptive| • Resistive activities | • Resistive activities | | | • Rhythmic motor activities | • Changeable motor activities | | Visual | • Muted, soft or natural colors | • Bright colors and lights | | | • Room dividers | • Moving objects towards face | | | • Steady, consistent input | • Focused lighting on objects | | | | • Moving objects at irregular speeds | | Auditory | • White noises | • Vary intensity, pitch, or beat | | | • Low-key humming | • Loud music | | | • Monotone speaking or singing | | | | • Use of slow rhythms | | | Gustatory/Oral| • Sucking | • Citrus, salty or sour flavors | | | • Use of mild flavors | • Cold liquids | | | • Consistent temperature and texture of food and liquids | • Frozen treats | | | • Sustained blowing activities | • Variation in temperature and texture of food | | | | • Chew before or during focused tasks | References - Moursund, D. “Assessment in ITAssessed PBL.” In Project-Based Learning: Using Information Technology, 2nd ed. pp. 6578. Eugene: International Society for Technology in Education, 2003 - Mueller, J. “What is Authentic Assessment?” Authentic Assessment Toolbox. http://jonathan.mueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/toolbox/whatisit.htm (accessed on October 07, 2007) - Rosinia, J. M. “Looking at Children with New Eyes: Sensory Processing and the Theory of Sensory Integration.” Kid Links Unlimited, Inc. http://www.nads.org/docs/conf_handouts/Rosinia.pdf (accessed on October 06, 2007) - Wheble, J. and Chia S. Hong. “Apparatus for Enhancing Sensory Processing in Children.” International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation 13, no. 4 (April 2006): 177178 Facilitating Friendships and Social Learning Promoting Social Inclusion TIPS FOR PROMOTING SOCIAL INCLUSION To promote social inclusion, make sure the child with Down syndrome has learned how to behave appropriately in social situations. She needs to understand rules and routines and have the ability to cooperate with peers. In group work, she must be able to participate and respond appropriately, without dominating or becoming totally passive. She needs to learn how to share and take turns. Outside, she needs to understand the rules of playground games and what is involved in being a team member. IN THE CLASSROOM, SUCCESSFUL INCLUSION IS PROMOTED BY ENSURING THAT THE CHILD: - Knows the major routines of the day (a visual timetable can help here) - Has learned the class rules - Can participate appropriately in a small group - Will respond to requests and instructions from the class teacher - Can tidy her work and line up appropriately - Cares for others in the group and is aware of their feelings Learning appropriate social and self-help skills is a high priority for most young children with Down syndrome. However, many will need extra help and support. Key skills should be identified and then taught in small steps. Structured approaches such as backward chaining (the child is taught initially to do just the last part of the task, and then works backwards one step at a time) can be particularly useful. Picture or photo prompt cards can be helpful, as they show the child what it looks like to complete the task. Similarly, peers can be used as role models to demonstrate successful task completion. Before starting on a toilet training program, make sure the child is developmentally ready. Can she retain urine for at least an hour? Does she tell people when she is wet or soiled? If not, she may not be ready. When teaching dressing skills, make sure the student is taught at the appropriate point in the day, e.g., coming in from play or changing for PE. Give her extra time so she doesn’t feel rushed. If she is really slow, use a timer, and give smiley faces for finishing before the bell rings. Encourage lunchtime staff to help the child eat independently, but not to cut everything up or feed her unnecessarily. If she takes a packed lunch, talk to her parents about making sure that it is easy to unwrap. If she needs extra time, let her go into lunch a bit early, but don’t encourage her to push to the front of an existing queue. Reprinted with permission from UK Down Syndrome Education Consortium. “Education Support Pack.” (Down’s Syndrome Association: A Registered Charity, 2000). http://www.downssyndrome.org.uk/pdfs/DSA_Special_Schools.pdf (accessed June to October 2007) Classroom Strategies Social inclusion is a primary goal for most students with Down syndrome who are entering public school. In order to make progress in cognitive areas, it is crucial for them to interact with others in a socially acceptable way and to respond appropriately to their environment. Classmates can be role models for appropriate social behavior and are powerful motivators for learning. Students with disabilities exhibit deficits in age-appropriate social skills (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2002). Children of elementary-school-age who have developmental delays find it difficult to establish and maintain reciprocal friendships, e.g., many play alone rather than engage in group play. They are also less likely to initiate interactions with other children. However, research findings show that students can develop real friendships with early intervention. Developing social skills at a young age is critical. As students get older, the opportunities to form friendships with typically-developing classmates diminish. Friendships benefit both “typically-developing” students and students with Down syndrome (Falvey, 2005). Students with Down syndrome avoid loneliness; gain support in developing social, communicative and cognitive skills; increase self-esteem with a sense of belonging and develop a support network within their school communities. Typically-developing students “seem to have more positive attitudes and a better understanding of the challenges that peers with disabilities face” (DeutschSmith, 2006). Keep in mind that too much one-on-one support from an aide or teacher can impair the student’s ability to benefit from peer group models, learn to work cooperatively and develop social relationships with classmates. **ASSESSING SOCIAL SKILLS** Social skills are a collection of behaviors in an individual’s repertoire that enable him or her to interact successfully in the environment (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2002). It is important to assess the social skills of all students in the classroom. The following assessment procedures are good methods to assess students’ social skills: - Sociometric Measures - Teacher Ratings - Roleplay Tests - Naturalistic or Direct Observation Sociometric measures assess the degree of social acceptance among students. Peer nomination, e.g., polling students to determine who they like the most or least, can help educators identify students who are not being socially accepted in the classroom. Teacher ratings provide information about strengths and weaknesses in social skills, e.g., a daily checklist of “how well” or “how frequently” a student displays appropriate social skills (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2002). Role-playing can be used to assess a student’s ability to perform specific social skills. Naturalistic or direct observations are performed in the students’ natural settings to determine which social skills are appropriate for a specific student. **SOCIAL SKILLS INSTRUCTION** It is important to note that students with Down syndrome must be directly taught socially-appropriate behaviors, e.g., no hugging, turn-taking, sharing, classroom rules. Social skills instruction should start at an early age and be geared toward teaching students with Down syndrome how to participate appropriately in major routines of the day, e.g., circle time, lining up. | SOCIAL SKILLS INSTRUCTION | |---------------------------| | **Daily Review** | • Practice learned social skills at the start of each new lesson, e.g., if the previous lesson emphasized eye contact, the next lesson begins with a review of appropriate eye contact (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2002). | | • Daily review is valuable because it provides educators with opportunities to assess students’ retention. | | **Presentation of Material** | • Clearly outline goals and objectives. | | • Provide students with a step-by-step overview of the lesson. | | • Use varied examples in different contexts. | | **Guided Practice** | • Model, demonstrate, and question students first, and then allow time to practice exercises. | | • Guide students through the exercise and provide immediate corrective feedback when appropriate. | | • Group activities are perfect to utilize when developing guided practice activities for social skills. | | **Independent Practice** | • Create worksheets displaying scenarios with appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Students would be required to circle/match the scenario with the behavior. | **Weekly/Monthly Review** - Provide weekly and monthly reviews of previously taught social skills. - As inappropriate and appropriate social behaviors occur throughout the day, emphasize and reinforce previously learned social skills (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2002). **Formative Evaluation** - At the end of the lesson, assess students’ mastery of the social skills learned. - This can be conducted as a class activity. **Strategies for Facilitating Friendships** The following techniques are strategies that facilitate student friendships and social networks: **FOSTERING INTERDEPENDENCE** Traditionally, the curriculum for students with Down syndrome has focused on direct or independent teaching. However, interdependence is essential for students with disabilities. “Interdependence is when two or more people learn and agree to function as a group, relying on each other to get through the day and accomplish what is necessary and desired by the group” (Falvey, 2005). Designing curriculum to include interdependence teaches students responsibility and trust. **Classroom Strategies:** - Arrange seats in clusters and give each member a daily assignment that is necessary for the group to accomplish its daily task(s). - For example, one student must sharpen all the pencils, and another student must collect and turn in all the homework assignments, of students in the cluster. **ALTERNATIVE AND AUGMENTATIVE COMMUNICATION** Students must be able to communicate with their classmates and must have opportunities to make choices and decisions. Students with Down syndrome often cannot communicate effectively because of a speech or language impairment. Augmentative communication devices allow students to use an alternative source to spoken language. **Classroom Strategies:** - Create communication boards with photos. - Utilize technology. - Work with the speech therapist and IEP team to determine whether a student needs an augmentative communication device. **SOCIAL STORIES** “Social Stories are short, explicit descriptions of appropriate social behaviors in the form of a story” (Falvey, 2005). Social stories are a great strategy for teaching students social skills because social stories place the social skill in a real scenario to which the student can relate. **Classroom Strategies:** - Incorporate social stories into the class day, e.g., students can read them independently or on audiotape, teachers can read aloud. - For social stories to be effective the stories must be individualized and meaningful, i.e., they should incorporate the specific needs of the student for whom the story is written. - Use social stories to teach social skills such as how to ask for help or deal with emotions. **PEER COLLABORATIONS** Another effective strategy for facilitating friendships and social networks is peer collaborations. Peer collaborations utilize students as instructors, advocates, and decision makers in the classroom (Falvey, 2005). For this strategy to work, educators are required to provide students with active planning, support, and facilitation. The results of successful peer collaborations can be both social and academic. Classroom Strategies: - Use peer tutors. In comparison to adults, peer tutors use more age-appropriate vocabulary and examples, are more directive and are more familiar with potential frustrations. - Have peers assist students with Down syndrome in making transitions between activities or classrooms. - Peer collaborations build friendships and caring classrooms. - The more opportunities students with disabilities have to interact and socialize with other students, the greater the possibility for friendships to occur. - Remember that the goal of peer collaborations is for students to develop their own social networks. This is accomplished by providing students with numerous opportunities to work together teaching and making decisions. - Help students see that individuals with disabilities have similar strengths and interests. - Facilitate student communication outside the classroom in other school settings. - Encourage students to join extracurricular activities. This not only fosters social networks, but provides students with ample opportunities to practice social skills in different settings. COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS In this strategy, “students work in small mixed-ability groups for reading and content subjects, and they help each other learn and understand information” (DeutschSmith, 2006). Students engaged in cooperative learning demonstrate higher levels of reasoning, generate new ideas and solutions and transfer learned skills appropriately to different situations (Falvey, 2005). In addition, cooperative learning enhances the “social and emotional well-being of the student by promoting positive interpersonal relationships.” Classroom Strategies: - Rewards can be given based on a team’s results. - Be sure to make tasks manageable for students with Down syndrome and be aware of the potential positive and negative outcomes of group dynamics. If a group “fails” because of a student with Down syndrome, his classmates could become resentful. CIRCLES OF FRIENDS Circles of Friends is an exercise designed to bring peers together by creating a network of support and friendship for a particular student (Falvey, 2005). Students are asked to consider their own circle of friends and family, and then reflect on the circles of other students in the class. Circles serve as a visual representation of people in students’ lives and can be useful in identifying voids in their social networks. Circles can teach students about the value of relationships and the impact that people can have in their lives. The picture of the student’s life is represented by four concentric circles, with the student placed in the center circle. In the surrounding circles, she is asked to place people according to the nature and closeness of their relationship with her. The circles are arranged starting with the inner circle and moving out, ending with the outermost circle. Each circle has a different meaning: (1) circle of intimacy, (2) circle of friendship, (3) circle of participation and (4) circle of exchange (Falvey, 2005). | Circle of Intimacy | The students are asked to place themselves into the circle of intimacy. In the circle, the students are instructed to write the names of family and friends who are the closest to the student, e.g., mother, father, brother, sister, grandparent. | |-------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Circle of Friendship | In the second circle, students are instructed to write the names of best friends and people that they spend a lot of time with and/or care about, e.g., neighbors, aunt, family friend, cousins. | | Circle of Participation | In the third circle, students are instructed to write the names of people they see frequently as a result of participation in school, organizations, clubs or other activities, e.g., teammates, classmates. | | Circle of Exchange | In the fourth circle, students are instructed to write the names of people who are paid to provide a service for the student, e.g., teachers, therapists, counselors, social workers. | **Classroom Strategies:** - Use circles to identify voids in a student’s social network. - Fill voids by creating a “circle of support” around the student. - Once a circle of support is created, the group should meet on a regular basis to identify ways to spend time with the student and introduce her to new people. - Remember that bringing people together to form friendships takes time, commitment, and effort. - Provide support and encourage attendance at lunchtime or afterschool clubs. **References** - DeutschSmith, Deborah. *Introduction to Special Education: Teaching in an Age of Opportunity*. 5th ed. (Boston: Pearson Education Inc., 2006), pp. 130 & 204205 - Buckley, Sue. “Children’s Friendships A Skill for Life.” *Portsmouth Down’s Syndrome Trust News* 3, no. 9 (1993): pp. 14 - Culatta, Richard A., James R. Tompkins, & Margaret G. Werts. *Fundamentals of Special Education: What Every Teacher Needs to Know*. 2nd ed. (Upper Saddle River: Merrill Prentice Hall, 2003), pp. 179176 - Falvey, Mary A. *Believe in My Child with Special Needs: Helping Children Achieve Their Potential in School*. (Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 2005), pp. 4663 - Mastropieri, Margo A. & Thomas E. Scruggs. *Effective Instruction for Special Education*. 3rd ed. Austin: Proed An International Publisher, 2002 Buddy Programs Friendships play an important role in achieving success in school, the workplace, and the community. Since many students easily make friends, it is easy to overlook this important aspect of development for children with Down syndrome. There are many reasons to start a Best Buddies or similar Buddy program at your school: - **Loneliness and Isolation** – Children with disabilities can frequently experience isolation and loneliness. - **Benefits for Typically-Developing Students** – Research shows that interaction with children who have disabilities has a positive impact on typically-developing students. - **Social Skills are Essential to Holding a Job** – To be hired for and be successful at a job, individuals must be able to interact effectively with other people, as well as perform job tasks. Social and interpersonal skills are crucial to workplace success. - **Fostering Appreciation of Diversity** – By pairing “typically-developing” students with others who have disabilities, Buddy programs can meet immediate needs and have long-term effects by changing peoples’ attitudes toward individuals with disabilities. “Best Buddies High Schools” pairs people with intellectual disabilities in one-to-one friendships with high school students. By introducing Best Buddies into high schools, Best Buddies “crosses the invisible line that too often separates those with disabilities from those without.” Each chapter is a registered student organization within the school and is led by a chapter president who organizes, leads and maintains a chartered chapter of Best Buddies for the duration of one academic year. There are currently no Best Buddy chapters in the State of Michigan. To learn more about Best Buddies or to start a chapter, go to [www.bestbuddies.org](http://www.bestbuddies.org). **e-Buddies®** e-Buddies® is an e-mail pen pal program for people ages ten and older who have intellectual disabilities and peer volunteers from across the United States and around the globe. e-Buddies® is a fun and safe way to make a new friend in a secure online setting and is available to anyone who has an e-mail address. e-Buddies® can also be a great teaching tool for a special education classroom. It can help teach social skills, as well as literacy and computer skills. Joining e-Buddies® is quick and easy. Visit [www.ebuddies.org](http://www.ebuddies.org) to read more and to complete the online application. Extracurricular Activities There are several adaptations which can be made to assist students with Down syndrome with participating in extracurricular activities such as team sports. STRATEGIES - Explain the rules of the game in clear, understandable language. - Teach turn-taking. - Partner students with Down syndrome and typically-developing Buddies in working toward an objective, or have Buddies assist students with Down syndrome with transitioning from prior classes or activities. - Use visual cues, e.g., gestures, markings on floor. - Be aware of noise levels and gravitational insecurities. - Plan teams for students of all abilities! References - Bird, Gillian, S. Alton & C. Mackinnon. Accessing the Curriculum Strategies for Differentiation for Pupils with Down Syndrome. (The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, UK, 2000) - “Down Syndrome Myths and Truths.” National Down Syndrome Society. http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=23&id=58&Itemid=234 (accessed October 10, 2007) Special Olympics The mission of Special Olympics is to provide year-round sports training and athletic competition in a variety of Olympic-type sports for all children and adults with intellectual disabilities. Athletes are given continuing opportunities to develop physical fitness and athletic skill; demonstrate courage; experience joy; and participate in a sharing of gifts, skills and friendship with their families, other Special Olympics athletes, and the community. Events are year-round in area, regional and state levels. Event divisions are based on age, gender, and ability level to give athletes an equal chance to win. Each participant receives a medal or ribbon following his or her event. Special Olympics training and competition is open to every person age eight or older who has an intellectual disability. There is no maximum age limitation for participation in Special Olympics. Children who are at least six years old may participate in age-appropriate Special Olympics training programs offered by SOMI or in specific (and age-appropriate) cultural or social activities offered during the course of a Special Olympics event. Find information on your SOMI area chapter at 1-800-644-6404 or www.somi.org. VIP Soccer The AYSO Very Important Players (VIP) Program provides a quality soccer experience for children and adults whose physical or mental disabilities make it difficult to successfully participate in mainstream teams. The VIP Program is structured to integrate players into the rest of AYSO by providing a soccer season, and in some cases using "buddies" – able-bodied helpers - to assist players both on and off the field. The goals for every participating player are to have fun playing soccer, understand the fundamentals of the game, learn teamwork and fair play, increase positive self-esteem, become more physically fit and meet and be comfortable with new people. The Kentwood AYSO (Area 767) currently offers a VIP program. Call 1-616-531-2552 for current and upcoming schedules. Find a VIP Program in your area at www.ayso.org/special_programs/vip.aspx The Challenger Division was established in 1989 as a separate division of Little League Baseball in order to enable boys and girls with physical and mental challenges, ages five through eighteen years or the completion of high school, to enjoy the game of baseball along with the millions of other children who participate in this sport worldwide. Teams are set up according to abilities, rather than age, and can include as many as fifteen to twenty players. Players can participate in one of three levels: Tee-Ball, Coach-Pitch or Player Pitch. The use of "buddies" is encouraged for the Challenger players. Buddies assist the Challenger players on the field, but whenever possible encourage the players to bat and make plays themselves. The Grandville Little League currently offers the Challenger program. Call 1-616-813-8466 or go to http://www.eteamz.com/grandvillell/ for further information. Find a Challenger Program in your area at: www.littleleague.org/Learn_More/About_Our_Organization/divisions/challenger.htm Positive Behavior Supports In terms of behavior and personality, individuals with Down syndrome vary just as widely as their peers. Most are sociable and well-behaved. Students with additional needs in the area of behavior rarely fall outside the range of behavior exhibited by their peers, and the school’s behavior guidelines will be applicable to all students. If a student with Down syndrome routinely engages in difficult behavior, it is important to examine the underlying reasons, because often some aspect of school life does not meet her needs. Research-based knowledge regarding the ranges and types of behavior difficulties exhibited by students with Down syndrome can be informative, particularly if paired with proven behavior intervention plans. This includes using information from assessments, partnerships with parents, quality of relationships with these students, achievement in the curriculum and differentiated instruction. Research has shown that “inappropriate” behavior can serve an important function for an individual with a disability. Behavior, whether or not it is socially acceptable, frequently serves to communicate wants, needs or preferences. This is especially true for individuals who may not have an effective system of verbal communication. BRIEF INSIGHT INTO BETTER CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR In a 1996 NDSS Study, parents and educators provided tips on managing classroom behavior. Generally, the most effective technique for behavior management is praise. The following methods are sometimes effective for behavior management in students with Down syndrome: - Material Rewards - Time-outs - Peer Pressure - Loss of Privileges - Contact with Parents The following methods are generally NOT effective for behavior management in students with Down syndrome: - Ignoring the Behavior - Reprimands - Punishment References - Wolpert, Gloria. “The Educational Challenges Inclusion Study.” National Down Syndrome Society. http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1955&Itemid=208 (accessed June 27, 2007) - Bird, Gillian and S. Buckley. “Meeting the Educational Needs of Pupils with Down Syndrome in Mainstream Secondary Schools.” Down Syndrome News and Update 1, no. 4 (1999): pp. 159174. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/148/?page=1 Causes of Inappropriate Behavior The most common form of inappropriate behavior in all children, including those with Down syndrome, is behavior designed to gain attention. Children with Down syndrome may be particularly attention-seeking because: - They enjoy being the center of attention and dislike being ignored. - They are used to having adults by their sides all the time and resent the adults working with other children. - They are used to getting special treatment and object if it is withdrawn. - They have been successful in using attention-seeking behavior in the past to get their own way or avoid work. Sometimes children with Down syndrome will misbehave because they are angry or frustrated. - They may try to do the same tasks or activities as others, but find they can’t cope without help. - They may presume that the work they are being given is too difficult or uninteresting. - They may get annoyed when other people don’t take the time to understand what they are trying to say. Sometimes children with Down syndrome may appear to misbehave when they are, in reality, just confused or uncertain about what they are supposed to do. - They may have failed to understand instructions given to the whole class. - They may have forgotten what they have been told. - They may be finding it hard to learn new rules and routines and still do things in the old way. - They may be confused by different adults giving conflicting messages. Children with Down syndrome are often subjected to a high level of structure and supervision. As a result, they may feel the need to exert some control over their lives. - They may refuse to cooperate with their teachers or assistant as a matter of principle. - They may be obstinate if they feel they are given no opportunities to choose their own activities. - They may feel under pressure and need a break. - They may resent being regularly withdrawn from class and separated from their friends. Finally, immaturity may lead to behaviors more appropriate of younger children. - They may not have the concentration or memory skills of their peers. - They may have immature play and social skills. - Immature behavior may have been ignored or reinforced in the past. - They may have been over supported and had little opportunity to mix freely with their peers. REFERENCES - Reprinted with permission from UK Down Syndrome Education Consortium. “Education Support Pack.” (Down’s Syndrome Association: A Registered Charity, 2000). http://www.downs-syndrome.org.uk/pdfs/DSA_Special_Schools.pdf (accessed June to October 2007) Options for Behavior Management The management of behavior in students follows the progression from “external locus of control” to “internal locus of control.” These are fancy phrases to describe the process of moving from adults being responsible for controlling behavior (in young students), to students becoming more and more responsible for controlling their own behavior. It is a progression through which all individuals go. Thus, when a child or student is not behaving, ask yourself, “Where is the location of control? Is it in the person or in the external source?” The goal of behavior management must be to transition from external to internal control. This is a learned activity; therefore, it can be taught. THE BEST FORM OF BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT IS PREVENTION. Adults who work with children begin to know very early on when trouble is brewing. That adult has the following three options available to nip the behavior in the bud: 1. Modify the child. 2. Modify the environment. 3. Modify the interaction. Each of these three options has strengths when it comes to behavior management, but one of the main strengths is that prevention keeps the behavior from ever becoming a problem. SUPPOSE YOU MESSED UP ON PREVENTING A BEHAVIOR FROM ESCALATING, WHAT THEN? The second-best method of behavior management is redirection. Redirection is accomplished by simply walking over to the child and directing him to another activity. This can be done with a hug, a smile, and a reassurance that there is something better to do. No words are used. It is not necessary to get into a great explanation about what is not acceptable to you — just physically redirect the child to a better place. Redirection requires warmth and genuineness, so it is probable that you need to be known to the child. Never underestimate the power of a hug. MOVING ON FROM PREVENTION AND NONVERBAL REDIRECTION, THE NEXT BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE IN THE LIST OF OPTIONS IS TO SAY “NO,” OR BETTER, “NOT” AND GIVE THE CHILD SOME WAY TO FIND A BETTER ACTIVITY This involves the first use of speech and language with the child. However, it does not mean you stand across the room or sit on the couch and shout “NO!” It means you go over to the child, get on her level (bend down, squat down or sit on the same level) and get her attention in a very quiet way. Make sure she is looking at you, and then tell her, “No, we don’t do that; let’s do this…” You may offer the child an option, not a series of options or undirected choices, of doing something else. When a child is offered a choice, it needs to be from no more than two options. Let the child be in control and choose from the two options. It is wise on the adult’s part to stack the deck by offering choices that are known to be favorites. Play to win. THE SOURCE OF PERSONAL POWER IS THE FEELING THAT YOU HAVE A CHOICE Often when a child is not doing what is requested or expected, it is because he does not feel empowered to participate in what is happening. Acting out or defying is an illustrated example of a person who feels powerless. You must be smarter than the problem. Take the child to a safe place where there are no distractions and talk to him in a low voice about making good choices. The key to this, for most children, is to ask if the exhibited behavior “makes a friend.” Every person wants friends. Powerless people do not feel that they have friends; therefore, use the moment as a teachable moment to talk about making friends. “What would make a friend? Would it be sharing, would it be waiting your turn, would it be respecting the other person?” Find out what the child thinks makes a friend of another. IT IS A RULE OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR THAT BEING AWARE OF THE BEHAVIOR CHANGES THE BEHAVIOR This is called “reactivity,” meaning that when a student is asked to keep a record of good behavior, that behavior increases. Keeping a written record, therefore, is a very powerful management approach. Remember that “behavior that is rewarded will be repeated.” Reactivity rewards the behavior that you want. You may start (external locus of control) by keeping a chart of good behavior taped to the student’s desk and periodically going by and noting good behavior. This may also be reinforced with verbal praise like, “I really like it when you stay in your seat, listen to the lecturer, pay attention to directions, etc,” paired with a mark on the chart. Then gradually fade out the marking and get the student to practice reactivity. USE CHARTS TO STAY ON TASK It is possible to use the top of a desk to apply a chart that gives the schedule for the day or hour or however long the teacher selects (shorter is better). Pointing to the task or moving a marker along the chart to keep on task is another way to enhance internal control of behavior. SELF-REWARD IS THE MOST POWERFUL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT APPROACH WE HAVE Having the student say, “Good boy,” when complying with a request is another way to increase the internal locus of control. Counting the “Good boy” comments, again, gives positive reward for behaviors. Find out what he likes, wants, and desires, and have him choose his own reward for compliance. Remember, rewards move along a continuum of tangible, to intangible, to self-reward. That the student knows the rule and gives the rule to himself is the ultimate behavior management goal. By Ed Hammer, B.A., M.S., M.Ed., LPC, LMFT, Ph.D Appendices Bibliography - Appleton, Michele et al. “The Early Reading Skills of Preschoolers with Down Syndrome and their Typically developing Peers: Findings from Recent Research.” *Down Syndrome News and Update* 2, no. 1 (2002): pp. 910. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, [http://www.downsyndrome.org/updates/157/?page=1](http://www.downsyndrome.org/updates/157/?page=1) - Bird, Gillian and S. Buckley. “Meeting the Educational Needs of Pupils with Down Syndrome in Mainstream Secondary Schools.” *Down Syndrome News and Update* 1, no. 4 (1999): pp. 159174. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, [http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/148/?page=1](http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/148/?page=1) - Bird, Gillian, et al. Accessing the curriculum Strategies for differentiation for pupils with Down syndrome. (The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, UK. 2000). - Buckley, Sue. “Children’s Friendships-A Skill for Life.” Portsmouth Down’s Syndrome Trust News 3, no. 9 (1993): pp. 14. - Buckley, Sue. “Literacy and Language.” In *Speech and Language Intervention in Down Syndrome*. ed. Jean A. Rondal & S. Buckley, pp.132153. London: Whurr Publishing Ltd., 2003. - Copeland, Susan R. “Written Communication.” In *Effective Literacy Instruction: For Students with Moderate or Severe Disabilities*. ed. Susan R. Copeland & Elizabeth B. Keefe, pp. 4162. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 2007. - Copeland, Susan R. & Elizabeth B. Keefe. “Word Recognition Instruction.” In *Effective Literacy Instruction: For Students with Moderate or Severe Disabilities*. ed. Susan R. Copeland & Elizabeth B. Keefe, pp. 4162. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 2007. - Culatta, Richard A., James R. Tompkins, & Margaret G. Werts. *Fundamentals of Special Education: What Every Teacher Needs to Know*. 2nd ed., pp. 175176. Upper Saddle River: Merrill Prentice Hall, 2003. - “Down Syndrome.” National Down Syndrome Congress. [http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/dsBrochure.pdf](http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/dsBrochure.pdf) (accessed June 4, 2007). - “Down Syndrome Facts.” National Association for Down Syndrome. [http://www.nads.org/docs/DS_Facts.pdf](http://www.nads.org/docs/DS_Facts.pdf) (accessed June 4, 2007). - Downing, June E. *Teaching Literacy to Students with Significant Disabilities: Strategies for K12 Inclusive Classroom*. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press., 2005. - DeutschSmith, Deborah. *Introduction to Special Education: Teaching in an Age of Opportunity*, IDEA 2004 Update 5th ed. Boston: Pearson Education Inc., 2006. - Falvey, Mary A. *Believe in My Child with Special Needs! Helping Children Achieve Their Potential in School*. pp. 4663. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 2005. - “Information Topics.” National Down Syndrome Society [http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1812&Itemid=95](http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1812&Itemid=95) (accessed June 4, 2007) - Kotlinski, Joe & S. Kotlinski. “Teaching Reading to Develop Language.” *Down Syndrome News and Update* 2, no. 1 (2002): 56. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, [http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/154/?page=1](http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/154/?page=1) - Laws, Glynis et al. “The Influence of Reading Instruction on Language and Memory Development in Children with Down’s Syndrome.” *Down Syndrome Research and Practice* 3, no. 2 (1995): 5964. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, [http://www.downsyndrome.org/reports/52/?page=1](http://www.downsyndrome.org/reports/52/?page=1) - Leddy, Mark. “The Biological Bases of Speech in People with Down Syndrome.” *Improving the Communication of People with Down Syndrome*. ed. Jon F. Miller, Mark Leddy, & Lewis Leavitt, 6181. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 1999. - Leshin, Len, M.D. FAAP. *Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Down Syndrome*. (1997) [http://www.dshome.org/apnea.htm](http://www.dshome.org/apnea.htm). - Martinez, Elisabetta M. “Learning Mathematics at School . . . and Later On.” *Down Syndrome News and Update* 2, no. 1 (2002): 1923. via The Down Syndrome Educational Trust, [http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/160/?page=1](http://www.downsyndrome.org/practice/160/?page=1) - Mastropieri, Margo A. & Thomas E. Scruggs. *Effective Instruction for Special Education*. 3rd ed. Austin: Proed An International Publisher, 2002. - Miller, Jon F. “Profiles of Language Development in Children with Down Syndrome.” In *Improving the Communication of People with Down Syndrome*. ed. Jon F. Miller, Mark Leddy, & Lewis A. Leavitt, pp. 1141. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 1999, Miller, Jon F., Mark Leddy, and Lewis A. Leavitt. “Introduction: The Communication Challenges that People with Down Syndrome Face.” In Improving the Communication of People with Down Syndrome. ed. Jon F. Miller, Mark Leddy, & Lewis Leavitt, pp. 19. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co., 1999. Moursund, D. “Assessment in ITAssessed PBL.” In Projectbased Learning: Using Information Technology, 2nd ed. pp. 6578. Eugene: International Society for Technology in Education, 2003. Mueller, J. “What is Authentic Assessment?” Authentic Assessment Toolbox. http://jonathan.mueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/toolbox/whatist.htm (last accessed on October 07, 2007). Nye, Joanna & Gillian Bird. “Developing Number and Math Skills.” DownsEd New 6, no. 2 (1996): pp. 17. via The Down Syndrome Education Trust, http://www.he.net/~aitonweb/cis/downsyndrome/index.htm?page=mathskills.html “Position Statement on Inclusive Education for Students with Down Syndrome.” National Down Syndrome Congress. http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/position5.php (accessed June 27, 2007). “Public Awareness Language Guidelines.” National Down Syndrome Congress. http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/package4.php (accessed June 4, 2007). Randall, V. “Cooperative Learning: Abused and Oversued?” The Education Digest 65, no. 2 (October 1999): pp. 2932. Randall, V. “Cooperative Learning: Abused and Oversued?” The Education Digest 65, no. 2 (October 1999): pp. 2932. Rosinia, J. M. “Looking at Children with New Eyes: Sensory Processing and The Theory of Sensory Integration.” Kid Links Unlimited, Inc. http://www.nads.org/docs/conf_handouts/Rosinia.pdf (last accessed on October 06, 2007). Snow, Kathie. “People First Language.” Disability is Natural. http://www.disabilityisnatural.com/peoplefirstlanguage.htm (accessed June 4, 2007). Tien, Barbara. Effective Teaching Strategies for Successful Inclusion: A Focus on Down Syndrome. A Resource Guide for Educators and Parents. (The PREP Program, 1999). UK Down Syndrome Education Consortium. “Education Support Pack.” (Down’s Syndrome Association: A Registered Charity, 2000). http://www.downsyndrome.org.uk/pdfs/DSE_Special_Schools.pdf (accessed June to October 2007). “What is Inclusive Education?” Down Syndrome South Africa. http://downsyndrome.org.za/main.aspx?artid=25 (accessed June 6, 2007). Wheble, J. and Chia S. Hong. “Apparatus for Enhancing Sensory Processing in Children.” International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, Vol. 13, Iss. 4, 05 Apr 2006, pp. 177181. Wolpert, Gloria. “Practical Tips to Achieve Inclusion.” National Down Syndrome Society. http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1952&Itemid=208 (accessed June 4, 2007). Wolpert, Gloria. “The Educational Challenges Inclusion Study.” National Down Syndrome Society. http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1955&Itemid=208 (accessed June 27, 2007). **Additional Reading** The DSAWM does not endorse the materials listed in this resource section. These titles are listed for your personal reference and further research. Any items marked with a ‘Y’ are available from the DSAWM Lending Library. Members and professionals in the West Michigan area may borrow these books for up to one month, free of charge. Contact the DSAWM at email@example.com or 616-956-3488 for more information. **Inclusion and Modification Of The Curriculum** - Bunch, Gary. The Basics: Supporting Learners with Intellectual Challenge in Regular Classrooms: A Resource for Teachers. Toronto: Inclusion Press, 2006. - Resource whose premise is that good teaching is good teaching for all students. Attempts to reduce teachers’ anxieties and addresses making adjustments to current knowledge in order to effectively instruct all students. http://www.inclusion.com - Bunch, Gary. Inclusion: How To Essential Classroom Strategies. Toronto: Canada. Inclusion Press, 1999. - Outlines proven strategies that work in real classrooms. References known research that gives authority to these strategies. - Doyle PhD, Mary Beth. The Paraprofessional’s Guide to the Inclusive Classroom: Working as a Team. Brookes Publishing Company, 2008. Y - Packed with friendly guidance, practical tips and relatable first-person stories. Reveals the best ways to provide effective, respectful services to students in inclusive classrooms. Hammeken, Peggy A. *Inclusion: 450 Strategies for Success – A Practice Guide for All Educators Who Teach Students with Disabilities*. Peytral Publications, Inc., 2000. - Includes hundreds of teacher-tested techniques and easy-to-use strategies that will save you time and help you achieve success for all learners. Janney, Rachel & Snell, Martha E. *Behavioral Support: Teacher’s Guide to Inclusive Practices*. Brookes Publishing Company, 2008. - Easy-to-read manual detailing new plans for implementing positive behavior support, both in the classroom and across an entire school. Janney, Rachel & Snell, Martha E. *Modifying Schoolwork: Teacher’s Guide to Inclusive Practices*. Brookes Publishing Company, 2004. - Describes curricular, instructional and alternative adaptations. Enables educators of students from grades K–12 in deciding when and how to implement them. Peoples, Susan. *Understanding How Children with Down Syndrome Learn*. Special Offspring Publishing, 2004. - Guide to how children with Down syndrome and other developmental delays learn and insights that expedite student progress. Tien, Barbara and C. Hall. *Effective Teaching Strategies for Successful Inclusion: A Focus on Down Syndrome*. Calgary: PREP, 1999. - Focuses on methods to teach students with Down syndrome to maximize their inclusion. Electronic version available at [http://www.prepprog.org](http://www.prepprog.org). Vandercook, Terri et al. *Lessons for Inclusion*. Toronto: Canada. Inclusion Press, 1994. - Assists teachers of elementary and middle school children in developing a classroom community in which all children feel good about themselves and work together as valued members. Specific lessons provided. [http://www.inclusion.com](http://www.inclusion.com) Voss, Kimberly S. *Teaching by Design: Using Your Computer to Create Materials for Students with Learning Differences*. Woodbine House, 2005. - Shows readers how to use the computer to design meaningful educational materials for children and adults with special needs. **Math** Horstmeier, DeAnna. *Teaching Math to People with Down Syndrome and Other Hands-On Learners, Book #1*. Bethesda: Woodbine House, 2004. - Guide to teaching meaningful math skills by capitalizing on visual learning styles. Covers introductory math skills, but may also help older students who struggle with math concepts. Horstmeier, DeAnna. *Teaching Math to People with Down Syndrome and Other Hands-On Learners, Book #2*. Bethesda: Woodbine House, 2008. - Continues with the proven, practical, hands-on activities from book one – with the help of games, manipulatives, props and worksheets. **Reading** Oelwein, Patricia. *Teaching Reading to Children with Down Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Teachers*. Bethesda: Woodbine House, 2009. - Step-by-step guide to reading. Allows parents to work with their children at home and coordinate reading lessons with teachers. **Motor Skills** Bruni, Maryanne. *Fine Motor Skills in Children with Down Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals*, Second Edition. Bethesda: Woodbine House, 2006. - Practical guide to understanding and developing fine motor skills in children with Down syndrome. Winders, Patricia C. *Gross Motor Skills in Children with Down Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals*. Bethesda: Woodbine House, 1997. - Provides parents and professionals with essential information about motor development. **Sensory Integration** Kranowitz, Carol Stock. *The Out of Sync Child: Recognizing and Coping with Sensory Processing Disorder*. Revised Ed. New York: Pedigree Books, 2006. Provides a description of sensory integration dysfunction and includes dozens of activities with information on appropriate developmental age, equipment needed, how to prepare, what the child can do and what the benefits are. www.outofsyncchild.com Communication - Kumin, Libby. Early Communication Skills for Children with Down Syndrome. Bethesda: Woodbine House, 2003. Y - Focuses on speech and language development from birth through the stage of making three-word phrases. Covers problem areas and treatment. www.woodbinehouse.com - Kumin, Libby. Classroom Language Skills for Children with Down Syndrome. Bethesda: Woodbine House, 2001. Y - Covers the language needs of children in school, from kindergarten to adolescence, and how to address those needs in the IEP and adapting school work. www.woodbinehouse.com - Kumin, Libby, Kumin, Libby. Helping Children with Down Syndrome Communicate Better Speech and Language Skills for Ages 6-14, Bethesda: Woodbine House, 2008. Y - Provides parents and professionals with the information and resources they need to improve their child’s communication at school home and in the wider community. www.woodbinehouse.com - Kumin, Libby. What Did You Say? A Guide to Speech Intelligibility in People with Down Syndrome (DVD). Blueberry Shoes Productions. Y www.blueberryshoes.com - MacDonald, James D. Communicating Partners: 30 Years of Building Responsive Relationships with Late-Talking Children. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2004. Y - Contains practical strategies that families can use to help their children develop positive, engaging and fun connections with others. www.jkp.com - Miller, Jon F., Mark Leddy and Lewis A. Leavitt. Improving the Communication of People with Down Syndrome. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing, 1999. - Provides a framework for assessing and treating speech, language and communication problems in children and adults with Down syndrome. www.brookespublishing.com - Schwartz, Sue. The New Language of Toys: Teaching Communication Skills to Children with Special Needs. 3rd ed. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House, 2004. Y - Contains ideas to help stimulate language development in children with special needs through play. www.woodbinehouse.com - Schermerhorn, Will. Discovery: Pathways to Better Speech for Children with Down Syndrome. Blueberry Shoes Productions (2005) (DVD). Y - Overview of language development in children with Down syndrome age two and up. www.blueberryshoes.com Facilitating Friendships - Hughes PhD, Carolyn & Carter PhD, Erik. Peer Buddy Programs for Successful Secondary School Inclusion. Brookes Publishing Company, 2008. Y - Guidebook showing educators exactly why and how to create a peer buddy program. - Janney, Rachel & Snell, Martha E. Social Relationships & Peer Support. Brookes Publishing Company, 2006. Y - Helps educators foster meaningful friendships and relationships among students. - Newton, Colin and D. Wilson. Creating Circles of Friends: A peer support and inclusion workbook. Nottingham: Inclusive Solutions, 2003. - Practical guide to creating circles of friends written by educational psychologists. Contains background, stories and reproducible handouts for use in school and other settings. www.inclusivesolutions.com Person-centered Planning - O'Brien, John and J. Pearpoint. Person-Centered Planning with MAPS and PATH: A Workbook for Facilitators. Nottingham: Inclusive Solutions, 2004. - Assists facilitators in learning and implementing PATH and MAPS processes. http://www.inclusion.com # Websites ## National Organizations Providing Accurate and Current Information about Down Syndrome | Organization | Website | Phone Number | |---------------------------------------------------|--------------------------|----------------| | Down Syndrome Association of West Michigan | www.dsawm.org | 616-956-3488 | | National Down Syndrome Congress | www.ndsccenter.org | 800-232-6372 | | National Down Syndrome Society | www.ndss.org | 800-221-4602 | | National Association for Down Syndrome | www.nads.org | 630-325-9112 | | The Down Syndrome Educational Trust | www.downssyndrome.org.uk | | ## Education Research and Resources | Resource | Website | |----------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Teachers Helping Teachers | www.pacificnet.net/~mandel/SpecialEducation.html | | Down Syndrome Information Network | http://information.downsed.org/ | | Universal Design For Learning | www.cast.org/ | | Enhancing Access To General Education Curriculum | www.k8accesscenter.org/index.php | | “Inclusion Solutions” Newsletter for Educators | www.kcdsg.org/for_educators.php?show_child=80 | ## Inclusion | Organization | Website | |---------------------------------------------------|--------------------------| | PREP Centre for Inclusion | www.prepprog.org | ## Reading and Literacy | Organization | Website | |---------------------------------------------------|--------------------------| | The Learning Program | www.dsfoc.org/learning_program.htm | | Special Offspring | www.specialoffspring.com | | Love and Learning | www.loveandlearning.com | ## Math | Organization | Website | |---------------------------------------------------|--------------------------| | The Learning Program | www.dsfoc.org/learning_program.htm | ## Health Issues | Organization | Website | |---------------------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Down Syndrome: Health Issues | www.dshealth.com | Acknowledgements The Down Syndrome Association of West Michigan gratefully thanks the Down Syndrome Association of Central Texas and the Austin Independent School District for their efforts in creating this manual and their generosity in sharing it with other Down syndrome support groups. **Together we can make a difference!** **JOINT AISD / DSACT COMMITTEE** We wish to recognize the following people who have contributed to the manual or been instrumental in making it a reality: **EDUCATOR PACKET COAUTHORS/EDITORS** - Lori Tullos Barta, J.D. - Yvonne Salinas **DOWN SYNDROME ASSOCIATION OF CENTRAL TEXAS COMMITTEE MEMBERS** - Past President 2007 Gerard Jimenez - Vice President 2008 Elizabeth Bradley - Parent Member Lucy McCown - Law Clerk Michael Reeder **AUSTIN INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT MEMBERS** - Special Education Director Janna Lilly - Special Education Coordinator Judy Mayo - Special Education Coordinator Anita Najar - Special Education Coordinator Debra Standish - Assistant Director of Special Education Secondary Ann Jinkins - Administrative Supervisor for Data Management Mike Thomas Special Thanks to **JOAN ALTOBELLI**, Former Director of Special Education, for providing the opportunity for the DSACT and AISD to work together by forming this joint committee, and to **ED HAMMER**, B.A., M.S., M.Ed., LPC, LMFT, Ph.D., for his editing expertise and contributing information and resources about positive behavior supports.
00906413-1d55-4c11-9b7b-a43190a6af3e
CC-MAIN-2022-49
https://www.dsawm.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Updated-2021-Educator-Manual.pdf
2022-11-27T12:54:39+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710237.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20221127105736-20221127135736-00379.warc.gz
801,406,258
32,270
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.938178
eng_Latn
0.992947
[ "eng_Latn", "por_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 76, 4966, 6923, 10196, 14159, 17751, 19622, 22777, 26459, 27408, 30839, 34749, 36218, 43968, 50543, 54894, 60093, 63979, 67994, 72728, 76673, 80345, 83734, 87873, 90195, 93665, 97589, 101057, 105336, 106584, 109439, 112696, 114922, 120002, 123131, 127353, 130518, 133580, 136048, 138500, 141630, 142657, 145998, 149423, 153006, 157642, 161994, 165611, 169169, 172123, 173582 ]
[ 3.046875, 2.78125 ]
1
0
DIXONS COTTINGLEY ACADEMY & THE OUTWARD BOUND TRUST Year 8 Residential Trip Monday 27th Feb to Friday 3rd March 2023 Welcome Mr Patterson – Principal Mr Khan – Vice Principal - Behaviour & Culture Mrs Crolla – Vice Principal - Student Experience Miss Burrows – Director of Year 8 & 9 Mr Sidat – Assistant Director of Year 8 & 9 Miss Heptinstall – Assistant Director of Year 8 & 9 Our Mission “The academy ensured all students achieved excellent outcomes and were empowered to lead a happy, purposeful and successful life” Our core values of determination, Integrity and trust, permeate all that we do. And Purpose, which is the drive to connect to a cause larger than ourselves. Determination We never give up. No matter how challenging things get, we persevere to succeed. Integrity We do the right thing because it is the right thing to do. Trust We are always honest. We can be depended upon to support each other without excuses. Importance of Year 8 • Continue to build foundational knowledge needed for GCSE success (leveraging knowledge from KS2 and year 7) • Address gaps in learning from KS2 and KS3 (or the gaps will continue to widen) • Towards the end of year 8, students will choose their GCSE options • Students become teenagers and start to develop their own opinions and ideas • Students become more curious about the world • Students start to develop more independent learning skills Importance of Year 8 Students experience a once in a lifetime opportunity A deep rooted tradition within our outstanding academies • Students from Dixons City Academy, Dixons Trinity Academy and Dixons MacMillan Academy have been making the trip to the Lakes and Outward Bound Trust for the last 29 years. • It has always been at the core of the students experience of school. • Many school leavers state that ‘Year 8 Camp was the best thing I did at school’. • The residential provides our student with an unimaginable powerful learning experience in which students are able to learn how they can demonstrate our core values (Determination, Integrity and Trust) in real life and challenging situations furthermore, they are able to instil a mind-set that they can achieve anything! What are the outcomes? The Outcomes from the residential experience are: - Increased confidence and improved personal and emotional wellbeing - Improved relationships with others - Increased resilience - Increased confidence in learning - Increased knowledge and understanding of the natural environment - Once in a lifetime experience All of these are transferable skills which will contribute to success within the Academy and for many more years thereafter. Who are The Outward Bound Trust? “We are an educational charity that helps young people to defy limitations through learning and adventures in the wild. We challenge young people to never give up, to change their perspective and to learn the most important lesson: to believe in themselves.” For more information on Outward Bound please read their Social Impact Report: https://www.outwardbound.org.uk/social-impact-report Why The Outward Bound Trust? • The Outward Bound Trust was founded in 1941. Since then, they’ve helped over 1.2 million young people to unlock their full potential through their amazing unique approach to learning and adventure in the wild. • Staff at The Outward Bound are extremely experienced and experts in their field. They are the best at what they do! • Outward Bound have taken time and effort to fully understand the Dixons Cottingley values/ethos and how they can reinforce these during the residential trip. • Outward Bound have won numerous awards and accolades and are recognised not just in the UK but also worldwide. (100+ centres across the world) Aberdovey in Wales • 154 mile coach journey • 4-5 hour journey with service stops • Early start from Bradford – arrive by 1pm Monday WELCOME TO THE OUTWARD BOUND TRUST’S ABERDOVEY CENTRE WHY CHOOSE ABERDOVEY? Aberdovey is our largest centre. With the addition of state of the art social areas, bright review rooms and purpose built equipment storage, it’s an ideal place to return to after a day of adventure. Aberdovey’s location is perfect for heading into the hills or getting out on the water. The centre is located on the stunning Dyfi estuary – a UNESCO world biosphere reserve in North Wales, yet is only a short drive from the mountains of Snowdonia. Groups at Aberdovey also have access to a brand new wilderness log cabin, perfect for when the weather doesn’t allow staying under canvas. You’ll also benefit from a private waterfront activity and jetty facilities. Aberdovey is proud of its Green Dragon Environmental Management Award. ACCOMMODATION Sleeps 184 in bunk rooms of 4-6. Rooms are functional but comfortable and many have en-suite facilities. DINING Aberdovey’s dining room comes complete with expansive sea views. You’ll be served freshly prepared food with plenty of variety on offer. Our catering team can also meet any dietary requirements, provided you let us know in advance. OTHER FACILITIES Group leaders enjoy separate accommodation in twin rooms, some with en-suite facilities. Participants also have access to a small shop, telephones, games room and vending machines. CONTACT The Outward Bound Trust Aberdovey Centre Aberdovey, Gwynedd Snowdonia, LL35 0RA Tel: 01654 767464 Fax: 01654 767835 Aberdovey in Wales All activities are weather dependent - Jog and dip - Rowing - Gorge scrambling - Canoeing - Orienteering - Cutter sailing - Understanding nature - Shelter building - Mountain expeditions - Raft building - Rock climbing - Kayaking - Abseiling - Woodland exploration Each activity will have a “level” of difficulty Possible routes you can take **Team Challenge** - Shorter walks - Some activities on site - Team building theme throughout whole week - Solving problems together **Challenge Yourself** - No overnight camping - Return to base every night - Activities will be very demanding and push you really far **Extreme Challenge** - Longer and higher walks - Bigger journeys - Wild camping - Out of your comfort zone - No toilets - Once in a lifetime opportunity What is an Outward Bound Centre Like? A Typical Day 7am Wake up 7.30-9am Breakfast 9am-5pm Activity time with your instructor 5pm-7pm Dinner and free time 7pm-9pm Activity time with your instructor 9pm-9:30pm Free time 9:30 pm To dorms 10pm Lights out There are many benefits of our residential trip AN ADVENTURE THAT LASTS 91% There are many benefits of our residential trip CONFIDENCE Many young people feel they do not have the confidence to navigate the demands of everyday life. 60% of participants reported an increase in their confidence immediately after their course. This increased to 69% six months post-course. RESILIENCE From a teacher’s perspective changes in pupils’ resilience improved four to six weeks after their Outward Bound course. 95% The ability to keep going when they encounter difficulties and setbacks. 87% The speed at which they recover from setback. There are many benefits of our residential trip. **EMOTIONAL CONTROL** Emotional control is often seen as a key indicator of mental health. 60% of participants on our five-day courses recorded an increase in their emotional control score. This indicates they are better able to cope with stress and adapt positively to changing circumstances. **TEAMWORK** The quality of our interactions with those being us form the basis for wellbeing. 91% of participants recorded an overall increase in their confidence to interact with others post-Outward Bound. 77% continued to score higher six months later. There are many benefits of our residential trip **GOAL SETTING** Those who demonstrate higher levels of self-discipline have been shown to have greater success in their education. - **69%** - 69% of students on our five-day education course recorded an increase in their confidence to achieve goals. - **65%** - 65% recorded an increase in setting targets and 57% to make decisions. **ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS** When our courses focus on increasing respect for the environment and learning about man’s environmental impact… - **90%** - 90% of participants felt more motivated to act with environmental responsibility. - **79%** - 79% felt more motivated to discover nature close to where they live. What should students expect? • To feel out of their comfort zone (activities, environment, groupings). It’s not a holiday, it’s a learning experience • To work with people who they may not have worked with before - this will help develop key inter-personal and communication skills • To be immersed into the wonders of the outdoors • Have an amazing and ‘potentially’ once in a lifetime fun experience • To face challenges within the wild and overcome these challenges • To demonstrate the school values of determination, trust and integrity • To learn key skills such as resilience, punctuality and respect that would help them in the wider world beyond school What do we expect from our students? • An open mind to give things a go • 100% determination and effort in all tasks and activities • Great organisation and communication to other students / staff • Outstanding behaviour at all times • Integrity – follow instructions 1st time / listen attentively • Taking personal responsibility for themselves – medication / equipment / clothes / brushing their teeth! • Trust – honesty, depending on others, honouring on commitments, being helpful, caring & kind What’s included • All food and drink • Hiking boots • Rucksacks • Waterproofs • Specialist equipment • Centre facilities • Bed linen • Insurances What Do Students Need to Bring? Daytime - T-shirts (not cotton) - Long sleeve base layers - Thick walking / ski socks - Thermal tops / bottoms / tights - Synthetic trousers - Fleece tops - Lots of layers Evening - Casual t-shirts - Jeans / joggers - Hoody / jumper - Socks What Do Students Need to Bring? - 2 pairs of trainers (one which can get wet) - Underwear - Pyjamas - Shorts - Hats & gloves (waterproof) - Towels and swimwear - Toiletries (toothpaste / toothbrush / shampoo / shower gel / deodorant) - Prescribed medication where necessary What Do Students Need to Bring? All of the clothes / toiletries that your child brings should be clearly labelled with their name and must be packed in a bag that your child can carry with the name clearly visible on the bag. What are students not allowed to bring? No mobile phones Good quality and reasonably priced outdoor clothing can be purchased from Mountain Warehouse, Sports Direct, Matalan, Trespass, Decathlon, Tesco, Asda. Medical / Dietary Information - You will be required to complete a medical questionnaire from Outward Bound Trust (online form) - All medication will be taken with to the centre and on any activities - Any dietary requirements should be made clear Payment information Total Trip Cost £240 Parent Contribution £120 6 monthly payments (parent pay) £20 £20 £20 £20 £20 £20 Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb We would never want a student to miss an experience because of financial constraints, as such, any family who finds themselves in hardship should contact Miss Burrows, Director of Year 8 & 9. Consent forms to be returned to DCO by Friday 7th October Any questions or concerns, please contact the Year 8 & 9 phase team in the first instance. Miss Burrows – email@example.com Mr Sidat – firstname.lastname@example.org Miss Heptinstall – email@example.com
d18cf5d5-bebe-4f35-b9f9-d7b07bf74b4b
CC-MAIN-2023-23
https://www.dixonsco.com/uploads/files/dixonsco/Year-8-Residential-Parent-Launch-2022-23.pdf?v=1664813802
2023-05-30T03:42:41+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224645089.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20230530032334-20230530062334-00213.warc.gz
823,533,577
2,586
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.950252
eng_Latn
0.99667
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 118, 388, 532, 691, 788, 859, 952, 1421, 1497, 2211, 2676, 3102, 3771, 3906, 5414, 5434, 5701, 6205, 6244, 6460, 6539, 7101, 7709, 8424, 9094, 9596, 9744, 10022, 10298, 10526, 10585, 10739, 10989, 11345, 11610 ]
[ 2.125 ]
1
0
I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Cartoon with ABCs Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step-by-step lessons build confidence. But drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. I read like a book, from left to right. I begin with simple shapes I know. One at a time, I add shapes and lines, until the picture is complete. I improve with practice. Where might this caterpillar be? Create an environment. What else can I make with my ABCs? I Can’t Draw… Until I Practice! ♥ Copyright © All Rights reserved ♥ “Mo” M.C.Gillis I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Fences & Gates Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step-by-step lessons build confidence. But drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. Gates & fences are architectural objects, designed by people and often made by machine. They are made of straight and curved lines. Practice drawing lines without a ruler. picket fence rail fence chain link fence- complex & simple lattice fences rod iron fences I draw the shape(s) or line(s) that look the closest to me first. To become skilled at drawing structures, I practice drawing all different kinds of lines and shapes every chance I get. I Can’t Draw… Until I Practice! ♥ Copyright © All Rights reserved ♥ “Mo” M.C.Gillis I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Walls & Fences Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step-by-step lessons build confidence. But drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. Gates, walls & fences are architectural objects, designed by people and made by machine. They are mostly made up of straight and curved lines. Practice drawing lines without a ruler. Draw one line, then two, three, four, five. How high do you want the wall, fence or building? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Use steps 1. through 5. and finish by trying to create some of these other styles of walls. Use your wonderful imagination to create as many different kinds of patterns and textures as you can think. Find ideas everywhere you look. Try making these stairs step by step using horizontal, vertical & diagonal lines. What lines & shapes could you use to make your own fancy rock wall like the one shown here? I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Cars From Behind Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step by step lessons build confidence, but drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. 1. Start with a geometric shape. 2. Identify new lines & shapes & draw. 3. Look for more new shapes & lines and continue drawing. Now, that you’ve drawn a van, put it in a picture. Add other cars. Remember, please don’t copy my idea. Make up your own. Use your imagination. Or draw the van, add scenery, and fill the whole page to create a finished drawing. Once you learn to draw a step by step image, challenge yourself. Look & draw all you see. You can do it. Look at the van above. What shapes & lines would you use to draw this? I Can’t Draw… Until I Practice! Copyright © All Rights reserved “Mo” M.C.Gillis I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Compact Car Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step by step lessons build confidence, but drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. 1. Start with this organic shape. 2. Identify new lines & shapes. Add to your drawing. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Look at each new image & identify the new lines & shapes. Add to your drawing until complete. When you finish drawing the car, add background, character & details to make it your own. Don’t copy my idea. Use your own wonderful imagination. I Can’t Draw… Until I Practice! ♥ Copyright © All Rights reserved ♥ “Mo” M.C.Gillis I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Police Car Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step by step lessons build confidence, but drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. 1. Start with rounded shape. 2. Identify new lines & shapes and add them. 3. Look. Identify. Draw, again & again. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What’s on the inside? Add seats, wheel & a driver. Okay! Now, add some background, scenery or more cars, but don’t copy my idea. Use your own amazing imagination. Here’s one more car to draw. Remember, simply look, identify the lines and shapes and draw them. I Can’t Draw… Until I Practice! Copyright © All Rights reserved “Mo” M.C.Gillis I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Sporty Car Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step by step lessons build confidence, but drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. 1. Start with a long rounded shape. 2. Identify new lines & shapes and add them. 3. Identify what new shapes & lines have been added to each new image & add them to your drawing. Practice makes better. Now try drawing the car from a different view. I Can’t Draw… Until I Practice! ♥ Copyright © All Rights reserved ♥ “Mo” M.C.Gillis I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Trees 1 Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step-by-step lessons build confidence. But drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. Like people, no two trees are alike. Trees are not like machine made objects. They are rarely even and symmetrical. Most of the time, they are irregular. Look at real trees, outside or in photographs. Draw what you really see, not what you think you see. Try not to draw mushroom trees. A mushroom tree is a symbol for a tree. Think of me, a tree, with branches like fingers reaching to the sky. Some trees are tall and straight. Branches do not line up evenly. Try using wiggly, crooked lines. The bark is the skin of the tree. Trunk Roots Branches Leaves I Can’t Draw… Until I Practice! ♥ Copyright © All Rights reserved ♥ “Mo” M.C.Gillis I Can’t Draw…Until I Practice! Trees 2 Read, like a book, from left to right. Look for the simplest shapes and start there. One at a time, add shapes and lines until the picture is complete. Practice! Practice! Practice! I looked at actual objects and photos to figure out how to draw these images. Step-by-step lessons build confidence. But drawing from life, that’s the best. Mistakes are our friends. Enjoy making “mistakes”, goofy drawings you might not like; it is how we learn. (This is an aid to drawing. It is always better to look at real objects when drawing.) Draw two sort of straight lines closer together at the top than at the bottom. Add some diagonal uneven lines. Make them thicker. Add another line to each. Now, draw more lines for more branches. No two trees you draw need to look alike. Variety is beauty. How about curvy lines. Apply the same steps as before. Wiggly lines give me a different personality. What about zig-zag lines? Hey how about some leaves? Use your observation skills. Look at different leaves. Try to draw a variety. Then make up your own. Try some scribble leaves. It’s fun. I Can’t Draw… Until I Practice! ♥ Copyright © All Rights reserved ♥ “Mo” M.C.Gillis
124f4c35-e485-4f49-a770-b6df5ae8c676
CC-MAIN-2025-05
https://img1.wsimg.com/blobby/go/12115240-cd7e-48c5-b5f9-4e06253adc7a/downloads/BOOKLET_ICDUP_Assorted_EH.org.pdf?ver=1734553378862
2025-01-26T13:10:10+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-05/segments/1736703701202.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20250126103503-20250126133503-00655.warc.gz
322,429,445
2,174
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998054
eng_Latn
0.998171
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 843, 1876, 3082, 4196, 5122, 6087, 6912, 8053, 9271 ]
[ 4.09375 ]
1
1
Explore Number Order 1 Player Ages 3+ 2-5 min GOAL Children arrange the Count and See Cards in the correct order, with assistance if needed. This is the first step of the Count and See games. Watching children play this game can help you figure out the right level of challenge for future Count and See games. CARDS TO USE 1-6 Count and See Cards VOCABULARY Smallest Highest Lowest Greatest Order QUESTIONS What do you notice about the cards? What to you notice about the number of dots? What do you notice about the written numerals? HOW TO PLAY 1. Shuffle the cards and hand them to the child. 2. Ask questions about the cards: "What do you notice?" "Do you see any numbers that you know?" "Can you count the dots? How many dots are there?" "If there are 3 dots on the card, then what number is on the card?" 3. Ask the child to put the cards in order from 1-6 (smallest to biggest). Notice if children are able to put the cards in the correct order. If they aren’t sure what the order is, you could help them count the dots to figure out where they go. **TIPS FOR PLAYING** - Talk to children about their strategy: how are they ordering the cards? Some children may order them based on their written numerals; others may order them according to their dots (least to most). - If a child is not yet ready to put cards 1-6 in order, use cards 1-3. If a child easily orders cards 1-6, use more cards or move on to another game using these cards. - For children that are ready for a higher challenge, or for any children that like to see the number path that the ordered cards create, use the 1-10 cards or 0-12 cards. Some children might be able to order these cards independently, while others will enjoy watching an adult put them in order. Either way, you can ask questions like, "What do you notice about these cards? Do you recognize any numbers?" - For an extra challenge, once the cards are in order, ask children to close their eyes while you remove one of the cards. See if they can figure out which card is missing and then ask, "How did you know which card I took out?" **WHAT CHILDREN ARE LEARNING** - As children explore the cards, see if they recognize the numerals. Do they associate the numerals with the numbers of dots? Learning to associate a number word with its written numeral and matching quantity of dots is an important step in understanding numbers. **MATH TOPICS** Number: Counting and Cardinality **VIDEO** Watch Game Video View the QR code in your smartphone’s camera app or QR code reader to watch a video that shows how to play Explore Number Order. What's the Missing Card? 1-4 Players Ages 3+ 5-10 min GOAL Children identify which number cards are missing from the line. CARDS TO USE 1-5 Count and See Cards Add more cards as children gain experience. VOCABULARY In order Next to Hidden Missing QUESTIONS How did you know in which order to put them in? How can we figure out which one is missing? What clues can you use? HOW TO PLAY 1. Shuffle the cards. 2. Ask children to put the cards in order from 1-5. 3. Say, “Close your eyes. I’m going to take one card away. See if you know which card is missing!” 4. Once the children close their eyes, remove one card. 5. Ask the children to open their eyes. Ask one player, “What’s the missing card?” If the player correctly identifies the missing card, say, “Yes, it is 4! How do you know it’s 4?” Give time for children to answer. Then you can say, “Yes, 4 comes after 3 and before 5.” Replace the card and play again with the next player. If the player cannot correctly identify the missing card, help them count the cards from 1 to find the missing card. **TIPS FOR PLAYING** - If a child is not yet ready to put the cards from 1 to 5 in order, use cards 1 to 3. If a child can easily order the cards 1 to 5, use cards to 8, 9 or 10, or move on to another game that is more challenging. - Talk to children about their strategy. For example, how are they ordering the cards? Some children may order them based on their written numerals; others may order them by counting the dots. **WHAT CHILDREN ARE LEARNING** - Some children will count the cards from 1 up to the missing card. Other children will know the missing card right away because they know 4 comes after 3 and before 5. Encourage children to notice the number that comes before and the number that comes after by pointing it out each time you play. - When children practice ordering number cards and find the missing card in a number path, they’re developing their number sense. Having a strong number sense helps children identify, order, and talk about numbers more easily. **MATH TOPICS** Number: Counting and Cardinality **VIDEO** Watch Game Video View the QR code in your smartphone’s camera app or QR code reader to watch a video that shows how to play What’s the Missing Card. **GOAL** Children identify the hidden numbers on the face-down cards. **CARDS TO USE** Start with: 1-5 Count and See Cards For later games: 1-10 Count and See Cards 0-12 Count and See Cards **VOCABULARY** In order Next to Hidden **QUESTIONS** How did you know what the number on the hidden card was? If someone needs help figuring out the hidden card, how could you help them? **HOW TO PLAY** 1. Shuffle the cards. 2. Ask the children to put the cards in order from 1-5. 3. While the children are watching, turn the cards face down. 4. Ask one player, “Can you point to a card? I will tell you what number is on the card using my special x-ray vision!” The child points to one card: 5. Say, “It is 3! Turn the card over to check.” The player turns the card over and checks the number. 6. Replace the card on the table face down. Say to the next player, “Now it is your turn to use your x-ray vision. Are you ready?” 7. If they are ready, have children take on the role of identifying the cards that you or other players point to. **TIPS FOR PLAYING** - A variation of this game is to leave the cards face-up after they have been identified. If a hidden card is to the left of a face-up card, you can ask questions like, “what number comes before three?” or “what number is two less than five?” - If a hidden card is to the right of a face-up card, encourage children to “count on” from the face-up card to the hidden card. For example, you can count on from the face-up 3 card to the hidden 5 card: “3…4, 5!” Counting on is an important math skill for children to practice. WHAT CHILDREN ARE LEARNING - Notice which strategies children use to identify hidden cards. If a player is unsure of what to do, help them count up from the first card to the hidden card, pointing to each card as they count. - This game helps children practice three executive function skills: inhibitory control, working memory, and attention shifting. Children must *inhibit* themselves from impulsively turning the cards over. They use their *working memory* to sort the cards into the correct order to begin with, and they remember that order throughout the game. *Attention shifting* is practiced when children switch between the role of the card selector to the role of the card identifier. - For more information on math and executive function, check out this article: [Double Impact: Mathematics and Executive Function](#). MATH TOPICS Number: Counting and Cardinality VIDEO Watch Game Video View the QR code in your smartphone’s camera app or QR code reader to watch a video that shows how to play Hidden Card. Roll One Players 1-4 Ages 3+ 5-10 min GOAL To match the number rolled on the die to the cards. MATERIALS 1-6 Count and See cards for each player: 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 die VOCABULARY Die/dice In order Number words 1 to 6 QUESTIONS How did you put the cards in order? What number do you hope you roll? What numbers do you still need to roll? HOW TO PLAY 1. Give each child a set of 1-6 cards in random order. 2. Ask children to put their cards in order from 1 to 6. See if they can do this independently, and support them as needed. Note: If you only get this far in the game, great! Children have worked on the important skill of ordering numbers. You can come back to play the rest of the game another time. 3. Roll the die. Turn over the card that matches the number rolled. 4. If the number rolled does not match any of your face-up cards, pass the die to the next player. 5. The game ends when all players have turned over all of their cards! **TIPS FOR PLAYING** - This game can be played individually, in pairs, or in small groups. - Some children might not want to move on to the next player if they couldn’t turn over a card. Encourage players to talk about that! If everyone agrees, they can keep rolling the die until every player turns over a card. - Sometimes children like to play cooperatively and “share a roll”. Players can still take turns rolling the die, but everyone gets to turn over their cards based on each player’s rolls. - In addition to the Count and See cards, you can play with dot cards or any other cards that you have. **WHAT CHILDREN ARE LEARNING** - Children need lots of practice connecting written number symbols to number names and the quantities they represent. - This game helps children practice connecting exactly one counting word to exactly one object. That’s called one to one correspondence. For example, a child counts three dots as ‘one, two, three,’ touching each dot once and assigning one counting word to each. This game helps children practice subitizing, or quickly recognizing quantities, because they see the dots on the dice and want to quickly figure out which card they can turn over. Subitizing is an important skill for children’s understanding of number. **MATH TOPICS** Number: Counting and Cardinality **VIDEO** Watch Game Video View the QR code in your smartphone’s camera app or QR code reader to watch a video that shows how to play Roll One. Roll Two 1-6 Players 1-4 Ages 4+ 5-10 min GOAL To match and combine the numbers rolled on the dice to the cards. MATERIALS 1-6 Count and See cards for each player: 2 dice with 1-3 dots VOCABULARY Dice Combine numbers QUESTIONS How did you put the cards in order? What were you thinking about? What were you noticing? How did you decide to combine those numbers to turn over a card? Who has more cards left to turn over? HOW TO PLAY 1. Give each child a set of 1-6 cards in random order. 2. Ask children to put their cards in order from 1 to 6. See if they can do this independently, and support them as needed. 3. Roll the dice. The player can then turn over cards that match one of the rolled numbers, both rolled numbers, or the sum of the two rolled numbers. For example: If a player rolls and they can turn over the: 2 card or 3 card 2 card and 3 card 5 card (the sum) 4. If the numbers rolled, or their sum, do not match any of the face-up cards, pass the dice to the next player. 5. The game ends when all players have turned over all of their cards! **TIPS FOR PLAYING** - Make rolling doubles a “wild card.” When a player rolls a “wild card,” they can choose any card to turn over. See if children choose wisely! Help them choose a number card that would otherwise be hard to roll. This can also speed the game up. - Encourage players to talk about the game rules! They might decide that players can keep rolling the dice until they’re able to turn over cards (instead of moving on to the next player after each roll). - In addition to the Count and See cards, you can play with dot cards or any other cards that you have. **WHAT CHILDREN ARE LEARNING** - Children are recognizing the numbers of dots on the dice and connecting the quantity of dots to the numerals on the cards. When children combine their dice roll, they are adding two numbers together to make a new number. To combine numbers, children may need to count each dot on both dice. Or, if they roll a 3 and a 2, they might count on from 3 and say "4, 5". Counting on means that instead of starting at 1 and counting all the way up to 5, we count on from 2 or 3. Children may also start to notice that some numbers are hard to roll while others come up a lot. Help them think about their game strategy, and which number cards they should turn over based on which numbers are easier to roll. **MATH TOPICS** Number: Counting and Cardinality **VIDEO** Watch Game Video View the QR code in your smartphone’s camera app or QR code reader to watch a video that shows how to play Roll Two 1-6. **GOAL** To match and combine the numbers rolled on the dice to the cards. **MATERIALS** 1-12 or 0-12 Count and See cards for each player: | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | | | | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | |---|---|---|----|----|----| | | | | | | | 2 dice **VOCABULARY** Dice Add Subtract Number words 1 to 12 **QUESTIONS** How did you decide to turn over two number cards instead of one? Can you tell me how you added those numbers together? Who has more cards left to turn over? **HOW TO PLAY** 1. Give each child a set of 1-12 cards in random order. 2. Ask children to put their cards in order from 1 to 12. See if they can do this independently, and support them as needed. 3. Roll the dice. The player can then turn over cards that match one of the rolled numbers, both rolled numbers, or the sum of the two rolled numbers. For example: If a player rolls and they can turn over the: 6 card or 2 card 6 card and 2 card 8 card (the sum) 4. If the numbers rolled, or their sum, do not match any of the face-up cards, pass the dice to the next player. 5. The game ends when all players have turned over all of their cards! TIPS FOR PLAYING - Make rolling doubles a “wild card.” When a player rolls a “wild card,” they can choose any card to turn over. See if children choose wisely! Help them choose a number card that would otherwise be hard to roll. This can also speed the game up. - Use three dice and mix and match them to turn over cards. For example, if a player rolls 2, 3, and 4: add them to turn over the 9 card, or turn over the 2 and \((3 + 4 = 7)\) 7 cards. - You can also play this game with subtraction. After rolling the dice, subtract the smaller number from the bigger number. Turn over the card that represents the difference. For example, if a player rolls 6 and 2, they can subtract \(6 - 2 = 4\) and turn over 4. You can also add the zero card, which provides an extra challenge because you need to roll doubles to turn it over. - If children decide they want to play the game with subtraction, they may ask what happens when you take away a larger number from a smaller number. This would result in a negative number. We don’t want to give the misconception that it’s not possible to subtract a bigger number from a smaller number, so you might say, “We can’t take away 5 from 2 using the numbers we know. But that’s something you’ll learn about when you’re older.” - In addition to the *Count and See* cards, you can play with dot cards or any other cards that you have. **WHAT CHILDREN ARE LEARNING** - Encourage children to “count on” from the larger rolled number. For example, if they roll a 6 and 2, start from 6 and count on: “6…7, 8.” Counting on is a skill that helps with learning addition later on. - Encourage players to talk about the game rules! They might decide that players can keep rolling the dice until they’re able to turn over cards (instead of moving on to the next player after each roll). **MATH TOPICS** Number: Counting and Cardinality **VIDEO** Watch Game Video View the QR code in your smartphone’s camera app or QR code reader to watch a video that shows how to play Roll Two 1-12. **GOAL** To mark all the numbers on your side of the board based on the rolls of the dice. **MATERIALS** - **Count and See Boards** - You can make special dice by drawing 1, 2, and 3 dots on a cube. - Regular Dice - Tokens **VOCABULARY** - Dice - Token - Combine numbers **QUESTIONS** - What number(s) do you still need to roll? - How did you decide which number(s) to put tokens on? **HOW TO PLAY** There are three different versions of the Count and See Board Game. Use the board and dice combination that are at the right level for your child. In all versions, the game ends when there are tokens on all the numbers. The first player rolls the die and places a token on the number that matches the number they rolled. Then the next player rolls the die and tries to put a token on one of their numbers. The first player rolls the dice and can place tokens on **one** of the rolled numbers, **both** rolled numbers, **or** the **sum** of the two rolled numbers. Then it’s the next player’s turn. The first player rolls the dice and can place tokens on **one** of the rolled numbers, **both** rolled numbers, **or** the **sum** of the two rolled numbers. Then it’s the next player’s turn. **TIPS FOR PLAYING** - Make rolling doubles a “wild”. When a player rolls a “wild”, they can place a token on any number. See if children choose wisely! Help them choose a number that would otherwise be hard to roll. This can also speed the game up. • You can also play this game with subtraction. After rolling the dice, subtract the smaller number from the bigger number. Put a token on the number that represents the difference. For example, if a player rolls 6 and 2, they can subtract $6 - 2 = 4$ and put a token on 4. You can also place a zero to the left of the 1, which provides an extra challenge because you need to roll doubles to mark it. **WHAT CHILDREN ARE LEARNING** • Children are recognizing the numbers of dots on the dice and connecting the quantity of dots to the numerals on the board. • When children combine their dice roll, they are adding two numbers together to make a new number. To combine numbers, children may need to count each dot on both dice. Or, if they roll a 3 and a 2, they might count on from 3 and say "4, 5". Counting on means that instead of starting at 1 and counting all the way up to 5, we count on from 2 or 3. • Children may also start to notice that some numbers are hard to roll while others come up a lot. Help them think about their game strategy, and where to place tokens based on which numbers are easier to roll. **MATH TOPICS** Number: Counting and Cardinality **VIDEO** Watch Game Video View the QR code in your smartphone’s camera app or QR code reader to watch a video that shows how to play the Count and See Board Game.
078035d9-27c0-459d-81ee-00ad722e7cfb
CC-MAIN-2022-49
https://youngmathematicians.edc.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Games_with_Cards_and_Dice_EN.pdf
2022-12-07T16:35:22+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711200.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20221207153419-20221207183419-00470.warc.gz
1,123,920,029
4,527
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997234
eng_Latn
0.998344
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 766, 2322, 2617, 3191, 4512, 4892, 5383, 6495, 7524, 8243, 9507, 9960, 10587, 11773, 12552, 13311, 14901, 15788, 16425, 17250, 18590 ]
[ 3.640625 ]
1
0
SUPPORT AND CONNECT A FAMILY GUIDE TO SUPPORTING CHILDREN'S MENTAL HEALTH • Being an Effective Advocate for Your Child • Does My Child Need Help? • Where do I start? • Understanding School Based Supports • Getting the Right Help for My Child • How Do I Know if the Treatment is Right? • Being Prepared. What to Expect If Your Child Needs Inpatient Treatment • Advocating During an Inpatient Stay • Keeping the Home Environment Safe • Managing the Stress • Keeping Track of Changes • Preparing for School Re-entry No one can prepare you for everything that comes your way as a parent or caregiver. When we are concerned about our children's behavior it is important to remember that we are in the process of learning. It is hard to not have all the answers! This is a list of seven things to keep in mind as you advocate for and with your child. You are in this process of learning together. **Talk with your child** Talking to your child about hard topics can be uncomfortable. It is important to create a safe place to have those conversations early, but it’s never too late to start. **Pay attention to changes** During times of stress or big life changes, including hormones, you may notice behaviors that worry you. Learning how to support your child as they deal with big emotions can help you to know when to seek professional help. **Talk to trusted adults in your child's life** Share your concerns with the teacher or other school staff. Reach out to other adults in your child's life. Keep in mind that children behave differently in different situations. **Early Intervention** Families benefit from early intervention. Screening and evaluation is available for both mental and educational well being. You can ask your pediatrician, school psychologist, or school counselor for resources in your area. Develop a plan for your child with your school Working as a team can help with coordination and open communication. The caregiver and school counselor can also work together to determine if further assessments or evaluations are needed. Take care of yourself Caregivers have a lot to deal with and you need care and support too. Showing self-care is also a good way to model positive mental health for your child. It is important to remember that you can’t pour from an empty cup! Learn all you can If your child needs professional help it can feel overwhelming. There are supports available to help you learn more about what to expect and how to advocate for your child. - Oklahoma Systems of Care and Wraparound Services - Accessing care Parents Guide to Getting Good Care - Learn the basics: Mental Health Education-NAMI Basics - Ask for more support if needed: Oklahoma Family Network, NAMI - Understanding an IEP or 504 plan When our children are struggling, or their behavior worries us, it can be hard to know when to reach out for help from professionals. Remember, asking for help is a sign of strength. There are resources available to support you as a parent as you work to advocate for your child. National Parent Helpline It's normal to worry about your kids. Are they healthy? Are they developing and growing? Are they happy? Are they okay? It's hard to see our children sad or upset, but sometimes we worry because a child's behavior causes issues that negatively affect them, and maybe the whole family. It can be difficult to know when those worries and concerns need action. Here are some things mental health professionals recommend when deciding if a child needs professional help: What are the behaviors that worry you? Take a week and write down concerning behaviors you see. Try to avoid saying things like "They act up all the time!" or "They are uncooperative." Think about specific behaviors, like "The teacher complains that they can't wait for their turn to speak," or "They get upset when asked to stop one activity and start another," or "They cry for a long time when their mother leaves the room." How often does it happen? If your child seems sad or is not playing with you/others, is it happening once a week or most of the time? If they are having tantrums, when do they happen? How long do they last? Children can experience normal emotions and behaviors like fear, anger, defiance, anxiety, and being impulsive. It is important to write down how long and how intense these emotions are as they may indicate a need for professional help. Are these behaviors “typical” for their age? Children and teenagers show a wide range of behaviors, so it can be hard to tell what is typical or a serious concern. It can help to share your observations with a professional who sees a lot of children—a teacher, school counselor, or pediatrician. That can give you perspective on whether your child’s behavior falls outside of the typical range for their age group. How long has it been going on? Concerning behavior that's been happening for a few days or even a few weeks is often a response to an event. Part of knowing if a child needs professional help is noticing behaviors that are short-term responses, and probably don't require intervention, and those things that persist over time. Uncontrollable crying before a big test is probably not something that needs professional attention, but crying over daily activities for several weeks possibly does. How much is it getting in the way of life? Perhaps the biggest factor for whether your child needs help is whether the symptoms and behaviors are getting in the way of them doing age-appropriate things. Below are some things to consider. IS IT: - DISRUPTING THE FAMILY AND CAUSING CONFLICT AT HOME? - CAUSING DIFFICULTY AT SCHOOL OR WITH FRIENDS? - CAUSING THE CHILD TO BE UNABLE TO DO THINGS THEY WANT TO DO? - KEEPING THE CHILD FROM ENJOYING MANY THINGS THEIR PEERS ENJOY? - MAKING IT HARDER TO GET ALONG WITH TEACHERS, FAMILY MEMBERS AND FRIENDS? IF SO, THEY MAY NEED HELP. Where Do I Start? If you feel that your child’s behaviors, thoughts, or emotions might need attention the next step is to consult a professional. But where should you go? For many parents, talking to your family doctor is the first step, but medical doctors are not required to have a lot of training in mental health. They may refer you to a specialist. The advantage of going to the pediatrician is that they already know your child and family. They can also do medical testing to rule out possible non-psychiatric causes of symptoms. BEST PRACTICES IN DIAGNOsing CHILDREN INCLUDE GETTING MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES INCLUDING: THE CHILD, PARENTS, CAREGIVERS, TEACHERS, AND OTHER ADULTS. ASK FOR A REFERRAL IF YOU ARE NOT COMFORTABLE WITH WHAT YOUR DOCTOR OFFERS OR WOULD LIKE A SECOND OPINION. There are several types of professionals that offer different specialties, it is important to understand what type of care you want and need for your child. - **School Counselors** work with students and families to maximize student well-being and academic success. Students with mental health and/or learning issues may be referred to a school counselor by school staff, parents, or the counselor may observe these issues during interactions with students. Counselors are often the central point of contact for school staff involved in an individual case, and they are able to make referrals. - **School Psychologists** specialize in analyzing complex student and school problems and selecting and implementing appropriate evidence-based interventions to improve outcomes at home and school. School psychologists are part of a school's crisis and mental health team and provide consultation to parents and teachers regarding intervention recommendations. Additionally, they are responsible for conducting special education evaluations to determine if a student qualifies for IEP services due to a mental health disability. • **Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrician** is a pediatrician who has completed additional training in evaluating and treating developmental and behavioral problems. Their expertise may make them a good choice for children with complicated medical or developmental problems. • **Licensed Mental Health Professional** is often one of the first people a child will see if they are having difficulty in school or are referred to a mental health facility. Licensed mental health professionals are trained to assess the needs of a child and their family needs, diagnose mental health conditions, and develop a treatment plan with the family. Licensed Mental Health Professionals are skilled in finding ways to address issues and to explore why they are happening. • **Child and Adolescent Psychiatrist** is a medical doctor with specialized training both in adult psychiatry and psychiatric diagnosis and treatment in young people. They are equipped to diagnose the full range of psychiatric disorders recognized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM). • **Clinical Child Psychologist** has a PhD or a PsyD as well as supervised clinical experience evaluating and treating kids with mental health conditions. Psychologists are trained to diagnose the whole range of disorders, and can coordinate other necessary evaluations. • **Neuropsychologists** specialize in the functioning of the brain and how it relates to behavior and cognitive ability. Your child might be referred to a neuropsychologist for an assessment if your concerns include issues of focus, attention, problem-solving, or learning. Neuropsychologists can determine the likely cause of these problems—whether they are psychiatric symptoms, or symptoms of a learning or developmental disorder—in much the same way other specialists can rule out medical causes. • **Neurologists** are medical doctors who specialize in the nervous system; a referral for neurological assessment aims to determine whether symptoms are the result of nervous system disorders, such as seizures. Understanding School Based Supports Not all children who struggle with mental health and behavioral issues will need additional support in the classroom, but it’s important to be aware of the resources available. Schools can use assessment results from an outside mental health/medical provider or can conduct an educational evaluation to determine if a child is eligible for accommodations in school or special education services. Navigating through the special education process can be overwhelming and complex, yet nearly 17 percent of students enrolled in Oklahoma's school are utilizing Special Education services. You don’t have to go it alone! • The Oklahoma Parents Center is a statewide non-profit organization whose mission is to educate and support parents, families, and professionals in building partnerships that meet the needs of children and youth with the full range of disabilities ages birth through twenty-six. • The Oklahoma Parents Center staff is available to work with service providers and schools, as well as advocate for your student or yourself. Our goal is to give you the knowledge, skills, support, and tools you need to be the best advocate you can be! • For more information please visit: https://oklahomaparentscenter.org In this section you will find a brief description of a Section 504 plan and an Individualized Education Program (IEP) along with lots of resources where you can access additional information. Section 504 A Section 504 plan is a federally protected general education plan for eligible students. Section 504 is part of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, a civil rights law that prevents discrimination against any person with a disability at an institution that receives federal funding, including schools and colleges. - Two things must be present to meet criteria for eligibility under a Section 504 plan. - The student possesses a physical or mental impairment. - The disability substantially limits the student in one or more “major life activity” e.g. learning, speaking, hearing, concentrating, walking, etc. *If your child’s condition meets the above criteria, please connect with the school’s Section 504 coordinator to ask for review for eligibility. - A Section 504 plan provides “reasonable accommodations” to remove obstacles to success. Reasonable accommodations might include support such as: special seating, a quiet place for testing, extra breaks, technology access, different text books, different testing formats, etc. - If you believe your child might be eligible for a Section 504 plan, please contact the school site Section 504 coordinator in writing. Request consideration for eligibility and submit any relevant medical data to the school site as soon as possible. - 504 Planning Meeting, which you should attend, as well as any subsequent periodic reviews. Learn more about 504 plans from the National Center for Learning Disabilities. Learn more about IDEA, Section 504 at OSDE Education Resources Individual Education Plan - IEP Students can get an Individual Education Program (IEP) if they qualify under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a federal law that promises a “free and appropriate education” to children classified with various specific legal disabilities. Categories of disability under IDEA include: - Autism - Deaf-Blindness - Developmental delay - Emotional disturbance, including psychiatric disorders - Hearing Impairment, deafness - Intellectual disability - Orthopedic impairment - Other Health Impairment - Specific Learning Disability - Speech or Language Impairment - Traumatic Brain Injury - Vision Impairment, including blindness - Multiple Disabilities (complex medical conditions) Every public school has a legal responsibility to identify children who need specialized services and to provide appropriate educational services to those children through an IEP. Children deemed eligible for an IEP will receive assistance through their local public school district, including those who attend private or parochial schools. If you believe your child could benefit from extra help: - Contact your child’s school to request consideration for an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Do so in writing. - Provide all relevant medical data to the school and state the reason for submitting is to be considered for an IEP. - The team will convene to consider eligibility for an IEP. - If the child is determined eligible for an IEP, the team will create a plan along with changes made to assist the child in achieving goals. - The plan will be reviewed annually but guardians may request reviews more frequently e.g. as needed. Learn more: IEP OSDE Education Resources Getting the Right Help for My Child Throughout the evaluation process, parents should be involved and ask many questions. It’s important to make sure you understand the results of the evaluation, your child’s diagnosis, and the full range of treatment options. 1. If you are not sure about the diagnosis or treatment plan, ask for a second opinion. 2. If the child and/or family is having difficulties understanding a diagnosis or treatment plan due to a language/cultural barrier, seeking a second opinion from a culturally competent and culturally sensitive clinician is recommended. 3. If you do not feel that the clinician is the “right fit”, share that with the provider and ask for a referral. What questions should I ask? Before a child begins treatment, parents may want to ask the following: - What are the recommended treatment options for my child? - How will I be involved with my child’s treatment? - How will we know if the treatment is working? - How long should it take before I see improvement? - Does my child need medication? - What should I do if the problems get worse? - What are the arrangements if I need to reach you after-hours or in an emergency? From the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Advocating for your Child How Do I Know If the Treatment Is Right? Treatments can vary, and no two children’s needs are exactly the same. There are some general best practice standards and questions to ask your doctor to make sure the care your child is getting follows those standards, whether the treatment involves behavioral therapy, medication, or both. From *The Parent Guide to Getting Good Care* - Treatment should have a goal. How will your child’s mood or behavior respond to the treatment, and how will those changes be measured? - Treatment should be evidence-based. Your provider should tell you what research supports the use of this treatment, and how effective it is for the symptoms. - Your practitioner should have expertise in using this treatment. The best treatments are delivered by professionals who understand the evidence and have clinical experience to inform their knowledge. - Children vary widely in their responses to medication. Only careful changes in doses and timing will establish the most effective dose, as well as whether or not the medication works for your child, and how well it works. - A child taking medication should be closely monitored as they change and grow. As children develop, their response to medication can be expected to change. Guidelines vary, but a rule of thumb is that 6 month check-ins are best practice, with more (and sometimes much more) frequent visits when a new medication is started, an old one is discontinued, or a dosage is changed. - Your child should feel comfortable with the clinician. The child needs to be able to share their thoughts and feelings, and if they are engaged in behavior therapy, trusting the clinician is essential for them to make progress. - You should have good communication with your child’s clinician. To get good care for your child, you need to feel comfortable sharing your observations and concerns with your clinician, and know that they are being taken seriously. - You should be involved in behavioral treatment. Evidence shows that the most effective behavior treatments give parents a role in helping children get better. Your clinician should be enlisting your help to continue treatment outside sessions. - Those involved in your child’s treatment should work together. Children do best when the specialists involved in their care are in touch with each other, sharing information, and agreeing on goals and the steps to achieve them. Crises can occur even when treatment plans have been followed and mental health professionals are actively involved. It is important to be prepared because warning signs of a crisis are not always present. Navigating a Mental Health Crisis Parents Guide to Emergency Hospitalization WHAT TO EXPECT WHEN YOU ARRIVE • A mental health assessment will occur upon arrival. This is when you will share the concerns that led up to seeking hospitalization. You will be asked about your family history of mental illness. Genetics frequently play a role in mental health, and your family’s experience may influence any medications that may be deemed appropriate for your child. • Ask for the number of the nursing station and put it into your phone immediately, so you don’t lose it. You can call the nurse’s station whenever you want to find out how your child is doing, ask questions or ask to have the assigned therapist call you back to offer feedback. • If you have missed a meal in transit, ask for food. Most intake departments will have sandwiches or something on hand. The process can create substantial anxiety, so even if you or your child is not particularly hungry, a bit of a snack can help soothe the tension. A mental health crisis is any situation in which a person’s behavior puts them at risk of hurting themselves or others and/or prevents them from caring for themselves or functioning effectively in the community. What to Expect When Admitting Your Child Maintaining Safety - Someone will sort through your child's belongings and decide what can and can't stay on the unit. The following are not allowed: - Anything metal, sharp, or made of glass - Belts, drawstrings and shoelaces - Phones and wallets are usually not allowed - Most hospitals do a body check or "search" so that the hospital has a record of the patient's wounds and scars prior to entry. What to expect when visiting - The psychiatric unit will likely be locked with a two-stage door system. - You will need show ID to enter for visits. Phones with cameras are usually not allowed. - A nurse on the unit will ask you whose names should be placed on the visitor/call list. In most cases, it is best to limit these contacts to family members who are supportive and mature enough to manage any distress the child may experience. - You will also be asked to formulate a "code" to verify identity and maintain confidentiality. If you add other family members, you will need to provide their contact number. You will also need to provide the family member with the derived "code"...without the code, they will not be allowed contact. You don't need to come every day, but visitation is typically encouraged. Many providers will ask you to wait 24-48 hours before visiting to allow your child to settle into a rhythm and to allow any anxieties to subside. If you wish to bring food (which your child will likely ask you to do), ask a nurse or staff in advance about what's allowed so you don't promise something you can't deliver. Ask what circumstances the hospital will reach out to you. Usually there are only three situations that trigger a phone call: **MEDICATION CHANGE** They want to add to or change your child’s medication and need your permission to do so. They will only contact you for new meds, not for subsequent increases or decreases in dosage. Most hospitals will not call you to discontinue a medication, only to add a new one. If you receive a call regarding a new medication, it will likely be from a nurse on the unit, and they will be willing to provide information on rationale for the medication as well as any typical side-effects. **TO SET UP A “FAMILY MEETING”** Depending on the typical length of stay, this might happen several days or even a week before the actual discharge*, because it takes a while to put plans in place. Most therapists assigned to care for your child will also reach out to provide feedback on growth or struggles being faced. “Family” in this case means the parent or caregiver, the child, and a therapist. Take notes at the meeting, or bring someone (spouse or relative) to take notes for you. **YOUR CHILD HAS BEEN INVOLVED IN AN “INCIDENT”** This may be a physical accident (rare), injury caused by another patient (rare) or notification that your child was taken to a seclusion room because they became violent. If you get a call like this, ask for details. Write the account down in a notebook, record the date of the call and the name of the person calling. It will likely be helpful to call later and speak to your child to get their version of the story; however, in most cases, the team will be working to de-escalate your child and will ask you to delay contact until they are in a safer space to talk. *If you did not already have an outpatient therapist, the inpatient discharge planner will coordinate scheduling future therapy. Most inpatient care facilities prefer to have an outpatient appointment within the first week following discharge. If you don’t have one currently, explore your options so you can make an informed choice. The discharge planner should refer you to Wraparound with Systems of Care. You may want to check with your child’s school to see if they might have an appropriate mental health therapist who could work with your child once your child returns to school.* The key thing to understand is that the sole purpose of an inpatient stay is to stabilize your child enough to be discharged to outpatient care. In other words, it is not the goal to “fix” everything. Once the doctors have visited with your child (you won’t be there when this happens), they will come up with a working diagnosis. Try to avoid the urge to become overly focused on this diagnosis. With children, many times a diagnosis of depression does not mean they will face chronic depression for the remainder of their life. This is an opportunity to have some feedback and guidance. Your child’s day will be structured with a schedule that may include: - a daily (brief) check-in by medical staff - school (usually only an hour or two) - individual counseling and various group therapies. These may include classes or groups on coping skills, information on mental health and family therapy. - Some hospitals also use therapies that incorporate animals, music, art, or horticulture. REMEMBER, THE GOAL ISN’T TO COMPLETELY RESOLVE ALL ISSUES. THE GOAL IS TO GET YOUR CHILD STABLE ENOUGH TO MOVE TO OUTPATIENT TREATMENT, WHERE THE LONG-TERM WORK TAKES PLACE. What they do is provide structure, medication and monitoring. It is also an opportunity for your child to build their own awareness of their mental health, to identify specific traumas experienced, and to formulate a plan for safety in the future. Rules and Privileges There will be many guidelines and rules about unit actions. Many of them will likely be the topic of your conversation with your child. Most psychiatric hospitals use some kind of system in which the children earn privileges if they comply with expectations. Your child might gripe about them, too. Your job is to support your child learning a different way of doing things. If unsure about a treatment protocol, just ask. Medication If your child already has a psychiatrist, there may be communication between them, but the psychiatrist in a hospital must agree with the medications, as they are the treating physician at the time. Typically at discharge, you will be asked to sign a Release of Confidential Information to facilitate communication with the outpatient provider. Things to ask about medications (and take notes about) WHY IS THE DOCTOR CHOOSING THIS MEDICATION? WHAT ALTERNATIVES ARE THERE? IF YOU HAVE FAMILY MEMBERS WITH SIMILAR PROBLEMS, TELL THE DOCTOR WHICH MEDICATIONS HAVE BEEN EFFECTIVE AND WHICH HAVEN'T. HOW LONG WILL IT TAKE BEFORE THE MEDICATION KICKS IN? A FEW PSYCHIATRIC MEDICATIONS ARE EFFECTIVE THE SAME DAY. MANY TAKE A WHILE TO TAKE EFFECT. YOU MAY ALSO WANT TO ASK WHAT HAPPENS IF THE DOCTORS DON’T SEE THAT EFFECT. CHANGES MIGHT NOT BE VISIBLE UNTIL AFTER YOUR CHILD LEAVES THE HOSPITAL- MAKE SURE YOUR CHILD’S OUTPATIENT PSYCHIATRIST IS GIVEN THE DISCHARGE SUMMARY. KEEP GOOD RECORDS OF WHAT MEDICATIONS YOUR CHILD IS ON, WHEN DOSAGES CHANGE, AND ANY NOTABLE CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR. ASK THE DOCTOR FOR HELP IDENTIFYING MEDICATIONS TO REMOVE OR SECURE IN THE HOME, ESPECIALLY IF YOUR CHILD HAD BEEN SUICIDAL OR HAD THOUGHTS OF SELF-HARM. WHAT ARE THE COMMON SIDE EFFECTS? HOW LONG DO THEY TEND TO LAST? YOU SHOULD ALSO BE TOLD ABOUT ANY DANGEROUS BUT RARE SIDE EFFECTS, WHEN THESE ARE LIKELY TO SHOW UP AND WHAT THEY LOOK LIKE. What to Do While Your Child Is Inpatient YOU ARE LIKELY TO HAVE MANY INTENSE FEELINGS ABOUT HAVING A CHILD IN A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL – INCLUDING SHAME, GUILT, FEAR, ANGER, SADNESS AND YES, RELIEF. YOU WILL BE BETTER ABLE TO HELP YOUR CHILD IF YOU ALLOW YOURSELF TO FEEL AND PROCESS THESE EMOTIONS. YOUR FAMILY’S MIX OF FEELINGS WILL LIKELY BE DIFFERENT THAN YOURS. YOU’RE ALL ALLOWED TO FEEL WHAT YOU FEEL. What to do if they complain There is an extremely valuable life lesson that your child might learn...if you have the strength to let them. In life, there are always rules and privileges, and in many cases we don’t agree with them all. Many children struggle to learn to tolerate their own distress… this may be what led to hospitalization. - It is perfectly okay to empathize and validate frustrations (“I’m sorry, that does kind of stink. Can you talk to anyone about it?”). It is also helpful to encourage them to use coping skills, and to recognize they may have to accept that they can’t change it. Learning this could be a strategy that will help in the future with the many issues they will face in their lives. - No matter what you are feeling, remind yourself that you want your child to be safe now and in the future. - Be sure to take care of yourself and be ready for phone calls or contact. If they sense that you are worried about them, you will likely increase their anxiety rather than calm it. It is okay to be concerned and to speak up, but remember you are asking your child to make healthy, safe decisions…lead by example. Phone calls- Be prepared Children often feel ashamed, confused and scared about being in a mental health facility. Because they are kids, they are likely to take their feelings out on the person they love the most, the person who is safest: you. You will not be the first parent to be called the worst mother or father in the world, nor the last to be on the receiving end of a blistering “How could you do this to me?” Try not to take it personally, even when it’s addressed to you. Regardless of your fear that they’ll hate you for the rest of their life, they probably won’t. So when you receive a phone call, or hear yet another heart-wrenching plea to get them out of there, breathe, and remember that you can take the heat now. You can try to reason with your child, but don’t expect to get far. Remember to trust the process. LOGIC IS RARELY EFFECTIVE AT SOOTHING EMOTION. You’ll probably make the most progress by acknowledging and empathizing with their underlying feelings. TRY PHRASES LIKE: “It sounds like you’re really scared.” “You must be really angry that you have to be there.” “I’m so sorry it’s so rough. I love you enough to let this work” Phone calls are scheduled at certain parts of the day and can be limited in the amount of time that can be spent on the phone. Knowing that phone calls are limited, parents can prepare themselves to receive those calls. If you’ve had experience with other types of hospitals, you know that it’s possible to encounter some sort of aggravating glitch in care. You may have to advocate for your child. As a parent, your own emotions are also running on overdrive. You will need to use caution to avoid overreacting or jumping to conclusions. If your child relates an event that has distressed them or seems to have been handled badly, take notes on their version of what happened. Remind yourself that your child is in a new environment, and the perception of what occurred may not be accurate. This will help you approach staff with an open mind. - Ask Questions like “My child seems upset about what they say took place with ___. Can you tell me about that?” You will get more information this way than if you start with accusations. - Pay attention if your child is triggered by a particular staff member that reminds them of someone from their past. This becomes a therapeutic nugget of gold, because it allows a current circumstance to teach them about the past. - Be pleasant, form alliances with as many staff as possible, get to know people by name. - Take lots of notes. If you have a concern and you’ve spoken up about it several times and still aren’t getting a response, put it in writing. - Be direct with staff that are present and respond to you, but if you run into a roadblock, ask for a shift supervisor or if you can follow up with an administrator. As with any other type of hospital visit, it is easier to find out what is going on if you take good notes and keep the communication going. Getting Ready to Go Home Discharge planning starts at admission - Depending on the length of treatment, the discharge discussion takes place several days or even a week before the actual discharge. The treatment team will use many factors in determining when it is time for discharge, and ethics require that all individuals are treated in the “least restrictive environment”. - There will be many issues that are not fully resolved, but the goal of hospitalization is stabilization and a rapid return to the community. This is “Best Practice” since being away from family is typically difficult for children. - Ask about being referred to Wraparound Services with Systems of Care Do not take a “wait and see” approach with recommendations. - The recommendations have been made by professionals in the mental health field and are an important component to ongoing care and support for your child. Also, many pediatric specialists are booked out for months, so scheduling appropriate appointments as soon as possible is crucial for successful discharge planning. - Ask for a copy of the discharge paperwork at the time of discharge to ensure that you have the records needed for scheduling discharge follow-up care in the event that the facility-to-facility fax isn’t sent/received. Family Approach - It is important that the whole family is open to the therapeutic process. Try to address the stance of “I don’t need therapy, They are the one with the problem”. A child will be far more successful in implementing new skills and coping techniques if the family is all working together rather than pointing fingers. Learn more about Wraparound Services. - There are wonderful resources for families to help with this transition and ongoing support. NAMI Family Support Group and Oklahoma Family Network Fears and concerns If your initial reaction to the idea of discharge is a screaming “Nooooo!” you will want to pause and examine what’s going on in your head. On the one hand, you may be remembering how bad things were before the hospitalization, and you may feel insecure about what life will be like in the next phase. Then again, your reaction may be spot-on intuition that your child truly isn’t ready. - Make sure you articulate any specific concerns to the doctor or therapist - Alert the doctor if in your private conversations with your child they have indicated that they still want to kill themselves - Talk to the staff if you suspect your child is lying in order to get out Some parents become upset because the hospital wants a longer stay than feels strictly necessary. Ask why they want this. Common reasons are: - A follow-up plan of care isn’t in place yet - The doctors feel it isn’t safe to discharge your child until they have met certain conditions. You will want to ask about how well your child is participating and how they are acting on the unit each day. Re-entry might be hard You will need a lot of patience for the next week or two. Remember that your child is not cured, and no matter how much you want this ordeal to be over, you can’t expect them to behave as if they are all better, or even mostly better. The hospital has only stabilized them enough to allow them to move to outpatient care. You will need to remind yourself (repeatedly) that a moment or day is not a lifetime. This is hard. For all of you. The first time your child acts the way they did before hospitalization you may leap to the conclusion that you are right back where you were before. This is not true. Breathe deep. Try not to freak out. Stay patient. Ask for help from friends and loved ones. It is often helpful to • develop a collaborative plan* for the next week. Include what to do when things become overwhelming, ways to ask for help, warning signs that things are going down hill again, and some positive, focused steps to try to achieve. • schedule a time to review the plan, say after the first week, and to discuss what worked, what didn’t, and other ideas of what might work. *Involving your child in the plan is critical. Involvement leads to buy in and helps empower your child to take some control in their life. This helps your child avoid feeling hopeless, powerless, and desperate. Keeping the Home Environment Safe The hospital hopefully gave you guidance on how much supervision your child will need upon returning home. THINGS YOU WILL WANT TO DISCUSS WITH YOUR WHOLE FAMILY AND YOUR CHILD’S TREATMENT TEAM: • HOW LONG CAN YOUR CHILD BE LEFT ALONE? • HOW QUICKLY CAN THEY RESUME NORMAL ACTIVITIES? • ARE VISITS TO FRIENDS’ HOUSES OKAY? (IT MAY BE BETTER TO ARRANGE ALL VISITS AT YOUR HOUSE FOR A WHILE.) • HOW DO WE TRANSITION BACK TO PREVIOUS LEVELS OF INDEPENDENCE? You may feel the strain of the level of supervision required. Work with trusted friends or family to provide some respite. If you need support, reach out for help. Oklahoma Family Network The fact that reentry feels endless doesn’t make it endless. You can get through this. Figure out how to process your own feelings and reach out to your child’s treatment team for help. Managing the Stress Your child is going to be just as scared about failing as you are, if not more. Although neither of you may have thought of it this way, life in the hospital was actually much simpler than life at home. So arriving home — while definitely a good thing — is also stressful. There is less structure and far more temptations. Home is a place of old habits and parental expectations. The stress level for your child will be higher. 4 Tips to help you lower the stress level: 1. **Tell your child that you don’t expect everything to be perfect, that there will be struggles. Let them know that you will work through the hard times together.** 2. **Offer empathy, tons of empathy, and creature comforts: favorite meals, a cup of tea, a stuffed animal, some soothing music.** 3. **Step back from your own expectations and emotions, and stay as cool as you can. This will help a lot more than screaming at your kid in frustration.** 4. **If you have to vent—do it in private to someone who can remind you that this is a bump in the road. Find ways to hand off care if you are weary, anxious, or losing patience.** What to Watch For If your child had a suicide plan or attempt, the greatest likelihood of a repeat attempt is within the first three months. Your task will be to figure out how to monitor your child’s mental state without being overbearing—and without dissolving into your own puddle of worry. Here are three suggestions to help: 1. Manage your own anxiety. If you need to talk to your own therapist do so. Find ways to take care of your mental health. 2. Keep lines of communication with your child open. Refresh your memory of good techniques for talking with your teen. 3. Ask for guidance on what to do if your child tells you they still have thoughts of self-harm. Talk to your child’s therapist for tips. Knowing the difference between passive and active suicidal ideation can help you stay calm and practical. The outpatient team will probably ask to set up additional therapy and psychiatry appointments for a period of time. Keeping Track of Changes One thing that will help both you and the doctors is to start a journal or log. A log creates an objective measure of what you’re seeing and how often you’re seeing it, which helps when you are dealing with a lot of emotions. Plus, when your gut is telling you something is wrong, or that your child is getting worse instead of better, it’s much easier for a doctor to understand your concerns when you provide actual observations. Write it down: - What medications are being taken and when dosages change. It is helpful when discussing side effects, especially when they don’t happen for several days or weeks. - What symptoms you are seeing, and how often. If your child has meltdowns, record how many, how long they last, and how severe they were. Is there a pattern? - Changes in routine and outside stressors. Note any big changes: school schedule, family structure, as well as arguments with friends or even the dates of your child’s menstrual cycle. - Things your child says or does that worry you. Create a “day in the life” account for the doctor. Write down events and actual quotes to share with your child’s therapist. Visit the Oklahoma Family Network Training page to learn more about creating a Care Notebook. Preparing for School Reentry Another stressful point in returning home may be reentry into school. During their time in the hospital your child would have attended school for only a couple hours per day in a small group setting. Regular school may be difficult for your child and it is important to take steps to make the transition as smooth as possible. Steps to help the process: • Contact the school and ask for a transition coordinator to facilitate the process on the school’s end. This person can talk with the hospital and coordinate for the school. This role is usually done by the School Counselor or School Psychologist. If your child has an IEP, their Special Education Teacher or Coordinator may fulfill this role. • Ensure all needed paperwork is signed to share information. The hospital, the outpatient therapists, and school are not able to speak to each other without your written permission. Ensure that releases are signed prior to or at discharge. • Request a meeting with the school prior to reentry to review the discharge recommendations and update the school personnel on the treatment goals. As a team, you will need to continue working to help your child meet their treatment goals. • Work with the school to develop a crisis plan, including specific signs that your child may be experiencing another crisis. • Set a plan for addressing long-term absence and missed work, and allow for adjustments in classwork/homework upon return. • Ask the school to assign a trusted adult who is able to check-in with your child as needed. This will likely include daily check-ins initially. • If not already in place, discuss with the school if there is a need to evaluate your child for a 504 plan or IEP. Make sure to re-evaluate any existing plans. • Develop a home-school communication protocol with clear expectations regarding how you and the school will communicate progress. Resources: Transitioning from Psychiatric Hospitalization to Schools (UCLA) Working with Students Returning from a Mental Health Crisis (OSDE) INFO & TRACKING FORM HOSPITAL CONTACT: SCHOOL CONTACT: OUTPATIENT/FOLLOW UP CONTACT FAMILY SUPPORT OTHER SUPPORT MEDICATION (INCLUDING START DATES AND DOSAGES): SIDE EFFECTS, OBSERVATIONS AND QUESTIONS: COMFORT/SUPPORTS: THINGS TO TALK TO THE SCHOOL ABOUT THINGS TO BRING UP WITH THE THERAPIST The Children’s Behavioral Health Partnership of Tulsa provides leadership and ongoing collaboration to support an accessible system of care for children, youth, and families, ensuring emotional, behavioral and social wellness by promoting family-driven integrated comprehensive services. THANK YOU TO ALL OF THE COMMUNITY PARTNERS THAT ASSISTED IN CREATING THIS GUIDE. FOR MORE INFORMATION MHAOK.ORG/CHILDREN-AND-YOUTH-RESOURCES
4d0cca50-bf6e-482e-b2d5-6cf5dbc4f859
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://mhaok.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Support-and-Connect-Family-Guide-to-Supporting-Childrens-Mental-Health.pdf
2024-07-23T04:22:51+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763518014.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20240723041947-20240723071947-00594.warc.gz
346,888,085
8,742
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.945931
eng_Latn
0.99875
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 74, 514, 1819, 2753, 4403, 5895, 7817, 9870, 11323, 12864, 14581, 15848, 18270, 19705, 21296, 23628, 25044, 26936, 28490, 29877, 31469, 33280, 34368, 35702, 36572, 37705, 38644, 39902, 41118, 41955, 42260, 42692 ]
[ 3.3125, 1.3359375 ]
1
0
Welcome to Slitere! In the Slitere National Park, except for restricted areas, you may walk freely through it to look for plants, animals and landscapes, to pick mushrooms and berries, to go swimming (except at Kolkasraga, where it is dangerous), to get a suntan, to ride a bike or a boat. While doing it, let’s respect the nature values! THE ROUTE This route will allow you to learn about the diverse environmental and cultural heritage of the Northern Kurzeme peninsula. You will also find the loveliest views in the Slitere National Park. You can drive down the route, or you can ride a bicycle. Seasons: Preferably April-October, but year-round if conditions permit Type of car: No specific requirements Type of bike: Mountain bike Difficulty: For bikers, not very hard. If you like two days. Road cover: Mostly asphalt, but some 19 km of gravel road. Distance from Riga: 170 km Beginning: Dundaga or other places (Melnīši, Sīkraugs) – this is a circular route End: Dundaga or other places Route: Dundaga-Slitere-Sīkraugs-Mazībre-Kolka-Melnīši-Sīkraugs-Kolkasraga-Kolka-Melnīši-Vidale-Dundaga Markings: None Alternatives: The route can be taken in either direction and can be started and stopped anywhere. Length: ~90 km. If you’re driving, we recommend that you take one or two days if you want to take a detailed look at everything that you want to see and if you hike all of the trails. Duration: One or two days Logistics: A circular route which returns to where it started Note: Bring a printed map with all of the necessary information Emergency services: Ring 112 The most interesting destinations 1. **Dundaga**: The centre of the Dundaga Administrative District has many interesting and historical objects such as the Dundaga castle (housing the Tourist Information, the hotel, the Arts and Music school), the park, the Lutheran church, the “Crocodile”, the workshop of the ceramics artist Velga Eizenberga, etc. 2. **The Neņejas Līdumīns homestead** has a magnificent garden of dahlias, with some 1,300 varieties. 3. **Slitere**: Here you will find Latvia’s highest lighthouse at the edge of the Blue Hills of Slitere. It is a viewing tower at this time, and if the weather is perfectly clear, you can even see Saarema island in the distance. There is a small exhibit of information here. The Slitere Nature Trail is right here too, but it can be toured only on the company of a guide. 4. **A water tower** alongside the Dundaga-Mazībre road offers a view of what used to be the Rīgas Lielupe and the Mazībre lowland today. 5. **The Pēterezers Nature Trail** – one of the most beautiful trails in northern Kurzeme, some 3.5 km long, and passing through the pine forests of Slitere, offering views that are unique in Europe. There is also a mossy swamp in the area. The Great Lake Pēterezers and the Small Lake Pēterezers are one of the deepest and widest hollows between the dunes. 6. **Sīkraugs** is a small village, part of which is included in the national monument of urban design. 7. **The Liv People’s Hall**, built in 1939, is a symbol of the Liv Identity. There is a photo exhibition about the Liv nation at the hall. 8. **The Boat Cemetery** Dating to the 1960s, when the Soviet military started to limit fishing along the shoreline, this cemetery illustrates the fact that boats were no longer of any use and were simply abandoned in the dunes. Some say that border guards burned some of the boats. Others say that the border guards banned the old tradition of burning fishing boats on Summer Solstice Eve. Along the way to the boat cemetery, you can examine the Great Net Barn from the outside. 9. **The former Maritime School** (1894-1914) stands near the sea. 100 students were being trained there, a border guard facility was located there, and the border guards’ club was also present. Along the road leading to the school there are churches, houses with small buildings; it is interesting coastal landscape. The road between the Maritime School and the sea was once known as the Captain’s Road. 10. **Kosrags** is the most interesting of the Liv villages in terms of architecture, the cultural landscape, and accessibility. The names and history of the various buildings are posted on outer walls, and there is a central information stand, as well. 11. **Pilrags** is a former fishing village with many legends about sea pirates and sunken ships. The Pilrags Baptist Church is the oldest of the village – built in 1902. 12. **Saunags** is an easily fishable village with many buildings for travellers, both old and new. The name Saunags was first mentioned in documents in the 14th century. The Nīglīnas linden tree is very impressive in size. 13. **Vāde** – a village in the middle of the forest known for a horn collection – Museum at the Purvcielis homestead, as well as the Vāde Pond. There is a beach and massive oak tree in Vāde, as well. 14. **The sea by the Saunags** – The coastline here is the point that the Latvian coast meets the waters of the Baltic Sea and of the Gulf of Riga come together. The front extends under the sea for another five kilometers and up to the Kolka lighthouse. The sun rises and sets in the sea at Kolkaigs, and those are some really fantastic views. Swimming is not recommended here because of shifting currents and sandbars. The sculptor Girts Burvics’ “Those Taken by the Sea”, a memorial installed in front of the dunes at Kolkaigs, is a sculpture that shows a drowning man which Kolka lighthouse can be seen. Other points of interest include a wrecked ship, a rock marking the centre of Europe, information stands dedicated to the founder of Latvia’s maritime industry, Krišjānis Valdemārs, and a former Soviet military base which is used today by the Latvian Coast Guard and which can be visited. There is also a bird-watching spot, a place to spot a lot of birds in Kolkaigs, and this is of interest to bird watchers. This is a convenient car park, bus stop, with tables, a visitor centre, and, during the summer season, a small café where you can have a delicious meal. 15. **The old Kolkaigs lighthouse** is just a set of ruins right now. The lighthouse at the tip of the horn was built in the 16th century and renovated several times. The ruins are slowly decaying because of storms and ice during winter, but they had been standing well away from the shoreline once, but now are slowly disappearing under the waves. 16. **The Kolka lighthouse** is on an artificial island which was created between 1872 and 1875. The original lighthouse was made of wood, and its light was first lit in June 1987. As the island settled into the sea, the current tower was built. It began operations on July 1, 1884. Today the lighthouse is the only one in the world which is located at the edge of sandy shallows (back when it was built, it was just five kilometres from dry land). The island still has one building for the lighthouse supervisor, as well as several outhouses. The metal lighthouse which is there now was built in St Petersburg. It has been an automated lighthouse since 1979. 17. **Uši** – a campsite and guesthouse in Kolka where, if you apply in advance, you can see how the traditional carrot bun known as “Mandu rāns” are baked. 18. **Kolka** is the only Liv village in which economic life, processing and other business activities were preserved even after the imposition of the ‘soviet regime’ in Latvia. The population of Kolka increased even as the population of other local villages decreased. 19. **The churches of Kolka** – Lutheran (built in 1886), Orthodox (built in 1890 and used as a graveyard chapel in Soviet times before returning to its status as a proper church), and Catholic (built in 1997). 20. **The Ēvaži shoreline** A 0.3 km long walking trail leads to the steep shore which is 8-15m high. From here – the view of the Gulf of Riga is magnificent here. 21. **Melnīši** is an ancient Liv village where ships were built at one time. 22. **Vidale** is a small village which is accessed via the impressive Slitere Blue Hills valley and its sandstone cliffs. Tourist services Nearby accommodations: Sīkraugs, laukūni.lv/29469614 Lapmežciems, Jauktalmaži 29467556 Mazībre, Upleskalni 29259510; Atg. Mazībres Kalēji 28292947, 29213412 Dzintari 26173009 Kolkaigs, Jauktalmaži 29412974; Pltgi. 29372728; www.pltgi.lv Saunags, laukūni.lv/29452371 Vāde, Purvcielis 63200719, 29239562 Kolka, laukūni.lv/29452452; 29474692; www.kolka.info The tenting area Melnīši in Melnīši, 28050560 Resting place: In Kolkasraga and Melnīši Shops: In Dundaga, Mērsībre, Kolka, Melnīši and Vidale Dining: In Dundaga, as well as in Kolka and Vidale Bicycle rentals: In Kolka, Kolkasraga, Vidale and Jauktalmaži Information: www.talsgrajins.lv, 63224165; www.kolkasraga.lv, 29149105; www.ziemakurzeme.lv, 63223293, 29444395; www.livones.lv; www.countryholidays.lv, 67617600 The Slitere National Park features several other hikes, as well as bike, water and auto routes. Look for a list of routes on www.countryholidays.lv and for markings out in nature. With the financial instrument of the European Community and the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Latvia. POLIPOP-NAF-URA LV-18(15)/01/078081
47f44355-8e97-4388-80ca-33811bf6817d
CC-MAIN-2024-18
https://www.celotajs.lv/cont/prof/proj/PolProp/SNP_produkti/2_SNP_EN_Web/Auto_EN.pdf
2024-04-18T18:15:27+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817222.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20240418160034-20240418190034-00475.warc.gz
638,710,549
2,350
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.996729
eng_Latn
0.996729
[ "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 9225 ]
[ 2.484375 ]
1
0
Mudras help in the treatment of diseases, bring peace of the mind, guide the spiritual development of the individual. Mudras can be combined with asanas in practice or performed separately. Some Mudras should be practiced until your problems disappear or until you are cured of your ailments. You must have seen many pictures of different Gods of India, where each God has his Mudra. The Mudra Goddess p is considered to be Gyana Mudra. Gyana Mudra is usually practiced during meditation or during the mantra of singing. Mudras do not need to choose a specific place for their practice. Our Universe is made up of five basic elements. Our body represents these elements through our five fingers. - Thumb - Fire (Agni) - Index - Air (Vayu) - Middle - Space (Akash) - Ring - Earth (Prithvi) - Little - Water (Jal) Our fingers continuously emit various vital energy, electric waves & aura. Yogis believe that when different fingers form mudras, they start electro-magnetic currents in the body & stimulate our Conscious Centre; Kendra creating balance and promoting health. The human body consists of five elements existing in nature: fire, air, sky, earth and water. Imbalance of any of them leads to physical or mental disorder. Each of our fingers represents each element. The balance between the elements is the main goal wise. Mudras give excellent results for achieving calm and deep immersion in meditation. Regular practice of Mudras will bring health, tranquility, comfort and virtue to life. Some mudras bring quick results, others take more time to practice progress. Some mudras have no rules, others require complying with mandatory provisions. Whenever a finger comes into contact with the thumb, the element of that finger that touches the thumb is balanced. Mudra is translated from Sanskrit as a "gesture" or "attitude." Mudras can be classified into various categories: mental, emotional, physical, or attitude. For Yogis, Mudras experience is the flow of energy designed to connect the individual life force with the cosmic power. In the tradition of Kularnava Tantra, the original meaning of the word “mudra” is pleasure, delight, pleasure, an everyday means of attracting energy. Mudra is also defined as a seal, near or workaround. Mudras are a combination of subtle physical movements that change mood, attitude, perception, and that deepen awareness and concentration. Mudras can involve the whole body: a combination of asanas, pranayama, bandhas (castles) and visualization techniques, and also mudras can be a simple position of the hands. Hatha Yoga Pradipika and other yogic texts consider Mudras an independent branch of yoga that requires very subtle awareness (Yoganda). Mudras are encouraged to practice yoga after cleansing from blocks in the physical body and after mastering basic skills in asanas, pranayama and bandhas. Mudras are described in various ancient and modern texts in order to preserve knowledge for posterity. However, it is impossible to learn yoga, including the Mudras from books. Practical training in the presence of a teacher has always been considered a prerequisite before moving on to higher practices that awaken various energies. **Mudas & Prana.** Anandamaya Kosha (Bliss Body) Vijnanamaya Kosha (Knowledge Sheath) Manomayakosha (Mental Sheath) Pranamaya Kosha (Vital Air Sheath) Annamaya Kosha (Food Sheath) By energies of consciousness Brahman is released, from that Matter, from and from Matter Life and Mind and the worlds. ~ Mundaka Upanishad The attitudes and postures adopted during the practice of the Mudras establish a direct connection between our bodies: the physical body (Annas kosh), the mental body (Manoy Kosh), and the energy body (Pranoma Kosh). In the first steps of practicing Mudras, you become aware of the flow of prana (energy) in the physical body. With constant practice, the pranic (energy) balance between bodies (koshas) is established. Further, with practice, you learn to direct the subtle energy from the lower chakras to the upper chakras, which allows in meditation to reach higher states of consciousness. Mudras redirect energy in the same way as, for example, light or sound — as forms of energy — can be redirected (reflected) by a mirror or wall. Nadis, meridians, marma points, chakras and so forth .... constantly emit prana (energy), which usually eludes the body and is dissipated in the outside world. By creating barriers inside the body through practice of Mudras, the energy is redirected inside. For example, closing your eyes with your fingers in the Shanmukhi Mudra, prana radiated through the eyes is reflected back. In the same way, the sexual energy radiated through the vajra-nadi is redirected to the brain through the practice of vajroli mudra. Ancient tantric scripts claim that as soon as the dispersion of prana is held through Mudras practices, the mind becomes introverted, causing states of observation (prathyahara) and concentration (dharana). Due to the possibility of redirecting energy, mudras are important aspects of the practice for awakening the kundalini. For this reason, mudras are used in the techniques of Kriya and Kundalini. What the science says about Mudras. Scientifically, mudras are a means of influencing unconscious reflexes and primary instincts that arise in primitive areas of the brain, namely around the brain stem. They establish a subtle, nonintelligent connection with these areas of the brain. Each Mudra establishes its connection and has its specific effect on the body, mind and prana. The goal of the Mudras practice, from a scientific point of view, is to create fixed, repetitive postures and gestures (Mudras) that can pull the practitioner out of the unconscious instinctive habits of the animal and establish a more perfect and higher human consciousness. 5 groups of Mudras. 1. Hasta Mudra (Mudra hands). Hasta Mudras redirect the prana radiated through the arms back into the body. In the Mudras, where the thumb and forefinger are connected, the motor cortex is impacted at a very subtle level, creating a loop of energy that moves from the brain down the arm and then back. Awareness of this process quickly leads to a meditative state of observation and concentration. Mudras that fall into this category i) Gyan Mudra ii) Chin Mudra ii) Yoni Mudra iv) Bhairova Mudra v) Hridaya Mudra. 2. Mana Mudras (Mudras of the head). The practice of Mana Mudras is an integral part of Kundalini Yoga, and many of them are meditative methods in their own right. It uses eyes, ears, nose, tongue and lips. Mudras in this category: i) Shambhavi Mudra ii) Nasikagra Drishti iii) Khechari Mudra iv) Kaki Mudra v) Bhunjangini Mudra vi) Bhuchari Mudra vii) Akashi Mudra viii) Shamukhi Mudra ix) Umani Mudra. 3. Kaya Mudra (Mudras of the body). The practice of Kaya Mudras uses physical postures (asanas) in combination with breathing and concentration. The Mudras included in this category are i) Prana Mudra ii) Viparit Karani Mudra ii) Yoga Mudra iv) Pashin Mudra v) Manduki Mudra vi) Tadagi Mudra 4. Bandhas (Mudra locks). This practice combines Mudras and Bandhas. They charge the physical system of a person with Prana (energy) and prepare for the next step, work with kundalini with energy. Techniques in this category: i) Maha Mudra ii) Maha Bheda Mudra iii) Maha Vedha Mudra. 5. Adhara Mudra (pelvic organs mudra). Adhara Mudra redirects prana (energy) from the lower centers (small pelvis) to the upper centers (brain). The Mudras that transform sexual energy are: i) Ashwini Mudra ii) Vajroli / Sahajdoli Mudra At the beginning there was only a vacuum. Then air formed, then the sun, and finally water. Earth was formed out of the water. Consequently, one way or another, every action and reaction in this universe is associated with these elements. Practices such as yoga, ayurveda, homeopathy, etc., are designed to balance these elements. Methods may be different, but the goal remains the same. Knowledge of the laws of these five elements forms the basis of a healthy and happy life. Mudras help in physical, spiritual and mental growth. Increase the beauty and talent. Mudras can be performed regardless of age or gender. Mudras are also not related to time, place, direction, or position. Since mudras made with the left hand influence the right side of the body and vice versa, it is important to practice the Mudras with both hands. There should not be excessive pressure between the fingers. Enough light touch that gives incredible results. Prana Mudra, Gyana Mudra, Apana Mudra and Pritvi Mudra can be performed every day. The remaining mudras are performed until the cause of the fulfillment: illnesses and so on ... will not disappear. Mudras are a simple solution to many health problems. For the treatment of diseases of the body Mudras practice for 45 minutes, use that shows excellent results. And some Mudras (Surya and Apana Mudras) give immediate results and relieve painful sensations immediately.
46a6b8a2-ac86-4192-9743-c0efdd7f9702
CC-MAIN-2024-42
https://p.urbanpro.com/tv-prod/documents/null-Mudras&Prana.pdf
2024-10-09T23:18:22+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-42/segments/1727944253654.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20241009211335-20241010001335-00599.warc.gz
385,880,910
2,067
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.909207
eng_Latn
0.988192
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 588, 2208, 3528, 5227, 6791, 7607, 9019 ]
[ 2.015625 ]
1
0
Buckinghamshire Child Poverty Strategy 2011 - 2014 BREAK THE CYCLE .... TO CLOSE THE GAP Approved by the Buckinghamshire Children and Young People’s Trust April 2011 # Contents - Vision .................................................................................................................. 3 - Introduction ........................................................................................................ 5 - Our Priorities ....................................................................................................... 6 - What’s it like in Buckinghamshire? ................................................................. 8 - How does poverty affect outcomes for children and young people? ........... 12 - What’s the Government’s view? ....................................................................... 14 - How will we drive the strategy and measure impact? ..................................... 15 BREAK THE CYCLE ....TO CLOSE THE GAP Our Vision is to work together to contribute to breaking the cycle of inter-generational poverty so that the gap in educational, physical and emotional achievement is narrowed between better and less well off families. We recognise that this will be complex to achieve. However it is a key part of achieving the priority ‘Closing the Gap’ in the Buckinghamshire Children and Young People’s Plan 2011 – 2014 and Tackling Child Poverty is one of two Core Beliefs which run throughout the Plan. Case Study One: The Breakfast Club at Wye Valley School started in April 2009 and is attended by a majority of pupils at the school that are entitled to free school meals. “The Club has helped me lots - I never used to have breakfast at home but now I have it at school, it boosts my energy and concentration all day in lessons to achieve better work and exams to achieve better grades. It also has built my social skills because I have got new friends and met lots of new people.” Case Study Two: Street Coach Combined launched in February 2009 and is an intensive self development programme for young people following the increasing number of fixed term exclusions being issued to pupils, especially of BME background, in schools in Buckinghamshire. The project helps pupils to reflect on their home and school circumstances and plan for a positive future, helping them think of strategies to eliminate problems they face. Schools saw improved self discipline and incentive to work, increased enthusiasm about life in general and improved attention during lessons among those attending the programme. It is well known that these factors help children get the most out of their education and so help them avoid future poverty. Case Study Three: Literacy courses were offered to parents of pupils in Year 7 at Wye Valley School where their children had been identified as in danger of falling behind across the curriculum due to their poor literacy skills. The course was aimed at giving parents confidence to support their children at home by explaining the methods and resources used at school and by giving them ideas for activities to use at home to support their child's learning. All participants said they had benefitted from the support. One participant made use of the help by devising a programme of home activities. Another reported that she was using new strategies to support her son’s reading and all considered joining an evening class to continue working on their literacy skills. Supporting parents in this way is proven to help very young children have the best possible start and so reduces the risk of poverty in the future. Case Study Four: In February 2011 Mrs X went to High Wycombe Citizens Advice Bureau for help with her debt. The debts were linked to her condition of bipolar disorder, depression and general mental ill health. In addition she has three dependent children, two of whom are disabled. With the stress of coping with her children and constant threats from creditors Mrs X’s mental health deteriorated. She could not afford the fee to declare herself bankrupt so a request for a write off from creditors was made taking into consideration her medical condition. So far one major bank has agreed and it is likely other creditors will follow suit. Mrs X can in the meantime concentrate on caring for her children and improving her mental health. This example illustrates how financial assistance in whatever form helps lift parents from poverty, releasing them to make progress in other aspects of life which in turn benefits children. 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Child Poverty Act 2010 places a statutory duty on local authorities and their partners (e.g. Health Authorities, Police Forces, Youth Offending Service, Probation, Transport authorities, District Councils and Job Centre Plus) to conduct and publish a Child Poverty Needs Assessment and to produce a Strategy to tackle Child Poverty in their area. 1.2 Everyone working with children and families recognises that poverty affects people in different ways and that there is no one single cause of poverty. Often many factors come together to keep families in poverty. For example, the availability of jobs, transport and affordable childcare, the health of the population and opportunities for a good education combine with the availability of training to improve life and work skills and the attitudes and expectations of their family and community to determine people’s experience of life and poverty. 1.3 These links or interdependencies are referred to as the 'drivers' of poverty and cover neighbourhoods, housing, family support, health, education and child care, adult skills, parental employment and financial support. 1.4 It is critical that organisations work together across all of these areas to find ways of tackling the causes of child poverty at a local level. The Buckinghamshire Children and Young People's Trust (CYPT) has a key role to play in promoting self determination, ambition and self reliance and to help families develop resilience. 1.5 This is particularly important for families of very young children as the links between children’s early years development and experiences and the risk of poverty later in life are well established. 1.6 Under the direction of the Buckinghamshire Strategic Partnership and on behalf of the Buckinghamshire Children and Young People's Trust (CYPT), the primary organisations working with children and young people have come together to produce this Strategy and to develop ways of implementing it. 1.7 The Strategy does not include everything we will be doing, but concentrates on the priorities and activities which we believe will make the biggest difference to children and young people in Buckinghamshire. 1.8 Tackling child poverty is a core belief in the Children and Young People’s Plan (CYPP) 2011/14 and this Strategy supports the objectives of that Plan which are to make sure that every child and young person can: Be Healthy; Stay Safe; Enjoy and Achieve; Make a Positive Contribution; Achieve Economic wellbeing. Sue Imbriano Director of Children and Young People’s Services 2: OUR PRIORITIES 2.1 **Priority A**: Increase parental employment among families in poverty, particularly lone parents, those with health issues and those from minority ethnic groups and maximize their incomes. **Outcomes** - A reduction in the number of lone, BME and parents with health issues who are out of work - An increase in the number of families with a household income above 60% median income Activities that contribute to this Priority: 1. Provide work experience opportunities for long term unemployed adults, increasing their motivation and confidence to find permanent work and provide support for them to stay in work. 2. Provide information and assistance to families in poverty to become more energy efficient through improving energy efficiency ratings of houses and the use of energy monitors to reduce costs. 3. Improve the take-up of free school meals. 4. Improve the awareness of and take up of welfare benefits for those in and out of work. 2.2 **Priority B**: Reduce the health and housing inequalities of families in poverty. **Outcome** - A reduced difference in health and housing inequalities between the most and least disadvantaged wards Activities that contribute to this Priority: 1. Improve education and parenting skills including access to early years education, to improve support around health and lifestyle issues for children in poverty. 2. Provide more targeted support for low income mothers with breastfeeding in the first 10 days. 3. Target integrated early years (antenatal and postnatal) community services to more disadvantaged communities in Aylesbury and Wycombe areas. 4. Help families maintain strong relationships when experiencing life changes to reduce the risk of poverty. 5. New housing developments should have sufficient resources to meet the needs of the local population. 6. Improve collaboration and information sharing between district councils, housing associations and social care organisations to identify and support vulnerable 16 and 17 year olds and care leavers to prevent future poverty. 7. Ensure that District Councils adopt consistent evaluation processes for allocating affordable housing. “I get sick often, I get a lot of flu… I get sick so much, then I miss my school work, but I don’t stay at home that much…Maybe I catch it from other people or maybe I get it from this home…[The Landlord] never repairs anything…Everything breaks.” (Jasara, ten years old) 2.3 **Priority C**: Build community resilience. **Outcomes** - Communities develop solutions to meet their own needs - Change has a positive impact Activities that contribute to this Priority: 1. Family Information Service (FIS) to match outreach to areas of poverty to increase awareness and take up of services which can help families out of poverty. 2. The Buckinghamshire Children and Young People’s Trust to map and understand the impact of cuts to support communities to develop ways of mitigating the impact. 3. Work with local communities to develop and deliver services to meet local needs. 2.4 **Priority D**: Improve career advice and opportunities for children and young people in poverty. **Outcome** - More young people entering the job / career of their choice. Activities that contribute to this Priority: 1. Support parents to access Early Years support, i.e. funded 2, 3 and 4 year early education for children in poverty to help reduce the attainment gap at aged 5 years, and promote the importance of Early Years development. 2. Work with local businesses to understand the benefits of flexible working arrangements. 3. Collaborate with local businesses to provide support and advice to help young people make better education and career choices. 4. Promote practical and technical skills training that match the needs of local businesses. 5. Improve education around managing money so that young people can achieve economic well being and prevent debt. 3: WHAT’S IT LIKE IN BUCKINGHAMSHIRE? 3.1 There are many sets of national and local data about families in poverty or at risk of falling into poverty across the county and some key facts and figures are set out here. 3.2 Latest data from the Department of Work and Pensions (DWP August 2008) for National Indicator 116: The Proportion of children in poverty shows - **10.5%** children aged 0 – 19 living in poverty in Buckinghamshire at that time which equates to some 12,000 children across the county 3.3 If the county wide picture is broken down it is clear that there is a very considerable variation across Buckinghamshire. 3.4 Figure 1 shows the areas across the county where those who are most ‘hard pressed’ live (black areas on the map). Please note however that the data used for this map is ACORN Lower Level Super Output Area and does not show very small pockets of poverty, for example in smaller towns and villages. This can be viewed through examining ACORN data at postcode level but is not possible to reproduce the map in a document and retain its integrity. 3.5 Data collected for the Buckinghamshire Child Poverty Needs Assessment in the autumn of 2010 and other local information showed us that: - In work poverty is increasing - Families in poverty live on less than £206 per week - Life expectancy in the poorest ward is 13 years less than that in the most affluent ward - The gap between those from low income backgrounds and their peers progressing to Higher Education in Buckinghamshire is 27%, which is a larger gap compared to all of our statistical neighbours - 41% of social housing in the Wycombe District has a low energy efficiency rating - these families will spend 10% more income on energy costs than other families in high energy efficiency houses - At January 2011 there were 6.7% pupils eligible for Free School Meals in primary and 5.5% in secondary schools across the county - 27.3% of Job Seekers Allowance claimants in Buckinghamshire are young people aged between 18 and 24 (This compares with 26.7% for the South East region and 29.1% for Great Britain suggesting that young people locally are finding it particularly difficult to get back to work or start their working life) - Families that include a member that is disabled are at increased risk of experiencing poverty 3.6 Despite these specific issues most children and young people do well in Buckinghamshire according to key indicators: educational attainment is good overall; the under 18’s conception rate and the number of young people that are not in employment, education or training (NEET) are lower than the rates for England for these measures; custodial sentences as a proportion of all other sentences is significantly lower in Buckinghamshire compared to the national average. Map showing the Predominant Bucks ACORN Group in each Lower Level Super Output Area 10 Bucks ACORN Groups - 1 Wealthy Mature Professionals - 2 Villages with Wealthy Commuters - 3 Well-off Managers - 4 Affluent Greys - 5 Flourishing Families - 6 Urban Professionals - 7 Secure Families - 8 Settled Suburbia or Prudent Pensioners - 9 Moderate Means - 10 Hard Pressed - Not Classified - Buckinghamshire © Crown copyright. All rights reserved. Buckinghamshire County Council 100021529 2009. 3.7 ACORN ("A Classification Of Residential Neighbourhoods") data which profiles the population of each postcode into 5 categories based on census information and lifestyle surveys reflects a similar picture – see Figure 2. **Fig 2: Bucks Pupils versus National Pupils in ACORN categories** ![Bucks Pupils vs National Population-Jan 2006](image) *Source: Bucks data School Census (January 2006). National population data CACI ACORN Guide* 3.8 Understanding the local picture is complicated by the fact that statistical data available for families living on low incomes and in some cases in poverty is complex and definitions and data sets from different sources do not always match. 3.9 The most up to date Department of Work and Pensions (DWP) information and data relating to children in poverty is found on the large data sets on the HMRC website and is used to report on the National Indicator 116: The Proportion of children in poverty. 3.10 The definition of this indicator is: The proportion of children living in families in receipt of out of work benefits or tax credits where their reported income is less than 60% median income The proportion of children in poverty is calculated as follows: \[ \frac{\text{Number of children in families in receipt of either out of work benefits, or tax credits where their reported income is less than 60% median income}}{\text{Total number of children in the area}} \] 3.11 Elsewhere in the ‘notes’ on the HMRC website the calculation of children in poverty is described as follows: Number of children living in families in receipt of Child Tax Credit whose reported income is less than 60 per cent of the median income or in receipt of Income Support or (Income-Based) Job Seekers Allowance, divided by the total number of children in the area (determined by Child Benefit data) 3.12 A publication by Donald Hirsch and Jacqueline Beckhelling of the Centre for Research in Social Policy, Loughborough University, for the Campaign to End Child Poverty (March 2011), has updated the DWP information for 2008 using unemployment data for the intervening period to estimate the proportions of child poverty at mid 2010. The table gives a breakdown for Buckinghamshire: | % children in poverty by local authority (District Council) area | % children in poverty by Parliamentary Constituency | |---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------| | Aylesbury Vale | Aylesbury | | South Bucks | Buckingham | | Chiltern | Beaconsfield | | Wycombe | Wycombe | 3.13 Figure 3 again uses ACORN data to show the wards in Buckinghamshire where a minimum of 20% of the population is Hard Pressed. ACORN Groups by Ward where a minimum of 20% of the wards population is Hard Pressed Source: Income Deprivation Affecting Children subset of the Indices of Multiple Deprivation 3.14 From the above information it is clear that poverty is a significant issue in Buckinghamshire but in addition to understanding the complexity of the data there are some important local factors to consider. These include: - Buckinghamshire is overall an affluent county and areas of poverty are not always obvious, even in urban areas. • In rural areas the number of families in poverty can be very small and almost invisible, particularly in otherwise relatively affluent surroundings. • The geographic make up of the county poses significant problems for people to travel to where jobs and skills training are available, exacerbated by limited public transport and over dependence on costly car travel. • The national data is calculated before housing costs are taken into consideration. In Buckinghamshire where housing costs are generally higher than the national average the number of children in poverty is likely to increase once these costs are taken into account. • The Government uses the median (midpoint) of the whole range of national incomes to assess whether families are in poverty. Families receiving above 60% national median income are not in poverty by this measure. However, if living in an otherwise affluent community these same families may well be in relative poverty in relation to others in their community. These factors significantly contribute to the experiences of families living on a low income in Buckinghamshire. “It’s very hard saving on a low-income. It’s very hard to put money aside because now that the children are getting older they need something all the time; either underwear or a tee shirt or skirt. Children are always needing something. It is very hard to put money away I don’t really put money away to be honest.” “Psychologically, for me, you get sick of telling your kids ‘no’….. I’m talking about day-to-day stuff. Can I go to the pool? Can I go to the cinema? Can I have two pounds for MacDonalds? And you do get a wee bit down – no, a lot down.” 4.0: HOW DOES POVERTY AFFECT OUTCOMES FOR CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE? 4.1 The impact of poverty on children and young people is the same whatever the numbers involved and, for reasons given above are often heightened in areas where there are fewer people experiencing poverty. The following quotes from children and young people in a number of national case studies clearly show the effects of poverty: “They go into town and go swimming and that, and they play football and they go to other places and I can’t go…because some of them cost money and that.” “I worry about what life will be like when I’m older…because I’m kind of scared of growing older, but if you know what is in front of you then it’s a bit better, but I don’t know.” “It was in school and they said, one of my friends says “I’ve got more money than you ‘cos you’re really, really poor, your family will always be poor’, and it really upset me.” 4.2 Tackling child poverty is everyone’s business because research shows that children and young people who grow up in poverty are: - More likely to offend - Less likely to do well at school - More likely to be taken into care - Less likely to use a range of cultural and leisure activities - More likely to suffer from poor health - Less likely to secure a good job as an adult 5.0: WHAT’S THE GOVERNMENT’S VIEW? 5.1 The commitment to eradicate child poverty has been made by successive Governments. 5.2 In 1999 the Labour Government set the aim of eradicating child poverty by 2020. In 2006 the Conservative Party promised to support this aim and David Cameron reinforced this in October 2007 when addressing a conference on the subject. The Liberal Democrat Party also promised their support in a policy paper and at their conference in September 2007. 5.3 In the 2009/10 parliamentary session, both future coalition partners voted in favour of the bill that became the Child Poverty Act 2010 which obtained Royal Assent on 25 March 2010. The Act is jointly sponsored by the Department for Education, the Department for Work and Pensions, and Her Majesty’s Treasury. 5.4 The Act requires the Secretary of State to meet four targets to eradicate child poverty by 2020. These are: - **Relative poverty** – to reduce the proportion of children who live in relative low income (in families with income below 60 per cent of the median) to less than 10%; - **Persistent poverty** – to reduce the proportion of children that experience ongoing periods of relative poverty, with the specific target to be set at a later date; - **Combined low income and material deprivation** – to reduce the proportion of children who live in material deprivation and have a low income to less than 5%; and - **Absolute poverty** – to reduce the proportion of children who live in absolute low income to less than 5%. 5.4 There is also a requirement in the Act for a national Child Poverty Strategy every three years to meet these targets and to reduce socio-economic disadvantage and the first of these is due for release in April 2011. 5.5 The national Strategy is informed by the Frank Field Review on Child Poverty (December 2010), the Graham Allen Review on Early Intervention and Prevention (February 2011), both commissioned by the Coalition Government, as well as the Marmot Review of health inequalities and report *Fair Society, Healthy Lives* (February 2010) and previous work by Ian Duncan Smith on the importance of service provision for 0 – 3 year olds. 5.6 Related work by the Coalition Government will also help the Coalition Government achieve its aims under the Child Poverty Act 2010. For example, the Social Mobility Strategy ‘Opening Doors, Breaking Barriers’ April 2011 focuses on deep-rooted sources of worklessness, lack of aspirations and barriers to advancement. 5.7 However, it is not the Government’s intention to create a hierarchical link from the national Child Poverty Strategy to local Strategies. Local authorities and their partners are expected to develop a Child Poverty Strategy that reflects local circumstances. To assist in this the Government is developing life chances indicators alongside the income driven indicators already in use. 6.0: HOW WILL WE DRIVE THE STRATEGY AND MEASURE IMPACT? 6.1 Our Priorities, anticipated Outcomes and Activities to implement this Strategy are set out above. We want to see more families in work, an increase in parental income, reduced differences between wards in family health and housing conditions, a better start in life for children and improved prospects for young people to avoid poverty. 6.2 Child poverty is everyone’s business from elected members and strategic managers to frontline staff. The Strategy does not contain an exhaustive list of all activity taking place across the county to tackle child poverty, but provides a framework for all organisations working with children and families across the county to plan how they contribute to the strategy and how best to develop and implement their own activities to achieve the child poverty outcomes. This will include linking with the identified priorities of the Local Children and Young People’s Trust Partnership Boards. 6.3 The Child Poverty Group will lead on how we are all held accountable for progress in reducing child poverty. It will do this by sponsoring the priorities and regularly reporting progress on achieving them. It is intended that this will stimulate and challenge communities and service providers to achieve the ambitious aims of this Strategy. 6.4 A key part of the role of the Sponsor will be to work with ‘operational leads’ for each Activity to drive the work forward and to challenge assumptions by assessing whether anything has changed. 6.5 For information on how the Child Poverty Group relates to the CYPT see the Trust website: http://www.buckspartnership.co.uk/assets/content/Partnerships/CYPT/cypt/trust_structure_oct.pdf “I’m sometimes sad, like other people get stuff and I wish I had that. Sometimes I feel like I am acting selfishly, I should be happy with what I’ve got.” 6.6 To date the Child Poverty Group has overseen and: - produced Even in Bucks…Child Poverty Local Area Needs Assessment (September 2010), an analysis of the statistical information about the extent and nature of child poverty across the county; - held a Child Poverty Practitioner Workshop (October 2010), attended by representatives of a wide range of statutory, community and voluntary services as well as services that promote local economic growth; - consulted (November 2010) with targeted groups and individuals, including children and young people, on a set of four Priorities and a range of Activities to tackle child poverty locally identified at the Workshop; - identified activities to implement the Priorities and Outcomes against which progress can be measured. 6.7 As the work with partners progresses the sponsors will gather information from the operational leads and wider information to monitor progress through report cards. We will develop performance indicators and targets to measure the impact on levels of child poverty across the county. These will be monitored by the CYPT Board. 6.8 The data collected for the Needs Assessment will not be refreshed during the duration of this three year strategy as it provides a baseline, or a picture at a point in time, from which the strategy to tackle child poverty has been developed. However, new indicators that measure life chances are also being developed by the Government and we will consider how to build them into our reporting framework. 6.9 The Child Poverty Group will review the performance indicators, targets and Activities at least annually to assess what impact there has been on achieving the Priorities and take appropriate action to ensure the objectives are achieved. 6.10 Towards the end of the 2013 a comprehensive evaluation will be conducted. This will review current partnership arrangements, update the knowledge base, revisit the Priorities, Outcomes and Activities and make appropriate amendments. 6.11 The Strategy will be made widely available through the CYPT website and other locations and it will be linked into other local plans and initiatives including the CYPP, Childcare Sufficiency Assessment, Local Economic Assessment, Sustainable Community Strategy, Joint Strategic Needs Assessment, Local Transport Plan, Local Area Plans. 6.12 Consultation is an ongoing feature of the child poverty work and we will continue to consult with parents, children and young people, practitioners, users of financial and employment support services and community groups to make sure the Strategy meets the needs of local people. **Restatement of intent** - Breaking the cycle of intergenerational poverty so that all children and young people can reach their full potential is as important in Buckinghamshire as any other part of the country. - Child Poverty is everyone’s business and we will work in partnership to implement our Priorities and achieve the Outcomes we want for children and young people living in poverty. - We will talk with people about what we are doing and focus on Activities that make a difference. *This Strategy provides a framework to tackle child poverty locally; action is now needed to bring about change and to:* **BREAK THE CYCLE ....TO CLOSE THE GAP** For further information please contact: 01296 382955 or email firstname.lastname@example.org
7d4b25de-c667-4fdd-9375-dba99e2d536d
CC-MAIN-2025-08
https://buckinghamshire.moderngov.co.uk/Data/BCC%20Bucks%20Strategic%20Partnership%20Board/201107121430/Agenda/Buckinghamshire%20Child%20Poverty%20Strategy%202011-2014.pdf
2025-02-16T02:16:39+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831952080.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20250216010123-20250216040123-00142.warc.gz
116,321,976
5,688
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.931561
eng_Latn
0.998172
[ "eng_Latn", "por_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 167, 938, 2700, 4551, 7132, 9582, 11064, 13863, 14353, 15893, 17942, 19614, 20915, 23804, 26469, 29066 ]
[ 2.5625, 1.875 ]
1
0
Attentive Teaching – teaching for understanding in heterogeneous classes Prof. Yaron Schur Head of The Center for Attentive Teaching David Yellin Academic College, Jerusalem, Israel Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Presov, 2019 Thinking and Seeing Rey’s Complex Figure Analyze the following copy and memory of the Complex Figure copy memory Feuerstein’s Deficient Cognitive Functions and the communication with the environment Feuerstein’s Deficient Cognitive Functions are the basis for the analysis of a drawing of a learner. They enable the mediator to discern the way the learner sees the environment (the reality) meaning the way she thinks in this context. One can change the cognitive functioning of a learner using mediation. Episodic Grasp of Reality Two pieces of information, two parts of a picture that are next to each other or two events that occurred one after the other – the learner will not connect cognitively to each other all the above. The fact that a learner acts with episodic grasp of reality in a certain context means that she was very passive in her gathering and processing information (input and elaboration phases). The learner will probably have problems with causal thinking. Analyze the following copy and memory of the Complex Figure Narrowness of the Mental Field The learner sees the Complex Figure in stripes. One stripe after the other. The stripes are connected to each other. There is no view of the shape as a whole and of its ingredients that are spread beyond the specific stripes. “This is illustrated figuratively by the “short blanket” phenomenon in which one uncovers one’s legs by covering one’s head and vice versa…” “It seems to be linked to the passive attitude toward his own self… It occurs to him and not by him…” (Feuerstein et al., 1980, p. 93, 94) How can you explain this copy of Rey’s complex figure by a 13 year old student who learnt in a regular class? A village in Ethiopia – Do you see geometrical shapes? Lack of Verbal Skills One can see what one knows. If one has never observed the surface of the moon, one will have difficulties to observe it, even with the use of the best visual equipment. The Ethiopian new immigrants to Israel came without playing with geometrical shapes and without knowing their names. "...it is clear that a lack of appropriate verbal labels will affect the input phase" (Feuerstein et al., 1980, p. 81, 94). One can mediate the needed knowledge. The Feuerstein revolution – Focusing on the human being Belief in the ability of human beings to change their cognitive abilities Mediating cognitive strategies and awareness Listening to the place of the learners in real time The Democratic principle: one can teach every human being The individual I am educating is modifiable I am capable of enabling the individual to modify Human beings are modifiable Can one focus on the human being while teaching content? Attentive Teaching Egon Schiele – House wall (Window wall) - 1914 A new Book: Schur (2019) The Art of Attentive Teaching Teaching a human being • Listening to the wider place of the learner in the classroom. She activates her senses and involves her knowledge and cognitive and emotional processes. One has to relate to all of them in order to teach her. • Each learner has her own learning path, starts from a unique place and ends in another unique place. What is Understanding? (Bloom, 2000) 1. Description and definition 2. Visual representation 3. Context Teaching in two levels of understanding 1. Dynamic Learning – Teaching for understanding connected to the senses, to specific environments 1. Thinking Journey (TJ) – Teaching for theoretical understanding, disconnected from the known environment Comparison between the way a child and a grown-up saw a tree Adults see forms and children colors • In many instances one could analyze drawings of adults and children and pay attention to the fact that adults see mainly forms and children see mainly colors. Forms relate to the analytical way the adults observe the world. • Children are usually more sensitive to disorders and pains around them, like drawing the broken branches above. Knowledge can be painful What is special about the drawing? Three drawings of the Earth • During the two interviews with Tami (a student of Ethiopian origin), she drew three drawings of the Earth, that showed her perception of it. • When she was asked to draw the Earth, she drew the following: The Earth in the sky Tami drew the Earth in the sky, near the moon and above the clouds. She claimed she had never seen the Earth, never stood on it, and never met people who lived there. Defending from knowledge What does it mean “to put the Earth in the sky”? Tami felt the need to defend herself from the knowledge, taught in the Geography class. One can see that she knew the scientific information about the Earth. She drew longitudes and a latitude (maybe the equator), the Earth as a sphere, and she knew about the degrees noting the latitudes. But she put all the information away from her, as far as she could, because she could not connect to the Earth. Dynamic Learning – A house The learnt topic can evoke unexpected reactions Model of a house child Kindergarten teacher The teacher and the learner did not listen to each other: The house of my dreams The 5 years old child saw a house on fire and the teacher saw an ideal house. The perceptions did not change even after showing the initial drawings and talking to each other. The basic points of view stayed intact. Teaching heterogeneous classes Taking into account the gap between teaching and learning in the classroom: The teacher has to be attentive to the place of the learners along the whole process: Learning is much longer and different from the planned teaching Learning itinerary is unexpected The design of teaching for understanding should take into account the real learning processes of students of all ages and academic levels The challenge of the heterogeneous class - The classes are becoming more and more heterogeneous - Every learner learns in her unique way - How can we teach a class with so many voices? - There is a need to be able to have a new way of communication with the students in the classroom in order to be able to teach them in a way that will relate to their unique worlds The use of drawings in subject matter teaching The use of drawings enables to open up a window to the inner worlds of learners enabling them to express a broad understanding of concepts and uncertainty processes related to the learning process. Teaching each student from her unique place and learning process Attentive Teaching Deals with improving classroom communication Enables an intensive discourse on the way to understanding There are hundreds of works and examples of attentive teaching in school classes, kindergartens, academic courses, special and regular education The qualitative study examined the conceptual understanding process of 5 students who learnt in a class of 14 students in 10th grade who studied the topic of refraction. The students experienced four creative mediated interactions in the classroom that created Thinking Journey and were interviewed in the process of their learning. Imagine that suddenly you became very small, even smaller than a dot on a piece of paper. You are situated inside a drop of water. How does the world around you is seen to you, now? Draw it and explain your answer in details. Initial Observations Students’ drawings: Big and distorted environments AVITAL GALI Students’ drawings: Nearest Objects CHEN Students’ drawings: very small objects BEN SHIRA Imagine you are the light. You can move really fast. But you can think even faster. In this respect you are better than Superman. You know that your velocity in the water is slower than on the beach. Draw the itinerary, that will enable you save the drowning beauty. Different solutions of students: What is the best itinerary for the best integration of the velocities on the beach and water? The line should be broken!!! Mature Observations. View from a drop of water – after learning GALI SHIRA BEN CHEN AVITAL Analysis of levels of understanding 1. No relations to scientific principles 2. Trying to use scientific principles 3. Partial theoretical understanding 4. Theoretical-scientific understanding From general view to expressing the processes of being able to see an object through its lighting, reflection and refraction. Putting question marks, feelings of failures and uncertainty, and then a bulb symbolizes a clear view of the answer. Theoretical-scientific understanding SHIRA SHIRA There are initial relations to scientific principles. Only in the last minute she saw some light through the clouds. The goals of TJ - Enabling students change their conceptual understanding - Connecting between conceptual understanding and observations of relevant environments - Overcoming egocentric understanding of students Ingredients of TJ - Creating mediated dialogues in the classroom, enabling the students present their understanding - Designing the perspectives, environments and contexts needed for constructing the learnt concept - The use of a variety of teaching languages, emphasizing visual representations - Active participation of both: teacher and students - Empowering the students Attentive Teaching - Focus on the students’ unique learning paths - Enabling conceptual changes - Constructing learning assignments enabling mediation - Activity of the teacher and students in the learning process - Empowering the students - Uncertainty processes as integral part of the learning - The importance of the use of drawings Dynamic Learning of Earthquake Earthquake Student 1 mediator Earthquake Student 2 Mediator - drawing with student 2 Earthquake – an Imaginary Story Student 1 Student 2 Earthquake – The concept at the end of the learning process Student 1 Student 2 Earthquake – Uncertainty processes (feelings) Student 1 Student 2 Dynamic Learning - Addition The Reflection symmetry-initial observations Mature observations teacher student Dynamic Learning - Third Teaching the concept “third” student teacher Teaching the concept “third” after creating imaginary stories student teacher A list of some relevant articles - Schur, Y. & Galili, I. (2009). Thinking Journey: A New Mode of Teaching Science. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education. 7, 627-646 - Schur, Y. (2015). Thinking Journeys in the Classroom – The Power of Uncertainty and Mediation. Professional Development Today. - Stein, H., Galili, I. & Schur, Y. (2014). Teaching A New Conceptual Framework of Weight and Gravitation in Middle School. *Journal of Research in Science Teaching (JRST)*. DOI: 10.1002/tea.21238 Thank you!
8bc29c8d-6c6c-478c-87f3-da918e73b9b6
CC-MAIN-2022-27
https://www.dyellin.ac.il/sites/default/files/attentive_teaching_insitute/attentive_teaching_teaching_for_understanding_in_heterogeneous_classes.pdf
2022-06-28T09:54:11+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103360935.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20220628081102-20220628111102-00042.warc.gz
796,342,906
2,278
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.929127
eng_Latn
0.997091
[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "dag_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 228, 271, 346, 742, 1221, 1282, 1823, 1934, 1990, 2466, 2881, 2939, 3063, 3403, 3508, 3763, 3825, 4205, 4267, 4695, 5176, 5300, 5602, 6036, 6405, 6718, 6990, 7324, 7552, 7735, 8003, 8160, 8258, 8453, 8697, 8749, 8867, 9458, 9797, 9862, 9920, 9975, 10058, 10127, 10202, 10241, 10315, 10396, 10911, 10923 ]
[ 2.953125 ]
1
0
Digital Accessibility 101 What is digital accessibility and whom does it benefit? Presented by: Courtney Ness Fuchs, ATP & Jamis Wehrenberg May 10th, 2023 What we’ll cover today: • A general definition of digital accessibility • Ways people with disabilities access digital materials • Common barriers to accessibility and how to fix them • Resources to help you get started creating accessible materials Accessible digital materials provide equal experiences of content to all consumers. Accessible digital content is: • Able to be consumed by everyone, regardless of how they access it • Required by law for federal agencies and recipients of federal assistance under Sections 508 and 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 • Do Section 508 Accessibility Standards Apply to My Website? | Section508.gov • Good for search engine optimization (SEO) and business What are some ways people with disabilities access digital content? • A blind individual may use a screen reading software such as JAWS or Windows Narrator • A person with gross or fine motor impairments may use a keyboard to navigate instead of a mouse • A person with severe cerebral palsy may use accessibility switches vs. a mouse and keyboard • A person with ALS might use an eye-tracking software • A senior with severe arthritis might use a touchscreen Barriers to accessing content This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC Common barriers to accessibility • Content that isn’t properly structured, i.e. has no heading levels, uses tabs to create the illusion of columns • Difficult-to-read fonts and spacing • Color as the only way of conveying meaning, i.e. red is a required field • Inadequate color contrast • Images, charts, graphs, etc. without alt text • Audio and video files without captions • Too complex of language START with accessibility in mind It is far easier to build accessible materials from scratch than to remodel brick-by-brick. ISSUE 1: Lack of Structure • Content doesn’t follow a logical structure • Content isn’t navigable. The user can’t easily identify where they are or find content. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY ISSUE 1: How to fix • Use accessible templates • Use appropriate level headers, i.e. Heading 1, Heading 2, Heading 3 • Do not use tabs and spaces to create columns or lists. Instead: • Insert bulleted or numbered lists • Modify the number of columns • Verify tab order to ensure your content is read in the order you intended ISSUE 2: Difficult-to-read fonts & spacing • Some fonts are difficult-to-read for many users • Avoid script fonts: *Don’t try to be fancy with script fonts* • What year is it even? Leave these fonts in the past: • 2000 (Curlz) • 1880 (Playbill) • 1554 (Old English) • 1700 BC (Papyrus) ISSUE 2: Difficult-to-read fonts & spacing continued • Justifying text can create uneven text spacing which can be difficult for individuals with dyslexia or visual stress Example of “rivers of white” in a text By Petr Kadlec - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7130453 ISSUE 2: How to fix • Use simple, familiar fonts such as Arial, Calibri, Helvetica Neue, or Verdana • Use size 12 font or higher • Keep the number of fonts and font sizes used to a minimum • Avoid long segments of bolded or UPPERCASE text • Do not use justified text instead: • Use left alignment for large blocks of text • Center alignment is okay for small blocks of text ISSUE 3: Color as the only method of conveying information • Not everyone perceives color the same way! • 1 in 12 men and 1 in 20 women have some form of colorblindness • The ability to perceive color and contrast can decline with age. • Cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration, Alzheimer’s, multiple sclerosis, eye injuries, brain injuries, and certain medications can impact color perception • Even those w/o color perception differences may not be able to discern meaning from color if the document is printed in grayscale ISSUE 3: How to fix • Use more than just color to convey meaning • Other methods of conveying meaning that can be used on their own or in combination with color • Bolding • *Italicizing* • Underlining • Adding asterixis** • Increasing text size Use grayscale to do a quick check of color as a means of conveying info • View your PowerPoint in grayscale 1. Go to the View tab. 2. In the Color/Grayscale section, select Grayscale. • Print to PDF in grayscale • In Microsoft products: File > Print > From the Printer drop-down menu, Select Print to PDF > Under Settings, select Grayscale from the Color options drop-down menu ISSUE 4: Inadequate color contrast • Is this medium blue text on a dark blue background easy to read? • No? How about this lime-green text instead? A little better? • How about this light blue text on the dark blue background? It is definitely the easiest to read, right? • How about lime-green text on a light blue background? Is that easy to read? • Is medium blue text any easier to read? • The dark blue text is by far the easiest to read on this light-blue background. ISSUE 4: How to fix • Follow the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2 “color contrast” standards • WCAG2 is a set of international standards for web content accessibility. • WebAIM’s article explaining WCAG2’s color and contrast in layperson’s terms • There are 3 levels of WCAG: Level A (lowest), Level AA, & Level AAA (highest) • WCAG 2.0 Level AA Standards for “color contrast”: • 4.5:1 for standard text • 3.1 for large text • Don’t round up! 4.48 ≠ 4.5 4.5:1 Is the bare minimum This black text on lime green background has a contrast ratio of 9.18:1. 2 free color contrast checking tools WebAIM’s Contrast Checker TBGI’s Colour Contrast Analyser Colour Contrast Analyser (CCA) TPGi’s free color contrast checker tool that allows you to easily determine the contrast ratio of two colors simply using an eyedropper tool. The CCA enables you to optimize your content—including text and visual elements—for individuals with vision disabilities like color-blindness and low-vision impairments. Features - Compliance indicators for Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.1 (WCAG 2.1) - Multiple ways to select colors: you can manually enter CSS color formats, use an RGB Slider, or opt for the color picker tool - Color Blindness Simulator ISSUE 5: Non-text elements without text alternatives • Images, pictures, icons, graphics, and illustrations without alt text • Charts and graphs without a text description of their content • Audio recordings without transcripts • Videos without captions • Videos without properly described visual content (audio description) ISSUE 5: How to fix • PLEASE NOTE: Alt text is an art, deserving of its own webinar. There are many incredible resources online. • Add a text alternative for any non-text element • Images should have alt text • Alt text is a written description of that element’s content. It should be based on the context the content is being presented in. • Audio recordings should have transcripts • Add captions and if necessary, audio descriptions to your videos ISSUE 6 & How to fix: Language that is too complex • Keep your audience in mind. • Avoid technical jargon. • Use plain, simple language • Be concise. Keep sentences short. • When writing for the general public, aim for Flesh-Kincaid Grade Level 8 • Get your document's readability and level statistics - Microsoft Support RESOURCES • Office of Accessibility / Minnesota IT Services (mn.gov) • Web and Document Accessibility Training - North Dakota Assistive (ndassistive.org) • Digital Accessibility Courses - AT3 Center • WebAIM: Web Accessibility In Mind • Accessibility Principles | Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) | W3C CONTACT US North Dakota Assistive Courtney Ness Fuchs, ATP Assistive Technology Training Specialist firstname.lastname@example.org North Dakota Assistive - Homepage (ndassistive.org) Toll-Free: 800-895-4728 ND Assistive | Fargo ND | Facebook Minnesota STAR Jamis Wehrenberg Assistive Technology Specialist email@example.com Minnesota STAR Program - A System of Technology to Achieve Results / STAR (mn.gov) Toll-Free: 888-234-1267 Relay: 800-624-3529 MN STAR Program | Saint Paul MN | Facebook
64e0d17c-8a7a-499c-86c4-d7a89e600427
CC-MAIN-2023-23
https://ndassistive.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Digital-Accessibility-101.pdf
2023-06-06T01:56:21+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224652207.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20230606013819-20230606043819-00337.warc.gz
457,004,819
1,958
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.903097
eng_Latn
0.976063
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "dag_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 156, 408, 493, 871, 1337, 1428, 1839, 1966, 2184, 2516, 2812, 3123, 3503, 4039, 4296, 4683, 5164, 5745, 6435, 6762, 7221, 7546, 7853, 8358 ]
[ 2.71875 ]
1
0
FEELING THE HEAT: The fate of nature beyond 1.5°C of global warming Climate change is already having an impact on people, nature and the one shared home we all rely on. This must be the year world leaders put our planet first. In a single lifetime, we’ve seen the widespread destruction of our natural world: land cleared for agriculture, oceans stripped of life and polluted with waste, and our air filled with harmful emissions. This is creating a hotter, less stable planet for people and nature – putting our very survival at risk. In this report, we highlight 12 species that are experiencing the devastating impacts of climate change, and we outline how their future depends on humanity’s urgent response to the environmental crisis. Our list includes mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects, birds, plants and corals – and it covers impacts across the globe, from here in the UK to the frozen wilderness of Antarctica and deep in the Amazon rainforest. We share powerful voices from the frontline of the climate emergency, including those losing their homes to sea-level rise in the Fijian islands and Maasai farmers facing intense droughts in Tanzania. Despite raised ambitions from political and business leaders to tackle climate change, the world is not on track to prevent catastrophic damage. Current climate pledges known as nationally determined contributions, or NDCs, and net-zero targets for 2050 will not deliver the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming to 1.5°C. In fact, they are projected to lead to a temperature rise of 2.4°C above pre-industrial levels by the end of the century. As this report details, every fraction of a degree of additional warming can permanently damage many critical ecosystems and lead to the extinction of even more species. If we are to secure a future for some of our most iconic species and habitats, and indeed ourselves, then 2021 must be a turning point. And there is hope. The UK’s presidency of the UN climate conference known as COP26, later this year, provides a unique opportunity for us to lead the way. We must act to ensure we can keep global temperature rise to 1.5°C and make nature our ‘climate hero’. How we respond will determine the future prosperity and health of us all, and of our one shared home. Climate change and the loss of nature are the biggest environmental crises of our time – and we are the last generation that can stop their most devastating impacts. The world’s average surface temperature has risen by around 1°C since the Industrial Revolution. The impacts of this on people and nature are already measurable and will get a lot worse if we do not act urgently. The impacts are felt everywhere – from tropical forests to remote mountaintops, from wetlands to the icy wilderness of the polar regions. We are experiencing more extreme events such as prolonged heatwaves and wildfires, warmer oceans and back-to-back coral bleaching events, retreating glaciers and rising sea levels. Climate change has brought changes to all types of animal and plant life on every continent. Higher temperatures can shift the suitable range for species, disrupt the timing of their life cycle, and increase the frequency and intensity of extreme events that directly affect their natural habitats. These risks will all escalate as global temperatures rise. Most species have evolved to survive in a particular environmental niche – and their historical distribution reflects this. Some may be able to adapt to higher heat and altered rainfall patterns. But others will need to shift their range to follow their preferred climates – typically moving to find more suitable cooler homes towards the poles and up hills. In the UK, the ranges of many species, including birds, butterflies, moths and dragonflies, have already shifted northwards over the last four decades. In the ocean, changing conditions have contributed to the range shift of highly mobile species. A rapid shift in the distribution of the northern Atlantic mackerel stock towards Greenland waters was seen earlier this century. But other species are unable to move because their habitat is too rare or fragmented, or too hard to reach because they face natural or human-made barriers. In some parts of the world certain species may, at least temporarily, appear to do better with more food available or as previously inhospitable areas become more suitable for colonisation. Threats to species are often complex, meaning different species, and even different populations of the same species, can display different responses. Shifts in temperature and habitat and food availability dramatically for different species, including exerting a powerful influence over populations and distribution of Antarctica’s penguin species. In west Antarctica, rapid warming has caused sea ice extent to decrease rapidly. As a result, populations of the ice-adapted Adélie penguin in this region are generally declining, whereas populations of the ice-averse gentoo penguin are increasing. Increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events are putting wildlife under additional pressure, leading to high mortality and reproductive failures. For example, extreme heatwaves have caused massive die-offs in flying fox populations in Australia. Climate change can make existing habitats unsuitable and reduce the availability of natural resources such as water. When habitat and food become scarcer, wild animals may turn to livestock and crops, increasing the risk of conflict between people and wildlife. The climate crisis is not simply about the disappearance of certain animals and plants from particular places, but about profound changes to ecosystems that provide vital services to hundreds of millions of people. Half of the world’s warm-water coral reefs have already been lost, with impacts on other marine life and coastal communities. Sea levels have risen by 16cm since the start of the 20th century, and the continuing trend threatens the existence of entire communities in coastal and low-lying areas. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme events such as heatwaves, floods, droughts and wildfires driven by climate change is having a devastating effect on food security and livelihoods, with losses of crops and livestock production. Least developed countries are the worst affected. With 2021 a critical year for climate action, world leaders must step up to deliver on ambitious targets that will put our planet on the path to recovery – protecting the health, wealth and security of future generations. These actions must be achieved without leaving anyone behind. WHY DOES 1.5°C MATTER? Half a degree might sound insignificant, but the projected harm to unique and threatened systems increases enormously between a 1.5°C limit and higher temperature rises. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) *Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C* highlights many differences in climate risks at 1.5°C, 2°C and higher levels of warming on land and in the oceans. Risks from droughts and heavy precipitation events are projected to increase. Vulnerable communities who depend on agricultural or coastal livelihoods are likely to suffer impacts and increasingly face food insecurity. They will clearly benefit from a strict implementation of the Paris targets. For example, at 1.5°C, there will still be reductions in the yields of maize, rice, wheat and other cereal crops, but they are expected to be much smaller, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, south-east Asia and Latin America. Low-lying and coastal communities are highly vulnerable to sea-level rise. Global sea-level rise by 2100 is projected to be 10cm higher at 2°C than if we keep to 1.5°C. Such a difference would expose up to 10 million more people to risks. A half-degree increase would also permanently damage a variety of ecosystems and lead to the extinction of even more species across the globe. For example, warm-water coral reefs are projected to decline by a further 70–90% at 1.5°C warming but would be virtually lost under a 2°C scenario. If emissions keep rising as they are today, all known emperor penguin colonies will decline and most will be quasi-extinct by the end of the century – but if we keep to 1.5°C their future can be secured. A global assessment showed that the potential effects of climate change on the range sizes of more than 105,000 terrestrial species It found that keeping temperature rise to 1.5°C rather than 2°C would halve the proportion of plants and vertebrates that are projected to lose more than 50% of their geographical range. Under the same scenario, the number of insects facing such range loss would decrease by two-thirds. Time is of the essence. To save humanity’s crucial life-support systems, the global community must act now. If we fail to limit global warming to 1.5°C, we will face even greater risks of a global decline of functioning ecosystems and an irreversible and catastrophic loss of species. CLIMATE RISKS: 1.5°C vs 2°C GLOBAL WARMING Based on the IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C and Special Report on Oceans and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. **SPECIES** - **1.5°C** - 6% of insects, 8% of plants and 4% of vertebrates will be affected - **2°C** - 18% of insects, 16% of plants and 8% of vertebrates will be affected **EXTREME WEATHER** - **1.5°C** - 100% increase in flood risk - **2°C** - 170% increase in flood risk **PEOPLE** - **1.5°C** - 9% of the world’s population (700 million people) will be exposed to extreme heatwaves at least once every 20 years - **2°C** - 28% of the world’s population (2 billion people) will be exposed to extreme heatwaves at least once every 20 years **OCEANS** Lower risks to marine biodiversity, ecosystems and their ecological functions and services at 1.5°C than at 2°C **ARCTIC SEA ICE** - **1.5°C** - Ice-free summers in the Arctic at least once every 100 years - **2°C** - Ice-free summers in the Arctic at least once every 10 years **CORAL BLEACHING** - **1.5°C** - 70% of world’s coral reefs are lost by 2050 - **2°C** - Virtually all coral reefs are lost by 2050 **SEA-LEVEL RISE** 10cm higher at 2°C than at 1.5°C in 2100. This difference would expose up to 10 million more people to risks **COSTS** Lower economic growth at 2°C than at 1.5°C for many countries, particularly low-income countries **FOOD** Every 0.5°C of warming will consistently lead to lower yields and lower nutritional content in tropical regions **WATER AVAILABILITY** - **1.5°C** - 350 million urban residents exposed to severe drought by 2100 - **2°C** - 410 million urban residents exposed to severe drought by 2100 Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities are the dominant cause of the climate crisis. The main drivers are carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels for energy (for example in industry, transport and to heat buildings) and from releasing carbon stored in vegetation and soils (for example through deforestation to clear land for agriculture). Agriculture also contributes large amounts of the greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide. To tackle climate change and its negative impacts, 196 countries (together with the EU) adopted the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2015. They agreed to pursue efforts to limit global temperature rises to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. All nations must include rapid and deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions, together with protecting and enhancing natural carbon sinks such as forests, soils and wetlands. However, despite political statements and action to date, the world is not on track to slow climate change. Short-term country climate pledges – known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs) – and mid-century net-zero targets are estimated to lead to a temperature rise of 2.4°C by the end of the century. In 2020 the global average temperature was 1.2°C above pre-industrial levels and the six years since the Paris Agreement have been the warmest on record. This only serves to reinforce the urgency of both high political ambitions and action on the ground. To keep the long-term temperature goal of the Paris Agreement within reach, countries that have not done so must submit and implement new and more ambitious NDCs. All nations need to strengthen and implement policies to rapidly and deeply cut greenhouse gas emissions and restore nature. Climate change is a hot topic in the UK this year, in part because Glasgow will host COP26 in November. If the future of some of our most iconic species is to be secured, world leaders must take more action in 2021 to close the emissions gap and put the world on a 1.5°C pathway. SPECIES FEELING THE HEAT - ATLANTIC PUFFIN - BUMBLEBEE - BLUEBELLS - MOUNTAIN HARE - SNOW LEOPARD - LEATHERBACK TURTLE - BLACK-HEADED SQUIRREL MONKEY - DARWIN’S FROG - EMPEROR PENGUIN - COFFEE - HIPPOPOTAMUS - CORAL ATLANTIC PUFFIN TOO LATE FOR LUNCH Sometimes called the ‘clown of the sea’, the Atlantic puffin may not delight bird lovers for much longer if ocean temperatures continue to rise. They lead a solitary life at sea, feeding and travelling. They return to land for a few months per year to breed. The UK provides vital nesting habitat for them in the summer. Europe is home to over 90% of the Atlantic puffin population, but their numbers have been crashing in the last two decades. Puffins face multiple threats. Overfishing has already severely reduced their food source. And since they are diving to catch fish, puffins are at risk of becoming entangled themselves in fishing gear. Now climate change is driving drastic declines in puffin and other seabird numbers. Global warming leads to more severe and frequent weather events, which affects the puffins that spend most of their time at sea. High winds and heavy rainfall affect the birds’ ability to dive and find food. During the breeding season, extreme weather chills the eggs while storms destroy nests with chicks. All elements of the marine ecosystem are inter-connected, and rising sea surface temperatures disrupt the entire marine food web the birds rely on for their survival. Puffins eat a mix of small pelagic fish, such as herrings, sprats, capelins and sandeels. Sandeels eat tiny crustaceans called copepods that form dense swarms in certain places at specific times. Timing is everything, and sandeel larvae conveniently hatch close to the start of one such bloom in the spring. With plenty of food to eat, the baby sandeels can grow and become the meal of their top predators, puffins, who feed the nutritious fish to their growing chicks during nesting season. Warmer waters trigger this food chain to be out of sync. In what scientists call a ‘trophic mismatch’, copepods are blooming before sandeels hatch. This results in fewer sandeels for the puffins to feed their young, causing the failure of entire colonies. Between 2000 and 2016, the mismatch between sandeels and copepods was estimated to be 19.8 days, and this will increase with higher temperatures. If we want to keep puffins and other seabird species afloat, we need to act now and limit the rise in global temperatures. EUROPE IS HOME TO OVER 90% OF THE ATLANTIC PUFFIN POPULATION, BUT THEIR NUMBERS HAVE BEEN CRASHING IN THE LAST TWO DECADES As the UK’s only true native hares, mountain hares living in the Highlands of Scotland have evolved a brilliant strategy to escape predators. In the summer, they display a brown pelage that blends in with the environment. In October, they moult and switch to a white coat that keeps them well camouflaged in the snow. Then in March, they moult again and revert back to their summer outfit. But the strategy is not working so well in a warming climate. Annual snow cover in the Scottish Highlands has declined by over 37 days on average between 1960 and 2016. If mountain hares could adapt to the change by moulting later in the autumn and earlier in the spring they would better match the change in snow cover. So far, the evidence shows this hasn’t been happening, as climate change is occurring at a faster rate than the hares can adapt. They still keep their white coat on for roughly the same amount of time in the winter. This means the hares’ camouflage is now mismatched to their environment for more than a month each year longer compared to 1960. During that time, they exhibit striking white fur against a snowless background, which leaves them more vulnerable to predators who can spot them more easily on the dark mountainside. The mismatch is dangerous not just for hares in Scotland: it is a risk for many species that rely on seasonal changes in coat as an adaptation to avoid predators. In North America, a study showed that the weekly survival of snowshoe hares decreased by up to 14% when they were mismatched against their surroundings. Mountain hare numbers have also fallen in parts of Norway, linked to increased predation in areas with fewer snow days. The climate change threat is not limited to a coat colour mismatch. Hares thrive in cold conditions. Warmer temperatures will push them to move higher, into smaller and more fragmented territories. Researchers who have been tracking hares in the Swiss Alps have found that their alpine habitat will reduce by around 35% by 2100. Warmer weather at a critical time of year will shrink the environment suitable for successful reproduction. It is essential to limit further temperature increases to maintain suitable hare habitat and so that the animals get more time to develop a climate-adapted wardrobe. With deep blue colours and an enchanting perfume, bluebell woods in full bloom are one of most magical experiences associated with springtime in the UK. But the sight may become rarer in the future. With a warming climate, the bluebells, along with other countryside plant species, may have a hard time. Under the projection of global temperatures rising to 2°C, large parts of southern and central England are likely to be become inhospitable for bluebells. A member of the lily family, the bluebell overwinters as a bulb and emerges in the spring to flower between mid-April and late May. Temperature controls plant development and flowering. In the spring and early summer, drought can reduce their growth. Warmer temperatures can impede germination and can shift timing of flowering to become out of sync with the seasons. A study based on 100,000 observations of plants recorded by nature enthusiasts for the Woodland Trust revealed that the first leafing or flowering dates for bluebells and 21 other plant species across the UK were affected by warmer spring temperatures. For each 1°C temperature increase, the plants were leafing or flowering between three and eight days earlier than they used to. Plants have an optimum time and conditions for developing leaves and flowers which give them the best chance to grow and reproduce. With warmer temperatures and drier conditions, their future may be compromised. Bluebells take advantage of the open canopy in early spring, growing and flowering before the canopy closes over as the leaves of beech, oak and other trees expand. If bluebells cannot time their growth and development to coincide with the changing seasons, they may lose out. The native British bluebell is already under threat from pollution, the destruction of woodland habitat through urban development, and the invasion of the introduced Spanish bluebell varieties that are less colourful and fragrant than the native flowers, but more vigorous. If we do not limit the rise in global temperatures, climate change could make our beloved native bluebells only a countryside memory in parts of the UK. Among the most important pollinators, bumblebees can generate heat while flying and their fuzzy bodies act as a warm coat. With these special adaptations, they thrive in cold climates. But they are susceptible to overheating and a warming world is pushing them to temperatures they cannot tolerate. A recent study of over half a million observations of 66 bumblebee species around the world, going back for more than a century, shows where the insects used to live and where they are found today – with evidence of rapid and widespread declines. The researchers discovered that the chances of spotting a bumblebee in any given area in North America have dropped by almost half from 1901-1974 to 2000–2014 and by 17% in Europe on average. Their disappearance from a region means they have either moved elsewhere or died. Bumblebees have been hit the hardest in warmer places, including Mexico and Spain, where they cannot cope with increasing temperatures. But even in relatively cool regions such as the UK, bumblebees have also been declining. While some bumblebees have responded to the hotter temperatures by colonising cooler, more northerly regions, this has not been enough to compensate for the losses. The extent of their range expansion is far smaller than the extent of range lost, which could push some bumblebee species towards extinction. Approximately 250 species of bumblebees exist in the world, and climate change is not the only factor driving their widespread decline. Bumblebees face multiple threats to their existence, including the destruction of habitat due to intensive agriculture and land-use changes, the spread of diseases, the use of harmful pesticides such as neonicotinoids, and the release of non-native bees for commercial pollination. For example, great yellow bumblebees used to be found throughout the UK. In the last century their population has declined by 80% because of climate change, pesticides, the loss of flower-rich meadows and the intensification of farming. They are now restricted to the northern Highlands and the islands of Scotland. Bumblebees pollinate many types of wild plants as well as agricultural crops such as tomatoes, aubergines and blueberries. The loss of the important ecosystem services they provide threatens food security and overall biodiversity. If we do not act now to limit global temperatures, climate change could be the final straw for some bumblebee species. Emperor penguins, the largest of all living penguin species, are uniquely adapted to living in the extreme conditions of Antarctica. They require stable, fast ice for at least nine months of the year as a platform to mate, incubate their eggs, raise their chicks, and replace their feathers during the annual moult. Although there is uncertainty about the magnitude of future sea ice decline, the loss of Antarctic sea ice due to rising global temperatures is now almost certain. Emperor penguins are vulnerable to different kinds of change in sea ice. Their breeding success, and therefore the continued existence of their populations, depends on ‘Goldilocks’ conditions – the sea ice being just right for their needs. The birds not only require gaps in the sea ice to access feeding grounds, but also a thick, stable platform for raising their chicks. Very extensive sea ice cover means adults must travel long distances to reach the open water and their prey for feeding. This requires far more energy, which leads to reduced breeding success. Too little sea ice also has a dramatic impact, such as when sea ice forms late in autumn or breaks up too early in spring. At such times, the chicks have not had time to develop and acquire the waterproof plumage they need to survive in the cold Southern Ocean. Although emperor penguins can relocate to other breeding sites, this will not protect them very far into the future, given projected decreases in sea ice. Emperor penguins are not very agile, so relocating onto land is not an easy option. Only humans can change the fate of this iconic species. Scientists have modelled future changes in emperor penguin populations under different climate scenarios. If greenhouse gas emissions continue rising as they are today, the total number of emperor penguins will decrease dramatically by 2100. All known colonies will decline and most will be quasi-extinct by the end of the century. But global climate policy can help to safeguard the future of these icons on ice. If governments restrict greenhouse gas emissions now, average global temperature rises could be limited to 1.5°C, securing the future of emperor penguin populations. THE LOSS OF ANTARCTIC SEA ICE DUE TO RISING GLOBAL TEMPERATURES IS NOW ALMOST CERTAIN SNOW LEOPARD ON THE EDGE OF THE WORLD Highly adapted to harsh and cold conditions, snow leopards have roamed the high, remote mountains of central and south Asia for more than two million years. Currently threatened by poaching, habitat destruction and conflicts with people over livestock, it is estimated there are as few as 4,000 snow leopards left, across 12 countries. Snow leopards are facing a major emerging threat in the form of climate change. Warming temperatures are altering the elusive felines’ mountainous climates. Snow leopard habitat is projected to decline by 23% by 2070 if we don’t take global action to cut greenhouse gas emissions. In countries such as Bhutan and Nepal, habitat loss will exceed 60%. The increases in temperature and rainfall are expected to shift the tree line higher up the mountains, particularly in the Greater Himalaya region. The upward movement of the tree line drives the growth of plant species that do not provide ideal habitat and grazing for the snow leopard’s prey. Furthermore, as the forest habitat expands at the expense of alpine meadows, the change might benefit other predators, better adapted to the forest than snow leopards – such as wolves and common leopards. This could result in intense competition for food and resources, with the snow leopard at risk of losing out. Additionally, warmer conditions risk heightening other threats, such as enabling people and their livestock to move higher into the mountains, which will set the stage for increased conflict between snow leopards and humans. In some areas, people’s livestock will directly compete with the leopard’s prey, such as blue sheep, for grazing the remaining small pastures. As their prey is displaced, hungry snow leopards will increasingly turn to livestock, which places them at greater risk of being killed by herders. The cascading consequences of climate change leave snow leopards in a vulnerable position. Researchers have identified three areas that account for about 35% of snow leopards’ habitat in the high mountains of Asia and can act as climate refuges. To secure these resilient geographical areas and a long-term future for snow leopards, we must curb carbon emissions. And we must find ways for people and snow leopards to coexist in the ever-smaller habitats these elusive cats will rely on. CURRENTLY THREATENED BY POACHING, HABITAT DESTRUCTION, AND CONFLICTS WITH PEOPLE OVER LIVESTOCK, IT IS ESTIMATED THERE ARE AS FEW AS 4,000 SNOW LEOPARDS LEFT, ACROSS 12 COUNTRIES Turtles and tortoises have been around for about 220 million years. They once lived with dinosaurs. Today, more than half of the 360 species of turtles and tortoises are threatened with extinction. These ancient reptiles are declining rapidly due to habitat destruction, poaching, plastic pollution, accidental capture in fishing gear, and now climate change. Six of the seven marine turtle species are threatened – and leatherback turtles are no exception. Found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, leatherback turtles are the largest and deepest-diving of all living turtles. Adults can weigh more than half a tonne. But these gentle giants are sensitive to the smallest change in temperature. The sex of a marine turtle is determined during the incubation of the egg on the nesting beach where it was laid, and the mix of males and females depends on the temperature of the sand. Hotter sand – which is consistent with global warming – leads to a disproportionately higher number of female turtles. There is already evidence that a major nesting site in north-western Costa Rica produced 90% female leatherback hatchlings. If temperatures climb too high, things get even worse and eggs fail to hatch. This can threaten the survival of leatherbacks and other turtle populations. Furthermore, rising sea levels, higher tides and increased storm events, which are more likely as the climate changes, wash away turtle nests and permanently destroy nesting beaches in the long term. Without anywhere to lay their eggs, the turtles cannot reproduce. Turtles have shown extraordinary resilience through time. They have experienced climatic changes and adapted through evolution. In the future, they could once again respond to a changing climate by choosing more favourable nesting sites and adjusting their breeding time to when the weather is cooler. However, the pace of climate change is likely to be faster than turtles can adapt to, unless we act now and limit temperature rises. The mix of male and female marine turtles depends on the temperature of the sand. Hotter sand leads to a disproportionately higher number of female turtles. Darwin’s frog, named after Charles Darwin who encountered them in 1834, are only found in the temperate Austral forests and wetlands of Chile and Argentina. They display a unique behaviour not recorded in any other amphibian species, in which the males brood the offspring in their vocal sacs. Unfortunately, in recent years Darwin’s frogs have been disappearing – in part because of the destruction of their old-growth forest homes, but also because of a deadly emerging infectious disease and climate change. Global warming is predicted to reduce their existing habitat, while new areas that might become suitable will be too far for Darwin’s frogs to reach naturally. Northern Darwin’s frogs have not been seen in the wild since 1981. They are iconic examples of the global amphibian crisis, with more than 40% of all amphibian species threatened with extinction. In addition to the loss of habitat, rising temperatures are creating favourable conditions for deadly diseases that can push more amphibians to the brink. Darwin’s frogs have been exposed to the chytrid fungus (Bd), a disease that has driven the declines of at least 500 amphibian species across the world, including 90 species now presumed extinct. This is the greatest recorded loss of biodiversity attributable to a disease. With climate change, things are predicted to get even worse. While frog species that are adapted to living in cool climates do not tolerate increased heat, the chytrid fungus does not mind the higher temperatures and can survive. The frogs face an even more unequal battle to survive in the face of the powerful pathogen. Other diseases fare well in a warming world. In the UK, researchers demonstrated that higher temperatures facilitate the propagation of the deadly ranavirus disease that impacts common frogs. If carbon emissions are not reduced, it is projected that disease outbreaks will become more severe and will occur over larger areas in the UK – and over extended seasons, starting as early as April and lasting until October. In the spring, ranavirus outbreaks can kill a large number of tadpoles, which eventually leads to the disappearance of entire frog populations. For every 1°C rise in temperature, the proportion of common frogs that died because of ranavirus disease rose by more than 3%. Warm-water tropical coral reefs support some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, providing shelter, food and spawning grounds to thousands of marine species. In the last 30 years, half of the planet’s tropical coral reefs have disappeared because of pollution, overfishing and unsustainable coastal development. More recently they have been affected by ocean acidification and extreme temperatures driven by climate change, which are leading to large-scale and back-to-back coral bleaching events. IPCC projections show that even if we limit temperature rises to 1.5°C, coral reefs will suffer significant losses of area and local extinctions – with a further decline of 70–90% by 2050. At 2°C, more than 99% of corals will be lost. Named for their antler-like appearance, and thought to have evolved 55 to 65 million years ago, staghorn corals are particularly sensitive to warming conditions. They account for approximately 100 species worldwide. Staghorn corals, like other stony corals, have a symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae called zooxanthellae. Corals and their algae partners are extremely vulnerable to small temperature changes. Warming of just 1°C is enough to disrupt their delicate relationship. The algae begin producing toxic, reactive oxygen molecules during photosynthesis. To survive, the corals expel the zooxanthellae from their tissues. The algae give corals their colourful appearance and once they are gone the corals appear white, or ‘bleached’. If the water temperature returns to normal within a few weeks, bleached corals can regain their algae partners and recover. But each bleaching event weakens the overall health of the coral, and if high temperatures persist, or happen too frequently, the corals die. When coral is lost, many finfish and shellfish species disappear as well. Millions of people who depend on reef fish and ecotourism for food security and income are affected. Researchers have identified 50 resilient coral reef areas in seven countries that have the best chance of surviving climate change and may support overall coral regeneration in the future. However, the survival of these last refuges is entirely dependent on the goals of the Paris Agreement being met. They will not be spared if warming goes beyond the 1.5°C limit. Hippopotamus An ecosystem engineer out of water Found in rivers, lakes and wetlands in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, common hippopotamus populations have been declining in the last few decades. Of the 36 countries where the hippo is known to occur, 20 have decreasing populations, seven have populations of unknown status, and three have experienced recent extinctions. Hippos are known as ecosystem engineers, exerting a profound influence on the freshwater systems they depend on for their survival. Today they face multiple threats to their existence, including habitat destruction, poaching for meat and ivory, and persecution due to conflicts with people. In Zimbabwe for example, human settlements and agricultural activities have encroached into the wetlands, lakes, rivers and ponds that hippos use. The construction of dams to meet increased water demands has also changed the structure of river systems, affecting the availability of shallow pools. At night, hippos graze in open spaces and can find themselves on agricultural lands. The increased proximity between people and hippos often results in conflicts. Like many other African wildlife species, hippos are now threatened even further by climate change. Rising temperatures, prolonged periods of drought, erratic rainfall and high surface evapotranspiration reduce water levels and quality. High temperatures pose a threat to hippos. As large, primarily aquatic animals they are not well adapted to high temperatures out of water, making them vulnerable to drought conditions that can cause severe dehydration and even death. Climate change is likely to deepen conflicts between people and hippos as the competition for scarcer water resources intensifies, or when unpredictable weather patterns bring the animals and humans closer. Unusually heavy rains in 2019 caused Kenya’s Lake Naivasha to swell and grow to its largest size in nearly a century, flooding the land hippos rely on for grazing. The animals were pushed closer to the farms and houses surrounding the lake and found themselves in the same shallow waters that fishermen use, sparking deadly conflict. Throughout the hippos’ range, climate change is adding stress to freshwater systems that are already vulnerable because of deforestation and water-intensive agriculture. Since 1993, Tanzania’s Great Ruaha River has ceased to flow during the dry season, affecting hippos and other species. Other rivers experience a similar pattern, and their resilience may not last for much longer with the combined impacts of accelerating climate change and continued water removal. ARABICA COFFEE THE LAST SHOT Millions of people love waking up to the smell of freshly brewed coffee, but the true wake-up call is the urgent need to tackle climate change. Coffee producers grow two main species, arabica and robusta, with the former accounting for about 60% of global production. Arabica thrives at average annual temperatures of between 18°C and 22°C and can tolerate temperatures up to 24°C. But the species does not cope well with warming conditions, low or unpredictable rainfall, or extreme events. The wild species *Coffea arabica* in Ethiopia is threatened by climate change and is projected to decline by 50-80% by 2080. This could lead to genetic diversity loss for this important crop. Exposure to elevated temperatures damages coffee plants, which become more vulnerable to pests and diseases that are thriving under a warming climate. For example, higher temperatures, intense rain and persistent humidity create a welcoming environment for the coffee leaf rust fungus that reduces the ability of plants to photosynthesize and produce coffee berries. A study projects that by 2050, the total amount of land suitable for arabica coffee production in Latin America will fall by up to 88%. Coffee is one of the world’s most traded products and those losses will affect the livelihoods of 100 million people. Cooler, high-elevation locations are expected to become more suitable for coffee production in the future. However, this does not guarantee that coffee plants will do well there because they not only need the right climate but also pollinating insects. The problem is that climate change has an impact on the geographical distribution of bees. As a result, they might not be in the right place to pollinate coffee. The average number of bee species in areas suitable for coffee is projected to drop by as much as 18% by 2050. The loss of pollination services is bad news for coffee production and agriculture in general, but there is a glimmer of hope. All areas that will be suitable for coffee are projected to retain at least five bee species. So if we can limit the increase in global temperatures to less than 1.5°C, we may have a last shot at saving the coffee culture that supports livelihoods across the globe, and maintains the vital social relationships created by the shared enjoyment of a cup of coffee. BY 2050, IT’S PREDICTED THAT SUITABLE LAND FOR ARABICA COFFEE PRODUCTION IN LATIN AMERICA WILL FALL BY UP TO 88%, AFFECTING THE LIVELIHOODS OF 100 MILLION PEOPLE. The Brazilian Amazon has a high diversity of primate species that are found nowhere else on Earth. Primates play a critical role in maintaining biodiversity: by spreading the seeds of trees, they contribute to the growth of forests, helping with carbon storage and the regulation of global temperatures. But warming temperatures endanger the very existence of several species. Climate change is predicted to make the homes of many Amazon primates inhospitable. In the face of this new reality, they will have to adapt or move to more suitable areas. In many cases, there might be little other habitat available – a situation often made worse by deforestation. Primates face challenges as they try to disperse, encountering barriers such as rivers and roads or discovering deforestation has left them isolated from the nearest habitat. If they are not able to find new homes, they will be forced to remain in deteriorating habitats and will be exposed to temperature and rainfall conditions for which they are not best adapted. If they cannot acclimatise, they face a grim future and eventually local extinction. More than any other species, the black-headed squirrel monkey represents the struggles of Amazon primates in the face of climate change. It has the smallest known geographical distribution of all neotropical primates, residing in just one location within an area of 870 sq km in the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve in Brazil. The monkeys live in a floodplain forested ecosystem, called ‘várzea’, which is seasonally flooded by nutrient-rich white-water rivers. The monkeys’ home is expected to be reduced by almost 100% due to a combination of increased water levels, increased temperatures and extreme flooding events driven by climate change. Because the whole population live in the same floodplain, a single extreme seasonal flooding event could wipe out the entire range of the species. Habitat loss is expected to result in a decline of at least 50% of this monkey’s population. The future of the black-headed squirrel monkey and other Amazon primates depends on protecting wildlife corridors that allow animals to find new homes, but also on urgent climate action to limit temperature increases that will give primates time to adapt to changing environments. ON THE FRONTLINE OF THE CLIMATE CRISIS CHITTAGONG – BANGLADESH Home to over five million people, the city of Chittagong in Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Severe flooding from tidal surges can affect the area as often as twice a day, having devastating impacts on the people living there. Climate change is predicted to increase the extreme flooding in Bangladesh due to cyclonic storm surges and rising sea levels. Many communities could be left completely under water. Jashim Salam is a photographer who lives in Chittagong. He lives in his parents’ old home with his wife and daughter, six older brothers and their families. Jashim’s work includes documenting the impacts flooding has on his community. “I used to live on the ground floor but my house flooded every year. I tried to block my entrance but this wasn’t enough. I didn’t want to leave my parents’ house – my house! I didn’t think this flooding would happen every year, but still it keeps happening.” VANUA LEVU – FIJI The island of Vanua Levu in Fiji is on the front line of climate change. Over the last 25 years, there has been a 6mm increase in sea levels here every year, despite this country being one of the lowest contributors to carbon emissions in the world. As the shoreline retreats further inland, homes and farmland are being destroyed and villagers are being forced to relocate. Josateki Manatua remembers when rising sea levels first started to affect his village of Raviavai. The water gradually came closer and closer to buildings, engulfing trees and flooding farmland. It even overtook the local cemetery. “About 30 years ago, we noticed the changes in our shoreline. The burial ground for the Tongans is now under water, as well as what’s left of the big trees that used to grow on our shoreline. We had a village cooperative store near the burial ground, but now it’s gone due to sea-level rise.” NORTHERN TANZANIA In the rangelands of Tanzania, many Maasai people depend on raising livestock for their livelihoods. Due to increasing livestock numbers, land conversion for grazing and the impacts of climate change these communities are facing a shortage of grass for their livestock to eat, with extended dry seasons leaving the ground bare. Yohana Lesikorok and his fellow community members realised they needed to manage their pastures in a different way. He joined African People and Wildlife’s Sustainable Rangeland Initiative, supported by WWF, which helps groups of communities in rangeland areas to collect data on their grazing areas electronically. This allows them to access, visualise and share information about pasture quality in real time. “We don’t want to move away. This is our place. And our culture is really tied to this land and to our food and so that’s going to be really hard to hold onto. We’re doing everything we can to keep that alive.” COLOMBIAN AMAZON The Amazon is at the heart of global climate concerns. Not only does the destruction of rainforest add to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, it creates a ‘positive feedback loop’ – where increased deforestation causes a rise in temperatures which in turn can bring about a drying of tropical forests and an increase in the risk of forest fires. Marisela Silva Parra lives in Calamar, on the northernmost edge of the Colombian Amazon. She is a member of a community group called Los Exploradores (The Explorers) which is working to document, protect and restore the forest’s natural resources, as well as coordinating local efforts with those of other organisations working throughout the Amazon. “We know we need to put a stop to the deforestation, preserve what we have and reforest parts that were chopped down. The most difficult thing is the powerlessness, not being able to make people aware that the reality is bad, that we are harming not only ourselves, as individuals, but everyone else.” PORT HEIDEN – UNITED STATES Along with many other coastal villages in Alaska, Port Heiden has been forced to adapt rapidly to the effects of climate change. Due to its exposed position on the Alaskan peninsula, the village is often hit with powerful storms which have left the coastline severely eroded. In 1981, villagers began relocating from their former town site, called Meshik, to higher ground. Adrianne Christensen works for the Village of Port Heiden and her family has lived in the area for generations. She feels that many people don’t understand that for her community, climate change is very real. For her, it’s not a question of just moving to the next town. HELPING NATURE’S CLIMATE HEROES In the UK and around the world, nature can be our greatest ally in the fight against the climate crisis. A key focus for WWF is projects that demonstrate how nature-based solutions benefit people and biodiversity. We’re also helping to build momentum among businesses, governments and the public to achieve climate action and limit average global temperature rises to 1.5°C. In the UK, we’re demanding a strong commitment from government to cut emissions, including from the agriculture, business and finance sectors, as well as boosting the investments needed to get us on track to meet our climate and nature targets. Here are some of the ways we’re working to help. PROTECTING COLOMBIA’S DIVERSE LANDSCAPE Colombia’s forests store the equivalent of 26 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide, an amount which is around one third of the entire carbon dioxide emissions from the UK since the Industrial Revolution. Working with the Colombian National Parks Agency and the Ministry of Environment, we support the Heritage Colombia programme, which will ensure the conservation of 250,000 sq km of natural landscapes by 2030 through substantially increasing long-term financial support for Colombia’s national parks. Through the Trillion Trees initiative, we’re supporting efforts to raise US$200 million in new funding, including a commitment from the government of Colombia to allocate 5% of its carbon tax revenues to Heritage Colombia. The programme will work in landscapes linking protected areas to ensure local people benefit from sustainable forest use. PLANTING HOPE IN WALES Seagrass is a flowering marine plant that grows in large underwater meadows. It can absorb carbon at 35 times the rate of tropical rainforests, locking it away in sediments. One hectare of seagrass can support up to 80,000 fish and 100 million invertebrates. It also benefits water quality and helps stabilise the shoreline. But the UK has lost up to 90% of its seagrass due to pollution, coastal development, fisheries activities and damage from boat propellers and chain moorings. We have helped plant two hectares of seagrass in Pembrokeshire and we aim to plant 20 hectares in coastal areas around the UK by 2026. More than 2,000 volunteers, including local schoolchildren, helped to plant more than one million seeds. We hope our efforts will pave the way for large-scale seagrass restoration elsewhere. PROTECTING THE KEY TO A HEALTHY SOUTHERN OCEAN Krill are the centre of the food web in the Southern Ocean. These small, shrimp-like crustaceans support populations of penguins, seals, whales and other marine life. They also play an important climate role as they feed on phytoplankton, which absorb carbon dioxide. They then excrete the carbon through their faecal pellets and by shedding their exoskeletons, which sink to the sea floor. But these climate heroes are victims of the combined effects of an expanding fishery, ocean warming and the loss of sea ice. We’re pushing for a network of effectively managed marine protected areas surrounding Antarctica, and we’re supporting research to identify potential refuges for krill in the area. We helped to develop KRILLBASE, which compiles information about krill to help understand their distribution and abundance throughout the Southern Ocean. We also back the sustainable management of the krill fishery through the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. RESTORING WOODLANDS FOR WILDLIFE AND PEOPLE Tanzania’s Mionmo woodlands are a biodiversity hotspot – they’re home to elephants, rhinos, lions, giraffes and many other species. Such woodlands cover around 3.6 million sq km across southern and eastern Africa, making them perhaps the world’s most extensive dry forests. They provide vital goods and services to people thanks to the goods and services they provide – such as wood, thatch, fuel and medicines. And their soils and vegetation sequester large amounts of carbon. But the woodlands are vanishing rapidly due to unsustainable agricultural practices, infrastructure development and unmanaged burning. We’re working with communities to help strengthen forestry governance, which will lead to improved management and the FSC certification of timber. We’re also supporting efforts to clamp down on the illegal timber trade. This means more income for local communities, which can fund development activities such as maternal health and education support. With Trillion Trees, we have supported Tanzania’s government to commit to restoring 52,000 sq km of land by 2030. This will remove 2.4 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. ACTION FOR COP26 Climate change is already having measurable impacts on people and nature around the world. With the future of our survival in the balance, 2021 must be a turning point. While we can’t stop warming in its tracks, we can limit how much warmer our planet gets through rapid and deep cuts to fossil fuel use and by protecting and restoring nature. The climate and nature crises are two sides of the same coin. By protecting and restoring nature, transforming our agricultural systems, and rethinking the way we use our land, we can tackle these twin crises, limit warming, and create better lives for future generations. As the UK prepares to host COP26, where world leaders will decide the course of action for our planet, we must seize this chance to build a greener, fairer future – one with nature at its heart. At WWF, we’re calling on the UK government to: **KEEP 1.5°C ON THE TABLE** Current commitments from governments and businesses would see the world warm by more than 2°C. As this report shows, the difference between 1.5°C and 2°C of warming – for people and for wildlife – is stark. As COP26 hosts, the UK government must ensure the global ambition to limit warming to 1.5°C is maintained. - **Urgently publish a detailed action plan, showing step by step how we will decarbonise each sector of the UK, and get to work immediately.** Delivering net zero by 2050 doesn’t mean waiting until 2049 to act, or even until 2025. What we do in the next decade, starting right now, is vital. By publishing a detailed, binding Long-Term Strategy that delivers net zero by 2050 at the absolute latest, we can raise global ambition. - **Ensure investments from the finance sector are flowing towards projects needed to create a greener future, and away from the dirty industries harming our planet.** This should be done by committing to develop the world’s first finance sector that aligns with the 1.5°C goal of the Paris Agreement. All companies that are already signed up to 1.5°C targets with the Science Based Target initiative (SBTi) should widely publicise it and help recruit others to sign up. - **Make sure public money is spent on building towards the greener, cleaner future we all want.** This must include introducing a ‘net zero test’ requiring the Treasury to measure all future recovery spending plans against the UK’s climate and environment commitments. **MAKE NATURE OUR CLIMATE HERO** Nature can be one of our greatest allies in the fight against the climate crisis. We must champion and embrace nature’s vital role in helping to deliver a 1.5°C world. The UK government must use its leadership role at COP26 to put land use, agriculture and nature-based solutions at the forefront of global plans to address emissions and tackle the climate crisis. - **Get the destruction of nature out of the products on our shelves.** The UK government must pass world-leading new laws at home and lead an international coalition that rids our supply chains of products that cause deforestation and land conversion. This includes protecting critical places like the Amazon. - **Support and invest in nature’s recovery.** In support of government, global business and financial institutions should take bold action by joining restoration, rehabilitation and zero-conversion plans in key deforestation landscapes. Companies should also set to halve their environmental footprint by 2030, eliminate deforestation and conversion from their supply chains, and invest in nature-based solutions. - **Request countries to include land use, agriculture and nature-based solutions in their national climate plans.** As countries around the world upgrade their national climate plans and increase their ambition, the UK government must introduce a clear request to ensure new plans maximise the potential of nature to be a climate hero. **Conference of the Parties (COP)** The annual meeting of the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC; the 26th annual summit will be held in Glasgow in November 2021, giving it the name COP26. **Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)** The UN body that assesses the science and knowledge related to climate change. **Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)** An independent body to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. **International Union for Conservation of Nature** Combines the efforts of its 1,400 government and civil society organisation members (including WWF) and 18,000 experts to conserve nature and accelerate sustainable development. **IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™** The world’s most comprehensive information source on the extinction risk of animals, fungi and plants. Assessors place species into one of the IUCN Red List Categories, based on a series of assessment criteria. **Nationally determined contributions (NDCs)** A pledge by countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Current NDCs are typically for 2030. **Nature-based solutions** Defined by IUCN as “actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits”. **Niche** The combination of factors such as temperature and precipitation that determines where a species can survive, feed and breed. **Paris Agreement** A legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted at COP21 in Paris, the goal of which is to limit global warming to well below 2°C and preferably to 1.5°C compared to pre-industrial levels. **Pre-industrial levels** The period 1850–1900 is often used to approximate pre-industrial global mean surface temperature as the reference for global warming targets such as 1.5°C. **Trophic mismatch** The lack of synchrony between food and consumer due to the availability of food shifting in response to global warming. **United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)** The international multilateral environmental treaty that addresses climate change. --- **References** Adger, N. K. (2014). *WTF! Wally and Climate Change Series: Snow leopard*. World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC. Azzi, C. et al. (2021) ‘Flagging for Arctic temporal forest conservation: an action plan for Darwin’s frogs brings key stakeholders together’, Oryx, 2020/07/17, Cambridge University Press, 55(3), pp. 356–363. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060532000039X Birkeland, P. (2015) ‘Coral reefs in the anthropocene: Coral Reefs in the Anthropocene’, pp. 1–271. doi: 10.1007/978-94-017-7249-5. Bongass, D. (2017) ‘Impacts of climate change on global coffee production industry: Review’. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 12(18), pp. 1607–1617. doi: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2017.10001 Burns, F. et al. (2020) ‘The state of the UK’s birds 2020’. The RSPB, BTO, WWT, DARA, IUCN, NatureCons. NE and NRW, Sandyl, Bedfordshire. Burthe, S. J. et al. (2014) ‘Assessing the vulnerability of the montane bird community in the western North Sea to climate change and other anthropogenic impacts using a multi-scale modelling approach’, Ecological Science & Society, 5(2), pp. 277–293. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1084 Celadon, G., Pirchio, P. R. and Raven, P. H. (2020) ‘Terrestrial vertebrates in the brink of extinction: A review of the status of the world’s amphibians’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(24), pp. 13396–13406. doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1926261117 Chen, J. et al. (2015) ‘Climate change impacts on bumblebees converge across continents’, Science, 348(6242), pp. 216–219. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac7309 Hayhow, D. B. et al. (2019) ‘The State of Nature 2019’. The RSPB, BTO, WWT, DARA, IUCN, NatureCons. NE and NRW, Sandyl, Bedfordshire. IUCN (2020) Leatherback Turtles and Climate Change: Turtle—Exposed to Climate Change?. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Li, J. et al. (2018) ‘Climate refugia of snow leopards in High Asia’, Biological Conservation, 226, pp. 100–108. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.03.026 MCPAT (2020) ‘Climate change and marine conservation: Sensitivities and their associated uncertainties’. Craig J. Sias, Wright P, Regnier T, Eckerh M, Medrano Z and Gelo P. MCPAT, Lovatnet. MCPAT (2020) Marine Climate Change Impacts: Marine Climate Change Impacts Report Card 2020 (Slate, B., Turner, R. E., Robinson, K. A., Howes, E. L., Buckley R., Mahon, R. J., McInnes, K. L., Smithers, J. A., Sutherland, W.J., MCPAT, Lovatnet, 28pp. doi: https://doi.org/10.14468/15688381.202001000 Natural England and RSPB (2014) ‘Climate Change Adaptation Manual’. Miller-Smith, W. E. et al. (2014) ‘Functional mismatch in a bumble bee pollination mutualism’, Science, 343(6165), pp. 1541–1544. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1244630 Mitchell, J. et al. (2020) ‘Impacts of climate change on seabirds: relevant to the 1000 islands?’, in Mitchell, J. (ed.) *Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership*, Science Review, pp. 392–399. doi: https://doi.org/10.14468/20200117.04 Nesbitt, W. J. et al. (2020) ‘Synoptic effects of warming and drought linked to high mortality in a tropical rainforest frog’, Biological Conservation, 245, p. 108251. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108251 Paine, F. P. et al. (2019) ‘Long-term population monitoring of the threatened and endemic black-headed squirrel monkey (*Saimiri wariophili*) shows the importance of protecting forest fragments’, in Paine, F. P. (ed.) *Primates in the New Century of Primatology*. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 23(6), pp. 1–10. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5300 Polisar, S., Odden, M. and Pedersen HC (2017) ‘Climate change induced nesting mismatch? Mountain hare abundance reduced by duration of snow cover and predator abundance’, Ecography, 40(S1), pp. 1–8. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.02600 Price, S. J. et al. (2019) ‘Effects of historic and projected climate change on the range and impacts of an emerging wildlife disease’, Global Change Biology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 25(8), pp. 2646–2660. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14500 Rissman, P. et al. (2015) ‘Climatic risk and distribution atlas of European bumblebees’, Biologia, Polish Publishers, 10, pp. 1–26. Available at: http://www.biologia.pl/2015/10/10/risman-p-2015/ Fretwell, P. T. and Trathan, P. N. (2019) ‘Emperor penguins on thin ice: three years of breeding failure at Halley Bay’, Antarctic Science, 2019/04/25, Cambridge University Press, 31(4), pp. 401–410. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954102019000399 Imbach, P. et al. (2017) ‘Coupling of pollination services and coffee suitability under climate change’, PNAS, 114(39), pp. 10438–10442. doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1701000114 Rehms, M. et al. (2018) ‘Alpine glacial relict species going out to climate change: the case of the fragmented mountain hare population (*Lepus timidus*) in the Alps’, Global Change Biology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 24(7), pp. 3226–3235. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13928 Sakas, L. et al. (2020) ‘Multiple dimensions of climate change on the distribution of Amazonian primates’, Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, 18(2), pp. 85–92. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2020.01.001 Sandrinelli Tomlin, P. et al. (2017) ‘Climate driven egg and hatching mortality threatens survival of Eastern Pacific leatherback turtle’, PLoS One, Public Library of Science, 7(5), p. e37602. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176027 Sandrinelli Tomlin, P. et al. (2014) ‘High beach temperatures increased female-biased primary sex ratios but reduced output of female hatchlings in the leatherback turtle’, Biological Conservation, 175, pp. 71–79. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.05.010 Sandrinelli Tomlin, P. et al. (2015) ‘Global analysis of the effect of local climate on the hatchling output of leatherback turtles’, Scientific Reports, 5(1), p. 16199. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16199 Sandrinelli Tomlin, P. et al. (2017) ‘High and variable mortality of leatherback turtles reveal possible anthropogenic impacts’, Ecology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 98(8), pp. 2170–2179. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1849 Shapiro, R. G. and Singh, R. (2020) ‘100 Years of Snow Leopard Research: Understanding the State of the Snow Leopard in the Snow Leopard Range’, WILDLAND, Gland, Switzerland. Sindorf, N., Forrest, J. and Akwabi, B. (2014) ‘Guardians of the Headwaters: Snow Leopards, Water Protection, and Climatic Vulnerability: Maps and Analysis’, USAID, Washington, DC, with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Sorge, P., Hewaala, T. and Kerby, J. (2020) ‘Climate change contributes to extinction risk among bumble bees across continents’, Science, 367(6476), pp. 685–688. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd9571 Soto-Azat, C. et al. (2019) ‘The population decline and extinction of Darwin’s frogs’, PLoS One, Public Library of Science, 8(6), p. e0205957. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205957 Steinberg, C. E. et al. (2020) ‘Turtles and tortoises are in trouble’, Current Biology, 30(12), pp. 871–875. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.088 Steyer, S. et al. (2018) ‘Effects of the hippopotamus on the chemistry and ecology of a changing watershed’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(10), pp. 2435–2440. doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710400115 Tangney, C. J., Hayfield, J. D. and Philpott, A. R. (2017) ‘Estimating the ability of plants to plastically track temperature-mediated shifts in the spring phenological optimum’, Global Change Biology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 23(6), pp. 3321–3334. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13607 Trathan, P. H. et al. (2020) ‘The emperor penguin – Vulnerable to projected rates of warming and sea ice loss’, Biological Conservation, 241(108216), pp. 1–11. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108216 Urs, B. (2003) ‘A review of some aspects of the ecology, population trends, conservation and management of the endangered mountain gorilla (*Gorilla gorilla beringei beringei*) in Zimbabwe’, African Zoology, Taylor & Francis, 38(1), pp. 111–120. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00204262.2003.10677680 Warren, R. et al. (2018) ‘The projected effect on insects, vertebrates, and plants of limiting global warming to 1.5°C rather than 2°C’, Science, Vol. 360, Issue 6390, pp. 791–795. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat6564 Williams, P. H., Arndt, M. B. and Rastetter, E. (2007) ‘Can vulnerability among terrestrial biomes (Boreal forests, grasslands, and deserts) be predicted by niche position and breadth?’, Biological Conservation, 138(3), pp. 493–505. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2007.05.007 Williams, P. H. and Osborne, J. L. (2009) ‘Bumblebee vulnerability and climate change: are late blooming bumblebees at higher risk?’, Ecology, 90(2), pp. 357–367. doi: https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1844.1 WWF. 2021 Living Planet Report 2021: A Bigger and Higher. Croatan, M. and Almond, A. (eds.). WWF, Gland, Switzerland, 84 pp. https://wwf.panda.org/report_2018 Ziegler, M. et al. (2019) ‘Coral benthic community structure responds to environmental change in a hot-spot species’ marine nature, Nature Communications, 10(1), p. 2092. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10765-5 Zimova, M. et al. (2020) ‘Lack of phenological shift leads to increased camouflage mismatch in mountain hares’, Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biological Sciences, Royal Society, 287(1941), p. 20201768. doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.1768 For a future where people and nature thrive | wwf.org.uk ©1986 panda symbol and ® “WWF” Registered Trademark of WWF. WWF-UK registered charity (1081247) and in Scotland (SC039593). A company limited by guarantee (4016725)
c47b9859-bc18-427f-acb6-18324bd353d5
CC-MAIN-2021-43
https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/feeling_the_heat___the_fate_of_nature_beyond_1_5c_of_global_warming___wwf_uk_report.pdf
2021-10-19T03:35:07+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585231.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20211019012407-20211019042407-00418.warc.gz
766,568,105
14,729
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.943983
eng_Latn
0.99844
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 67, 2288, 6656, 9030, 10747, 12747, 12965, 15355, 17640, 19769, 22210, 24488, 27012, 29166, 31479, 33790, 36405, 38927, 41220, 45814, 50487, 54364, 66242, 66466 ]
[ 2.9375, 1.0546875 ]
2
0
Ultimately, in 1869, Congress ended altogether the requirement that the justices ride circuit. They are, however, still entitled to sit with the lower courts if they so choose, and Chief Justice William Rehnquist occasionally did sit as a trial judge, with a helper judge alongside, so that he could get a feel for trial courts. D. National and State Powers Before the Civil War 1. The Bank Issue We have examined two major accomplishments of the First Congress—the Judiciary Act of 1789 and proposal of the Bill of Rights. A third was the creation of the first Bank of the United States. The Bank was the brainchild of the Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton. There were only three banks in the nation at the time, and a great multiplicity of currencies. Hamilton hoped that a great national bank would help create a more stable financial system and provide an efficient mechanism for the national government to borrow money, to hold funds, and to make payments. The Bank was a private corporation chartered by Congress for 20 years, with the United States owning 20% of the stock (which it purchased by borrowing from the Bank itself!), and the rest raised from private investors. The law provided that bills issued by the Bank could be used to pay debts owed to the United States, and that no other bank would be granted this privilege. In general, the northern mercantile class favored creation of the Bank, while the Southern agrarian interests opposed it. In the House, James Madison was one of the leaders of the opposition. Nevertheless, in part because Hamilton agreed to support moving the nation’s capital to the south, both Houses passed the bill and presented it to President Washington. Washington had doubts about the constitutionality of the bill, and—recognizing that he could not get advice from the Supreme Court—asked Attorney General Edmund Randolph and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson for their opinions. Both advised him that it was unconstitutional. Struck by the force of their arguments, Washington invited Hamilton to respond. A week later, Hamilton did, and two days after that Washington signed the bill. Here are excerpts from the Jefferson and Hamilton opinions. Thomas Jefferson, Opinion on the Constitutionality of a National Bank February 15, 1791 The bill for establishing a National Bank undertakes among other things: 1. To form the subscribers into a corporation. 2. To enable them in their corporate capacities to receive grants of land; and so far is against the laws of Mortmain. 3. To make alien subscribers capable of holding lands; and so far is against the laws of Alienage. 4. To transmit these lands, on the death of a proprietor, to a certain line of successors; and so far changes the course of Descents. 5. To put the lands out of the reach of forfeiture or escheat; and so far is against the laws of Forfeiture and Escheat. 6. To transmit personal chattels to successors in a certain line; and so far is against the laws of Distribution. 7. To give them the sole and exclusive right of banking under the national authority; and so far is against the laws of Monopoly. 8. To communicate to them a power to make laws paramount to the laws of the States: for so they must be construed, to protect the institution from the control of the State legislatures; and so, probably, they will be construed. I consider the foundation of the Constitution as laid on this ground: That “all powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States or to the people.” To take a single step beyond the boundaries thus specially drawn around the powers of Congress, is to take possession of a boundless field of power, no longer susceptible of any definition. The incorporation of a bank, and the powers assumed by this bill, have not, in my opinion, been delegated to the United States by the Constitution. I. They are not among the powers specially enumerated: for these are: 1st. A power to lay taxes for the purpose of paying the debts of the United States; but no debt is paid by this bill, nor any tax laid. Were it a bill to raise money, its origination in the Senate would condemn it by the Constitution. 2d. “To borrow money.” But this bill neither borrows money nor ensures the borrowing it. The proprietors of the bank will be just as free as any other money holders to lend or not to lend their money to the public. . . . 3d. To “regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the States, and with the Indian tribes.” To erect a bank, and to regulate commerce, are very different acts. He who erects a bank, creates a subject of commerce in its bills; so does he who makes a bushel of wheat, or digs a dollar out of the mines; yet neither of these persons regulates commerce thereby. To make a thing which may be bought and sold, is not to prescribe regulations for buying and selling. Besides, if this was an exercise of the power of regulating commerce, it would be void, as extending as much to the internal commerce of every State as to its external. . . . Accordingly the bill does not propose the measure as a regulation of trade, but as “productive of considerable advantages to trade.” Still less are these powers covered by any other of the special enumerations. II. Nor are they within either of the general phrases, which are the two following: 1. To lay taxes to provide for the general welfare of the United States, that is to say, “to lay taxes for the purpose of providing for the general welfare.” For the laying of taxes is the power and the general welfare the purpose for which the power is to be exercised. They are not to lay taxes ad libitum [as much as desired] for any purpose they please; but only to pay the debts or provide for the welfare of the Union. In like manner, they are not to do anything they please to provide for the general welfare, but only to lay taxes for that purpose. To consider the latter phrase, not as describing the purpose of the first, but as giving a distinct and independent power to do any act they please, which might be for the good of the Union, would render all the preceding and subsequent enumerations of power completely useless. It would reduce the whole instrument to a single phrase, that of instituting a Congress with power to do whatever would be for the good of the United States; and, as they would be the sole judges of the good or evil, it would be also a power to do whatever evil they please. It is an established rule of construction where a phrase will bear either of two meanings, to give it that which will allow some meaning to the other parts of the instrument, and not that which would render all the others useless. Certainly no such universal power was meant to be given them. It was intended to lace them up straitly within the enumerated powers, and those without which, as means, these powers could not be carried into effect. It is known that the very power now proposed as a means was rejected as an end by the Convention which formed the Constitution. A proposition was made to them to authorize Congress to open canals, and an amendatory one to empower them to incorporate. But the whole was rejected, and one of the reasons for rejection urged in debate was, that then they would have a power to erect a bank, which would render the great cities, where there were prejudices and jealousies on the subject, adverse to the reception of the Constitution. 2. The second general phrase is “to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution the enumerated powers.” But they can all be carried into execution without a bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase. It has been urged that a bank will give great facility or convenience in the collection of taxes. Suppose this were true: yet the Constitution allows only the means which are “necessary,” not those which are merely “convenient” for effecting the enumerated powers. If such a latitude of construction be allowed to this phrase as to give any non-enumerated power, it will go to every one, for there is not one which ingenuity may not torture into a convenience in some instance or other to some one of so long a list of enumerated powers. . . . Therefore it was that the Constitution restrained them to the necessary means, that is to say, to those means without which the grant of power would be nugatory. . . . Perhaps, indeed, bank bills may be a more convenient vehicle than treasury orders. But a little difference in the degree of convenience, cannot constitute the necessity which the constitution makes the ground for assuming any non-enumerated power. . . . The negative of the President is the shield provided by the Constitution to protect against the invasions of the legislature: 1. The right of the Executive. 2. Of the Judiciary. 3. Of the States and state legislatures. The present is the case of a right remaining exclusively with the states, and consequently one of those intended by the Constitution to be placed under its protection. It must be added, however, that unless the President’s mind on a view of everything which is urged for and against this bill is tolerably clear that it is unauthorized by the Constitution; if the pro and the con hang so even as to balance his judgment, a just respect for the wisdom of the legislature would naturally decide the balance in favor of their opinion. It is chiefly for cases where they are clearly misled by error, ambition, or interest, that the Constitution has placed a check in the negative of the President. Alexander Hamilton, Opinion on the Constitutionality of a National Bank February 23, 1791 The Secretary of the Treasury having perused with attention the papers containing the opinions of the Secretary of State and Attorney General concerning the constitutionality of the bill for establishing a National Bank proceeds according to the order of the President to submit the reasons which have induced him to entertain a different opinion. . . . In entering upon the argument it ought to be premised that the objections of the Secretary of State and Attorney General are founded on a general denial of the authority of the United States to erect corporations. The latter indeed expressly admits that if there be anything in the bill which is not warranted by the Constitution, it is the clause of incorporation. Now it appears to the Secretary of the Treasury that this general principle is inherent in the very definition of Government and essential to every step of the progress to be made by that of the United States: namely—that every power vested in a Government is in its nature sovereign and includes by force of the term a right to employ all the means requisite and fairly applicable to the attainment of the ends of such power; and which are not precluded by restrictions & exceptions specified in the Constitution, or not immoral, or not contrary to the essential ends of political society. This principle in its application to Government in general would be admitted as an axiom. And it will be incumbent upon those who may incline to deny it to prove a distinction; and to shew that a rule which in the general system of things is essential to the preservation of the social order is inapplicable to the United States. The circumstances that the powers of sovereignty are in this country divided between the national and state governments does not afford the distinction required. It does not follow from this that each of the portions of powers delegated to the one or to the other is not sovereign with regard to its proper objects. It will only follow from it that each has sovereign power as to certain things, and not as to other things. . . . If it would be necessary to bring proof to a proposition so clear as that which affirms that the powers of the federal government, as to its objects, are sovereign, there is a clause of its Constitution which would be decisive. It is that which declares that the Constitution and the laws of the United States made in pursuance of it, and all treaties made or which shall be made under their authority shall be the supreme law of the land. The power which can create the Supreme law of the land, in any case, is doubtless sovereign as to such case. . . . The first of [the] arguments [raised by Jefferson and Randolph against a federal power to create corporations] is that the foundation of the Constitution is laid on this ground “that all powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited to it by the States are reserved to the States or to the people,” whence it is meant to be inferred that Congress can in no case exercise any power not included in those enumerated in the Constitution. And it is affirmed that the power of erecting a corporation is not included in any of the enumerated powers. The main proposition here laid down, in its true signification, is not to be questioned. It is nothing more than a consequence of this republican maxim, that all government is a delegation of power. But how much is delegated in each case is a question of fact to be made out by fair reasoning & construction upon the particular provisions of the Constitution—taking as guides the general principles & general ends of government. It is not denied that there are implied as well as express powers, and that the former are as effectually delegated as the latter. And for the sake of accuracy it shall be mentioned that there is another class of powers which may be properly denominated resulting powers. It will not be doubted that if the United States should make a conquest of any of the territories of its neighbors, they would possess sovereign jurisdiction over the conquered territory. This would rather be a result from the whole mass of the powers of the government & from the nature of political society, than a consequence of either of the powers specially enumerated. But be this as it may, it furnishes a striking illustration of the general doctrine contended for. It shews an extensive case in which a power of erecting corporations is either implied in or would result from some or all of the powers vested in the National Government. The jurisdiction acquired over such conquered territory would certainly be competent to every species of legislation.... [A] power of erecting a corporation may as well be *implied* as any other thing; it may as well be employed as an *instrument* or *mean* of carrying into execution any of the specified powers as any other instrument or mean whatever. The only question must be, in this as in every other case, whether the mean to be employed, or in this instance the corporation to be erected, has a natural relation to any of the acknowledged objects or lawful ends of the government. Thus a corporation may not be erected by Congress for superintending the police of the city of Philadelphia because they are not authorized to *regulate* the *police* of that city; but one may be erected in relation to the collection of the taxes, or to the trade with foreign countries, or to the trade between the states, or with the Indian Tribes, because it is the province of the federal government to regulate those objects & because it is incident to a general *sovereign* or *legislative power* to *regulate* a thing to employ all the means which relate to its regulation to the *best* & *greatest advantage*. A strange fallacy seems to have crept into the manner of thinking & reasoning upon the subject. Imagination appears to have been unusually busy concerning it. An incorporation seems to have been regarded as some great, independent, substantive thing—as a political end of peculiar magnitude & moment; whereas it is truly to be considered as a *quality*, *capacity*, or *mean* to an end.... To this mode of reasoning respecting the right of employing all the means requisite to the execution of the specified powers of the government, it is objected that none but *necessary* & proper means are to be employed, & the Secretary of State maintains that no means are to be considered as *necessary* but those without which the grant of the power would be *nugatory*. Nay so far does he go in his restrictive interpretation of the word as even to make the case of *necessity* which shall warrant the constitutional exercise of the power to depend on *casual* & *temporary* circumstances, an idea which alone refutes the construction. The expediency of exercising a particular power, at a particular time, must indeed depend on circumstances; but the constitutional right of exercising it must be uniform & invariable—the same today as tomorrow. All the arguments therefore against the constitutionality of the bill derived from the accidental existence of certain state-banks, institutions which happen to exist today, & for ought that concerns the government of the United States, may disappear tomorrow, must not only be rejected as fallacious, but must be viewed as demonstrative that there is a radical source of error in the reasoning. It is essential to the being of the national government that so erroneous a conception of the meaning of the word necessary should be exploded. It is certain that neither the grammatical nor popular sense of the term requires that construction. According to both, necessary often means no more than needful, requisite, incidental, useful, or conducive to. It is a common mode of expression to say that it is necessary for a government or a person to do this or that thing when nothing more is intended or understood than that the interests of the government or person require, or will be promoted, by the doing of this or that thing. The imagination can be at no loss for exemplification of the use of the word in this sense. And it is the true one in which it is to be understood as used in the Constitution. The whole turn of the clause containing it indicates that it was the intent of the convention by that clause to give a liberal latitude to the exercise of the specified powers. . . . To understand the word as the Secretary of State does would be to depart from its obvious & popular sense, and to give it a restrictive operation; an idea never before entertained. It would be to give it the same force as if the word absolutely or indispensably had been prefixed to it. Such a construction would beget endless uncertainty & embarrassment. The cases must be palpable & extreme in which it could be pronounced with certainty that a measure was absolutely necessary, or one without which the exercise of a given power would be nugatory. There are few measures of any government which would stand so severe a test. To insist upon it would be to make the criterion of the exercise of any implied power a case of extreme necessity; which is rather a rule to justify the overleaping of the bounds of constitutional authority than to govern the ordinary exercise of it. . . . The practice of the government is against the rule of construction advocated by the Secretary of State. Of this the act concerning light houses, beacons, buoys & public piers is a decisive example. This doubtless must be referred to the power of regulating trade, and is fairly relative to it. But it cannot be affirmed that the exercise of that power, in this instance, was strictly necessary; or that the power itself would be nugatory without that of regulating establishments of this nature. This restrictive interpretation of the word *necessary* is also contrary to this sound maxim of construction: namely, that the powers contained in a constitution of government, especially those which concern the general administration of the affairs of a country, its finances, trade, defence, etc. ought to be construed liberally in advancement of the public good. This rule does not depend on the particular form of a government or on the particular demarkation of the boundaries of its powers, but on the nature and objects of government itself. The means by which national exigencies are to be provided for, national inconveniencies obviated, national prosperity promoted, are of such infinite variety, extent and complexity, that there must, of necessity, be great latitude of discretion in the selection & application of those means. Hence, consequently, the necessity & propriety of exercising the authorities intrusted to a government on principles of liberal construction. . . . It is no valid objection to the doctrine to say that it is calculated to extend the powers of the general government throughout the entire sphere of state legislation. The same thing has been said and may be said with regard to every exercise of power by *implication* or *construction*. The moment the literal meaning is departed from, there is a chance of error and abuse. And yet an adherence to the letter of its powers would at once arrest the motions of the government. . . . It shall now be endeavored to be shewn that there is a power to erect [a corporation] of the kind proposed by the bill. . . . [I]t remains to shew the relation of such an institution to one or more of the specified powers of the government. Accordingly it is affirmed that it has a relation more or less direct to the power of collecting taxes; to that of borrowing money; to that of regulating trade between the states; and to those of raising, supporting & maintaining fleets & armies. To the two former, the relation may be said to be *immediate*. And, in the last place, it will be argued that it is, *clearly*, within the provision which authorizes the making of all *needful* rules & *regulations* concerning the *property* of the United States, as the same has been practiced upon by the government. A Bank relates to the collection of taxes in two ways; *indirectly*, by increasing the quantity of circulating medium & quickening circulation, which facilitates the means of paying—directly, by creating a convenient species of medium in which they are to be paid. A Bank has a direct relation to the power of borrowing money, because it is a usual and in sudden emergencies an essential instrument in the obtaining of loans to government. A nation is threatened with a war. Large sums are wanted, on a sudden, to make the requisite preparations. Taxes are laid for the purpose, but it requires time to obtain the benefit of them. Anticipation is indispensable. If there be a bank, the supply can at once be had; if there be none loans from individuals must be sought. The progress of these is often too slow for the exigency; in some situations they are not practicable at all. Frequently, when they are, it is of great consequence to be able to anticipate the product of them by advances from a bank. . . . The institution of a bank has also a natural relation to the regulation of trade between the states: in so far as it is conducive to the creation of a convenient medium of exchange between them, and to the keeping up a full circulation by preventing the frequent displacement of the metals in reciprocal remittances. Money is the very hinge on which commerce turns. And this does not mean merely gold & silver; many other things have served the purpose with different degrees of utility. Paper has been extensively employed. . . . There is a sort of evidence on this point arising from an aggregate view of the Constitution, which is of no inconsiderable weight. The very general power of laying & collecting taxes & appropriating their proceeds—that of borrowing money indefinitely—that of coining money & regulating foreign coins—that of making all needful rules and regulations respecting the property of the United States—these powers combined, as well as the reason & nature of the thing speak strongly [about] this language: That it is the manifest design and scope of the Constitution to vest in Congress all the powers requisite to the effectual administration of the finances of the United States. As far as concerns this object, there appears to be no parsimony of power. . . . Little less than a prohibitory clause can destroy the strong presumptions which result from the general aspect of the government. Nothing but demonstration should exclude the idea that the power exists. In all questions of this nature the practice of mankind ought to have great weight against the theories of individuals. The fact, for instance, that all the principal commercial nations have made use of trading corporations or companies for the purposes of *external commerce* is a satisfactory proof that the establishment of them is an incident to the regulation of that commerce. . . . The first Bank’s 20-year charter expired in 1811, while Madison—who, as you may recall, led opposition to the original charter in the House—was President. The charter was not renewed. But in the War of 1812, the nation experienced severe inflation, and the Government found its ability to borrow seriously impaired. In 1816, Congress chartered a new Bank, also for 20 years. Madison, still President, signed the bill. He had explained his change of heart on the constitutional question the previous year: [T]he question of the constitutional authority of the Legislature to establish an incorporated bank [has been] precluded in my judgment by repeated recognitions under varied circumstances of the validity of such an institution in acts of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the Government, accompanied by indications, in different modes, of a concurrence of the general will of the nation. What do you think Madison is referring to here? In 1817, the Bank opened a branch in Maryland. The next year, the Maryland legislature passed a statute requiring any bank operating in the state but not chartered by it to pay a stamp tax on notes issued by the bank. (The Bank of the United States was the only one meeting this description.) The head of the Maryland branch, James McCulloch, refused to pay the tax. The statute allowed for an “informer” to bring an action against a bank violating the statute, and one did that. The Maryland Court of Appeals, the state’s highest court, upheld the statute, and McCulloch appealed to the United States Supreme Court. In a unanimous opinion by Marshall, the Supreme Court held that the United States had constitutional power to establish the Bank, and that Maryland could not constitutionally tax it. Marshall’s opinion makes arguments on the first issue much like Hamilton’s. We’ve seen some of *McCulloch* already, pp. 41–43, and will see more below, pp. 356–368. In 1832, Congress sent President Andrew Jackson a bill to extend the charter of the Bank for fifteen years. The purpose of the early attempt to re-charter the Bank was to put the President in a dilemma. He had made clear his distaste for the Bank, but its proponents believed that if he dared to veto the bill in the middle of the campaign he would endanger his chance for re-election. Jackson was not one to shrink from a fight. **President Andrew Jackson, Veto Message on Bill to Recharter the Second Bank of the United States** WASHINGTON, July 10, 1832. To the Senate. . . . A bank of the United States is in many respects convenient for the Government and useful to the people. Entertaining this opinion, and deeply impressed with the belief that some of the powers and privileges possessed by the existing bank are unauthorized by the Constitution, subversive of the rights of the States, and dangerous to the liberties of the people, I felt it my duty at an early period of my Administration to call the attention of Congress to the practicability of organizing an institution combining all its advantages and obviating these objections. I sincerely regret that in the act before me I can perceive none of those modifications of the bank charter which are necessary, in my opinion, to make it compatible with justice, with sound policy, or with the Constitution of our country. . . . The powers, privileges, and favors bestowed upon [the Bank] in the original charter, by increasing the value of the stock far above its par value, operated as a gratuity of many millions to the stockholders. . . . The act before me proposes another gratuity to the holders of the same stock, and in many cases to the same men, of at least seven millions more. . . . It is not our own citizens only who are to receive the bounty of our Government. More than eight millions of the stock of this bank are held by foreigners. By this act the American Republic proposes virtually to make them a present of some millions of dollars. For these gratuities to foreigners and to some of our own opulent citizens the act secures no equivalent whatever. . . . I can not perceive the justice or policy of this course. If our Government must sell monopolies, it would seem to be its duty to take nothing less than their full value, and if gratuities must be made once in fifteen or twenty years let them not be bestowed on the subjects of a foreign government nor upon a designated and favored class of men in our own country. . . . If we must have a bank with private stockholders, every consideration of sound policy and every impulse of American feeling admonishes that it should be purely American. Its stockholders should be composed exclusively of our own citizens, who at least ought to be friendly to our Government and willing to support it in times of difficulty and danger. . . . It is maintained by the advocates of the bank that its constitutionality in all its features ought to be considered as settled by precedent and by the decision of the Supreme Court. To this conclusion I can not assent. Mere precedent is a dangerous source of authority, and should not be regarded as deciding questions of constitutional power except where the acquiescence of the people and the States can be considered as well settled. So far from this being the case on this subject, an argument against the bank might be based on precedent. One Congress, in 1791, decided in favor of a bank; another, in 1811, decided against it. One Congress, in 1815, decided against a bank; another, in 1816, decided in its favor. Prior to the present Congress, therefore, the precedents drawn from that source were equal. If we resort to the States, the expressions of legislative, judicial, and executive opinions against the bank have been probably to those in its favor as 4 to 1. There is nothing in precedent, therefore, which, if its authority were admitted, ought to weigh in favor of the act before me. If the opinion of the Supreme Court covered the whole ground of this act, it ought not to control the coordinate authorities of this Government. The Congress, the Executive, and the Court must each for itself be guided by its own opinion of the Constitution. Each public officer who takes an oath to support the Constitution swears that he will support it as he understands it, and not as it is understood by others. It is as much the duty of the House of Representatives, of the Senate, and of the President to decide upon the constitutionality of any bill or resolution which may be presented to them for passage or approval as it is of the supreme judges when it may be brought before them for judicial decision. The opinion of the judges has no more authority over Congress than the opinion of Congress has over the judges, and on that point the President is independent of both. The authority of the Supreme Court must not, therefore, be permitted to control the Congress or the Executive when acting in their legislative capacities, but to have only such influence as the force of their reasoning may deserve. But in the case relied upon the Supreme Court have not decided that all the features of this corporation are compatible with the Constitution. The principle here affirmed is that the “degree of its necessity,” involving all the details of a banking institution, is a question exclusively for legislative consideration. A bank is constitutional, but it is the province of the Legislature to determine whether this or that particular power, privilege, or exemption is “necessary and proper” to enable the bank to discharge its duties to the Government, and from their decision there is no appeal to the courts of justice. Under the decision of the Supreme Court, therefore, it is the exclusive province of Congress and the President to decide whether the particular features of this act are necessary and proper in order to enable the bank to perform conveniently and efficiently the public duties assigned to it as a fiscal agent, and therefore constitutional, or unnecessary and improper, and therefore unconstitutional. Without commenting on the general principle affirmed by the Supreme Court, let us examine the details of this act in accordance with the rule of legislative action which they have laid down. It will be found that many of the powers and privileges conferred on it can not be supposed necessary for the purpose for which it is proposed to be created, and are not, therefore, means necessary to attain the end in view, and consequently not justified by the Constitution. [Jackson quotes a section of the incorporating act providing that Congress would not establish any other banks for twenty years and notes that the pending bill would add another fifteen years of exclusivity.] If Congress possessed the power to establish one bank, they had power to establish more than one if in their opinion two or more banks had been “necessary” to facilitate the execution of the powers delegated to them in the Constitution. If they possessed the power to establish a second bank, it was a power derived from the Constitution to be exercised from time to time, and at any time when the interests of the country or the emergencies of the Government might make it expedient. It was possessed by one Congress as well as another, and by all Congresses alike, and alike at every session. But the Congress of 1816 have taken it away from their successors for twenty years, and the Congress of 1832 proposes to abolish it for fifteen years more. It can not be “necessary” or “proper” for Congress to barter away or divest themselves of any of the powers vested in them by the Constitution to be exercised for the public good. It is not “necessary” to the efficiency of the bank, nor is it “proper” in relation to themselves and their successors. They may properly use the discretion vested in them, but they may not limit the discretion of their successors. This restriction on themselves and grant of a monopoly to the bank is therefore unconstitutional. . . . The Government of the United States have no constitutional power to purchase lands within the States except “for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings,” and even for these objects only “by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be.” By making themselves stockholders in the bank and granting to the corporation the power to purchase lands for other purposes they assume a power not granted in the Constitution and grant to others what they do not themselves possess. It is not necessary to the receiving, safe-keeping, or transmission of the funds of the Government that the bank should possess this power, and it is not proper that Congress should thus enlarge the powers delegated to them in the Constitution. . . . The Government is the only “proper” judge where its agents should reside and keep their offices, because it best knows where their presence will be “necessary.” It can not, therefore, be “necessary” or “proper” to authorize the bank to locate branches where it pleases to perform the public service, without consulting the Government, and contrary to its will. The principle laid down by the Supreme Court concedes that Congress can not establish a bank for purposes of private speculation and gain, but only as a means of executing the delegated powers of the General Government. By the same principle a branch bank can not constitutionally be established for other than public purposes. The power which this act gives to establish two branches in any State, without the injunction or request of the Government and for other than public purposes, is not “necessary” to the due execution of the powers delegated to Congress. . . . It is maintained by some that the bank is a means of executing the constitutional power “to coin money and regulate the value thereof.” Congress have established a mint to coin money and passed laws to regulate the value thereof. The money so coined, with its value so regulated, and such foreign coins as Congress may adopt are the only currency known to the Constitution. But if they have other power to regulate the currency, it was conferred to be exercised by themselves, and not to be transferred to a corporation. If the bank be established for that purpose, with a charter unalterable without its consent, Congress have parted with their power for a term of years, during which the Constitution is a dead letter. It is neither necessary nor proper to transfer its legislative power to such a bank, and therefore unconstitutional. . . . If our power over means is so absolute that the Supreme Court will not call in question the constitutionality of an act of Congress the subject of which “is not prohibited, and is really calculated to effect any of the objects intrusted to the Government,” although, as in the case before me, it takes away powers expressly granted to Congress and rights scrupulously reserved to the States, it becomes us to proceed in our legislation with the utmost caution. . . . That a bank of the United States, competent to all the duties which may be required by the Government, might be so organized as not to infringe on our own delegated powers or the reserved rights of the States I do not entertain a doubt. Had the Executive been called upon to furnish the project of such an institution, the duty would have been cheerfully performed. . . . ANDREW JACKSON. The next year, after his re-election, Jackson decided to take aggressive action against the Bank. By statute, the Secretary of the Treasury controlled the placement of the Government’s deposits. Jackson told Secretary William Duane to remove the Government’s deposits from the Bank. To his surprise, Duane refused, and so Jackson removed him. He then made a recess appointment of Taney, the most committed Bank opponent in the Cabinet, to the Treasury position. Taney removed the deposits, which crippled the Bank. When the Senate reconvened, it rejected Taney’s nomination. Characteristically loyal, Jackson nominated Taney to a Supreme Court seat in 1835, but the Senate again refused. When Marshall died later that year, Jackson tried again, nominating Taney to be Chief Justice. Early in 1836, a divided Senate confirmed the nomination. Taney served until his death in 1864. Meanwhile the charter of the Bank expired in 1836; it continued for five years as a private bank before failing in 1841. 2. The Nullification Crisis and Its Precursors In 1798, the Federalist-dominated Congress passed the notorious Alien and Sedition Acts in an attempt to stifle dissent. The Democratic-Republican opposition responded with fury. The Kentucky legislature adopted a set of resolutions drafted by Thomas Jefferson, the first of which asserted: 1. *Resolved*, That the several states composing the United States of America are not united on the principle of unlimited submission to their general government; but that, by compact, under the style and title of a Constitution for the United States, and of amendments thereto, they constituted a general government for special purposes, delegated to that government certain definite powers, reserving, each state to itself, the residuary mass of right to their own self-government; and that whensoever the general government assumes undelegated powers, its acts are unauthorized, void, and of no force; that to this compact each state acceded as a state, and is an integral party; that this government, created by this compact, was not made the exclusive or final judge of the extent of the powers delegated to itself, since that would have made its discretion, and not the Constitution, the measure of its powers; but that, as in all other cases of compact among powers having no common judge, *each party has an equal right to judge for itself, as well of infractions as of the mode and measure of redress*. Virginia adopted a similar set of resolutions, drafted by James Madison. No other state followed, but the so-called “Principles of ’98” gained a foothold in American constitutional debate. For instance, in 1814, the Massachusetts legislature adopted a resolution declaring that “[w]henever the national compact is violated, and the citizens of this State are oppressed by cruel and unauthorized laws, this Legislature is bound to interpose its power, and wrest from the oppressor its victim.” Far more significantly, in 1832, South Carolina adopted an Ordinance of Nullification, prompted by two federal tariff acts that it regarded as unduly onerous and unfairly favorable to northern states. The Nullification Ordinance declared that both Congress’s so-called “Tariff of Abominations” of 1828 and a successor tariff of 1832 had “violated the true meaning and intent” of the Constitution and were therefore “null, void, and no law, nor binding upon this State, its officers or citizens.” In response, President Jackson issued a proclamation that was drafted by his Secretary of State Edward Livingston. Characteristically, he pulled no punches: I consider . . . the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which It was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed. Just before Jackson’s second term began, he persuaded Congress to enact the so-called Force Bill of 1833 to compel South Carolina’s compliance with the tariff acts. One of the statute’s provisions gave the President temporary authority to use military force where necessary to overcome resistance to the execution of federal law. Not long afterwards, Congress passed a compromise tariff reducing some of the most bitterly-opposed exactions, and South Carolina repealed the nullification ordinance. And so the crisis passed—although the dispute about constitutional structure remained unresolved, and would re-emerge in far more virulent form a quarter century later. 3. **The Commerce Power** Marshall’s opinion in *McCulloch* did not elaborate very much on any particular Congressional power. His opinion in *Gibbons v. Ogden* (1824) articulated a broad conception of Congress’s power under the Commerce Clause, allowing it to regulate not only things moving *in* commerce but also matters that *affect* interstate commerce. While *Gibbons* thus paved the way for the Commerce Clause to develop into the greatest source of national power, Congress did not actually regulate commerce aggressively for many years to come. The principal importance of the Commerce Clause during this period was as a limitation on the power of the states. This doctrine—to which the curious name Dormant Commerce Clause has been attached—had roots in a suggestion by Marshall in *Gibbons* that Congress’s power under the Clause is exclusive: It has been contended by the counsel for the appellant, that, as the word “to regulate” implies in its nature, full power over the thing to be regulated, it excludes, necessarily, the action of all others that would perform the same operation on the same thing. That regulation is designed for the entire result, applying to those parts which remain as they were, as well as to those which are altered. It produces a uniform whole, which is as much disturbed and deranged by changing what the regulating power designs to leave untouched, as that on which it has operated. There is great force in this argument, and the Court is not satisfied that it has been refuted. The next two cases offer early examples of the doctrine that emerged. **Willson v. Black Bird Creek Marsh Company** Supreme Court of the United States, 1829. *27 U.S. 245.* [The Black Bird Creek Marsh Company was incorporated by an 1822 statute of Delaware and authorized to build a dam across Black Bird Creek, which it did. The creek was a navigable stream, with the tide flowing through it for some distance, but it passed through a deep marsh. Willson and his colleagues owned a sloop, the Sally, licensed and enrolled pursuant to federal law, which collided with and damaged the dam. The Company sued for trespass, seeking $20,000 in damages. The owners of the Sally contended, among other points, that the dam had been “wrongfully erected,” because the creek was “a public and common navigable creek, in the nature of a highway, in which the tides have always flowed and reflowed; in which there was, and of right ought to have been, a certain common and public way,” and that therefore they had a right to sail the sloop where the alleged trespass occurred. The Company won in state court, and the sloop owners sought review in the United States Supreme Court.] Mr Chief Justice Marshall delivered the opinion of the Court. ... The Act of Assembly by which the plaintiffs were authorized to construct their dam shows plainly that this is one of those many creeks, passing through a deep level marsh adjoining the Delaware, up which the tide flows for some distance. The value of the property on its banks must be enhanced by excluding the water from the marsh, and the health of the inhabitants probably improved. Measures calculated to produce these objects, provided they do not come into collision with the powers of the General Government, are undoubtedly within those which are reserved to the States. But the measure authorised by this act stops a navigable creek, and must be supposed to abridge the rights of those who have been accustomed to use it. But this abridgement, unless it comes in conflict with the Constitution or a law of the United States, is an affair between the government of Delaware and its citizens of which this Court can take no cognizance. The counsel for the plaintiffs in error insist that it comes in conflict with the power of the United States "to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States." If Congress had passed any act which bore upon the case, any act in execution of the power to regulate commerce the object of which was to control State legislation over those small navigable creeks into which the tide flows, and which abound throughout the lower country of the middle and southern States, we should feel not much difficulty in saying that a State law coming in conflict with such act would be void. But Congress has passed no such act. The repugnancy of the law of Delaware to the Constitution is placed entirely on its repugnancy to the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States—a power which has not been so exercised as to affect the question. We do not think that the Act empowering the Black Bird Creek Marsh Company to place a dam across the creek can, under all the circumstances of the case, be considered as repugnant to the power to regulate commerce in its dormant State, or as being in conflict with any law passed on the subject. There is no error, and the judgment is affirmed. The License Cases Supreme Court of the United States, 1847. 46 U.S. (5 How.) 504. Mr. Chief Justice Taney. ... The justices of this court do not . . . altogether agree in the principles upon which these cases are decided, and I therefore proceed to state the grounds upon which I concur in affirming the judgments. . . . Each of the cases has arisen upon State laws, passed for the purpose of discouraging the use of ardent spirits within their respective territories, by prohibiting their sale in small quantities, and without licenses previously obtained from the State authorities. . . . [In] the Rhode Island and Massachusetts cases, . . . the question is how far a State may regulate or prohibit the sale of ardent spirits, the importation of which from foreign countries has been authorized by Congress. Is such a law a regulation of foreign commerce, or of the internal traffic of the State? It is unquestionably no easy task to mark by a certain and definite line the division between foreign and domestic commerce, and to fix the precise point, in relation to every important article, where the paramount power of Congress terminates, and that of the State begins. The constitution itself does not attempt to define these limits. They cannot be determined by the laws of Congress or the States, as neither can by its own legislation enlarge its own powers, or restrict those of the other. And as the constitution itself does not draw the line, the question is necessarily one for judicial decision, and depending altogether upon the words of the constitution. This question came directly before the court for the first time in the case of Brown v. The State of Maryland [(1827), per Chief Justice Marshall]. And the court there held that an article authorized by a law of Congress to be imported continued to be a part of the foreign commerce of the country while it remained in the hands of the importer for sale, in the original bale, package, or vessel in which it was imported; that the authority given to import necessarily carried with it the right to sell the imported article in the form and shape in which it was imported, and that no State, either by direct assessment or by requiring a license from the importer before he was permitted to sell, could impose and burden upon him or the property imported beyond what the law of Congress had itself imposed; but that when the original package was broken up for use or for retail by the importer, and also when the commodity had passed from his hands into the hands of a purchaser, it ceased to be an import, or a part of foreign commerce, and became subject to the laws of the State, and might be taxed for State purposes, and the sale regulated by the State, like any other property. . . . Adopting, therefore, the rule as laid down in *Brown v. The State of Maryland*, I proceed to apply it to the cases of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The laws of Congress regulating foreign commerce authorize the importation of spirits, distilled liquors, and brandy, in casks or vessels not containing less than a certain quantity, specified in the laws upon this subject. . . . It has . . . been suggested, that, if a State deems the traffic in ardent spirits to be injurious to its citizens, and calculated to introduce immorality, vice, and pauperism into the State, it may constitutionally refuse to permit its importation, notwithstanding the laws of Congress; and that a State may do this upon the same principles that it may resist and prevent the introduction of disease, pestilence, or pauperism from abroad. But it must be remembered that disease, pestilence, and pauperism are not subjects of commerce, although sometimes among its attendant evils. They are not things to be regulated and trafficked in, but to be prevented, as far as human foresight or human means can guard against them. But spirits and distilled liquors are universally admitted to be subjects of ownership and property, and are therefore subjects of exchange, barter, and traffic, like any other commodity in which a right of property exists. And Congress, under its general power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, may prescribe what article of merchandise shall be admitted, and what excluded; and may therefore admit, or not, as it shall deem best, the importation of ardent spirits. And inasmuch as the laws of Congress authorize their importation, no State has a right to prohibit their introduction. But I do not understand the law of Massachusetts or Rhode Island as interfering with the trade in ardent spirits while the article remains a part of foreign commerce, and is in the hands of the importer for sale, in the cask or vessel in which the laws of Congress authorize it to be imported. These State laws act altogether upon the retail or domestic traffic within their respective borders. They act upon the article after it has passed the line of foreign commerce, and become a part of the general mass of property in the State. These laws may, indeed, discourage imports, and diminish the price which ardent spirits would otherwise bring. But although a State is bound to receive and to permit the sale by the importer of any article of merchandise which Congress authorizes to be imported, it is not bound to furnish a market for it, nor to abstain from the passage of any law which it may deem necessary or advisable to guard the health or morals of its citizens, although such law may discourage importation, or diminish the profits of the importer, or lessen the revenue of the general government. And if any State deems the retail and internal traffic in ardent spirits injurious to its citizens, and calculated to produce idleness, vice, or debauchery, I see nothing in the constitution of the United States to prevent it from regulating and restraining the traffic, or from prohibiting it altogether, if it thinks proper. And as these laws of Massachusetts and Rhode Island are not repugnant to the constitution of the United States, and do not come in conflict with any law of Congress passed in pursuance of its authority to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States, there is no ground upon which this court can declare them to be void. In a passage omitted above, Taney asserts that the framers knew “that a multitude of minor regulations must be necessary, which Congress amid its great concerns could never find time to consider and provide.” In Taney’s view, what check (if any) is there on state legislation that might be of limited significance but harmful to interstate commerce? Note also *Cooley v. Board of Wardens* (1851), which upheld a Pennsylvania statute that required all ships over a prescribed size either to hire a local pilot or to pay a fee when entering or leaving the port of Philadelphia. Justice Curtis’s opinion for the Court took a more flexible and functional stance than prior cases had: Now the power to regulate commerce, embraces a vast field, containing not only many, but exceedingly various subjects, quite unlike in their nature; some imperatively demanding a single uniform rule, operating equally on the commerce of the United States in every port; and some, like the subject now in question, as imperatively demanding that diversity, which alone can meet the local necessities of navigation. Either absolutely to affirm, or deny that the nature of this power requires exclusive legislation by Congress, is to lose sight of the nature of the subjects of this power, and to assert concerning all of them, what is really applicable but to a part. Whatever subjects of this power are in their nature national, or admit only of one uniform system, or plan of regulation, may justly be said to be of such a nature as to require exclusive legislation by Congress. That this cannot be affirmed of laws for the regulation of pilots and pilotage is plain. E. Slavery Before the Civil War During the 19th century, Northern revulsion against slavery steadily increased. Most Northerners disclaimed any intention of ending slavery in the slave-holding states of the South. But there were exceptions. One of the most eloquent and intellectually forceful assertions of the constitutional basis for emancipation came from Frederick Douglass, who had himself escaped from slavery to freedom in the North. Frederick Douglass, Debate at the Scottish Anti-Slavery Society, The Constitution of the United States: Is it Pro-Slavery or Anti-Slavery? (March 26, 1860) ... The real question between the parties differing at this point in America may be fairly stated thus:—"Does the United States constitution guarantee to any class or description of people in that country the right to enslave or hold as property any other class or description of people in that country?"... What is the constitution? It is no vague, indefinite, floating, unsubstantial something, called, according to any man's fancy, now a weasel and now a whale. But it is something substantial. It is a plainly written document; not in Hebrew nor in Greek, but in English, beginning with a preamble, fitted out with articles, sections, provisions, and clauses, defining the rights, powers, and duties to be secured, claimed, and exercised under its authority. It is not even like the British constitution. It is not made up of enactments of parliament, decisions of courts, and the established usages of the government. The American constitution is a written instrument, full and complete in itself. No court, no congress, no legislature, no combination in the country can add one word to it, or take one word from it. . . . It is a great national enactment, done by the people, and can only be altered, amended, or changed in any way, shape, or form by the people who enacted it. . . . It should also be borne in mind that the intentions of those who framed the constitution, be they good or bad, be they for slavery or against slavery, are to be respected so far, and so far only, as they have succeeded in getting these intentions expressed in the written instrument itself. . . . It would be the wildest of absurdities, and would lead to the most endless confusions and mischiefs, if, instead of looking to the written instrument itself for its meaning, it were attempted to make us go in search of what could be the secret motives and dishonest intentions of some of the men who might have taken part in writing or adopting it. It was what they said that was adopted by the people; not what they were ashamed or afraid to say, or really omitted to say. It was not what they tried, nor what they concealed; it was what they wrote down, not what they kept back, that the people adopted. It was only what was declared upon its face that was adopted—not their secret understandings, if there were any such understandings. Bear in mind, also, . . . that the framers of the constitution, the men who wrote the constitution, sat with closed doors in the city of Philadelphia while they wrote it. They sat with closed doors, and this was done purposely, that nothing but the result, the pure result of their labours should be seen, and that that result might stand alone and be judged of on its own merits, and adopted on its own merits, without any influence being exerted upon them by the debates. . . . Again, where would be the advantage of a written constitution, I pray you, if, after we have it written, instead of looking to its plain, common sense reading, we should go in search of its meaning to the secret intentions of the individuals who may have had something to do with writing the paper? What will the people of America a hundred years hence, care about the intentions of the men who framed the constitution of the United States? These men were for a day—for a generation, but the constitution is for ages; and, a hundred years hence, the very names of the men who took part in framing that instrument will, perhaps, be blotted out or forgotten. . . . Are you persuaded by Douglass’s view of the role of the Constitution’s text? Douglass reads the three-fifths clause of art. I, § 2; art. I, § 8, cl. 15; art. I, § 9, cl. 1; and art. IV, § 2, cl. 3.] Here then are the provisions of the constitution which the most extravagant defenders of slavery have ever claimed to guarantee the right of property in man. These are the provisions which have been [fraudulently] pressed into the service of the human fleshmongers of America; let us look at them just as they stand, one by one. You will notice there is not a word said there about “slave-trade,” not a word said there about “slave insurrections;” not a word there about “three-fifths representation of slaves;” not a word there which any man outside of America, and who had not been accustomed to claim these particular provisions of the Constitution, would ever suspect had the remotest reference to slavery. *I deny utterly that these provisions of these constitution guarantee, or were intended to guarantee, in any shape or form, the right of property in man in the United States.* But let us grant, for the sake of argument, that the first of these provisions, referring to the basis of representation and taxation, does refer to slaves. We are not compelled to make this admission, for it might fairly apply, and indeed was intended to apply, to aliens and others, living in the United States, but who were not naturalised. But giving the provision the very worst construction—that it applies to slaves—what does it amount to? I answer—and see you bear it in mind, for it shows the disposition of the constitution to slavery—I take the very worst aspect, and admit all that is claimed or that can be admitted consistently with truth; and I answer that this very provision, supposing it refers to slaves, is in itself a downright disability imposed upon the slave system of America, *one which deprives the slaveholding States of at least two-fifths of their natural basis of representation*. Therefore, instead of encouraging slavery, the constitution encourages freedom, by *holding out to every slaveholding State the inducement of an increase of two-fifths of political power by becoming a free State*. So much for the three-fifths clause; taking it at its worst, it still leans to freedom, not to slavery; for be it remembered that, the constitution nowhere forbids a black man to vote. No “white,” no “black,” no “slaves,” no “slaveholder”—nowhere in the instrument are any of these words to be found. --- **FOR DISCUSSION** Is Douglass correct that the three-fifths clause encourages freedom? If so, what is the legal significance of this? I come to the next, that which it is said guarantees the continuance of the African slave-trade for twenty years. I will also take that for just what my opponent alleges it to have been, although the constitution does not warrant any such conclusion. But . . . let us suppose it did, and what follows? Why, this—that this part of the constitution of the United States expired by its own limitation no fewer than fifty two years ago. My opponent is just fifty-two years too late in seeking the dissolution of the Union on account of this clause, for it expired as far back as 1808. . . . I ask is the constitution of the United States to be condemned to everlasting infamy because of what was done fifty-two years ago? But there is still more to be said about this provision of the constitution. At the time the constitution was adopted, the slave trade was regarded as the jugular vein of slavery itself, and it was thought that slavery would die with the death of the slave trade. . . . The fathers who framed the American constitution supposed [likewise] that in making provision for the abolition of the African slave-trade they were making provision for the abolition of slavery itself, and they incorporated this clause in the constitution, not to perpetuate the traffic in human flesh, but to bring that unnatural traffic to an end. Outside of the Union the slave-trade could be carried on to an indefinite period; but the men who framed the constitution, and who proposed its adoption, said to the slave States—If you would purchase the privileges of this Union, you must consent that the humanity of this nation shall lay its hand upon this traffic at least in twenty years after the adoption of the constitution. So much for the African slave-trade clause. . . . But there is one other provision called the “Fugitive Slave Provision.” It is called so by those who wish it to subserve the interests of slavery. . . . To whom does it apply if not to slaves? I answer that it applied at the time of its adoption to a very numerous class of persons in America; and I have the authority of no less a person than Daniel Webster that it was intended to apply to that class of men—a class of persons known in America as “Redemptioners.” There was quite a number of them at that day, who had been taken to America precisely as coolies have been taken to the West Indies. They entered into a contract to serve and labour so long for so much money, and the children born to them in that condition were also held as bound to “service and labour.” It also applies “indentured apprentices,” and to persons taking upon themselves an obligation to “serve and labour.” The constitution says that the party shall be delivered up to whom such service and labour may be due. Why, sir, due! In the first place this very clause of that provision makes it utterly impossible that it can apply to slaves. There is nothing due from the slave to his master in the way of service or labour. He is unable to show a contract. The thing implies an arrangement, an understanding, by which, for an equivalent, I will do for you so much, if you will do for me, or have done for me, so much. The constitution says he will be delivered up to whom any service or labour shall be due. Due! A slave owes nothing to any master; he can owe nothing to any master. In the eye of the law he is a chattel personal, to all intents, purposes, and constructions whatever. Talk of a horse owing something to his master, or a sheep, or a wheel-barrow! Perfectly ridiculous! The idea that a slave can owe anything! I tell you what I would do if . . . I were a judge, and a slave was brought before me under this provision of the constitution, and the master should insist upon my sending him back to slavery, I should inquire how the slave was bound to serve and labour for him. I would point him to this same constitution, and tell him that I read in that constitution the great words of your own Magna Charta—“No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without the process of law”—and I ought to know by what contract, how this man contracted an obligation, or took upon himself to serve and labour for you. And if he could not show that, I should dismiss the case and restore the man to his liberty. And I would do quite right, according to the constitution. I admit nothing in favour of slavery when liberty is at stake; when I am called upon to argue on behalf of liberty I will range throughout the world, I am at perfect liberty by forms of law and by the roles of hermeneutics to range through the whole universe of God in proof of an innocent purpose, in proof of a good thing; but if you want to prove a bad thing, if you want to accomplish a bad and violent purpose, you must show it is so named in the bond. This is a sound legal rule. . . . Slavery is not among [the objects stated in the preamble to the Constitution]; the objects are union, defence, welfare, tranquillity, justice, and liberty. Now, if the two last—to say nothing of the defence—if the two last purposes declared were reduced to practice, slavery would go reeling to its grave as if smitten with a bolt from heaven. Let but the American people be true to their own constitution, true to the purposes set forth in that constitution, and we will have no need of a dissolution of the Union—we will have a dissolution of slavery all over that country. But it has been said that negroes are not included in the benefits sought under this [preamble] declaration of purposes. . . . The constitution says “We the people;” the language is “we the people;” not we the white people, not we the citizens, not we the privileged class, not we the high, not we the low, not we of English extraction, not we of French or of Scotch extraction, but “we the people;” not we the horses, sheep, and swine, and wheelbarrows, but we the human inhabitants; and unless you deny that negroes are people, they are included within the purposes of this government. They were there, and if we the people are included, negroes are included; they have a right, in the name of the constitution of the United States, to demand their liberty. This, I undertake to say, is the conclusion of the whole matter—that the constitutionality of slavery can be made out only by discrediting the plain, common sense reading of the constitution itself. . . . For Discussion (1) How might you respond to Douglass’s argument that the Constitution itself rendered slavery unlawful? (2) Consider what the constitutional status would be, at the time Douglass spoke, of the following: (a) a South Carolina statute abolishing slavery in the state. (b) a federal statute providing: “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” 1. The Fugitive Slave Controversy If the people held as slaves had always remained within the slave-holding states, the specifically national aspects of the slavery question might not ever have created a national crisis—or at least the crisis likely would have come later, and had a different shape. But the South was not hermetically sealed; sometimes enslaved people escaped to liberty, and sometimes the people enslaving them moved to different states. And so the institution of slavery threatened the continuance of the Union. Fundamentally, of course, the dispute was based on deep disagreement about the morality of slavery. But it played out in debates over the nature of federalism. Reread Art. IV, § 2, cl. 3 of the Constitution, the Fugitive Slave Clause. In 1793, Congress passed a Fugitive Slave Law in an attempt to enforce this clause. Section 3 of the statute provided that if “a person held to labor” should escape into another part of the nation, the master or his agent was “empowered to seize or arrest” the fugitive, take him before any federal judge within the state, “or before any magistrate of a county, city, or town corporate, wherein such seizure or arrest shall be made”; on proof satisfactory to the judge or magistrate, “either by oral testimony or affidavit,” that in fact the person seized owed service to the claimant, “it shall be the duty of such Judge or magistrate to give a certificate” allowing removal of the fugitive. Over time, resistance to the return of fugitive slaves intensified in the North. In 1826, Pennsylvania passed a “personal liberty law,” similar to statutes enacted by other Northern states, entitled “an act to give effect to the provisions of the constitution of the United States, relative to fugitives from labor, for the protection of free people of color, and to prevent kidnapping.” Section 1 of the statute made it a felony to use “force or violence” to remove from the Commonwealth “any negro or mulatto” with the intention of causing the person to be detained as a slave. Subsequent sections of the statute provided procedures, somewhat more elaborate than those prescribed by the federal statute, under which a judge might issue a certificate for removal; a first warrant had to issue, which had to be supported by an affidavit completed by the claimant in his home state, and then the judge would hold another proceeding to determine whether the certificate of removal should issue. Margaret Morgan’s parents were enslaved in Maryland. Although never formally emancipated, they lived virtually as free people. Margaret was never claimed as a slave while in Maryland. In 1832, she moved with her free-born husband and their children to Pennsylvania; she had at least one more child there. In 1837, Edward Prigg, together with Nathan Beemis, the original owner’s son-in-law, attempted to get a certificate for Morgan’s removal. The justice of the peace refused, at least in part because of doubt as to Morgan’s status. Prigg, Beemis, and two others then forcibly removed the entire family. After lengthy negotiations, Maryland agreed to extradite Prigg alone to Pennsylvania for trial under § 1 of the 1826 Act. Prigg was convicted, and appealed to the United States Supreme Court. With only Justice McLean dissenting, the Court reversed the conviction. *Prigg v. Pennsylvania* (1842). Atypically for the era, seven justices wrote opinions. The lead opinion was by Justice Story—a Massachusetts man, and no friend to slavery, but above all else a committed nationalist. Near the beginning, Story’s opinion in *Prigg* contained this remarkable passage: Before proceeding to discuss the very important and interesting questions involved in this record, it is fit to say, that the cause has been conducted in the court below, and has been brought here by the co-operation and sanction, both of the state of Maryland, and the state of Pennsylvania, in the most friendly and courteous spirit, with a view to have those questions finally disposed of by the adjudication of this court; so that the agitations on this subject, in both states, which have had a tendency to interrupt the harmony between them, may subside, and the conflict of opinion be put at rest. It should also be added, that the statute of Pennsylvania of 1826, was (as has been suggested at the bar) passed with a view of meeting the supposed wishes of Maryland on the subject of fugitive slaves; and that, although it has failed to produce the good effects intended in its practical construction, the result was unforeseen and undesigned. Does this reflect arrogance? Naiveté? The ability of law, and lawyers, to defuse passion-generating issues and handle them in a civil way? Prigg and Maryland argued that the 1826 Pennsylvania statute was not valid—either because it was contrary to Article IV, or because it conflicted with the 1793 statute, or because the 1793 statute occupied the field. Story held that, by virtue of the constitutional language itself, slaveholders could recapture an escapee from chattel bondage without need for judicial process: [W]e have not the slightest hesitation in holding, that under and in virtue of the constitution, the owner of a slave is clothed with entire authority, in every state in the Union, to seize and recapture his slave, whenever he can do it, without any breach of the peace or any illegal violence. In this sense, and to this extent, this clause of the constitution may properly be said to execute itself, and to require no aid from legislation, state or national. **Questions** (1) Does Story’s conclusion seem to be a proper reading of the constitutional text? (2) Can you think of a modern analogue to the power of recapture that Story articulates? But Story went further. Pennsylvania claimed that the federal act was unconstitutional because it did not fall within the scope of any of Congress’s enumerated powers. The Court held that the federal act was constitutional: If, indeed, the constitution guaranties the right, and if it requires the delivery upon the claim of the owner (as cannot well be doubted), the natural inference certainly is, that the national government is clothed with the appropriate authority and functions to enforce it. The fundamental principle, applicable to all cases of this sort, would seem to be, that where the end is required, the means are given; and where the duty is enjoined, the ability to perform it is contemplated to exist, on the part of the functionaries to whom it is intrusted. **Questions** Was that the correct decision? If it is correct, what does that say about the sources of Congressional power under the Constitution? If Congress did *not* have authority to pass the statute, then what would the effect of the constitutional language be? The Court then posed the question “whether the power of legislation upon this subject is exclusive in the national government, or concurrent in the states, until it is exercised by congress,” and held that the power was exclusive: It is scarcely conceivable, that the slave-holding states would have been satisfied with leaving to the legislation of the non-slave-holding states, a power of regulation, in the absence of that of congress, which would or might practically amount to a power to destroy the rights of the owner. If the argument, therefore, of a concurrent power in the states to act upon the subject-matter, in the absence of legislation by congress, be well founded; then, if congress had never acted at all, or if the act of congress should be repealed, without providing a substitute, there would be a resulting authority in each of the states to regulate the whole subject, at its pleasure, and to dole out its own remedial justice, or withhold it, at its pleasure, and according to its own views of policy and expediency. **Questions** Does that seem right? What would happen until such time as Congress legislated? Is this an area requiring—or capable of—nationwide uniformity? Could the Court have held the Pennsylvania statute unconstitutional on narrower grounds? At the same time, Story did not mean that states lacked the power to return people who had escaped slavery, as a matter of their “general police power”—that is, the overall supervisory power that the states possess to act for the welfare of the state: We entertain no doubt whatsoever, that the states, in virtue of their general police power, possess full jurisdiction to arrest and restrain runaway slaves, and remove them from their borders, and otherwise to secure themselves against their depredations and evil example, as they certainly may do in cases of idlers, vagabonds and paupers. The rights of the owners of fugitive slaves are in no just sense interfered with, or regulated, by such a course; and in many cases, the operations of this police power, although designed generally for other purposes, for protection, safety and peace of the state, may essentially promote and aid the interests of the owners. But such regulations can never be permitted to interfere with, or to obstruct, the just rights of the owner to reclaim his slave, derived from the constitution of the United States, or with the remedies prescribed by congress to aid and enforce the same. **Question** How does this square with the holding that Congress has exclusive jurisdiction to pass legislation enforcing the constitutional clause? After all this, it might surprise you to learn that, according to his son, Story later spoke of *Prigg* as a “triumph of freedom.” Its claim on that score is attributable to passages absolving state officials from the responsibility of participating in the return of fugitives from slavery: The clause is found in the national constitution, and not in that of any state. It does not point out any state functionaries, or any state action, to carry its provisions into effect. The states cannot, therefore, be compelled to enforce them; and it might well be deemed an unconstitutional exercise of the power of interpretation, to insist, that the states are bound to provide means to carry into effect the duties of the national government, nowhere delegated or intrusted to them by the constitution. On the contrary, the natural, if not the necessary, conclusion is, that the national government, in the absence of all positive provisions to the contrary, is bound, through its own proper departments, legislative, judicial or executive, as the case may require, to carry into effect all the rights and duties imposed upon it by the constitution. . . . We hold the [federal] act to be clearly constitutional, in all its leading provisions, and, indeed, with the exception of that part which confers authority upon state magistrates, to be free from reasonable doubt and difficulty, upon the grounds already stated. As to the authority so conferred upon state magistrates, while a difference of opinion has existed, and may exist still, on the point, in different states, whether state magistrates are bound to act under it, none is entertained by this court, that state magistrates may, if they choose, exercise that authority, unless prohibited by state legislation. Questions Does this passage—which appears to be *dictum*—declare part of the federal law unconstitutional? Is it correct? Some Northern states took up the invitation, prohibiting state officials from participating in the return of people who had escaped slavery. This hampered enforcement of the 1793 act, and so led to Southern pressure for a strengthened federal statute. One was passed as the critical component of the Compromise of 1850. The North got some significant benefits from the Compromise, including the admission of California as a free state and abolition of the slave trade in Washington, D.C. But the new Fugitive Slave Act was a very one-sided statute designed to make it easy for the claimant to secure the return of the alleged slave, and virtually impossible for the latter to resist. The statute also set up a system of federal commissioners in each district to provide a ready mechanism for issuing warrants of removal; this was an early instance of a federal bureaucracy spread across the nation. The 1850 Act generated fierce resistance in the North. In one incident, Sherman Booth, an abolitionist in Wisconsin, led a mob that freed Joshua Glover, who had escaped from slavery, been captured, and was being held in federal custody. A federal marshal, Stephen Ableman, arrested Booth. But a justice of the Wisconsin Supreme Court issued a writ of habeas corpus, instructing Ableman to release Booth, on the ground that the 1850 Act was unconstitutional and that Booth was therefore being held illegally. While Ableman complied, the full court affirmed the single justice’s order, and Ableman sought review in the United States Supreme Court. Meanwhile, Booth was tried and convicted in federal court of interfering with the 1850 Act, and then imprisoned; he was actually held by the sheriff of Milwaukee County. He went back to the state supreme court for another writ of habeas corpus, and again he won it; from this decision, the United States sought review in the United States Supreme Court. The two cases were heard together. In *Ableman v. Booth* (1859), Chief Justice Taney wrote for a unanimous Court reversing the Wisconsin Supreme Court. His reasoning began from the premise that, if the Wisconsin courts were deemed to have the power they exercised in this case, “no offence against the laws of the United States [could] be punished by their own courts, without the permission and according to the judgment of the courts of the State in which the party happens to be imprisoned.” Taney then wrote: The importance which the framers of the Constitution attached to . . . a tribunal [capable of resolving interstate conflicts], for the purpose of preserving internal tranquillity, is strikingly manifested by the clause which gives this court jurisdiction over the sovereign States which compose this Union, when a controversy arises between them. Instead of reserving the right to seek redress for injustice from another State by their sovereign powers, they have bound themselves to submit to the decision of this court, and to abide by its judgment. And it is not out of place to say, here, that experience has demonstrated that this power was not unwisely surrendered by the States; for in the time that has already elapsed since this Government came into existence, several irritating and angry controversies have taken place between adjoining States, in relation to their respective boundaries, and which have sometimes threatened to end in force and violence, but for the power vested in this court to hear them and decide between them. . . . We do not question the authority of State court, or judge, who is authorized by the laws of the State to issue the writ of habeas corpus, to issue it in any case where the party is imprisoned within its territorial limits, provided it does not appear, when the application is made, that the person imprisoned is in custody under the authority of the United States. The court or judge has a right to inquire, in this mode of proceeding, for what cause and by what authority the prisoner is confined within the territorial limits of the State sovereignty. . . . Now, it certainly can be no humiliation to the citizen of a republic to yield a ready obedience to the laws as administered by the constituted authorities. On the contrary, it is among his first and highest duties as a citizen, because free government cannot exist without it. Nor can it be inconsistent with the dignity of a sovereign State to observe faithfully, and in the spirit of sincerity and truth, the compact into which it voluntarily entered when it became a State of this Union. On the contrary, the highest honor of sovereignty is untarnished faith. And certainly no faith could be more deliberately and solemnly pledged than that which every State has plighted to the other States to support the Constitution as it is, in all its provisions, until they shall be altered in the manner which the Constitution itself prescribes. For Discussion (1) What do you make of the fact that *Ableman* was unanimous? That it was written by Taney? Bear these questions in mind as you read *Scott v. Sandford*, below. (2) It appears that Milwaukee County was providing jailing services for the federal government. The federal government could not require it to do so. What, then, was wrong with the state supreme court’s order releasing Booth from the custody of the county sheriff? 2. The Mobility and Expansion of Slavery The Missouri Compromise of 1820 admitted Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state, and prohibited slavery in the unorganized territory of the Great Plains, the former Louisiana Territory (other than Missouri itself) north of the parallel $36^\circ 30'$ north. In 1854, however, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, sponsored by Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois, repealed that prohibition, providing instead for determination of the slavery question by a vote of the people—popular sovereignty—in the newly organized territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Northern outrage over the new law led to formation of the Republican Party, based on opposition to expansion of slavery. “Bleeding Kansas” became a flashpoint of the conflict, as partisans on both sides moved there to try to affect the outcome; ultimately, Kansas was admitted as a free state in January 1861. Over the course of the nineteenth century, the national debate over slavery became closely tied to the problem of westward expansion. Slaveholders wanted slavery to be allowed in new territories, to preserve the economic viability of the institution, to protect slaveholding interests in the Senate, and to facilitate their own mobility. Naturally, opponents of slavery resisted expansion. Slaveholders sometimes moved out of their states. One example was John Emerson, an army doctor, who purchased an enslaved man named Dred Scott in Missouri and traveled with him, first to the state of Illinois and then to Fort Snelling in the federal Wisconsin Territory—where Scott was allowed to marry. Illinois was part of the territory declared free by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, and it was admitted as a free state in 1819. The Missouri Compromise had prescribed that the part of Wisconsin Territory that included Fort Snelling was free. Had Scott sued while in the North, he could presumably have secured his freedom. But he did not. Indeed, after Emerson was transferred back to Missouri, he left the Scotts up North; when he later sent for them, they traveled by themselves more than a thousand miles down the Mississippi to rejoin him, with a daughter born along the way. After Emerson’s death, Scott sued for his freedom in Missouri state court. He relied on a well-established Missouri doctrine known as “once free, always free,” which would have required the courts to apply Illinois law and free Scott from slavery. In *Scott v. Emerson* (1852), however, the Missouri Supreme Court overruled its own longstanding precedent and denied Scott’s petition for emancipation. The court reasoned: > It is a humiliating spectacle, to see the courts of a State confiscating the property of her own citizens by the command of a foreign law. . . . On almost three sides the State of Missouri is surrounded by free soil. If one of our slaves touch that soil with his master’s assent, he becomes entitled to his freedom. . . . > Times are not now as they were when the former decisions on this subject were made[, requiring application of Illinois law under circumstances like these]. Since then not only individuals but States have been possessed with a dark and fell spirit in relation to slavery, whose gratification is sought in the pursuit of measures, whose inevitable consequences must be the overthrow and destruction of our government. Missouri Chief Justice Gamble dissented on the ground that the court’s refusal to apply “once free, always free” violated stare decisis: “I regard the question as conclusively settled [in Scott’s favor], by repeated adjudications of this court.” As Scott’s prospects in the Missouri courts dried up, he filed a federal action against John Sanford, Emerson’s brother-in-law and the executor of his estate. (Sanford’s name was misspelled in the United States Reports—a fitting legacy.) Scott based his claim to federal jurisdiction on diversity of citizenship: Sanford was a New Yorker, and Scott claimed to be a citizen of Missouri. After losing in Circuit Court on the basis of substantive Missouri law, Scott appealed to the United States Supreme Court. The Supreme Court heard oral argument on the case twice, because “differences of opinion were found to exist among the members of the court” after the first argument. In the end, it ruled by a vote of 7–2, with Justices McLean and Curtis dissenting, that Scott remained enslaved. All nine justices wrote separate opinions, but Chief Justice Taney’s opinion took the lead and in some respects spoke for a majority of the Court. In the words of Charles Evans Hughes, a 20th-century Chief Justice, the case was the greatest “self-inflicted wound” in the Court’s history; it brought on the Court such intense contempt from the North that decades passed before the Court recovered its public standing. Taney could have decided on narrow grounds by relying on “choice of law” precedent to apply Missouri law, under which Scott’s northern sojourn did not set him free. But Taney decided to resolve broader issues, apparently hoping that he might settle the ongoing political conflict over slavery. **Scott v. Sandford** Supreme Court of the United States, 1857. 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393. **Opinion.** This case was brought up, by writ of error, from the Circuit Court of the United States for the district of Missouri. It was an action of trespass *vi et armis* instituted in the Circuit Court by Scott against Sandford. . . . The declaration of Scott contained three counts: one, that Sandford had assaulted the plaintiff; one, that he had assaulted Harriet Scott, his wife; and one, that he had assaulted Eliza Scott and Lizzie Scott, his children. . . . At the times mentioned in the plaintiff’s declaration, the defendant, claiming to be owner as aforesaid, laid his hands upon said plaintiff, Harriet, Eliza, and Lizzie, and imprisoned them, doing in this respect, however, no more than what he might lawfully do if they were of right his slaves at such times. . . . Mr. Chief Justice Taney delivered the opinion of the court. ... There are two leading questions presented by the record: 1. Had the Circuit Court of the United States jurisdiction to hear and determine the case between these parties? And 2. If it had jurisdiction, is the judgment it has given erroneous or not? The plaintiff in error, who was also the plaintiff in the court below, was, with his wife and children, held as slaves by the defendant, in the State of Missouri; and he brought this action in the Circuit Court of the United States for that district, to assert the title of himself and his family to freedom. [I. Jurisdiction] The declaration ... contains the averment necessary to give the court jurisdiction; that he and the defendant are citizens of different States; that is, that he is a citizen of Missouri, and the defendant a citizen of New York. Since Scott did not bring a federal claim, the only possible basis for Article III jurisdiction was diversity of citizenship. See U.S. Const, Art. III, Sec. 2 ("The judicial Power shall extend to . . . Controversies between . . . Citizens of different States"). The defendant pleaded in abatement to the jurisdiction of the court, that the plaintiff was not a citizen of the State of Missouri, as alleged in his declaration, being a negro of African descent, whose ancestors were of pure African blood, and who were brought into this country and sold as slaves. . The question is simply this: Can a negro, whose ancestors were imported into this country, and sold as slaves, become a member of the political community formed and brought into existence by the Constitution of the United States, and as such become entitled to all the rights, and privileges, and immunities, guarantied by that instrument to the citizen? One of which rights is the privilege of suing in a court of the United States in the cases specified in the Constitution. It will be observed, that the plea applies to that class of persons only whose ancestors were negroes of the African race, and imported into this country, and sold and held as slaves. The only matter in issue before the court, therefore, is, whether the descendants of such slaves, when they shall be emancipated, or who are born of parents who had become free before their birth, are citizens of a State, in the sense in which the word citizen is used in the Constitution of the United States. And this being the only matter in dispute on the pleadings, the court must be understood as speaking in this opinion of that class only, that is, of those persons who are the descendants of Africans who were imported into this country, and sold as slaves. The situation of this population was altogether unlike that of the Indian race. The latter, it is true, formed no part of the colonial communities, and never amalgamated with them in social connections or in government. But although they were uncivilized, they were yet a free and independent people, associated together in nations or tribes, and governed by their own laws. . . . [T]hey may, without doubt, like the subjects of any other foreign Government, be naturalized by the authority of Congress, and become citizens of a State, and of the United States. . . . The words “people of the United States” and “citizens” are synonymous terms, and mean the same thing. They both describe the political body who, according to our republican institutions, form the sovereignty, and who hold the power and conduct the Government through their representatives. . . . The question before us is, whether the class of persons described in the plea in abatement compose a portion of this people, and are constituent members of this sovereignty? We think they are not, and that they are not included, and were not intended to be included, under the word “citizens” in the Constitution, and can therefore claim none of the rights and privileges which that instrument provides for and secures to citizens of the United States. On the contrary, they were at that time considered as a subordinate and inferior class of beings, who had been subjugated by the dominant race, and, whether emancipated or not, yet remained subject to their authority, and had no rights or privileges but such as those who held the power and the Government might choose to grant them. It is not the province of the court to decide upon the justice or injustice, the policy or impolicy, of these laws. The decision of that question belonged to the political or law-making power; to those who formed the sovereignty and framed the Constitution. The duty of the court is, to interpret the instrument they have framed, with the best lights we can obtain on the subject, and to administer it as we find it, according to its true intent and meaning when it was adopted. In discussing this question, we must not confound the rights of citizenship which a State may confer within its own limits, and the rights of citizenship as a member of the Union. . . . Each State may still confer [the rights of citizenship] upon an alien, or anyone it thinks proper, or upon any class or description of persons, yet he would not be a citizen in the sense in which that word is used in the Constitution of the United States. . . . nor entitled to sue as such in one of its courts, nor to the privileges and immunities of a citizen in the other States. The rights which he would acquire would be . . . restricted to the State which gave them. . . . It is very clear, therefore, that no State can, by any act or law of its own, passed since the adoption of the Constitution, introduce a new member into the political community created by the Constitution of the United States. It cannot make him a member of this community by making him a member of its own. . . . And, for the same reason, it cannot introduce any person or description of persons who were not intended to be embraced in this new political family which the Constitution brought into existence, but were intended to be excluded from it. . . . It becomes necessary, therefore, to determine who were citizens of the several States when the Constitution was adopted. And in order to do this, we must recur to the Governments and institutions of the thirteen colonies, when they separated from Great Britain and formed new sovereignties, and took their places in the family of independent nations. . . . In the opinion of the court, the legislation and histories of the times, and the language used in the Declaration of Independence, show, that neither the class of persons who had been imported as slaves, nor their descendants, whether they had become free or not, were then acknowledged as a part of the people, nor intended to be included in the general words used in that memorable instrument. It is difficult at this day to realize the state of public opinion in relation to that unfortunate race, which prevailed in the civilized and enlightened portions of the world at the time of the Declaration of Independence, and when the Constitution of the United States was framed and adopted. But the public history of every European nation displays it in a manner too plain to be mistaken. They had for more than a century before been regarded as beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race, either in social or political relations; and so far inferior, that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect; and that the negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for his benefit. He was bought and sold, and treated as an ordinary article of merchandise and traffic, whenever a profit could be made by it. This opinion was at that time fixed and universal in the civilized portion of the white race. And in no nation was this opinion more firmly fixed or more uniformly acted upon than by the English Government and English people. They not only seized them on the coast of Africa, and sold them or held them in slavery for their own use; but they took them as ordinary articles of merchandise to every country where they could make a profit on them, and were far more extensively engaged in this commerce than any other nation in the world. The opinion thus entertained and acted upon in England was naturally impressed upon the colonies they founded on this side of the Atlantic. And, accordingly, a negro of the African race was regarded by them as an article of property, and held, and bought and sold as such, in every one of the thirteen colonies which united in the Declaration of Independence, and afterwards formed the Constitution of the United States. The slaves were more or less numerous in the different colonies, as slave labor was found more or less profitable. But no one seems to have doubted the correctness of the prevailing opinion of the time. The language of the Declaration of Independence is equally conclusive: ... We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among them is life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, Governments are instituted, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. The general words above quoted would seem to embrace the whole human family, and if they were used in a similar instrument at this day would be so understood. But it is too clear for dispute, that the enslaved African race were not intended to be included, and formed no part of the people who framed and adopted this declaration; for if the language, as understood in that day, would embrace them, the conduct of the distinguished men who framed the Declaration of Independence would have been utterly and flagrantly inconsistent with the principles they asserted; and instead of the sympathy of mankind, to which they so confidently appealed, they would have deserved and received universal rebuke and reprobation. [T]here are two clauses in the Constitution which point directly and specifically to the negro race as a separate class of persons, and show clearly that they were not regarded as a portion of the people or citizens of the Government then formed. . . . [T]hese two provisions show, conclusively, that neither the description of persons therein referred to, nor their descendants, were embraced in any of the other provisions of the Constitution; for certainly these two clauses were not intended to confer on them or their posterity the blessings of liberty, or any of the personal rights so carefully provided for the citizen. . . . Indeed, when we look to the condition of this race in the several States at the time, it is impossible to believe that these rights and privileges were intended to be extended to them. It is very true, that in that portion of the Union where the labor of the negro race was found to be unsuited to the climate and unprofitable to the master, but few slaves were held at the time of the Declaration of Independence; and when the Constitution was adopted, it had entirely worn out in one of them, and measures had been taken for its gradual abolition in several others. But this change had not been produced by any change of opinion in relation to this race; but because it was discovered, from experience, that slave labor was unsuited to the climate and productions of these States: for some of the States, where it had ceased or nearly ceased to exist, were actively engaged in the slave trade, procuring cargoes on the coast of Africa, and transporting them for sale to those parts of the Union where their labor was found to be profitable, and suited to the climate and productions. And this traffic was openly carried on, and fortunes accumulated by it, without reproach from the people of the States where they resided. And it can hardly be supposed that, in the States where it was then countenanced in its worst form—that is, in the seizure and transportation—the people could have regarded those who were emancipated as entitled to equal rights with themselves. And we may here again refer, in support of this proposition, to the plain and unequivocal language of the laws of the several States, some passed after the Declaration of Independence and before the Constitution was adopted, and some since the Government went into operation. We need not refer, on this point, particularly to the laws of the present slaveholding States. . . . They have continued to treat them as an inferior class, and to subject them to strict police regulations, drawing a broad line of distinction between the citizen and the slave races, and legislating in relation to them upon the same principle which prevailed at the time of the Declaration of Independence. As relates to these States, it is too plain for argument, that they have never been regarded as a part of the people or citizens of the State, nor supposed to possess any political rights which the dominant race might not withhold or grant at their pleasure. . . . And if we turn to the legislation of the States where slavery had worn out, or measures taken for its speedy abolition, we shall find the same opinions and principles equally fixed and equally acted upon. Thus, Massachusetts, in 1786, passed a law . . . [that] forbids the marriage of any white person with any negro, Indian, or mulatto, and inflicts a penalty of fifty pounds upon any one who shall join them in marriage; and declares all such marriage absolutely null and void, and degrades thus the unhappy issue of the marriage by fixing upon it the stain of bastardy. And this mark of degradation was renewed, and again impressed upon the race, in the careful and deliberate preparation of their revised code published in 1836. . . . So, too, in Connecticut. We refer more particularly to the legislation of this State, because it was not only among the first to put an end to slavery within its own territory, but was the first to fix a mark of reprobation upon the African slave trade. . . . The first step taken by Connecticut upon this subject was as early as 1774, when it passed an act forbidding the further importation of slaves into the State. But the section containing the prohibition is introduced by the following preamble: And whereas the increase of slaves in this State is injurious to the poor, and inconvenient. This recital would appear to have been carefully introduced, in order to prevent any misunderstanding of the motive which induced the Legislature to pass the law, and places it distinctly upon the interest and convenience of the white population—excluding the inference that it might have been intended in any degree for the benefit of the other. . . . And still further pursuing its legislation, we find that in the same statute passed in 1774, which prohibited the further importation of slaves into the State, there is also a provision by which any negro, Indian, or mulatto servant, who was found wandering out of the town or place to which he belonged, without a written pass such as is therein described, was made liable to be seized by any one, and taken before the next authority to be examined and delivered up to his master—who was required to pay the charge which had accrued thereby. And a subsequent section of the same law provides, that if any free negro shall travel without such pass, and shall be stopped, seized, or taken up, he shall pay all charges arising thereby. And this law was in full operation when the Constitution of the United States was adopted, and was not repealed till 1797. So that up to that time free negroes and mulattoes were associated with servants and slaves in the police regulations established by the laws of the State. And again, in 1833, Connecticut passed another law, which made it penal to set up or establish any school in that State for the instruction of persons of the African race not inhabitants of the State, or to instruct or teach in any such school or institution, or board or harbor for that purpose, any such person, without the previous consent in writing of the civil authority of the town in which such school or institution might be. . . . It would be impossible to enumerate and compress in the space usually allotted to an opinion of a court, the various laws, marking the condition of this race, which were passed from time to time after the Revolution, and before and since the adoption of the Constitution of the United States. . . . The legislation of the States therefore shows, in a manner not to be mistaken, the inferior and subject condition of that race at the time the Constitution was adopted, and long afterwards, throughout the thirteen States by which that instrument was framed; and it is hardly consistent with the respect due to these States, to suppose that they regarded at that time, as fellow-citizens and members of the sovereignty, a class of beings whom they had thus stigmatized. . . . More especially, it cannot be believed that the large slaveholding States regarded them as included in the word citizens, or would have consented to a Constitution which might compel them to receive them in that character from another State. . . . To all this mass of proof we have still to add, that . . . [t]he conduct of the Executive Department of the [federal] Government has been in perfect harmony upon this subject with this course of legislation. The question was brought officially before the late William Wirt, when he was the Attorney General of the United States, in 1821, and he decided that the words "citizens of the United States” were used in the acts of Congress in the same sense as in the Constitution; and that free persons of color were not citizens, within the meaning of the Constitution and laws; and this opinion has been confirmed by that of the late Attorney General, Caleb Cushing, in a recent case, and acted upon by the Secretary of State, who refused to grant passports to them as “citizens of the United States.” But it is said that a person may be a citizen, and entitled to that character, although he does not possess all the rights which may belong to other citizens; as, for example, the right to vote, or to hold particular offices; and that yet, when he goes into another State, he is entitled to be recognized there as a citizen, although the State may measure his rights by the rights which it allows to persons of a like character or class resident in the State, and refuse to him the full rights of citizenship. This argument overlooks the language of the provision in the Constitution of which we are speaking. Undoubtedly, a person may be a citizen, that is, a member of the community who form the sovereignty, although he exercises no share of the political power, and is incapacitated from holding particular offices. Women and minors, who form a part of the political family, cannot vote; and when a property qualification is required to vote or hold a particular office, those who have not the necessary qualification cannot vote or hold the office, yet they are citizens. So, too, a person may be entitled to vote by the law of the State, who is not a citizen even of the State itself. And in some of the States of the Union foreigners not naturalized are allowed to vote. And the State may give the right to free negroes and mulattoes, but that does not make them citizens of the State, and still less of the United States. And the provision in the Constitution giving privileges and immunities in other States, does not apply to them. . . . No one, we presume, supposes that any change in public opinion or feeling, in relation to this unfortunate race, in the civilized nations of Europe or in this country, should induce the court to give to the words of the Constitution a more liberal construction in their favor than they were intended to bear when the instrument was framed and adopted. Such an argument would be altogether inadmissible in any tribunal called on to interpret it. If any of its provisions are deemed unjust, there is a mode prescribed in the instrument itself by which it may be amended; but while it remains unaltered, it must be construed now as it was understood at the time of its adoption. . . . Any other rule of construction would abrogate the judicial character of this court, and make it the mere reflex of the popular opinion or passion of the day. This court was not created by the Constitution for such purposes. Higher and graver trusts have been confided to it, and it must not falter in the path of duty. . . . [U]pon a full and careful consideration of the subject, the court is of opinion, that, upon the facts stated in the plea in abatement, Dred Scott was not a citizen of Missouri within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States, and not entitled as such to sue in its courts; and, consequently, that the Circuit Court had no jurisdiction of the case. . . . --- **For Discussion** 1. Much of this discussion is clearly *originalist*, in that it purports to be based on an understanding of the original meaning of the Constitution. But what kind of originalism is it? Is it *textualist*? Is it based on the *intent of the Framers*? Is it based on the *public meaning* of the text—that is, on what a reader at the time, familiar with publicly known events and issues, would understand the language to mean? 2. Is the originalist portion of the opinion persuasive? If so, how do we cope with the fact that the result now appears intolerable? Does this suggest that sometimes conscientious constitutional interpretation will lead to unfortunate results, which we must accept, pending amendment, as the price of constitutionalism? Or should it force us to reconsider a too-comfortable distinction between law and morality? 3. If the originalist portion of the opinion is *not* persuasive, is the problem that originalism is the wrong approach to resolving the issue presented? Or is Taney’s argument a bad implementation of originalism? And if the latter, does that cast doubt on one of the arguments offered in support of originalism, that it is less subject to manipulation than interpretive approaches not rooted in original meaning? 4. Suppose you agree with Taney that as of the time of the Constitution free descendants of slaves were not deemed to be citizens of any state, within the meaning of the constitutional language. Is it constitutionally significant that—as Taney seems willing to concede—attitudes had substantially changed by the time the Court decided this case? [II. Emancipation—Federal Law] We are aware that . . . some of the members of the court [doubt] whether [the question of jurisdiction just discussed] is legally before the court upon this writ of error[. But even] if that plea is regarded as waived, or out of the case upon any other ground, . . . the question as to the jurisdiction of the Circuit Court is [still] presented on the face of the bill of exception itself, taken by the plaintiff at the trial[. F]or he admits that he and his wife were born slaves, but endeavors to make out his title to freedom and citizenship by showing that they were taken by their owner to certain places, hereinafter mentioned, where slavery could not by law exist, and that they thereby became free, and upon their return to Missouri became citizens of that State. Now, if the removal of which he speaks did not give them their freedom, then by his own admission he is still a slave; and whatever opinions may be entertained in favor of the citizenship of a free person of the African race, no one supposes that a slave is a citizen of the State or of the United States. If, therefore, the acts done by his owner did not make them free persons, he is still a slave, and certainly incapable of suing in the character of a citizen. The principle of law is too well settled to be disputed, that a court can give no judgment for either party, where it has no jurisdiction; and if, upon the showing of Scott himself, it appeared that he was still a slave, the case ought to have been . . . dismissed by the Circuit Court for want of jurisdiction in that court. . . . We proceed, therefore, to inquire whether the facts relied on by the plaintiff entitled him to his freedom. . . . In considering this part of the controversy, two questions arise: 1. Was he, together with his family, free in Missouri by reason of the stay in the territory of the United States hereinbefore mentioned? And 2. If they were not, is Scott himself free by reason of his removal to Rock Island, in the State of Illinois, as stated in the above admissions? We proceed to examine the first question. The act of Congress, upon which the plaintiff relies, declares that slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, shall be forever prohibited in all that part of the territory ceded by France, under the name of Louisiana, which lies north of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude, and not included within the limits of Missouri. And the difficulty which meets us at the threshold of this part of the inquiry is, whether Congress was authorized to pass this law under any of the powers granted to it by the Constitution; for if the authority is not given by that instrument, it is the duty of this court to declare it void and inoperative, and incapable of conferring freedom upon any one who is held as a slave under the laws of any one of the States. . . . This brings us to examine by what provision of the Constitution the present Federal Government, under its delegated and restricted powers, is authorized to acquire territory outside of the original limits of the United States, and what powers it may exercise therein over the person or property of a citizen of the United States, while it remains a Territory, and until it shall be admitted as one of the States of the Union. . . . The power to expand the territory of the United States by the admission of new States is plainly given; and in the construction of this power by all the departments of the Government, it has been held to authorize the acquisition of territory, not fit for admission at the time, but to be admitted as soon as its population and situation would entitle it to admission. It is acquired to become a State, and not to be held as a colony and governed by Congress with absolute authority. . . . Article IV, § 3 of the Constitution provides: 1: New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union. . . . 2: The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States. But until [the] time [of the Territory’s admission as a state] arrives, it is undoubtedly necessary that some Government should be established, in order to organize society, and to protect the inhabitants in their persons and property; . . . it was not only within the scope of [Congress’s] powers, but it was its duty to pass such laws. . . . The form of government to be established necessarily rested in the discretion of Congress. . . . But [the] Territory being a part of the United States, the Government and the citizen both enter it under the authority of the Constitution, with their respective rights defined and marked out; and the Federal Government can exercise no power over his person or property, beyond what that instrument confers, nor lawfully deny any right which it has reserved. A reference to a few of the provisions of the Constitution will illustrate this proposition. For example, no one, we presume, will contend that Congress can make any law in a Territory respecting the establishment of religion, or the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or the right of the people of the Territory peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for the redress of grievances. Nor can Congress deny to the people the right to keep and bear arms, nor the right to trial by jury, nor compel any one to be a witness against himself in a criminal proceeding. These powers, and others, in relation to rights of person, which it is not necessary here to enumerate, are, in express and positive terms, denied to the General Government [by the text of the Constitution]; and the rights of private property have been guarded with equal care. Thus the rights of property are united with the rights of person, and placed on the same ground by the fifth amendment to the Constitution, which provides that no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, and property, without due process of law. And an act of Congress which deprives a citizen of the United States of his liberty or property, merely because he came himself or brought his property into a particular Territory of the United States, and who had committed no offence against the laws, could hardly be dignified with the name of due process of law. . . . It seems, however, to be supposed, that there is a difference between property in a slave and other property, and that different rules may be applied to it in expounding the Constitution of the United States. And the laws and usages of nations, and the writings of eminent jurists upon the relation of master and slave and their mutual rights and duties, and the powers which Governments may exercise over it, have been dwelt upon in the argument. But in considering the question before us, it must be borne in mind that there is no law of nations standing between the people of the United States and their Government, and interfering with their relation to each other. The powers of the Government, and the rights of the citizen under it, are positive and practical regulations plainly written down. The people of the United States have delegated to it certain enumerated powers, and forbidden it to exercise others. It has no power over the person or property of a citizen but what the citizens of the United States have granted. And no laws or usages of other nations, or reasoning of statesmen or jurists upon the relations of master and slave, can enlarge the powers of the Government, or take from the citizens the rights they have reserved. And if the Constitution recognizes the right of property of the master in a slave, and makes no distinction between that description of property and other property owned by a citizen, no tribunal, acting under the authority of the United States, whether it be legislative, executive, or judicial, has a right to draw such a distinction, or deny to it the benefit of the provisions and guarantees which have been provided for the protection of private property against the encroachments of the Government. Now, as we have already said in an earlier part of this opinion, upon a different point, the right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution. The right to traffic in it, like an ordinary article of merchandise and property, was guarantied to the citizens of the United States, in every State that might desire it, for twenty years. And the Government in express terms is pledged to protect it in all future time, if the slave escapes from his owner. This is done in plain words—too plain to be misunderstood. And no word can be found in the Constitution which gives Congress a greater power over slave property, or which entitles property of that kind to less protection than property of any other description. The only power conferred is the power coupled with the duty of guarding and protecting the owner in his rights. Upon these considerations, it is the opinion of the court that the act of Congress which prohibited a citizen from holding and owning property of this kind in the territory of the United States north of the line therein mentioned, is not warranted by the Constitution, and is therefore void; and that neither Dred Scott himself, nor any of his family, were made free by being carried into this territory; even if they had been carried there by the owner, with the intention of becoming a permanent resident. . . . For Discussion (1) Ultimately, which provision of the Constitution does Taney hold the Missouri Compromise violated? (2) Which of the above parts of Taney’s opinion—the one dealing with citizenship or the one dealing with Congressional power—do you think had greater contemporary significance? [III. Emancipation—State Law] We have so far examined the case, as it stands under the Constitution of the United States, and the powers thereby delegated to the Federal Government. But there is another point in the case which depends on State power and State law. And it is contended, on the part of the plaintiff, that he is made free by being taken to Rock Island, in the State of Illinois, independently of his residence in the territory of the United States; and being so made free, he was not again reduced to a state of slavery by being brought back to Missouri. Our notice of this part of the case will be very brief; for the principle on which it depends was decided in this court, upon much consideration, in the case of *Strader v. Graham* (1851). In that case, the slaves had been taken from Kentucky to Ohio, with the consent of the owner, and afterwards brought back to Kentucky. And this court held that their *status* or condition, as free or slave, depended upon the laws of Kentucky, when they were brought back into that State, and not of Ohio; and that this court had no jurisdiction to revise the judgment of a State court upon its own laws. This was the point directly before the court, and the decision that this court had not jurisdiction turned upon it, as will be seen by the report of the case. So in this case. As Scott was a slave when taken into the State of Illinois by his owner, and was there held as such, and brought back in that character, his *status*, as free or slave, depended on the laws of Missouri, and not of Illinois. . . . * * * Upon the whole, therefore, it is the judgment of this court, that it appears by the record before us that the plaintiff in error is not a citizen of Missouri, in the sense in which that word is used in the Constitution; and that the Circuit Court of the United States, for that reason, had no jurisdiction in the case, and could give no judgment in it. Its judgment for the defendant must, consequently, be reversed, and a mandate issued, directing the suit to be dismissed for want of jurisdiction. Mr. Justice Daniel. ... The correct conclusions upon the question here considered would seem to be these: That in the establishment of the several communities now the States of this Union, and in the formation of the Federal Government, the African was not deemed politically a person. He was regarded and owned in every State in the Union as *property* merely, and as such was not and could not be a party or an actor, much less a *peer* in any compact or form of government established by the States or the United States.... That so far as rights and immunities appertaining to citizens have been defined and secured by the Constitution and laws of the United States, the African race is not and never was recognized either by the language or purposes of the former.... Mr. Justice Catron. ... Congress cannot do indirectly what the Constitution prohibits directly. If the slaveholder is prohibited from going to the Territory with his slaves, who are parts of his family in name and in fact, it will follow that men owning lawful property in their own States, carrying with them the equality of their State to enjoy the common property, may be told, you cannot come here with your slaves, and he will be held out at the border. By this subterfuge, owners of slave property, to the amount of thousand of millions, might be almost as effectually excluded from removing into the Territory of Louisiana north of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes, as if the law declared that owners of slaves, as a class, should be excluded, even if their slaves were left behind.... [T]he act of 1820, known as the Missouri compromise, violates the most leading feature of the Constitution—a feature on which the Union depends, and which secures to the respective States and their citizens and entire EQUALITY of rights, privileges, and immunities.... Mr. Justice McLean dissenting. ... There is no averment in this plea which shows or conduces to show an inability in the plaintiff to sue in the Circuit Court. ... It has never been held necessary, to constitute a citizen ..., that he should have the qualifications of an elector. Females and minors may sue in the Federal courts, and so may any individual who has a permanent domicil in the State under whose laws his rights are protected, and to which he owes allegiance. . . . In the argument, it was said that a colored citizen would not be an agreeable member of society. This is more a matter of taste than of law. Several of the States have admitted persons of color to the right of suffrage, and in this view have recognized them as citizens; and this has been done in the slave as well as the free States. On the question of citizenship, it must be admitted that we have not been very fastidious. Under the late treaty with Mexico, we have made citizens of all grades, combinations, and colors. The same was done in the admission of Louisiana and Florida. No one ever doubted, and no court ever held, that the people of these Territories did not become citizens under the treaty. They have exercised all the rights of citizens, without being naturalized under the acts of Congress. . . . Our independence was a great epoch in the history of freedom; and while I admit the Government was not made especially for the colored race, yet many of them were citizens of the New England States, and exercised, the rights of suffrage when the Constitution was adopted, and it was not doubted by any intelligent person that its tendencies would greatly ameliorate their condition. . . . I think the judgment of the court below should be reversed. Mr. Justice Curtis dissenting. . . . To determine whether any free persons, descended from Africans held in slavery, were citizens of the United States under the Confederation, and consequently at the time of the adoption of the Constitution of the United States, it is only necessary to know whether any such persons were citizens of either of the States under the Confederation, at the time of the adoption of the Constitution. Of this there can be no doubt. At the time of the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, all free native-born inhabitants of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina, though descended from African slaves, were not only citizens of those States, but such of them as had the other necessary qualifications possessed the franchise of electors, on equal terms with other citizens. . . . The fourth of the fundamental articles of the Confederation was as follows: “The free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice, excepted, shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States.” . . . Did the Constitution of the United States deprive [free persons of African descent] or their descendants of citizenship? That Constitution was ordained and established by the people of the United States, through the action, in each State, or those persons who were qualified by its laws to act thereon, in behalf of themselves and all other citizens of that State. In some of the States, as we have seen, colored persons were among those qualified by law to act on this subject. These colored persons were not only included in the body of “the people of the United States,” by whom the Constitution was ordained and established, but in at least five of the States they had the power to act, and doubtless did act, by their suffrages, upon the question of its adoption. It would be strange, if we were to find in that instrument anything which deprived of their citizenship any part of the people of the United States who were among those by whom it was established. . . . I dissent, therefore, from that part of the opinion of the majority of the court, in which it is held that a person of African descent cannot be a citizen of the United States; and I regret I must go further, and dissent . . . from [their view] on the constitutionality of the act of Congress commonly called the Missouri compromise act, and the grounds and conclusions announced in their opinion. . . . [T]he position, that a prohibition to bring slaves into a Territory deprives any one of his property without due process of law, [will not] bear examination. It must be remembered that this restriction on the legislative power is not peculiar to the Constitution of the United States; it was borrowed from Magna Charta; was brought to America by our ancestors, as part of their inherited liberties, and has existed in all the States, usually in the very words of the great charter. It existed in every political community in America in 1787, when the ordinance prohibiting slavery north and west of the Ohio was passed. And if a prohibition of slavery in a Territory in 1820 violated this principle of *Magna Charta*, the ordinance of 1787[, which prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territories,] also violated it. . . . I think I may at least say, if the Congress did then violate *Magna Charta* by the ordinance, no one discovered that violation. . . . For these reasons, I am of opinion that so much of the several acts of Congress as prohibited slavery and involuntary servitude within that part of the Territory of Wisconsin lying north of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude, and west of the river Mississippi, were constitutional and valid laws. The remaining four justices also wrote separate opinions. Justice Wayne defended the decision to reach the merits even though the Court decided there was no jurisdiction. Justice Nelson asserted that the law of Missouri controlled, and that Scott lost under it. Justice Grier wrote briefly, concurring in Nelson’s opinion, and also, for practical purposes, in Taney’s. Justice Campbell wrote at length, emphasizing state control over slavery and characterizing the Constitution as “a federal compact among the States establishing a limited Government.” ### F. The Civil War #### 1. Secession Notwithstanding the *Scott v. Sandford* decision, the emerging Republican Party continued to insist that slavery should not be expanded into the territories. Lincoln won the Presidency in 1860 by carrying all 18 free states and none of the 15 slave states. Many southerners became convinced that under Republican domination the Federal government would infringe on their constitutional rights. By the time of Lincoln’s inauguration on March 4, 1861, seven Southern states had seceded. South Carolina, which had asserted its right to nullify federal law in the 1832–33 tariff crisis, led the way. Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union December 24, 1860 The State of South Carolina having resumed her separate and equal place among nations, deems it due to herself, to the remaining United States of America, and to the nations of the world, that she should declare the immediate causes which have led to this act. In the year 1765, that portion of the British Empire embracing Great Britain, undertook to make laws for the government of that portion composed of the thirteen American Colonies. A struggle for the right of self-government ensued, which resulted, on the 4th of July, 1776, in a Declaration by the Colonies, “that they are, and of right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do.” They further solemnly declared that whenever any “form of government becomes destructive of the ends for which it was established, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government.” Deeming the Government of Great Britain to have become destructive of these ends, they declared that the Colonies “are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” In pursuance of this Declaration of Independence, each of the thirteen States proceeded to exercise its separate sovereignty; adopted for itself a Constitution, and appointed officers for the administration of government in all its departments—Legislative, Executive and Judicial. For purposes of defense, they united their arms and their counsels; and, in 1778, they entered into a League known as the Articles of Confederation, whereby they agreed to entrust the administration of their external relations to a common agent, known as the Congress of the United States, expressly declaring, in the first Article “that each State retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every power, jurisdiction and right which is not, by this Confederation, expressly delegated to the United States in Congress assembled.” Under this Confederation the war of the Revolution was carried on, and on the 3rd of September, 1783, the contest ended, and a definite Treaty was signed by Great Britain, in which she acknowledged the independence of the Colonies in the following terms: ARTICLE I—His Britannic Majesty acknowledges the said United States, viz: New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, to be FREE, SOVEREIGN AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that he treats with them as such; and for himself, his heirs and successors, relinquishes all claims to the government, propriety and territorial rights of the same and every part thereof. Thus were established the two great principles asserted by the Colonies, namely: the right of a State to govern itself; and the right of a people to abolish a Government when it becomes destructive of the ends for which it was instituted. And concurrent with the establishment of these principles, was the fact, that each Colony became and was recognized by the mother Country a FREE, SOVEREIGN AND INDEPENDENT STATE. In 1787, Deputies were appointed by the States to revise the Articles of Confederation, and on 17th September, 1787, these Deputies recommended for the adoption of the States, the Articles of Union, known as the Constitution of the United States. The parties to whom this Constitution was submitted, were the several sovereign States; they were to agree or disagree, and when nine of them agreed the compact was to take effect among those concurring; and the General Government, as the common agent, was then invested with their authority. If only nine of the thirteen States had concurred, the other four would have remained as they then were—separate, sovereign States, independent of any of the provisions of the Constitution. In fact, two of the States did not accede to the Constitution until long after it had gone into operation among the other eleven; and during that interval, they each exercised the functions of an independent nation. . . . We hold that the Government thus established is subject to the two great principles asserted in the Declaration of Independence; and we hold further, that the mode of its formation subjects it to a third fundamental principle, namely: the law of compact. We maintain that in every compact between two or more parties, the obligation is mutual; that the failure of one of the contracting parties to perform a material part of the agreement, entirely releases the obligation of the other; and that where no arbiter is provided, each party is remitted to his own judgment to determine the fact of failure, with all its consequences. In the present case, that fact is established with certainty. We assert that fourteen of the States have deliberately refused, for years past, to fulfill their constitutional obligations, and we refer to their own Statutes for the proof. The Constitution of the United States, in its fourth Article, provides as follows: "No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up, on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due." This stipulation was so material to the compact, that without it that compact would not have been made. The greater number of the contracting parties held slaves, and they had previously evinced their estimate of the value of such a stipulation by making it a condition in the Ordinance for the government of the territory ceded by Virginia, which now composes the States north of the Ohio River. The same article of the Constitution stipulates also for rendition by the several States of fugitives from justice from the other States. The General Government, as the common agent, passed laws to carry into effect these stipulations of the States. For many years these laws were executed. But an increasing hostility on the part of the non-slaveholding States to the institution of slavery, has led to a disregard of their obligations, and the laws of the General Government have ceased to effect the objects of the Constitution. The States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, [New Jersey,] Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa, have enacted laws which either nullify the Acts of Congress or render useless any attempt to execute them. . . . Thus the constituted compact has been deliberately broken and disregarded by the non-slaveholding States, and the consequence follows that South Carolina is released from her obligation. . . . The right of property in slaves was recognized by giving to free persons distinct political rights, by giving them the right to represent, and burthening them with direct taxes for three-fifths of their slaves; by authorizing the importation of slaves for twenty years; and by stipulating for the rendition of fugitives from labor. We affirm that these ends for which this Government was instituted have been defeated, and the Government itself has been made destructive of them by the action of the non-slaveholding States. Those States have assumed the right of deciding upon the propriety of our domestic institutions; and have denied the rights of property established in fifteen of the States and recognized by the Constitution; they have denounced as sinful the institution of slavery; they have permitted open establishment among them of societies, whose avowed object is to disturb the peace and to eloign the property of the citizens of other States. They have encouraged and assisted thousands of our slaves to leave their homes; and those who remain, have been incited by emissaries, books and pictures to servile insurrection. For twenty-five years this agitation has been steadily increasing, until it has now secured to its aid the power of the common Government. Observing the forms of the Constitution, a sectional party has found within that Article establishing the Executive Department, the means of subverting the Constitution itself. A geographical line has been drawn across the Union, and all the States north of that line have united in the election of a man to the high office of President of the United States, whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery. He is to be entrusted with the administration of the common Government, because he has declared that that “Government cannot endure permanently half slave, half free,” and that the public mind must rest in the belief that slavery is in the course of ultimate extinction. This sectional combination for the submersion of the Constitution, has been aided in some of the States by elevating to citizenship, persons who, by the supreme law of the land, are incapable of becoming citizens; and their votes have been used to inaugurate a new policy, hostile to the South, and destructive of its beliefs and safety. On the 4th day of March next, this party will take possession of the Government. It has announced that the South shall be excluded from the common territory, that the judicial tribunals shall be made sectional, and that a war must be waged against slavery until it shall cease throughout the United States. The guaranties of the Constitution will then no longer exist; the equal rights of the States will be lost. The slaveholding States will no longer have the power of self-government, or self-protection, and the Federal Government will have become their enemy. Sectional interest and animosity will deepen the irritation, and all hope of remedy is rendered vain, by the fact that public opinion at the North has invested a great political error with the sanction of more erroneous religious belief. We, therefore, the People of South Carolina, by our delegates in Convention assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, have solemnly declared that the Union heretofore existing between this State and the other States of North America, is dissolved, and that the State of South Carolina has resumed her position among the nations of the world, as a separate and independent State; with full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. Adopted December 24, 1860 In a last-ditch effort to save the Union, what was left of the 36th Congress approved—with three votes to spare in the House and none in the Senate—and passed on to the states a proposed constitutional amendment known as the Corwin Amendment, though the original drafter was Lincoln’s nominee for Secretary of State, Senator William Seward. The proposal read as follows: No amendment shall be made to the Constitution which will authorize or give to Congress the power to abolish or interfere, within any State, with the domestic institutions thereof, including that of persons held to labor or service by the laws of said State. Three states passed resolutions in 1861 ratifying this proposed amendment. What would the constitutional effect of this amendment have been had it been ratified? President Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address March 4, 1861 Fellow-Citizens of the United States: ... Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that— I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. ... I add, too, that all the protection which, consistently with the Constitution and the laws, can be given will be cheerfully given to all the States when lawfully demanded, for whatever cause—as cheerfully to one section as to another. There is much controversy about the delivering up of fugitives from service or labor. ... It is scarcely questioned that [the Fugitive Slave Clause of Article IV] was intended by those who made it for the reclaiming of what we call fugitive slaves; and the intention of the lawgiver is the law. All members of Congress swear their support to the whole Constitution—to this provision as much as to any other. To the proposition, then, that slaves whose cases come within the terms of this clause “shall be delivered up” their oaths are unanimous. Now, if they would make the effort in good temper, could they not with nearly equal unanimity frame and pass a law by means of which to keep good that unanimous oath? There is some difference of opinion whether this clause should be enforced by national or by State authority, but surely that difference is not a very material one. If the slave is to be surrendered, it can be of but little consequence to him or to others by which authority it is done. And should anyone in any case be content that his oath shall go unkept on a merely unsubstantial controversy as to how it shall be kept? Again: In any law upon this subject ought not all the safeguards of liberty known in civilized and humane jurisprudence to be introduced, so that a free man be not in any case surrendered as a slave? And might it not be well at the same time to provide by law for the enforcement of that clause in the Constitution which guarantees that “the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States”? . . . I now enter upon the same task [as my predecessors] for the brief constitutional term of four years under great and peculiar difficulty. A disruption of the Federal Union, heretofore only menaced, is now formidably attempted. I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments. It is safe to assert that no government proper ever had a provision in its organic law for its own termination. Continue to execute all the express provisions of our National Constitution, and the Union will endure forever, it being impossible to destroy it except by some action not provided for in the instrument itself. Again: If the United States be not a government proper, but an association of States in the nature of contract merely, can it, as a contract, be peaceably unmade by less than all the parties who made it? One party to a contract may violate it—break it, so to speak—but does it not require all to lawfully rescind it? Descending from these general principles, we find the proposition that in legal contemplation the Union is perpetual confirmed by the history of the Union itself. The Union is much older than the Constitution. It was formed, in fact, by the Articles of Association in 1774. It was matured and continued by the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It was further matured, and the faith of all the then thirteen States expressly plighted and engaged that it should be perpetual, by the Articles of Confederation in 1788. And finally, in 1787, one of the declared objects for ordaining and establishing the Constitution was “to form a more perfect Union.” But if destruction of the Union by one or by a part only of the States be lawfully possible, the Union is less perfect than before the Constitution, having lost the vital element of perpetuity. It follows from these views that no State upon its own mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union; that resolves and ordinances to that effect are legally void, and that acts of violence within any State or States against the authority of the United States are insurrectionary or revolutionary, according to circumstances. I therefore consider that in view of the Constitution and the laws the Union is unbroken, and to the extent of my ability, I shall take care, as the Constitution itself expressly enjoins upon me, that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the States. Doing this I deem to be only a simple duty on my part, and I shall perform it so far as practicable unless my rightful masters, the American people, shall withhold the requisite means or in some authoritative manner direct the contrary. I trust this will not be regarded as a menace, but only as the declared purpose of the Union that it *will* constitutionally defend and maintain itself. In doing this there needs to be no bloodshed or violence, and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority. The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the Government and to collect the duties and imposts; but beyond what may be necessary for these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere. Where hostility to the United States in any interior locality shall be so great and universal as to prevent competent resident citizens from holding the Federal offices, there will be no attempt to force obnoxious strangers among the people for that object. While the strict legal right may exist in the Government to enforce the exercise of these offices, the attempt to do so would be so irritating and so nearly impracticable withal that I deem it better to forego for the time the uses of such offices. The mails, unless repelled, will continue to be furnished in all parts of the Union. So far as possible the people everywhere shall have that sense of perfect security which is most favorable to calm thought and reflection. . . . Before entering upon so grave a matter as the destruction of our national fabric, with all its benefits, its memories, and its hopes, would it not be wise to ascertain precisely why we do it? Will you hazard so desperate a step while there is any possibility that any portion of the ills you fly from have no real existence? Will you, while the certain ills you fly to are greater than all the real ones you fly from, will you risk the commission of so fearful a mistake? All profess to be content in the Union if all constitutional rights can be maintained. Is it true, then, that any right plainly written in the Constitution has been denied? I think not. Happily, the human mind is so constituted that no party can reach to the audacity of doing this. Think, if you can, of a single instance in which a plainly written provision of the Constitution has ever been denied. If by the mere force of numbers a majority should deprive a minority of any clearly written constitutional right, it might in a moral point of view justify revolution; certainly would if such right were a vital one. But such is not our case. . . . [N]o organic law can ever be framed with a provision specifically applicable to every question which may occur in practical administration. No foresight can anticipate nor any document of reasonable length contain express provisions for all possible questions. Shall fugitives from labor be surrendered by national or by State authority? The Constitution does not expressly say. May Congress prohibit slavery in the Territories? The Constitution does not expressly say. Must Congress protect slavery in the Territories? The Constitution does not expressly say. From questions of this class spring all our constitutional controversies, and we divide upon them into majorities and minorities. If the minority will not acquiesce, the majority must, or the Government must cease. There is no other alternative, for continuing the Government is acquiescence on one side or the other. If a minority in such case will secede rather than acquiesce, they make a precedent which in turn will divide and ruin them, for a minority of their own will secede from them whenever a majority refuses to be controlled by such minority. For instance, why may not any portion of a new confederacy a year or two hence arbitrarily secede again, precisely as portions of the present Union now claim to secede from it? All who cherish disunion sentiments are now being educated to the exact temper of doing this. . . . Plainly the central idea of secession is the essence of anarchy. A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people. Whoever rejects it does of necessity fly to anarchy or to despotism. Unanimity is impossible. The rule of a minority, as a permanent arrangement, is wholly inadmissible; so that, rejecting the majority principle, anarchy or despotism in some form is all that is left. I do not forget the position assumed by some that constitutional questions are to be decided by the Supreme Court, nor do I deny that such decisions must be binding in any case upon the parties to a suit as to the object of that suit, while they are also entitled to very high respect and consideration in all parallel cases by all other departments of the Government. And while it is obviously possible that such decision may be erroneous in any given case, still the evil effect following it, being limited to that particular case, with the chance that it may be overruled and never become a precedent for other cases, can better be borne than could the evils of a different practice. At the same time, the candid citizen must confess that if the policy of the Government upon vital questions affecting the whole people is to be irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court, the instant they are made in ordinary litigation between parties in personal actions the people will have ceased to be their own rulers, having to that extent practically resigned their Government into the hands of that eminent tribunal. Nor is there in this view any assault upon the court or the judges. It is a duty from which they may not shrink to decide cases properly brought before them, and it is no fault of theirs if others seek to turn their decisions to political purposes. One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute. The fugitive-slave clause of the Constitution and the law for the suppression of the foreign slave trade are each as well enforced, perhaps, as any law can ever be in a community where the moral sense of the people imperfectly supports the law itself. The great body of the people abide by the dry legal obligation in both cases, and a few break over in each. This, I think, can not be perfectly cured, and it would be worse in both cases after the separation of the sections than before. The foreign slave trade, now imperfectly suppressed, would be ultimately revived without restriction in one section, while fugitive slaves, now only partially surrendered, would not be surrendered at all by the other. . . . This country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who inhabit it. Whenever they shall grow weary of the existing Government, they can exercise their constitutional right of amending it or their revolutionary right to dismember or overthrow it. I can not be ignorant of the fact that many worthy and patriotic citizens are desirous of having the National Constitution amended. . . . I understand a Does Lincoln give away the legal issue when he speaks of the revolutionary right of the people to overthrow or dismember the government? proposed amendment to the Constitution—which amendment, however, I have not seen—has passed Congress, to the effect that the Federal Government shall never interfere with the domestic institutions of the States, including that of persons held to service. To avoid misconstruction of what I have said, I depart from my purpose not to speak of particular amendments so far as to say that, holding such a provision to now be implied constitutional law, I have no objection to its being made express and irrevocable. In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The Government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the Government, while I shall have the most solemn one to “preserve, protect, and defend it.” I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained it must not break our bonds of affection. The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature. Lincoln inserted the last paragraph at the suggestion of Seward. Seward offered a draft: I close. We are not we must not be aliens or enemies but fellow countrymen and brethren. Although passion has strained our bonds of affection too hardly they must not, I am sure they will not be broken. The mystic chords which proceeding from so many battle fields and so many patriot graves pass through all the hearts and all the hearths in this broad continent of ours will yet again harmonize in their ancient music when breathed upon by the guardian angel of the nation. That was not bad—but Lincoln marked it up, and note how he made it both tighter and more graceful. On April 12, 1861, forces of the new Confederacy fired on Fort Sumter, a federal installation in Charleston harbor. Three days later, Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for 75,000 volunteers, and calling a special session of Congress for July 4. Four more Southern states seceded within several weeks after the attack on Fort Sumter. But four slave states—Taney’s Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Lincoln’s native state, Kentucky, remained loyal. (Lincoln reportedly said, “I hope to have God on my side, but I must have Kentucky.”) 2. War Powers Under Lincoln a. The Use of Force On April 19, 1861, Lincoln issued a Proclamation of Blockade against Southern ports. The blockade proclamation, which was issued without congressional authorization, approved the seizure by private ships of other vessels attempting to travel to and from Confederate ports. In *The Prize Cases* (1863), the Supreme Court upheld the validity of the blockade by a 5–4 vote, relying in part on statutory authorization enacted after the blockade was announced. b. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Washington, D.C., was surrounded by slave-holding territory. Virginia, just across the Potomac, seceded. Maryland did not, but many of its residents sympathized with the South—indeed, at one point the Governor of the state and the mayor of Baltimore refused to allow federal troops to pass through—and it was a hotbed of insurrectionary activity. On April 27, 1861, Lincoln wrote Winfield Scott, Commanding General of the Army, as follows: You are engaged in repressing an insurrection against the laws of the United States. If at any point on or in the vicinity of the military line which is now used between the city of Philadelphia via Perryville, Annapolis City and Annapolis Junction you find resistance which renders it necessary to suspend the writ of habeas corpus for the public safety, you personally or through the officer in command at the point where resistance occurs are authorized to suspend that writ. That same day, Scott re-delegated “a like authority” to three Departmental commanders in the prescribed area. General Robert Patterson, who was serving as commander of the Department of Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland, issued a suspension order pursuant to this authority. John Merryman, who had allegedly cut telegraph wires and recruited soldiers for the Confederacy, was arrested by military authorities. He sought a writ of habeas corpus from the Circuit Justice—Roger Taney. As Taney summarized the situation, *Ex parte Merryman*, 17 F. Cas. 144 (1861), under these circumstances, a military officer, stationed in Pennsylvania, without giving any information to the district attorney, and without any application to the judicial authorities, assumes to himself the judicial power in the district of Maryland; undertakes to decide what constitutes the crime of treason or rebellion; what evidence (if indeed he required any) is sufficient to support the accusation and justify the commitment; and commits the party, without a hearing, even before himself, to close custody, in a strongly garrisoned fort, to be there held, it would seem, during the pleasure of those who committed him. After quoting the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments, Taney wrote: These great and fundamental laws, which congress itself could not suspend, have been disregarded and suspended, like the writ of habeas corpus, by a military order, supported by force of arms. Such is the case now before me, and I can only say that if the authority which the constitution has confided to the judiciary department and judicial officers, may thus, upon any pretext or under any circumstances, be usurped by the military power, at its discretion, the people of the United States are no longer living under a government of laws, but every citizen holds life, liberty and property at the will and pleasure of the army officer in whose military district he may happen to be found. In such a case, my duty was too plain to be mistaken. I have exercised all the power which the constitution and laws confer upon me, but that power has been resisted by a force too strong for me to overcome. It is possible that the officer who has incurred this grave responsibility may have misunderstood his instructions, and exceeded the authority intended to be given him; I shall, therefore, order all the proceedings in this case, with my opinion, to be filed and recorded in the circuit court of the United States for the district of Maryland, and direct the clerk to transmit a copy, under seal, to the president of the United States. It will then remain for that high officer, in fulfillment of his constitutional obligation to ‘take care that the laws be faithfully executed,’ to determine what measures he will take to cause the civil process of the United States to be respected and enforced. The military officers under Lincoln’s command disregarded Taney’s order. Lincoln authorized several other suspensions of habeas corpus before Congress, in 1863, gave him statutory authority to do so. **Questions** Was the 1861 suspension legitimate? Was the executive branch’s disregard of Taney’s order legitimate? c. **Military Tribunals** One of the most legally vexing aspects of the Civil War was the way the internal nature of the conflict pressed on traditional distinctions under the law of war, in particular those relating to the distinctions among citizen, combatant, and civilian. The following case is one of the era’s best known explorations of that problem. --- **Ex Parte Milligan** Supreme Court of the United States, 1866. 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 2. Mr. Justice Davis delivered the opinion of the court. On the 10th day of May, 1865, Lambdin P. Milligan presented a petition to the Circuit Court of the United States for the District of Indiana, to be discharged from an alleged unlawful imprisonment. The case made by the petition is this: Milligan is a citizen of the United States; has lived for twenty years in Indiana; and, at the time of the grievances complained of, was not, and never had been in the military or naval service of the United States. On the 5th day of October, 1864, while at home, he was arrested by order of General Alvin P. Hovey, commanding the military district of Indiana; and has ever since been kept in close confinement. On the 21st day of October, 1864, he was brought before a military commission, convened at Indianapolis, by order of General Hovey, tried on certain charges and specifications; found guilty, and sentenced to be hanged; and the sentence ordered to be executed on Friday, the 19th day of May, 1865. On the 2d day of January, 1865, after the proceedings of the military commission were at an end, the Circuit Court of the United States for Indiana met at Indianapolis and empanelled a grand jury, who were charged to inquire whether the laws of the United States had been violated; and, if so, to make presentments. The court adjourned on the 27th day of January, having, prior thereto, discharged from further service the grand jury, who did not find any bill of indictment or make any presentment against Milligan for any offence whatever; and, in fact, since his imprisonment, no bill of indictment has been found or presentment made against him by any grand jury of the United States. Milligan insists that said military commission had no jurisdiction to try him upon the charges preferred, or upon any charges whatever; because he was a citizen of the United States and the State of Indiana, and had not been, since the commencement of the late Rebellion, a resident of any of the States whose citizens were arrayed against the government, and that the right of trial by jury was guaranteed to him by the Constitution of the United States. . . . The importance of the main question presented by this record cannot be overstated; for it involves the very framework of the government and the fundamental principles of American liberty. During the late wicked Rebellion, the temper of the times did not allow that calmness in deliberation and discussion so necessary to a correct conclusion of a purely judicial question. Then, considerations of safety were mingled with the exercise of power; and feelings and interests prevailed which are happily terminated. Now that the public safety is assured, this question, as well as all others, can be discussed and decided without passion or the admixture of any element not required to form a legal judgment. We approach the investigation of this case, fully sensible of the magnitude of the inquiry and the necessity of full and cautious deliberation. . . . The controlling question in the case is this: Upon the facts stated in Milligan’s petition, and the exhibits filed, had the military commission mentioned in it jurisdiction, legally, to try and sentence him? Milligan, not a resident of one of the rebellious states, or a prisoner of war, but a citizen of Indiana for twenty years past, and never in the military or naval service, is, while at his home, arrested by the military power of the United States, imprisoned, and, on certain criminal charges preferred against him, tried, convicted, and sentenced to be hanged by a military commission, organized under the direction of the military commander of the military district of Indiana. Had this tribunal the legal power and authority to try and punish this man?... Time has proven the discernment of our ancestors; for even these provisions [the jury-trial clause of the original Constitution, and the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments], expressed in such plain English words, that it would seem the ingenuity of man could not evade them, are now, after the lapse of more than seventy years, sought to be avoided. Those great and good men foresaw that troublous times would arise, when rulers and people would become restive under restraint, and seek by sharp and decisive measures to accomplish ends deemed just and proper; and that the principles of constitutional liberty would be in peril, unless established by irrepealable law. The history of the world had taught them that what was done in the past might be attempted in the future. The Constitution of the United States is a law for rulers and people, equally in war and in peace, and covers with the shield of its protection all classes of men, at all times, and under all circumstances. No doctrine, involving more pernicious consequences, was ever invented by the wit of man than that any of its provisions can be suspended during any of the great exigencies of government. Such a doctrine leads directly to anarchy or despotism, but the theory of necessity on which it is based is false; for the government, within the Constitution, has all the powers granted to it, which are necessary to preserve its existence; as has been happily proved by the result of the great effort to throw off its just authority. Have any of the rights guaranteed by the Constitution been violated in the case of Milligan? and if so, what are they? Every trial involves the exercise of judicial power; and from what source did the military commission that tried him derive their authority? Certainly no part of judicial power of the country was conferred on them; because the Constitution expressly vests it “in one supreme court and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish,” and it is not pretended that the commission was a court ordained and established by Congress. They cannot justify on the mandate of the President; because he is controlled by law, and has his appropriate sphere of duty, which is to execute, not to make, the laws; and there is “no unwritten criminal code to which resort can be had as a source of jurisdiction.” But it is said that the jurisdiction is complete under the “laws and usages of war.” It can serve no useful purpose to inquire what those laws and usages are, whence they originated, where found, and on whom they operate; they can never be applied to citizens in states which have upheld the authority of the government, and where the courts are open and their process unobstructed. This court has judicial knowledge that in Indiana the Federal authority was always unopposed, and its courts always open to hear criminal accusations and redress grievances; and no usage of war could sanction a military trial there for any offence whatever of a citizen in civil life, in nowise connected with the military service. Congress could grant no such power; and to the honor of our national legislature be it said, it has never been provoked by the state of the country even to attempt its exercise. One of the plainest constitutional provisions was, therefore, infringed when Milligan was tried by a court not ordained and established by Congress, and not composed of judges appointed during good behavior. . . . It is claimed that martial law covers with its broad mantle the proceedings of this military commission. The proposition is this: that in a time of war the commander of an armed force (if in his opinion the exigencies of the country demand it, and of which he is to judge), has the power, within the lines of his military district, to suspend all civil rights and their remedies, and subject citizens as well as soldiers to the rule of his will; and in the exercise of his lawful authority cannot be restrained, except by his superior officer or the President of the United States. If this position is sound to the extent claimed, then when war exists, foreign or domestic, and the country is subdivided into military departments for mere convenience, the commander of one of them can, if he chooses, within his limits, on the plea of necessity, with the approval of the Executive, substitute military force for and to the exclusion of the laws, and punish all persons, as he thinks right and proper, without fixed or certain rules. The statement of this proposition shows its importance; for, if true, republican government is a failure, and there is an end of liberty regulated by law. . . . This nation, as experience has proved, cannot always remain at peace, and has no right to expect that it will always have wise and humane rulers, sincerely attached to the principles of the Constitution. Wicked men, ambitious of power, with hatred of liberty and contempt of law, may fill the place once occupied by Washington and Lincoln; and if this right is conceded, and the calamities of war again befall us, the dangers to human liberty are frightful to contemplate. . . . It is essential to the safety of every government that, in a great crisis, like the one we have just passed through, there should be a power somewhere of suspending the writ of *habeas corpus*. . . . Unquestionably, there is then an exigency which demands that the government, if it should see fit in the exercise of a proper discretion to make arrests, should not be required to produce the persons arrested in answer to a writ of *habeas corpus*. The Constitution goes no further. It does not say after a writ of *habeas corpus* is denied a citizen, that he shall be tried otherwise than by the course of the common law; if it had intended this result, it was easy by the use of direct words to have accomplished it. The illustrious men who framed that instrument were guarding the foundations of civil liberty against the abuses of unlimited power; they were full of wisdom, and the lessons of history informed them that a trial by an established court, assisted by an impartial jury, was the only sure way of protecting the citizen against oppression and wrong. Knowing this, they limited the suspension to one great right, and left the rest to remain forever inviolable. But, it is insisted that the safety of the country in time of war demands that this broad claim for martial law shall be sustained. If this were true, it could be well said that a country, preserved at the sacrifice of all the cardinal principles of liberty, is not worth the cost of preservation. Happily, it is not so. It will be borne in mind that this is not a question of the power to proclaim martial law, when war exists in a community and the courts and civil authorities are overthrown. Nor is it a question what rule a military commander, at the head of his army, can impose on states in rebellion to cripple their resources and quell the insurrection. The jurisdiction claimed is much more extensive. The necessities of the service, during the late Rebellion, required that the loyal states should be placed within the limits of certain military districts and commanders appointed in them; and, it is urged, that this, in a military sense, constituted them the theater of military operations; and, as in this case, Indiana had been and was again threatened with invasion by the enemy, the occasion was furnished to establish martial law. The conclusion does not follow from the premises. If armies were collected in Indiana, they were to be employed in another locality, where the laws were obstructed and the national authority disputed. On her soil there was no hostile foot; if once invaded, that invasion was at an end, and with it all pretext for martial law. Martial law cannot arise from a threatened invasion. The necessity must be actual and present; the invasion real, such as effectually closes the courts and deposes the civil administration. It is difficult to see how the safety of the country required martial law in Indiana. If any of her citizens were plotting treason, the power of arrest could secure them, until the government was prepared for their trial, when the courts were open and ready to try them. It was as easy to protect witnesses before a civil as a military tribunal; and as there could be no wish to convict, except on sufficient legal evidence, surely an ordained and establish court was better able to judge of this than a military tribunal composed of gentlemen not trained to the profession of the law. It follows, from what has been said on this subject, that there are occasions when martial rule can be properly applied. If, in foreign invasion or civil war, the courts are actually closed, and it is impossible to administer criminal justice according to law, then, on the theatre of active military operations, where war really prevails, there is a necessity to furnish a substitute for the civil authority, thus overthrown, to preserve the safety of the army and society; and as no power is left but the military, it is allowed to govern by martial rule until the laws can have their free course. As necessity creates the rule, so it limits its duration; for, if this government is continued after the courts are reinstated, it is a gross usurpation of power. Martial rule can never exist where the courts are open, and in the proper and unobstructed exercise of their jurisdiction. It is also confined to the locality of actual war. . . . If the military trial of Milligan was contrary to law, then he was entitled, on the facts stated in his petition, to be discharged from custody. . . . But it is insisted that Milligan was a prisoner of war, and, therefore, excluded from the privileges of the statute. It is not easy to see how he can be treated as a prisoner of war, when he lived in Indiana for the past twenty years, was arrested there, and had not been, during the late troubles, a resident of any of the states in rebellion. If in Indiana he conspired with bad men to assist the enemy, he is punishable for it in the courts of Indiana; but, when tried for the offence, he cannot plead the rights of war; for he was not engaged in legal acts of hostility against the government, and only such persons, when captured, are prisoners of war. If he cannot enjoy the immunities attaching to the character of a prisoner of war, how can he be subject to their pains and penalties? . . . The Chief Justice delivered the following opinion [concurring in the result]. ... We think that Congress had power, though not exercised, to authorize the military commission which was held in Indiana.... Congress has the power not only to raise and support and govern armies but to declare war. It has, therefore, the power to provide by law for carrying on war. This power necessarily extends to all legislation essential to the prosecution of war with vigor and success, except such as interferes with the command of the forces and the conduct of campaigns. That power and duty belong to the President as commander-in-chief. Both these powers are derived from the Constitution, but neither is defined by that instrument. Their extent must be determined by their nature, and by the principles of our institutions. The power to make the necessary laws is in Congress; the power to execute in the President. Both powers imply many subordinate and auxiliary powers. Each includes all authorities essential to its due exercise. But neither can the President, in war more than in peace, intrude upon the proper authority of Congress, nor Congress upon the proper authority of the President. Both are servants of the people, whose will is expressed in the fundamental law. Congress cannot direct the conduct of campaigns, nor can the President, or any commander under him, without the sanction of Congress, institute tribunals for the trial and punishment of offences, either of soldiers or civilians, unless in cases of a controlling necessity, which justifies what it compels, or at least insures acts of indemnity from the justice of the legislature. We by no means assert that Congress can establish and apply the laws of war where no war has been declared or exists. Where peace exists the laws of peace must prevail. What we do maintain is, that when the nation is involved in war, and some portions of the country are invaded, and all are exposed to invasion, it is within the power of Congress to determine in what states or district such great and imminent public danger exists as justifies the authorization of military tribunals for the trial of crimes and offences against the discipline or security of the army or against the public safety. In Indiana, for example, at the time of the arrest of Milligan and his co-conspirators, it is established by the papers in the record, that the state was a military district, was the theatre of military operations, had been actually invaded, and was constantly threatened with invasion. It appears, also, that a powerful secret association, composed of citizens and others, existed within the state, under military organization, conspiring against the draft, and plotting insurrection, the liberation of the prisoners of war at various depots, the seizure of the state and national arsenals, armed cooperation with the enemy, and war against the national government. We cannot doubt that, in such a time of public danger, Congress had power, under the Constitution, to provide for the organization of a military commission, and for trial by that commission of persons engaged in this conspiracy. The fact that the Federal courts were open was regarded by Congress as a sufficient reason for not exercising the power; but that fact could not deprive Congress of the right to exercise it. Those courts might be open and undisturbed in the execution of their functions, and yet wholly incompetent to avert threatened danger, or to punish, with adequate promptitude and certainty, the guilty conspirators. In Indiana, the judges and officers of the courts were loyal to the government. But it might have been otherwise. In times of rebellion and civil war it may often happen, indeed, that judges and marshals will be in active sympathy with the rebels, and courts their most efficient allies. We have confined ourselves to the question of power. It was for Congress to determine the question of expediency. And Congress did determine it. That body did not see fit to authorize trials by military commission in Indiana, but by the strongest implication prohibited them. . . . MARTIAL LAW PROPER . . . is called into action by Congress, or temporarily, when the action of Congress cannot be invited, and in the case of justifying or excusing peril, by the President, in times of insurrection or invasion, or of civil or foreign war, within districts or localities where ordinary law no longer adequately secures public safety and private rights. We think that the power of Congress, in such times and in such localities, to authorize trials for crimes against the security and safety of the national forces, may be derived from its constitutional authority to raise and support armies and to declare war, if not from its constitutional authority to provide for governing the national forces. We have no apprehension that this power, under our American system of government, in which all official authority is derived from the people, and exercised under direct responsibility to the people, is more likely to be abused than the power to regulate commerce, or the power to borrow money. And we are unwilling to give our assent by silence to expressions of opinion which seem to us calculated, though not intended, to cripple the constitutional powers of the government, and to augment the public dangers in times of invasion and rebellion. Mr. Justice Wayne, Mr. Justice Swayne, and Mr. Justice Miller concur with me in these views. In June 1942, eight Nazi saboteurs, all of whom were German-born but two of whom were United States citizens, landed in the United States, planning to destroy various war-related facilities. They wore full or partial military uniforms, to entitle them to prisoner-of-war status should they be captured. After the landings, however, they disposed of the uniforms and traveled in civilian clothes, in violation of the law of war. The plan fell apart almost immediately, in part because two of the men turned themselves in to the FBI (which did not believe them at first). The remaining six were quickly captured. All eight were tried by a military commission, authorized by the President, which promptly sentenced them to death. (The sentences of the two who had turned themselves in were commuted to life imprisonment, and they were deported after the war). The Supreme Court met in special session in July 1942 to determine whether this proceeding was valid. Was it valid, with respect to the citizen defendants? With respect to the non-citizens? Was it distinguishable from *Milligan*? See *Ex parte Quirin* (1942), p. 850. 3. Emancipation Of Lincoln’s personal antipathy toward slavery there could be no doubt. “If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong,” he wrote in a letter in 1864. “I can not remember when I did not so think, and feel.” But at the outset of the Civil War he did not believe that he had authority to end slavery anywhere. And he did not regard the war as one against slavery. On the contrary, he famously said, “If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save the Union by freeing all the slaves I would do it. And if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.” Recall that at his inauguration Lincoln endorsed the Corwin Amendment, which would have entrenched the states’ right to permit slavery. Moreover, early in his Administration he forbade his generals to effect military emancipation, and he overruled his Secretary of War’s proposal to arm freed slaves. But contexts often change rapidly during wartime. “I claim not to have controlled events,” Lincoln wrote in that same 1864 letter, “but confess plainly that events have controlled me.” In August 1861, Lincoln signed the First Confiscation Act, which authorized the seizure of property—including the freeing of slaves—used in the rebellion. In March 1862, he signed a statute forbidding Union Army officers to return fugitives from slavery. On April 10, he signed a joint resolution providing in principle that the United States ought to coöperate with any State which may adopt gradual abolition of slavery, giving to such State pecuniary aid, to be used by such State in its discretion, to compensate for the inconveniences, public and private, produced by such change of system. Six days later he signed a statute that actually put into effect a system of compensated emancipation in the District of Columbia, which turned out to be the only place in the nation where slave holders were compensated by law for emancipation of their slaves. On June 19, he signed another statute that prohibited slavery in United States territories—thus effectively defying the *Scott v. Sandford* decision. (Had a case arisen, a Supreme Court stocked with Republicans no doubt would have upheld the statute.) In July, Lincoln signed the Second Confiscation Act, which freed anyone enslaved by individuals active in the rebellion. Then, after the Union victory at Antietam, by now—at least as he claimed—convinced of the military necessity, Lincoln issued the following proclamation. --- **Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation** (September 22, 1862) I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States of America, and Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy thereof, do hereby proclaim and declare that hereafter, as heretofore, the war will be prosecuted for the object of practically restoring the constitutional relation between the United States and each of the States, and the people thereof, in which States that relation is or may be suspended or disturbed. That it is my purpose, upon the next meeting of Congress, to again recommend the adoption of a practical measure tendering pecuniary aid to the free acceptance or rejection of all slave States, so-called, the people whereof may not then be in rebellion against the United States, and which States may then have voluntarily adopted, or thereafter may voluntarily adopt, immediate or gradual abolishment of slavery within their respective limits; and that the efforts to colonize persons of African descent, with their consent, upon this continent or elsewhere, with the previously obtained consent of the governments existing there, will be continued. That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall then be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the United States, by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State, and the people thereof, are not then in rebellion against the United States. That attention is hereby called to an Act of Congress entitled [the Second Confiscation Act], approved July 17, 1862, and which sections are in the words and figures following: Sec. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such persons found on [or] being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude and not again held as slaves. ... And the Executive will in due time recommend that all citizens of the United States who shall have remained loyal thereto throughout the rebellion shall (upon the restoration of the constitutional relation between the United States and their respective States and people, if that relation shall have been suspended or disturbed) be compensated for all losses by acts of the United States, including the loss of slaves. In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. . . ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By the President: WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State. One hundred days later, on January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the promised final proclamation. Designating eight states (Arkansas, Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina) and parts of two others (Louisiana and Virginia) as being in rebellion, he declared "that all persons held as slaves within said designated States, and parts of States, are, and henceforward shall be free." Lincoln asserted that this was "a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing [the] rebellion" and closed by saying: And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind, and the gracious favor of Almighty God. The next excerpt is taken from a pamphlet published between the time of the two proclamations by Benjamin Curtis, who had retired at age 47 from the Supreme Court shortly after *Scott v. Sandford* and returned to private practice in Boston. --- **FOR DISCUSSION** What argument might support Lincoln's assertion that the emancipation was justified as a matter of military necessity? Are you persuaded? Benjamin R. Curtis, Executive Power (1862) I do not understand it to be the purpose of the President to incite a part of the inhabitants of the United States to rise in insurrection against valid laws; but that by virtue of some power which he possesses, he proposes to annul those laws, so that they are no longer to have any operation. . . . What is the source of these vast powers? Have they any limit? Are they derived from, or are they utterly inconsistent with, the Constitution of the United States? The only supposed source or measure of these vast powers appears to have been designated by the President, in his reply to the address of the Chicago clergymen, in the following words: “Understand, I raise no objection against it on legal or constitutional grounds; for, as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, in time of war, I suppose I have a right to take any measure, which may best subdue the enemy.” This is a clear and frank declaration of the opinion of the President respecting the origin and extent of the power he supposes himself to possess; and, so far as I know, no source of these powers other than the authority of commander-in-chief in time of war, has ever been suggested. . . . It must be obvious to the meanest capacity, that if the President of the United States has an implied constitutional right, as commander-in-chief of the army and navy in time of war, to disregard any one positive prohibition of the Constitution, or to exercise any one power not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, because, in his judgment, he may thereby “best subdue the enemy,” he has the same right, for the same reason, to disregard each and every provision of the Constitution, and to exercise all power, needful, in his opinion, to enable him “best to subdue the enemy.” It has never been doubted that the power to abolish slavery within the States was not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, but was reserved to the States. If the President, as commander-in-chief of the army and navy in time of war, may, by an executive decree, exercise this power to abolish slavery in the States, which power was reserved to the States, because he is of opinion that he may thus “best subdue the enemy,” what other power, reserved to the States or to the people, may not be exercised by the President, for the same reason, that he is of opinion he may thus best subdue the enemy? And if so, what distinction can be made between powers not delegated to the United States at all, and powers which, though thus delegated, are conferred by the Constitution upon some department of the government other than the executive? Indeed, the proclamation of September 24, 1862, followed by the orders of the war department, intended to carry it into practical effect, are manifest assumptions, by the President, of powers delegated to the Congress and to the judicial department of the government. It is a clear and undoubted prerogative of Congress alone, to define all offences, and to affix to each some appropriate and not cruel or unusual punishment. But this proclamation and these orders create new offences, not known to any law of the United States. “Discouraging enlistments,” and “any disloyal practice,” are not offences known to any law of the United States. . . . The necessary result of [the] interpretation of the Constitution [implied by the President’s conduct] is, that, in time of war, the President has any and all power, which he may deem it necessary to exercise, to subdue the enemy; and that every private and personal right of individual security against mere executive control, and every right reserved to the States or the people, rests merely upon executive discretion. But the military power of the President is derived solely from the Constitution; and it is as sufficiently defined there as his purely civil power. . . . He is the general-in-chief; and as such, in prosecuting war, may do what generals in the field are allowed to do within the sphere of their actual operations, *in subordination to the laws of their country, from which alone they derive their authority*. . . . If it were admitted that a commanding general in the field might do whatever in his discretion might be necessary to subdue the enemy, he could levy --- * The case of *Mitchel vs. Harmony* (13 How. 115), presented for the decision of the Supreme Court of the United States, the question of the extent of the right of a commanding general in the field to appropriate private property to the public service, and it was decided that such an appropriation might be made, in case it should be rendered necessary by an immediate and pressing danger or urgent necessity existing at the time, and not admitting of delay, but not otherwise. . . . It may safely be said that neither of the very eminent counsel by whom that case was argued, and that no judge before whom it came, had then advanced to the conception that a commanding general may lawfully take any measure which may best subdue the enemy. The wagons, mules, and packages seized by General Donophon, in that case, were of essential service in his brilliant and successful attack on the lines of Chihuahua. But this did not save him from being liable to their owner as a mere wrongdoer, under the Constitution and laws of the United States. contributions to pay his soldiers; he could force conscripts into his service; he could drive out of the entire country all persons not desirous to aid him;—in short, he would be the absolute master of the country for the time being. No one has ever supposed—no one will now undertake to maintain—that the commander-in-chief, in time of war, has any such lawful authority as this. What, then, is his authority over the persons and property of citizens? I answer, that, over all persons enlisted in his forces he has military power and command; that over all persons and property within the sphere of his actual operations in the field, he may lawfully exercise such restraint and control as the successful prosecution of his particular military enterprise may, in his honest judgment, absolutely require; and upon such persons as have committed offenses against any article of war, he may, through appropriate military tribunals, inflict the punishment prescribed by law. And there his lawful authority ends. The military power over citizens and their property is a power to act, not a power to prescribe rules for future action. It springs from present pressing emergencies, and is limited by them. It cannot assume the functions of the statesman or legislator, and make provision for future or distant arrangements by which persons or property may be made subservient to military uses. It is the physical force of an army in the field, and may control whatever is so near as to be actually reached by that force, in order to remove obstructions to its exercise. But when the military commander controls the persons or property of citizens, who are beyond the sphere of his actual operations in the field when he makes laws to govern their conduct, he becomes a legislator. . . . [W]hether his edicts are clothed in the form of proclamations, or of military orders, by whatever name they may be called, they are laws. If he have the legislative power, conferred on him by the people, it is well. If not, he usurps it. He has no more lawful authority to hold all the citizens of the entire country, outside of the sphere of his actual operations in the field, amenable to his military edicts, than he has to hold all the property of the country subject to his military requisitions. He is not the military commander of the citizens of the United States, but of its soldiers. . . . What then is to be done? Are we to cease our utmost efforts to save our country, because its chief magistrate seems to have fallen, for the time being, into what we believe would be fatal errors if persisted in by him and acquiesced in by ourselves? Certainly not. Let the people but be right, and no President can long be wrong; nor can he effect any fatal mischief if he should be. The sober second thought of the people has yet a controlling power. Let this gigantic shadow, which has been evoked out of the powers of the commander-in-chief, once be placed before the people, so that they can see clearly its proportions and its mien, and it will dissolve and disappear like the morning cloud before the rising sun. The people yet can and will take care, by legitimate means, without disturbing any principle of the Constitution, or violating any law, or relaxing any of their utmost efforts for their country’s salvation, that their will, embodied in the Constitution, shall be obeyed. If it needs amendment, they will amend it themselves. They will suffer nothing to be added to it, or taken from it, by any other power than their own. If they should, neither the government itself, nor any right under it, will any longer be theirs. G. Reconstruction In the Union’s view, the states had never left the Union. But clearly they had not played a role in its governance, and the Confederate governments could not be used as the basis for resuming the seceding states’ roles in the Union. This problem created theoretical as well as practical difficulties. 1. West Virginia In one state, Virginia, reconstruction began even while most of the state was under Confederate control. The northern and western portions of the state, where the enslaved population was much smaller, were largely hostile to secession. After the state as a whole adopted an ordinance of secession, voters in that loyalist area, by a series of votes, declared the ordinance invalid and set up a rival legislature, purportedly governing the whole state, which for a time sent representatives to Congress. This loyalist legislature consented to the division of the state, and so a new state of West Virginia was created in 1863. Then, not wanting to create a precedent that would make readmission of the Southern states too easy, Congress had second thoughts about the legitimacy of the rump legislature, and Virginia’s seats were declared vacant until 1870. 2. Presidential Reconstruction Under Lincoln Lincoln, with the election of 1864 in mind, was eager to restore the Southern states to the Union, and bring the war to a close, as quickly as possible. In December 1863, he adopted a moderate program, the Ten Percent Plan, to govern reconstruction in Confederate territories that had come under Union control: If 10% of the number of voters from 1860 swore allegiance to the Union, then voters in the state would be authorized, under Presidential supervision, to form a new state constitution. Lincoln required, as a condition of Presidential recognition, that the new constitution abolish slavery. Lincoln ultimately recognized new governments in four states—Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Virginia. But by the time of his death Congress had refused to seat the members of Congress elected from those states. Meanwhile, Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill, which would have required for readmission of each rebellious state an “ironclad oath” by a majority of voters in the state that they had never voluntarily supported the Confederacy. Lincoln had both theoretical and practical difficulties with the bill: It treated the Southern states as having left the Union, which of course Lincoln maintained had never happened, and he regarded the plan as impractically stringent, likely not to be satisfied in any state. And so he pocket vetoed it. When Lincoln was assassinated, the question of what the standards would be for restoring the rebellious states to their full rights in Congress remained unresolved. 3. The Thirteenth Amendment and the Civil Rights Act of 1866 The Senate passed the Thirteenth Amendment, by a 38–6 margin, in April 1864, but the House declined to do so. Lincoln made nationwide abolition of slavery a plank in the 1864 campaign of the Republican Party, renamed the National Union Party for that election. On January 31, 1865, the House passed the amendment by a 119–56 vote, and the next day Lincoln—contrary to precedent for constitutional amendments—signed it. Read the Amendment. The chief Confederate army surrendered at Appomattox on April 9, virtually ending the Civil War. On April 15, Lincoln died. The new President was Andrew Johnson. Johnson had been a Democratic Senator from Tennessee and was the only member of the Senate from the Confederate states to continue participation in the Union Congress during the war. In 1862, Lincoln appointed him military governor of Tennessee. He was considered a savvy political choice in 1864 to broaden the appeal of the President’s party. Like Lincoln, Johnson pursued a strategy for reconstruction—he preferred to call it “restoration”—that a majority of Congress regarded as too lenient. But, also like Lincoln, he actively promoted adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment; indeed, he pressured the state legislatures that he recognized to adopt it. On December 18, Secretary of State Seward declared that the Thirteenth Amendment had been ratified by legislatures in 27 of the 36 states and was part of the Constitution. Eight of the 27 were from former Confederate states—including the loyalist Virginia legislature and seven that had been recognized by one President or the other. In immediate response to the abolition of slavery, legislatures of the southern states passed the so-called Black Codes, intended to maintain the subjugation of the freedmen. These took various forms. Some, for example, punished given conduct more severely for black defendants than for whites; others imposed racial restrictions on travel and the ability to contract. On April 9, 1866, over President Johnson’s veto, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866. This was the first major piece of legislation in American history passed over the President’s veto. Section 1 of the Act read: *Be it enacted* by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States; and such citizens, of every race and color, without regard to any previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall have the same right, in every State and Territory in the United States, to make and enforce contracts, to sue, be parties, and give evidence, to inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property, and to full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and shall be subject to like punishment, pains, and penalties, and to none other, any law, statute, ordinance, regulation, or custom, to the contrary notwithstanding. **FOR DISCUSSION** Suppose you are counsel to President Johnson. He is inclined to veto the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and would like to raise constitutional arguments against it. What arguments might he make? What counter-arguments might you expect? The essence of the “same right” language of this statute remains in force, as 42 U.S.C. § 1981(a): All persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall have the same right in every State and Territory to make and enforce contracts, to sue, be parties, give evidence, and to the full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of persons and property as is enjoyed by white citizens, and shall be subject to the like punishment, pains, penalties, taxes, licenses, and exactions of every kind, and to no other. **FOR DISCUSSION** A private home developer makes clear that its policy is to refuse to sell to African-Americans. Does § 1981(a) by its terms prohibit that discrimination? If so, is the statute valid under the Constitution as it stood in 1867? What if the developer refuses to sell to Mexican-Americans? See *Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.* (1968). ### 4. The Reconstruction Acts From the time of Johnson’s veto of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, he and Congress were in bitter opposition. The Radical wing of the Republican party—those who were most inclined to impose stringent conditions for readmission of the Southern states—gained considerable force in the 1866 elections. Just before the term of the old Congress expired, it passed a dramatic statute, the first Reconstruction Act of 1867. This Act recited that “no legal State governments nor adequate protection for life or property now exists” in ten of the rebel states (Tennessee excepted). It divided those states into five military districts, each to be governed by a general assigned by the President. That officer would have the discretion to displace civil courts by military tribunals. The statute further provided a mechanism for each of the ten states to gain readmission to Congress and remove itself from military rule: The state would have to hold a convention of delegates chosen in an election at which all adult males could vote, except those disqualified by reason of felony or participation in the rebellion. The convention would have to frame a state constitution in conformity with the Constitution of the United States and providing for similarly universal male suffrage, and the constitution would have to be ratified by the voters of the state and approved by Congress. And finally, the state legislature created by that constitution would have to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, as part of the Constitution of the United States. Johnson vetoed the Act, but it was passed over his veto. --- **For Discussion** 1. Does the premise behind the First Reconstruction Act of 1867 suggest that ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment was invalid? 2. Given that votes of states acting pursuant to this statute were necessary for ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, was ratification of that Amendment valid? 3. Apart from these concerns, was the statute substantively valid? --- **Mississippi v. Johnson** Supreme Court of the United States, 1867. 71 U.S. 475. The Chief Justice delivered the opinion of the court. A motion was made, some days since, in behalf of the State of Mississippi, for leave to file a bill in the name of the State, praying this court perpetually to enjoin and restrain Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, and E. O. C. Ord, general commanding in the District of Mississippi and Arkansas, from executing, or in any manner carrying out [the first Reconstruction Act and a supplemental act, relating to registration of voters.] The Attorney-General objected to the leave asked for, upon the ground that no bill which makes a President a defendant, and seeks an injunction against him to restrain the performance of his duties as President, should be allowed to be filed in this court. . . . The single point which requires consideration is this: Can the President be restrained by injunction from carrying into effect an act of Congress alleged to be unconstitutional? It is assumed by the counsel for the State of Mississippi, that the President, in the execution of the Reconstruction Acts, is required to perform a mere ministerial duty. In this assumption there is, we think, a confounding of the terms ministerial and executive, which are by no means equivalent in import. A ministerial duty, the performance of which may, in proper cases, be required of the head of a department, by judicial process, is one in respect to which nothing is left to discretion. It is a simple, definite duty, arising under conditions admitted or proved to exist, and imposed by law. The case of *Marbury v. Madison, Secretary of State* (1803), furnishes an illustration. A citizen had been nominated, confirmed, and appointed a justice of the peace for the District of Columbia, and his commission had been made out, signed, and sealed. Nothing remained to be done except delivery, and the duty of delivery was imposed by law on the Secretary of State. It was held that the performance of this duty might be enforced by *mandamus* issuing from a court having jurisdiction. So, in the case of *Kendall, Postmaster-General, v. Stockton & Stokes* (1839), an act of Congress had directed the Postmaster-General to credit Stockton & Stokes with such sums as the Solicitor of the Treasury should find due to them; and that officer refused to credit them with certain sums, so found due. It was held that the crediting of this money was a mere ministerial duty, the performance of which might be judicially enforced. In each of these cases nothing was left to discretion. There was no room for the exercise of judgment. The law required the performance of a single specific act; and that performance, it was held, might be required by *mandamus*. Very different is the duty of the President in the exercise of the power to see that the laws are faithfully executed, and among these laws the acts named in the bill. By the first of these acts he is required to assign generals to command in the several military districts, and to detail sufficient military force to enable such officers to discharge their duties under the law. By the supplementary act, other duties are imposed on the several commanding generals, and these duties must necessarily be performed under the supervision of the President as commander-in-chief. The duty thus imposed on the President is in no just sense ministerial. It is purely executive and political. An attempt on the part of the judicial department of the government to enforce the performance of such duties by the President might be justly characterized, in the language of Chief Justice Marshall, as “an absurd and excessive extravagance.” It is true that in the instance before us the interposition of the court is not sought to enforce action by the Executive under constitutional legislation, but to restrain such action under legislation alleged to be unconstitutional. But we are unable to perceive that this circumstance takes the case out of the general principles which forbid judicial interference with the exercise of Executive discretion. . . . The Congress is the legislative department of the government; the President is the executive department. Neither can be restrained in its action by the judicial department; though the acts of both, when performed, are, in proper cases, subject to its cognizance. The impropriety of such interference will be clearly seen upon consideration of its possible consequences. Suppose the bill filed and the injunction prayed for allowed. If the President refuse obedience, it is needless to observe that the court is without power to enforce its process. If, on the other hand, the President complies with the order of the court and refuses to execute the acts of Congress, is it not clear that a collision may occur between the executive and legislative departments of the government? May not the House of Representatives impeach the President for such refusal? And in that case could this court interfere, in behalf of the President, thus endangered by compliance with its mandate, and restrain by injunction Is the Court’s discussion of a three-branch impasse persuasive? What would you expect the Court in modern days to say about it? the Senate of the United States from sitting as a court of impeachment? Would the strange spectacle be offered to the public world of an attempt by this court to arrest proceedings in that court? These questions answer themselves. It is true that a State may file an original bill in this court. And it may be true, in some cases, that such a bill may be filed against the United States. But we are fully satisfied that this court has no jurisdiction of a bill to enjoin the President in the performance of his official duties; and that no such bill ought to be received by us. It has been suggested that the bill contains a prayer that, if the relief sought cannot be had against Andrew Johnson, as President, it may be granted against Andrew Johnson as a citizen of Tennessee. But it is plain that relief as against the execution of an act of Congress by Andrew Johnson, is relief against its execution by the President. A bill praying an injunction against the execution of an act of Congress by the incumbent of the presidential office cannot be received, whether it describes him as President or as a citizen of a State. The motion for leave to file the bill is, therefore, DENIED. Mississippi lost, having made the President the defendant. Georgia set its sights lower, suing the Secretary of War (Edwin Stanton), the general-in-chief of the army (Ulysses Grant), and the military commandant of its district (John Pope) for an injunction against enforcement of the Reconstruction Act. It fared no better, however; for in *Georgia v. Stanton* (1868), the Court dismissed the suit for lack of jurisdiction, holding that the matter presented a political question: [A] case must be presented appropriate for the exercise of judicial power; the rights in danger, as we have seen, must be rights of persons or property, not merely political rights, which do not belong to the jurisdiction of a court, either in law or equity. . . . [We] are called upon to restrain the defendants, who represent the executive authority of the government, from carrying into execution certain acts of Congress, inasmuch as such execution would annul, and totally abolish the existing State government of Georgia, and establish another and different one in its place; in other words, would overthrow and destroy the corporate existence of the State, by depriving it of all the means and instrumentalities whereby its existence might, and, otherwise would, be maintained. . . . That these matters, both as stated in the body of the bill, and, in the prayers for relief, call for the judgment of the court upon political questions, and, upon rights, not of persons or property, but of a political character, will hardly be denied. For the rights for the protection of which our authority is invoked, are the rights of sovereignty, of political jurisdiction, of government, of corporate existence as a State, with all its constitutional powers and privileges. No case of private rights or private property infringed, or in danger of actual or threatened infringement, is presented by the bill, in a judicial form, for the judgment of the court. It is true, the bill, in setting forth the political rights of the State, and of its people to be protected, among other matters, avers, that Georgia owns certain real estate and buildings therein, State capitol, and executive mansion, and other real and personal property; and that putting the acts of Congress into execution, and destroying the State, would deprive it of the possession and enjoyment of its property. But, it is apparent, that this reference to property and statement concerning it, are only by way of showing one of the grievances resulting from the threatened destruction of the State, and in aggravation of it, not as a specific ground of relief. . . . The comments near the end of this excerpt suggest that the result might have been different had the party challenging the Reconstruction Acts complained about a specific deprivation of liberty or property. William McCardle brought exactly such a complaint. A newspaper publisher in Mississippi, he was thrown in jail by the military governor for writing articles deemed incendiary. He sought but failed to gain his release in federal court in Mississippi through a habeas corpus petition. When the United States Supreme Court held that it had jurisdiction to hear his appeal, *Ex parte McCardle* (1868), it appeared that the validity of the Reconstruction Acts would be determined at last. McCardle’s case was argued on the merits in March 1868, with the arguments concluding on March 9. The Court considered the case at conference on March 21 but voted to postpone decision, because both houses of Congress had passed a bill repealing the provision of the 1867 statute that gave the Court jurisdiction. The President vetoed the bill, as expected, but on March 27 Congress overrode the veto. The Court then unanimously held that it did not have jurisdiction over the case. *Ex parte McCardle* (1869). **For Discussion** (1) Putting aside for the moment the fact that the 1868 statute was applied in *McCardle* to a pending case that had already been argued in the Supreme Court, was its repeal of Supreme Court jurisdiction constitutional? On what provision of the Constitution do you suppose the statute was based? Are there any limits to the ability of Congress to deny jurisdiction to the Supreme Court? What is the effect of such a denial? (2) Could the 1868 statute be validly applied to a case pending in the Supreme Court? Should the Court have been willing to strain to construe the statute as not applying to pending cases? Compare *Hamdan v. Rumsfeld* (2006). The Supreme Court never did rule on the constitutional validity of the governance system created by the Reconstruction Acts. 5. **The Impeachment of Johnson** On March 3, 1867, the outgoing Congress passed—over Johnson’s veto—the Tenure of Office Act, providing that the President could not, absent the advice and consent of the Senate, remove an officer appointed by a prior President. The President could suspend the officer while the Senate was out of session, however. The Act was passed largely to protect Stanton, the Secretary of War. Johnson did suspend Stanton, but when the Senate returned it refused to give consent. Johnson, at least arguably in violation of the Act, attempted on February 21, 1868, to remove Stanton and appoint a new interim Secretary. Three days later, the House impeached Johnson. Ultimately, he escaped conviction by one vote in the Senate. **FOR DISCUSSION** What do you suppose was the real impulse behind the impeachment of Johnson? 6. **Adoption and Initial Judicial Construction of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments** Read the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, each of which was passed after the Civil War. Together with the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, they are known as the “Reconstruction Amendments.” Over time, the Fourteenth Amendment in particular transformed American constitutional law; it will be the focus of a considerable portion of our attention for the remainder of the course. While the Amendment was proposed in significant part to ensure that the Civil Rights Act of 1866 would not be held unconstitutional, it went beyond that purpose; indeed, Congress began working on it before the Civil Rights Act was passed. The Fourteenth Amendment in particular quickly became—as it has remained—a source of deep and contentious debate. Those who favored a relatively broad interpretation argued that their opponents were failing to give the hard-won guarantees of the Amendment their natural implications. Those who favored relatively narrow interpretation argued that the Amendment was never intended to give the judiciary the equivalent of a veto power over a broad swath of social and economic legislation. We will begin with the *Slaughter-House Cases*, the Supreme Court’s first judicial construction of the Reconstruction Era amendments. We will then read more recent discussions of the drafting of the Fourteenth Amendment, focusing on two issues that remain of central importance: the meaning of § 1 and the scope of the enforcement power under § 5. a. **Privileges or Immunities of Citizens** In *Barron v. Baltimore*, the Supreme Court held that the Bill of Rights did not apply to the states. Did the Fourteenth Amendment change that rule? The Reconstruction-era court gave an initial answer in *The* Slaughter-House Cases (1873). The Court’s discussion focused principally on the amendment’s “privileges or immunities” clause, but its discussion ranged across all three Reconstruction Amendments. The underlying litigation was triggered by a state-enforced monopoly on butcher’s services in the City of New Orleans. Tired of finding animal remains from upstream slaughterhouses in their drinking water, city leadership sought relief from the state legislature, which chartered the Crescent City Live-Stock Landing and Slaughter-House Company. The Company was authorized to run a Grand Slaughterhouse at the southern edge of the city, and was given a 25-year monopoly within a prescribed 1154-square-mile area that included New Orleans. The Company was expected not to do the slaughtering itself but to provide space and facilities for butchers for prescribed fees. Over four hundred butchers brought suit to prevent the monopoly. The Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment did not bar the monopoly: The butchers were represented by John A. Campbell, a former Justice of the Supreme Court who had resigned after his home state of Alabama seceded. --- **The Slaughter-House Cases** Supreme Court of the United States, 1873. 83 U.S. 36. Mr. Justice Miller, now, April 14th, 1873, delivered the opinion of the court. . . . . . . The power here exercised by the legislature of Louisiana is, in its essential nature, one which has been, up to the present period in the constitutional history of this country, always conceded to belong to the States, however it may now be questioned in some of its details. “Unwholesome trades, slaughter-houses, operations offensive to the senses, the deposit of powder, the application of steam power to propel cars, the building with combustible materials, and the burial of the dead, may all,” says Chancellor [James] Kent, “be interdicted by law, in the midst of dense masses of population, on the general and rational principle, that every person ought so to use his property as not to injure his neighbors; and that private interests must be made subservient to the general interests of the community.” This is called the police power; and it is declared by Chief Justice Shaw that it is much easier to perceive and realize the existence and sources of it than to mark its boundaries, or prescribe limits to its exercise. . . . The plaintiffs in error . . . allege that the statute is a violation of the Constitution of the United States in . . . [t]hat it abridges the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States. . . . [O]n the most casual examination of the language of [the Reconstruction] amendments, no one can fail to be impressed with the one pervading purpose found in them all, lying at the foundation of each, and without which none of them would have been even suggested; we mean the freedom of the slave race, the security and firm establishment of that freedom, and the protection of the newly-made freeman and citizen from the oppressions of those who had formerly exercised unlimited dominion over him. It is true that only the fifteenth amendment, in terms, mentions the negro by speaking of his color and his slavery. But it is just as true that each of the other articles was addressed to the grievances of that race, and designed to remedy them as the fifteenth. We do not say that no one else but the negro can share in this protection. Both the language and spirit of these articles are to have their fair and just weight in any question of construction. . . . But what we do say, and what we wish to be understood is, that in any fair and just construction of any section or phrase of these amendments, it is necessary to look to the purpose which we have said was the pervading spirit of them all, the evil which they were designed to remedy, and the process of continued addition to the Constitution, until that purpose was supposed to be accomplished, as far as constitutional law can accomplish it. . . . Was it the purpose of the fourteenth amendment, by the simple declaration that no State should make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, to transfer the security and protection of all the civil rights which we have mentioned, from the States to the Federal government? And where it is declared that Congress shall have the power to enforce that article, was it intended to bring within the power of Congress the entire domain of civil rights heretofore belonging exclusively to the States? . . . [S]uch a construction followed by the reversal of the judgments of the Supreme Court of Louisiana in these cases, would constitute this court a perpetual censor upon all legislation of the States, on the civil rights of their own citizens, with authority to nullify such as it did not approve as consistent with those rights, as they existed at the time of the adoption of this amendment. . . . We are convinced that no such results were intended by the Congress which proposed these amendments, nor by the legislatures of the States which ratified them. . . . But lest it should be said that no such privileges and immunities are to be found if those we have been considering are excluded, we venture to suggest some which owe their existence to the Federal government, its National character, its Constitution, or its laws. One of these is well described in the case of *Crandall v. Nevada* (1868). It is said to be the right of the citizen of this great country, protected by implied guarantees of its Constitution, to come to the seat of government to assert any claim he may have upon that government, to transact any business he may have with it, to seek its protection, to share its offices, to engage in administering its functions. He has the right of free access to its seaports, through which all operations of foreign commerce are conducted, to the sub-treasuries, land offices, and courts of justice in the several States. . . . Another privilege of a citizen of the United States is to demand the care and protection of the Federal government over his life, liberty, and property when on the high seas or within the jurisdiction of a foreign government. Of this there can be no doubt, nor that the right depends upon his character as a citizen of the United States. The right to peaceably assemble and petition for redress of grievances, the privilege of the writ of *habeas corpus*, are rights of the citizen guaranteed by the Federal Constitution. The right to use the navigable waters of the United States, however they may penetrate the territory of the several States, all rights secured to our citizens by treaties with foreign nations, are dependent upon citizenship of the United States, and not citizenship of a State. One of these privileges is conferred by the very article under consideration. It is that a citizen of the United States can, of his own volition, become a citizen of any State of the Union by a *bona fide* residence therein, with the same rights as other citizens of that State. To these may be added the rights secured by the thirteenth and fifteenth articles of amendment, and by the other clause of the fourteenth, next to be considered. But it is useless to pursue this branch of the inquiry, since we are of opinion that the rights claimed by these plaintiffs in error, if they have any existence, are not privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States within the meaning of the clause of the fourteenth amendment under consideration. . . . Mr. Justice Field, dissenting: ... The act of Louisiana presents the naked case, unaccompanied by any public considerations, where a right to pursue a lawful and necessary calling, previously enjoyed by every citizen, and in connection with which a thousand persons were daily employed, is taken away and vested exclusively for twenty-five years, for an extensive district and a large population, in a single corporation, or its exercise is for that period restricted to the establishments of the corporation, and there allowed only upon onerous conditions. . . . The question presented is, therefore, . . . nothing less than the question whether the recent amendments to the Federal Constitution protect the citizens of the United States against the deprivation of their common rights by State legislation. In my judgment the fourteenth amendment does afford such protection, and was so intended by the Congress which framed and the States which adopted it. . . . The amendment . . . assumes that there are such privileges and immunities which belong of right to citizens as such, and ordains that they shall not be abridged by State legislation. If this inhibition . . . only refers, as held by the majority of the court in their opinion, to such privileges and immunities as were before its adoption specially designated in the Constitution or necessarily implied as belonging to citizens of the United States, it was a vain and idle enactment, which accomplished nothing, and most unnecessarily excited Congress and the people on its passage. With privileges and immunities thus designated or implied no State could ever have interfered by its laws, and no new constitutional provision was required to inhibit such interference. . . . What, then, are the privileges and immunities which are secured against abridgment by State legislation? In the first section of the Civil Rights Act Congress has given its interpretation to these terms, or at least has stated some of the rights which, in its judgment, these terms include; it has there declared that they include the right to make and enforce contracts, to sue, be parties and give evidence, to inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property, and to full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property. That act, it is true, was passed before the fourteenth amendment, but the amendment was adopted, as I have already said, to obviate objections to the act. . . . Accordingly, after its ratification, Congress re-enacted the act under the belief that whatever doubts may have previously existed of its validity, they were removed by the amendment. The terms, privileges and immunities, are not new in the amendment; they were in the Constitution before the amendment was adopted. . . . [Justice Washington’s interpretation in Coryell] appears to me to be a sound construction of the clause in question. The privileges and immunities designated are those which of right belong to the citizens of all free governments. Clearly among these must be placed the right to pursue a lawful employment in a lawful manner, without other restraint than such as equally affects all persons. In the discussions in Congress upon the passage of the Civil Rights Act repeated reference was made to this language of Mr. Justice Washington. . . . So fundamental has this privilege of every citizen to be free from disparaging and unequal enactments, in the pursuit of the ordinary avocations of life, been regarded, that few instances have arisen where the principle has been so far violated as to call for the interposition of the courts. But whenever this has occurred, with the exception of the present cases from Louisiana, which are the most barefaced and flagrant of all, the enactment interfering with the privilege of the citizen has been pronounced illegal and void. . . . I am authorized by The Chief Justice, Mr. Justice Swayne, and Mr. Justice Bradley, to state that they concur with me in this dissenting opinion. Mr. Justice Bradley, also dissenting: . . . If a State legislature should pass a law prohibiting the inhabitants of a particular township, county, or city, from tanning leather or making shoes, would such a law violate any privileges or immunities of those inhabitants as citizens of the United States, or only their privileges and immunities as citizens of that particular State? Or if a State legislature should pass a law of caste, making all trades and professions, or certain enumerated trades and professions, hereditary, so that no one could follow any such trades or professions except that which was pursued by his father, would such a law violate the privileges and immunities of the people of that State as citizens of the United States, or only as citizens of the State? Would they have no redress but to appeal to the courts of that particular State? . . . [I]n my judgment, the right of any citizen to follow whatever lawful employment he chooses to adopt (submitting himself to all lawful regulations) is one of his most valuable rights, and one which the legislature of a State cannot invade, whether restrained by its own constitution or not. . . . Mr. Justice Swayne, dissenting: . . . Fairly construed [the Reconstruction] amendments may be said to rise to the dignity of a new Magna Charta. . . . “The privileges and immunities” of a citizen of the United States include, among other things, the fundamental rights of life, liberty, and property, and also the rights which pertain to him by reason of his membership of the Nation. . . . It is objected that the power conferred is novel and large. The answer is that the novelty was known and the measure deliberately adopted. . . . By the Constitution, as it stood before the war, ample protection was given against oppression by the Union, but little was given against wrong and oppression by the States. That want was intended to be supplied by this amendment. . . . Most commentators agree that the practical upshot of *The Slaughter-House Cases* was basically to eviscerate the Privileges or Immunities Clause. This holding has been harshly criticized, not so much because of its practical impact as because it is demonstrably faithless to the understanding of the Amendment’s ratifiers. The classic study concludes, on the basis of an exhaustive study of the legislative theory, that it is clear that Republicans thought the Fourteenth Amendment protected freedom of speech and of the press and other basic constitutional rights. Their statements on this question alone are sufficient to dispel the notion that the amendment in general and the privileges or immunities clause in particular protected only the right to equality under state law. . . . The [competing] hypothesis that the amendment . . . . only provided for equality in certain rights under state law is simply refuted by the evidence that Republicans thought the amendment protected absolute rights to freedom of speech, to assemble, to bear arms, and to due process that states could not abridge. Michael Kent Curtis, *No State Shall Abridge: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights* (1986). Notably, the Supreme Court has since come close to stipulating that this criticism is correct. In *McDonald v. City of Chicago* (2010), the plaintiff asked the court to revisit the *Slaughter-House* holding. Although the majority declined to do so on stare decisis grounds, it noted that “many legal scholars dispute the correctness of the narrow Slaughter-House interpretation” and made a point of specifically quoting one commentator’s stark summary of the modern consensus: “‘Virtually no serious modern scholar—left, right, and center—thinks that [the *Slaughter-House* interpretation] is a plausible reading of the Amendment.’” If you are convinced that *Slaughter-House* read the Privileges or Immunities Clause incorrectly, then what would a proper reading be? That it made the entire Bill of Rights applicable to the states? (The Supreme Court has never so held, and some states have long maintained a system allowing prosecution of felonies without grand jury presentation or indictment, which would be required if the Fifth Amendment applied to them.) Do you think the Clause was meant to give the federal judiciary the power to invalidate laws like the one at stake in *Slaughter-House*? b. **Equal Protection Clause** *Slaughter-House* also rejected the butchers’ attempt to invoke the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause. The majority spoke ambivalently about the reach of the Clause. It acknowledged that the protections of the Reconstruction Amendments might apply in a proper case “though the party interested may not be of African descent.” But, in light of the “pervading purpose” of the Amendments, and the fact that “the evil to be remedied” by the equal protection clause was “the existence of laws in the States where the newly emancipated negroes resided, which discriminated with gross injustice and hardship against them as a class,” the Court added: We doubt very much whether any action of a State not directed by way of discrimination against the negroes as a class, or on account of their race, will ever be held to come within the purview of this provision. It is so clearly a provision for that race and that emergency, that a strong case would be necessary for its application to any other. . . . We find no such case in the one before us, and do not deem it necessary to go over the argument again, as it may have relation to this particular clause of the amendment. In dissent, Justice Bradley showed no such ambivalence: It is futile to argue that none but persons of the African race are intended to be benefited by this amendment. They may have been the primary cause of the amendment, but its language is general, embracing all citizens, and I think it was purposely so expressed. The mischief to be remedied was not merely slavery and its incidents and consequences; but that spirit of insubordination and disloyalty to the National government which had troubled the country for so many years in some of the States, and that intolerance of free speech and free discussion which often rendered life and property insecure, and led to much unequal legislation. The amendment was an attempt to give voice to the strong National yearning for that time and that condition of things, in which American citizenship should be a sure guaranty of safety, and in which every citizen of the United States might stand erect on every portion of its soil, in the full enjoyment of every right and privilege belonging to a freeman, without fear of violence or molestation. . . . What about cases where the victims of inequality were African-American? The Supreme Court faced that issue in *U.S. v. Cruikshank* (1875). More than a hundred years later, the Supreme Court described the factual background: In that case, the Court reviewed convictions stemming from the infamous Colfax Massacre in Louisiana on Easter Sunday 1873. Dozens of blacks, many unarmed, were slaughtered by a rival band of armed white men. Cruikshank himself allegedly marched unarmed African-American prisoners through the streets and then had them summarily executed. Ninety-seven men were indicted for participating in the massacre, but only nine went to trial. Six of the nine were acquitted of all charges; the remaining three were acquitted of murder but convicted under the Enforcement Act of 1870 for banding and conspiring together to deprive their victims of various constitutional rights.” McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010). The Supreme Court reversed those convictions in the following opinion. **United States v. Cruikshank** Supreme Court of the United States, 1875. 92 U.S. 542. Mr. Chief Justice Waite delivered the opinion of the court. This case . . . presents for our consideration an indictment . . . based upon sect. 6 of the Enforcement Act of May 31, 1870. That section is as follows: That if two or more persons shall band or conspire together, or go in disguise upon the public highway, or upon the premises of another, with intent to violate any provision of this act, or to injure, oppress, threaten, or intimidate any citizen, with intent to prevent or hinder his free exercise and enjoyment of any right or privilege granted or secured to him by the constitution or laws of the United States, or because of his having exercised the same, such persons shall be held guilty of felony. . . . To bring this case under the operation of the statute . . . , it must appear that the right, the enjoyment of which the conspirators intended to hinder or prevent, was one granted or secured by the constitution or laws of the United States. If it does not so appear, the criminal matter charged has not been made indictable by any act of Congress. . . . The [indictment] charge[s] the intent to have been to deprive the citizens named, they being in Louisiana, “of their respective several lives and liberty of person without due process of law.” This is nothing else than alleging a conspiracy to falsely imprison or murder citizens of the United States, being within the territorial jurisdiction of the State of Louisiana. . . . The fourteenth amendment prohibits a State from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; but this adds nothing to the rights of one citizen as against another. It simply furnishes an additional guaranty against any encroachment by the States upon the fundamental rights which belong to every citizen as a member of society. As was said by Mr. Justice Johnson in *Bank of Columbia v. Okely* (1819), it secures “the individual from the arbitrary exercise of the powers of government, unrestrained by the established principles of private rights and distributive justice.” These counts in the indictment do not call for the exercise of any of the powers conferred by this provision in the amendment. The [indictment also charges] . . . that the defendants conspired to prevent certain citizens of the United States, being within the State of Louisiana, from enjoying the equal protection of the laws of the State and of the United States. The fourteenth amendment prohibits a State from denying to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws; but this provision does not, any more than the one which precedes it, and which we have just considered, add any thing to the rights which one citizen has under the Constitution against another. The equality of the rights of citizens is a principle of republicanism. Every republican government is in duty bound to protect all its citizens in the enjoyment of this principle, if within its power. That duty was originally assumed by the States; and it still remains there. . . . [Other] counts state the intent of the defendants to have been to hinder and prevent the citizens named, being of African descent, and colored, “in the free exercise and enjoyment of their several and respective right and privilege to vote at any election to be thereafter by law had and held by the people in and of the said State of Louisiana . . . .” The right to vote in the States comes from the States; but the right of exemption [from racial discrimination under the Fifteenth Amendment] comes from the United States. Inasmuch, therefore, as it does not appear in these counts that the intent of the defendants was to prevent these parties from exercising their right to vote on account of their race, &c., it does not appear that it was their intent to interfere with any right granted or secured by the constitution or laws of the United States. We may suspect that race was the cause of the hostility; but it is not so averred. This is material to a description of the substance of the offence, and cannot be supplied by implication. Every thing essential must be charged positively, and not inferentially. . . . We are, therefore, of the opinion that [the indictment does] not show that it was the intent of the defendants, by their conspiracy, to hinder or prevent the enjoyment of any right granted or secured by the Constitution. . . . Mr. Justice Clifford dissenting. I concur that the judgment in this case should be arrested, but for reasons quite different from those given by the court. . . . Vague and indefinite allegations of the kind [in this indictment] are not sufficient to inform the accused in a criminal prosecution of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, within the meaning of the sixth amendment of the Constitution. . . . Certain other causes for arresting the judgment are assigned in the record, which deny the constitutionality of the Enforcement Act; but, having come to the conclusion that the indictment is insufficient, it is not necessary to consider that question. FOR DISCUSSION Was *Cruikshank* correctly decided? If not, why not? What federal right did the defendants allegedly conspire to prevent their victims from exercising? While *Cruikshank* held that private individuals could not violate the Equal Protection Clause, the Supreme Court soon returned to the issue of equal protection in a number of cases involving state defendants. Easily the most important among them was its decision in *Plessy v. Ferguson* (1896), which gave wide constitutional latitude to apartheid-style segregation (colloquially known as the “Jim Crow” system) throughout the former slaveholding South—and less pervasive forms of discrimination throughout the rest of the country as well. c. **Enforcement Power** All three of the Reconstruction Amendments include a provision that Congress has “power to enforce” the amendment “by appropriate legislation.” See U.S. Const., 13th Amdt. § 2; 14th Amdt. § 5; 15th Amdt. § 2. In 1875, Congress relied on its enforcement authority under the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments to pass a major Civil Rights Act. In § 1, the Act provided that all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theatres, and other places of public amusement, subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude. Section 2 of the Act provided a private cause of action for violations of § 1, and also made violations of that section a misdemeanor. The Civil Rights Cases of 1883 consolidated several cases involving denial to African-Americans of accommodation in an inn, in theaters, an opera house, and a railroad car. The key question was whether the Reconstruction Amendments authorized Congress to pass the statute. The Court rejected the claim that the Fourteenth Amendment enforcement authority was a basis for the statute, on the ground that the Fourteenth Amendment’s substantive protections applied only to state action and not to private actors. And it rejected the claim of enforcement authority under the Thirteenth Amendment, on the ground that the wrongs addressed by the Act could not be considered “incidents or elements of slavery.” If the courts conclude that one of the Reconstruction Amendments does not reach particular conduct, should that preclude Congress from invoking that Amendment’s enforcement power to prohibit the same conduct? Here are two competing historical accounts. First is Justice Kennedy’s opinion for the majority in City of Boerne v. Flores (1997). That case concerned the validity of the federal Religious Freedom Restoration Act (“RFRA”), which attempted to protect a broader conception of the free exercise of religion than the one recognized by the Supreme Court. City of Boerne v. Flores United States Supreme Court, 1997. 521 U.S. 507. ... The Joint Committee on Reconstruction of the 39th Congress began drafting what would become the Fourteenth Amendment in January 1866. The objections to the Committee’s first draft of the Amendment, and the rejection of the draft, have a direct bearing on the central issue of defining Congress’ enforcement power. In February, Republican Representative John Bingham of Ohio reported the following draft amendment to the House of Representatives on behalf of the Joint Committee: The Congress shall have power to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper to secure to the citizens of each State all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States, and to all persons in the several States equal protection in the rights of life, liberty, and property. The proposal encountered immediate opposition, which continued through three days of debate. Members of Congress from across the political spectrum criticized the Amendment, and the criticisms had a common theme: The proposed Amendment gave Congress too much legislative power at the expense of the existing constitutional structure. Democrats and conservative Republicans argued that the proposed Amendment would give Congress a power to intrude into traditional areas of state responsibility, a power inconsistent with the federal design central to the Constitution. Some radicals, like their brethren “unwilling that Congress shall have any such power . . . to establish uniform laws throughout the United States upon . . . the protection of life, liberty, and property,” also objected that giving Congress primary responsibility for enforcing legal equality would place power in the hands of changing congressional majorities. As a result of these objections having been expressed from so many different quarters, the House voted to table the proposal until April. The congressional action was seen as marking the defeat of the proposal. ... The Amendment in its early form was not again considered. Instead, the Joint Committee began drafting a new article of Amendment, which it reported to Congress on April 30, 1866. Section 1 of the new draft Amendment imposed self-executing limits on the States. Section 5 prescribed that “[t]he Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.” Under the revised Amendment, Congress’ power was no longer plenary but remedial. Congress was granted the power to make the substantive constitutional prohibitions against the States effective. Representative Bingham said the new draft would give Congress “the power . . . to protect by national law the privileges and immunities of all the citizens of the Republic . . . whenever the same shall be abridged or denied by the unconstitutional acts of any State.” Representative Stevens described the new draft Amendment as “allow[ing] Congress to correct the unjust legislation of the States.” The revised Amendment proposal did not raise the concerns expressed earlier regarding broad congressional power to prescribe uniform national laws with respect to life, liberty, and property. After revisions not relevant here, the new measure passed both Houses and was ratified in July 1868 as the Fourteenth Amendment. The design of the Fourteenth Amendment has proved significant also in maintaining the traditional separation of powers between Congress and the Judiciary. The first eight Amendments to the Constitution set forth self-executing prohibitions on governmental action, and this Court has had primary authority to interpret those prohibitions. The Bingham draft, some thought, departed from that tradition by vesting in Congress primary power to interpret and elaborate on the meaning of the new Amendment through legislation. . . . As enacted, the Fourteenth Amendment confers substantive rights against the States which, like the provisions of the Bill of Rights, are self-executing. The power to interpret the Constitution in a case or controversy remains in the Judiciary. Justice Kennedy’s rendition of the history is sharply contested by Michael McConnell, a leading originalist scholar (and for a time a federal appellate judge) as well as a supporter of RFRA. Michael McConnell, Institutions and Interpretation: A Critique of City of Boerne v. Flores 111 Harv. L. Rev. 153 (1997) ... The historical evidence presented in the *Boerne* opinion proves only that Congress was not intended to have authority to pass general legislation determining what the privileges and immunities of citizens should be. It does not support the more extreme claim that Congress lacks independent interpretive authority. . . . The Court explained that [the April] proposal was approved because “[u]nder the revised Amendment, Congress’ power was no longer plenary but remedial. Congress was granted the power to make the substantive constitutional prohibitions against the States effective.” . . . It is far from clear that Congress would have had “plenary” power to promulgate rights under the February draft, and it is unlikely that the change to which the Court referred carried the meaning the Court ascribed to it. Moreover, the Court failed to note that the political climate—and not just the language of the proposed amendment—had changed between February and April: President Andrew Johnson had vetoed the Civil Rights bill, thereby radicalizing the moderates and increasing the urgency of action on an amendment. . . . There are six differences between the two drafts. The pertinent question, which the *Boerne* Court failed to address, is how any of these changes diminished the power of Congress. Two of the changes (switching the verb in Section Five from “secure” to “enforce” and changing the standard of review from “necessary and proper” to “appropriate”) were mere changes in nomenclature, with no substantive significance. The change from “privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States,” which was lifted from the Comity Clause of Article IV, Section 2, to “privileges or immunities of the citizens of the United States,” was later to provide the basis for emasculating the Amendment in the *Slaughter-House Cases*. Although no public explanation was given at the time, this modification probably was inspired by Bingham’s theory that the rights subsumed by the language “privileges and immunities” ceased to be subject to the vicissitudes of law. What would it mean for “privileges and immunities” to no longer be subject to the vicissitudes of state law? state law and could now be enforced by the federal government on behalf of all citizens. Three changes warrant more extended discussion. First, the April draft made the substantive provisions of the Amendment self-executing, and thus ensured that the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and the Due Process Clause (as well as the provisions of Sections Two, Three, and Four) would continue to apply to the states even if Congress ceased to support them. Representative Giles Hotchkiss of New York, who proposed this change, stated that civil rights should be “secured by a constitutional amendment that legislation cannot override.” Although this change enhanced judicial power, it left congressional power as it was under the February draft. Hotchkiss stated that the “laws of Congress” would continue to be the primary instrument “for the enforcement of these rights”—a sentiment shared by nearly all the participants in this decision. Another potentially important change was to cast the substantive protections of Section One in terms of prohibitions on the states (“No state shall...”) rather than as rights inhering in individuals. Although this change is significant for the question of “state action,” it has no bearing on interpretation of the provisions of the Bill of Rights, including the Free Exercise Clause, which by their nature apply only to state action. The final change was to break the concept of “equal protection in the rights of life, liberty, and property” into two clauses, one forbidding denial of “equal protection of the laws” and the other forbidding deprivation of “life, liberty, or property without due process of law.” As legal historian Earl Maltz has shown, this change was the key to relieving the concerns expressed by moderate Republicans about the February proposal. Under the February proposal, Congress was authorized to make laws to secure to all persons in the several states “equal protection in the rights of life, liberty, and property.” [Two Republican opponents of the February version] expressly stated that their criticism did not apply to the Privileges or Immunities Clause, which was the expected vehicle for incorporation of the Bill of Rights. The target of the revised Amendment was the problem of an open-ended equal protection provision. Under the new formulation, Congress was stripped of any power it might have had under the February draft to provide direct protection for life, liberty, and property; Congress could only remedy or prevent state violations of equal protection or due process. Congress’s power to enforce preexisting constitutional rights, such as the freedom of religion, was not affected by the change. It is not clear whether this modification represented a real change or a mere clarification. Bingham’s conception of the Amendment—both before and after its revision—was that it would provide federal protection for preexisting constitutional rights. The Privileges or Immunities clause was unobjectionable because it referred to a fixed set of civil rights defined by some combination of the Bill of Rights and longstanding practice (usually common law). The Court’s reading of this history is distorted by its unsupported (and in my opinion unsupportable) assumption that any statement that rejects the pure substantive interpretation, or that uses remedial language, must be read as rejecting an independent interpretive role for Congress. . . . [T]he Court concluded that “Congress’ power was no longer plenary but remedial.” That is true, if by “remedial” one means that the authority of Congress must be triggered by a wrongful act of the state. . . . But such statements provide no support for the claim that Congress’s power is “remedial” in the sense that the definition of “unjust” or “unconstitutional” state acts must be judicial. Thus, the history of the Fourteenth Amendment supports the Court’s conclusion that Congress was not vested with plenary “substantive” authority to determine the content of protected rights under Section Five. Rather, Congress was limited to enforcing rights established by the Fourteenth Amendment itself. This limitation was an important protection for the states, because it ensured that neither Congress nor the courts could go beyond the rights enshrined in the Constitution itself. Congress could not supersede ordinary state tort, contract, property, or criminal laws under the guise of providing (equal) “protection.” But nothing in that history suggests that Congress was expected to be limited to enforcing judicially decreed conceptions of those rights. For Discussion (1) What is the significance of the debate between Kennedy and McConnell? Who do you think has the better of it? (2) Consider again: On the basis of what you know, do you believe the Fourteenth Amendment was intended to make applicable against the states (“incorporate”) the Bill of Rights, in whole or in part? If so, what portion or portions of the Amendment would have this effect? 7. The End of Reconstruction The 1875 Civil Rights Act was in a sense the last hurrah of Reconstruction, for by then Northern enthusiasm for protecting the rights and interests of African-Americans had waned considerably. The Presidential election of 1876 created a legal and political impasse that made the election of 2000—and in some ways even the election of 2020 (insurrection excepted)—appear smooth and easy. Congress, faced with disputes as to the results in three states, referred the matter to an Electoral Commission, composed of five members of each house of Congress and five members of the Supreme Court. The anticipation was that the members would be divided by party, with one of the Justices being independent. But the supposed independent, Joseph Bradley, joined with the Republicans on every key vote, awarding the Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, just enough electoral votes to secure election. The report of the Commission still had to be accepted by Congress, and Hayes was able to end Democratic resistance by promising to remove federal troops from the South. This is generally regarded as the end of Reconstruction. H. The Advent of the Regulatory Age To be sure, there had always been regulation and administrative apparatuses at every level of government. See, e.g., Jerry L. Mashaw, *Creating the Administrative Constitution: The Lost One Hundred Years of American Administrative Law* (2012); William J. Novak, *The People’s Welfare: Law and Regulation in Nineteenth-Century America* (1996); Julian Davis Mortenson & Nick Bagley, *Delegation at the Founding*, 121 Colum. L. Rev. 277 (2021). But the intensity of regulation at the federal, state, and local levels increased greatly in the last quarter of the 19th century, prompting a correspondingly burgeoning docket of litigation over its constitutional validity. The *Slaughter-House Cases* notwithstanding, the Supreme Court frequently invoked the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to invalidate state legislation that in the Court’s view violated individual liberty. And as the Federal government expanded its regulatory reach, a key question became the scope of its power under the Commerce Clause. Discord over these issues set the stage for a constitutional crisis in the 1930s. By the end of the 19th century, the existential issues that had threatened the Union had been resolved, and—as indicated by the result in *Plessy v. Ferguson*—the reforming fervor that led to the Reconstruction Amendments had abated. The principal issue for constitutional law over the next several decades became the extent to which governments could regulate economic matters. ### 1. Substantive Due Process We saw the idea of substantive due process at least suggested in *Scott v. Sandford*, and it was invoked by the dissenters in the *Slaughter-House Cases* as well. But the *Slaughter-House* majority leaned hard the other way, indicating that such holdings would be an abuse of judicial authority. Three years later, *Munn v. Illinois* (1876), pp. 1347–1352, held that a state could regulate the rates to be charged by grain elevators. Drawing on law reaching back at least to the 17th century, Chief Justice Waite wrote, “Common carriers exercise a sort of public office, and have duties to perform in which the public is interested. Their business is, therefore, ‘affected with a public interest’ . . . .” Grain elevators, like railroads and other utilities, were deemed to be within this doctrine. Over time, however, the negative implication of this statement became salient: If a business was *not* deemed “affected with a public interest,” then it was not subject to close regulation by the state, especially with respect to matters such as price. Indeed, another doctrine took hold, the idea of freedom (or liberty) of contract. Recall that Art. I, § 10, of the Constitution forbids states to “pass any Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts.” That means, in essence (and with some qualification, as we will see) that the state cannot undo a contract already made. But the doctrine of freedom of contract is different. It means that, in some contexts, the state cannot control the making of *future* contracts. The doctrine received its first full expression in *Allgeyer v. Louisiana* (1897), in which the Court held unanimously that the state could not forbid citizens and businesses in the state from entering into a contract for marine insurance with an out-of-state company that had not appointed an in-state agent. Justice Rufus Peckham wrote: The “liberty” mentioned in that amendment means not only the right of the citizen to be free from the mere physical restraint of his person, as by incarceration, but the term is deemed to embrace the right of the citizen to be free in the enjoyment of all his faculties, to be free to use them in all lawful ways, to live and work where he will, to earn his livelihood by any lawful calling, to pursue any livelihood or avocation, and for that purpose to enter into all contracts which may be proper, necessary, and essential to his carrying out to a successful conclusion the purposes above mentioned. **Question** What question-begging is embedded in Justice Peckham’s statement? The next year, in *Holden v. Hardy* (1898), the Court pointed in the other direction. With only Justices Brewer and Peckham dissenting, the Court upheld a Utah statute that limited the working hours of miners and smelters to eight hours per day, “except in cases of emergency, where life or property is in imminent danger.” After quoting *Allgeyer*, Justice Brown’s opinion for the Court said: This right of contract, however, is itself subject to certain limitations which the State may lawfully impose in the exercise of its police powers. While this power is inherent in all governments, it has doubtless been greatly expanded in its application during the past century, owing to an enormous increase in the number of occupations which are dangerous, or so far detrimental to the health of employees as to demand special precautions for their wellbeing and protection, or the safety of adjacent property. While . . . the police power cannot be put forward as an excuse for oppressive and unjust legislation, it may be lawfully resorted to for the purpose of preserving the public health, safety or morals, or the abatement of public nuisances, and a large discretion “is necessarily vested in the legislature to determine not only what the interests of the public require, but what measures are necessary for the protection of such interests.” *Lawton v. Steele*. This power, legitimately exercised, can neither be limited by contract nor bartered away by legislation. Upon the principles above stated, we think the act in question may be sustained as a valid exercise of the police power of the State. The enactment does not profess to limit the hours of all workmen, but merely those who are employed in underground mines or in the smelting, reduction or refining of ores or metals. These employments, when too long pursued, the legislature has judged to be detrimental to the health of the employees, and, so long as there are reasonable grounds for believing that this is so, its decision upon this subject cannot be reviewed by the Federal courts. While the general experience of mankind may justify us in believing that men may engage in ordinary employment more than eight hours per day without injury to their health, it does not follow that labor for the same length of time is innocuous when carried on beneath the surface of the earth, where the operative is deprived of fresh air and sunlight and is frequently subjected to foul atmosphere and a very high temperature or to the influence of noxious gases generated by the processes of refining or smelting. The legislature has also recognized the fact, which the experience of legislators in many states has corroborated, that the proprietors of these establishments and their operatives do not stand upon an equality, and that their interests are, to a certain extent, conflicting. In other words, the proprietors lay down the rules, and the laborers are practically constrained to obey them. In such cases self-interest is often an unsafe guide, and the legislature may properly interpose its authority. While *Allgeyer* and *Holden* can be reconciled with each other analytically, they indicate the considerable tension that marked the doctrine from the start. That tension became more evident in *Lochner v. New York* (1905), which held by a 5–4 vote that a maximum-hours law for bakers violated the constitutional freedom of contract. *Lochner* is often taken to symbolize the entire era—a fact that, ironically, appears to be attributable neither to the importance of the case nor to the quality of Justice Peckham’s majority opinion, but rather to Justice Holmes’s dissent. Justice Harlan also wrote a dissent. It bears emphasis that *Lochner* was just one case among many, and the results were often difficult to reconcile with each other, depending in large part on the particular context at issue and on the membership of the Court. Consider, for example, *Muller v. Oregon* (1908), decided three years after *Lochner*. *Muller*, presented more fully at pp. 1352–1354, upheld a state statute limiting female workers “in any mechanical establishment or factory or laundry” to ten hours of work per day. Justice Brewer’s opinion for a unanimous Court declared: That woman’s physical structure and the performance of maternal functions place her at a disadvantage in the struggle for subsistence is obvious. This is especially true when the burdens of motherhood are upon her. Even when they are not, by abundant testimony of the medical fraternity continuance for a long time on her feet at work, repeating this from day to day, tends to injurious effects upon the body, and as healthy mothers are essential to vigorous offspring, the physical well-being of woman becomes an object of public interest and care in order to preserve the strength and vigor of the race. *Muller* is also notable as a landmark in Supreme Court lawyering. Louis Brandeis was counsel for Oregon. Brandeis was probably the leading progressive lawyer of the day. He was also a remarkable nerd, who routinely chose industrial reports for summer reading. His opinions often --- **CROSS REFERENCE** *Lochner* is presented pp. 1334–1346. --- **WORTH NOTING** Brandeis later became the first Jewish Supreme Court justice. When he was nominated in 1916, he faced fierce opposition because many members of the legal establishment regarded him as a dangerous radical. In fact, seven former presidents of the American Bar Association (including former President Taft) described him as “not a fit person to be a member of the Supreme Court of the United States.” reflected this orientation, and so did his very long brief in the *Muller* case, which was a pioneering instance of what is now often referred to as a “Brandeis brief.” The submission was chock-full not only to references to labor statutes from around the world, but also to sociological data—and Justice Brewer’s opinion for the Court took note: It may not be amiss, in the present case, before examining the constitutional question, to notice the course of legislation, as well as expressions of opinion from other than judicial sources. In the brief filed by Mr. Louis D. Brandeis for the defendant in error is a very copious collection of all these matters, an epitome of which is found in the margin.” A footnote gathered many of Brandeis’s references to domestic and foreign statutes limiting women’s working hours as well as “extracts from over ninety reports of committees, bureaus of statistics, commissioners of hygiene, inspectors of factories,” before adding: Perhaps the general scope and character of all these reports may be summed up in what an inspector for Hanover says: “The reasons for the reduction of the working day to ten hours—(a) the physical organization of women, (b) her maternal functions, (c) the rearing and education of the children, (d) the maintenance of the home—are all so important and so far reaching that the need for such reduction need hardly be discussed.” In 1913, Oregon followed up its hours-limitation success by passing a statute limiting hours of both men and women in manufacturing establishments or mills to ten hours per day, except for emergencies, and with a proviso that employees could work up to three extra hours per day so long as they were paid time and a half. Once again, Brandeis was retained to represent the state --- **FOR DISCUSSION** The data submitted by Brandeis had not been presented to the lower courts. Was it proper for the Court to draw conclusions from it? Suppose Brandeis were on the bench instead of at the bar. Would it have been appropriate for him to do the same research on his own in preparing his opinion? Would it have been appropriate for him to call up the inspector from Hanover to get an opinion on the effects on women of long working hours? Compare Allison Orr Larsen, *The Trouble With Amicus Facts*, 100 Va. L. Rev. 1757 (2014). in resisting a challenge to its statute, and he prepared a “brief” of 900 pages. (Under current rules, he would have been limited to 15,000 words.) But then he was appointed to the Supreme Court, and Felix Frankfurter took the case over from him. With Brandeis recused, the state won by a 5–3 margin. *Bunting v. Oregon* 426 (1917). Justice McKenna’s opinion for the Court was a striking example of judicial deference to the legislature: [W]e need not cast about for reasons for the legislative judgment. We are not required to be sure of the precise reasons for its exercise, or be convinced of the wisdom of its exercise. It is enough for our decision if the legislation under review was passed in the exercise of an admitted power of government; and that it is not as complete as it might be, not as rigid in its prohibitions as it might be, gives, perhaps, evasion too much play, is lighter in its penalties than it might be, is no impeachment of its legality. This may be a blemish, giving opportunity for criticism and difference in characterization, but the constitutional validity of legislation cannot be determined by the degree of exactness of its provisions or remedies. New policies are usually tentative in their beginnings, advance in firmness as they advance in acceptance. They do not at a particular moment of time spring full—perfect in extent or means—from the legislative brain. Time may be necessary to fashion them to precedent customs and conditions, and as they justify themselves or otherwise they pass from militancy to triumph or from question to repeal. And how did the *Bunting* Court deal with *Lochner*? By ignoring it. More generally, the Progressive Era also featured a wave of constitutional amendments. The Sixteenth authorized a federal income tax, effectively nullifying a decision that had made one impractical. The Seventeenth made a significant change in constitutional structure by providing that Senators should be chosen by popular election rather than by state legislators. The Eighteenth, the only amendment to the Constitution to be subsequently repealed (by the Twenty-First), created a nationwide prohibition on “the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors.” And the Nineteenth, culminating a long political struggle, guaranteed women the right to vote both in state and federal elections. Read these Amendments. Six years after *Bunting*, the Court invalidated a minimum wage law for women by a 5–3 vote, with Frankfurter again arguing in favor of the statute and Brandeis again recused. *Adkins v. Children’s Hospital* (1923). Justice Sutherland’s opinion for the majority relied heavily on *Lochner*, and after quoting a statement from *Muller* on differences between men and women, said: In view of the great—not to say revolutionary—changes which have taken place since that utterance, in the contractual, political, and civil status of women, culminating in the Nineteenth Amendment, it is not unreasonable to say that these differences have now come almost, if not quite, to the vanishing point. Two conservative justices, Edward Sanford and Chief Justice Taft, dissented. And so did Holmes, who wrote: It will need more than the Nineteenth Amendment to convince me that there are no differences between men and women, or that legislation cannot take those differences into account. I should not hesitate to take them into account if I thought it necessary to sustain this Act. But after *Bunting v. Oregon*, I had supposed that it was not necessary, and that *Lochner v. New York* would be allowed a deserved repose. ### 2. Federal Power Under the Commerce Clause In 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act, providing the federal government’s initial extensive foray into regulation of interstate rail transportation. In 1890, it passed the Sherman Antitrust Act, which remains the cornerstone of federal antitrust law. Section 1 of the Act prohibits “combinations . . . in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations.” Section 2 prohibits monopolization of “any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations.” The first great test of the Act came in *U.S. v. E.C. Knight Co.* (1895). The case concerned the Sugar Trust, a combination of sugar manufacturing companies accused of violating both sections 1 and 2. Writing for eight members of the Court, Chief Justice Fuller held that the Act should not be construed to reach the alleged activities, because manufacturing was not in itself commerce, and --- *CROSS REFERENCE* *E.C. Knight* is presented at pp. 389–394. because the control over manufacture only affected commerce in sugar “incidentally and indirectly.” Justice Harlan dissented. **IN SIGHTS** Recall that in *Gibbons v. Ogden*, pp. 379–387, Marshall defined Congressional power under the Commerce Clause in expansive terms. But Congress did not seriously test the extent of the power until near the end of the nineteenth century. Instead, Commerce Clause doctrine focused on the extent to which the Clause limited state power. Most often, the Supreme Court treated the Clause as setting up mutually exclusive spheres of power: To hold that a state could legislate in a given manner necessarily implied that the law was not a regulation of interstate commerce within the meaning of the Clause. For this doctrine to achieve politically tolerable results, it had to be based on a relatively narrow conception of commerce. While *E.C. Knight* took a highly constrained view of federal commerce power, the Court sometimes adopted doctrines permitting federal regulations effectively to target in-state activity. In *Champion v. Ames (The Lottery Case)* (1903), Justice Harlan wrote for a Court that voted 5–4 to uphold a federal statute that prohibited interstate shipment of lottery tickets. While the dissenters thought that lottery tickets were not articles of commerce, the majority held that Congress could in effect stand astride state lines and determine what articles were permitted to pass. In *Houston, East & West Texas Railway Co. v. United States (The Shreveport Rate Case)* (1914), the Court held that the Interstate Commerce Commission could determine freight rates for an intrastate railroad route as part of a larger effort to regulate the interstate trade. And in *Stafford v. Wallace* in *Swift & Co. v. United States* (1905) to held that Congress could authorize the Secretary of Agriculture to regulate the nation’s stockyards. Even though the regulated activity was local when taken in isolation, the Court concluded that stockyards functioned as a “throat” in a continuous “stream of commerce” and therefore susceptible to federal regulation. That said, the categorical line advanced by *E.C. Knight* still retained force. In *Hammer v. Dagenhart* (1918), the Court struck down the federal Child Labor Act of 1916. Relying on the logic of *Champion*, Congress had sought to suppress exploitative labor practices by banning the shipment in interstate commerce of any goods that had been produced with child labor. In a 5–4 decision that remained a political hot point for two decades, the Court struck down the statute as in effect an improper regulation of local production. A postscript to *Hammer* is noteworthy. Congress responded by passing the Child Labor Tax Act of 1919, which imposed an excise tax of 10% on the profits of any company that knowingly engaged in conduct prohibited by the statute that *Hammer* had invalidated. In *Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.* (1922), the Supreme Court held the new statute invalid as well; although in form the new law was styled as a tax, the majority regarded it as really a penalty for violations of a regulatory requirement. Justice Clarke dissented without opinion, a practice that was fairly common in those days; the other *Hammer* dissenters joined Taft’s opinion. The economic crisis of the 1930s would force the Court to consider how doctrines governing federal power should be applied to Congressional legislation of unprecedented reach. Before we proceed further, however, read the 20th and 21st amendments to the Constitution—both adopted in 1933. ### I. Crisis and Transformation in the New Deal Era In the last section, we saw how the doctrinal areas of substantive due process (as it is now called) and the Interstate Commerce Clause became contested ground during the first decades of the twentieth century. Contest turned into crisis in the 1930s, as Congress and state legislatures responded aggressively to the Great Depression, and their enactments came under scrutiny of the Supreme Court. In the spring of 1930, just as the nation was descending into the Depression, Prof. Felix Frankfurter summarized the prior decade of constitutional adjudication: Since 1920, the Court has invalidated more legislation than in fifty years preceding. Views that were antiquated twenty-five years ago have been resurrected in decisions nullifying minimum-wage laws for women in industry, a standard-weight-bread law to protect buyers from short weights and honest bakers from unfair competition, a law fixing the resale price of theater tickets by ticket scalpers in New York, laws controlling exploitation of the unemployed by employment agencies and many tax laws. . . . Merely as a matter of arithmetic, this is an impressive mortality rate. In that same year, President Herbert Hoover named two moderate justices who moved the Court substantially to the left of where it had been. Charles Evans Hughes had been one of the leading figures of the Progressive Era, serving as Governor of New York, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, and Secretary of State before returning to private practice. Perhaps surprisingly, his nomination as Chief Justice generated substantial opposition in the Senate, among those who focused more on his recent career as a corporate lawyer rather than on his distinguished record of public service. To fill another vacancy, Hoover first nominated John J. Parker, Jr., of North Carolina, a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. But the Senate rejected him, largely because of resistance from unions and the National Association for the Advancement of the Colored People, based on statements he had made that seemed hostile to their interests. It is an open question whether Parker would have served those interests better than Hoover’s second nominee for the position, Owen J. Roberts. Roberts was a capable lawyer from Philadelphia who had achieved some renown as counsel to a committee investigating the Teapot Dome scandal. The Senate confirmed his nomination smoothly, on the assumption that he was a progressive. He was indeed more progressive than Sanford, but he came to the Court without a clearly defined judicial philosophy. Four members of the Court—James McReynolds, Willis Van Devanter, George Sutherland, and Pierce Butler—were markedly conservative, meaning that in contested cases they would usually vote to invalidate exercises of governmental power. Three members—Holmes, Brandeis, and Harlan Fiske Stone—were progressive, or liberal, meaning that they were more likely to vote to permit such exercises of power. In January 1932, Hughes, with great reluctance, told Holmes, who had turned 90 ten months before, that it was time to retire. Holmes did so immediately, and Hoover replaced him with the nation’s most celebrated state court judge, Benjamin N. Cardozo. Cardozo turned out to be a liberal justice, and so the change did not alter the ideological balance of the Court. Hughes and Roberts were moderates, meaning that if both of them joined the liberals they would form a majority, but the conservatives would prevail if either of them joined that side. In most contexts, Roberts was more likely to join the conservatives. 1. State Power and Individual Liberties The impact of the new Justices soon became apparent. See, e.g., *O’Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.* (1931) (upholding, 5–4, a New Jersey law regulating the commissions paid by fire insurers to their agents). But see, e.g., *New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann* (1932) (invalidating, 6–2, an Oklahoma statute that had the effect of creating local monopolies by forbidding any person to manufacture or distribute ice without satisfying a licensing commission of the need for additional supply). We present here two important cases from 1934, one because it contains classic discussions of how the Constitution should be interpreted, especially in times of distress, and the other because it signaled a major shift in the Court’s approach to determining the constitutionality of economic regulations. **Home Building & Loan Association v. Blaisdell** Supreme Court of the United States, 1934. *290 U.S. 398.* Mr. Chief Justice Hughes delivered the opinion of the Court. ### SUMMARY OF THE FACTS In April 1933, Minnesota passed a Mortgage Moratorium Law to relieve the state’s hard-pressed farmers and homeowners. For the duration of the emergency, but in no event past May 1935, this statute authorized state courts to postpone foreclosures and to extend redemption periods. The Blaisdells applied for and got relief under the statute, allowing them to hold onto their property, which was their home with additional rooms that they rented out; they alleged that the amount owed on their mortgage, which they could not pay, was much less than the reasonable value of the property. Their property had been foreclosed and sold to the Building & Loan Association, the mortgagee, but the trial court extended the period in which they could redeem it from one year to three, so long as they made prescribed monthly payments. The Building & Loan claimed that the law violated the obligation-of-contracts clause of Art. I, § 10, of the Constitution. ... In determining whether the provision for this temporary and conditional relief exceeds the power of the State by reason of the clause in the Federal Constitution prohibiting impairment of the obligations of contracts, we must consider the relation of emergency to constitutional power, the historical setting of the contract clause, the development of the jurisprudence of this Court in the construction of that clause, and the principles of construction which we may consider to be established. Emergency does not create power. Emergency does not increase granted power or remove or diminish the restrictions imposed upon power granted or reserved. The Constitution was adopted in a period of grave emergency. Its grants of power to the Federal Government and its limitations of the power of the States were determined in the light of emergency, and they are not altered by emergency. What power was thus granted and what limitations were thus imposed are questions which have always been, and always will be, the subject of close examination under our constitutional system. While emergency does not create power, emergency may furnish the occasion for the exercise of power. "Although an emergency may not call into life a power which has never lived, nevertheless emergency may afford a reason for the exertion of a living power already enjoyed." *Wilson v. New* (1917). The constitutional question presented in the light of an emergency is whether the power possessed embraces the particular exercise of it in response to particular conditions. Thus, the war power of the Federal Government is not created by the emergency of war, but it is a power given to meet that emergency. It is a power to wage war successfully, and thus it permits the harnessing of the entire energies of the people in a supreme co-operative effort to preserve the nation. But even the war power does not remove constitutional limitations safeguarding essential liberties. [Here, the Court cited *Milligan* among other decisions.] When the provisions of the Constitution, in grant or restriction, are specific, so particularized as not to admit of construction, no question is presented. Thus, emergency would not permit a State to have more than two Senators in the Congress, or permit the election of President by a general popular vote without regard to the number of electors to which the States are respectively entitled, or permit the States to “coin money” or to “make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts.” But, where constitutional grants and limitations of power are set forth in general clauses, which afford a broad outline, the process of construction is essential to fill in the details. That is true of the contract clause. The necessity of construction is not obviated by the fact that the contract clause is associated in the same section with other and more specific prohibitions. Even the grouping of subjects in the same clause may not require the same application to each of the subjects, regardless of differences in their nature. . . . To ascertain the scope of the constitutional prohibition, we examine the course of judicial decisions in its application. . . . The inescapable problems of construction have been: What is a contract? What are the obligations of contracts? What constitutes impairment of these obligations? What residuum of power is there still in the States, in relation to the operation of contracts, to protect the vital interests of the community? . . . Not only is the constitutional provision qualified by the measure of control which the State retains over remedial processes, but the State also continues to possess authority to safeguard the vital interests of its people. . . . Not only are existing laws read into contracts in order to fix obligations as between the parties, but the reservation of essential attributes of sovereign power is also read into contracts as a postulate of the legal order. The policy of protecting contracts against impairment presupposes the maintenance of a government by virtue of which contractual relations are worth while—a government which retains adequate authority to secure the peace and good order of society. This principle of harmonizing the constitutional prohibition with the necessary residuum of state power has had progressive recognition in the decisions of this Court. . . . The question is not whether the legislative action affects contracts incidentally, or directly or indirectly, but whether the legislation is addressed to a legitimate end and the measures taken are reasonable and appropriate to that end. Another argument, which comes more closely to the point, is that the state power may be addressed directly to the prevention of the enforcement of contracts only when these are of a sort which the Legislature in its discretion may denounce as being in themselves hostile to public morals, or public health, safety, or welfare, or where the prohibition is merely of injurious practices; that interference with the enforcement of other and valid contracts according to appropriate legal procedure, although the interference is temporary and for a public purpose, is not permissible. This is but to contend that in the latter case the end is not legitimate in the view that it cannot be reconciled with a fair interpretation of the constitutional provision. Undoubtedly, whatever is reserved of state power must be consistent with the fair intent of the constitutional limitation of that power. The reserved power cannot be construed so as to destroy the limitation, nor is the limitation to be construed to destroy the reserved power in its essential aspects. They must be construed in harmony with each other. This principle precludes a construction which would permit the State to adopt as its policy the repudiation of debts or the destruction of contracts or the denial of means to enforce them. But it does not follow that conditions may not arise in which a temporary restraint of enforcement may be consistent with the spirit and purpose of the constitutional provision and thus be found to be within the range of the reserved power of the State to protect the vital interests of the community. It cannot be maintained that the constitutional prohibition should be so construed as to prevent limited and temporary interpositions with respect to the enforcement of contracts if made necessary by a great public calamity such as fire, flood, or earthquake. The reservation of state power appropriate to such extraordinary conditions may be deemed to be as much a part of all contracts as is the reservation of state power to protect the public interest in the other situations to which we have referred. And, if state power exists to give temporary relief from the enforcement of contracts in the presence of disasters due to physical causes such as fire, flood, or earthquake, that power cannot be said to be nonexistent when the urgent public need demanding such relief is produced by other and economic causes. . . . It is manifest from this review of our decisions that there has been a growing appreciation of public needs and of the necessity of finding ground for a rational compromise between individual rights and public welfare. The settlement and consequent contraction of the public domain, the pressure of a constantly increasing density of population, the interrelation of the activities of our people and the complexity of our economic interests, have inevitably led to an increased use of the organization of society in order to protect the very bases of individual opportunity. Where, in earlier days, it was thought that only the concerns of individuals or of classes were involved, and that those of the State itself were touched only remotely, it has later been found that the fundamental interests of the State are directly affected; and that the question is no longer merely that of one party to a contract as against another, but of the use of reasonable means to safeguard the economic structure upon which the good of all depends. It is no answer to say that this public need was not apprehended a century ago, or to insist that what the provision of the Constitution meant to the vision of that day it must mean to the vision of our time. If by the statement that what the Constitution meant at the time of its adoption it means to-day, it is intended to say that the great clauses of the Constitution must be confined to the interpretation which the framers, with the conditions and outlook of their time, would have placed upon them, the statement carries its own refutation. It was to guard against such a narrow conception that Chief Justice Marshall uttered the memorable warning: “We must never forget, that it is a constitution we are expounding” (McCulloch); “a constitution intended to endure for ages to come, and, consequently, to be adapted to the various crises of human affairs.” When we are dealing with the words of the Constitution, said this Court in Missouri v. Holland (1920), ‘we must realize that they have called into life a being the development of which could not have been foreseen completely by the most gifted of its begetters. . . . The case before us must be considered in the light of our whole experience and not merely in that of what was said a hundred years ago.’ Nor is it helpful to attempt to draw a fine distinction between the intended meaning of the words of the Constitution and their intended application. . . . With a growing recognition of public needs and the relation of individual right to public security, the court has sought to prevent the perversion of the clause through its use as an instrument to throttle the capacity of the States to protect their fundamental interests. This development is a growth from the seeds which the fathers planted. . . . The principle of this development is, as we have seen, that the reservation of the reasonable exercise of the protective power of the State is read into all contracts. . . . Applying the criteria established by our decisions, we conclude: 1. An emergency existed in Minnesota which furnished a proper occasion for the exercise of the reserved power of the State to protect the vital interests of the community. . . . 2. The legislation was addressed to a legitimate end; that is, the legislation was not for the mere advantage of particular individuals but for the protection of a basic interest of society. 3. In view of the nature of the contracts in question—mortgages of unquestionable validity—the relief afforded and justified by the emergency, in order not to contravene the constitutional provision, could only be of a character appropriate to that emergency, and could be granted only upon reasonable conditions. 4. The conditions upon which the period of redemption is extended do not appear to be unreasonable. . . . As already noted, the integrity of the mortgage indebtedness is not impaired; interest continues to run; the validity of the sale and the right of a mortgagee-purchaser to title or to obtain a deficiency judgment, if the mortgagor fails to redeem within the extended period, are maintained; and the conditions of redemption, if redemption there be, stand as they were under the prior law. The mortgagor during the extended period is not ousted from possession, but he must pay the rental value of the premises as ascertained in judicial proceedings and this amount is applied to the carrying of the property and to interest upon the indebtedness. The mortgagee-purchaser during the time that he cannot obtain possession thus is not left without compensation for the withholding of possession. Also important is the fact that mortgagees, as is shown by official reports of which we may take notice, are predominantly corporations, such as insurance companies, banks, and investment and mortgage companies. These, and such individual mortgagees as are small investors, are not seeking homes or the opportunity to engage in farming. Their chief concern is the reasonable protection of their investment security. It does not matter that there are, or may be, individual cases of another aspect. The Legislature was entitled to deal with the general or typical situation. The relief afforded by the statute has regard to the interest of mortgagees as well as to the interest of mortgagors. The legislation seeks to prevent the impending ruin of both by a considerate measure of relief. . . . 5. The legislation is temporary in operation. It is limited to the exigency which called it forth. While the postponement of the period of redemption from the foreclosure sale is to May 1, 1935, that period may be reduced by the order of the court under the statute, in case of a change in circumstances, and the operation of the statute itself could not validly outlast the emergency or be so extended as virtually to destroy the contracts. We are of the opinion that the Minnesota statute as here applied does not violate the contract clause of the Federal Constitution. Whether the legislation is wise or unwise as a matter of policy is a question with which we are not concerned. What has been said on that point is also applicable to the contention presented under the due process clause. Nor do we think that the statute denies to the appellant the equal protection of the laws. The classification which the statute makes cannot be said to be an arbitrary one. The judgment of the Supreme Court of Minnesota is affirmed. . . . Mr. Justice Sutherland, dissenting. Few questions of greater moment than that just decided have been submitted for judicial inquiry during this generation. He simply closes his eyes to the necessary implications of the decision who fails to see in it the potentiality of future gradual but ever-advancing encroachments upon the sanctity of private and public contracts. . . . A provision of the Constitution, it is hardly necessary to say, does not admit of two distinctly opposite interpretations. It does not mean one thing at one time and an entirely different thing at another time. If the contract impairment clause, when framed and adopted, meant that the terms of a contract for the payment of money could not be altered *in invitum* [by force of law, irrespective of consent] by a state statute enacted for the relief of hardly pressed debtors to the end and with the effect of postponing payment or enforcement during and because of an economic or financial emergency, it is but to state the obvious to say that it means the same now. This view, at once so rational in its application to the written word, and so necessary to the stability of constitutional principles, though from time to time challenged, has never, unless recently, been put within the realm of doubt by the decisions of this court. . . . Chief Justice Taney, in *Scott v. Sandford*, said that, while the Constitution remains unaltered, it must be construed now as it was understood at the time of its adoption; that it is not only the same in words but the same in meaning, “and as long as it continues to exist in its present form, it speaks not only in the same words, but with the same meaning and intent with which it spoke when it came from the hands of its framers, and was voted on and adopted by the people of the United States. Any other rule of construction would abrogate the judicial character of this court, and make it the mere reflex of the popular opinion or passion of the day.” . . . The provisions of the Federal Constitution, undoubtedly, are pliable in the sense that in appropriate cases they have the capacity of bringing within their grasp every new condition which falls within their meaning.\(^1\) But, their meaning is changeless; it is only their application which is extensible. Constitutional grants of power and restrictions upon the exercise of power are not flexible as the doctrines of the common law are flexible. These doctrines, upon the principles of the common law itself, modify or abrogate themselves whenever they are or whenever they become plainly unsuited to different or changed conditions. . . . The whole aim of construction, as applied to a provision of the Constitution, is to discover the meaning, to ascertain and give effect to the intent of its framers and the people who adopted it. The necessities which gave rise to the provision, the controversies which preceded, as well as the conflicts of opinion which were settled by its adoption, are matters to be considered to enable us to arrive at a correct result. The history of the times, the state of things existing when the provision was framed and adopted should be looked to in order to ascertain the mischief and the remedy. As nearly as possible we should place ourselves in the condition of those who framed and adopted it. And, if the meaning be at all doubtful, the doubt should be resolved, wherever reasonably possible to do so, in a way to forward the evident purpose with which the provision was adopted. An application of these principles to the question under review removes any doubt, if otherwise there would be any, that the contract impairment clause denies to the several states the power to mitigate hard consequences resulting to debtors from financial or economic exigencies by an impairment of the obligation of contracts of indebtedness. A candid consideration of the history and circumstances which led up to and accompanied the framing and adoption of this clause will demonstrate conclusively that it was framed and adopted with \(^1\) In such cases it is no more necessary to modify constitutional rules to govern new conditions than it is to create new words to describe them. The commerce clause is a good example. When that was adopted, its application was necessarily confined to the regulation of the primitive methods of transportation then employed; but railroads, automobiles, and aircraft automatically were brought within the scope and subject to the terms of the commerce clause the moment these new means of transportation came into existence, just as they were at once brought within the meaning of the word “carrier,” as defined by the dictionaries. the specific and studied purpose of preventing legislation designed to relieve debtors *especially* in time of financial distress. Indeed, it is not probable that any other purpose was definitely in the minds of those who composed the framers’ convention or the ratifying state conventions which followed, although the restriction has been given a wider application . . . If it be possible by resort to the testimony of history to put any question of constitutional intent beyond the domain of uncertainty, the foregoing leaves no reasonable ground upon which to base a denial that the clause of the Constitution now under consideration was meant to foreclose state action impairing the obligation of contracts *primarily and especially* in respect of such action aimed at giving relief to debtors *in time of emergency*. And, if further proof be required to strengthen what already is inexpugnable, such proof will be found in the previous decisions of this court. . . . . . . The present exigency is nothing new. From the beginning of our existence as a nation, periods of depression, of industrial failure, of financial distress, of unpaid and unpayable indebtedness, have alternated with years of plenty. The vital lesson that expenditure beyond income begets poverty, that public or private extravagance, financed by promises to pay, either must end in complete or partial repudiation or the promises be fulfilled by self-denial and painful effort, though constantly taught by bitter experience, seems never to be learned; and the attempt by legislative devices to shift the misfortune of the debtor to the shoulders of the creditor without coming into conflict with the contract impairment clause has been persistent and oft-repeated. The defense of the Minnesota law is made upon grounds which were discountenanced by the makers of the Constitution and have many times been rejected by this Court. That defense should not now succeed because it constitutes an effort to overthrow the constitutional provision by an appeal to facts and circumstances identical with those which brought it into existence. With due regard for the processes of logical thinking, it legitimately cannot be urged that conditions which produced the rule may now be invoked to destroy it. . . . The Minnesota statute either impairs the obligation of contracts or it does not. If it does not, the occasion to which it relates becomes immaterial, since then the passage of the statute is the exercise of a normal, unrestricted, state power and requires no special occasion to render it effective. If it does, the emergency no more furnishes a proper occasion for its exercise than if the emergency were nonexistent. And so, while, in form, the suggested distinction seems to put us forward in a straight line, in reality it simply carries us back in a circle, like bewildered travelers lost in a wood, to the point where we parted company with the view of the state court. If what has now been said is sound, as I think it is, we come to what really is the vital question in the case: Does the Minnesota statute constitute an impairment of the obligation of the contract now under review? In answering that question, we must first of all distinguish the present legislation from those statutes which, although interfering in some degree with the terms of contracts, or having the effect of entirely destroying them, have nevertheless been sustained as not impairing the obligation of contracts in the constitutional sense. Among these statutes are such as affect the remedy merely. . . . It is quite true also that “the reservation of essential attributes of sovereign power is also read into contracts”; and that the Legislature cannot “bargain away the public health or the public morals.” General statutes to put an end to lotteries, the sale or manufacture of intoxicating liquors, the maintenance of nuisances, to protect the public safety, etc., although they have the indirect effect of absolutely destroying private contracts previously made in contemplation of a continuance of the state of affairs then in existence but subsequently prohibited, have been uniformly upheld as not violating the contract impairment clause. The distinction between legislation of that character and the Minnesota statute, however, is readily observable. It may be demonstrated by an example. A, engaged in the business of manufacturing intoxicating liquor within a state, makes a contract, we will suppose, with B to manufacture and deliver at a stipulated price and at some date in the future a quantity of whisky. Before the day arrives for the performance of the contract, the state passes a law prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor. The contract immediately falls because its performance has ceased to be lawful. . . . By such legislation the obligation is not impaired in the constitutional sense. The contract is frustrated—it disappears in virtue of an implied condition to that effect read into the contract itself. [Here, by contrast, this] contract was lawful when made; and it has never been anything else. What the Legislature has done is to pass a statute which does not have the effect of frustrating the contract by rendering its performance unlawful, but one which, at the election of one of the parties, postpones for a time the effective enforcement of the contractual obligation, notwithstanding the obligation, under the exact terms of the contract, remains lawful and possible of performance after the passage of the statute as it was before. . . . We come back, then, directly, to the question of impairment. As to that, the conclusion reached by the court here seems to be that the relief afforded by the statute does not contravene the constitutional provision because it is of a character appropriate to the emergency and allowed upon what are said to be reasonable conditions. . . . [W]hether the statute operated directly upon the contract or indirectly by modifying the remedy, its effect was to extend the period of redemption absolutely for a period of sixteen days, and conditionally for a period of two years. That this brought about a substantial change in the terms of the contract reasonably cannot be denied. [And however reasonable the] contingencies may be, the statute denies appellant for a period of two years the ownership and possession of the property—an asset which, in any event, is of substantial character, and which possibly may turn out to be of great value. The statute, therefore, is not merely a modification of the remedy; it effects a material and injurious change in the obligation. The legally enforceable right of the creditor when the statute was passed was, at once upon default of redemption, to become the fee-simple owner of the property. . . . A statute which materially delays enforcement of the mortgagee’s contractual right of ownership and possession does not modify the remedy merely; it destroys, for the period of delay, all remedy so far as the enforcement of that right is concerned. The phrase “obligation of a contract” in the constitutional sense imports a legal duty to perform the specified obligation of that contract, not to substitute and perform, against the will of one of the parties, a different, albeit equally valuable, obligation. And a state, under the contract impairment clause, has no more power to accomplish such a substitution than has one of the parties to the contract against the will of the other. . . . I quite agree with the opinion of the Court that whether the legislation under review is wise or unwise is a matter with which we have nothing to do. Whether it is likely to work well or work ill presents a question entirely irrelevant to the issue. The only legitimate inquiry we can make is whether it is constitutional. If it is not, its virtues, if it have any, cannot save it; if it is, its faults cannot be invoked to accomplish its destruction. If the provisions of the Constitution be not upheld when they pinch as well as when they comfort, they may as well be abandoned. Being unable to reach any other conclusion than that the Minnesota statute infringes the constitutional restriction under review, I have no choice but to say so. I am authorized to say that Mr. Justice Van Devanter, Mr. Justice McReynolds, and Mr. Justice Butler concur in this opinion. --- "My dear Sutherland," wrote Brandeis on the proofs of Sutherland's dissent. "This is one of the great opinions in American constitutional law. Regretfully, I adhere to my error." Was Brandeis's assessment of the opinion correct? Was he right to adhere to his "error"? --- **Nebbia v. New York** Supreme Court of the United States, 1934. 291 U.S. 502. Mr. Justice Roberts delivered the opinion of the Court. The Legislature of New York established by chapter 158 of the Laws of 1933, a Milk Control Board with power, among other things to "fix minimum and maximum . . . retail prices to be charged by . . . stores to consumers for consumption off the premises where sold." The Board fixed nine cents as the price to be charged by a store for a quart of milk. Nebbia, the proprietor of a grocery store in Rochester, sold two quarts and a 5-cent loaf of bread for 18 cents; and was convicted for violating the Board's order. At his trial he asserted the statute and order contravene the equal protection clause and the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and renewed the contention in successive appeals to the county court and Court of Appeals. Both overruled his claim and affirmed the conviction. The question for decision is whether the Federal Constitution prohibits a state from so fixing the selling price of milk. We first inquire as to the occasion for the legislation and its history. During 1932 the prices received by farmers for milk were much below the cost of production. The decline in prices during 1931 and 1932 was much greater than that of prices generally. The situation of the families of dairy producers had become desperate and called for state aid similar to that afforded the unemployed, if conditions should not improve. . . . [A joint legislative committee was created to investigate the milk industry and conducted an extensive inquiry, culminating in a lengthy and detailed report.] The conscientious effort and thoroughness exhibited by the report lend weight to the committee’s conclusions. In part those conclusions are: 1. Milk is an essential item of diet. It cannot long be stored. . . . Failure of producers to receive a reasonable return for their labor and investment over an extended period threaten a relaxation of vigilance against contamination. 2. The production and distribution of milk is a paramount industry of the state, and largely affects the health and prosperity of its people. Dairying yields fully one-half of the total income from all farm products. . . . Curtailment or destruction of the dairy industry would cause a serious economic loss to the people of the state. 3. In addition to the general price decline, other causes for the low price of milk include a periodic increase in the number of cows and in milk production, the prevalence of unfair and destructive trade practices in the distribution of milk, leading to a demoralization of prices in the metropolitan area and other markets, and the failure of transportation and distribution charges to be reduced in proportion to the reduction in retail prices for milk and cream. . . . The Legislature adopted chapter 158 as a method of correcting the evils, which the report of the committee showed could not be expected to right themselves through the ordinary play of the forces of supply and demand, owing to the peculiar and uncontrollable factors affecting the industry. . . . [The] question is whether, in the light of the conditions disclosed, the enforcement of [the act] denied the appellant the due process secured to him by the Fourteenth Amendment. . . . Under our form of government the use of property and the making of contracts are normally matters of private and not of public concern. The general rule is that both shall be free of governmental interference. But neither property rights, e.g., *Munn v. Illinois* (1877), nor contract rights, e.g., *Allgeyer v. Louisiana* (1897), are absolute; for government cannot exist if the citizen may at will use his property to the detriment of his fellows, or exercise his freedom of contract to work them harm. Equally fundamental with the private right is that of the public to regulate it in the common interest. . . . Thus has this court from the early days affirmed that the power to promote the general welfare is inherent in government. Touching the matters committed to it by the Constitution the United States possesses the power, as do the states in their sovereign capacity touching all subjects jurisdiction of which is not surrendered to the federal government, as shown by the quotations above given. These correlative rights, that of the citizen to exercise exclusive dominion over property and freely to contract about his affairs, and that of the state to regulate the use of property and the conduct of business, are always in collision. No exercise of the private right can be imagined which will not in some respect, however slight, affect the public; no exercise of the legislative prerogative to regulate the conduct of the citizen which will not to some extent abridge his liberty or affect his property. But subject only to constitutional restraint the private right must yield to the public need. The Fifth Amendment, in the field of federal activity, and the Fourteenth, as respects state action, do not prohibit governmental regulation for the public welfare. They merely condition the exertion of the admitted power, by securing that the end shall be accomplished by methods consistent with due process. And the guaranty of due process, as has often been held, demands only that the law shall not be unreasonable, arbitrary, or capricious, and that the means selected shall have a real and substantial relation to the object sought to be attained. It results that a regulation valid for one sort of business, or in given circumstances, may be invalid for another sort, or for the same business under other circumstances, because the reasonableness of each regulation depends upon the relevant facts. The reports of our decisions abound with cases in which the citizen, individual or corporate, has vainly invoked the Fourteenth Amendment in resistance to necessary and appropriate exertion of the police power. The court has repeatedly sustained curtailment of enjoyment of private property, in the public interest. The owner’s rights may be subordinated to the needs of other private owners whose pursuits are vital to the paramount interests of the community. The state may control the use of property in various ways; may prohibit advertising bill boards except of a prescribed size and location, or their use for certain kinds of advertising; may in certain circumstances authorize encroachments by party walls in cities; may fix the height of buildings, the character of materials, and methods of construction, the adjoining area which must be left open, and may exclude from residential sections offensive trades, industries and structures likely injuriously to affect the public health or safety; or may establish zones within which certain types of buildings or businesses are permitted and others excluded. . . . [Citations omitted.] Laws passed for the suppression of immorality, in the interest of health, to secure fair trade practices, and to safeguard the interests of depositors in banks, have been found consistent with due process.\(^{24}\) These measures not only affected the use of private property, but also interfered with the right of private contract. Other instances are numerous where valid regulation has restricted the right of contract, while less directly affecting property rights.\(^{25}\) The Constitution does not guarantee the unrestricted privilege to engage in a business or to conduct it as one pleases. Certain kinds of business may be prohibited,\(^{26}\) and the right to conduct a business, or to pursue a calling, may \(^{24}\) [See, e.g., a string of cases] [f]orbidding transmission of lottery tickets; transportation of prize fight films; the shipment of adulterated food; transportation of women for immoral purposes; transportation of intoxicating liquor; requiring the public weighing of grain; regulating the size and weight of loaves of bread; regulating the size and character of packages in which goods are sold; regulating sales in bulk of a stock in trade; sales of stocks and bonds; requiring fluid milk offered for sale to be tuberculin tested; regulating sales of grain by actual weight, and abrogating exchange rules to the contrary; subjecting state banks to assessments for a state depositors’ guarantee fund. \(^{25}\) [See, e.g., a string of cases] [p]rescribing hours of labor in particular occupations; prohibiting child labor; forbidding night work by women; reducing hours of labor for women; fixing the time for payment of seamen’s wages; of wages of railroad employees; regulating the redemption of store orders issued for wages; regulating the assignment of wages; requiring payment for coal mined on a fixed basis other than that usually practiced; establishing a system of compulsory workmen’s compensation. \(^{26}\) [See, e.g., a string of cases prohibiting] [s]ales of stock or grain on margin; the conduct of pool and billiard rooms by aliens; the conduct of billiard and pool rooms by anyone; the sale of liquor; the business of soliciting claims by one not an attorney; manufacture or sale of oleomargarine; hawking and peddling of drugs or medicines; forbidding any other than a corporation to engage in the business of receiving deposits, or any other than corporations to do a banking business. be conditioned.\textsuperscript{27} Regulation of a business to prevent waste of the state’s resources may be justified. And statutes prescribing the terms upon which those conducting certain businesses may contract, or imposing terms if they do enter into agreements, are within the state’s competency.\textsuperscript{29} The milk industry in New York has been the subject of long-standing and drastic regulation in the public interest. The legislative investigation of 1932 was persuasive of the fact that for this and other reasons unrestricted competition aggravated existing evils and the normal law of supply and demand was insufficient to correct maladjustments detrimental to the community. . . . In the light of the facts the order appears not to be unreasonable or arbitrary, or without relation to the purpose to prevent ruthless competition from destroying the wholesale price structure on which the farmer depends for his livelihood, and the community for an assured supply of milk. But we are told that because the law essays to control prices it denies due process. Notwithstanding the admitted power to correct existing economic ills by appropriate regulation of business . . . the appellant urges that . . . the public control of rates or prices is \textit{per se} unreasonable and unconstitutional, save as applied to businesses affected with a public interest. [He further claims] that a business so affected is one in which property is devoted to an enterprise of a sort which the public itself might appropriately undertake, or one whose owner relies on a public grant or franchise for the right to conduct the business, or in which he is bound to serve all who apply; in short, such as is commonly called a public utility; or a business in its nature a monopoly. The milk industry, it is said, possesses none of these characteristics, and, therefore, not being affected with a public interest, its charges may not be controlled by the state. . . . The true interpretation of [our prior precedents] is claimed to be that only property voluntarily devoted to a known public use is subject to regulation as to rates. But obviously [the business owners in those earlier cases] had not voluntarily dedicated their business to a public use. They intended only to conduct it as private citizens, and they insisted that they had done nothing which gave the public an interest in their transactions or conferred any right of regulation. \textsuperscript{27} [See, \textit{e.g.}, a string of cases regulating] [p]hysicians; dentists; employment agencies; public weighers of grain; real estate brokers; insurance agents; insurance companies; the sale of cigarettes; the sale of spectacles; private detectives; grain brokers; business of renting automobiles to be used by the renter upon the public streets. \textsuperscript{29} [See, \textit{e.g.}, a string of cases regulating] [c]ontracts of carriage; agreements substituting relief or insurance payments for actions for negligence; affecting contracts of insurance; contracts for sale of real estate; contracts for sale of farm machinery; bonds for performance of building contracts. The statement that one has dedicated his property to a public use is, therefore, merely another way of saying that if one embarks in a business which public interest demands shall be regulated, he must know regulation will ensue. . . . It is clear that there is no closed class or category of businesses affected with a public interest, and the function of courts in the application of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments is to determine in each case whether circumstances vindicate the challenged regulation as a reasonable exertion of governmental authority or condemn it as arbitrary or discriminatory. The phrase “affected with a public interest” can, in the nature of things, mean no more than that an industry, for adequate reason, is subject to control for the public good. In several of the decisions of this court wherein the expressions “affected with a public interest,” and “clothed with a public use,” have been brought forward . . . , it has been admitted that they are not susceptible of definition and form an unsatisfactory test of the constitutionality of legislation directed at business practices or prices. These decisions must rest, finally, upon the basis that the requirements of due process were not met because the laws were found arbitrary in their operation and effect. But there can be no doubt that upon proper occasion and by appropriate measures the state may regulate a business in any of its aspects, including the prices to be charged for the products or commodities it sells. . . . So far as the requirement of due process is concerned, and in the absence of other constitutional restriction, a state is free to adopt whatever economic policy may reasonably be deemed to promote public welfare, and to enforce that policy by legislation adapted to its purpose. The courts are without authority either to declare such policy, or, when it is declared by the legislature, to override it. If the laws passed are seen to have a reasonable relation to a proper legislative purpose, and are neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, the requirements of due process are satisfied. . . . Times without number we have said that the Legislature is primarily the judge of the necessity of such an enactment, that every possible presumption is in favor of its validity, and that though the court may hold views inconsistent with the wisdom of the law, it may not be annulled unless palpably in excess of legislative power. . . . The Constitution does not secure to any one liberty to conduct his business in such fashion as to inflict injury upon the public at large, or upon any substantial group of the people. Price control, like any other form of regulation, is unconstitutional only if arbitrary, discriminatory, or demonstrably irrelevant to the policy the Legislature is free to adopt, and hence an unnecessary and unwarranted interference with individual liberty. . . . Mr. Justice McReynolds, joined by Justices Van Devanter, Mr. Justice Sutherland, and Mr. Justice Butler, dissenting. . . . [W]e are told [the committee found that] the number of dairy cows had been increasing and that favorable prices for milk bring more cows. For two years notwithstanding low prices the per capita consumption had been falling. “The obvious cause is the reduced buying power of consumers.” Notwithstanding the low prices, farmers continued to produce a large surplus of wholesome milk for which there was no market. . . . The exigency is of the kind which inevitably arises when one set of men continue to produce more than all others can buy. The distressing result to the producer followed his ill-advised but voluntary efforts. Similar situations occur in almost every business. . . . The argument advanced here would support general prescription of prices for farm products, groceries, shoes, clothing, all the necessities of modern civilization, as well as labor, when some Legislature finds and declares such action advisable and for the public good. This Court has declared that a state may not by legislative fiat convert a private business into a public utility. [Citations omitted.] And if it be now ruled that one dedicates his property to public use whenever he embarks on an enterprise which the Legislature may think it desirable to bring under control, this is but to declare that rights guaranteed by the Constitution exist only so long as supposed public interest does not require their extinction. To adopt such a view, of course, would put an end to liberty under the Constitution. . . . The painstaking effort [in earlier cases] to point out that certain businesses like ferries, mills, etc., were subject to legislative control at common law and then to show that warehousing at Chicago occupied like relation to the public would have been pointless if “affected with a public interest” only means that the public has serious concern about the perpetuity and success of the undertaking. That is true of almost all ordinary business affairs. Nothing in the opinion lends support, directly or otherwise to the notion that in times of peace a legislature may fix the price of ordinary commodities—grain, meat, milk, cotton, etc. . . . [P]lainly, I think, this Court must have regard to the wisdom of the enactment. At least, we must inquire concerning its purpose and decide whether the means proposed have reasonable relation to something within legislative power—whether the end is legitimate, and the means appropriate. If a statute to prevent conflagrations, should require householders to pour oil on their roofs as a means of curbing the spread of fire when discovered in the neighborhood, we could hardly uphold it. Here, we find direct interference with guaranteed rights defended upon the ground that the purpose was to promote the public welfare by increasing milk prices at the farm. Unless we can affirm that the end proposed is proper and the means adopted have reasonable relation to it, this action is unjustifiable. . . . An end although apparently desirable cannot justify inhibited means. . . . The Legislature cannot lawfully destroy guaranteed rights of one man with the prime purpose of enriching another, even if for the moment, this may seem advantageous to the public. And the adoption of any ‘concept of jurisprudence’ which permits facile disregard of the Constitution as long interpreted and respected will inevitably lead to its destruction. Then, all rights will be subject to the caprice of the hour; government by stable laws will pass. . . . Bear in mind that Roberts wrote his broad opinion upholding state regulation in *Nebbia* free of any of the external pressure that was brought to bear on the Court three years later. Nevertheless, in *Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton R.R. Co.* (1935), he joined the four conservatives to invalidate the Railroad Retirement Act, passed by the New Deal Congress, in part on the ground that it violated the Fifth Amendment’s due process clause.\(^d\) Requiring retirement for railroad employees at age 65, the statute set up a pension scheme financed by compulsory contributions from both the carriers and their employees. Roberts, writing for the majority, found a plethora of reasons why various facets of it were invalid. For example, morale did not seem likely to be improved by allowing a pension to all employees at 65, whatever the duration of their service; nor would the economy likely be aided by allowing a pension to all employees, even those younger than 65, retiring after 30 years of service. Hughes, joined by the three liberals, dissented. He was willing to admit that the inclusion in the act of allowances for employees already retired was arbitrary, but the other choices made by Congress were reasonable ones; any program, he pointed out, would present anomalies. \(^d\) Some of these materials are adapted from Richard Friedman, *Switching Time and Other Thought Experiments: The Hughes Court and Constitutional Transformation*, 142 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1891 (1994). Of much greater political significance, the next year the Court invalidated by the same 5–4 vote a New York statute that set a minimum wage for women. *Morehead v. New York* ex rel. *Tipaldo* (1936). Recall that in *Adkins v. Children’s Hospital* (1923), the Court had invalidated such a statute. Liberals hoped, however, that in an environment that changed greatly—politically, economically, and, given *Nebbia*, judicially—the Court would take a different view. The state attempted to distinguish *Adkins* on narrow grounds; the statute involved in *Adkins* had set the wage based on living costs necessary for health and, unlike the New York statute, did not take into account the reasonable value of the services. Stone, writing a dissent for the other two liberals and himself, said that *Adkins* should be overruled. Hughes dissented separately, without going quite as far, but leaving no doubt about his disdain for *Adkins*. Roberts, according to an account he later provided, found the ground of distinction offered by the state unpersuasive and said he would join any opinion that was based on the fact that the state had not asked for *Adkins* to be overruled and on the view that the two cases were not materially distinguishable. Apparently catering to Roberts, Butler began his opinion for the majority in that way. But, apparently in response to Stone, he added a portion expressing continued adherence to the principle of *Adkins*. And yet Roberts did not object. --- **For Discussion** (1) Citing *Nebbia*, Hughes’s dissent argued that freedom of contract “is a qualified and not an absolute right,” and that the question whether a statute invalidly encroaches on that freedom depends on whether the restraint is “arbitrary and capricious” rather than “reasonably required in order appropriately to serve the public interest.” Butler’s opinion for the majority never cited *Nebbia*. Why do you suppose that Roberts joined the majority? (2) Butler wrote for the majority that “any measure that deprives employers and adult women of freedom to agree on wages, leaving employers and men employees free to do so, is necessarily arbitrary.” Hughes responded: The Legislature finds that the employment of women and minors in trade and industry in the state of New York at wages unreasonably low and not fairly commensurate with the value of the services rendered is a matter of vital public concern; that many women and minors are not, as a class, upon a level of equality in bargaining with their employers in regard to minimum fair wage standards, and that “freedom of contract,” as applied to their relations with employers, is illusory; that, by reason of the necessity of seeking support for themselves and their dependents, they are forced to accept whatever wages are offered, and that, judged by any reasonable standard, wages in many instances are fixed by chance and caprice, and the wages accepted are often found to bear no relation to the fair value of the service. . . . In the factual brief, statistics are presented showing the increasing number of wage-earning women, and that women are in industry and in other fields of employment because they must support themselves and their dependents. Data are submitted, from reports of the Women’s Bureau of the United States Department of Labor, showing such discrepancies and variations in wages paid for identical work as to indicate that no relationship exists between the value of the services rendered and the wages paid. It also appears that working women are largely unorganized, and that their bargaining power is relatively weak. . . . Thus, the failure of overreaching employers to pay to women the wages commensurate with the value of services rendered has imposed a direct and heavy burden upon the taxpayers. Between Butler and Hughes, who do you think was right on this point? Tipaldo prompted a furious reaction, spreading far beyond the liberal camp. Meeting in convention the following week, the Republican party adopted a platform urging legislation (including minimum wage laws) to protect women and children laborers—pointedly adding that such laws were “within the Constitution as it now stands.” Alf Landon, soon to be the party’s presidential nominee, went so far as to say that he would favor a constitutional amendment authorizing minimum wage legislation if necessary. 2. Federal Power Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal stretched federal power in new directions, and this inevitably led to conflict with the Supreme Court. In January 1935, in Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan (1935), with only Cardozo dissenting, the Court invalidated one provision of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 that authorized the President to bar the shipment in interstate commerce of “hot oil”—that is, oil produced or withdrawn from storage in excess of state limitations. The decision was a narrow one, based on the perception that Congress had made an uncontrolled delegation of power to the President. Hughes, writing for the majority, expressed particular concern that the statute did not state a standard or policy to guide or limit the President, nor did it require him to make formal findings justifying his action. Litigation in the so-called *Gold Clause Cases* was far more closely followed, because their potential consequences were so immediate and so enormous. In 1934, Congress, in an attempt to combat disastrous deflation, had lowered the value of the dollar against gold. But many contracts, both public and private, had specified that payment would be in a set amount of gold or in the currency equivalent. If this “gold clause” were given effect, a debtor whose income was in devalued dollars would have to discharge the obligation in pre-devaluation dollars. Even before devaluation, in 1933, Congress passed a resolution declaring the gold clause void against public policy. But the validity of that resolution would remain in doubt until the Supreme Court acted. The cases presenting the issue created tremendous tension in early 1935, and it appears that the President—for the first time in history—was prepared (at least in anticipation) to disobey an order of the Supreme Court. But by a 5–4 vote—Hughes writing for the majority against the four conservatives—the Court declined to grant relief for those claiming under the clause. Two of the cases involved private contracts, and for the majority this was relatively easy: Contracts, however express, cannot fetter the constitutional authority of the Congress. . . . To subordinate the exercise of the federal authority to the continuing operation of previous contracts would be to place, to this extent, the regulation of interstate commerce in the hands of private individuals . . . . *Norman v. Baltimore & Ohio R.R.* (1935). But one of the cases involved a federal obligation—a $10,000 bond with a gold clause—that the owner had not presented until after devaluation. *Perry v. United States* (1935). The Court emphatically held that the government’s power over the monetary system did not entitle it to abrogate its own promise. But then, in a surprising turn, Hughes wrote that Perry had “not shown, or attempted to show, that in relation to buying power he has sustained any loss whatever.” Indeed, payment of the amount Perry demanded would be “an unjust enrichment,” and so there were no actual damages. Victory for the Government. “[T]he impending moral and legal chaos is appalling,” wrote McReynolds in dissent. He closed his oral presentation by proclaiming: “As for the Constitution, it does not seem too much to say that it is gone. Shame and humiliation are upon us now!” **FOR DISCUSSION** Suppose that before the *Blaisdell* decision in January 1934, President Roosevelt had unveiled a proposal to pack the Court with six additional members, and that the debate over the plan lasted until after the *Gold Clause* decisions. Would it not have been obvious that the votes of Hughes and Roberts in *Blaisdell*, *Nebbia*, and the *Gold Clause Cases* resulted from the political pressure created by the President’s plan and, with respect to the *Gold Clause Cases*, by the thumping Democratic victory in the 1934 elections? The *Gold Clause Cases* were virtually the only major victory the Court gave the Roosevelt Administration before 1937. We have already seen the due process side of the *Alton* case, which invalidated the Railroad Retirement Act. Justice Roberts’s opinion for the majority also held that the Act “really and essentially related solely to the social welfare of the worker” rather than to the regulation of interstate commerce. Joined by the liberals, Chief Justice Hughes dissented from this holding as well; they believed that, by improving morale and avoiding superannuation, the Act might reasonably improve the efficiency of the railroads, and that in any event Congress could decide that “industry should take care of its human wastage, whether that is due to accident [as in workers’ compensation laws] or age.” Three weeks after *Alton*, the Court unanimously decided against the government in the “Sick Chicken” case, *Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States* (1935). Section 3 of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) had authorized the President, on application by a trade group, to promulgate a “code of fair competition” for a particular industry. These codes, given the force of law, could specify unfair trade practices, prescribe wages, hours, and other employment conditions for the industry, and require collective bargaining. Writing for the Court, Hughes drew on his decision in *Panama Refining* to hold that this system—symbolized by the famous Blue Eagle of the National Recovery Administration—was improper delegation. Brandeis, who decades before had written a book called *The Curse of Bigness*, joined the opinion. Even Cardozo, who had dissented in *Panama Refining*, agreed with the conclusion. *CROSS REFERENCE* *Schechter* is presented at pp. 414–420. In a separate concurrence joined by Stone, Cardozo wrote that Section 3’s delegation “is not canalized within banks that keep it from overflowing. It is unconfined and vagrant.” Not limited to a single act or defined by a standard, it provided “a roving commission to inquire into evils and upon discovery correct them.” If this conception should prevail, Congress could transfer its entire power over commerce to the Executive. “This,” Cardozo concluded, “is delegation running riot.” For Discussion (1) Suppose you were a lawyer in the New Deal Administration, working on the bill that became the NIRA. You foresaw the delegation problem. Could you have given any advice that might have avoided it? (2) The Communications Act of 1934 created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and authorized it to promulgate regulations that encouraged the larger and more effective use of radio “in the public interest, convenience, or necessity.” The Commission adopted regulations providing, in general, that no licenses could be granted to stations or applicants having specified relationships with radio networks. Were these regulations adopted pursuant to invalid delegation? The Supreme Court has sometimes said that there must be an “intelligible principle” governing delegation. Is there one here? *National Broadcasting Co. v. United States* (1943). But neither Hughes nor Cardozo stopped with discussion of delegation. The defendants in *Schechter*, slaughterhouse operators in Brooklyn, had been convicted of violating various sections of the Live Poultry Code, among them the wage and hours provisions; one of the counts charged them with having sold an unfit chicken. Both Hughes and Cardozo concluded that these activities were beyond Congress’s reach under the commerce power. That the Schechters purchased virtually all their chickens from out of state was irrelevant, Hughes explained, for the interstate movement ended when the chickens were brought to their slaughterhouses. Since the regulated transactions were therefore not in interstate commerce, the question then became whether they could be fairly considered to “affect” it. In deciding this question, Hughes claimed that, though “[t]he precise line can be drawn only as individual cases arise,” “there is a necessary and well-established distinction between direct and indirect effects.” And here, Hughes did not find such a direct relationship. He rejected out of hand the macro-economic argument that the effect of general wage stimulation on the national economy provided a sufficient nexus between the labor provisions and interstate commerce. Cardozo, far from indicating disagreement, declared that on the commerce question “little can be added to the opinion of the court.” Although he asserted that “[t]he law is not indifferent to considerations of degree,” this was an argument against the code. His test was in terms of the hard words “immediacy” and “directness”: “To find immediacy or directness here,” he declared, “is to find it almost everywhere.” The same day as *Schechter*, the Supreme Court handed down its decisions in two other cases that held much public interest. Like *Schechter*, both decisions held against the Administration, and both were unanimous. One of them was *Humphrey’s Executor v. United States* (1935), which upheld a statute that prevented the President from removing a member of the Federal Trade Commission except for cause. The other, *Louisville Joint Stock Land Bank v. Radford* (1935), written by Brandeis, held invalid a federal debtor-relief statute that was enacted under the bankruptcy power but that swept more broadly than the statute upheld in *Blaisdell*. The triple blow gave May 27, 1935, the enduring name “Black Monday.” Roosevelt criticized the Court sharply, referring at a press conference to its “horse-and-buggy age” conception of the Constitution. This comment brought a startlingly hostile reaction, even from liberals, and Roosevelt did not follow up on it; careful to avoid raising an unnecessary issue, he thereafter kept a virtual public silence on the Court until well after the election of 1936. Meanwhile, in its January 1936 decision in *United States v. Butler*, the Court held invalid central provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933, which remained a popular statute and a cornerstone of the New Deal. Aiming to restore farm prices hard hit by the Depression to the levels they had occupied between 1909 and 1914, the Act operated simply and boldly. The government, through the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), boosted market prices by renting cultivable land, by purchasing surpluses, and by making straight-out benefit payments to farmers in return for agreements not to produce. The funds to operate this program for any particular commodity were raised by a tax on the processors of that commodity. In court, the Administration justified the Act on the basis not of the Commerce Clause, but of the clause authorizing Congress “to lay and collect taxes, . . . to pay the debts and provide for the . . . general Welfare of the United States.” Roberts, writing for the Court in an opinion joined by Hughes as well as the conservative foursome, rejected this argument. The statute’s taxes and appropriations, he held, were “but means to an unconstitutional end.” The federal government had no authority to regulate agriculture, and participation in the AAA program could not truly be considered voluntary—the threatened loss of benefits strong-armed farmers into participation. “This is coercion by economic pressure,” Roberts wrote. “The asserted power of choice is illusory.” Even if the program of benefits were not coercive, moreover, it would still be unconstitutional; since Congress could not enforce its commands on the farmer directly, it could not “indirectly accomplish these ends by taxing and spending to purchase compliance.” Stone, joined by the other two liberals, wrote a bitter and forceful dissent. He contended that the Act could not be deemed coercive, asserting that “[t]hreat of loss, not hope of gain, is the essence of economic coercion,” and pointing out that a substantial minority of farmers declined to participate in the program. And he contended that what the Court condemned as “purchased regulation” was merely the appropriate imposition of conditions on a public expenditure. Significantly, though Butler was an immediate defeat for the exercise of federal power, it laid the seeds for future expansions. The true meaning of the General Welfare Clause had never been definitively resolved. Madison had contended that Congress could tax and spend only in the exercise of other powers granted it; on the other hand, Hamilton, seconded by the later writings of Story, had contended that the grant was of a distinct substantive power limited only by the conception of “the General Welfare.” In Butler, at the urging of Hughes, Roberts emphatically endorsed the Hamilton-Story interpretation. For more on that, see p. 490. For Discussion (1) Which view of the General Welfare Clause do you believe is most persuasive? (2) Do you believe that the offer of payments to farmers in return for promises not to produce was coercive? (3) Assuming it was not coercive, should the Act have been held invalid as “purchased regulation”? The Court delivered one more blow in the spring of 1936. On May 18, Roberts joined the four conservatives in holding unconstitutional the Bituminous Coal Conservation Act of 1935. See *Carter v. Carter Coal Co.* (1936). Part of the Act used a complex tax-and-rebate mechanism to regulate labor conditions in bituminous coal mines. The majority, per Sutherland, held that these provisions were unconstitutional as a regulation of mining, which, of course, as a form of production had long been held to be a local activity rather than part of interstate commerce. Without considering the constitutionality of another portion of the Act—marketing provisions that regulated interstate coal prices—the majority held that the marketing provisions could not be severed from the labor provisions, and that the entire statute was therefore unenforceable. Hughes and the three liberals, by contrast, thought the marketing provisions were clearly constitutional, and enough to uphold the statute’s tax provisions and resolve the case. The liberals therefore did not address the labor provisions. Writing separately, Hughes expressed the view that one of the labor provisions, which gave private parties the ability to negotiate wage and hours standards binding throughout the industry, was unconstitutional on various grounds; in one conclusory sentence, he asserted that it went beyond any proper regulation of commerce. 3. 1937 Roosevelt won a huge landslide in November 1936, losing only in Maine and Vermont. The Democrats won large majorities in both houses. Pursuant to the 20th amendment, Roosevelt was inaugurated for his second term on January 20, 1937. On February 5, Roosevelt revealed a proposal to add one member of the Supreme Court, up to a maximum of six, for each Justice who did not retire within six months of his 70th birthday. While Roosevelt presented the plan as an attempt to improve the efficiency of the Court, nearly everyone realized that the plan was a blatant attempt to pack the Court with Justices with ideologies compatible with those of the President. Roosevelt began the battle in an extraordinarily powerful position. But the longer the plan sat in the Senate Judiciary Committee, the stronger resistance became. Meanwhile, the Court itself altered the political equation by issuing a flurry of significant liberal decisions. The first decision was the most important in political terms. In December 1936, the Court had heard argument in *West Coast Hotel v. Parrish*—another case involving a minimum wage statute for women under state law. Justice Stone was ill, and at conference the Justices divided evenly; Justice Roberts, who had voted with the conservatives in *Tipaldo*, now switched sides, for mysterious reasons. Because Stone’s views were well known, the Court held the case until his return, which occurred after the Court-packing battle began. When finally issued on March 29, the decision upheld the Washington statute against due process challenge, with the four conservative justices dissenting. Chief Justice Hughes’s opinion for the majority relied heavily on *Nebbia*’s declaration that regulations of private contracts satisfied due process so long as they “have a reasonable relation to a proper legislative purpose, and are neither arbitrary nor discriminatory.” The same day, the Court issued several pro-Government decisions, giving it the name “White Monday.” Two weeks later, on April 12, the Court upheld the National Labor Relations Act by a 5–4 vote in three companion cases, most notably *National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp* (1937). All three cases involved manufacturing companies; in each case, the held that labor relations in the workplace affected commerce sufficiently to justify regulation under the Commerce Clause. The Court’s decisions—especially *West Coast Hotel*—sapped some of the strength from the President’s drive for Court-packing. That drive suffered a double blow on May 18. First, Justice Van Devanter announced that he would retire in June, giving the President at least one vacancy to fill immediately without packing the Court. (While Van Devanter had already been eager to retire, Congress cut pensions for retiring Justices a few years earlier. On March 1, 1937, however, Congress passed a new law allowing Justices to retire at full pay.) Second, the Senate Judiciary Committee voted 10–8 to issue an adverse report on the President’s bill. When the Committee issued its report on June 14, the majority castigated the proposal as “a needless, futile and utterly dangerous abandonment of constitutional principle . . . without precedent or justification.” Lest there be any doubt of where it stood, the majority declared that the bill “should be so emphatically rejected that its parallel will never again be presented to the free representatives of a free people.” Meanwhile, on May 24, the Court issued a pair of decisions rejecting challenges to the Social Security Act of 1935. In the first, the Court held 7–2—with only McReynolds and Butler dissenting—that the payment of old-age benefits under the Act was a valid exercise of Congress’s power under the General Welfare Clause. *Helvering v. Davis* (1937). Referring to Roberts’s dictum in *United States v. Butler* adopting a broad conception of that power, Cardozo wrote for the majority: “We will not resurrect the contest. It is now settled by decision.” As for the contention that the benefit payments were too particular to be part of the “general welfare,” Cardozo wrote that the “nation-wide calamity” had shown “the solidarity of interests” of all the people, in this case in preventing fear of the poor house “when journey’s end is near.” In the second case, the Court upheld the Social Security Act’s more intricate unemployment relief program. *Steward Machine Co. v. Davis* (1937). Title IX of the Act levied a tax on employers but credited up to 90% of it for amounts contributed instead to qualifying state unemployment funds. Such contributions were paid over to a trust fund maintained by the Secretary of Treasury and were withdrawn by the states for unemployment compensation. The aim of this scheme was to encourage the states to set up their own unemployment programs without fear of placing themselves at a competitive disadvantage against other states that chose to do nothing. Again writing for the Court, Cardozo rejected the argument that the plan constituted improper coercion of the states. The Social Security cases were the last major decisions of the Court’s term. By now, many liberals were convinced that there was no need for Court-packing. Joseph T. Robinson, the Senate Majority Leader, still hoped to be nominated to a new vacancy, and some of his Senate colleagues were disposed to help him. But Robinson died suddenly on July 14, and Roosevelt soon realized that he had no hope of pushing even a modified bill through the Senate. That fall, his first appointee to the Court, Sen. Hugo Black of Alabama, took his seat in place of Van Devanter. This effectively moved the ideological center of the Court to the left of Roberts; Hughes did not dissent once during the 1937–38 term of the Court. Sutherland retired in 1938, and from then on, for more than three decades, the ideological center of the Court was to the left of the political center of the nation. 4. Denouement a. Individual Rights In April 1938, the Court decided *United States v. Carolene Products Co.* (1938). The decision upheld a federal statute banning the shipment in interstate commerce of “filled milk,” a product in which milk or milk products were blended with non-milk oils or fats. With Van Devanter and Sutherland no longer on the Court, there was not much doubt about the outcome; indeed, only McReynolds dissented. Among other objections to the Act, Carolene challenged the congressional judgment that filled milk was “an adulterated article of food, injurious to the public health.” That conclusion was indeed debatable; one view of the statute was that it was a successful attempt at protection by the dairy industry against cheaper competition. The Court was unmoved. Even in the absence of a legislative report, Justice Stone wrote, “the existence of facts supporting the legislative judgment is to be presumed, for regulatory legislation affecting ordinary commercial transactions is not to be pronounced unconstitutional unless, in the light of the facts made known or generally assumed, it is of such a character as to preclude the assumption that it rests upon some rational basis within the knowledge and experience of the legislators.” At this point, Stone dropped footnote 4 to his opinion, which over time became far more celebrated than the opinion itself: There may be narrower scope for operation of the presumption of constitutionality when legislation appears on its face to be within a specific prohibition of the Constitution, such as those of the first ten amendments, which are deemed equally specific when held to be embraced within the Fourteenth. . . . It is unnecessary to consider now whether legislation which restricts those political processes which can ordinarily be expected to bring about repeal of undesirable legislation is to be subjected to more exacting judicial scrutiny under the general prohibitions of the Fourteenth Amendment than are most other types of legislation. . . . Nor need we enquire whether similar considerations enter into the review of statutes directed at particular religious, or national, or racial minorities; whether prejudice against discrete and insular minorities may be a special condition, which tends seriously to curtail the operation of those political processes ordinarily to be relied upon to protect minorities, and which may call for a correspondingly more searching judicial inquiry. Stone tacked on the first paragraph of the footnote in an attempt to meet an objection stated by Hughes to the first draft, which suggested that “different considerations” might apply in different contexts. Hughes thought this unduly complicated matters. “Are the ‘considerations’ different,” he asked Stone, “or does the difference lie not in the test but in the nature of the right invoked?” He illustrated with one of the cases that Stone had cited, the Chief’s own recent opinion in *Lovell v. Griffin* (1938), a First Amendment case; there, he said, “the legislative action . . . is directly opposed to the constitutional guaranty and for that reason has no presumption to support it.” Stone replied that his focus had been on questions where the only guarantee invoked was the general one of due process. In an attempt to appease the Chief, though, he added the first paragraph, citing *Lovell* and another First Amendment opinion written by Hughes. This was not what Hughes intended, and it gives the footnote a rather awkward appearance. But the essence of the footnote, placed in the context of the text to which it is attached, remains: In some contexts, courts should be much less inclined to indulge a presumption of validity than when they are reviewing the “ordinary commercial transactions.” **For Discussion** (1) Is there a basis for making a distinction like the one drawn in Footnote Four? If so, did the Court identify the circumstances that might justify more exacting scrutiny? (2) Why do you suppose Stone incorporated this footnote, which was completely unnecessary for resolution of the case? Later in the book, we will devote substantial attention to the question of when (and how) the Court should apply the more exacting type of scrutiny indicated by Footnote 4. For now, however, we will just note how *un*-exacting the Court became with respect to regulations of the commercial marketplace. A classic illustration, from a Court still dominated by New Dealers a couple of decades later, is *Williamson v. Lee Optical Co.* (1955). In that case, the court considered a statute that, among other restrictions, required a prescription from an optometrist or ophthalmologist before an optician could fit old lenses into new frames. While recognizing that the legislation might be “needless and wasteful,” the Court held that it was “for the legislature, not the courts, to balance the advantages and disadvantages” of the requirement. **b. The Commerce Power** The New Deal Court continued to take an expansive view of Congress’s power under the Commerce Clause. The two most significant cases from the period shortly after the Court-packing crisis were *United States v. Darby* (1941) and *Wickard v. Filburn* (1942). In *Darby*, the Court overruled *Hammer v. Dagenhart* and upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set wage and hours requirements for employees in businesses affecting commerce, including workers in production. In *Wickard*, the Court upheld a regulation that effectively limited how much wheat a farmer could consume on the farm. These decisions raised the question of whether the Court would ever again hold that a federal statute exceeded Congress’s power over commerce; it did not do so until 1995. The constitutional framework that emerged from the historical developments we have traced remains familiar, in its overall outlines, in the current day. The national government has broad powers to regulate the national economy. States similarly have broad leeway to regulate their local commercial matters, including private economic relations. And yet on other issues, most notably when it comes to protecting politically vulnerable groups and guaranteeing certain rights, the principles adumbrated in Footnote 4 of *Carolene Products* lead courts to more actively constrain governmental actors. Much of constitutional law since the New Deal has concerned these matters. The rest of this book is organized along thematic, rather than chronological, lines. Here are some of the more significant constitutional developments over the last three-quarters of a century. - The Supreme Court took an active role in limiting racial discrimination; *Brown v. Board of Education* is the most notable decision in this area. - The Court developed a large body of doctrine applying principles of equal protection of law outside the context of racial discrimination, most notably in the area of sex discrimination. - The Court also protected what it regarded as fundamental rights of personal autonomy. Most notable in this line are decisions on abortion, same-sex intimacy, and same-sex marriages.
1f5554d8-800e-4493-a596-efe77d73fa89
CC-MAIN-2022-40
https://3668083.app.netsuite.com/core/media/media.nl?id=5060835&c=3668083&h=DDLClAjf6BwungUoLBF8XjkpylpouYiy_zQKKmqdxBJEOmjE&_xt=.pdf
2022-10-07T08:45:09+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030338001.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20221007080917-20221007110917-00640.warc.gz
105,825,431
75,110
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998193
eng_Latn
0.99872
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2212, 3678, 6247, 8895, 11202, 13860, 16546, 19267, 21964, 24441, 26641, 28665, 31404, 33889, 36584, 38767, 41085, 43302, 45447, 47687, 50202, 52925, 55169, 57222, 59744, 62328, 64717, 67065, 69244, 71847, 74484, 76276, 78423, 80433, 82872, 85267, 87169, 89621, 91850, 94086, 96655, 99342, 101792, 104176, 106704, 109403, 112090, 114377, 116729, 118495, 121079, 123898, 126167, 128462, 130925, 133029, 134863, 137187, 139634, 142309, 144845, 146500, 148701, 151311, 154016, 156440, 159101, 161589, 163451, 165712, 167393, 170099, 172720, 175281, 178133, 180943, 183589, 186171, 188687, 190784, 193312, 195071, 197577, 200417, 203187, 205440, 207899, 209885, 211709, 213607, 216342, 218509, 220851, 223167, 224944, 226992, 229208, 231871, 234564, 237061, 239629, 241811, 244064, 246177, 248305, 250774, 252560, 254400, 256726, 258675, 260989, 263702, 266014, 268207, 270001, 272211, 274343, 276883, 279216, 281603, 283854, 285966, 287884, 290443, 292446, 295117, 297877, 300618, 303210, 305742, 308266, 311314, 313433, 316139, 318823, 320914, 323117, 325727, 329310, 332465, 335233, 337945, 340469, 342963, 345303, 347923, 350474, 352922, 355249, 357512, 359474, 361631, 363827, 366006, 368399, 370313, 372335 ]
[ 2.140625, 1.0703125 ]
1
0
Basic Concepts in Ethics The chapter aims to initiate you into the world of morality, ethics and values, and help to understand them better. These abstract concepts need to be understood to formulate the objective of leading a satisfying and blissful life. *Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of moral standards and edicts that are intended to govern our behavior.* *Bottom line is individuals own perception about morality and ethics.* You may be able to distinguish between right and wrong actions based upon your experiences and beliefs. It is also true that your decisions are often based on your individual perceptions. The intention of this chapter is to enter the world of ethics by understanding the different aspects of human existence. Terminology Moral and Morality • The word moral is defined in the Oxford dictionary as “concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior” and “a lesson that can be derived from a story or experience”. • Morality on other hand is defined as: • Principle governing right and wrong and good and bad and so on • The degree to which something is right or wrong, good, bad, and so on. • A system of moral principles followed by particular group of people. "Slow and steady, wins the race." UNITED WE STAND; DIVIDED WE FALL THE GRAPES ARE SOUR If you try hard enough, you may soon find an answer to your problem THINK TWICE BEFORE YOU ACT Morality (Latin word *moralitas*), meaning manner, customs or proper behavior. It can be classified in 2 ways: - **Descriptive Morality**: in its simplest form it refers to moral code of conduct formulated by group of people (religious or otherwise). - **Normative morality**: it denotes by code of conduct but it specifies the conditions under which it is valid and considered acceptable by all rational people. **Morality synonyms with Ethics** Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the ethical codes required for moral behavior and is considered identical to morality. *OALD defines ethics as “the moral principles that control or influence a person’s behavior” or “a system of moral principles” or “rules of behavior”.* Ethics can be categorized as: - **Meta ethics**: deals with origin of ethical principles that govern the specification of right and wrong behavior. - **Descriptive Ethics**: people or society consider right or wrong. - **Normative Ethics**: behaviors are judged against moral conduct rules. - **Applied Ethics**: relates to controversial issue. Morality is simply a system for helping humans stay happy and alive. **Values**: beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is important to life. **Spirituality**: concerned with human spirit, rather than body or physical things, concerned with religion. It is said to refer to matters concerning the soul. Stakeholders In moral issues, the stakeholders include individuals, organizations, society, and religion and political entries for governance also have a say. - Individuals: 1) They make up organizations and the society. 2) Etiquettes, legal directions, religious edicts. • Organizations 1. Entities that employ groups of people such as company, an officer or an institution. 2. Organizations lay emphasis on certain codes of ethical conduct while others do not. 3. Inform or train employees to adhere to good conduct. 4. Salutary effect on the society in general. 5. Work ethics are important to implement efficiency at work and prevent corruption. Society 1. Individuals and organizations form part of the society. 2. Appropriate behavior in societal conduct evolves over time. 3. Dynamic system of code of conduct that changes with time. Lives are often governed by certain controlling edicts or orders implemented through religion, society or the constitution. - Religious Edicts (religion play an important role in shaping our behavior) • Social Edicts (acceptability behavior as per social or community standards) • E.g. Untouchability, village panchayat has power to dictate and enforce certain behavior codes amongst individuals. Constitutional Edicts (these are provisions granted by the constitution and the laws under its umbrella which give direction for appropriate behavior) Universality (moral or ethical norms and standards that are applicable universally) Personal ethics refer to those behavioral patterns that apply to individuals in their personal life. It is very difficult to make a list of all that is important. The following list may be taken as a sample and further expanded. - Refrain from causing harm to others by your actions. - Be benevolent or do good to others and the society as a whole. - Show concern for the well-being of others. - Respect individual freedom and accept that others have autonomy in their thinking and behavior, hence, refrain from imposing your will on others. - Ensure that justice is meted to all. - Respect the law willingly and voluntarily. Many ills in the society are caused by ignorance and lack of respect for the law of land. - Adopt and practice values such as honesty, integrity, trustworthiness and truthfulness. - Do not be opportunist and take unfair advantage of a situation. - Practice non-violence. - Provide service to the poor, or any disadvantaged individual also. Professional Ethics Depending upon the profession you are in, there are ethical codes related to that profession. - Openness is a desirable virtue in professionals. Transparency in all actions must be the motto. - You should be impartial while dealing with people and in your actions. It is a desirable attribute in professionals. - Be objective so that you are not influenced by any personal bias while taking decision. - Maintain confidentiality of the information available to you as a professional for the sake of organizational growth. - Carry out the work allotted diligently. - Make professional judgments impartially, showing innate sense of responsibility. - Be loyal, strong belongingness to organization. - Avoid situations leading to conflicts. Social Ethics Social ethics can be defined as a set of rules that is obeyed by the members of a community so as to maintain good community relations within the social order. - Social ethics is thus normative and not mandated by law. - It can be considered as the moral or ethical principles based on collective wisdom of the people. - These generally act as ethical codes to control the behavior of people. - Social ethics evolve over a period of time and depend on many factors such as language, ethnicity, gender and culture. - Social ethics vary widely with communities, countries and globally. Life skills also known as generic skills, core skills, employability skills or foundation skills, are skills that apply across a wide spectrum of functions and together with job related technical skills form the backbone of effective performance. Life skills are defined as the ability to solve problems on the personal and professional fronts. - Skills are the learned capacity which helps us to do a task effectively. - Skills are abilities to use know-how to complete tasks. - Skills are acquired through practice and patience. - A skilled person uses less time, energy and resources to do a job and produces quality results. - Skills are gained through school/college, work experiences, hobbies, books, elders, peers etc. “Life Skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life (WHO).” - Adaptive means that a person should have the flexibility to adjust according to the situation. - For positive behavior, a person needs to have positive thinking and look at opportunities even in difficult situations, in order to cope with the situation. Life skills Social skills - Communication - Interpersonal relationship - Empathy - Self awareness Thinking skills - Problem solving - Decision Making - Creativity - Critical thinking Emotional skills - Coping with stress - Coping with emotions Fig: Life skills given by WHO Self-Awareness • The ability to introspect, analyze and accept one’s thoughts, actions, and feelings; recognizing and acknowledging one’s needs and desires. • Ability to know our self: Our character, desires, likes, dislikes, and our strengths and weaknesses. • Developing self-awareness can help us to recognize when we are stressed or feel under pressure. It is also often a prerequisite for effective communication and interpersonal relations, as well as for developing empathy for others. Empathy - Is the ability to be sensitive to another person’s situation. - Is the ability to imagine what life is like for another person, even in a situation that we may not be familiar with. - Ability to imagine oneself in the shoes of someone else temporarily, i.e. a friend, parent or others and experiences their emotions, understand their concerns, worries, fears and needs and feeling. Empathy - Empathy is the ability to accept and understand others who are different from you. - Empathy encourages a positive behaviour towards people in need of care and assistance. - This skill works wonders when we apply it to our relationships with our loved ones, classmates, parents, friends, cousins and colleagues. - Finally it helps you to move closer to finding solutions, to resolve conflicts and enhance quality of life. Effective communication means that we are able to express ourselves, both verbally and non-verbally, in ways that are appropriate to our cultures and situations. Listening. Assertiveness. Interpersonal Relationship - Initiate and maintain positive relationships and de-link unconstructive relationships. - Interpersonal relationship skills help us to relate in positive ways with the people we interact with. Critical thinking - Ability to analyze information, experiences, situations and circumstances etc in an objective manner and rationally. - Recognizing and assessing factors influencing our attitude and behavior. - It is not merely criticizing. Creative thinking Ability to; - Think differently and out of the box - Look beyond our direct experience - Respond adaptively - Having flexibility to situations in daily life - Achieving the objectives in daily life situations Problem Solving - problem solving enables us to deal constructively with problems in our lives. - Significant problems that are left unresolved can cause mental stress and give rise to accompanying physical strain. - P - Identify / state the problem - O - Examine The Options - W - Weigh Each Option - E - Elect Best Option - R - Review and reflect Emotional skills Coping with Emotion - Recognizing emotions in ourselves and others - Being aware of how emotions influence behaviour, - Being able to respond to emotions appropriately. - Intense emotions, like anger or sorrow can have negative effects on our health if we do not react appropriately. Coping with Stress - Coping with stress is about recognizing the sources of stress in our lives, - Recognizing how this affects us, & - Acting in ways that help to control our levels of stress by changing our environment or lifestyle and learning how to relax so that tensions created by unavoidable stress do not give rise to health problems. Who is having Life Skills? & Who need Life Skills? Life Skills.... - Life Skills are present in every individual - To get the best out of them we need to sharpen them regularly. - Every individual needs Life Skills for healthy and positive ways of living Areas where Life Skills can be applied - Education - Sexual and Reproductive Health - HIV/AIDS - Violence Prevention / Conflict Resolution - Media Literacy - Substance abuse - Environmental issues - Career development - Marriage - Workplace
63fd308d-3b8a-421e-99c5-a1385a3c0b58
CC-MAIN-2021-21
http://dl.mcaclash.com/Basic-Concepts-in-Ethics.pdf
2021-05-13T11:54:18+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243989916.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20210513111525-20210513141525-00174.warc.gz
14,518,195
2,326
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.975997
eng_Latn
0.995135
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 774, 1246, 1433, 2172, 2835, 3114, 3498, 3693, 3896, 4094, 4331, 5299, 6059, 6660, 7389, 7811, 8090, 8587, 8981, 9415, 9606, 9830, 10076, 10306, 10659, 10963, 11309, 11361, 11567, 11810 ]
[ 3.0625 ]
1
0
2023 IMPACT REPORT ONE STEP AT A TIME LAND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT APPLE Schools would like to acknowledge the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit people in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, and the Northwest Territories, who share a history and deep connection with these lands where our team lives and works. We dedicate ourselves to moving forward in partnership with Indigenous communities in the spirit of reconciliation and collaboration. We acknowledge that building relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people is a work of the heart that requires a certain humbling to allow our hearts and minds to accept new and sometimes challenging information, and act on it through questioning privilege and transferring it to those who have less. The APPLE Schools team is committed to an ongoing reflection of our allyship as we move forward to create an inclusive, safe, and understanding country for all who live on this land. In the 2022-23 school year, APPLE Schools reached: - **32,167** total students - **2,377** new students - **3,509** staff - ~ **60,000** family members - **93** school communities - **3** provinces and **1** territory What is APPLE Schools? APPLE Schools is an innovative school-focused health promotion initiative. It improves the lives of ~30,000 students annually in 97 schools in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba and the Northwest Territories, as well as future plans to support schools in Ontario. The project supports healthy eating, physical activity, and mental health by implementing the comprehensive school health model, and is governed by a board of directors chaired by Dr. Lory Laing. APPLE Schools APPLE Ally Schools VISION Healthy Kids in Healthy Schools MISSION To inspire and empower school communities to lead, choose, and be healthy by recommending and supporting measurable and sustainable changes. Why do we need APPLE Schools? Rates of mental illness and obesity among children in Canada continue to rise, showing no signs of slowing down. Childhood obesity, which is associated with mortality and chronic disease, has increased by 30% in the last three decades.\(^1\) One in 5 children are affected by mental illness but only one receives the necessary support they need.\(^2\) APPLE Schools works with underserved school communities to provide early intervention for the development of lifelong learning and establishing healthy choices at a young age. Healthy kids learn better – students in APPLE schools show a 35% increase in physical activity, eat 10% more fruit and vegetables, and are 40% less likely to be obese than in comparison schools. APPLE Schools empowers students to make healthier food choices, engage in more physical activity, and nurture their self-esteem, ultimately paving the way for enhanced academic achievement and a better foundation of skills to cope with future challenges. --- 1. Government of Canada. “Obesity and Excess Weight Rates in Canadian Children.” Canada.ca. [https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/obesity-excess-weight-rates-canadian-children.html](https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/obesity-excess-weight-rates-canadian-children.html) (accessed October 24, 2023). 2. Government of Canada. “Childhood Obesity – Canada.ca.” Canada.ca. [https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/childhood-obesity/childhood-obesity.html](https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/childhood-obesity/childhood-obesity.html) (accessed October 24, 2023). 3. Canadian Mental Health Association. “Fast Facts about Mental Illness.” CMHA.ca. [https://cmha.ca/brochure/fast-facts-about-mental-illness/#_edn12](https://cmha.ca/brochure/fast-facts-about-mental-illness/#_edn12) (accessed October 24, 2023). Greetings from the Executive Director I am delighted to share with you the highlights and impact of the steps we took on our journey throughout the 2022-23 school year. As we reflect on the challenges of the past and the opportunities that lie ahead, one thing is clear: our commitment to health and well-being for students across the country remains stronger than ever. This year, we have witnessed remarkable growth and innovation within the team. While the pandemic still lingered in the background, we chose to focus on the resilience and tenacity of our exceptional team of school health mentors and champions. They have not only adapted to the changing landscape but have also continued to bring communities together through activities and experiences that ignite joy in students. Their steadfast commitment to our shared mission along with their continued engagement speaks volumes about the positive impact of APPLE Schools. And while I’m happy to speak about our achievements over this past year, I am also thrilled to share my excitement for the future. The coming year holds immense promise and opportunities for us to extend our reach to new geographical areas and schools, bringing our mission of promoting healthy lifestyles to even more students across the country. On behalf of the APPLE Schools team and our board of directors, thank you for your commitment to our cause. Our deepest gratitude goes out to our incredible donors whose unwavering support fuels our vision to make children healthier for life. Your belief in our mission drives us to strive for excellence every day. As we look ahead, we are excited about the opportunities that lie before us. Together, we’ll continue taking meaningful steps towards a healthier future for all. Jenn Flynn, Executive Director The most compelling testament to the project’s success comes from the APPLE school communities. Through small steps or large leaps, these schools continue to inspire with their adoption of innovative, impactful and health-focused initiatives aimed at bolstering mental well-being, promoting healthy eating, and encouraging physical activity. It is through stories such as the following that APPLE Schools truly comes to life. ELIZABETH MÉTIS SETTLEMENT Elizabeth School, part of the Northland School Division, embraced APPLE Schools’ model of tailoring initiatives to suit the unique needs of the school and embed culturally specific activities into their action plan. In January, students had a valuable opportunity to engage in traditional cultural learning experiences, enriched by the support and involvement of the wider community, as they undertook a unique food challenge by bringing a piece of moose meat home to help prepare a delicious and healthy meal with their families. Our students are able to learn important life skills, have a greater understanding of where their food comes from, gain insight into the anatomy of animals, as well as connect to the cultural roots of hunting and living off the land. Continuing to provide these types of opportunities for the youth of Elizabeth School improves understanding for active learners, develops environmental awareness, deepens a connection to the land as well as provides many mental health benefits. – Tegan Vacheresse, Principal SHERWOOD PARK St. Nicholas Catholic School in Elk Island Catholic School Division has been finding creative ways to connect with their local community. The grade 4 students worked with a local senior from the Linking Generations group to plant more than 300 tomato seedlings. This project started as a way for students to learn where food comes from and learn how to grow their own food. The school decided to use the extra tomatoes as a way to connect with neighbours and as a fundraising opportunity for Ukraine. To further spread kindness, the Kids Care 2 Club created 85 bookmarks to send to a sister school in Ukraine, and created 50 Easter cards to drop off at a local seniors’ centre. Initiatives like this allows students to learn the importance of community, connection, and giving. FORT McMURRAY In June at Father Beauregard School in the Fort McMurray Catholic School District, a heartwarming request came from a grade 6 student who suggested he and his classmates practice yoga before the Provincial Achievement Tests (PATs). This evidence highlights the impact of APPLE Schools initiatives, where students are not only understanding but embracing the powerful link between physical activity and their brains. It’s a story of how exercise can boost focus, attention, and learning, reminding us that our efforts are making a real difference in the lives of young learners. “Should we maybe do something active or yoga before our PAT? Isn’t there some breathing we could do that will help us focus and open our third eye?” - Grade 6 student at Father Beauregard School Our Impact “The partnership with APPLE Schools helps to positively influence the difficult decisions we have to make as leaders of the school. It takes away the guessing game – we are going to do this because it is the healthy choice and the best choice for the kids. The partnership gives us the foundation we need, and we know that when kids are physically active, eating properly, sleeping more, and are mentally fit, that they are better learners.” - Elizabeth Fraser, Principal, Sakaw School “We get to see the small steps, the confidence, the momentum, and the growth of our schools. When you live in the North, it is different. I get to see the gaps get closed making the playing field more level for our kids and giving them at least a little bit of an advantage to build healthy habits. When I see that it makes my heart happy.” - Tina Skakun, APPLE School Mentor APPLEBITE In the underserved school communities we assist, APPLE Schools plays a vital role in supporting students to improve diet quality, and incorporate physical activity into their class time. We do this by supporting school staff to seek out funding and granting opportunities, as well as providing positive behaviour modelling through APPLE school health mentors, facilitators and champions. One Step at a Time: Continuing Forward to a Healthier Future GLOBAL RECOGNITION In 2020, APPLE Schools was incredibly proud to be recognized as one of the 100 leading education innovations in the world by HundrED, a non-for-profit organization based in Finland. The good news repeated itself in 2023 as we were once again recognized as one of the leading 100 innovations globally in K12 education in the HundrED Global Collection Report 2023! APPLE Schools was selected out of 3,000+ applications for the 2023 report, passing a rigorous selection and review process led by almost 200 education experts worldwide, and was recognized for our innovative expertise and ability to create a scalable impact while helping kids flourish. This year, HundrED focused on identifying organizations that are changing the face of education in a post-pandemic world, developing 21st century skills including social and emotional learning, and increasing focus on student well-being and mental health. Through the challenges of the pandemic, APPLE Schools proved to be an effective model for supporting student wellness and resilience during challenging times. In November 2022, two of our staff members, Lauren and Matthew, travelled to Helsinki to accept the honour. During the event, Lauren had the opportunity to participate in a panel discussion that focused on the significance of supporting teacher wellness and how APPLE Schools contributes to mental well-being and resilience, especially in the context of post-pandemic recovery. Being selected to speak on an international platform underscores the significance of the meaningful work we carry out each day. We express our heartfelt gratitude to everyone who has played a role in achieving this recognition. This includes our donors, districts, principals, partners, teachers, school health facilitators, champions, school staff, parents, and, of course, the students. Without the collective efforts of these individuals, this achievement would not have been possible. We take great pride in every APPLE school community and their remarkable leadership in promoting the well-being of students in healthy school environments. APPLE Schools remains committed to continuing to seek out future opportunities, such as the HundrED project, to celebrate our innovative approach to health and well-being education. **EXPANDING OUR VISION** We were thrilled to add six new Ally Schools to the APPLE Schools community in 2023. The addition of these incredibly dedicated schools increased our annual impact to 93 schools, reaching over 30,000 students. At every Ally School, you’ll find a dynamic school administrator who is not only experienced, but also passionate about creating a thriving, healthy school environment. They’ve walked the path before, having been a supporter of a previous APPLE school community, and they truly understand what it takes to succeed. Moreover, Ally Schools are backed by a committed volunteer school health champion, specially trained and eager to champion the cause of wellness within their school community using a comprehensive school health approach. Thanks to the expertise of the principal, each APPLE Ally School is well-prepared to hit the ground running, making healthy choices the natural choice for everyone in their community. Onoway Elementary School in the Northern Gateway School Division was so excited to celebrate becoming an APPLE Ally School that they hosted an exciting kick-off assembly that focused on physical activity, nutrition, and wellness. During the event, they introduced various activities aimed at promoting these three areas of well-being. The students were excited about the initiative, and everyone is eager to incorporate wellness into their school culture. APPLE Schools and our research team extend our heartfelt gratitude to the schools that participated in this research project, and we deeply appreciate their valuable contributions and time commitment. The ongoing use of evidence ensures that APPLE Schools remains relevant, impactful, and an award-winning project. We use data to drive change, and continue to partner with researchers at the School of Public Health at the University of Alberta and with MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions at St. Michael’s Hospital. This year, researchers gathered a snapshot of research from a sample of APPLE Schools, and gathered baseline data from the APPLE Ally Schools. Information collected from families, students and school staff provides a well rounded and current snapshot of the children’s health behaviours. This evidence will continue to inform decisions at the school, jurisdiction and project level and improve health behaviours for students and stakeholders across Canada. EDMONTON The dedicated garden team at École Richard Secord School in the Edmonton Public School Division, is back in action! They’re putting in the effort to plant and care for their school’s tower gardens, which play a significant role in supporting students’ physical and mental well-being, as well as helping them meet their learning goals. The tower gardens also contribute to fostering a positive atmosphere for the entire school community. As returning members get back to work, they shared their personal insights on how the gardens have made a difference in their lives: “Taking care of a garden is hard work and a lot of fun. I learned a lot about taking care of plants, like watering, trimming, removing calcium from the towers and checking the pH of the water. I loved helping with the garden!” “I learned that vegetables actually taste good!” “My favourite day was when the harvest was ready. The whole hallway smelled like tomatoes. The rainbow chard was delicious!” FORT McMURRAY Holy Trinity School, part of the Fort McMurray Catholic School District, put their APPLE ally funds to great use during their “Grab Your Greens” St. Patrick’s Day celebration. The school’s Independent Living Program (ILP) was on a mission to develop essential life skills, and they did just that by washing, cutting, and packing bags of fresh vegetables to share with their fellow students before lunch. This not only filled the students with pride for preparing the snacks themselves but also expanded their knowledge about the valuable nutrients found in each type of vegetable, thanks to the helpful APPLE Schools taste testing resource webpage. ATHABASCA With a growing concern for student mental health, Whispering Hills Primary School, a part of the Aspen View School Division, proactively sought support from the school health mentor to address Childhood Anxiety within the community. Collaborating closely with the school principal, they identified Amy Kucheray, a local Registered Psychologist, who could provide valuable insights on anxiety to the school community. Additionally, the school partnered with Edwin Parr Composite High School’s food program to prepare wholesome snack platters and offered healthy drink options for parents attending the presentation. This valuable initiative was made possible through the collaborative efforts of the WHPS School Council and WHPS Fundraising Committee and is a great example of how all four components of the comprehensive school health model can synergize to create a nurturing environment where students and parents can learn and flourish. FORT ST. JOHN Duncan Cran Elementary School in the Peace River North School Division participated in a provincial initiative called *Be The I In Kind*, during their “Real Acts of Caring” week. This initiative asks students to show compassion and empathy to all those around them. The school set up a bulletin board, and instead of using the letter “i” in kind, students were asked to draw or write how they show kindness and add their “i” to the display. This is part of the school’s action plan for Pink Shirt Day, where the focus is bullying prevention and creating safe and inclusive environments. “APPLE Schools has given Duncan Cran a new outlook on how we offer and deliver different initiatives in the building. Promoting the healthy lifestyle option as a first choice has proven very effective as the students became excited over new ideas and challenges.” - Griff Peet, Principal Events KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE EVENTS APPLE Schools hosted several knowledge exchange events for school health facilitators and school health champions. These events ensure school communities receive the best possible support to build a healthy school culture. Our team carefully and strategically designs the agendas so that participants walk out of each event feeling confident and competent to drive change. In November 2022, the APPLE Schools project team planned and hosted their first in-person knowledge exchange event since 2019. In Edmonton, 38 health champions joined us for a full-day event, and the next day, 28 health champions gathered in Fort McMurray for a half-day event. Both events focused on reigniting wellness ideas and reconnecting as a group. It highlighted emerging nutrition topics, provided a space for health champions to share, brought in various potential school partners, discussed the new wellness curriculum, and re-introduced Daily Physical Activity (DPA) bins. The health champions had an opportunity to learn from other champions, connect with the APPLE Schools project team, and walk away with new ideas and information to bring back to their school communities. And in February 2023, the APPLE team hosted a virtual knowledge exchange event for all school health champions to attend for a chance to connect with the mentors, learn from experts, and chat with one another. Two different guest presenters were involved to share information on outdoor education and movement, as well as the new wellness curriculum. The event was attended by 45-55 health champions. FEBRUARY FIRESIDE CHAT In February, APPLE Schools facilitated a gathering of school health champions where ideas were shared and connections were made. The event was reminiscent of a friendly fireside chat, fostering camaraderie and collaboration. Our virtual Fireside Chat provided an opportunity to connect, exchange resources, celebrate school successes, and enjoy engaging discussions. During the event, we explored the realms of outdoor education, curriculum-linked movement breaks, and had valuable interactions with our APPLE mentors, addressing any pressing inquiries. SHAPING THE FUTURE Also in February, staff from APPLE Schools attended and presented at the Ever Active Schools Shaping the Future Conference in Lake Louise, an annual conference that connects educators, health and wellness professionals, and researchers to explore comprehensive school health through various learning platforms. Our team led an interactive and energetic session with over 40 participants highlighting the free APPLE Schools resources that school communities can access to support wellness in their school including quick energizers, DPA bins, active sharing, a taste test, and a breathing activity. “The APPLE Schools professional development is great; it is helpful to meet with other teachers that work within similar school demographics. This allows us to get realistic solutions or ideas from one another that are more applicable to our school communities, which is not always the case with other professional development opportunities.” – Kendra Kerr, former School Health Champion EXPERIENCING AN APPLE SCHOOL In June, we had the pleasure to tour Our Lady of the Prairies School in Edmonton, along with several of our valued partners. The visit provided a meaningful opportunity to witness first-hand the transformation and impact that results from the support of our generous donors in underserved communities. Our tour was thoughtfully led by two of the school’s students, showcasing remarkable initiatives, including a daily snack cart that ensures students without breakfast can enjoy a nutritious start to their day. Additionally, we were inspired by the hallway decals encouraging children to stay active as they move through the school and the spaces designed to calm students who need a bit of a breather. All these elements collectively contribute to creating a healthier environment within an APPLE School community. “Emphasis on student health was missing in my own education. I had to learn it all as an adult, finding my way to physical activity and healthy living. Using the comprehensive school model provides the catalyst to teach the students the skills needed to be healthy as an adult.” – Jennifer De Stephanis Dimas, Principal, Good Shepherd Catholic School INTERNAL STAFF EVENTS Throughout the year, the APPLE Schools team remains committed to continuous learning in order to ensure they can be there to support our school health champion and facilitators to the best of their abilities. This includes considering best practices, planning for the future, attending training workshops and most importantly, sharing ideas through collaborative learning opportunities. In 2023, our team continued this commitment through attending internal strategic planning meetings for both our mentor team as well as the entire project team, and seeking out meaningful personal professional development opportunities to help keep our small but mighty team at the top of our game. FISHING LAKE MÉTIS SETTLEMENT J.F. Dion School aimed to expand students’ access to track and field activities in their community. Through a successful grant application in partnership with Mini Legends, the school brought the Mini Legends program to their community for a day. During the event, students had the opportunity to learn about various track and field activities, including running, hurdles, javelin, discus, and relays. This event served as a valuable reminder of the rewards that come from planning and collaborating as a school community. It also highlighted how diverse physical activity opportunities can boost children’s confidence, athleticism, and overall happiness. LAC LA BICHE A few years ago, Aurora Middle School, part of the Northern Lights School Division, launched the Medicine Box Project. With the guidance of Knowledge Keeper Nick Bartlett, students were introduced to and instructed in the traditional method of harvesting White Sage. The program aims to educate students about traditional medicines, their proper care and harvesting, and the cultural traditions associated with these healing plants. This APPLE Schools initiative has been in development for several years, and it’s truly wonderful to witness the thriving growth of traditional medicine in the school’s growing dome. APPLE Schools is a small team of dedicated individuals who wear many hats and feel very passionate about our roles in health promotion. Most of our team members have been with APPLE Schools for several years, being intimately involved with the growth and success of the project, including Jenn Flynn, who started as a school health facilitator in 2007. Jenn Flynn, Executive Director Lauren Walker, Implementation Manager Cari Foster, Philanthropy & Donor Relations Officer Landra Walker, Project Support Specialist Amelia Souliere, Project Support Specialist Magdalena Pawlowski, Communications Specialist Molly Bujold, Communications Specialist Nicole Deschner, School Health Mentor, Edmonton / Knowledge Exchange Specialist Jenna Power, School Health Mentor, Fort McMurray Catholic School District Matthew Shewchuk, School Health Mentor, Fort McMurray Public School District Kathy Dekker, School Health Mentor, Edmonton Tina Skakun, School Health Mentor, Northeast Alberta & Beyond APPLE Schools continues to operate in a fiscally responsible manner, and financials are filed according to the Canada Revenue Agency guidelines. The fiscal year runs from September 1, 2022 to August 31, 2023. For a list of our Donors in this reporting period, see page 22. **EXPENSES** - Project and in-school staff (77%) - Materials and resources (12%) - Administration (7%) - Travel (4%) --- **CHAIR:** Lory Laing, PhD, MA, BA (Honours) Professor Emeritus, School of Public Health, University of Alberta (Edmonton) **SECRETARY:** Ellery Lew, LLB, BSc Partner, Witten LLP Barristers & Solicitors (Edmonton) **TREASURER:** Bob Sadler MBA, CPA, CMA **DIRECTORS:** Bill Clapperton Vice-President, Regulatory, Stakeholder and Environmental Affairs, Canadian National Resources Limited (Calgary) Matt Jeneroux Member of Parliament, Conservative Party of Canada, Edmonton-Riverbend (Edmonton) Marg Schwartz Former Director, APPLE Schools Paul Veuglers, PDF, PhD, MSc Professor, School of Public Health, University of Alberta (Edmonton) Tricia Janvier Artist, Education and Community Advocate (Cold Lake) Allan Markin, OCE, AOE (Member) Advisor Jenn Flynn (Staff) Executive Director, APPLE Schools # 2022-2023 APPLE Schools *APPLE Ally School* ## Alberta ### Alexander First Nation Education Kipohtakaw Education Centre ### Aspen View School Division Landing Trail Intermediate School (Athabasca) Rochester School (Rochester) Smith School (Smith) Whispering Hills Primary School (Athabasca) ### Beaver Lake Cree Nation Amisk Community School ### Edmonton Catholic School Division Annunciation Catholic Elementary School Ecole Holy Cross Catholic Elementary/Junior High School Good Shepherd Catholic Elementary School* Our Lady of Peace Catholic Elementary School Our Lady of the Prairies Catholic Elementary School* St. Benedict Catholic Elementary School St. Elizabeth Seton Catholic Elementary/Junior High School* St. Francis of Assisi Catholic Elementary School St. Gerard Catholic Elementary School* St. Kateri Catholic Elementary School St. Rose Catholic Junior High School* ### Edmonton Public School Division Abbott School* Alex Janvier School Athlone School Belmead School Brightview School École Richard Secord School Edmonton Christian Northeast School* George P. Nicholson School* Hillview School Homesteader School Inglewood School Jan Reimer School* Lee Ridge School Prince Charles School Sakaw School Sifton School Tipaskan School Youngstown School ### Elk Island Catholic School Division Holy Spirit Catholic School* (Sherwood Park) Madonna Catholic School (Sherwood Park) St. Luke Catholic School (South Cooking Lake) St. Nicholas Catholic School (Sherwood Park) Our Lady of the Angels Catholic School* (Fort Saskatchewan) St. John Paul II Catholic School* (Fort Saskatchewan) ### Fort McMurray Catholic School Division École St. Paul School Elsie Yanik Catholic School Father Beauregard School Father Patrick Mercredi Community High School* Good Shepherd School Holy Trinity Catholic High School* Immaculate Heart of Mary Catholic School* Our Lady of the Rivers Catholic School Sister Mary Phillips School St. Anne School St. Gabriel School St. Kateri Catholic School St. Martha School ### Fort McMurray Public School Division Beacon Hill Public School Christina Gordon Public School Dave McNeilly Public School Dr. K. A. Clark School École Dickinsfield School École McTavish Public High School* Fort McMurray Christian School Fort McMurray Composite High School* Fort McMurray Islamic School Frank Spragins High School* Greely Road School Thickwood Heights School Timberlea Public School Walter & Gladys Hill Public School Westview Public School Westwood Community High School* ### Northland School Division No. 61 Anzac Community School (Anzac) Bill Woodward School (Anzac) Conklin Community School (Conklin) Elizabeth School (Elizabeth Métis Settlement) Father R. Perin School (Janvier) J.F. Dion School (Fishing Lake Métis Settlement) St. Theresa School (Wabasca) ### Parkland School Division No. 70 Athabasca Delta Community School (Fort Chipewyan) ## British Columbia ### School District 60 – Peace River North Duncan Cran Elementary School (Fort St. John) Upper Pine Elementary Junior Secondary School (Rose Prairie) ## Manitoba ### Swan Valley School Division École Swan River South School (Swan River) Minitonas School (Minitonas) ## Northwest Territories ### Sahtu Divisional Education Council Chief T’Selehye School (Fort Good Hope) Your generous support has made a profound impact on the lives of children in 93 school communities, helping them achieve their health goals. We extend our heartfelt gratitude for your ongoing commitment to fostering the well-being of young individuals in healthy school communities. Your connection to our mission and dedication to those we serve together is truly appreciated. “Keyera is committed to building strong, mutually beneficial relationships in the communities where we live and operate. One way for Keyera to give back is through our Keyera Connects Social Investment Program, which invests in organizations and initiatives that are vital to our communities, and our business. Our partnership with APPLE Schools aligns with our Community Resiliency social investment pillar and demonstrates our commitment to working with community partners who seek to inspire and empower our youth and communities. Keyera is proud to partner with APPLE Schools to promote health, academic achievement, and mental wellbeing in our communities!” Alyssa Haunholter, General Manager, External Affairs, Keyera Thank you to our 2022-2023 Donors! Canadian Natural Inter Pipeline LEAP Pecaut Centre for Social Impact Even the Odds St. Michael’s Foundation / St. Michael’s Hospital Providence Healthcare Staples MAP Keyera Public Health Agency of Canada Agence de la santé publique du Canada Butler Family Foundation ConocoPhillips CNOOC Shaw Birdies for Kids Shell Alberta Blue Cross Enbridge The Melton Foundation CEDA Mikisew Cree Nation Acera Insurance formerly Rogers Insurance Inner City Diesel Ltd. Fort McMurray Home Hardware PD Management & Services ATCO EPIC CONNECT WITH US APPLE Schools c/o Sparrow Cowork #206-A, 12227 – 107 Ave NW Edmonton, AB T5M 1Y9 email@example.com www.appleschools.ca facebook.com/appleschools twitter.com/appleschools instagram.com/appleschools linkedin.com/company/appleschools
d3d218d1-92df-4e74-b651-b9952c4bbb13
CC-MAIN-2023-50
https://appleschools.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/AppleSchools_ImpactReport_2023_Web.pdf
2023-12-05T02:26:14+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100540.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20231205010358-20231205040358-00497.warc.gz
122,135,067
6,346
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.93208
eng_Latn
0.994581
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 38, 938, 1158, 1678, 3790, 5587, 7085, 8672, 9949, 11209, 13084, 14705, 16356, 18203, 19804, 21394, 23305, 24624, 25622, 26829, 30111, 31773, 32027 ]
[ 2.515625, 1.3125 ]
1
0
El éxito habla Inglés, y tú? BENEFICIOS DE ESTUDIAR EN BRITISH - Clases online 100% en vivo - Preparación para exámenes internacionales (British Council) - Horarios flexibles - Asesoría personalizada - App virtual - Conversation club - Plataforma zoom vip - Aula virtual las 24 hrs. - Certificación a nivel nacional - Metodología “learning at home” El idioma de las oportunidades! | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | INDUCTION | WELCOME! | -Hi! What’s your name? My name’s Ellie. -How old are you? I’m seven. -I have a pencil -What do you have? -Phonics (A, B, C, D) -It’s a balloon -I have a ball -What is it? It’s a train -Phonics (E, F, G) CHECK UP 1 (1-2) | -Colors -Counting numbers -Animals -The alphabet -My body -Classroom objects -School supplies (paper, glue, scissors, paint, pencil, pen crayon, marker). -Toys (Balloon, ball, doll, yo-yo, train, boat, jet, car). | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 3 | MANY COLORS| - It's yellow<br>- What color is it? It's green<br>- Phonics (H, I, J) | - Colors (red, blue, yellow, green, orange, purple, pink, brown). | | UNIT 4 | COUNTING | - Let's count<br>- How many?<br>- Phonics (K, L, M)<br>**CHECK UP 2 (3-4)** | - Numbers (one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten). | | UNIT 5 | ANIMALS | - Let's count! one cat, two dogs<br>- How many?<br>- Phonics (N, O, P) | - Pets 1 (Singular: cat, dog, bird, rabbit, cats) (Plural: cats, dogs, birds, rabbits).<br>- Pets 2 (Singular: goat, duck, cow, horse) (Plural: goats, ducks, cows, horses) | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 6 | LUNCH | - I like bread - Do you like water? Yes, I do / No, I don’t. - Phonics (Q, R, S) CHECK UP 3 (5 – 6) | - Food (milk, water, bread, candy, rice, beans, chicken, fish). | | UNIT 7 | THINGS TO DO | - I can walk - Can you run? Yes, I can / No, I can’t - Phonics (T, U, V) | - Abilities (walk, run, skip, jump, swim, dance, wink, sing). | | UNIT 8 | MY BODY | - I can touch my nose - What can you do? - I can clap my hands - Phonics (W, X, Y, Z) CHECK UP 4 (7 - 8 ) | - My face (ears, eyes, mouth, nose); (clap my hands, stomp my feet, swing my arms, shake my legs). | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|-------|---------|------------| | INDUCTION | WELCOME! | - Hi! What’s your name? My name’s Ellie. - How old are you? I’m seven. - It’s a/an … - What is it? It’s a pen. It isn’t a pencil - Is it a ruler? Yes, it is/No, it isn’t - This is … - What’s this? This is paper - What color is it? It’s red - Blue and Yellow make Green CHECK UP 1 (1 - 2) | - Colors - Counting numbers - Animals - The alphabet - My body - Classroom objects - School supplies (pen, pencil, eraser, ruler, pencil case, backpack, book, notebook, desk, chair). - Shapes (circle, square, triangle, rectangle). - Art supplies (paint, paper, chalk, yarn, glue, tape). - Colors (red, yellow, blue, white, black, green, purple, orange, pink, gray, brown). | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 3 | BIRTHDAY PARTY | - How old are you? I'm seven - How many? - I have one doll | - Numbers (one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve). - Toys (Singular: doll, ball, car, kite, game, marble, puzzle, card) (Plural: dolls, balls, cars, kites, games, marbles, puzzles, cards) | | UNIT 4 | HOME | - This is my mother - Who's this? This is my sister - I like/don't like chicken CHECK UP 2 (3 - 4) | - Family (mother, father, brother, sister, grandmother, grandfather). - Food (juice, chicken, fish, ice cream, pizza, rice, cake, bread) | | UNIT 5 | THE PARK | - I can see a tree - What can you see? I can see a river - I can/can’t - Can you see a flower? | - Nature (flower, tree, rock, river, hill, lake). - Playtime (play soccer, jump rope, fly a kite, ride a bike). - Animals (Turtle, frog, spider, ant). | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 6 | THE ZOO | - The ... is in the tree. | - Animals (monkey, elephant, tiger, bear, kangaroo, penguin, snake, giraffe, lion, zebra). | | | | - Where is the ...? It's on the rock. | - Abilities (run, hope, swim, walk) | | | | - Where are the ...? They're on the ... | | | | | - Can... run? Yes, they can/No, they can't. | | | | | CHECK UP 3 (5 - 6) | | | UNIT 7 | SCIENCE DAY | - What's this ? | - My body (arm, hand, finger, leg, foot, toe). | | | | This is my arm | - My face (eye, nose, motuh, ear). | | | | - What are these? | - Healthy habits (wash my face, wash my hands, brush my hair, brush my teeth). | | | | These are my eyes | | | | | - Is this my eye? | | | | | Yes, it is/No, it isn’t | | | | | - Are these my eyes? | | | | | Yes, they are | | | | | No, they aren’t | | | | | - I can brush my teeth | | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 8 | THE TOY STORE | - That's an old bike Those are new bikes - What's that? That's an old doll - What are those? Those are new bikes - Is that a fast car? Yes, it is/No, it isn’t - Are those fast cars? Yes, they are No, they aren’t - What's this? /What's that? It's an old bus - What are these? What are those? They're new buses CHECK UP 4 (7 - 8) | - Adjectives (old, new, big, small, long, short, fast, slow, noisy, quiet). • Transportation (bus, truck, train, boat). | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|-------|---------|------------| | INDUCTION | WELCOME! | - Hi! What’s your name? My name’s Ellie. - How old are you? I’m seven. - I’m happy. I’m not sad - Are you happy? Yes, I am/No, I’m not - He’s/She’s sick - Is he/she sick? Yes, he/she is No, he/she isn’t - What can he/she see? He/She can see a bird | - Numbers 1 – 10 - Colors - The alphabet - Personal Information - School supplies ( pen, pencil, eraser, ruler, pencil case, backpack, book, notebook, desk, chair). - Shapes (circle, square, triangle, rectangle). | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 2 | IN TOWN | - He's/She's a doctor - Is he/she a doctor? Yes, he/she is No, he/she isn't - They're police officers - They aren't firefighters - Are they police officers? Yes, they are No, they aren't - Where's the doctor? He's/She's at the hospital. | - Jobs (doctor, nurse, teacher, student, pilot, cook, police officer, firefighter, bus driver, soccer player). - Places (Hospital, school, home, restaurant). | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 3 | THINGS TO EAT | - I want soup - I don’t want soup - He/She wants soup - What do you want? - What does he/she want? - I have/don’t have apples - He/She has apples - He/She doesn’t have apples - Do you have apples? Yes, I do No, I don’t - Does he/she have apples? Yes, he/she does No, he/she doesn’t - Do you like yogurt? Yes, I do No, I don’t | - Food (soup, salad, spaghetti, french fries, steak, eggs). - Fruits (apple, banana, orange, peach). - Dairy products (milk, yogurt, cheese, butter) | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 4 | THINGS TO WEAR| - What's he/she wearing? | - Clothes (shirt, dress, skirt, pants, socks, shoes, cap, t-shirt, shorts, sneakers). | | | | - He's/She's wearing a ... | - Clothes 2 (hat, coat, sweater, boots). | | | | - What are you wearing? | | | | | I'm wearing a red cap and blue pants. | | | | | We're wearing yellow shorts. | | | | | - Is he/she wearing a hat? | | | | | Yes, he/she is | | | | | No, he/she isn't | | | | | CHECK UP 2 (3 - 4) | | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|-------|---------|------------| | UNIT 5 | THINGS TO DO | - I'm reading. I'm not writing - He's/She's reading **He/She isn't writing** - What are you doing? - What's he/she doing? - We're/They're eating - What are you /they doing? - Is he/she playing the guitar? **Yes, he/she is** **No, he/she isn't** - Are they playing the guitar? **Yes, they are** **No, they aren't** | - Actions (read, write, draw, talk, sing, dance, eat, drink, sleep, play). - Activities (play the guitar, listen to music, watch TV, do homework) | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|-------|---------|------------| | UNIT 6 | HOME | - There's a bed next to the bookshelf - Is there a bed next to the clock? Yes, there is No, there isn't - There's one bed in the bedroom There are two beds in the bedroom - Are there two beds in the bedroom? Yes, there are No, there aren't - How many pencils are there? There are 24 pencils. CHECK UP 3 (5 - 6) | - Things at home (bed, bookshelf, table, sofa, clock, computer). - Rooms (bedroom, bathroom, living room, kitchen). - Numbers (0 - 100) | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 7 | MY DAY | - It's one o'clock. - What time is it? - When do you eat breakfast? I eat breakfast at seven o'clock - When does he/she eat breakfast? He/She eats breakfast at six o'clock - When does he/she wake up? He/She wakes up at seven o'clock in the morning. | - Time (one o'clock, one fifteen, one thirty, one forty-five, two o'clock). - Meals (breakfast, lunch snack, dinner). - Daily routine (wake up, go to school, come home, go to bed) | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | |---------|------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 8 | MY WEEK | - His/Her favorite subject is science. | - Subjects (science, art, math, P.E., music, social studies). | | | | - What's his/her favorite subject? | - Classes (karate class, dance class, swimming class, English class). | | | | It's Math. | - Countries (Brazil, Canada, Egypt, South Korea) | | | | - Danny goes to Karate class on Mondays. | | | | | - When does he/she goes to karate class? | | | | | He/She goes to karate class on Tuesdays. | | | | | - Where's he/she from?? | | | | | He's/She's from Brazil | | | | | CHECK UP 4 (7-8) | | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------|---------|------------|----------------| | UNIT 1 | FRIENDS AT SCHOOL | - What’s your name? I’m Thunder - How old are you? I’m seven - Claire gets up at eight o’clock. | - Greetings - Numbers - Matching text with information. - Time zones | **STORY:** - The Burglars - Helping people - What a Day - Offering to help - The letters sounds ee and ea. **SONG:** It’s three o’clock in the afternoon. | | UNIT 2 | THE ZOO | - Freddy likes/doesn’t like spiders. - Does Mark/Emma like bananas? Yes, he/she soes No, he/she doesn’t | - Animal families - Applying world knowledge | **STORY:** - The zoo keeper - Helping people - The letter sounds ie and y **SONG:** The zebra likes sausages. | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 3 | WHERE WE LIVE | - Has your town got a swimming pool? Yes, it has No, it hasn’t The cinema is between the toy shop and Green Street. | - Places in a town - Towns and art | **STORY:** - The tree on the track - Perseverance - The letter sounds tr, gr and dr. **SONG:** Our towns got a lot of great things | | UNIT 4 | THE MARKET | - Would you like a tomato/some bread? - Are there any pears? Yes, there are. - Is there any bread? No, there isn’t any. | - Food - Bacteria and food | **STORY:** - Bad apples - Cheating doesn’t pay - The letter sounds w and wh. **SONG:** Would you like some fruit? | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 5 | MY BEDROOM | - I like this/that book. - I like these/those books. Danny is taller Whose socks are these? They’re Fred’s Whose hat is this? It’s May’s | - Furniture - Recycling | **STORY:** - Tidy up! - Tidiness - The letter sound oo. **SONG:** Little Timothy McKane | | UNIT 6 | PEOPLE | - Are you angry? No, I’m tired Yes, I’m angry Our/Their birthdays are in May. | - The face - The life of a butterfly - Interpreting and giving reasons | **STORY:** - Thunder’s birthday - Being a Good loser - The letter sound a-e, ai and ay. **SONG:** Who’s that man over there? | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 7 | OFF WE GO | - I’d like to go to Africa by plane. | - Transport | **STORY:** | | | | - What are you doing? | - Measuring | - The bus trip | | | | I’m flying in a plane. | | - Being generous | | | | | | - The letter sound u-e, ew, ue and oe | | UNIT 8 | SPORTS CLUB | - Flying a kite’s difficult. | - Sport | **SONG:** | | | | - What sport do you like doing? | - Science: Breathing | It’s a big wide world out there. | | | | I like swimming. | - Technology (cell phone, | **STORY:** | | | | - So do I / I don’t | laptop, digital TV, digital| - The football club | | | | | camera) | - Including people | | | | | | - The letter sound a, oa and o-e | | UNIT 9 | HOLIDAY PLANS | - Can I/we go horse riding tomorrow morning? | - Holidays | **SONG:** | | | | | - Fairy tales | Playing tennis is great fun | | | | | | **STORY:** | | | | | | - Dream holidays | | | | | | - Helping people | | | | | | - The letter sounds z and s | | | | | | **SONG:** | | | | | | It’s time for a holiday | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------|---------|------------|----------------| | UNIT 1 | BACK TO SCHOOL MY DAY | - There’s a car - There are some balls - Stand up / Don’t stand up - I want to make an omelet. - What’s the time? **It’s nine o’clock** - When do you have lunch? **At one o’clock** - Claire gets up at eight o’clock. | - The classroom - Daily routine - Matching text with information. - Time zones | **STORY:** - The Burglars - Helping people - What a Day - Offering to help - The letters sounds ee and ea. **SONG:** It’s three o’clock in the afternoon. | | UNIT 2 | THE ZOO | - Freddy likes/doesn’t like spiders. - Does Mark/Emma like bananas? **Yes, he/she soes** **No, he/she doesn’t** | - Animal families - Applying world knowledge | **STORY:** - The zoo keeper - Helping people - The letter sounds ie and y **SONG:** The zebra likes sausages. | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 3 | WHERE WE LIVE | - Has your town got a swimming pool? Yes, it has No, it hasn’t The cinema is between the toy shop and Green Street. | - Places in a town - Towns and art | **STORY:** - The tree on the track - Perseverance - The letter sounds tr, gr and dr. **SONG:** Our towns got a lot of great things | | UNIT 4 | THE MARKET | - Would you like a tomato/some bread? - Are there any pears? Yes, there are. - Is there any bread? No, there isn’t any. | - Food - Bacteria and food | **STORY:** - Bad apples - Cheating doesn’t pay - The letter sounds w and wh. **SONG:** Would you like some fruit? | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 5 | MY BEDROOM | - I like this/that book. - I like these/those books. Danny is taller Whose socks are these? They’re Fred’s Whose hat is this? It’s May’s | - Furniture - Recycling | **STORY:** - Tidy up! - Tidiness - The letter sound oo. **SONG:** Little Timothy McKane | | UNIT 6 | PEOPLE | - Are you angry? No, I’m tired Yes, I’m angry Our/Their birthdays are in May. | - The face - The life of a butterfly - Interpreting and giving reasons | **STORY:** - Thunder’s birthday - Being a Good loser - The letter sound a-e, ai and ay. **SONG:** Who’s that man over there? | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 7 | OFF WE GO | - I’d like to go to Africa by plane. | - Transport | **STORY:** | | | | - What are you doing? | - Measuring | - The bus trip | | | | I’m flying in a plane. | | - Being generous | | | | | | - The letter sound u-e, ew, ue and oe | | UNIT 8 | SPORTS CLUB | - Flying a kite’s difficult. | - Sport | **SONG:** | | | | - What sport do you like doing? | - Science: Breathing | It’s a big wide world out there. | | | | I like swimming. | - Technology (cell phone, | **STORY:** | | | | - So do I / I don’t | laptop, digital TV, digital| - The football club | | | | | camera) | - Including people | | | | | | - The letter sound a, oa and o-e | | UNIT 9 | HOLIDAY PLANS | - Can I/we go horse riding tomorrow morning? | - Holidays | **SONG:** | | | | | - Fairy tales | Playing tennis is great fun | | | | | | **STORY:** | | | | | | - Dream holidays | | | | | | - Helping people | | | | | | - The letter sounds z and s | | | | | | **SONG:** | | | | | | It’s time for a holiday | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------|---------|------------|----------------| | UNIT 1 | MEET THE EXPLORES OUR SCHOOL | - I’m not good at playing football - Mike is Tom’s uncle - I like listening to music - He loves/doesn’t like learning about science. - You have to wear school uniform | - Revision of numbers - School subjects - Musical instruments - Decoding a puzzle | **STORY:** - The old book - Courage - Short vowel sounds - Reading Johnny’s story - Getting help - Letter names **SONG:** The explorers Let me tell you a secret. | | UNIT 2 | THE PICNIC | - Is there any cheese? There isn’t any cheese There is some cheese - Shall we make some soup? - How about some tea? | - Food - Food chains and habitats | **STORY:** - The Golden apple - Perseverance - The letter sounds /l/ and /ai/ **SONG:** A picnic | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 3 | DAILY TASKS | - It’s half past eight - It’s quarter past/to eight. - Amy always/usually/sometimes/never washes up after dinner. | - Daily tasks - Environmental studies: Saving water | **STORY:** - Tidying up - The letter sounds v and f - Reading Arnold and the robot **SONG:** What a busy day | | UNIT 4 | AROUND TOWN | - It’s opposite/above/near/below the park - I’m going to the shop to buy some bread Yes, there are. Is there any bread? No, there isn’t any. | - Towns - Geography: Directions | **STORY:** - Up high - Lateral thinking - The sounds /a:/ and /r/ **SONG:** Lost in town | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 5 | UNDER THE SEA | - Great auks were/weren’t sea birds. - Their food was/wasn’t fish - Were you in the sea, Sue? No, I wasn’t - Was Tim on the beach? Yes, he was | - Sea creatures - Pattern and symmetry | **STORY:** - Reading what Christine found - Caring for nature - The trap - The letter sounds s and sh **SONG:** Fish, fish everywhere | | UNIT 6 | GADGETS | - The /DX24) is bigger than the (DX32) - The Airbus A380 is the biggest plane in the world. | - Technology - Maths and History: Numbers - Making deductions - Numerical and logical thinking | **STORY:** - The cave - Being resourceful - Long vowel sounds **SONG:** My bike is bigger | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|---------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 7 | IN THE HOSPITAL | - The plane landed on the floor - She felt awful I’m flying in a plane. | - Health - Science: Fever - Developing story analogies | **STORY:** - Reading Sophia saves the day - At the hospital -ed endings - Helping others **SONG:** What a week | | UNIT 8 | AROUND THE WORLD | - We went to the beach, but we didn’t go swimming. - Did you go shopping? Yes, I did | - Countries - Art: Origami - Making lexical links - Imagining - Visual thinking | **STORY:** - The final letters - Showing interest in other cultures - The sounds /i:/ and /ɪ/ **SONG:** All my Friends are far away | | UNIT 9 | HOLIDAY PLANS | - It’s not going to be rainy on Tuesday. - Are you going to cook pizza? Yes, I am | - Weather - Geography: Seasons and hemispheres - Prediction - Logical thinking | **STORY:** - Reading holidays with Grandma - Changing perceptions - The treasure - The sound /ɔː/ **SONG:** A super holiday | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------|---------|------------|----------------| | UNIT 1 | WELL DONE BEN AND LUCY! IN THE MUSEUM | - Do you/Does Lucy like reading? - When do you start school? - What was in the book? - How did you find the book? - I must wear a helmet - I mustn’t swim here - Give me/her/his/us/the m the book, please | - Revision of numbers - School subjects - Musical instruments - Decoding a puzzle | **STORY:** - The map - Rhyming word - The knight - The letter sound ow **SONG:** The explorers It’s midnight | | UNIT 2 | THE WORLD AROUND US | - but, and, because, so - I could/couldn’t run 20 kilometres - Could you swim for 10 hours? | - The countryside - Life in art - Findidn alternative ideas | **STORY:** - At the restaurant - Silent consonants **SONG:** Walking with mum | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|-------|---------|------------|----------------| | UNIT 3 | DANGER| - I was/We were climbing a tree. - What was she/ were they doing? - Was he/ Were he playing? Yes, he was No, he wasn’t Yes, we were No, we weren’t | - Emergencies - Human health and safety: Fire safety - Responding emergencies | **STORY:** - The man in the car - The sound /ai/ - Reading The day the sea went out **SONG:** Yesterday at half past nine | | UNIT 4 | TWO RETURN TICKETS | - In September, at one o’clock. - On Sunday, in the morning - I was having dinner when you phoned me. | - At the train station - Science: Forces using force carefully | **STORY:** - The tunnel - Lateral thinking - The sound /ee/ **SONG:** Mr Knocks | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 5 | POLICE! | - He used to be a police officer - We had to be really careful. | - Hair and Face - Literature: Crime fiction | **STORY:** - Reading Yatin and the Orange tree. - The sounds /a:/ and sh **SONG:** Who are you? | | UNIT 6 | MYTHICAL BEASTS | - longer/ more dangerous than better / worse than the - The biggest / heaviest / most dangerous - the best / worst - What does a unicorn look like? It looks like a horse | - Animal bodies - Science: Protection - Appreciating nature | **STORY:** - The secret door - The letter sound ea **SONG:** The most beautiful dinosaur | | CHAPTER | TOPIC | GRAMMAR | VOCABULARY | STORY AND SONG | |---------|------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | UNIT 7 | ORCHESTRA PRACTICE | - mine, yours his, hers, ours, theirs | - Instruments | **STORY:** | | | | - Connor’s the boy who... | - Science in music: How we make sounds | - At the concert hall | | | | - The instrument which... | - Making hypotheses | - Reading the bear’s dream | | | | - The house where... | | - Enjoying being different | | UNIT 8 | IN THE PLANETARIUM | - What Will you be when you grow up? | - Space | **SONG:** | | | | I’ll be a police officer | - Science: The solar system | Chaos in the classroom | | UNIT 9 | AT THE CAMPSITE | - badly, carefully, quickly, quietly, slowly | | **STORY:** | | | | Some cheese, tomatoes, a lot of bread, a piece of cheese, a packet of crisps, a bottle of milk, a can of lemonade. | - Holiday activities | - The trap | | | | How much cheese/How many bottles of water...? | - Geography: Map reading | - Word stress and the sound | | | | | - Identifying relevant information | - Respecting your elders | | | | | - Logical thinking | **SONG:** | | | | | | One day I’ll be an astronaut | | | | | | **STORY:** | | | | | | - The last line | | | | | | - Unstressed words | | | | | | - Reading the snares in the forest | | | | | | - Protecting wildlife | | | | | | **SONG:** | | | | | | We’re going on a picnic |
e47e1404-061b-422e-ac49-208695422c7f
CC-MAIN-2024-42
https://britishhouseinternational.pe/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/TEMARIO-KIDS-HD.pdf
2024-10-04T07:34:10+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-42/segments/1727944253296.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20241004072652-20241004102652-00105.warc.gz
136,806,330
7,996
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.954553
eng_Latn
0.996602
[ "unknown", "spa_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 28, 383, 1236, 2218, 3204, 4025, 5261, 8246, 9116, 9727, 10527, 11428, 13386, 13990, 14574, 15404, 17317, 18128, 19204, 20297, 24508, 25469, 26545, 27638, 31850, 32761, 33860, 35019, 36550, 37441, 38261, 39353, 44402 ]
[ 4.03125, 3.953125 ]
1
0
Advancing the understanding and treatment of malnutrition in Africa Dr. Mark Manary of Washington University in St. Louis, MD and adjunct professor at the USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center at Baylor College of Medicine has devoted much of his career to improving the diagnosis and treatment of malnutrition in African children. His two recent studies have helped advance the understanding of this health issue that proves deadly for nearly half a million children annually. The studies on changes in the intestinal microbiome (the microorganisms that live in the gut) that are related to the development of kwashiorkor, a form of severe acute malnutrition, and on the use of antibiotics in addition to nutritional therapy to treat malnutrition were published in *Science* and the *New England Journal of Medicine*, respectively. “The goal of the research on the intestinal microbiome as it relates to kwashiorkor is to work toward a thorough scientific understanding of what causes children to become malnourished in the first place. This is essential to a future where we can work to prevent malnutrition,” said Manary. In the first study, twins were recruited shortly after birth from five rural villages in the country of Malawi. A total of 317 sets of twins and three sets of triplets were recruited. They were examined every month for the first three years of their lives for the development of acute malnutrition. Every two to three months, they also provided stool specimens. If any of the children became malnourished, they were treated using standard nutritional Web-based intervention designed by and for teens is effective How do you motivate teens to eat a healthy diet and become more active? Researchers at the USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center at Baylor College of Medicine recently showed that when adolescents participated in an eight-week intervention using a website with helpful tools for healthy eating and physical activity designed by their peers, it resulted in higher vegetable consumption and increased physical activity than those who were given fewer tools. Their findings appeared in a recent issue of *Health Education Research*. “Teen Choice: Food and Fitness” was designed by researchers after receiving input from teens between the ages of 12 and 17 on what materials they felt would help them be more active and eat healthy. These adolescents offered suggestions including information on what to eat, how much, types of physical activity and more. “It was interesting to talk to these teens and realize that they wanted to have access to this information all at once and in one place,” said Dr. Karen Cullen, professor of pediatrics at BCM and first author of the study. After developing a website based on this input, researchers recruited 408 teens for the eight-week web-based intervention. Volunteers were asked questions about their physical activity and eating behavior at the beginning of the study and then asked to log onto the intervention website weekly during the eight-week period. They were asked to select one eating and/or physical activity goal for the week and then report on their progress the following week. They could then choose a new goal for the next week or stay on the same goal. The website provided them with information on recipes and other nutritional information, and volunteers were able to watch short videos that showed examples of teens overcoming physical activity or healthy eating challenges. “This put the teens in control of their own problem solving and goal setting,” said Cullen. After the intervention, volunteers were asked to complete a final questionnaire. Volunteers in the control group had access to the same website, but without Study shows that children tend to follow their mother’s lead at dinner time Parents are the first—and best—role models for their children in a variety of ways, including when it comes to nutrition. A recent study by Dr. Theresa Nicklas, professor at the USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center at Baylor College of Medicine, and colleagues reinforces the important role parents, particularly mothers, play in establishing healthy eating habits. Although children’s eating patterns are influenced by outside factors as well, the family meal is a more important influence, said Nicklas, lead author of the study that appeared in a recent issue of the *International Journal of Child Health and Nutrition*. “We know that children who eat regular family meals have a better overall diet quality,” said Nicklas. “This study points to the significant relationship between the diets of mothers and their children, specifically during dinner meals.” The study included mother and pre-school aged child pairs who were recruited from Head Start child care centers in Houston. Study participants were observed during dinner on two separate occasions to determine how intake of food by the child resembled intake by the mother. Digital photography was used to measure the amount of food served and consumed. The goal of this study was to examine resemblance in intakes of foods, within the context of a dinner meal, among mother-child pairs from families of limited income. Although a total of 214 mother-child pairs were recruited for the study, only 52 percent of the mothers actually ate dinner with their child. The reasons why this was the case were not explored in this study. Future analyses will focus on whether diet quality differs among children who eat the dinner meal with their mother compared to children who eat alone. However of those mother-and-child pairs that did eat together, one overall pattern was that sweetened beverages were the beverage of choice rather than milk. “This has important implications,” Nicklas said. “Milk consumption decreases as children get older so we don’t want parents to do anything to discourage kids from drinking milk, such as replacing it with a sweetened beverage during meals.” Mothers who served themselves large portions of food also did the same for their child, and larger portion sizes for the parent and child resulted in both groups eating more food compared to others in the study. Typically, the dinner meal consisted of a food from the meat, vegetable, grain, and dairy food groups. A small percentage of the mothers served fruit at the dinner meal. “I think one important thing to come out of this study is the need to provide guidance to parents about modeling good nutrition behavior, such as serving and consuming food from all food groups at family meals,” Nicklas said. “Educating mothers about portion size is also needed because we know from this study that if served more, children will eat more.” Others involved in this research included Carol O’Neil, of Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, and Sheryl Hughes and Yan Liu, of Baylor College of Medicine. It was supported by funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. DNA methylation in embryonic stem cells turns genes on It may be time to revise some textbooks. Practically any molecular genetics textbook will tell you that DNA methylation (the addition of a methyl group or CFI3 molecule) is an epigenetic switch that turns off genes. Studies by researchers at the USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center at Baylor College of Medicine show, however, that during early human embryonic development, as stem cells start to develop into different cell types and tissues, the DNA in certain genome regions become methylated, turning on important genes involved in development. Stem cells have the flexibility to develop into any cell type in the body. DNA methylation is one of the molecular ‘switches’ that guides their development into specific cell types. Methylation affects so-called CpG sites in our genomic DNA (a cytosine (C) is followed by guanine (G)). The methylation does not occur at the promoter region (the beginning of the gene), but rather at CpG-dense regions called ‘CpG islands’ at the end of the gene, called the 3’ (3 prime) end, said Dr. Lanlan Shen, associate professor of pediatrics at BCM and senior author of the report in the journal *Molecular and Cellular Biology*. “This study is the first to document a specific mechanism for how DNA methylation at 3’ CpG islands activates gene expression,” said Shen. Not only that, but by using a computer to analyze their large sets of DNA methylation data, she and her colleagues showed that as stem cells develop and become more specialized tissues and cells, these 3’ CpG islands become more and more methylated. This methylation regulates the activation of gene transcription (the first step in translating DNA into a blueprint that eventually becomes a protein) via a mechanism that depends on an important developmental transcription factor called CTCF. “The bottom line of the report is that CTCF-mediated gene activation appears to be used by our cells as a general mechanism... therapy and additional stool specimens were collected during treatment. The genetic material in the stool specimens was examined, allowing researchers to develop a complete genetic picture of all the bacteria in the intestinal tracts of the children in the study. These genetic pictures were compared and contrasted among children with kwashiorkor, children with marasmus (another form of severe malnutrition), children with moderate malnutrition, and children who had not become malnourished. It was especially interesting and informative to compare the bacteria make-up of children who became malnourished to their healthy twin, Manary noted. The stool specimens were then transplanted into healthy mice, and researchers observed what happened when the mice received the microbiome from healthy children compared to when they received the microbiome from children with kwashiorkor. The mice that were given the stool transplants from children who had kwashiorkor lost weight, but then gained weight and developed more normal intestinal bacteria when given therapeutic nutritional feedings. “Taken together, these results strongly suggest that the intestinal microbiome plays an important—but not exclusive—role in the development of kwashiorkor,” Manary said. “For children in Malawi and other places who are at high risk for kwashiorkor, this suggests that nutritional therapy alone may not be enough to keep them healthy. Extensive work is still needed, including identifying which bacteria specifically are important and by which immunological, metabolic, inflammatory and infectious pathways.” Manary noted that even in the best therapeutic feeding programs for children with severe malnutrition, some 15 percent will not recover and as many as 10 percent will die. The use of antibiotics in addition to nutritional therapy has been suggested as a possible form of treatment but there was little clinical evidence to support its use. In a second study, Manary and his research colleagues sought to test the effectiveness of antibiotics in addition to nutritional therapy. The study was conducted at 18 different village malnutrition clinics in six districts in rural southern Malawi. Children in the study were randomly selected to receive one of two antibiotics (amoxicillin or cefdinir) or placebo in addition to standard nutritional therapy. They returned to the clinic every two weeks for follow-up to measure their recovery. A total of 2,767 children were enrolled in the study over 15 months. “The results were indeed very significant and surprising,” Manary said. “Most remarkably, the death rate was lowered by about 40 percent among children who received antibiotics.” New malnutrition guidelines are forthcoming from the World Health Organization that support the use of antibiotics for patients with severe malnutrition. There are logistical and financial challenges to getting these medications to rural health centers, just as there are challenges in getting therapeutic foods to these sites, Manary noted. “But by proving their effectiveness in a rigorous clinical trial and by having these results vetted and accepted by the WHO, this will hopefully become an accepted standard of care, which will motivate governments and aid agencies to include funds for this life-saving therapy as they do for other therapies for high-burden diseases,” he said. The study on intestinal microbiome was supported by funds from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. The study on antibiotic treatment was supported by a grant from the Hickey Family Foundation, a cooperative agreement with the Academy for Educational Development Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance 2 project (through the Office of Health, Infectious Diseases, and Nutrition, Bureau of Global Health, and Food for Peace, United States Agency for International Development), and the National Institutes of Health. Volunteers Houston-area residents are invited to participate in the following nutrition research projects designed to help CNRC scientists learn more about the nutritional needs of children. Free parking is provided. Financial compensation is provided for most studies, and transportation may be available. For more information on any CNRC study call Marilyn Navarrete, 713.798.7002, or e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org. DIGITAL DIET STUDY Enrolling 3 to 5 year olds for validation of dietary intake method using a cell phone camera. All meals provided with private room. BREAKFAST STUDY Children who are 8 to 10 years old are needed for a study on breakfast consumption and mental abilities. The study includes three overnight visits to the CNRC. There will be blood draws at each visit (numbing creams and sprays are available). BUTTERFLY GIRLS 8- to 10-year old African American girls and a parent needed to participate in an eight week online program promoting healthy eating and physical activity. No meetings to attend. Participate from the comfort and convenience of home. Watch informative video: http://www.bcm.edu/cnrc/butterflygirl/butterflygirlintrovideo.html CARDIOVASCULAR STUDY 13- to 18-year old adolescents and young adults (normal weight and overweight) with and without type 2 diabetes are needed for a research study investigating risk for heart disease in youth. Study involves body composition, heart scan and blood tests. DIET AND STOMACH PAIN Does your child have stomach pain that you believe is related to his/her diet? Children between the ages of 7 and 17 are needed for a research study. Researchers are interested in learning more about the role of diet in childhood stomach pain. Participants will be asked to start a specific diet on two separate weekends to determine whether this will help the pain. Food will be provided. FATTY LIVER 11- to 21-year old overweight adolescents and young adults with and without liver disease are needed for a research study investigating risk for early heart disease in youth. Study involves body composition, liver scan and blood tests. PREGNANCY & CHILD HEALTH Did you have a pregnancy complicated by preeclampsia or a baby with low birth weight? Can a complicated pregnancy in mom put the child at risk for future health problems? To answer this question, we are conducting a research study that looks at pregnancy history and its effect on the child’s health. 8- to 11-year old children of both eclamptic and non-preeclamptic pregnancies are needed as well as 8- to 17-year olds of pregnancies with high blood pressure. Study involves body composition and blood tests. STOMACH PAIN & GENETICS Do you have a child age 7 to 18 with recurrent abdominal pain (stomach aches)? Do they have a brother, sister, step-brother, step-sister and/or adoptive sibling age 7 to 18 living at home with them? You may be eligible for a research study about the environment and genetics of stomach aches. We will visit your home and provide all materials needed for the study. TEEN IBS & GUT BACTERIA Researchers at Texas Children’s Hospital and Baylor College of Medicine are interested in learning about gut bacteria in healthy 13- to 17-year old adolescents and in those with chronic belly pain. Web-based intervention Continued from page 1 the role model videos and the goal setting tools. They could print a goal sheet to use on their own. Researchers found that those in the intervention group ate more vegetables than those in the control group. Both groups increased their amount of physical activity and recorded less television watching time. Both the control and intervention group gave high ratings to the website, and researchers documented a 75 percent log-on rate for both groups over the eight-week period. “This shows us that when you have a website designed by teens and for teens with everything they need, it does appeal to them and they use it,” said Cullen. Others who took part in the study include Debbie Thompson (USDA/ARS) and Tzu-An Chen (BCM) from the CNRC, Carol Boushey of the University of Hawaii Cancer Center, and Karen Konzelmann of West Lafayette, Indiana. Funding for the study came from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, grant number #2007-55215-17998. DNA methylation Continued from page 2 for regulation of gene expression during differentiation,” said Dr. Robert Waterland, associate professor of pediatrics at BCM and a member of the faculty of the Children’s Nutrition Research Center, as is Shen. The finding is particularly important for shedding light on the complex roles of DNA methylation during mammalian development, and should lead to refinement of the ‘textbook’ view of this epigenetic modification. Others who took part in this work include Da-Hai Yu, Miao-Hsueh Chen, Govindarajan Kunde-Ramamoorthy, Lagina M. Nosavanh and Manasi Gadkari, all of BCM, Carol Ware of the University of Washington in Seattle; and Jixin Zhang of the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center. Funding for this work came from the Sidney Kimmel Foundation, the USDA/ARS (CRIS 6250-51000-055-50S), the National Institute of General Medical Services (P01GM081619-01), the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (1R01DK081557) and private funding from the Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine.
095dbb6a-8080-46a6-bac1-1bf0f7f8be9d
CC-MAIN-2021-10
http://bcmd8.bcm.edu/sites/default/files/2014/c0/cnrc-newsletter-winter-2013.pdf
2021-03-07T14:45:06+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178377821.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20210307135518-20210307165518-00562.warc.gz
8,782,872
3,596
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.996465
eng_Latn
0.997995
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3751, 8966, 16158, 18239 ]
[ 2.078125 ]
1
1
Think Eat Save: Global Food Waste Prevention ERSCP, Portoroz October 16th, 2014 Garrette Clark, UNEP The Food Security Challenge Overview - The Food Security Challenge - The Environmental Challenge - The Economic Impacts Approaches to Food Waste Prevention - The Think Eat Save Campaign - The Think Eat Save Methodology & Pilots - An introduction to Food Sharing The Food Security Challenge • About 805 million people are undernourished today • In 2009, the world produced 2831 cal/person per day, which is enough to feed the planet • But at least one third or 1.3 billion tonnes of this food is wasted every year, at least 89 million tonnes in the EU • By 2050, the world’s population will reach 9 billion people – eliminating food waste is a critical to global food security strategy The Environmental Challenge Global volume of food loss & waste is estimated at 1.6 Gtonnes of ‘primary product equivalents’, of which 1.3 Gtonnes is edible. Food wastage volumes Mtonnes Food wastage per capita kg of food wastage per capita and per year At global level, food loss & waste is balanced between the upstream (54%) and downstream (46%) of the supply chain. Food wastage volumes, at world level by phase of the food supply chain - **Upstream** - Agricultural production: 500 million tonnes (FSC 1) - Postharvest handling and storage: 350 million tonnes (FSC 2) - **Downstream** - Processing: 180 million tonnes (FSC 3) - Distribution: 190 million tonnes (FSC 4) - Consumption: 340 million tonnes (FSC 5) Volumes for the edible and the non-edible parts of food. The Environmental Impacts of Food Loss & Waste Carbon footprint of food loss & waste: 3.3 Gtonnes of CO2 equivalent. As a country, would be 3rd top emitter after USA and China. Blue water footprint of food loss & waste: about 250 km3, or 3 times the volume of Lake Geneva. Food loss & waste occupies almost 1.4 billion hectares of land, close to 30% of the world’s agricultural land area. Impact on biodiversity and ecosystems is significant and difficult to measure. The Economic Impacts of Food Loss & Waste On a global scale, the cost (based on 2009 producer prices) of wastage is 750 billion USD. Economic cost of food wastage (producer prices), at world level by commodity - Cereals (excluding beer) - Starchy roots - Oilcrops & Pulses - Fruits (excluding wine) - Meat - Milk (excluding butter) & Eggs - Vegetables Billion USD 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Cereals (excluding beer) Starchy roots Oilcrops & Pulses Fruits (excluding wine) Meat Milk (excluding butter) & Eggs Vegetables Global Objectives - Zero Hunger Challenge Element 5: Zero lost or wasted food - UNEP-FAO co-lead responsibility for this challenge - Implementation via the SAVE FOOD initiative SAVE FOOD is a global initiative fighting food loss and waste, led by FAO in partnership with UNEP, Messe Düsseldorf and a wide range of stakeholders. It covers the following 4 pillars: - Awareness-raising - Collaboration - Policy, strategy & projects - Support to investment programmes Within this framework, the Think Eat Save initiative works specifically on downstream food waste, catalyzing action through: - A Global Awareness Campaign - Food Waste Prevention Programmes at National & Local Level Think Eat Save Initiative Two key elements of the initiative: • A global awareness-raising campaign • A methodology for food waste prevention programmes at national and local level, being implemented through pilot projects Launched in January 2013, the initiative seeks to: ➢ galvanize widespread action at global, national & local levels ➢ catalyze more sectors of society to be aware and to act ➢ connect food waste prevention to food security, ecosystems impact, climate change and sustainable consumption and production ➢ support concrete food waste prevention programmes at national and local level The Think Eat Save Campaign Objectives: • Raise awareness on food waste prevention • Inspire action • Share best practice The website www.thinkeatsave.org: • One stop shop for news and resources • Showcases ideas and examples • Launches call for public action The Campaign: First Results - Articles, blogs, videos and tips updated constantly - Monthly average Twitter reach of 5 million - Food waste key theme of World Environment Day, June 5th 2013 & key pledge in 2014 - In India #ThinkEatSave was the number 1 topic of social media conversations for the duration of June 5th 2013 Here, Think Eat Save Goodwill Ambassador Gisele Bündchen shares key campaign messages while cooking with leftovers on NBC The Campaign: Notable events • Launch dinner: 700 high level delegates dined on food grown in Kenya but rejected by UK Supermarkets for cosmetic reasons (February 2013 in Nairobi) • The Annakshetra Foundation fed 9200 People on Leftover Food from Wedding Parties in Jaipur (May 2013) • Feeding the 5000 - OzHarvest – Think Eat Save events across Australia (Jul 2013) • Tesco Poland launched a competition to Help Schools Think.Eat.Save! (Oct 2013) New competition on food waste prevention in schools launched September 2014! Food Waste Prevention Programmes at National & Local Level • Guidance for public authorities, businesses and other organisations on mapping, planning and delivering effective food waste prevention strategy • Published in May 2014 • Guidance methodology to be piloted in selected countries/cities worldwide Think.Eat.Save Guidance Version 1.0 is a new tool launched by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO) and the Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP). Food Waste Prevention Programmes Guidance Methodology Module 1: Mapping and measuring food and drink waste Key steps: - Quantification at national/regional level - Quantifying waste arising from the supply of food and drink - Quantification at household level Module 2: Options for developing national or regional policies & measures Key steps: - Options for motivational strategies - Voluntary Collective Action Programmes - Consumer Engagement Campaign Module 3: Developing and implementing programmes to prevent and reduce household food and drink waste - Plan and develop a strategy for a consumer engagement programme - Establish a baseline and set a target - Develop evidence-based guidance - Take action to prevent food waste - Measure, monitor and report progress Module 4: Preventing food waste in business supply chains (retail, manufacturing & food service) Key steps: - Corporate strategy, baseline and targets - Taking action: guidance with tools and examples - Measurement and reporting progress towards targets 5 steps to food waste prevention 1. Planning and strategy development [Years 1-5] 2. Establish a baseline and set target [Years 1-2] 3. Develop evidence-based guidance [Years 2-10] 4. Take action to prevent and reduce waste [Year 2-10] 5. Measure, monitor and report [Years 1-10] Pilot Programmes The Guidance methodology will be piloted at national and local level. Food waste is a global issue and affects every country in the world. Many actions to reduce food waste are being undertaken and pilots can build on and support existing work, as well as providing specific benefits. Benefits include: • Developing a local action plan with concrete economic and environmental benefits • Part of the globally-recognised UN Think Eat Save initiative - Involvement in a high profile programme of activity • Reaping the benefits of existing experience and building on existing activities to accelerate change First pilot launching in Johannesburg/Pretoria, South Africa. At the intersection of trends in the Sharing Economy & Food Waste, new ways of sharing food keep springing up. “Personally, I don’t buy groceries any more. Why would you spend money on it?” says Barbara Merhart of Foodsharing.de, an online platform that gives individuals, traders and manufacturers the opportunity to offer or collect excess food. Cooking a big meal and want to sell a couple of portions to your neighbours? Hungry but the fridge is empty? Shareyourmeal.net provides an efficient platform. California-based Cropmobster offers a different spin on food sharing, allowing farmers to post excess crop that would otherwise be sent to the compost, and volunteers sign up to collect it for further distribution to charities. Food Sharing in Apartment Building, Helsinki The Food Sharing Point Results - 30% of inhabitants visited the food sharing point - More than 200 items were picked during 3 months - The most picked food was vegetables, bread, milk products and meat products Contrasting with our presumption, the accepting of other people’s food was easy but sharing one’s own food was more difficult. The shelf for pet food The shelf for bread and pastry The containers for delivery The shelf for vegetables The guidelines for users The log book for record the products Thoughts on Foodsharing What do you think? Community building Fighting hunger Increasing resource efficiency Increasing conscious consumption Health & hygiene risk? Personal safety? This is only the beginning... Please join us to Think Eat Save! www.thinkeatsave.org Garrette Clark firstname.lastname@example.org #ThinkEatSave
812fa8cd-5ff2-4676-92ec-bd6394f223fd
CC-MAIN-2024-18
https://conferences.matheo.si/event/0/attachments/4/28/Think_Eat_Save_Garrette__ERSCP.pdf
2024-04-19T09:15:44+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817382.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20240419074959-20240419104959-00850.warc.gz
155,319,028
2,070
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.909769
eng_Latn
0.983518
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 101, 368, 793, 1050, 1584, 2057, 2590, 2769, 3276, 3883, 4146, 4594, 5125, 5663, 6698, 6980, 7670, 8409, 8966, 9151, 9291 ]
[ 2.765625 ]
1
0
Language rights positions taken by any individual, group or state, is “all fine and dandy,” as the expression goes, but the human dynamics required in the process of legislating points of view into law is a different matter entirely. This paper presents the human story in back of Public Law (PL) 101-477, better known as the Native American Languages Act (NALA) of 1990 based on my personal experience and communication with other individuals involved in these events. The story begins in Hawai‘i with a small group of Hawaiian language educators who opened the first Pūnana Leo Hawaiian language immersion preschools in 1984-1985, to “feed” the Hawaiian language into the ears and mouths of young toddlers in order to bring life to Hawai‘i’s dying Indigenous language. To facilitate condensing the story of the passage of PL 101-477, I will highlight events using a chronology of dates and a summary of events relevant to each date that connect to the enactment of the NALA federal legislation. | Year | Event | |------|-------| | 1841 | Hawaiian Department of Education formed as a Hawaiian medium system with education and administration through the language. | | 1893 | The sovereign Hawaiian Nation is overthrown by U.S. Marines at the request of American business interests and a Provisional Government is set up. | | 1896 | Hawaiian Language as a medium of education is outlawed by the Republic of Hawai‘i. This ban follows United States practice with Native American languages. | | 1898 | Hawai‘i is annexed by the United States. | | 1941 | United States enters World War II after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in the U.S. Territory of Hawai‘i. After the war, American nationalism grows strong in the Territory and Hawai‘i’s push for statehood is fervently pursued. In light of this political context, Native Hawaiian issues are of insignificant concern. | | 1959 | Hawai‘i becomes the 50th State of the United States. | | 1969-77 | Ten years after statehood, the eviction of farmers for urban development on O‘ahu (some of whom are Hawaiians), the participation of young Hawaiian entertainers with Hawaiian cultural concerns in the Hawaiian music industry, and a 167% increase in Hawaiian language class enrollments at the University of Hawai‘i, the campaign to stop the military bombing exercises of Kaho‘olawe island and the revival of traditional Polynesian seafaring navigation, are some of the undertakings bringing focus on the issue for the survival of the Hawaiian culture. This period is sometimes referred to as the “Hawaiian Renaissance.” | | 1978 | Several major Hawaiian issues come to the fore at the Hawai‘i State Constitution Convention. Hawai‘i’s voters approve several amendments relevant to Hawaiian affairs. Hawaiian language is approved as an official language of Hawai‘i along with English; Hawai‘i being the only State to recognize its Indigenous language as an official state language. It is because of the concern for the Hawaiian language that English is also officially recognized. | 1981 Senator S. I. Hayakawa of California introduces a constitutional amendment (S.J. Res. 72) in Congress to make English the official language of the United States. Although the resolution never made it out of committee, it launched a decade of what has become known as The English Only Movement. 1982 Hawai‘i Superintendent of Schools Donnis Thompson and the Hawai‘i Board of Education visit the only school on the island of Ni‘ihau on the opening day of classes in the fall of 1982. All the teachers of the Ni‘ihau School are Native Hawaiian speakers from the Ni‘ihau community. She declares that significant changes need to occur to improve the educational standards of the school. The island of Ni‘ihau was purchased fee simple in 1863 from the Kingdom of Hawai‘i by a private owner. The entire community on the island of Ni‘ihau (about 200 in 1982) are Native Hawaiian speakers and they represent Hawai‘i’s last unbroken, viable Native Hawaiian language link to time immemorial. The sole school on the island is under the jurisdiction of the Hawai‘i Department of Education. Ms Thompson’s declaration for change at the school causes reaction of concern from major Hawaiian community leaders. It is at this time that Dr. Mitsugi Nakashima, the Kaua‘i School District Superintendent who is more directly responsible for the Ni‘ihau School, receives a proposal from Dr. William (Pila) Wilson, Head of the Hawaiian Studies Department at the University of Hawai‘i, Hilo. The proposal is to allow Hawaiian as a language of education to address the concern of Superintendent Thompson for the Ni‘ihau School rather than English only because for thousands of years the people of Ni‘ihau have conducted their lives through the Hawaiian language. Several meetings take place whereupon in December of 1983 the Hawai‘i Board of Education approves the use of Hawaiian as a language of instruction for the Ni‘ihau School. Upon this approval however, the Department discovers a law from the Republic of Hawai‘i in 1896 that forbids the use of the Hawaiian language as the language of instruction. The attempt to allow Hawaiian as a language of instruction for Ni‘ihau’s school does not move forward. 1983 ‘Aha Pūnana Leo is incorporated as a non-profit educational organization. No sustainable funding is secured. Only a few small, private donations are received. The Ni‘ihau community is represented by Ilei Beniamina as a co-founder of ‘Aha Pūnana Leo, and members of the Ni‘ihau community are among ‘Aha Pūnana Leo’s first teacher cohort. The issue of the Hawaiian language as a medium of education that was focused upon earlier in 1982 is coalesced with the goals of ‘Aha Pūnana Leo. 1984 Hawai‘i House Bill 2155 and Senate Bill 1938, relating to the Department of Education to allow Hawaiian as a language of education in Hawai‘i public schools is submitted. This is an attempt to legislate Hawaiian as a legal means of education for the Ni‘ihau School. The bill does not pass. In September, the first Pūnana Leo School opens at Kekaha, Kaua‘i, staffed entirely by Native speakers from the Ni‘ihau community. The legal status of the school is questioned because it teaches through Hawaiian rather than through English or a foreign language to revitalize the Hawaiian language beginning with preschools conducted entirely through Hawaiian. A bill is submitted to the Hawai‘i Legislature to provide Pūnana Leo the same status accorded private foreign language schools which have the right to have unlicensed Native speakers as teachers. Parents, children, family and friends, lobby the State Legislature but the bill does not pass. 1985 In February, Pūnana Leo schools are started at Kalihi, O‘ahu and at Hilo, Hawai‘i. Pūnana Leo Schools are threatened to be closed because Native speaking Hawaiian teachers do not meet state certification. Schools are inspected on a monthly basis for compliance with health and safety regulations and upon finding no shortcomings the schools are allowed to remain open until their next monthly inspection. Within three months children begin to speak in phrases and continue to gain more fluency as the week’s progress. This outcome is the essence that drives the maintenance of the schools. 1985 cont. Pūnana Leo founders continue to research regulations regarding foreign language schools and exemptions afforded to “purely educational” private schools. Pūnana Leo families, staff and children lobby again at the state legislature for teacher exemption. In joint committee, the bill is changed so that it excludes children under five years of age, thus eliminating Pūnana Leo. Heather N. Giugni, Producer of the Hawaiian culture video series, “Enduring Pride” films the family of Pila Wilson and Kauanoe Kamanā-Wilson and their two children, Hulilau and Keli‘i Wilson, Hawai‘i’s first household outside of the Ni‘ihau community to return the Hawaiian language into their home as their first language. This film debuts on one of Hawai‘i’s major TV channels in January 1986 and draws attention to the plight of Hawai‘i’s Indigenous language. Heather is the daughter of Senator Inouye’s long time confident and aide, Henry Giugni who was the first Hawaiian to serve as the Sergeant of Arms for the Senate. Heather lived in Washington, D.C. but became interested in addressing Hawaiian issues through film production. She returned to Hawai‘i to start her business. Lurline McGregor who also worked as an aide to Senator Inouye, was also interested in working with media and Hawaiian cultural affairs. She assisted Heather with the filming of the Wilson family. She and Pila immediately started the early discussions for protecting and maintaining the Hawaiian and Native American languages based on the Native American Religious Freedom Act. Senator Inouye was the Chairperson of the Committee for Indian Affairs. It was Lurline who eventually became the manager of the Native American Languages bill for Senator Inouye when it entered the congressional process to become a law. 1986 In January, Pūnana Leo is back at the State Legislature to support a bill that would allow Native Hawaiian speakers and fluent second language learners without early childhood college credentials to teach and care for pre-school aged children in the Pūnana Leo Hawaiian immersion setting. After a four-hour hearing, S.B. 2126-86 passes amending Act 79 that removes legal barriers for Pūnana Leo and its teachers. Pūnana Leo explores alliances with other U.S. Native American languages in the early spring of 1986. During a trip to participate in a hula workshop in Los Angeles, Kauanoe Kamanā a co-founder of Pūnana Leo, makes a trip to visit the Hualapai of Peach Springs, Grand Canyon, and becomes acquainted with the language work of the Hualapai and its program founder, Lucille Watahomigie. Figure 1. Lucille Watahomigie (Hualapai) and Sandra Johnson who worked with Lucille on Hualapai curriculum at Peach Springs see how bananas grow in Larry Kimura’s backyard at Laulā Street home in Hilo, Hawai‘i. They came to visit Hawaiian immersion in Hilo at the end of 1989. Lucille recommends that Pūnana Leo send representatives to Oklahoma City later that spring of 1986 for the Sixth Native American Languages Issues Institute (NALI), the largest organization for Native American languages. Pūnana Leo representatives, Kauanoe Kamanā, Larry Kimura and Noʻeau Warner attend their first NALI conference in Oklahoma in 1986. They are concerned that young linguists who present their research papers predicting the extinction of various Indian American languages offer no suggestions to help maintain these endangered languages. The Pūnana Leo representatives meet many other Native American language leaders among whom are Dr. Ofelia Zepeda of the Tohono Oʼodham of Arizona and Pat Locke of the Lakota people and this initiates a Hawaiian-Native American Indian languages relationship, which will prove crucial to the passage of the 1990 Native American Languages Act. 1986 cont. In the 1986 Hawai‘i legislative session, the issue of the law established during the Republic of Hawai‘i in 1896 to eliminate the Hawaiian language as the medium of education when Hawai‘i was overtaken by the United States, still remained in the Hawai‘i Statutes. Senators Clayton Hee and Charles Toguchi sponsor Senate Bill 2463-86 to dissolve this 90-year-old law and it is approved on April 17, 1986, amending Act 47 of the Hawai‘i Statutes thus allowing again the Hawaiian language as a medium of education for Hawai‘i public schools. In August, the first Pūnana Leo graduates on O‘ahu enter kindergarten in public school and are assigned to the Second Language English Proficiency (SLEP) Program along with children of immigrant parents. Hilo parents refuse to send their children to mainstream English schools and instead teach kindergarten in Hawaiian at their Pūnana Leo site. This program is named Papa Kaiapuni Hawai‘i “Hawaiian environment class.” The ‘Aha Pūnana Leo declares itself a public school in accordance with Act 47, following the State schedule and charges no tuition. By the end of 1986, after five States make English their single official language, Pūnana Leo is concerned that the English Language Only movement, although lobbied at the state level, could become a federal threat to the Hawaiian language and all other Native American languages. Figure 5. Pat Locke is received at Larry Kimura’s Hilo, Hawai‘i home in the fall of 1989. From left to right is Kauanoe Kamanā, Pila Wilson, Kalena Silva and “Uncle” Joseph Maka‘ai. Pat has come to visit Hawaiian immersion programs. 1987 Governor John Waihe‘e appoints Senator Charles Toguchi as State Superintendent of Education. Superintendent Toguchi is well aware of the positive educational impact the Pūnana Leo program has made on the children and families that identify with the survival of the Hawaiian language through the years of the Pūnana Leo lobbying efforts while Mr. Toguchi served at the State Legislature. Senator Clayton Hee arranges for Superintendent Toguchi to meet with the leaders of the Pūnana Leo Hawaiian immersion schools to start a Hawaiian Immersion Program in the Hawai‘i Department of Education (DOE). Superintendent Toguchi supports the initiation of Hawaiian immersion for the DOE if approval can be obtained from the State Board of Education. At the 1987 State Legislature, Senator Clayton Hee, a former Hawaiian language student of Larry Kimura, sponsors Senate Resolution 95, Requesting the Department of Education to establish Hawaiian medium classes in elementary schools serving Hawaiian speaking children, and Senate Resolution 96, Urging the Federal Government to protect and promote the Indigenous Languages of the United States of America. These resolutions pass. The intent of Senate Resolution 96 is clearly in line with what will eventually become the Native American Languages act. On May 19-22, 1987, Pūnana Leo representatives, Ilei Beniamina, Kauanoe Kamanā, Pila Wilson, Larry Kimura and Koki Williams attend the Seventh NALI Conference in Saskatoon, Canada. Pūnana Leo representatives present papers pertaining to their work in Hawai‘i and participate in a discussion for the revitalization of Native American languages. Figure 6. Koki Williams (corner of bed), Pila Wilson, Larry Kimura and Ilei Beniamina (all Pūnana Leo), meet with Ojibwe and Mohawk friends in a hotel room at NALI Saskatoon in 1987. Important understanding and ties are made at such informal getting-to-know each-other sessions. 1987 cont. Native American language rights legislation is a high priority and Pila Wilson leads the concern for Native American languages’ legislation. Well known Canadian researchers Jim Cummins and Fred Genesee, in Canada’s French immersion and Canadian Indian languages maintenance initiatives are at NALI 1987 and offer support for the Hawaiian immersion work. Pila brings the two resolutions that he spearheaded at the 1987 Hawai‘i State Legislature to the NALI conference in Saskatoon. These resolutions are Senate Resolution 95, Requesting the Department of Education to establish Hawaiian medium classes in elementary schools serving Hawaiian speaking children, and Senate Resolution 96, Urging the Federal Government to protect and promote the Indigenous Languages of the United States of America. The text of Resolution 96 will eventually be drawn upon for the Native American Languages Act of 1990. Meeting Dorothy Lazore and learning of her critical work with Mohawk language immersion education initiated a valuable partnership and friendship that helped Hawaiian immersion get over some important hurdles. Sister Lazore gave the Hawaiian effort confidence and support at a lonely time. Back in Hawai‘i, the Pūnana Leo begins to lobby the Hawai‘i Board of Education through informal meetings. New Zealand Māori Professor Sam Timoti Kāretu of the University of Waikato Māori Studies Program is in Hawai‘i and provides information on Māori language immersion and he responds to questions some members of the Board of Education (BOE) and Department staff have regarding this unprecedented approach to education for Hawai‘i. The New Zealand Māori have already established over 300 Māori immersion pre-schools and have already started their first Māori immersion elementary schools. The BOE finally schedules Hawaiian immersion on its meeting agenda in the summer of 1987 to consider a trial Hawaiian immersion program. Sister Dorothy Lazore, a Catholic nun and an activist of her Mohawk language in Montreal, Canada has already been brought by the ‘Aha Pūnana Leo to work on Hawaiian curriculum material in anticipation of the BOE’s approval of Hawaiian medium classes at the end of that summer. Dorothy also attends the BOE meeting. The Pūnana Leo people first met Dorothy at NALI 1987 in Saskatoon and became a friend and supporter of the program. Her experience with French immersion in Canada and as Principal of her own Mohawk immersion school at Kahnawake, Montreal, provides vital information for the Board at their official meeting. After a lengthy meeting of testimonies of support from parents, educators and members of the community, the Board unanimously approves of Hawai‘i’s first Hawaiian Immersion Program, named in Hawaiian after the program held at Hilo’s Pūnana Leo’s first kindergarten class, Papa Kaiapuni Hawai‘i, with a modification to Kūla, or “School”, Kula Kaiapuni Hawai‘i or Hawaiian environment education. The first probationary Hawaiian immersion sites open in the Fall of 1987, one at Waiau, O‘ahu and one at Keaukaha, Hilo, Hawai‘i. The Pūnana Leo is asked by the DOE to assist in providing teachers and curriculum for these initial years of Hawaiian immersion at the DOE level. Both Programs are combined K-1 classes. In December 1987 Larry Kimura is invited by Dr. Stephen H. Sumida, Professor of Asian/Pacific American Studies and English of Washington State University and a member of the Modern Language Association of America’s (MLA) Commission on the Literatures and Languages of America, to present at the MLA convention in San Francisco on, “Discourses and Communities: Language Policy, Literature and Change.” Due to personal commitments, Larry is not able to attend, but Pila Wilson attends and presents a paper on one of his Hawaiian literary compositions. Figure 9. Sam Timoti Kāretu, a dear friend and among the staunchest of supporters of the ‘Aha Pūnana Leo. It is at this MLA convention that Pila meets Ofelia Zepeda whom the Pūnana Leo representatives had met at NALI in 1986. Ofelia is also a writer of literary compositions in her own Tohono O‘odham language. Pila discusses with her a draft of a resolution calling for legal rights and support of Native American languages and the Hawaiian language. This is a progression of drafts that Pila started back in 1986 when he first met Lurline McGregor, an aide to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, and who assisted Heather Giugni in the production of “Enduring Pride” focusing on Pila’s family returning Hawaiian as the first language of their home. Ofelia and Pila agree to jointly sponsor a resolution calling for Congressional adoption of the draft at the next NALI conference to be held in Tempe, Arizona. 1988 The State DOE funds an evaluation of its probationary Hawaiian Immersion Program with the expectation that like many novel programs, Hawaiian immersion would fall to the wayside. The evaluation however, comes up with too many positive results and recommends that the program’s probationary period be extended into another year. Figure 10. Sister Dorothy Lazore (center of photo) joins a small committee of Hawaiian elementary curriculum developers in the summer of 1987—just before the start of the first Department of Education Hawaiian immersion classes in the fall to share her experience with Mohawk immersion in Montreal, Canada. To her left and around the table is Leinani Tam, Kauanoe Kamanā and Elama Kanahele. 1988 cont. On June 8-11, 1988, members of the ‘Aha Pūnana Leo Board of Directors, Kalena Silva, Pila Wilson, Larry Kimura and Kauanoe Kamanā, attend the Eighth Annual NALI Conference in Tempe, Arizona. They present papers on what has transpired in Hawaiian immersion education. Several resolutions are drafted and approved on the final day of the conference. There are three resolutions drafted and passed at this NALI in Tempe. One resolution opposes any legislation which restrains personal liberty, freedom, and the rights of citizenship of language for minority Native Americans. Another resolution requests the introduction of HCR 2012 on to the floor of the Arizona Senate for debate. HCR 2012 is about Arizona English verses English Only. The third resolution is entitled the Native American Cultural Survival Act/Resolution. This third resolution is drafted by Pila Wilson and introduced by Ofelia Zepeda and should be the prelude to the next step, its introduction to the US Congress. All three resolutions are unanimously passed and the resolutions committee of NALI agrees to move each resolution to their next political process. The NALI headquarters in Oklahoma is delinquent in sending to Congress the Native American Cultural Survival Act/Resolution, but Pila Wilson is able to provide Senator Daniel Inouye’s office with a copy of that resolution and the Senator introduces and passes a joint resolution (S.J. Resolution 379), based on the 1988 NALI resolution, through his Select Committee on Indian Affairs but Congress adjourns without taking any action. 1988 cont. On December 27-30, 1988, the Modern Languages Association of America (MLA) is held in New Orleans and again through Dr. Stephen Sumida, members of the Pūnana Leo are invited to present papers on various aspects of Hawaiian literature. The convention presents an opportunity to gain the support of this huge organization of language teachers and scholars. The annual convention in New Orleans drew over 4,000 participants. Pila and Stephen work out the details and procedure for introducing and soliciting support for the passage of the Modern Language Association of America’s Resolution on Native American Languages. Pila keeps to the minimal requirement of MLA resolutions of no more than 100 words. There is full support for this resolution at the convention and it is forwarded to the appropriate committees in Washington, D.C., and especially to Senator Daniel Inouye’s Committee on Indian Affairs. Other academic associations that forward resolutions of support are the American Anthropological Association and the Society for the Study of Indigenous Languages of the Americas. 1989 The Hawai‘i BOE reviews the immersion program for its second probationary year and deems it successful. It is allowed to continue for another year. Two new Hawaiian immersion sites are opened, Kapa‘a Elementary on Kaua‘i and Pā‘ia Elementary on Maui. Hawai‘i legislature establishes the Hale Kuamo‘o Hawaiian Language Center at the University of Hawai‘i at Hilo. Larry Kimura leaves his Hawaiian teaching position at the UH Mānoa to join his Pūnana Leo colleagues at the University of Hawai‘i at Hilo. He becomes the first Director of Hale Kuamo‘o whose main purpose is to assist with curriculum development and teacher training for the DOE Hawaiian Immersion Program. Senator Inouye’s office introduces an expanded version of the 1988 NALI American Cultural Survival Resolution in the form of Senate Bill 1781 but it is strongly opposed by the George Bush Sr. administration largely on the grounds that it would require an appropriation of $20 million. Inouye revises the bill and it passes the Senate but in the House, key members were intimidated by a growing sentiment against the use of languages other than English and they refuse to allow the bill out of committee. A nationwide call-in lobbying effort is launched to convince Congress to pass NALA. The existing Native American Languages Institute (NALI) and American Indian Language Development Institute (AILDI) networks are employed. Pila calls Alaska and Tribal Headquarters on Indian Reservations to expand the effort. But, "despite a vigorous telephone campaign by Native Hawaiians, American Indians, and Alaska Natives" (Arnold, 2001) the bill is doomed because of the English-only movement. **1990** Senator Inouye’s watchful and capable aide, Lurline McGregor, finds another way to incorporate the concern for Native American languages into a bill with a title that made no mention of the word “languages.” That bill titled “Tribally Controlled and Navajo Community Colleges, Reauthorizations,” was amended on the floor by Senator Inouye and that amendment consisted of the entire text of his Native American languages bill. President George Bush Sr. signed the bill on October 30, 1990. ![Group photo](image) *Figure 11. Larry Kimura, a guest of Lurline, Keli‘i Wilson, Lurline McGregor, my Uncle Joseph Maka‘ai, at my Laulā Street home in Hilo. Lurline has come to see the Merrie Monarch Hula Festival in 1992, which is already being televised live on the TV.* **1990 cont.** The Hawai‘i DOE Hawaiian Immersion Program is approved to continue into its third year. Its lead class is in the fourth grade. A fifth Hawaiian Immersion site opens at Pū‘ōhala Elementary in Kāne‘ohe, O‘ahu. The story of the human energy behind the enactment of the 1990 Native American Languages Act (NALA) is one of many people. Dr. William (Pila) Wilson however, of all those who deserve credit for the enactment, was the driving force that brought the law to reality. Like with many successful endeavors, timing is crucial, and having the right connections plays a major role. In the case of the Native American Languages Act, it took more than that. It was the hard work and accomplishments being coordinated at the local state level as a team effort with a program to revitalize the Hawaiian language that gave strength to achieving federal recognition. Endangered languages do not survive through laws alone, but governments can serve to protect and promote the well being of threatened languages. The answers however, are within us. Therefore, it is through language revitalization work first that endangered Indigenous languages must engage themselves for renewed life, and this will lead us to legislation. References ‘Aha Pūnana Leo. (2003). *A timeline of Hawaiian language revitalization*. Retrieved from http://www.ahapunanaleo.org Arnold, R. D. (2001). “…To help assure the survival and continuing vitality of Native American languages.” In L. Hinton & K. Hale (Eds.), *The green book of language revitalization in practice*, (pp. 45-48). San Diego, CA: Academic Press Crawford, J. (1999). *Language legislation in the U.S.A.* Retrieved from http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jwcraford/langleg.htm Giugni, H. N. Personal communication, September 24, 1985 Joesting, E. (1988). *Kaua‘i: the separate kingdom*. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai‘i Press. (Original work published 1984) Kimura, L. L. (unpublished paper). *A review of the Hawaiian language program 1921-1972*, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu. Leap, W. (1988). Indian language renewal. *Human Organization*, 47(4), 283-291. Ricento, T. (1996). *A brief history of language restrictionism in the United States*. Retrieved from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/tesol/official/restrictionism.htm Sly, G. Email communication, August 24, 2009. Sumida, S. Personal communication, November 4, 1986. Sumida, S. Personal communication, February 13, 1987. Wilson, W. H. (1999). The sociopolitical context of establishing Hawaiian-medium education. In S. May (Ed.) *Indigenous community-based education*, (pp. 95-108). Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters LTD. Wilson, W. H. Personal interview, June 3, 2006. Wilson, W. H. Personal interview, June 6, 2006. Wilson, W. H. Personal interview, June 7, 2006. Yamamoto, A. Email communication, August 18, 2009.
<urn:uuid:389cf300-ebcc-411b-8511-3c10e87b0470>
CC-MAIN-2019-04
https://aildi.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/aildi-30-year-book-10-aia-ia-kakou-na-ha%27ina-the-answers-are-within-us_1.pdf
2019-01-16T00:13:44Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583656530.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20190115225438-20190116011438-00257.warc.gz
431,152,642
6,101
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.939636
eng_Latn
0.99104
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3021, 7257, 10347, 11024, 12645, 15482, 17307, 20016, 24071, 26369, 28005 ]
[ 2.21875, 1.453125 ]
1
0
Creating a welcoming environment and communicating in an effective way is crucial to inclusion of women, girls and under-represented groups. Inclusion should be looked at as a whole, rather than as silos, because some people may experience compounding and intersecting forms of discrimination or disadvantage. This Quick Reference Guide breaks down some of the key points for inclusion of women, girls and some under-represented groups: - Women and girls - All abilities - Culturally and linguistically diverse - First Nations people - LGBTIQA+ For each group, the follow is provided: - Barriers – why a person may be unsure about participating - Enablers – actions to make your organisation or facility more inclusive - Appropriate language – appropriate terms that show respect and dignity **In general** - Do not categorise people because of aspects of a person’s identity - Be led by how someone talks about themselves, their family and their relationships and only mention or ask about aspects of a person’s identity if it is necessary - Use simple English in written and verbal communication - Be willing to make it work - Relax. Anyone can make mistakes. Offer an apology if appropriate and keep going - Don’t pretend to understand what a person is saying if you don’t. Ask the person to repeat or rephrase, or ask them questions with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers - Offer non-gendered uniforms in different styles and allow for variations to make all participants comfortable 1. Women and girls **Barriers** - Previous bad experience such as derogatory language - Fear of not being good enough or judgement - Conscious of body or appearance - Insufficient or inferior participation opportunities - Caring responsibilities - Perceptions of safety and/or previous experiences of violence Violence against women is much more likely to occur when women and girls are not treated equally, or afforded the same respect as men and boys. **Enablers** - Provide different participation formats, such as: - Social, casual or less competitive options - More flexible, or activities of shorter duration, to accommodate competing demands like caring responsibilities - Smaller team sizes or regular substitutions to allow more flexibility in team size - Provide a friendly and supportive environment by: - Grouping participants of similar abilities - Supporting development and encouraging people of all levels - Providing women only programs - Use of respectful language - Accommodate children for women with caring responsibilities: - Providing childcare - Supervising children in a child friendly area - Leading children in a different activity - Breaking down gender stereotypes in the organisation roles historically filled by particular genders - Encouraging women to fully participate in all aspects of sport and active recreation, including as a player, coach, administrator, official, volunteer and spectator, and including decision making roles **Appropriate language** | Terms to avoid | Acceptable alternatives | |----------------|-------------------------| | You just got beaten by a girl | Celebrate the woman or girl playing well rather than putting the boy or man down for not beating her. | | You play/throw/run like a girl | Do not use gender as a derogatory term. | | Chairman, sportsman etc. | Chairperson, sportsperson | | A female player | A player | 2. All abilities **Barriers** - Timing and availability of all abilities opportunities can be limited and can conflict with other commitments such as work - Not knowing how accessible the facility is. Information about how accessible a facility is should be publicly available e.g. on a website, so people can plan ahead if they will need assistance - Attitudes: - Focus on what a person can do, rather than what they can’t do - Treat the person like anyone else, don’t pity, or label the person as ‘courageous’ or ‘inspirational’ just because of their disability - Be open to making adjustments – work with the person to determine what is needed **Enablers** Everyone with a disability is different. Rather than focusing on the disability, think instead about what adjustments can be made to equipment, technique and coaching, to include people of all abilities in your teams. Your State Sporting Association (SSA) will be able to support this. If adjustments need to be made, ask the person what they need rather than assuming their needs or capacity, or providing unwanted assistance. It is always best to talk to the person in an age-appropriate manner, and to speak to the person rather than their friend, assistant or interpreter. **Appropriate language** | Terms to avoid | Acceptable alternatives | |----------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------| | Disabled person, handicapped, special, physically/mentally challenged, differently abled (patronising or demeaning) | Person with a disability | | Deaf person | Person who is deaf or hard of hearing | | Blind person | Person who is blind or vision impaired | | Mentally retarded (offensive) | Person with an intellectual disability or person with a learning difficulty | | Confined to a wheelchair, wheelchair bound (a wheelchair enables mobility, not restriction) | Person who uses a wheelchair or mobility device | | Afflicted with/suffering from ‘condition’ | Person with/has ‘condition’ | | Disabled parking/toilet | Accessible parking/Accessible toilet | Common adjustments People who are deaf or hard of hearing - Provide clear signage - Minimise background noise e.g. music or provide a quiet zone to aid communication with people that are hard of hearing - Speak clearly without shouting and with normal inflection - Look directly at person while speaking so they can read your lips and facial expression - Consider use of the National Relay Service (NRS) for phone calls with people with hearing or speech problems - Use visual communication e.g. pictures, symbols, written word and demonstrations to support what you’re saying - If using an Auslan Interpreter, talk to the person not the interpreter People who are blind or visually impaired - Address the person by name and introduce yourself by name - Use specific language when giving directions - Clear signage that is uncluttered and incorporates large print and universal symbols - Handrails and luminance and colour contrast for key areas e.g. edges on steps and ramps - Good lighting throughout facility - Clear overhanging obstructions from pathways e.g. plants - Offer written information in an accessible format e.g. available in large print on request, and flyers in Word format are better for screen reader software People with an intellectual disability - Use visual communication e.g. pictures, symbols, written word and demonstrations to support what you’re saying - Provide simple, direct instructions, broken down into clear steps - Allow time for the person to process what you are saying, and to respond before moving to the next instruction - Provide opportunity to practice a skill before moving onto a new one - Give immediate feedback and encouragement - Encourage people to ask questions - Use positive statements e.g. “walk inside” rather than “don’t run” People who use a wheelchair or mobility device or have limited mobility - Clear obstructions from ramps, doorways and accessible toilets - Ensure the main entrance is accessible for everyone - Have doors that can be easily opened - Provide portable ramp for accessing e.g. playing surface - Provide handrails on uneven surfaces e.g. ramps and stairs - Have accessible parking close to the main entrance - Offer a gentle or more accessible version (e.g. walking version), for anyone with limited mobility - Wedge a door open to create independent access if able to - Communicate the nearest accessible toilet to your facility – even if it is not on site, communicate this so that the person can plan ahead 3. Culturally and linguistically diverse Multicultural communities in Greater Bendigo are diverse within themselves, coming from a range of cultural and religious backgrounds including diverse visa pathways, such as skilled migration, refugees entering on Humanitarian Visas, family reunions and international students. It is important to remember that a person who is culturally or linguistically diverse may be used to different social norms e.g. amount of eye contact or personal space, how respect is shown, responding to authority, perceptions of safety, concept of time, physical activity for transport rather than recreation. Time and support should be provided to allow these people to adjust. According to the 2021 Census, 9.7% of people in the City of Greater Bendigo were born overseas. The largest cohorts of refugees in Greater Bendigo are the Karen ethnicity from Myanmar and the Hazara ethnicity from Afghanistan. The largest migrant population in Greater Bendigo is from India. Barriers - Unsure if they’re welcome - Fear of not being good enough, judgement, disappointing, authority - Being a beginner when similar ages are more advanced - Not knowing the rules or how to register or participate at the organisation - Not speaking English well - Cost of participation - People from different backgrounds may not be used to paying for sport or active recreation, or sport or active recreation may have been a luxury - Not being familiar with competition and only participating in sport or active recreation informally - Not being familiar with volunteering or assuming that volunteer positions are paid - Transportation **Enablers** - Make facility look culturally safe e.g. a sign with ‘hello’ or ‘welcome’ in different languages, where possible use the languages of communities living around your facility - Simplify the registration process or provide support - Sponsor memberships e.g. provide three memberships a year for refugees - Provide in language resources about the sport or activity and organisation, including videos of how to participate in different languages - Provide trainee committee member positions for those that may want to build capacity in things such as governance processes - Consider providing for religious practices e.g. prayer rooms with privacy during use - Provide support with the structure of how to participate - Be respectful of cultural differences e.g. not standing as close to you or not making eye contact - Simple spoken English, at a slow pace, explaining jargon and technical terms – do not assume knowledge. Explain procedures step-by-step - Take the time to learn correct pronunciation of names. Only use a nickname or shorter version of the name if the person suggests it or gives you permission. Do not create your own nickname or shorter version of the name because changing the name can change its meaning - If you’re not sure, ask questions e.g. cultural or religious dietary restrictions for catering - The concept of time can be different. Someone arriving late may not be a sign of disrespect or disinterest, but rather a cultural norm. If this becomes a problem, calmly and politely explain why it is important to be on time - To be accessible to children, it may be necessary to increase understanding with parents - Sharing international sports and games as well as those traditionally played in Victoria will help to enable sharing and learning between cultures, and will help people find common ground **Appropriate language** | Terms to avoid | Acceptable alternatives | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------| | They are a refugee (once a person is accepted into Australia, they are no longer a refugee) | They are of a refugee background | | Where are you from/ originally from? (can make a person feel like they don’t belong here) | If you don’t need this information, don’t ask. If you get to know someone well, you could ask what their ethnic background is. | | You speak such good English | Don’t comment on this | 4. First Nations people **Barriers** - Time spent in sport and active recreation may be considered selfish by taking a person away from family and community responsibilities - Racism, discrimination, and vilification - Limited role models - Cost of e.g. transportation, fees, uniforms and equipment - Physical skills for the activity and confidence - Feelings about colonisation and not wanting to participate in ‘westernised’ activities - Exclusiveness of the structure of some sports and activities - Lack of information and knowledge about the game - ‘Shame’ which has many layers and can be unpacked in cultural awareness training - Cultural Load in additional work or expectations on First Nations People e.g. providing First Nations experiences, being on committees or being a mentor **Enablers** - Group, community, or family activities may be preferred - Identifying with and/or connecting to First Nations cultures - Making the activity fun and not feel like a chore - Provide members with cultural awareness training to increase feelings of safety, comfort, and belonging - Promoting health, social, and community benefits - Invite family of players to attend training or a match to encourage support from family and friends - Invite past Indigenous players to organisation activities to provide role models - Establish and maintain good relationships with relevant Bendigo & District Aboriginal Co-operative staff members and other key First Nations community members and stakeholders, including continuous consultation on what is happening in the community and how to engage First Nations People **Appropriate language** | Terms to avoid | Acceptable alternatives | |-------------------------|------------------------------------------| | Half-Aboriginal, Quarter, X% Aboriginal | Are Aboriginal, Identify as Aboriginal | | Where are you from? | Who’s your mob? | A Welcome to Country is undertaken by a local Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander person of significance, a Traditional Owner of the country that the Welcome to Country is being conducted on. The City of Greater Bendigo is on Dja Dja Wurrung or Taungurung Country. An Acknowledgement of Country can be undertaken by an Indigenous or non-Indigenous person. There are many acronyms used within LGBTIQA+ communities and the acronym itself has limitations. LGBTIQA+ stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual+, Trans and Gender-Diverse, Intersex, Queer and Questioning and Asexual and Aromantic. The + represents and acknowledges the limits of the acronym and the evolving nature of language that is used to describe and celebrate people’s diverse experiences of gender, sexual orientation and sex characteristics. **Pronouns** A pronoun is a word we use to refer to a person when we aren’t using their name. Asking and correctly using someone’s pronouns is a way to show respect for their gender identity. Common pronouns include: - He/him – often used by male identifying people - She/her – often used by female identifying people - They/them - common gender neutral pronoun, often used by gender diverse people **Barriers** - Previous bad experience such as derogatory language, invasive or inappropriate questioning - Fear of not being good enough or judgement - Conscious of body or appearance - Insufficient or inferior participation opportunities - Perceptions of safety and/or previous experiences of violence **Enablers** - Recognise and respect all sexualities, gender identities and sexes. Be led by how someone talks about themselves, their family and their relationships. A person may not be comfortable sharing this information with everyone. Only mention or ask about aspects of a person’s identity if it is necessary. - Provide participation opportunities and pathways for all genders: - Provide mixed or gender-neutral options where possible - Where only gendered options are offered, support players to participate in accordance with their gender identity, and non-binary players to play in a team that they feel most comfortable in - Provide facilities for all genders: - Change signage on facilities to offer a unisex or gender-neutral facility - Improve change room facilities with private changing and bathroom spaces - Include sanitary bins in all facilities - Respectful and private information collection: - Only collecting personal information if it is absolutely necessary - On registration forms, allow participants to select from numerous gender options, provide a preferred name and nominate the pronouns that they use - Securely store all personal information **Appropriate language** | Terms to avoid | Acceptable alternatives | |----------------|-------------------------| | Ladies, guys, girls, boys | Everyone, players, ‘club’ members | | Wife, husband | Partner | | Mum, dad | Parents | | What pronoun do you prefer? (Pronouns are not a preference) | What pronouns do you use? | References The quick reference guide has been developed from information from the community in addition to the following sources, which can be accessed for further information. **Disability Sport & Recreation** Seeing capability before disability resource guide. [www.dsr.org.au](http://www.dsr.org.au) **Reclink Australia** Resources to provide access for all abilities. [www.aaaplay.org.au](http://www.aaaplay.org.au) **Proud2Play** Sports Club Hub for sports clubs looking to create a more inclusive and welcoming environment for the LGBTIQ+ community. [www.proud2play.org.au](http://www.proud2play.org.au) **Deaf Sports Australia** Resources to strengthen participation by people that are deaf or hard of hearing. [www.deafsports.org.au](http://www.deafsports.org.au) **Australian Sports Commission** Resources and links to inclusion of diverse audiences. [www.ausport.gov.au](http://www.ausport.gov.au) **Clearing House for Sport** To share news, evidence and insights about sport, human performance, and physical activity from Australia’s leading sport and active recreation agencies. [www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au](http://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au)
b947a074-56b6-4a6b-abf4-ade70f130da5
CC-MAIN-2024-51
https://www.bendigo.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2024-09/City-Greater-Bendigo-Fair-Access-Quick-Reference-Guide-2024.pdf
2024-12-11T11:52:37+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066083790.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20241211112917-20241211142917-00307.warc.gz
605,588,930
3,644
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.986231
eng_Latn
0.992031
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1482, 3394, 5846, 8342, 9984, 12673, 14971, 17644, 18819 ]
[ 3.90625 ]
1
0
2019-2020 FAMILY HANDBOOK Bright beginnings start here. www.shelteringarmsforkids.com #EmbraceEarly # TABLE OF CONTENTS Message from Sheltering Arms President and CEO ................................................................. 3 Section 1: About Sheltering Arms .................................................................................................. 4 Section 2: Eligibility, Recruitment, Enrollment Requirements .................................................... 6 Section 3: Tuition, Fees, Scholarships ............................................................................................. 10 Section 4: Early Childhood Education ........................................................................................... 11 Section 5: Health and Safety ........................................................................................................... 17 Section 6: Nutrition ....................................................................................................................... 21 Section 7: Parent Engagement ...................................................................................................... 22 Section 8: Resources, Contacts .................................................................................................... 31 Dear Parent, Thank you for choosing Sheltering Arms Early Childhood Education and Family Centers. As we celebrate 131 years of service and success, I am honored to lead this respected and high-quality organization into the future. Sheltering Arms is committed to providing you and your child with world-class early learning and comprehensive family support services. We are also committed to our role as a leader in early childhood education. In our ongoing quest for excellence, Sheltering Arms works with local community partners such as The Rollins Center at the Atlanta Speech School and United Way to deliver cutting-edge education and family services. We are also members of two national networks known for innovation in early learning. As part of the Educare Schools network, we collaborate with 23 early learning centers across the country to share our best work and influence the field as a whole. We are also part of the Ascend Network of The Aspen Institute, a renowned educational and policy studies organization. These opportunities allow Sheltering Arms to share and receive the best thinking and approaches to educating young children and supporting their families. As a result of our partnerships and curriculum, our children continually score in the 90th percentile, exceeding developmental milestones for language and literacy. This is important in that these milestones translate into indicators that help predict a child’s future achievement in school and in life. Trust that we will make every effort to deliver quality early learning and family support services that will help your child thrive now and in the future. It is an exciting time to be in the field of early childhood education. It is equally exciting to serve families who understand the promise and possibilities of embracing early learning. Again, thank you for choosing Sheltering Arms. Sincerely, Blythe Keeler Robinson President and CEO Section 1: About Sheltering Arms Introduction Sheltering Arms is Georgia’s largest nonprofit early education and child care organization. We are a network of 14 neighborhood early learning and family support centers located in five metropolitan Atlanta counties: Cobb, DeKalb, Douglas, Fulton and Gwinnett. Our child care and family support services include Head Start (both Early and Preschool) and the Bright from the Start: Georgia Department of Early Care and Learning Pre-Kindergarten program. Our administrative office is located in downtown Atlanta and houses the administrative support staff as well as the Georgia Training Institute. All child care staff must actively participate in extensive child development training. Lead Teachers must have a BA or BS in Early Childhood Education. Center management positions require a BA or Master’s degree. Parents are encouraged to apply for positions for which they qualify and to participate in staff training. Sheltering Arms Early Education & Family Centers is a national leader in defining and delivering quality early childhood education and comprehensive family support services to young children and their families. To learn more, please visit our web site at: www.shelteringarmsforkids.com. Mission Sheltering Arms transforms the lives of children, their families and communities through model early childhood education and leadership in the field. Vision Sheltering Arms sees thriving communities where all families hold the power to create opportunity for themselves and their children. Our Work Sheltering Arms provides: • High-quality early care and education that prepares young children to succeed in school and that is accessible to all, regardless of family income. • Comprehensive support services for families that promote healthy self-reliance. • Professional development, based on core competencies for early education and family services practitioners that improves the effectiveness of service delivery. • Community partnerships and collaborations that create a more synergistic and seamless system of support for children and families. Ages of Children Served Sheltering Arms serves children ages six weeks to five years old. Days and Hours of Operation, Monday-Friday, Year Round The centers are open Monday-Friday, year round, from 6:30 a.m. to 6:30 p.m. The first day and last day of the Pre-K school year is aligned as much as possible with the public school systems. Governing Bodies The Board of Directors, comprised of community leaders, governs the organization, sets policy, creates short and long range strategic plans and has fiduciary responsibility. The Policy Council, comprised of 51% Head Start parents and 49% community representatives, provides leadership for the Head Start program. Accreditation Since 1946, Sheltering Arms has been accredited by organizations such as the Child Welfare League of America, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and Quality Rated. To be a nationally accredited program means that our organization has demonstrated a strong commitment to providing high quality programs for young children and their families. Volunteers Sheltering Arms enjoys a positive reputation in the community and is a popular place to volunteer. We receive volunteers from corporate and community partners, and the Senior Services Foster Grandparent program. Visit www.shelteringarmsforkids.com to become a volunteer. We welcome and encourage parent volunteers to occasionally assist in a classroom, chaperone or accompany a group of children on a field trip or assist in other center activities. A Parent that is this type of occasional assistant is not required to obtain a criminal records check determination. No Parent shall be solely responsible for children other than their own and must be under continuous direct supervision of a Center Employee while in the presence of children in care other than their own. (DECAL Licensing) When volunteers enter the center, they must log on to the Sheltering Arms web site at www.shelteringarmsforkids.com. Smoke and Drug Free Environment Each center is a smoke and drug free environment. There is no smoking or use of tobacco or drugs on the premises. No alcohol products are permitted in the centers where children are being cared for. Non-Discrimination Services are provided to children ages 6 weeks to 5 years old without regard to race, color, religion, national origin, economic status, sex, or ability. Holidays – Center Closed The center will be closed on nine holidays during the year: New Year’s Day, Martin Luther King’s Birthday, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Thanksgiving Day and the Friday After, Christmas Eve, and Christmas Day. Staff Professional Development Days Centers will be closed for ten staff professional development days during the year: - August 2, October 14, November 11, January 3, February 14, February 17, March 13, March 16, April 10 and May 22. Inclement Weather For information about center closings or late openings tune in to Channel 11 (WXIA), check Sheltering Arms’ web site and Facebook page. Also, parents may receive a calling post message from Sheltering Arms, so it is imperative that parents keep up to date contact numbers on file. On the first day of an inclement weather event, Sheltering Arms will be closed if the public school district in the county where the center is located is closed. Thereafter, the center will make every effort to open if safe travel is possible. Section 2: Eligibility, Recruitment, Selection, Enrollment and Attendance (ERSEA) requirements Enrollment Requirements All families must complete an initial inquiry for child care by visiting our website www.shelteringarmsforkids.com and completing the Potential Family Form. This application places families on the list to be considered for enrollment into the appropriate program based on their needs. Families who complete the pre-application process will be notified about the application process for other programs at the appropriate time. Parents are responsible for supplying and maintaining accurate information for enrollment purposes including: current phone numbers, emergency contact information, a list of authorized people for pick-up and other documentation required by Sheltering Arms. Eligibility for Preschool Head Start and Early Head Start Children are eligible for Early Head Start if they are under three years of age by or on September 1 of the current school year. Children are eligible for Preschool Head Start if they are three (3) or four (4) years old on or by September 1 of the current school year. In addition, household income must meet Federal Income Guidelines based on the number of family members. Families must apply for Early and Preschool Head Start at designated application times during the year to verify their eligibility for these programs. **Verification of the following is required to apply:** Proof of age for the child (e.g. birth certificate/confirmation of birth/passport); **Family Income** (TANF/SSI statements/tax return/letter from employer on letterhead/child support, etc); **Residency** (utility bill/lease/notarized letter if no bill or lease in parent’s name). Eligible children are then selected for enrollment based on the Selection Criteria approved by the Early and Preschool Head Start Policy Council, considering such priorities such as foster children, homeless families, children with special needs, and other family needs. Children who are not selected are placed on the waiting list for available openings during the school year. Children remain on the waiting list for that school year and families must reapply for the following year. There are no fees for the six and a half hour core day for Early/Preschool Head Start (8:00am through 2:30pm). Parents who need extended day may enroll in After School care (2:30pm through 6:30pm) **Pre-Kindergarten** A child must be four (4) years of age on or before September 1 of the current school year to enroll in the Pre-K Program. Bright from the Start: Georgia Department of Early Care and Learning (DECAL) coordinates a statewide recruitment in April for classes beginning in the fall. Families must apply for Pre-K at designated application times during the year. Families on the waiting list will be notified about application dates and will be invited to apply first. Pre-K enrollment is based on a first-come, first served basis. Families who have complete applications will be accepted first, regardless of position on the waiting list. Tuition is assessed for After School, non-Pre-K days, and Summer Enrichment. Verification of residence (utility bill, mortgage or lease in the parent’s name) and age verification (copies of birth certificates, passports, official medical documents, or official documents from other countries) are required. **Child Care Program** A child is eligible for enrollment in our early learning program if their age is less than four (4) years on or before September 1 of the current school year. Families who complete the pre-application process will be notified of available space when it becomes available. Applications are considered based on the date of the initial inquiry and priority for services. The waiting list is depends upon the age of the child, the amount of scholarship needed, and the time of year. Tuition is based on a scholarship plan for families with incomes under $100,000. Families must provide documentation of family income if a scholarship is needed. Eligibility for scholarships will be reevaluated every year. **Attendance** Children benefit from regular attendance year round, including the summer. When your child is absent, staff will contact parents within 1 hour of a child’s expected arrival and document the reasons as required by our licensing, funding, and accrediting entities. Pre-K and Early/Preschool Head Start children are required to attend the core instructional day (8:00am – 2:30pm). Pre-K children who are late or absent without an excuse may be dismissed from the program according to the Bright from the Start: Georgia Department of Early Care and Learning (DECAL) Standards. Pre-K parents may refer to the Pre-K Family Handbook. We will use child attendance data to identify children with patterns of absence that put them at risk of missing ten percent of program days per year or multiple unexplained absences (such as two consecutive unexplained absences). We will develop appropriate strategies to improve individual attendance among identified children, such as direct contact with parents or intensive case management, as necessary. If the child’s attendance does not improve or resume, then the program must consider that slot vacant. Parents will be informed in writing that the child will be dis-enrolled on a specified date. We cannot grant extended periods of absence if a child is enrolled in Early/Preschool Head Start or Pre-K. We will immediately begin the process to enroll a child in the vacated space from the waiting list. **Arrival and Departure** Parents or authorized adults (18 years or older) must accompany each child inside the center, clock in, sign in and take them to the appropriate classroom. If the child is late arriving, the person bringing the child must also inform the teacher or a member of the management team of the reason for late arrival. Parents or authorized adults must make the classroom staff aware of the child's presence before leaving the child. Parents or guardians should wash their hands when entering the classroom during arrival and departure. **Time of Arrival** We urge all children to arrive in time for breakfast, which is served between 8:00 - 8:30 a.m. Children enrolled in **Pre-Kindergarten MUST** be in their classroom by 8:00 a.m. After 8:00 a.m., they are considered tardy and can be dismissed from the Pre-K program. Please read the Bright from the Start: Georgia Department of Early Care and Learning (DECAL) Pre-K Family Handbook for more information. Early and Preschool Head Start Children enrolled in Early and Preschool Head Start are encouraged to be in their classroom by 8:00 a.m. in order to benefit from the E/PHS core day. Our staff will work with parents of children with patterns of tardiness that put them at risk of missing a percentage of the program day. Child Departure Children will only be released to those persons whose name appears on the "Permission to Pick Up" list authorized by parents. - Photo identification will be required from any authorized person who is unknown to staff when that person requests to pick up a child. - Parents or other persons must use the check-out system when picking up the child. If a child is picked up early (before 2:30 p.m.), the person requesting the child's release must also notify staff of the reason for early pickup from the core day for E/PHS or Pre-K. - No child will be released to any person suspected of being under the influence of drugs or alcohol. - Changes to the “Permission to Pick Up” must be made in writing. - Children enrolled in Pre-K or E/PHS must be picked up by 2:30 pm unless they are enrolled in the After School Program. Children who stay past 2:30 pm will be charged a late fee of $1.00 per minute beginning at 2:31 pm. The late fee will be charged to the parent’s account and will be due by Friday of the week it was charged. - Children that stay past the center closing time of 6:30 pm will be charged a late fee of $1.00 per minute beginning at 6:31 pm). The late fee will be charged to the parent’s account. This late fee will be due by Friday of the week it was charged. If not paid, the child will not be able to return to the center on the following Monday. Multiple (chronic) late pick-ups may lead to disenrollment from the program. - Multiple (chronic) pick-ups are defined as a child being picked up late 2 or more times within a week and 5 late pick-ups in a month. Child Protective Services will be notified about children not picked up within one hour of closing unless a parent has made contact with the center and presented a reasonable reason for late pick up. Dis-enrolling Every effort will be made to work with children and parents in our program. However, there are instances when it may become necessary to dis-enroll a child. In the unlikely event this occurs, parents will be notified in writing that the child will be dis-enrolled on a specific date and officially withdrawn from the program. Instances that may result in dis-enrollment include: • Disruptive behavior - children who demonstrate behavior that is harmful to themselves or others. All incidents of disruptive behavior will be documented and all resources and techniques to improve the behavior will be exhausted. Parents will be fully informed and involved in all efforts to correct the disruptive behavior prior to dis-enrollment. Documents on disruptive children will be reviewed by the School Readiness Specialists in order to develop a plan of action. • A child’s day may be modified due to disruptive behavior to prevent dis-enrolling, however, this will be carefully monitored by the School Readiness Specialist to determine the effectiveness of the modified day strategy. • Poor attendance - all absences will be documented and discussed to try to improve the situation. • Delinquent payments – payment is due on Friday, in advance of service. Payments are delinquent at closing time on Friday. • Late pickup - leaving children in the center after closing hours or after their program day ends. A late fee will be assessed and if fee is not paid after more than two late pick ups, could result in dis-enrollment. • Late arrival - Pre-K children who do not come on time as required by the BRIGHT FROM THE START: GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF EARLY CARE AND LEARNING. • Failure to provide necessary documents – parents who do not provide the required documentation within the proper timelines. • Parent disruption of the program – abusive, profane or loud inappropriate language and threatening behavior by adults that are harmful to children, staff, other parents, volunteers, self, or the center. • Non-compliance with the Agreements signed at enrollment. Section 3: Tuition, Fees and Scholarships Tuition (Fees) There is an annual registration fee for enrollment in the early learning program at Sheltering Arms. Tuition is charged for Child Care, After School, Summer Enrichment, non-Pre-K days, and school holidays. Scholarships are based on income and the availability of funding. Tuition is payable in accordance with the Parent Understandings, Permissions and Agreements form signed by parents at the time of enrollment. Tuition is due on Friday in advance of service. If tuition is not paid by Friday, parents will receive a late notice stating that the child will not be permitted to return to the center until tuition is paid in full. All payments must be received in advance in weekly or bi-weekly increments based on the special circumstances of the parent such as their pay period. Payments must be paid by money order, debit, or credit card only. Tuition will not be adjusted when the center is closed due to inclement weather, holidays, teacher work days or other circumstances beyond our control. In order to maintain your child’s slot in the center, all tuition must be paid in full even when your child is out due to vacation or for any other extended period of time, such as illness. When tuition is paid in advance and the child withdraws from the program, all unused tuition will be refunded by check from the Administrative Office. **Scholarships** Scholarships are awarded based on the date of initial inquiry, verification of income, priority for services and availability of funding. They are reviewed annually. Scholarship applications are confidential. Income must be verified to determine eligibility for scholarships. Parents must be employed or enrolled in school or job training to remain eligible – single parents = 25 hours per week; two parents = 35 hours each. Scholarships are subject to change based on the availability of funding. Funds generated from center-based fundraising help support scholarships. --- **Section 4: Early Childhood Education (Curriculum and Classrooms)** **Curriculum** We use *The Creative Curriculum*, a developmentally appropriate, comprehensive curriculum for programs serving children from birth through age five. It is based on knowledge of child development theory and careful consideration of the latest research in the field of early childhood education. It is based on five fundamental principles: - Positive interactions and relationships with adults provide a critical foundation for successful learning. - Social-emotional competence is a significant factor in school success. - Constructive, purposeful play supports essential learning. - The physical environment affects the type and quality of learning interactions. - Teacher—family partnerships promote development and learning. Through the curriculum, teachers are provided the tools and knowledge for working with all learners. This includes working with English- and dual-language learners as well as advanced learners and children with disabilities. Our main focus is on creating high-quality learning environments that will enable every child to reach his/her full potential. **Infants, Toddlers, and Twos** *The Creative Curriculum for Infants, Toddlers & Twos*, helps teachers understand developmentally appropriate practice and how to implement daily routines and create meaningful experiences that respond to children’s strengths, interests, and needs. We focus on responsive care while incorporating learning objectives that enable teachers to plan and implement developmentally appropriate experiences for children from birth to age three. During this time, each child is assigned a primary caregiver and a small bonding group within their classroom. This helps teachers to get to know each child well. Primary caregivers stay with the same children during their first three years until they move to the preschool classroom. **Preschool** *The Creative Curriculum System for Preschool* features daily resources to guide teachers in facilitating learning experiences for three and four year old children. Teachers provide playful and engaging activities and learning opportunities that intentionally promote language, literacy, math, science, social studies, and physical skills. Individualized instruction is a priority for every child. Using exploration and discovery as a way of learning, teachers work with each child to foster confidence, creativity, and lifelong critical thinking skills. **Pre-Kindergarten** *The Creative Curriculum Study Starters* are used in our Pre-K classrooms to support development and learning. Studies are one of the most effective ways for children to learn science and social studies content while developing skills in literacy, math, the arts, and technology. Through Studies, we capitalize on children’s wonderful ability to become totally engaged in topics and activities that interest them, and then gently challenge children to extend their thinking to higher levels. Children engage in direct observation and experimentation and then link new ideas to what they already know. Teachers facilitate children’s ability to think, organize information, construct understandings, and develop problem solving skills. Each day’s learning builds upon what was studied before, and each new study provides opportunities for children to extend skills acquired in previous work. **Parent Involvement** We view parents as their child’s first teacher and an essential partner in the education process. We invite families to be engaged in their child’s educational experience. We look to parents to provide information about their child’s interests and strengths as well as input into the goals they have for their children. We strive to create a learning environment that includes materials, activities, and interactions that will meet the individual needs of each child as well as the group as a whole. Lesson plans, developed weekly, address the needs identified through ongoing assessment, daily teacher observations, and curricular objectives. Rest Time All children will have the advantage of an afternoon rest period (between 12:00 - 2:00). The rest time for Preschool and Pre-K is generally 1 hour. Infants nap according to their own schedule. Cribs, cots and blankets are provided. Sheltering Arms’ Safe Sleep Practices Policy is followed by staff. Outdoor Play Requirements Children need fresh air every day. Each child will be provided at least 1.5 hours of outdoor activity per day, weather permitting. Even in cold weather, children will go outside for fresh air (weather permitting). When children return to the center after an illness, staff assumes that they are well enough to go outside and participate in all activities. A child may be excused from outdoor activities for a limited period of time if there is medical documentation that outdoor activity is medically contraindicated. We also monitor outdoor play based on recommendations from the Clean Air Campaign. Guidance and Discipline Children learn what they live. Our example of honest and fair action with all children, loving and calming words, and gentle hugs of encouragement are the most powerful ways we teach children how to live in the world. Teachers provide a positive environment where the rules are clear and consistent. Teachers encourage positive behavior by being well-prepared with age-appropriate learning activities: - Redirecting children whose behavior is inappropriate to another activity - Praising and encouraging specific behavior. Biting Infants, toddlers and two-year olds are often unable to communicate effectively with words and may sometimes bite another child. Staff makes every attempt to prevent this from happening. However, at some point your child may be bitten or bite another child. Staff will treat the wound and notify you on the Incident Report form and on the biting form. Biting incidents are confidential. Parents may decide to have the bite checked by their doctor if the skin was penetrated and bleeding occurred. Toilet Learning and Healthy Sexual Development Staff uses correct names for body parts and bodily functions with children of all ages. When your child shows signs of readiness for using the toilet, our staff will be happy to assist you. Please carefully read our Toilet Training Readiness handout. Children learn about their bodies and sexual differences in the same way they learn other information – in a simple, gradual, natural way. We gently and clearly redirect typical sexual behavior (playing “doctor,” removing clothing, masturbation) and involve the children in more appropriate activities. We never use shame, guilt, or punishment to stop children from exploring sexual behaviors or language. We teach children the differences between “good touch” and “bad touch” as appropriate. Individual Needs of Children The goal of the Sheltering Arms curriculum is to provide children with an environment that is conducive to learning, encourages curiosity, exploration, problem solving, and self-expression, and assists children in developing a positive self-image. Each child in an infant, toddler or two-year old classroom is assigned a primary caregiver and a small bonding group within their classroom. This helps teachers to get to know each child well. Primary caregivers stay with the same infants/toddlers/twos until they turn three and move to the preschool classroom. Developmental Assessment Sheltering Arms uses the Teaching Strategies GOLD ongoing observational assessment tool for children from birth through kindergarten. It is a research-based tool grounded in 38 objectives for development and learning that are predictors of school success and aligned to Georgia Early Learning Standards. The assessment is used to identify the skill levels of each child upon entering the program and to track progress throughout the year. Developmental assessment reports are produced in the fall, winter, and spring, to share the information with parents. Arrangements are made, in partnership with parents, when the assessment indicates a possible need for further testing or evaluation. Our goal is for each child to meet their developmental milestones and to receive immediate interventions when they do not. In addition, our Pre-K teachers use the Work Sampling System to collect child assessment information. This information is shared with parents twice a year, in the winter and spring. Inclusive Environment Every effort will be made to include children with special needs in the most integrated setting appropriate to their needs and in compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Our goal is to enroll infants, toddlers and young children with and without disabilities who will play, develop, and learn together in our center-based settings. Children suspected and/or diagnosed with special needs will be accepted into the center based on their Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or Individualized Family Support Plan (IFSP). Children must be linked to Babies Can’t Wait Program (children under age 3) or to the local public school special needs program (children over age 3) for services. Linkage to Babies Can’t Wait and/or the local public school is necessary for a child to be enrolled and remain enrolled. In addition, there will be a meeting to plan for the child’s enrollment to determine if center-based care is the appropriate placement for the family, taking into consideration classroom group sizes and ratios. Parents may also choose their own services providers whether private therapists (Speech & Language Pathologist, Occupational Therapist, Physical Therapist, behavioral health, etc.), psychologists, specialists, and/diagnosticians; however, children will also be assessed by the Sheltering Arms School Readiness Specialists and/or Health and Nutrition Specialists based on their needs. School Readiness Specialists will assess the impact of a child’s disability on involvement and progress in our general education curriculum. Sheltering Arms practices principles of inclusion, the integration of children with disabilities with typically developing children in the same classroom setting. The severity of each child’s disability and the availability of other community services are taken into account when recruiting and enrolling children with special needs. Sheltering Arms will always focus on the best interest of all children. Parents are encouraged to disclose all information regarding their child’s disabilities or special needs in order for Sheltering Arms to determine the most appropriate method to accommodate their needs. Parents who withhold pertinent information regarding a child’s special needs may create a liability risk for health and safety concerns. In conjunction with the IEP or IFSP, if needed, a Special Care Plan is developed to document the special accommodations that must occur to best support a child in their natural learning environment. On rare occasions, a child may require accommodations that are NOT considered to be within reasonable means for Sheltering Arms in the least restrictive environment. What is reasonable will vary among programs. However, there are three most important variables that are generally taken in consideration: (1) the needs of a child with a disability, (2) the accommodations requested, and (3) the resources available to the program. All accommodations must be based on the individualized assessments of the child’s needs and the program’s ability to make the necessary modifications. **Transitions** Each child will have a transition plan to encourage the successful transition from class to class, into kindergarten, and to other child care programs. Transition activities are designed to prepare all partners (children, families, schools, and communities) to develop knowledge, skills, and relationships that help children move from one educational setting to another. **Transportation (field trips)** Transportation is provided for scheduled field trips. Field trips are an important part of our educational program for three and four-year old children. Field trips are subject to cancellation due to unforeseen circumstances beyond our control. Outings into the community, nature walks, and other such activities help enhance the classroom activities. Parents are encouraged to go with the class whenever possible. Parents will be notified about trips and outings and must provide written permission. We try to plan trips that do not require an additional fee from the parents. Parents of three and four-year-olds will be notified in advance of field trips or special activities away from the center. Parents must sign a written authorization for their child to participate in each trip. There are no water related activities or field trips that will occur in water that is more than two feet deep. Diapers and Pull-Ups Parents of children in diapers are urged to provide enough diapers for the week. During toilet training, parents are urged to bring a minimum of six pairs of plastic covered training pants or pull-ups. Be sure the outer pants are large enough for the child to manage. Diapers will be provided for children in the Early Head Start program. Clothing and Personal Belongings Teachers plan a variety of educational, hands-on learning activities for your child. Sometimes your child's clothing may become soiled or dirty so please consider this when dressing your child for school. We recommend comfortable, inexpensive clothing. The center is NOT responsible for lost or damaged clothing, shoes, earrings, or other jewelry. Necklaces and small beads are a safety risk for young children and may not be worn at the center. Please label your child's clothing with your child's name or initials. In cold weather, send a cap and mittens. Mittens attached to a yarn that runs through the coat sleeves are helpful. Each child must have an extra change of clothing, including underwear in his/her cubby for emergencies. Parents should check their child’s change of clothes frequently so that appropriate clothing based on the seasons is available as needed. Children who are toilet training must have 2-3 changes of clothes, especially underwear. Please wash and return center clothing as soon as possible. Children must wear shoes with a heel strap. Rubber soled shoes are best for running and climbing. Open toe shoes, sandals, flip-flops, wedges, shoes with high heels, or rollers may not be worn. Child Security Items Children may bring a security item or pacifier, if needed, for a smooth home to center transition, but PLEASE do not allow children to bring toys, games, or other items to the center. The center is not responsible for lost or broken items. Hazardous Items Children are not permitted to wear scarves, necklaces, pacifiers, or other items around their necks. In addition, pacifiers may not be attached to clothing. Beads, small rubber bands and small hair bows cannot be worn for hair adornment because they pose a choking threat if they become loose. Balloons are not allowed in the center. Immunizations ALL children are required to have a current immunization record from either the Health Department or family physician within 30 days of enrollment. All child care centers are required by law (O.C.G.A. Chapter 20-2-771) to have current immunization records on file for each child. An official affidavit must be on file if immunizations conflict with the religious beliefs of the parent or guardian. Preventive and Primary Medical and Oral Health Care Within 90 days of enrollment all children are required to have documentation from health care and oral health care professionals as to whether or not the child is up-to-date on a schedule of age appropriate preventive and primary medical and oral health care, based on: the well-child visits and dental periodicity schedules as prescribed by the Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment (EPSDT) program in Georgia. Documentation must be updated based on the age of the child. Within 45 calendar days after the child first attends, we will either obtain or perform evidence-based vision and hearing screenings. Oral Hygiene Children are required to brush their teeth at least once a day while at the center using toothpaste approved by the American Dental Association. All infant gums are swabbed after each bottle feeding. Ear, Eye, Dental Exam and Nutrition Screening (Form 3300) ALL children age four on or before September 1st are required to have an Ear, Eye, Dental Exam and Nutrition Screening within 30 days of enrollment. If needed, parents are expected to follow-up with further exams or treatment. Family Support Coaches are available for assistance. Symptoms that Require Exclusion from the Center A child shall not be accepted nor allowed to remain at the center if the child has the equivalent of a one hundred and one (101) degrees Fahrenheit or higher oral temperature and accompanied by another contagious symptom, such as but not limited to; a rash like appearance (i.e. ringworm), two or more loose stools that cannot be contained in a diaper (diarrhea), or sore throat symptoms. The Center must follow the Common Infectious Illnesses Chart of recommendations for exclusion of sick children from the center and their readmission. A child cannot return to the center until they have been symptom free for 24 hours from the time they are picked up. Please see the chart posted in the center for more information. Requirement to Report Communicable Disease The center is required to report any suspected cases of notifiable communicable disease to the local county health department. Parents of all children enrolled shall be notified in writing of the occurrence of any of the illnesses on the communicable disease chart within 24 hours after the center becomes aware of the illness or the next business day. If your child has been diagnosed with a communicable disease, please notify the center so that we can notify families. Policy Regarding Blood Borne Pathogens Sheltering Arms makes every effort to protect its children, parents, and employees from any communicable disease. Sheltering Arms also does not discriminate in its hiring, enrollment, or dismissal practices based on physical disability. Blood borne viruses have not been found to be transmitted by casual contact. Wiping noses, sharing mouthed toys, hugging, coughing, sneezing, using common utensils, or touching common surfaces used by someone infected with a blood borne pathogen does not spread them. Routine precautions will be taken when dealing with incidents where there is blood or body fluid involvement (i.e. rubber gloves, proper handwashing and careful sanitizing and disinfecting of all surfaces, etc.) If the carrier of a blood borne virus is in a stage where open lesions occur in the mouth or other parts of the body, and/or displays a biting behavior, they will be considered too high risk to participate in our program. Sheltering Arms will provide printed material and educational information to help alleviate any concerns from staff or parents. Any employee who discriminates against or breeches confidentiality regarding anyone with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), or Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) or other blood borne pathogens will be disciplined. Parental Notification (illness, injury, communicable disease) Parents will be notified immediately by phone when professional medical attention is required or the child experiences symptoms of moderate discomfort such as elevated temperature, vomiting, or diarrhea. Staff will contact parents to obtain specific instructions until the parents can arrange to pick up the child. Parents will be notified at the time of pick up when further professional medical attention is required. Sheltering Arms must report to the center’s licensing agency any serious illness or injury requiring hospitalization or professional medical attention other than first aid. Center staff will document these incidents on an incident form. Procedure for Medication Authorization The Medication Authorization Form must be filled out completely for ALL medicine, prescription and over-the-counter, on a weekly basis. The medications must: - Be in the original container that must be child-proof - Labeled with the following information - Child’s first and last name clearly marked - Name of the health professional that prescribed or recommended the medication - Date prescription was filled, if prescription medicine - Expiration date - Have specific instructions for giving, storing, and disposing of medication from the health professional for prescription and over-the-counter medications (instructions for over-the-counter medications may be faxed into the center by the health professional) - Authorization for medicine is for one week only. A new form must be submitted every Monday - Medication will be administered at 11:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. - In case of adverse medical reactions, parents will be notified immediately - If parents cannot be reached, staff will call the emergency numbers listed by parents on the enrollment application. If the situation is critical, we will call 911 Emergency Medication All children who require the use of rescue medications (medications only used in emergencies, such as Epipens, rescue inhalers, seizure medication) are required to have supporting documentation (treatment plan) from a physician in order to leave medication at the center. All rescue medications must remain at the center anytime a child is present or the child will not be allowed in the center. NOTE: We encourage parents to ask their doctor to prescribe medicines that can be given in 12 hour cycles, if possible, so that medicine can be administered at home and not at the center. If the child must receive medication at the center, ask the pharmacist to divide the medication so that a portion can be left at the center. Staffing of Children with Special Conditions For children with special conditions such as seizures, asthma and food allergies, a staffing will need to take place at the center before the child can begin school. Staffings will require parents to provide supporting documentation from a physician or nutritionist. If medication is required to be administered at school, it must be brought to the staffing. On occasions, children with exceptionalities may also require staffings (refer to page 14-Inclusive Environment). Requirement to Report Suspected Child Abuse Each child will be observed daily, upon arrival, by the teachers to check for and document early symptoms of illness, suspected child abuse, neglect, exploitation, or deprivation. If abuse, neglect, exploitation, or deprivation is suspected, a member of the center management team will make a report to the local Department of Family and Children's Services as required by law. (GA. Code 19-7-5) Medical or Other Emergencies When a medical emergency arises involving a child, either at the center or on a field trip, the center staff will seek prompt emergency medical treatment and provide any certified or licensed emergency medical personnel with immediate access to the child. In the case of a SERIOUS accident, the closest staff member with first aid training will render first aid and a member of the Center Management Team will contact the parent. If neither parents nor the family physician can be reached, a member of the Center Management Team or designated staff member will call 911. The designated hospital for each location is posted in the center. If a child is allergic or requires an anaphylactic device, it is the responsibility of the parent to make sure that all medication is properly labeled and on site. This medication must be on site before a child can begin school. In the event of a lost child, either at the center or on a field trip, the center staff will initiate a search; designate a teacher to be in charge of the group, and then notify the center management team, who will take any other necessary steps to locate the child. Staff Training in Emergency Procedures Center staff is trained in emergency first aid procedures and CPR. When minor incidents (bumps, scrapes, and scratches) occur, we will treat the injury. A written incident report form will be sent home on the day of the incident, filed in the incident log, and noted in the child’s contact log. Parents will be notified of head injuries. Child Accident Insurance Insurance coverage is provided to all children enrolled at Sheltering Arms while they are at the center or involved in any center-related activity. If a child is involved in an accident and requires medical attention, parents will be notified immediately. If the center is unable to reach parents or the emergency release names given by parents, and the situation warrants medical attention, the staff will obtain the medical attention. Parents will then be notified as soon as possible. If medical attention is required, claim forms can be obtained from the center management team. It is the parent's responsibility to have the claim forms completed by the attending physician or medical facility and to return it to the center with the bill. The staff will send it to the insurance company. Fire and Storm Evacuation Fire and storm evacuation routes are posted in each classroom. Fire and storm drills are conducted monthly and posted on the center bulletin board. In the event the center must be evacuated, the staff will take the children to the designated evacuation site. determined for each center. The evacuation site is posted in the center. Staff will contact parents as soon as possible to alert them of the evacuation and to provide instructions on picking up their children from the designated location. **Handling other emergencies** In case of severe weather, loss of electrical power or water, death or serious injury at the center, staff will contact parents immediately and follow operational procedures. No center personnel will impede in any way the delivery of emergency care or services to a child by licensed or certified emergency health care professionals. **Child Safety Reminders** - No children shall be left unattended in vehicles while on Sheltering Arms’ property. - All children must be securely buckled in the proper safety seats when arriving and departing on Sheltering Arms’ property. --- **Section 6: Nutrition** **Meals and Snacks** Sheltering Arms provides breakfast, lunch, and a snack. We provide food that helps to meet over two-thirds of the child's daily nutritional requirements. **No outside food is allowed in centers unless special permission is granted by the Center Director or Nutrition Manager.** Weekly menus are posted in each center and parents may submit suggestions for the menus. As a program participant in the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP), our agency ensures that children are receiving a variety of healthy meals and snacks, and Family Style Dining is a daily practice in the classrooms during mealtimes. Children are encouraged to taste each new food. Parents are welcome to have lunch with their child at any time. Please give the center advance notice so the food service manager can prepare enough food. Special consideration is given to those children requiring special diets and feeding equipment. Parents with children that require special diets, must have their pediatrician complete an Individual Nutrition Care Plan and submit to their Family Support Coach. Notify the Family Support Coach if your child has any known food allergies or special dietary requirements. If your child has severe food allergies and/or requires an Epi-pen, parents are required to meet with staff prior to the child’s first day of school. We serve whole milk to one (1) year old children and 1% milk to children two (2) and older. **Infant Formula and Baby Food** Parents of infants must complete the Infant Affidavit form which states the kind of formula and cereal we will serve. We will provide ready to use Enfamil Infant with iron (milk-based), Enfamil ProSobee with iron and Gerber rice cereal. However, if a child requires formula other than the ones that we provide, the parent must provide us with a doctor’s note. In this case, Sheltering Arms will provide formula for Head Start/Early Head Start children only. Also, Parents of Infants must sign and date an Individual Feeding Plan for children under age one. The plan includes the formula to be given, instructions for introducing solid foods, the amount to be given, and notations about food allergies. Food is never used as a punishment or a reward. **Breastfeeding** Mothers are encouraged and supported to breastfeed. A designated area is set aside at each center for breastfeeding mothers to breastfeed. Any breast milk remaining one hour from the beginning of the feeding shall be discarded or returned to parents. --- **Section 7: Parent Engagement** **Parent Responsibilities** - Meet personally with an Enrollment Specialist or Family Support Coach to complete the enrollment application and agreements. - Pay tuition as agreed upon in a timely manner. Tuition Express is highly recommended as the method of payment. - Notify the center of any change of address, employment, income, family status, home or business telephone number as soon as possible. Emergency numbers must always be current. - Dress appropriately while in the center – in such a manner that is a good role model for children. i.e. shoes must be worn, day-time clothing (no bathrobes, pajamas or bedroom slippers), no slang or profanity on t-shirts, hair should be groomed (no hair curlers). **Documents** - Comply with requirements for immunizations, health checks, and other screenings as mandated by funders. - Provide court documents regarding visitation rights if you are separated or divorced. Staff cannot refuse a parent the right to visit or pick up their child from the center without documentation. **Parent Involvement** - Attend parent meetings and center events as often as possible. - Read and respond to posted information and correspondence from the center. - Collaborate with the staff in meeting the readiness requirements for success in school. • Volunteer as often as possible: supervise sleeping children while teachers attend staff meetings, assist teachers during program times/outside play, and assist with field trips and in many other ways. • Advocate for Sheltering Arms, Head Start, and quality child care for all children. **Communication** • Refrain from using your cell phone in the center during drop off and pick-up. • Communicate with staff and other parents in a professional manner and in a manner that sets a good example for children. Examples: no profanity, shouting, name calling, or threatening words or gestures. **Parent/Teacher Conference and Personal/Home Visits** • Parents are required to attend parent/teacher conferences at least twice a year. • Head Start parents are invited to also participate in a home visit twice each year scheduled at their convenience. Staff are happy to talk with parents about their children; however, it is best not to discuss a child’s behavior in his/her presence. ALL parents are encouraged to ask for a conference at any time. **Confidentiality** All family information is confidential and is not provided to any other agency or individual without written parental consent. Access to a child’s file is limited in order to protect the privacy of children and parents. Relevant documentation may be released to state and federal licensing agencies upon request. Relevant information may also be released to a hospital and/or physician in an emergency. Parents are asked to sign a release authorizing the center to obtain medical assistance in an emergency when parents cannot be reached. **Parent Notification of Center Policies** Each center maintains a Parent Notification Bulletin Board in the hallway or center lobby area that includes the License, copy of rules, review of evaluation report, communicable disease chart, statement of parental access, names of persons in charge, current weekly menu, emergency plans for severe weather and fire, and statement for visitors. **Parent Communication** Messages may be: • Displayed on the computer during the check in/out procedure when dropping off and picking up children. • Posted on classroom bulletin boards. • Shared on Parent Curriculum Involvement forms. • Posted in newsletters for parents that may be distributed each month. • Shared with staff by talking on a daily basis. • Discussed during a scheduled appointment with staff. We encourage parents to sign-up for our monthly e-newsletter and to follow us on social media. Links can be found at www.shelteringarmsforkids.com • Phoned, faxed, texted or emailed. • Communicated through calling posts. NOTE: Notes placed on center bulletin boards, cubbies, or lockers, or distributed at parent events or meetings must have the prior approval of the center director. The director has the right and responsibility to deny solicitations of any kind. Corporal Punishment Physical punishment or verbal abuse by any adult, including parents, is not allowed on center property. The goal of discipline is to help children learn inner control over their own behavior. Helping children express emotions using words rather than physical force is the best way to help them do this. Staff may schedule conferences with parents to discuss concerns about a child’s behavior in order to gain their understanding and support of ways to work better with the child. Our goal is to work in partnership with parents. When persistent behaviors make it difficult for a child or other children to benefit from classroom activities, staff will develop a written plan to help the child. The plan will involve parents, teachers, management team staff, and community resources. If after diligent efforts to include the child in group care, the child poses a threat to him/herself or others it may be necessary to dis-enroll the child. Mental Health Positive self-concepts are developed in children through the mastery of age appropriate skills, the establishment of warm and caring relationships with teachers, peers, and the opportunity to make many choices for themselves. We have staff available to provide training for staff and parents, to observe children in the classroom setting, to provide individual consultation and technical assistance for staff and parents, and to make recommendations for intervention for children with special needs. Mental Health means that young children are growing in their ability to: • understand and share feelings • have close and positive relationships • explore and learn Early Childhood Mental Health (birth-5 years) is a child’s growing capacity to do these things, all in the cultural context of family and community (adapted from ZERO TO THREE): - experience, regulate, and express emotions - develop close, secure relationships - explore the surroundings and learn Early Childhood Mental Health is the same as Social Emotional Development. **Family-Centered Practice** Every child and family deserves Sheltering Arms. Without family involvement, the care and education we offer children is not as effective or long lasting. Quality child care must include family engagement and support or it cannot be quality. In the first five years of a child’s life, the personality develops and the child learns patterns of behavior that follow them throughout life. By caring for the child in the context of their family, we influence the home environment, strengthening and building a strong family unit. We believe that parents are the child’s first and most important teachers and our goal is to arm you with the best information and resources possible. **Building Protective Factors to Promote Strong Families** Each Center has a full-time Family Support Coach to work with families to build strong foundations. Coaches are available to assist families with information on a variety of interests and needs, especially in the areas of health, career, postsecondary education, child development and parenting. We fully support and strive to embed the five research-based Protective Factors into our services and supports for children and their families: 1. Parental Resilience 2. Social Connections 3. Knowledge of Child Development 4. Concrete Support in Times of Need 5. Social and Emotional Competence of Children **Parent’s Participation in Policymaking and Planning** Parents are directly involved in program policy-making and planning through the center’s Parent Leadership Organization (PLO). The Parent Leadership Organization meets monthly and is open to all family members. Parents have the opportunity to be elected to leadership positions and to participate in committees, or focus groups, and for Early and Preschool Head Start parents, the Policy Council. Each meeting offers parents the opportunity to give their opinions, and to participate in advocacy actions and event planning. Staff helps parents understand their rights, responsibilities, and opportunities. Parent leaders and committee members are required to sign a code of conduct agreement as a representative of Sheltering Arms. Each year some parents may be appointed to a selfassessment team to assess the effectiveness of the program. In addition, each year parents give their input in a parent questionnaire and the results are used in program planning and evaluation. **Process for Expressing Concerns** Enrollment at Sheltering Arms is voluntary and we are very glad you have chosen us! We are committed to providing you with a high quality program. Policies and procedures are in place to meet the requirements of those that fund or regulate our program. We want you to be involved with your child’s care and education. We welcome your ideas and believe concerns are best handled informally and expeditiously between the involved parties. At Sheltering Arms, we foster respect and appreciation for the diverse ways and ideas of other people. We want to teach our children that respect for differences is the key to diverse people living in a world of peace. We believe it is okay to “agree to disagree” but to do so respectfully. At all times it is important to respect each other’s emotional and physical space. Any person who verbally or physically threatens another person will be asked to leave immediately. Formal steps to express concerns include: 1. If you have a concern about your child, please address the concern with your child’s teacher first (not in the presence of the child). If the concern is not addressed to your satisfaction, then discuss your concern with the Curriculum Specialist and/or Family Support Coach. If you are still unsatisfied, discuss the concern with the Center Director. It is best to schedule a conference with the teacher or director so that adequate time can be arranged to hear your concern. 2. If you have a concern about our policies and procedures, please feel free to discuss any aspect with the Center Director. It is best to schedule a conference so that proper time can be arranged to hear your concerns. 3. If your concern about your child or the policies and procedures are not resolved with the Center Director, you may ask the Center Director to arrange a meeting within five days with the Sr. Director of Site Leadership. 4. If the concern is not resolved in a meeting with the Sr. Director of Site Leadership, the next step is to put your concern in writing to the Vice President of Operations at the administrative office within five days of the meeting with the Senior Director of Site Leadership. 5. The VP of Operations will review the concern and make a recommendation for resolution within five days of the receipt of the concern. 6. If step five fails to resolve the concern, it may be referred to the President/CEO of Sheltering Arms for review within five days of the Vice President of Operations’ recommendation. The determination of the President/CEO will be final. **Birthdays and Other Special Events** Parents are encouraged to celebrate their child’s birthday or other significant days at the center. Please talk with the staff to plan the celebration in such a way that **all** children are included in a fun, learning experience. Balloons are hazardous to children according to Child Care Licensing and are not allowed in classrooms or at center events. Parents are encouraged to bring healthy snacks, limiting sugar. Food brought from home for sharing must be pre-packaged. **All invitations must be approved by the Center Director before distribution to the other parents.** Parents are encouraged to develop strong community linkages for meeting their basic needs for food, housing, and health-care as well as education, recreation, leisure, employment, culture, and the arts. We strive to connect people to people. Parents and staff work together in planning formal and informal opportunities for linking with community resources. **Family Support Team** Father/Daughter Dance Father Involvement Community Partners Section 8: Resources - National Association for the Education of Young Children (families web site) http://families.naeyc.org - Babies Can’t Wait www.bcw-bibs.com - All Pro Dad www.allprodad.com - IMOM www.imom.com - Strengthening Families Georgia www.strengtheningfamilies.net - Bright from the Start: Georgia Department of Early Care and Learning (DECAL) www.decal.ga.gov - Great Start Georgia www.GreatStartGeorgia.org - Prevent Child Abuse Georgia Helpline 1-800-244-5373 - Cox Campus GA. Partners (free, video-based courses and resources) www.coxcampus.org - United Way First Call for Help www.unitedwayatlanta.org; 2-1-1 - Center for Disease Control (CDC) Learn the Signs. Act Early. www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly TO CONTACT THE ADMINISTRATIVE TEAM, WRITE OR CALL: 385 Centennial Olympic Park Drive, NW Atlanta, GA 30313 (404) 523-2767 or (404) 523-9952 (fax) Blythe Keeler Robinson, President and CEO Michele Schmitt, Vice President, Operations Steve White, Senior Director, Site Leadership Lee Shaw, Senior Director, Site Leadership www.shelteringarmsforkids.com Sheltering Arms revised 8/6/19
<urn:uuid:704f190d-d355-4460-b41e-61892ea69fa0>
CC-MAIN-2019-39
https://shelteringarmsforkids.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Family-Handbook-2019-2020-FINAL.pdf
2019-09-20T14:14:33Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514574039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20190920134548-20190920160548-00409.warc.gz
661,271,044
12,270
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.923639
eng_Latn
0.997201
[ "eng_Latn", "por_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 102, 1327, 3260, 5378, 7590, 10018, 13178, 15342, 17855, 20596, 23074, 25611, 28396, 31418, 34446, 36676, 39094, 41649, 44084, 47177, 49876, 51880, 54247, 56419, 59011, 62093, 62777, 62800, 62820, 62840, 63967 ]
[ 1.546875, 2.09375 ]
4
0
Instructional Rounds ODPS-Student Talk in Maths By Karen Pascoe, Elizabeth Body and Blane Steel Incorporating Student Talk in Mathematics? Hattie recommend that 50% of classroom time be devoted to student discourse and student interactions with their peers. Incorporating Student Talk in Mathematics? Hattie recommend that 50% of classroom time be devoted to student discourse and student interactions with their peers. To be successful: * Work must be complex enough so that the students need to work together * Work must allow for argumentation where students can agree / disagree / negotiate understanding / give evidence and support their reasons * Grouping (balanced and cannot be too big: 3-5 usually works well) * Provide individual and group accountability * Include language support (scaffolding - how to communicate) Incorporating Student Talk in Mathematics? Hattie recommend that 50% of classroom time be devoted to student discourse and student interactions with their peers. To be successful: * Work must be complex enough so that the students need to work together * Work must allow for argumentation where students can agree / disagree / negotiate understanding / give evidence and support their reasons * Grouping (balanced and cannot be too big: 3-5 usually works well) * Provide individual and group accountability * Include language support (scaffolding - how to communicate) Successful Grouping Grouping should allow for a moderate but not extreme range of skill level. (J. Hattie) eg. Highly skilled students paired with students of average skill and Those with average skill paired with the least skill (eg shown below) Incorporating Student Talk in Mathematics? Hattie recommend that 50% of classroom time be devoted to student discourse and student interactions with their peers. To be successful: * Work must be complex enough so that the students need to work together * Work must allow for argumentation where students can agree / disagree / negotiate understanding / give evidence and support their reasons * Grouping (balanced and cannot be too big: 3-5 usually works well) * Provide individual and group accountability * Include language support (scaffolding - how to communicate) Individual Exploration Notes 1. What is the question asking? 2. What useful information is given? 3. What other information would be helpful? 4. What might an answer look like? Contribution Checklists Have you considered . . . - asking questions of others to support their thinking? - checking your own and others’ work for accuracy? - keeping the team on task? - encouraging others respectfully by providing positive comments? - making sure the answer makes sense and, if not, figuring out why? - making sure everyone can explain the reasoning for the answer? - drawing connections between this problem and other types of problems or tasks? - sketching a visual representation of the task you’re trying to solve? - looking for another way to solve the task? - suggesting tools that might help your teammates approach the task? - drawing connections between the task and your real-world experience? Available for download at: http://resources.corwin.com/VI-mathematics Conversation Roundtable Collaborative Posters The first thing that we need to do is to understand what the problem is, and then we can start to think about how we might solve it. Incorporating Student Talk in Mathematics? Hattie recommend that 50% of classroom time be devoted to student discourse and student interactions with their peers. To be successful: * Work must be complex enough so that the students need to work together * Work must allow for argumentation where students can agree / disagree / negotiate understanding / give evidence and support their reasons * Grouping (balanced and cannot be too big: 3-5 usually works well) * Provide individual and group accountability * Include language support (scaffolding - how to communicate) WILF / Success Criteria Think Pair Share / Square Final Word Protocol Question Starters Sentence Starters Newman’s Prompts Problem Solving Kits Advanced Organisers Teacher Questioning Techniques The 2018-2019 academic year was a time of transition for the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences (CLAS). The University’s new president, Pradeep K. Khosla, began his tenure in August 2018, and CLAS underwent a major reorganization in September 2018. The College’s faculty and staff have been working hard to adapt to these changes and to ensure that our students receive the best possible education. One of the key initiatives during this period was the development of a new strategic plan for CLAS. This plan, which will guide the College’s efforts over the next five years, was developed through extensive consultation with faculty, staff, and students. The plan focuses on several key areas, including: 1. **Enhancing Student Success**: We are committed to providing our students with the best possible educational experience. This includes improving our advising and mentoring programs, enhancing our support services, and ensuring that our curriculum is up-to-date and relevant. 2. **Fostering Innovation and Excellence**: We believe that innovation is essential to our success as a research institution. We are investing in new research initiatives and supporting our faculty members as they pursue cutting-edge research projects. 3. **Building Community**: We value the diverse community that makes up our College. We are committed to creating an inclusive environment where all members feel valued and supported. 4. **Strengthening Partnerships**: We recognize the importance of building strong partnerships with other institutions, businesses, and organizations. We are actively seeking out opportunities to collaborate and share resources. 5. **Sustainability and Environmental Stewardship**: We are committed to being good stewards of our environment. We are working to reduce our carbon footprint and promote sustainable practices throughout the College. We are excited about the future of CLAS and look forward to continuing to work together to achieve our goals. If you have any questions or would like more information about our strategic plan, please don’t hesitate to contact us. Student talk in Mathematics - Stage 1 Peer Assessment During the lesson, students were asked to visit another group and assess how they were going. Students had to provide feedback to the other group based on their achievement of the lesson’s success criteria. This process of peer assessment allowed for deep but structured collaborative discussions. Many students gained clarity by analysing the work of others. As a result of this task, students were able to make improvements based on their own observations as well as feedback that they received from their peers. The European Commission has launched a consultation on the future of the EU’s research and innovation framework programme Horizon Europe, which will run from 2021 to 2027. The consultation is open until 30 September 2019 and aims to gather input from stakeholders on how to make the programme more effective in delivering the EU’s strategic objectives. The consultation focuses on four main areas: - **Innovation for growth and jobs**: How can Horizon Europe support the EU’s economy and create jobs? - **Sustainable development**: How can Horizon Europe contribute to the EU’s environmental and social goals? - **Global competitiveness**: How can Horizon Europe help the EU remain competitive on the global stage? - **Inclusive participation**: How can Horizon Europe ensure that all citizens have access to its benefits? The consultation also invites feedback on specific topics such as the role of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), the use of digital technologies, and the involvement of civil society organisations. The European Commission is committed to making Horizon Europe a success and welcomes the input of all stakeholders in shaping its future direction. Funnelling and Focusing Questions Funnelling questions (Wood 1998) occur when a teacher guides a student down the teacher’s path to find the answer. Focusing questions support students doing the cognitive work of learning by helping to push their thinking forward. *Visible Learning in Maths* (J. Hattie) Funnelling questions limit student thinking by hinting at an answer and take away thinking from the students eg What are mean, median and mode? These types of questions don’t always require a deeper understanding of maths concepts just a basic answer to the teacher’s basic question with no transfer of knowledge. Focusing questions encourage students to work things out for themselves eg What are you trying to find out? How did you get that? Students are given an opportunity to transfer their understanding to a new concept. Examples of Funnelling and Focusing Questions | Funnelling Questions-leads to one right answer | Focusing Questions-more open and thought provoking answers | |-----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | • What’s a decade? | • How do you know this answer doesn’t make sense? | | • If 490 were males, how many would be females?| • What do you notice about …. | | • Are these pieces bigger or smaller? | • Tell me which answer is ridiculous and why. | | • Would 8/7 be more than a whole? | • Why is this more complicated? | | • How many multiples of 24 are there? | • Can you explain it again? | | • Do you agree or disagree? | • Do you want to explain what she said? | | • Did anyone else make it simpler? | • How did you know that? | | • Is that a fraction? | • Why was I confused? | | • What are you going to put right there? | | It is our role as teachers to facilitate effective student talk by providing scaffolds and modeled examples. We need to support our students so they know how to say what they want to say. More focusing question examples https://youtu.be/tmlx8Tkg1Q How many packages of hot dogs and hot dog buns should he purchase so that there are no extra hot dogs or hot dog buns? How many hot dogs come in a package? How many hot dog buns come in a package? What might happen if you buy one package of hot dogs and one package of hot dog buns? How might that make someone feel? What is a guess that is too low? What is a guess that is too high? What is your best guess? How can we represent this using pictures, numbers, symbols, and words? Math Talk - I agree/disagree with you because... - What I heard you say was... - What key words helped you solve this? - Can you explain this to me? - What were you thinking here? - How did you solve it? - What did you start with? - Why did you choose that operation? - What strategy did you use? - Why did you choose that strategy? - How did you know your answer was right? - Prove your answer is right. - How else can you solve it? - How did this help you understand? - How is this like other problems you’ve solved? A MATH DISCUSSION-STARTER: Which number doesn't belong? 9 16 25 43 ## Math Talk Action Plan | The Way We Were | Getting Started | Getting Better | The Goal | |---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Questioning Techniques** | | | | | The teacher asks all the questions while the students listen. The questions are often looking for short answers and are frequently asked of certain students to make sure they are paying attention. | • Ask your students questions that focus more on their thinking than answers. Ask follow-up questions about their methods. • You are still the main questioner. *Why do you think that?* and *What makes you say that?* are two good question to begin with. | • Begin to ask more open ended questions that may have more than one solution. • Give your students question prompts, such as the Math Talk bookmarks) and encourage them to ask questions about other students work. • Practice Math Talk questioning between partners and small groups. | • You can now step away as Math Talk is student initiated and not dependent upon the teacher although you may still guide the dialogue. • Students ask appropriate questions that require explanations, then listen and respond respectfully. • Students continue the discussion until everyone understands and is satisfied with the answers. | | **Explaining Mathematical Thinking** | | | | | Students think independently while they are solving problems. The teacher and student are concerned with the correct answer more than the process. | • Begin to ask more probing questions that require students to think in order to answer, such as *Why did you choose that strategy?* or *What’s another way to solve it?* | • You begin to ask and model questioning that elicits detailed descriptions and multiple strategies for the same problem. • Students are beginning to voluntarily ask probing questions and explain why answers are incorrect/correct. | • As the teacher, you follow the math conversations closely, encouraging students to make complete explanations and provide evidence for their answers. • Students are able to describe their strategies and provide evidence as to why their answer is correct. • Classmates listen actively and respond appropriately, explaining why they agree or disagree with the problem solver. | | **Who’s Responsible for What?** | | | | | The students listen to the teacher and do their work. If they are having trouble with a problem they ask the teacher who explains it to them. The discussion is between the student and the teacher. | • You are still leading the discussions but you are now asking for student input. When students solve problems, ask other students whether they agree or disagree and why. Ask if anyone has a different way they solved the problem. • The students answer questions they are asked, and they begin to listen more carefully for good strategies and errors they can comment on. | • You will start to notice some co-teaching and co-learning taking place in your classroom. • Begin to distance yourself from the conversations although you are nearby to redirect and encourage higher-level thinking as necessary. • Students are following the techniques that have been modeled. | • Students are working independently, able to evaluate their classmates work and thinking, as well as their own. • They help each other in understanding and correcting their errors. • Students listen actively in order to respond and participate. • Students use rationale questions and explanations. You are there to support and guide your students as they clear up misconceptions. | Scaffolds to assist student talk Formative assessment: point of need decisions about learning & feedback Grouping of students: Assigned rules, think-pair share Stories: Stories relate complex and abstract material to situations more familiar with students: Recite stories to inspire and motivate learners, analogies Prompts: physical or verbal cue to aid in recall of prior or assumed knowledge. Self evaluation prompts & cues, question stems, questions stems, cue cards, flash cards, what if questions Think aloud: Teacher explicitly describes his/her thinking while demonstrating an activity Link to prior experience: Discussing how new learning relates to personal experiences/ previous lesson topics KWL chart, brain storm, text-self, text-text text-world Re-capping and metacomment/ Extended IRF sequences: Paraphrasing student language to include target vocabulary or improve accuracy appropriating, recasting Talk moves Scaffolded instruction: Lesson sequence - from demonstration/group construction towards independent practice Modelled – guided – independent lesson Explanations: More detailed information to move students along on a task or in their thinking of a concept Written instructions for a task; verbal explanation of how a process works. Advance organisers - Tools used to introduce new content and tasks - venn diagrams, flow charts organizational chart outlines, mnemonics, statements/rubrics, Writing templates Concept and mind maps - show relationships: Partially or completed maps for students to complete; students create maps based on their current knowledge of the task or concept. Making Thinking Visible routines. Example/demonstration Samples, specimens, illustrations, problems: real objects, illustrative problems used to represent something, worked examples, the environment in the classroom, excursions & shared experiences, student or teacher demonstrates Manipulatives and models - Hands on resources MAB base 10 blocks, counters, anatomical models, making a model or diorama Visual scaffolds – methods of highlighting visual info Gestures, diagrams - charts and graphs, word clues, writing structure templates Visuals – labelled pictures Burwood Public School 2016
<urn:uuid:6fd11ba7-db73-41ae-97fc-76e03dd31b1a>
CC-MAIN-2018-51
http://www.ccgedu.net/uploads/8/5/6/8/85683126/odps_student_talk_in_maths.pdf
2018-12-15T19:01:25Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376826968.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20181215174802-20181215200802-00452.warc.gz
357,567,433
3,409
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.970583
eng_Latn
0.998291
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 97, 261, 838, 1415, 1665, 2242, 3265, 3399, 3976, 4180, 6334, 6373, 6906, 8089, 8929, 10179, 10368, 10913, 11504, 16432, 18651 ]
[ 3.3125 ]
2
0
IN THIS ISSUE Banksia garden tours in Western Europe, (France, Germany and The Netherlands). Jardin Exotique de Roscoff, France. Tim Darrington’s private garden in Vienne, France. Bormes les Mimosa, France. Bonn Botanic Gardens, Germany. Liesbeth Uijtewaal’s private garden in Neer, Netherlands. On-going research into natural resistance to dieback (Phytophthora cinnamomi) in banksia coccinea. New members and financials. Donation and Newsletter input reminders. 2018 Western Europe/U.K. travels continued. Banksias in Western Europe … France, Germany and The Netherlands. This is another in this series and demonstrates the effort botanic garden curators, staff and individual private collectors put into growing our beautiful banksias in the northern hemisphere. Jardin Exotique de Roscoff, France. This interesting garden, on the north western coast of France, boasted a large granite hillock with steps to the top and stunning coastal vistas. The moderate weather enables banksias and other Australian species to grow in the garden. Plants are growing on granitic sands in raised beds with mulch. Informative panels in the garden show the early botanists’ trips with Banks, Bauer, Solander and Cook being depicted with the French connection and Linnaeus’s teachings. We felt very much at home with over 30 large Eucalypt trees and many colours of Callistemon and Melaleuca. The list of Banksias from our first edition of ‘Banksias’ has declined but there are some healthy specimens remaining. Several B. integrifolias, the largest over 1m in diameter, had fallen over in a storm. One had been cut and moved off the path with roots still attached. It had shot along the trunk with 20 upright branches about 1.6m high growing like a row of trees. A couple of B. serratas with baubled trunks were not flourishing, however a large burgundy praemorsa (the pride of the garden), some spinulosa and a seminuda were doing well. Other iconic Australian plants we observed were Isopogon formosus, Hakeas salicifolia, macrocarpa, laurina and corymbosa, a Wollemi pine, Kunzea, Dryandra formosa, Calothamus, Leptospermum, Dodonea, Acacia and even a Hardenbergia archway. Staff informed us that they had a minus 7 degrees C to contend with earlier in the year and a few young banksias succumbed or were badly burnt. Pictures on next page. Top. – Garden entry sign. Middle LHS. – Labillardiere. Middle RHS. – Banks. Bottom LHS. – B. integrifolia trunk with upright branching. Bottom RHS. – B. integrifolia fallen but still attached to the ground. Jacques-Julien Houtou de La Billardière Born in 1745, Houtou was a French botanist and naturalist who made significant contributions to the field of botany. He is best known for his work on the flora of New Caledonia, which he studied extensively during his time there. In 1786, Houtou left for New Caledonia to serve as the governor's secretary. During his time there, he collected numerous plant specimens and wrote detailed descriptions of them. His work was later published in a book titled "Voyage à la Nouvelle Calédonie." Houtou's botanical collections were so extensive that they were used by the French government to establish a botanical garden in Paris. The garden, now known as the Jardin des Plantes, houses many of the plants that Houtou discovered in New Caledonia. Today, Houtou is remembered as one of the most important botanists of the 18th century. His work has had a lasting impact on our understanding of the flora of New Caledonia and beyond. The Botanical Garden The Botanical Garden of Roscoff is a beautiful and diverse collection of plants from around the world. It was founded in 1832 by a group of local citizens who were interested in botany and wanted to create a place where people could learn about the different plants that grow in their region. Over the years, the garden has grown to include thousands of species of plants, including many rare and endangered species. Visitors can explore the garden's various sections, each with its own unique collection of plants. The garden also hosts regular events and workshops, such as guided tours and plant identification sessions. These events provide an opportunity for visitors to learn more about the plants in the garden and how to care for them. Whether you're a seasoned gardener or just curious about plants, the Botanical Garden of Roscoff is a must-visit destination. Its stunning beauty and educational value make it a true gem of the region. B. praemorsa (burgundy). B. spinulosa. Granite hillock within the gardens with great ocean views. Tim Darrington’s private collection Vienne, France. Tim has his banksias in pots and these are seasonally dug into the ground (pots and all) and mulched. Some are hand watered and others are on drippers, watered minimally during the warm months. They are all returned around mid-October (frost season) to heated glass houses for the duration of winter. Tim finds that weather monitoring is crucial. He keeps his plants slender and tall to enable them to be fitted into the glass house. They are pruned on their return prior to winter. Vienne is warmer than Roscoff in the dry season and Tim’s plants do well on his steep terraced slope with others in beds close to the dwelling. His collection, which is now recognised as the National Collection of France, has a meritorious 60 of the 79 banksias and around 40 of the dryandra species. He has a moderate collection of other Australian species of Eucalypt, Boronia, Isopogon (dubious and amenifolius), Zanthorrea, Verticordia, Stylidium, Orchid and Callistemon. Whilst Kathy and I were there, members of the Linnean society visited Tim’s Open Garden Day and I assisted in a garden tour with banksia specifics. That evening we dashed to the Linnean headquarters in Lyons where I had the honour of giving a banksia presentation to more members of the Linnean Society, which was well received, with Tim as interpreter. Tim and I on his steep terraced garden with B. laevigata var. laevigata in bloom between us Inside his heated winter storage igloo. Tim had struck some Eucalypts and other Proteaceous species using this method. Here he is using water only. Eucalypt cuttings developed roots quickly, however the plants collapsed when potted on. Tim says he will experiment further with this apparatus. Note - Tim’s water propagator. We asked Tim, the avid collector, the following questions; **Number of banksias in his collection?** 53 species and several subspecies and variants. **Favourite species?** Elderiana, nutans - both varieties, hookeriana and lanata. **Best performer?** Generally eastern Australian species- canei (Kybean form), marginata, integrifolia, paludosa, oblongifolia and spinulosa var. neoanglica. Western Australian ones doing well are blechnifolia, laevigata subsp. laevigata and yellow praemorsa. Burgundy praemorsa is reluctant to flower. **Most wanted to add to the collection?** Elegans, ashbyi var. boreoscaia, ornata, cuneata and oligantha. Presenting a talk on banksias to the Linnean Society members in Lyons with Tim as interpreter. What an honour to have the opportunity to present in such a prestigious and historical venue. The home of Linnaeus. History oozed from the walls and the said gentleman’s portrait proudly displayed above the screen. Bormes les Mimosa Public Gardens in the coastal town of Le Lavendou, southern France. This coastal town is close to the Italian border and enjoys a Mediterranean climate. How refreshing it was to see Grevilleas and Eucalypts along the streets and verges. We were given an informative guided tour by head gardener, Giles Augias. He and Thierry Railheit are productive nurserymen specialising in Australian plants in this region of France. We had sold seeds to Thierry for several years. The garden was formerly a private one featuring mostly Australian flora grown by Giles and Thierry in their nurseries. It was subsequently bequeathed, by the owner, to the local shire as a free-to-the-public Botanic Garden. Built on steep south facing terraces, this garden has ocean views and cooling breezes. Plants are growing on well-drained schist (aged sandstone/quartzite) covered with coarse bark mulch, some from cork oaks. The soil is neutral to alkaline and plant health is impressive with no pest damage. The plants were of excellent health with around 15 species of banksia and 16 species of Hakea. Their H. amplexicaulis is the best we have ever witnessed in cultivation. Banksias that had established, flowered and mostly set seed are praemorsa (burgundy), media, nutans var. nutans, integrifolia, prionotes, a prionotes hybrid, victoriae, marginata, menziesii and robur (struggling). New plantings of spinulosa var. spinulosa, repens, blechnifolia and coccinea had suffered some losses with wind damage. Other significant plants include 55 species of Grevillea with some hybrids bred in Europe & Israel, several stunning Eucalypt (illyarie, tetaptera, macandra and tetragona), Zanthorrea, which had flowered, Macadamia (from which the fruit is regularly borrowed!!!), Wollemi, Cassia, Dodonea, Anigozanthos, which do very well, Boronia, Dryandra (praemorsa - both varieties and arctotidis), Isopogon (stunning formosus and amenifolius), Callistemon, Queensland Bottle trees. THE LIST GOES ON!!! Certainly, the best in-ground Botanic Garden collection we have seen in western Europe and comparable to Tresco Abbey Gardens on the Isles of Scilly. Congratulations to all concerned. Kathy in lush gardens admiring Kangaroo paws. Kathy and Giles (B. integrifolia LHS) B. media. B. nutans (foreground) and B. ericifolia behind. B. nutans flowering. B. prionotes in bud. Young B. coccinea. B. integrifolia. Tim and Giles – Terraced gardens. Bonn Botanic Gardens - Germany. Stunning 50-year-old potted B. serratas at the entrance to the conservatorium. WOW!!! What can we say? The show piece banksias at the foyer entrance were amongst the highlights of our huge European banksia tour. These are 50-year-old potted serrata in full bloom in large hexagonal purpose-built containers weighing 4.2 tonne. These plants are hand watered throughout the warmer months and then taken by forklift into the heated glass house for the cold months. Every year or two they are lifted out of the pots with a crane, have the roots trimmed a few inches and fresh soil added. They can no longer increase the container size as they had done over the years because this is the weight limit for their forklift! All levels of staff were very welcoming. We had contacted staff in 2008 regarding details of their garden to put in our first edition of ‘Banksias’. Head gardener, Klaus Jugen Bahr, gave us a tour of the gardens and showed us progeny of seed we had sent them many years ago. We met the curator, Cornelia Lohne and technical director, Marcus. We gave a small banksia presentation to some of the gardening staff including Michael who had visited our garden in Mt. Barker back in 1999. We were shown the soil mixes and told of propagation techniques, in particular how they had grown *B. coccinea* from cuttings. All their banksias are potted as the temperatures can get down to minus 12 degrees C with heavy frosts, frozen ground and water pipes, but rarely snow. The plants are put back under cover for the cold months. **Other huge potted *B. serrata* in the gardens.** They have an impressive collection of Banksia species including: 2x lovely *lullfitzii* (not seen elsewhere in Europe or UK), a very healthy tall *seminuda*, *pilostylis*, *baxteri*, *marginata*, *laevigata* var. *laevigata*, *gardneri* var. *gardneri* and many others. Several had set seed pollinated by native bees, bumble bees and moths. They also had several well-established plants of *Dryandra*, *Hakea*, *Grevillea*, *Isopogon* and *Petrophile*. Their focus is strongly Proteaceae and they are keen to acquire representatives of other genera growing in Australia. Magnificent large blooms on potted B. serrata. Behind closed doors, Klaus showed us his potting soil mix of sand, pumice, mineral rock and perlite. They use coir peat for growing seedlings and cuttings. We were then shown their techniques for striking *B. coccinea* cuttings. This method is employed for hairy branched material - such as coccinea. They carefully pull the lower leaves upright removing the leaves of the cutting stem up to a length suitable for the cutting to sit low in a terracotta pot. The upper leaves are left entire. Using a cigarette lighter, they singe or lightly burn off the hairs on the stem where the leaves have been removed. The bottom end of the material is cut at an angle, leaf node to leaf node, so that it can sit on the wall of the terracotta pot. A wafer of terracotta is placed in the base of the pot to aid drainage. The cut surface is then placed against the inside edge of the pot near the bottom and then filled around with coir peat with some charcoal or fine ash mixed in to minimise fungal problems. The porosity of the terracotta stimulates callousing. The cutting is kept in a zip lock bag initially to maintain moisture on the foliage, misted occasionally and grown on a heated bed. Once calloused, after about 6-8 months, they alternate wet and dry sessions for a period which stimulates root growth. They do not use any NPK fertiliser but apply MgSO4 or Fe and use a liquid nitrogen feed. We saw healthy coccinea plants grown in this manner. We also saw 24 of the 34 banksias species listed on their nursery records. Quite an achievement in such a testing climate. Various potted banksia species. *B. candolleana* B. pilostylis (LHS-front) and laevigata subsp laevigata. B. baueri. B. serrata (bonsai). B. robur (tall-central) Liesbeth Uijtewaal’s private collection, Neer, Netherlands. Liesbeth and Bert’s famous garden has been featured previously in our newsletters. We relay our condolences to Liesbeth and family with the passing of Bert earlier this year after his heroic efforts following prolonged treatments for his cancer over recent years. Their stunning gardens have fondly been referred to as ‘Aussies in a cowshed’. Bert and Liesbeth transformed an old cow paddock and sheds into a lovely home with a beautiful garden containing various sections. Part of the lush gardens. Neighbouring cows framed in the rose hedge. Liesbeth showed us pictures of the original site, ruins and rubble and we were privileged to be shown through the house renovations and lovely gardens. WHAT A TRANSFORMATION!!! Creative garden design with many clever concepts. The gardens are all encompassing with a paved courtyard where potted plants enjoy the warmth of fine weather months. A large glass house, which is packed with inground Australian plants, stores potted plants during the bleak cold weather months. A woodland with a tranquil pond and boatshed, vegie patch, orchard and a hedged grass paddock with feature trees surround the house. A walk outside the back door extends into a paved mosaic cottage garden with fountain and a formal rose bed. A rose arbour fringes the cows next door in a window-patterned hedge. All of this was achieved in just 18 years since purchase in 1999. Liesbeth’s courtyard with many potted banksia and other Aussie natives. Her glass house packed with potted plants for the cold season. The collection of Australian plants includes 65 taxa of banksia and is testament to this couple’s amazing dedication and skills. This is undoubtedly the largest private collection of banksias in the northern hemisphere. A few of the best flowering banksias at the time of our visit were: Banksia Farm selections of speciosa, ‘low showy’ and ‘upright foliage’ forms, marginata x croajingolensis, menziesii X prionotes, victoriae, audax, incana var. brachyphylla grafted onto integrifolia and on its own roots. B. speciosa. B. audax. Liesbeth diligently hand watering. B. menziesii X B. prionotes. Liesbeth germinates her banksia seeds in clip top plastic containers on damp paper towels kept in a cool dark cupboard in her house. To prevent seed disruption when checking for roots, paper is placed underneath and on top of the seeds. Cuttings are managed in clear plastic hinged lidded boxes with a bottom heat element covered with felt. She has had great joy and success with cuttings including a Grevillea bipinnatifida grown from a leaf cutting. Potted plants are carefully starve-hand-watered, avoiding wetting the foliage and regularly checked for wilting. We found this procedure common with many successful growers in the northern hemisphere such as Bonn Botanic gardens, Tresco Abbey gardens and Eden. Liesbeth gave us a comprehensive tour of her potted plants. Many of the progeny where from Banksia Farm seed including two forms of Banksia plagiocarpa, a burgundy red occidentalis, purple leafed and flowered integrifolia var. monticola (unfortunately didn’t reproduce true from seed), a lovely bonsaiing form of integrifolia var. compar and several Dryandras, Isopogons and various Eucalypts. Her Banksias incana, meisneri and pulchella had formed buds but they aborted. B. laevigata, paludosa, epica and media do very well. B. goodii and lullfitzii grow but flower poorly. B. aculeata has flowered but caleyi is reticent to do so. Many of her banksias have set seed, most likely pollinated by bumble bees. Success continues with grafting banksias, the most amazing being incana var. brachyphylla onto integrifolia. The rootstock was vigorous and caused a swollen bulb at the base but it is still growing well. We saw further evidence of successful grafts with various other Banksias, Grevilleas, Isopogons, Petrophiles and E. ficifolia. We even got a grafting lesson with Liesbeth demonstrating half wedge and side graft techniques. She often uses mummy grafts which are easier to handle and to tape up. We asked Liesbeth, the avid collector and propagator, the following questions; **Total number of banksias in your collection?** 65 including subsp’s …. AMAZING!!!! **Favourites?** ALL!!! Possibly aculeata, audax, croajingolensis, cuneata, epica, goodii, incana var. brachyphylla, laevigata subsp. laevigata & rosserae … (Ed. Well, not quite all of them and interesting as we Aussies would most likely choose menziesii, coccinea, robur, prionotes, serrata and ashbyi.) **Best Performers?** Most grow well with the proper care, right watering regime and appropriate housing when required. Five stubborn ones refusing to flower are: brownii (mountain form) at age 16, grossa age 10, repens and grafted solandri 12 years old and tricuspis which is ailing without flowering at age 12. Coastal brownii, in contrast, do flower. Most wanted to add to your amazing collection? Laevigata subsp fuscolutea, victoriae (dwarf form) and tricuspis (early flowering). Best of luck, Liesbeth. Kevin and Kathy. Ongoing research into more naturally resistant B. coccinea. Following on from the research Reported in Newsletter No ……., we now wish to extend the research efforts with Jeremy and Meredith Spencer to hopefully find more resistant plants from the tagged parents in the wild which produced the three resistant progeny in the first round of research. The hope is to test another 20-50 seedlings from these wild parents in the hope of finding more naturally resistant offspring. These would be added to the three plants we currently have and consequently managed in a seed orchard remote from other B. coccinea plants to prevent cross pollination. The plan is to produce seed from this orchard and have the next generation of seedlings tested as well to ensure resistance retention. We envisage that long term this seed would be invaluable for home gardeners, revegetation and floriculture use. Kathy and I held an Open Garden Day at Banksia Farm on 22nd, May 2021 generating significant funds to support this ongoing research - 528 enthusiasts visited! We just might do this again! Kevin. Noteworthy mention - South East Melbourne should win the award for the initiative of planting many of our showy WA banksias as street trees. Well done! Membership and Financial status. Membership. Our current membership stands at 110. Welcome to our new members, many of whom have joined as a result of hearing about us through the Banksia Lovers facebook site. Congratulations to our member, Karlo Taliana, administrator of the very popular and friendly Banksia Lovers site. Membership is now a staggering 16,800. With so many eyes focussing on this fabulous genus, many interesting hybrids, fungi, galls, fasciations, mistletoe and colour variants are being posted. Finance. Current balance. $1,897.52. REMINDER: - Feel free to donate to our study group as funds go towards banksia research. Direct credit BSB 633000. Account No. 158397885. INPUT NEEDED: - We are going to feature banksia-related fungi in a forthcoming newsletter as well as fasciation features i.e., multi-heading of banksia inflorescences - causes and examples. If any members can contribute pics of any of these in your gardens or the wild, please email them with some notes to us, Kevin or Kathy. firstname.lastname@example.org. We always welcome reports on your garden, banksia growing successes and failures or observations in the wild. Kevin and Kathy.
67e7a267-c3c9-42ac-8548-0c4af50ff159
CC-MAIN-2024-51
https://anpsa.org.au/wp-content/uploads/banksiaSG27.pdf
2024-12-08T12:01:48+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066446143.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20241208111059-20241208141059-00005.warc.gz
78,340,238
4,980
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.925596
eng_Latn
0.997414
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 466, 2554, 4497, 4598, 6102, 6388, 7345, 9536, 9683, 9800, 10894, 11999, 12047, 13670, 13787, 15251, 15899, 15990, 18505, 20160, 21340 ]
[ 2.0625, 1.171875 ]
1
0
Ocean Oxygen Loss: If Fish Could Talk Summary Almost all life on Earth depends on oxygen. The global oceans are currently losing oxygen due to global warming, and oxygen-starved dead zones are expanding. The loss of oxygen is known as deoxygenation. This major threat to marine ecosystems, biodiversity, fisheries, and human societies has not gained much public awareness yet, despite posing as much of a risk as ocean warming and acidification. Ocean oxygen loss can also lead to emissions of toxic gases, such as hydrogen sulphide, and greenhouse gases, such as nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide, potentially worsening global warming. Ocean deoxygenation can only be mitigated if greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly reduced to zero. - Dissolved oxygen in the global ocean has decreased by over 2% since 1960 due to global warming, with localised declines of up to 50%. - Ocean oxygen loss is already driving mass mortality events and causing significant habitat shrinkage for economically critical species. Lack of oxygen harms fish and fisheries by reducing fish size and increasing the risk of disease, blindness, and respiratory failure. - Ocean oxygen loss leads to the release of greenhouse gases, such as nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH₄), and the release of the toxic gas hydrogen sulphide (H₂S). - Although ocean deoxygenation due to global warming will persist for centuries, rapid reductions in greenhouse gas emissions will limit the negative consequences for marine ecosystems and fisheries. Introduction Today’s atmospheric oxygen levels are more than sufficient to sustain life on land, but this is not the case for the ocean, where many regions are starved of oxygen. Contrary to the well-mixed atmosphere, oxygen concentrations in the ocean vary spatially, and there are large zones at intermediate depths (100–600 metres) that are very depleted in oxygen. Ocean oxygen levels are decreasing due to human-induced climate change and nutrient run-off from land. Oxygen loss (also called deoxygenation) is already causing mass mortality events and changes to fisheries. This is a concern, as ocean oxygen loss has been associated with mass extinctions in the past (Meyer and Kump, 2008, Penn et al., 2018, Mancini et al., 2024). Low oxygen conditions are also associated with outgassing of greenhouse gases and toxic gases. Even though the impacts of ocean oxygen loss are already significant and have profound implications for humanity, the subject has not yet gained much public awareness. This is slowly changing, with, for example, the establishment of the Global Ocean Oxygen Decade (GOOD) programme which is endorsed by the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030). Ocean oxygen dynamics Oxygen concentrations in the ocean are driven by physical and biological processes. In the sunlit zone near the surface, phytoplankton produce oxygen through photosynthesis. This source of oxygen, in combination with physical gas exchange between the atmosphere and ocean, ensures that most ocean surface waters are saturated in oxygen. The saturation concentration depends predominantly on water temperature, with cold surface waters being better oxygenated than warm surface waters. As organic matter sinks through the water column it is consumed by microbes, which use up oxygen in the process. Ocean zones that are located below surface regions with high biological productivity can become severely oxygen depleted, especially if the physical transport of oxygen-rich waters into these zones is weak. These Oxygen Minimum Zones often occur near nutrient-rich zones along the eastern margins of the tropical oceans and can stretch from 10's to 100's of metres below the surface. In coastal regions with extensive agriculture or other sources of nutrient run-off, excessive nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) can occur, triggering algal blooms that deplete oxygen in the water, with detrimental impacts on marine life. Mechanisms of oxygen loss in the ocean (redrawn from https://marine.copernicus.eu/ explainers/phenomena-threats/deoxygenation) Current ocean deoxygenation The total ocean oxygen content has decreased by $1.1 - 6.8 \times 10^{15}$ mol (more than 2%) and the volume of anoxic waters in the Pacific Ocean has quadrupled since 1960 (Schmidtko et al., 2017). Oxygen Minimum Zones at 200 m depths have expanded by 4.5 million km$^2$, corresponding to ~60% of the size of Australia (Stramma et al., 2010), and new low oxygen regions are appearing. Rates of oxygen loss seem to be faster in coastal oceans than in the open ocean (Gilbert et al., 2010). The largest declines are observed in the tropical and north Pacific Ocean, the Arctic, the Southern Ocean, and the South Atlantic Ocean (Schmidtko et al., 2017). On coral reefs, hypoxia is already widespread, with 84% of reefs globally experiencing weak to moderate hypoxia and 13% experiencing severe hypoxia ($\leq 61 \mu$mol O$_2$/kg, Pezner et al., 2023). Changes in oxygenation in the open ocean are mainly caused by global warming. A warmer surface ocean holds less oxygen because the solubility of gases depends on temperature. Warmer surface waters are also less dense and therefore lead to stronger vertical stratification of the ocean, which results in less exchange with deeper ocean layers. Oxygen transport into the ocean’s interior is reduced and oxygen levels below the surface decline. The direct effect of warming on solubility is responsible for over 50% of the observed oxygen loss in the upper 1,000 meters of the ocean, and for $\sim$15% of the total oxygen loss across all depths (Breitburg et al., 2018). The remaining 85% is caused by the indirect effects of warming, including changes in stratification and large-scale circulation (Breitburg et al., 2018). In coastal waters, changes in oxygenation have to date primarily been caused by nutrient run-off from rivers. Nitrogen and phosphorus-based fertilizers have doubled riverine inputs of nutrients into coastal waters over the 20th century (Beusen et al., 2016). Many coastal regions experience seasonal eutrophication as a consequence, and this phenomenon is exacerbated by the increased warming of shallow coastal waters due to climate change in recent decades. Percentage change in dissolved oxygen per decade since 1960. σΘ stands for density surface and RCP stands for representative concentration pathway (redrawn from Levin, 2018; base map adapted from Schmidtko et al., 2017). Future projections Current ocean deoxygenation due to global warming is not easily reversible and will persist for centuries, even if greenhouse gas emissions were to cease today (Oschlies, 2021). Until atmospheric CO\textsubscript{2} concentrations, which continue to rise, finally plateau, surface oceans will continue to warm, and the oceans will continue to lose oxygen. The simulation of ocean oxygen concentrations is challenging, as oxygen levels depend on complex physical and biogeochemical processes (see Section “Ocean Oxygen Dynamics”). These processes must be represented correctly in a climate model to simulate oxygen realistically. State-of-the-art Earth System Climate Models systematically underestimate the observed rates of oxygen loss and are also not very skillful in reproducing the observed patterns of deoxygenation (Oschlies et al., 2017; Oschlies et al., 2018). An important challenge here is the representation of biogeochemistry in models, as our knowledge of coupled biogeochemical processes is still incomplete. Bearing these caveats in mind, model projections for the end of this century predict a further decrease of several percent even for “high mitigation” greenhouse gas emission scenarios (Bopp et al., 2013). For the “business as usual” scenario, more than 94% and 31% of coral reefs, respectively, are projected to experience weak to moderate and severe hypoxia by the end of the century (Pezner et al., 2023). Oxygen thresholds and their impact on marine organisms The ability to adapt to low oxygen concentrations varies between species. When metabolic stress occurs due to insufficient oxygen availability, organisms will reduce their respiration rate and no longer continue energetically expensive behaviour such as reproduction or movement. At even lower concentrations, changes in community structure and mass mortality can occur (Breitburg et al., 2018). - Regions with oxygen concentrations below 61 µmol/kg of seawater are defined as hypoxic and most organisms exposed to such low O\textsubscript{2} concentrations show reduced fitness and aberrant behaviour. - If O\textsubscript{2} levels fall to 5–10 µmol/kg, the conditions are called suboxic and multicellular life cannot survive anymore. - Below 1 µmol/kg of O\textsubscript{2}, conditions are anoxic and only anaerobic microorganisms can survive. Physiological and morphological impacts Deoxygenation has been linked to reduced growth in a vast range of taxonomic groups (Sampaio et al., 2021) and a shift away from large-bodied fish to smaller, less palatable species (Salvatteci et al., 2022, Lefort et al., 2015). Reductions in length of up to 89% have been observed in the laboratory in temperate fish species when exposed to low oxygen concentrations (Bejda et al., 1992, McNatt et al., 2004). Exposure to low oxygen conditions can delay when fish produce eggs, reduce how many eggs they produce and even cause blindness by impacting the shape and function of the light detecting cells in eyes (Landry et al., 2007, McCormick and Levin, 2017), with damage to these cells potentially occurring within minutes (Wong-Riley, 2010, Erecińska and Silver, 2001). Warming water, combined with deoxygenation, reduces oxygen availability at the same time as increasing metabolic demand for oxygen. This can lead to respiratory distress, followed by respiratory failure and death (Clarke et al., 2021). The consequences of deoxygenation for fisheries and the world’s future food supply could thus be tremendous (Oschlies et al., 2018, Rose et al., 2019). Impacts on fisheries In response to deoxygenation, many marine species are already shifting to new habitats (Humphries et al., 2024, Breitburg et al., 2018, Kim et al., 2023, Wannamaker and Rice, 2000). Tuna, sharks, and billfish, are shifting higher in the water column (Waller et al., 2024, Bograd et al., 2008, Vedor et al., 2021) while blue marlin in the eastern Atlantic have experienced an annual loss of vertical habitat of one metre per year, equating to a 15% loss of habitat between 1960 and 2010 (Stramma et al., 2012). In Peru and California, anchovies are forecast to lose half of their habitat by the end of the century due to oxygen loss (Howard et al., 2020). Habitat “compression” increases the risk of overfishing at the surface and the likelihood that at-risk species are falsely considered to be rebounding (Humphries et al., 2024). Declining oxygen can also drive major declines in biodiversity (Laffoley and Baxter, 2019). Mass mortalities Marine heatwaves and mass mortality events due to deoxygenation are increasing in intensity and frequency (Garrabou et al., 2022, Fey et al., 2015). In response to low oxygen, many species decrease activity and metabolic rate, limiting the escape response (Waller et al., 2024). To date, over 50 mass mortality events due to hypoxia have been recorded in the tropics, likely an underestimate (Altieri et al., 2017). Hypoxia-driven mass mortality events of sharks and rays have been recorded in Texas, Cocos Islands, South Africa and Chile in the past twenty years (Waller et al., 2024). The impacts of deoxygenation on coral reefs can be particularly severe and may even outweigh the impacts of mass bleaching events (Altieri et al., 2017). Hypoxia has been observed to cause mass mortality of coral reefs at depths of up to 15 metres (Altieri et al., 2017, Haas et al., 2014). Mass mortality events can also occur when deep, oxygen-poor water upwells, impacting shallow water ecosystems (Chan et al., 2008). Changes in biogeochemistry and release of greenhouse gases When oxygen levels are low, microbes start to use other chemical compounds to consume organic matter. This can cause the release of the toxic gas hydrogen sulphide ($\text{H}_2\text{S}$) from sediments into the water column. Some low oxygen zones periodically release $\text{H}_2\text{S}$ in so-called “sulphidic events” today and cause fish mortality (Callbeck et al., 2021). Ocean deoxygenation, ocean warming, and potentially the release of $\text{H}_2\text{S}$ are considered potential drivers of one of the largest extinction events in history, which occurred 252 million years ago during the Permian-Triassic and led to the extinction of 90% of marine species (Benton, 2018, Mancini et al., 2024). Consumption of organic matter in low oxygen conditions produces nitrous oxide ($\text{N}_2\text{O}$), and marine $\text{N}_2\text{O}$ emissions are likely to increase in the future (Naqvi et al., 2010). $\text{N}_2\text{O}$ is a long-lived potent greenhouse gas; it also causes stratospheric ozone depletion. Most low-oxygen zones in the ocean are strong emitters of $\text{N}_2\text{O}$ today, with record emissions observed in recent years (Arévalo-Martínez et al., 2015). Finally, anoxic conditions can lead to the release of methane ($\text{CH}_4$) from sediments. Most $\text{CH}_4$ is oxidized into $\text{CO}_2$ in the water column (Naqvi et al., 2010) but some $\text{CH}_4$ may reach the atmosphere in eutrophic coastal regions today (Rosentreter et al., 2021). The effect of oxygen loss on the carbon cycle is complex. When oxygen levels are low, bacteria use one of the two macronutrients essential for life, nitrate, to consume organic matter. Oxygen loss in the ocean could therefore lead to global nutrient loss and thus lower primary productivity, which then could entail a weakening of the biological pump that sequesters $\text{CO}_2$ into the deep ocean. However, anoxic sediments release two other nutrients, phosphate and iron. Cyanobacteria thrive in phosphate-rich waters, and they can convert atmospheric nitrogen ($\text{N}_2$), which is not directly usable by most organisms, into ammonia, a form that can be assimilated by organisms, resulting in an overall increase in all nutrients. This could lead to a global increase in primary production, a strengthening of the biological pump, an increase in $\text{CO}_2$ uptake by the oceans and an intensification of oxygen loss. Our knowledge of these coupled biogeochemical processes is still too incomplete to produce trustworthy future projections. Conclusion Ocean oxygen loss is already widespread – and accelerating – in both coastal waters and the open ocean due to climate change and nutrient runoff. Despite remaining gaps in our understanding, we know enough to be concerned about its profound consequences for ocean life and humanity. Its impacts could potentially surpass those of ocean acidification or marine heat waves. While it is well publicised that the oceans face numerous stressors such as pollution, overfishing, acidification, and warming, the issue of global oxygen loss in the ocean has not yet received as much public attention. Beyond its impacts on marine life and fisheries, deoxygenation influences the planet’s cycles of carbon, nitrogen and other essential elements, and could increasingly cause ocean outgassing of greenhouse gases, further accelerating climate change. Coordinated research programs that increase our fundamental understanding of oxygen loss and expand observations of current trends, particularly in deeper waters, are urgently needed to improve the accuracy of projections. While coastal oxygen loss can to a certain extent be reduced by limiting nutrient runoff from land, oxygen loss throughout the global ocean can only be mitigated if greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly reduced to zero. References Altieri et al. 2017. Tropical dead zones and mass mortalities on coral reefs. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 114, 3660–3665. Arévalo-Martínez et al. 2015. Massive nitrous oxide emissions from the tropical South Pacific Ocean. Nature Geosci 8, 530–533. Bejda et al. 1992. The effect of dissolved oxygen on the growth of young-of-the-year winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus. Environmental Biology of Fishes 34, 321. Benton 2018. Hyperthermal-driven mass extinctions: killing models during the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. 37620170076. Beusen et al. 2016. Global riverine N and P transport to ocean increased during the 20th century despite increased retention along the aquatic continuum. Biogeosciences, 13, 2441–2451. Bograd et al. 2008. Oxygen declines and the shoaling of the hypoxic boundary in the California Current. Geophysical Research Letters, 35, 12. Bopp et al. 2013. Multiple stressors of ocean ecosystems in the 21st century: projections with CMIP5 models. Biogeosciences, 10, 6225–6245. Breitburg et al. 2018. Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters. Science, 359, eaam7240. Calbeck et al. 2021. Sulfur cycling in oceanic oxygen minimum zones. Limnol Oceangr, 66, 2360–2392. Chan et al. 2008. Emergence of anoxia in the California current large marine ecosystem. Science, 319, 920. Clarke et al. 2021. Aerobic growth index (AGI): An index to understand the impacts of ocean warming and deoxygenation on global marine fisheries resources. Prog. Oceanogr., 195, 102588. Erecińska and Silver 2001. Tissue oxygen tension and brain sensitivity to hypoxia. Respir. Physiol., 128, 263–276. Fey et al. 2015. Recent shifts in the occurrence, cause, and magnitude of animal mass mortality events. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 1083–1088. Garrabou et al. 2022. Marine heatwaves drive recurrent mass mortalities in the Mediterranean Sea. Global Change Biology, 28, 19. Gilbert et al. 2010. Evidence for greater oxygen decline rates in the coastal ocean than in the open ocean. Biogeosciences, 7, 2283–2296. Haas et al. 2014. Effects of reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations on physiology and fluorescence of hermatypic corals and benthic algae. PeerJ, 2, e235. Howard et al. 2020. Climate-driven aerobic habitat loss in the California Current System. Science Advances, 6, 20. Humphries et al. 2024. Highly active fish in low oxygen environments: vertical movements and behavioural responses of bigeye and yellowfin tunas to oxygen minimum zones in the eastern Pacific Ocean. Mar Biol, 171(2), 55. Kim et al. 2023. A selected review of impacts of ocean deoxygenation on fish and fisheries. Fishes 8(6), 316. Laffoley and Baxter (eds.) 2019. Ocean deoxygenation: Everyone’s problem. Causes, impacts, consequences and solutions. Summary for Policy Makers. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 28 pp. Landry et al. 2007. Long term hypoxia suppresses reproductive capacity in the estuarine fish, Fundulus grandis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology PartA Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 148(2), 317–23. Lefort et al. 2014. Spatial and body-size dependent response of marine pelagic communities to projected global climate change. Global Change Biology, 21:1, 154–164. Levin 2018. Manifestation, drivers, and emergence of open ocean deoxygenation, Annual Review of Marine Science, 10, 229–260. Mancini et al. 2004. The puzzle to unravel the future: Deoxygenation events in the geological archive and the anthropocene oxygen crisis. Earth-Science Reviews, 104644. McCormick and Levin 2017. Physiological and ecological implications of ocean deoxygenation for vision in marine organisms. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A., 37520160322. McNatt et al. 2004. Hypoxia-induced growth rate reduction in two juvenile estuary-dependent fishes. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 311:1, 147–156. Meyer and Kump 2008. Oceanic Euxinia in Earth History: Causes and Consequences. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 36, 251–288. Naqvi et al. 2010. Marine hypoxia/anoxia as a source of CH4 and N2O. Biogeosciences, 7, 2159–2190. Oschlies et al. 2017. Patterns of deoxygenation: sensitivity to natural and anthropogenic drivers. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A., 37520160325. Oschlies et al. 2018. Drivers and mechanisms of ocean deoxygenation. Nature Geosci, 11, 467–473. Oschlies 2021. A committed fourfold increase in ocean oxygen loss. Nat Commun, 12, 2307. Penn et al. 2018. Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end Permian marine mass extinction. Science, 362. Pezner et al. 2023. Increasing hypoxia on global coral reefs under ocean warming. Nature Climate Change, 13, 403–409. Rose et al. 2019. Chapter 10: Impacts of ocean deoxygenation on fisheries. Ocean deoxygenation, Laffoley and Baxter. Rosenrreter et al. 2021. Half of global methane emissions come from highly variable aquatic ecosystem sources. Nature Geoscience, 14(4), 225–230. Sarpaoia et al. 2021. Impacts of hypoxic events surpass those of future ocean warming and acidification. Nat Ecol Evol, 5, 311–321. Salvatteci et al. 2022. Smaller fish species in a warm and oxygen-poor Humboldt Current system. Science, 375, 101–104. Schmidtko et al. 2017. Decline in global oceanic oxygen content during the past five decades. Nature, 542, 335–339. Stramma, et al. 2010. Ocean oxygen minima expansions and their biological impacts. Deep-Sea Research I (2010), 57, 4, 587–595. Stramma et al. 2012. Expansion of oxygen minimum zones may reduce available habitat for tropical pelagic fishes. Nature Climate Change, 2(1), 33–37. Vedor et al. 2021. Climate-driven deoxygenation elevates fishing vulnerability for the ocean’s widest ranging shark. eLife, 10:e62508. Waller et al. 2024. The vulnerability of sharks, skates, and rays to ocean deoxygenation: Physiological mechanisms, behavioral responses, and ecological impacts. Journal of Fish Biology, 1–30. Wannamaker and Rice 2000. Effects of hypoxia on movements and behavior of selected estuarine organisms from the southeastern United States. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 249: 2, 145–163. Wong-Riley 2010. Energy metabolism of the visual system. Eye Brain, 2, 99–116.
75ad6545-7200-485e-980d-bd5a78cd7542
CC-MAIN-2024-51
https://climateextremes.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Ocean-Oxygen-Loss-Briefing-note_12.09.24_V3-1.pdf
2024-12-13T16:10:02+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066117178.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20241213140137-20241213170137-00294.warc.gz
142,940,775
5,238
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.967612
eng_Latn
0.982602
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 37, 2745, 4121, 6507, 10072, 14637, 15934, 22176 ]
[ 3.171875, 1.4140625 ]
1
0
In this issue: Major ruling released Butterfly is new state symbol Session Weekly is a nonpartisan publication of the Minnesota House of Representatives Public Information Office. During the 1999-2000 Legislative Session, each issue reports daily House action between Thursdays of each week, lists bill introductions and upcoming committee meeting schedules, and provides other information. The publication is a service of the Minnesota House. No fee. To subscribe, contact: Minnesota House of Representatives Public Information Office 175 State Office Building St. Paul, MN 55155-1298 (651) 296-2146 or 1-800-657-3550 TTY (651) 296-9896 Director LeClair G. Lambert Editor/Assistant Director Nick Healy Assistant Editor Michelle Kibiger Art & Production Coordinator Paul Battaglia Writers Mike DeLarco, Jon Fure, David Maeda, Chris Vetter Chief Photographer Tom Olmscheid Photographers Laura Phillips, Andrew Von Bank Office Manager Nicole Wood Staff Assistants Christy Novak, Laurel Waldoch Session Weekly (ISSN 1049-8176) is published weekly during the legislative session by the Minnesota House of Representatives Public Information Office, 100 Constitution Ave., St. Paul, MN 55155-1298. Periodicals postage paid at St. Paul, MN, and at additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Session Weekly, Public Information Office, Minnesota House of Representatives, 175 State Office Building, 100 Constitution Ave., St. Paul, MN 55155-1298. Printed on recycled paper which is 50% recycled, 20% post-consumer content. --- **CONTENTS** **HIGHLIGHTS** | Category | Page | |----------------|------| | Business | 5 | | Crime | 5 | | Education | 7 | | Environment | 7 | | Family | 8 | | Gambling | 8 | | Game & Fish | 9 | | Government | 9 | | Health | 9 | | Higher Education | 11 | | Human Services | 11 | | Insurance | 12 | | Law | 12 | | Local Government | 12 | | Recreation | 12 | | Transportation | 12 | **FEATURES** At Issue: Agriculture — Lawmakers have moved to settle dispute between the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency and farmers over changes to rules governing feedlots. • 14 At Issue: Bonding — The House and Senate bonding bills differ by $232 million, with major divides related to higher education, environment, and state building projects. • 15 At Issue: Family — A bill would give divorcing parents the option to work out their own custody agreements rather than fighting it out in court. • 16 At Issue: Government — Fourth-grade students combined school projects into a real-life civics lesson and successfully campaigned for 13th state symbol. • 17 People — Rep. Phil Carruthers, a former speaker of the House, is leaving to take a top post with the Ramsey County attorney. • 18 People — Rep. Lee Greenfield, known for persevering to make revolutionary MinnesotaCare program become law, will not seek a 12th term in the House. • 19 **DEPARTMENTS/RESOURCES** It's a Fact: Perennial Candidate • 4 Governor's Desk (CH300–CH344) • 20 Bill Introductions (HF4135–HF4146) • 22 Reflections: Stassen's Legacy • 22 Committee Schedule (April 10–14) • 23 Minnesota Index: Health & Family • 24 On the cover: Three-year-old Gabbi Woodson of St. Paul clings to a bunch of balloons during a rally April 3 on the Capitol steps to support crisis nurseries in Ramsey and Washington counties. —Photo by Tom Olmscheid Court seeks single subject Taking up an issue that has nagged it since statehood, the Supreme Court issues a ruling that could change the way the Legislature does business By Nick Healy A recent Minnesota Supreme Court ruling has many wondering whether the practice of assembling omnibus bills, such as vast measures currently being debated in conference committees, will withstand constitutional challenges. But the court’s action is also significant because the court ruled that only the single provision in question was unconstitutional, rather than striking down the entire law. That action has raised questions that the judicial branch could be crossing the carefully drawn boundaries between the three branches of state government. In his dissenting opinion, Justice Alan Page expresses fears the court is putting itself in the position of a “super legislature,” approving or rejecting small slices of larger pieces of legislation. The March 31 ruling struck down a provision in wide-reaching tax legislation passed in 1997. The portion of the law in question established new prevailing-wage requirements on school construction projects. The measure was challenged on grounds that it did not meet the Minnesota Constitution’s requirement that “no law shall embrace more than one subject, which shall be expressed in its title.” While it’s not clear what exactly the ramifications of the ruling will be, it seems the court has taken a significant step in its long history of dealing with the scope and character of bills passed by the Legislature. In his majority opinion, Justice Edward Stringer traces the issue to the days before statehood. “Early in Minnesota history the potential for mischief in bundling together into one bill disparate legislative provisions was well known,” Stringer writes. Delegates to the Democratic constitutional convention in 1857 first considered a proposal that called for the title to indicate the contents of the bill, but that provision was expanded to forbid the grouping of unrelated subjects into one bill, a practice known as “logrolling.” The Minnesota Supreme Court first weighed in on the issue in 1858, the year the state was established. A measure passed by the First Legislature was challenged on grounds that it contained more than one subject, but the court allowed the law to stand. “We concluded that the single subject requirement was not offended because there was ‘no attempt at fraud or the interpolation of matter foreign to the subject expressed in the title,’” Stringer’s opinion says. Thus began a long line of cases that have drawn and redrawn the limits on what is acceptable when it comes to the single-subject test and the bill title requirements. In 1891, the court issued a major ruling that attempted to clarify the purpose of the “single-subject and title clause” to prevent logrolling. “We explained, however, that despite these constitutional restrictions, the single subject provision should be interpreted liberally and the restriction would be met if the bill were germane to one general subject,” Stringer writes. The 1891 ruling declared that the single-subject requirement should not prevent the Legislature from “embracing in one act all matters properly connected with one general subject.” And the ruling stated that the term “subject” has “broad and extended meaning” in the constitution. That ruling also explained that the bill title provision is meant to “prevent fraud or surprise upon the Legislature and the public by prohibiting the inclusion of ‘provisions in a bill whose title gives no intimation of the nature of the proposed legislation,’” Stringer says in his description of the 1891 decision. In 1939, the court issued a ruling that further clarified the requirement that the bill title accurately describe the measure’s contents. The court decided that the “generality of the title” was not grounds to invalidate a law and that “the title was never intended to be an index of the law.” While those earlier rulings seemed to provide leeway for the Legislature, more recent cases have moved in another direction. Stringer’s opinion describes a series of rulings in the last two decades that have served to “sound an alarm that we would not hesitate to strike down oversweeping legislation that violates the single-subject and title clause, regardless of the consequences.” In those cases, former Justice Lawrence Yetka emerged as a harsh critic of legislative practices, and he expressed concern that the court had been too lax over the years. “Now all bounds of reason and restraint seem to have been abandoned,” Yetka stated in a concurring opinion on a 1986 case. “… The worm that was merely vexatious in the 19th century has become a monster eating the constitution in the 20th.” ‘We fully recognize that it is the Legislature’s prerogative to establish our state’s public policy in the area of prevailing wages and that the legislative process is not bound by rigid textbook rules. Nonetheless, lawmaking must occur within the framework of the constitution.’ —Justice Edward Stringer ‘Declaring only the offending provision unconstitutional does nothing to discourage the Legislature from engaging in the conduct.’ —Justice Alan Page As for the current case, Stringer’s opinion seems to argue that the Legislature had been warned by the court but legislative practices were not changed. The 1997 tax law, which Stringer calls “a prodigious work of legislation,” included a provision requiring that the prevailing wage be paid in the construction or remodeling of all educational facilities where project costs exceed $100,000. The provision was challenged by a school district, a builders’ association, and an electrical contractor on grounds that the law violated both the title requirements and the single-subject clause. Lower courts found fault with the law because the 800-word title had no clear reference to the wage provision — words like “labor,” “wages,” and “construction” were nowhere to be found — and because the provision was not “remotely related” to the broad subject of tax reform and tax relief. In the Supreme Court ruling, Stringer affirms the assessment of the problems with the 1997 bill’s title. “The failure . . . to give even a hint that the prevailing wage amendment was part of the bill leads us to the conclusion that the title did not provide sufficient notice of the amendment to legislators and school districts to meet the constitutional requirement,” he writes. As for the single-subject clause, Stringer lists a series of problems with the prevailing-wage provision. He argues that prevailing-wage laws have historically been considered in labor committees, not tax committees. He also complains that the prevailing-wage provision came from the House, had no Senate companion bill, and was “inserted into a much broader and popular bill with an entirely different legislative theme.” Summing up the court’s position on the matter, the ruling says that while the prevailing-wage section “may have a tax impact by affecting construction costs, clearly that is not its purpose and nowhere is consideration of tax relief and reform mentioned in its very short text.” The ruling includes another important aspect that may have far-reaching effects in the future. The court decided that the prevailing-wage provision could be stricken down while the rest of the 1997 law is left in place. The state had argued that the invalidation of the provision would throw out the entire tax law, but the court rejected that argument. It’s unclear what the impact of that decision will be, but it could invite more challenges to portions of omnibus bills. In his dissent, Page expresses serious Continued on page 21 Economic doctrine clarified The House passed a bill April 4 that would repeal the state’s existing economic loss doctrine and replace it with a new provision that proponents say is easier to understand. The economic loss doctrine sets the boundary for claims, limiting what companies can sue for under contract law and what companies can sue for under traditional tort law. Rep. Tim Pawlenty (R-Eagan) is sponsoring the bill (HF1267/SF1126*), which would limit commercial parties to legal solutions under the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC). The code provides a shorter statute of limitations time frame than tort law. “This bill clarifies the law on who can sue and when they can sue,” Pawlenty said. The legislation would apply only to claims by a buyer against a seller. The measure would not apply to claims for injury. The bill stems from an agreement between several interest groups who met during the past year. During a House Civil Law Committee hearing last month, several legislators were critical of the agreement because they were not invited to take part in the discussions. “I don’t know if that is the way the Legislature is supposed to work,” said Rep. Phil Carruthers (DFL-Brooklyn Center). Carruthers spoke against a provision that says a buyer may not bring a common law misrepresentation claim against a seller unless the misrepresentation was made intentionally or recklessly. “The buyer depends on that representation,” Carruthers said. “I don’t think anyone should profit from misrepresentation; I don’t care if it is intentional or not.” Despite Carruthers’ concerns, he urged legislators to vote for the bill. “This bill is an improvement in readability and understandability,” Carruthers said. Daniel Kleinberger, law professor at the William Mitchell College of Law, told the committee that every state has an economic loss doctrine, with Minnesota’s doctrine beginning in 1981. If a customer is unsatisfied with the product or service, the person can sue in tort, he said. “As a consumer advocate, (the bill) is at least as good, if not better,” Kleinberger said. The bill is not retroactive and would have no effect on pending litigation, Kleinberger said. The statute repealed under the bill had been passed in a special session in 1998, after concerns arose over a case involving Marvin Windows, a Warroad-based company. Secretary of state bill The House passed a bill April 5 that would make slight changes to the state’s corporate registration requirements. The vote was 133-1. Rep. Jim Seifert (R-Woodbury), the sponsor of the measure (HF3066/SF2783*), said the bill is the Minnesota secretary of state’s annual housekeeping bill, clarifying and cleaning up laws relating to the state’s corporate registration records. Currently, Minnesota corporations are required to file a registration annually that lists the legal corporate name and address, as well as the name and address of the chief executive officer. There is no fee for filing the registration as long as the form is filed annually. If a corporation misses filing the form, it loses its good standing with the state. To reinstate corporate good standing requires a $25 fee. If a corporation fails to file the form for three consecutive years, the state statutorily dissolves the corporation. The bill would require the secretary of state to mail the form directly to the corporation’s registered office address rather than having the Department of Revenue mail out the form in the corporate tax information. If the corporation does not file the form by December 31 of each year, the state would statutorily dissolve the corporation after one missed year rather than three. The bill also would change registration requirements for non-Minnesota corporations that do business in the state. Currently, those corporations file a registration with a fee based on the taxable income in the state. The minimum filing fee is $60. The bill would establish a flat filing fee of $115 for all non-Minnesota corporations filing their annual registrations with the state. Seifert said the bill would help standardize the registration requirements for the different types of entities that file with the secretary of state including for-profit, nonprofit, and non-Minnesota corporations, as well as limited liability companies. The registration requirement helps the secretary of state keep its corporate records up to date. The bill also would provide that the digital signatures of public and local officials on government records are sufficient to meet legal signature requirements. The bill now goes to the governor. Katie’s Law signed Gov. Jesse Ventura signed a measure known as Katie’s Law on April 3. The measure stiffens laws regulating sex offenders and provides start-up money for new criminal justice information systems. The law will provide $12 million to implement a statewide criminal justice information system, which officials estimate could cost as much as $100 million before completion. One goal of the information system is better tracking of registered sex offenders in the state. It also would integrate probation and arrest information from local law enforcement agencies, so law enforcement officers around the state have access to the most up-to-date information about offenders. The law will also spend $5 million to increase the number of probation officers handling sex offender cases. The intent is to reduce the number of cases each officer must handle so they can keep better track of their sex offenders. Further provisions change who is required to register, adding certain penalties to that list. In addition, it extends the period of registration for many offenses, including a requirement that some offenders register for life. The law will also authorize the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension to establish a Web site where it will post all the names of level 3 registered sex offenders in the state. Rep. Sherry Broecker (R-Little Canada) and Sen. Randy Kelly (DFL-St. Paul) sponsored the legislation. Many of its provisions were included as a result of the lobbying efforts of Pam Poirier. Poirier’s 19-year-old daughter Katie was abducted from a Moose Lake convenience store last May. She is presumed to have been murdered. Donald Blom, a six-time convicted sex offender, is scheduled to stand trial for the crime this month. In his statement upon signing the law, Ventura said it takes another step to improve public safety for Minnesota. He also said he favors spending for the integrated criminal justice system. However, he also noted that there are important facets of the plan still unfinished. Ventura said the Legislature needs to clarify the role of local governments in the system. He also said the system will not be as effective without a new Bureau of Criminal Apprehension building. (The House approved $28 million in bonding for the project, and the Senate approved the full $58 million requested.) He also raised concerns about two provisions of the law — increasing the penalty for failing to register as a sex offender to a felony and doubling the sentences for first-time rape convictions. While he supports those provisions, he said he does not like the fact that the Legislature provided no funding for them. Most of the provisions in the law are effective Aug. 1, 2000, and apply to crimes committed after that date. Appropriations in the law are effective July 1, 2000. Remaining provisions, including those for the criminal information system, are effective the day following enactment, or April 4, 2000. HF2688*/SF2769/CH311 **Vehicular homicide bill fails** The House rejected a bill April 4 that would have expanded the definition of criminal vehicular homicide. The vote was 72-61 against the measure. Rep. Lynda Boudreau (R-Faribault) is the sponsor of the bill (HF2610), which would have made a driver criminally liable if the crash is caused by a trailer that was improperly secured. The bill stipulated that the driver had to know or have reason to know the attachment was faulty. “I’m simply trying to assure that if they know the equipment is faulty, they are held accountable,” she said. “It’s blatant disregard and a high standard.” Under the bill, the driver could have been charged with a crime only if someone was killed or suffered great bodily harm due to the trailer and if the driver knew the possible danger existed. Boudreau said she introduced the bill after a car accident killed three people in her district. She said the driver of the vehicle with a trailer had previously been warned that the trailer hook-up was faulty. The trailer came loose from the vehicle, hitting another car and killing three people. Boudreau said the driver was charged only with careless driving, which is a misdemeanor. Several rural legislators objected to the bill, saying they feared a farmer could be found liable for not using safety chains on farm equipment. Rep. Al Juhnke (DFL-Willmar) said the bill should have gone through the House transportation committees for more examination of the farm equipment issues. Many farmers do not use chains, although they are recommended, because older equipment is not equipped with chains. The bill could have had the effect of making chains required, Juhnke said. Rep. Loren Jennings (DFL-Harris) said he feared that well-meaning people would be charged under the bill. “Are we going to make a whole bunch of criminals out of people who aren’t criminals?” Jennings said. **Statute of limitations extended** Domestic abuse victims would have more time to consider filing civil charges against the perpetrator, under a bill the House passed April 5. The vote was 132-0. The bill (HF47/SF11*) would extend the statute of limitations in domestic abuse cases from two years to six years. Rep. David Bishop (R-Rochester), who is sponsoring the legislation, said the statute of limitations would begin at the point of the last incident. “So many times, these domestic abuse wrongs are covered up or delayed,” Bishop said. “It doesn’t surface for a long time.” Rep. Sherry Broecker (R-Little Canada) offered an amendment that would establish a pilot project domestic abuse unit in the Ramsey County attorney’s office. The unit would be able to prosecute cases, recognize interests of children in abuse cases, and reduce the exposure of domestic abuse for victims. The bill now heads back to the Senate. **Sales tax evasion** People who collect motor vehicle sales tax and then fail to send the tax to the state would be guilty of a felony, under a bill the House passed April 4. The vote was 134-0. Sponsored by Rep. Matt Entenza (DFL-St. Paul), the bill (HF3303/SF3566*) would create a felony for not submitting vehicle sales tax to the state. The bill states that the person collecting the tax must “willfully” fail to send in the tax. “This is one of the most important tools we have in stopping fraudulent car sales,” Entenza said. While the House bill creates a felony regardless of the dollar amount involved, the Senate version only creates a felony when the tax involved exceeds $500. If the tax amount were less than $500, the crime would be a gross misdemeanor, under the Senate bill. Entenza said the bill stems from a February state Supreme Court decision, when the court threw out the convictions of Frank Larson, who owns Southwest Leasing, a Mankato company. Larson was convicted in 1997 of collecting $12,000 in vehicle sales tax that he failed to send to the state. The state Supreme Court ruled the wrong statute was used in charging Larson with a crime. The court ruling no longer makes it a felony to not send in the vehicle sales tax. Entenza explained that his legislation would simply revert the law to where it was prior to the court decision. The state will collect about $526 million in vehicle sales tax in 2001, according to the nonpartisan House Research Department. It is unknown what amount of sales tax is not collected. The bill now heads back to the Senate. **Serving court orders** A bill that aims to ease the process of serving court orders passed the House on April 4. The vote was 131-2. Rep. Doug Fuller (R-Bemidji) is sponsoring the bill (HF1067/SF551*), which would allow police officers more leeway to serve court orders to people. The bill creates a short form notification, which officers could serve to people at any time. For instance, if an officer pulls over a car for speeding, and the officer learns that a court is trying to contact that person to serve court orders, the officer could serve notification then and there, under the bill. “To me, it made perfect sense,” Fuller said. “If there is something to be served to them, (the law enforcement officer) can serve it.” An officer could serve paperwork at any time, including Sundays or legal holidays, the bill states. Though the bill pertains to any court order, it was specifically written to deal with protection orders. The notification form would include the respondent’s and petitioner’s name, the county that served the order, the name of the judge, and the date of a hearing. The short order form would direct the recipient to report to the sheriff’s office or courthouse to pick up the full copy of service. In addition, the short form would have the same weight as the full service, in case the recipient did not go to the courthouse and pick up the full service. The officer could detain the person as long as necessary in order to fill out and serve the person with the short form, the bill states. “It gives law enforcement the better tools they need to perform their duties,” Fuller said. The bill goes to the Senate. **Threatening school officials** Any person who threatens to inflict bodily harm on a school official would be guilty of a misdemeanor, under a bill the House passed April 5. The vote was 127-3. A second offense would lead to a gross misdemeanor. Rep. Peg Larsen (R-Lakeland) is sponsoring the bill (HF3465), which would amend the current terroristic threat statute. If a person makes threats to a school official and knows the words or actions cause terror, the person would be guilty. “It doesn’t just protect teachers,” Larsen said. “I’m doing this a lot for prevention. I’m trying to help these kids when their anger is shown.” Larsen said the bill came from a community justice coordinator in her district, who gave an example of a 14-year-old boy who threatened to beat up his teacher. The threat did not fall under current fifth-degree assault or terroristic threat statutes, Larsen explained. She believes this bill will fill the hole in the law where there is no protection for teachers. The bill includes all teachers, administrators, or employees at a school, including public and private institutions. The bill now heads to the Senate. **Domestic violence prevention** The House passed a bill April 3 that would establish an office of domestic violence and sexual assault prevention. The vote was 133-0. Rep. Larry Howes (R-Hackensack) is sponsoring a bill (HF3331) that creates the office and establishes an interagency task force on domestic abuse and sexual assault prevention. The bill is a “road map” for putting together the task force, Howes said. The task force would be required to include representatives from the departments of Corrections, Health, Human Services, Economic Security, and Children, Families and Learning. The task force also would include a county attorney, city attorney, and a judge. The director of domestic violence would serve as chair of the task force. The bill outlines the duties of the director of the new office, which include advocating victims’ rights, increasing education and awareness, supporting litigation, initiating policy changes, and building partnerships with law enforcement and the courts. The bill now heads to the Senate. **Check fraud cases** There would be new penalties for crimes involving check fraud, under a bill the House passed April 4. The vote was 134-0. Rep. Rich Stanek (R-Maple Grove) is sponsoring the bill (HF2751/SF3455*), which would create a misdemeanor offense when someone falsely tells their bank or other financial institution the items are missing or stolen. “This is not going after people who mistakenly overdraft their accounts,” Stanek said. “This is for people who intentionally and criminally defraud banks and businesses by writing out a number of bad checks.” The bill also would provide that a person could be charged for possessing, receiving, or transferring a bad check if he or she knows or has reason to know the check being passed or received is stolen or counterfeit. Bob Johnson, Anoka County attorney, told the House Civil Law Committee last month that the bill is geared to stop “the tremendous growth in bad checks.” The bill was proposed by a coalition of law enforcement officials, county attorneys, and private businesses, Stanek said. The bill now heads to the governor’s desk. **Education** **Sharing student information** The House passed a bill April 5 that would authorize schools and juvenile justice officials to share information about a student on probation. The vote was 127-6. The bill’s sponsor, Rep. Mary Jo McGuire (DFL-Falcon Heights), said the measure would amend the provision of the Minnesota Government Data Practices Act by allowing certain data about a student to be disclosed to the system in order to serve the student or protect staff or fellow students. The bill (HF2833) would allow a juvenile court disposition order to be shared with certain school officials, law enforcement, and specified others when a juvenile has been found to be delinquent for certain violations of criminal law. It would require that the order be sent to a district’s superintendent and then transmitted to the student’s principal for placement in the student’s education record. Data that could be disclosed about students on probation would include any information about controlled substance use, possession of weapons, assaults or threatening behavior, or thefts, vandalisms or other property damage. A student’s principal, under the bill, would be permitted to notify an employee in direct contact with the student if that individual needs the data to work with the student appropriately, to avoid being vulnerable, or to protect others from vulnerability. The bill now moves to the Senate. **Environment** **Environment funding amendment** A proposed constitutional amendment to dedicate three-sixteenths of one percent of the state sales tax to fund natural resource needs in the state would go before the voters in a bill forwarded by the House Taxes Committee March 31. The committee sent the bill (HF3426) to the House Ways and Means Committee without recommendation. Rep. Mark Holsten (R-Stillwater), the bill’s sponsor, said that under the bill, voters would consider the amendment on the 2000 general election ballot. If approved it would dedicate 45 percent of the proceeds to a newly created account in the state game and fish fund, and the other 55 percent would fund various purposes including spending on state parks, trail grants, and support of various zoos in the state. Holsten said the new funds would enhance revenues already appropriated by the Legislature. The Department of Revenue estimates that the measure would generate around $62 million in 2001 and more than $228 million in the next biennium. Rep. Loren Jennings (DFL-Harris) asked Holsten why dedicating funds for natural resources was more important than dedicating funds for education, property tax or income tax relief, or other worthy state-funded causes. Holsten replied that the state’s commitment in areas such as education would remain in place even if the voters approved the new fund. He said that a long-term solution to fund the state’s natural resources has to be addressed. Rep. Kris Hasskamp (DFL-Crosby) said she agreed with Holsten, although she said she was not sure the bill was the best way to address the problem. She said that the state’s tourism industry depends on the reputation and wellbeing of the state’s natural resources. Rep. Ron Abrams (R-Minnetonka), the committee chair, said that the bill’s financial implications suggest it should have been heard by the House Environment and Natural Resources Finance Committee. He said that committee determines the amount and priority for funding the state’s natural resources. **Family** **Marriage license discount** Couples could reduce the fee for a marriage license if they obtain premarital education under a bill passed by the House April 5. The vote was 97-35. The bill, sponsored by Rep. Elaine Harder (R-Jackson), would provide a reduced fee for marriage licenses for couples who receive at least 12 hours of premarital education from a qualified person. A qualified person would include a clergy member, a person authorized by law to perform marriages, or a marriage and family therapist. The education would include teaching about the seriousness of marriage, conflict management skills, and the desirability of obtaining counseling if the marriage falls into difficulty later on. The marriage license fee for those who completed premarital education would be lowered to $25 under the bill (HF2229/SF884*). In addition, the bill would raise all other marriage license fees from $70 to $75. The bill also changes distribution of the money from marriage license fees. Current law allocates $50 to the state general fund, while leaving $15 in the county where the license is obtained and giving $5 to other projects. The bill increases the amount to the general fund from $50 to $55. The measure now goes to the Senate. **Involuntary commitment** Parents will have more control in admitting mentally ill children to hospitals under a law Gov. Jesse Ventura signed April 3. The law will add mental illness to current law on involuntary admission and treatment. The law currently allows parents to admit a child age 16 or 17 to a hospital if the child is mentally retarded or chemically dependent. The previous law allowed parents to admit children to hospitals for a mental illness up to age 16. The law will now extend that provision to age 18. Even if the 16- or 17-year-old child refuses treatment, the parents will be able to admit the child to a hospital. The law also will require hospital officials to inform the patient that a family member has made an inquiry about the patient’s health. The patient would then have to authorize the release of any information. Rep. Mindy Greiling (DFL-Roseville) and Sen. Don Betzold (DFL-Fridley) sponsored the legislation. The law takes effect Aug. 1, 2000. HF3107/SF2634*/CH316 **Gambling** **Gambling fraud penalties** Tampering with gambling devices or claiming a gambling prize through fraud or use of counterfeited equipment will now be a felony, under a law Gov. Jesse Ventura signed April 3. The law will establish felonies if the dollar amount involved in the gambling fraud exceeds $2,500. The maximum penalty for a felony will be three years in prison and a $6,000 fine. A person could be charged with a misdemeanor when the dollar amount involved is $500 or less or a gross misdemeanor when the value is between $500 and $2,500. The law will make it illegal to knowingly claim a gambling prize using altered or counterfeited equipment. It will also make it illegal to claim a prize through fraud, deceit or misrepresentation. Tampering with gambling equipment in an attempt to influence the outcome of the game also will be illegal under the law. Gambling officials say the law is necessary to curb the growth of cheating and fraud. Rep. Sherry Broecker (R-Little Canada) and Sen. Deanna Wiener (DFL-Eagan) sponsored the bill. The law takes effect Aug. 1, 2000. HF3023/SF2701*/CH318 **Game & Fish** **Law allows lighted lures** A new law signed April 3 will allow anglers to use lighted fishing lures. While the lures are used in neighboring states, current state law allows the manufacture and sale of lighted lures but does not allow anglers to use them in Minnesota waters. The new law, effective Aug. 1, 2000, contains a provision mandating that batteries used in lighted fishing lures cannot contain mercury. That portion was added due to concerns the batteries could be swallowed by fish or lost in the water. Rep. Chris Gerlach (R-Apple Valley) and Sen. Pat Pariseau (R-Farmington) sponsored the legislation. HF3352/SF3586*/CH308 **Government** **Turning over state property** Ownership of a piece of state property that previously housed a juvenile correctional facility was turned over to the city of Sauk Centre under a new law signed April 4 by Gov. Jesse Ventura. Rep. George Cassell (R-Alexandria), House sponsor of the measure, said the Minnesota Correctional Facility-Sauk Centre was closed in July 1999 and has been vacant since then. Effective April 5, 2000, the local officials can use the property for economic development or for city or county government purposes, which Cassell said will be a vehicle to create jobs. If the state had not turned the land over to the city, the state Department of Administration estimated that it would have spent $200,000 per year in minimal maintenance to the vacant facility. It was established in 1911 as a facility for delinquent girls, but became coeducational in 1967. Under state law, when an agency vacates a piece of property, the state Department of Administration offers the property to other state agencies or departments that might want to use the property. But in this case, no other agency expressed interest, Cassell said. Cassell added that the land originally was purchased by the city and given to the state in the early 1900s to be used as a correctional facility. The city also extended water and sewer lines to the buildings and has continued to maintain that system. Sen. Cal Larson (R-Fergus Falls) was the Senate sponsor of the measure. HF2819/SF2444*/CH326 **Health** **Abortion consent revisited** The House revisited “right-to-know” abortion legislation April 5 and passed a less-restrictive version of a bill intended to temporarily delay a doctor’s procedure. The vote was 89-44. The bill (HF3652/SF3387*) would require a woman considering an abortion to wait at least 24 hours before undergoing the procedure. And the measure would require that the woman be given information about risks and alternatives at least 24 hours before the procedure is scheduled. The proposal, sponsored by Rep. Kevin Goodno (R-Moorhead), is similar to earlier language proposed by Rep. Lynda Boudreau (R-Faribault) calling for a woman to give her informed consent prior to an abortion. That provision was included in the larger --- **Play ball** **Legislators break from regular duties to honor Minnesota’s boys of summer** Sporting a Minnesota Twins jersey and cap April 3, Rep. David Tomassoni (DFL-Chisholm) looked ready for the season to begin. Though it was still only 10:30 a.m., Tomassoni’s thoughts were on the Twins season opener at the Metrodome later in the evening. Tomassoni offered a resolution to honor the Minnesota Twins and the team’s 40-year history in the state, including World Series titles in 1987 and 1991. The team won the American League pennant in 1965 and won division titles in 1969 and 1970. “This resolution is about the great memories the Minnesota Twins have given us,” Tomassoni said. “It’s America’s game. Baseball is our beloved national pastime.” The resolution passed on a 132-0 vote. Hall-of-Famer Harmon Killebrew and former all-star Kirby Puckett played spectator as the House passed the resolution. They also received a rousing ovation from House members. Tomassoni told a story about meeting Killebrew as a child, when the legendary home run hitter emerged from the Twins dugout and signed autographs and shook hands with several children. Tomassoni spoke warmly about that memory, and thanked Killebrew for his friendliness toward fans. The resolution dubs baseball as “a game woven so deeply into our lives that it provides common ground for people of all ages.” The resolution also recognizes baseball as “wholesome, family entertainment.” Discussion of the resolution concluded with Rep. Kris Hasskamp (DFL-Crosby) singing “Take Me Out To The Ballgame.” About 43,000 people attended the Twins opener. The Twins lost 7-0. (C. Vetter) Former Minnesota Twins slugger Harmon Killebrew uses Speaker Steve Sviggum’s gavel to show the swing that hit 573 home runs in his career. Kirby Puckett also joined Killebrew on the House floor to receive a proclamation commemorating the Twins on the 40-year anniversary of major league baseball in the state. state government appropriations bill (HF2699), currently in conference committee. That spending bill was passed by the House in March. During recent conference committee discussions, House members suggested possibly taking policy items out of the bill to avoid constitutional challenges. There are several differences between the Boudreau “right-to-know” bill and the Goodno version the House passed most recently. The Goodno bill would waive the 24-hour waiting period for cases when a woman’s life or health may put in danger by delaying the procedure. It also would modify language pertaining to a woman’s right to sue if an abortion were performed without following the consent procedures, and would strike the requirement that the name of the doctor performing the procedure be included with the information given to the patient. Under the bill, a woman would need to receive by mail, phone, Internet, or in person information about prenatal care, child support, adoption, and other material about pregnancy and community support services. The bill goes to the Senate. **Deregulating hotdish** The House passed a bill April 4 that would ease health regulations regarding food served at community potluck events. The vote was 131-0. The idea behind the bill originated when Rep. Al Juhnke (DFL-Willmar), attending a DFL bean feed at the American Legion Hall in Willmar, was told health regulations prevented outsiders from bringing prepared food into community potlucks. According to Aggie Leitheiser, assistant commissioner of the state’s Health Protection Bureau, such restrictions exist to prevent outbreaks of food-borne disease. Over the past four years, Leitheiser said, 16 percent of the confirmed food-borne disease outbreaks in the state were traced to privately prepared food. So, following health regulations to the letter, organizers of the event in Willmar politely rejected Juhnke’s beans, asking him to return them to his car. After the experience, Juhnke said he felt all people should be allowed to attend community potlucks and share their food without being subject to health inspection. His bill (HF2707/SF3348*) would allow any person attending a potluck event, not just members of the organization sponsoring the event, to bring individually prepared food for consumption. It also would allow an organization sponsoring potluck events to advertise the events and permit people who are not members of the organization to attend the event and eat the food. A successful amendment to the bill deleted language that would have required signs at a potluck event stating that the food was not prepared in a licensed kitchen and is not subject to health department regulation. The bill now returns to the Senate. **Prompt claim payment** The House approved a bill April 3 that would establish prompt payment requirements applicable to health plan companies for clean claims for services rendered by health care providers and care facilities. The vote was 131-0. Sponsored by Rep. Darlene Luther (DFL-Brooklyn Park), the bill (HF2643/SF2767*) also would apply to third-party administrators, but would not pertain to services provided by pharmacists. A “clean claim” is defined as a claim that has no defect or impropriety, including any lack of required documentation or any circumstance that prevents timely payment. The bill would require that health plan companies and third-party administrators pay or deny a clean claim within 30 days of receipt of the claim. Claims not paid in that time would be subject to an interest payment of 1.5 percent of the claim per month, under the bill. The company providing the health plan or the third-party administrator would be responsible for paying the interest under the bill — not the insured party. In addition, late claim payments would not be subject to an interest payment if the payment were delayed to review potentially fraudulent or abusive billing practices, however. Furthermore, the commissioner of the Department of Health would be prohibited from assessing a financial administrative penalty against a health plan company that violates the language contained in the bill. The bill now moves to the governor’s desk. **Organ donation checkoff** Motorists would have the option to give money to an organization that increases public awareness of organ donations, under a bill the House passed April 5. The vote was 121-11. Rep. Darlene Luther (DFL-Brooklyn Park) said she wants to disseminate more information about organ donations. Luther, who had an emergency liver transplant in February 1998, is sponsoring the bill (HF2635/SF2737*) to raise money for public awareness of donations. The bill would create a $1 checkoff on driver’s license applications. Money raised from the checkoff would go to an organ procurement organization, which would make pamphlets and purchase equipment, such as a mobile unit, to increase awareness of the donation program. “It’s an innovative approach to solve this crisis,” Luther said earlier this session. Approximately 1,160 Minnesotans are currently on an organ donor waiting list, according to Susan Gunderson, executive director for LifeSource. Luther wants the checkoff placed on driver’s license forms because people are already choosing whether they want to be an organ donor at that time. During floor discussion, Rep. Richard Mulder (R-Ivanhoe) offered an amendment that would make it illegal to sell, purchase, or perform research on human fetal tissue that was obtained after an abortion. The amendment passed 96-35. Luther said she would be happy if the bill could generate $250,000 a year. The bill would require the organization that is awarded the money to make a report to the Legislature in 2002 on receipts and expenditures. The bill now goes to a House-Senate conference committee. **Registration for therapists** The House passed a bill April 4 that would codify in statute the rules governing occupational therapists and therapists’ assistants. The vote was 130-3. Occupational therapists are currently licensed through the state Department of Health. The bill would merely place into state law the rules employed by the department to govern those therapists and assistants. Rep. Larry Howes (R-Hackensack), who is sponsoring the measure (HF947/SF1038*), said the bill would add the option of registration for therapists but would not prohibit individuals who are not registered from practicing as an occupational therapist or assistant. The bill also would specify educational and examination requirements for registration as an occupational therapist. The sections of the bill governing registration would apply only to applicants for registration, therapists who are registered, people who use protected titles, and therapists who say they are registered, Howes said. The bill also makes provisions for renewing registration, as well as temporary and equivalent registration for occupational therapists. The bill now moves to the governor’s desk. Prescription drug cards People will be prohibited from selling, marketing, promoting, and distributing any card offering discounts for prescription drugs that fails to meet certain requirements, under a law signed March 31 by Gov. Jesse Ventura. The measure will allow an individual or the state attorney general to sue to stop any such act and obtain damages any deception may have caused. The measure will protect consumers from promised discounts that are either confusing or not backed by insurance policies. Discounts that are deceptive or that are not authorized by contract with the pharmacies listed on the card, will be in violation of the new law, and people issuing or distributing the cards will be subject to prosecution. Also, discount cards will have to prominently state that discounts offered are not being offered through any insurance policy. The new law will not apply, however, to vision care, glasses, or contact lenses provided by an optometrist or ophthalmologist. Discounts promised under contract with the state of Minnesota, or a consumer discount card issued by a store for use at that particular store will also be allowed. Furthermore, a card administered by a health insurer, nonprofit health service plan corporation, or health maintenance organization (HMO) will be exempt from complying with card requirements put forth by the law. Rep. Larry Howes (R-Hackensack) and Sen. John Hottinger (DFL-Mankato) sponsored the legislation. The law takes effect Aug. 1, 2000. HF2883/SF2579*/CH303 Higher Education Designing state buildings The House passed a bill April 4 that would allow representatives of colleges, universities, and state agencies to vote on the design of state buildings. The vote was 120-10. Contracts for designing state buildings are awarded through the state Designer Selection Board. Under current law, the agency or school that will be using a new building appoints a non-voting member to the board, which consists of five voting members. The board looks at design plans from competing firms and decides which firm will receive the contract. The members of the current board represent the state Department of Administration, the Consulting Engineers Council of Minnesota (with input from other professional engineering societies in the state), the Minnesota Society of Architects, and the Minnesota Board of the Arts. The bill (HF3195/SF3701*) would increase the board to seven voting members, which would include a voting member from the organization that will be using the building. If, for example, a building were being designed for the University of Minnesota, the university would have a vote on the final design of the building. “This gives the user agency a real voice and real responsibility (on the board),” said Rep. Peggy Leppik (R-Golden Valley), sponsor of the bill. The bill also would make one of the board members represent the American Institute of Architects, instead of the Minnesota Society of Architects. Also, the board would include a representative of the Associated General Contractors and two citizen members. The bill now goes to the Senate. Human Services House votes to override The House voted April 4 to override a governor’s veto of a bill that would assure the continued operation of the Ah-Gwah-Ching center, a nursing facility in Walker. The Ah-Gwah-Ching center serves residents whose aggressive or difficult-to-manage behavioral needs cannot be met in their home community. The vote to override was 125-5. Gov. Jesse Ventura had vetoed the measure a day earlier, citing that the bill was “unnecessary” because law currently exists prohibiting the commissioner of the Department of Human Services from closing the facility without the Legislature’s approval. The bill (HF2809), sponsored by Rep. Larry Howes (R-Hackensack), was passed by the House March 15 and sent to the Senate, where it was passed and forwarded to the governor to sign. In addition to language in the bill calling for the center to remain open, the bill would clarify the admissions criteria of the facility and require that the center promote emergency admittance and geriatric rapid assessment stabilization programs. The Senate has not yet reconsidered the bill. To complete the override of the governor’s veto, the Senate would need to re-pass the bill by a two-thirds majority. The 1999 Legislature successfully overrode a veto, the first time that had happened in 17 years. Nursing home closure The House passed a bill April 4 that would establish a process for closing nursing facilities. The bill would also allow savings from a closed facility to be reallocated through special rate adjustments and interim payments. The vote was 131-4. Rep. Fran Bradley (R-Rochester), sponsor of the measure (HF3537/SF3198*), said the bill would allow one or more nursing facilities owned or operated by any nonprofit corporation controlling more than 22 nursing facilities in the state to submit closure plans to the commissioner of the Department of Human Services. Under the bill, a closure plan would need to include the projected costs and savings of closure, a timetable for closure, and a proposed relocation plan for residents. A facility’s plan would also need to include information on the facilities in line to receive a special rate adjustment as a result of the closure and documentation that such facilities have accepted liability for recovering overpayments to facilities designated to be closed. If the bill were to become law, the commissioner would first need to obtain certification from the commissioner of the Department of Health that each plan satisfies requirements related to notice of closure and relocation of residents before being allowed to approve the plan. The bill would require that a determination of the plan itself be made within 60 days of its submittal. The bill now moves to the governor’s desk. **Assisting Holocaust survivors** The House passed a bill April 4 that would assist Holocaust survivors and their heirs in collecting insurance claims. The vote was 133-1. Rep. Ron Abrams (R-Minnetonka), sponsor of the bill (HF3756/SF3423*), said that similar to today, many families that lived prior to World War II planned for the future by purchasing life insurance. But many of those people have had difficulty in settling insurance claims. Abrams said that often life insurance claims require a death certificate, which for Holocaust victims is not available. Under the bill, the Department of Commerce would be permitted to establish a registry of records of Holocaust-related insurance policies and claims. Currently there is an international commission working to establish a registry and recover insurance proceeds from policies issued during the 1930s and 1940s. Abrams said that there are over 200 Holocaust survivors in the state. The bill also would require insurance companies to provide the data necessary to assist Holocaust victims and their beneficiaries. Abrams said the data in the registry that would be established by the bill would be cooperatively exchanged with the registry that serves other states. He said the measure would encourage insurance companies that do business in the state and that did business in Europe before World War II to settle the insurance claims. The bill would permit the Department of Commerce to suspend an insurer's authority to do business in Minnesota if they fail to comply. The bill now goes to the governor. --- **Disqualifying a judge** A bill that outlines the procedure to disqualify a judge from sitting on a case passed the House on April 4. The vote was 99-33. Rep. Len Biernat (DFL-Mpls) is sponsoring a bill (HF3517/SF2742*) that explains how a judge would be removed from a particular case. "It prevents disqualification of a magistrate," Biernat said. "It streamlines the process so there is not a lot of motions by attorneys." Under the bill, when a person involved in a court case is notified of a court date and the name of the judge, the person would have up to 10 days to reject the judge for any reason. The person would have one free "disqualification" of a judge. To disqualify a second judge, the person must prove the judge has bias in the case. However, once the first hearing has taken place, even if it is within the 10-day period, the person cannot ask for the judge to be removed from the case. Rep. Richard Mulder (R-Ivanhoe) spoke against the bill, saying he is worried that the backlog of cases judges have will only become worse. The bill goes to the Senate. --- **Lake improvement districts** Property owners would have a greater say in the establishment and management of lake improvement districts, under a measure the House passed April 5 on a 70-60 vote. Lake improvement districts are established as a unit of government to provide a method to address issues and concerns on a more local level. Rep. Mark Olson (R-Big Lake), sponsor of the bill (HF3260/SF2968*), said that currently there are 14 such districts in the state. Under current law, lake improvement districts can conduct projects for water conservation and improvement, regulate water surface use, and provide and finance services. Districts also are allowed to acquire, construct, and operate dams or other water level control structures. A county board, or county boards acting jointly, may initiate the establishment of a district. A petition to the county board signed by at least 26 percent of the proposed district's property owners may also initiate the process. Olson said his bill would allow property owners to petition their county board, no matter how the proposed district is initiated, for a referendum before the district is established. That petition would also require signatures from at least 26 percent of the property owners within the proposed district. Under the bill, after the initial appointment of district board members by the county board, all subsequent district board members would be elected by the property owners of the district at the district's annual meeting. The bill also calls for the county board to seek other sources of funding for improvement district projects before imposing service charges, special assessments, or property tax levies on property owners. Rep. Tom Rukavina (DFL-Virginia) expressed concern with the election portion of the bill. He said the bill would establish a precedent of allowing property owners, rather than residents, to vote in an election. The bill now goes to the governor. --- **Law sets fine for studs** The governor signed a measure April 4 that adds a civil penalty for using metal traction devices, or studs, on snowmobiles. The new law was necessary because a civil penalty was inadvertently left out of a 1999 law that required people to purchase a sticker for their snowmobiles if they intend to use studs. The 1999 measure contains criminal penalties for people who drive a snowmobile with studs on paved state trails. The new law, effective April 5, 2000, establishes civil penalties for people who use snowmobile studs but do not purchase a sticker. For the first offense, the penalty is capped at $50. The fine for a second offense is up to $300, and for third and subsequent offenses the fine is up to $600. Rep. Andrew Westerberg (R-Blaine) and Sen. Linda Runbeck (R-Circle Pines) sponsored the legislation. HF3555/SF3283*/CH324 --- **Left lane driving restricted** Drivers in the left lane on state highways would be directed to move to the right lane when they are not passing, under a bill the House passed April 5. The vote was 80-50. The bill (HF3091/SF2484*), sponsored by Rep. David Tomassoni (DFL-Chisholm), would allow the placement of signs along highways reminding drivers to move to the right lane after passing. "This bill is aimed at people who park in the left-hand lane and never move over," Tomassoni said. "We're just trying to get people to be more courteous." The bill would require the placement of signs every 50 miles along interstate highways, reminding drivers to move to the right lane after they have passed a car. The signs would say, "Move to the right after passing." Tomassoni said the signs are the key part of the bill he wants. The left lane should be reserved for passing, avoiding accidents, entering or exiting the interstate, or when a person is directed by law enforcement or construction sites, Tomassoni contends. Current law provides for a petty misdemeanor for drivers who travel in the left lane below the rate of speed of other vehicles on the road. The bill also would carry the petty misdemeanor charge. Rep. Steve Dehler (R-St. Joseph) spoke against the bill, saying it is unnecessary. “This is going to be a primary offense,” Dehler said. “We don’t need laws to tell us to drive with common sense.” Tomassoni said he does not think police would use this measure for primary offenses. “I’m confident that our officers won’t be stopping people who are driving in the left-hand lane when there is no one in the right-hand lane,” he said. Sen. Dick Day (R-Owatonna) is sponsoring the Senate version, which includes a 25 mph maximum speed in school zones. That provision is not in the House bill. The differences will likely be resolved in a conference committee. **Weight restrictions relaxed** Heavier vehicles such as public utility or electric cooperative trucks would be exempt from springtime weight restrictions under a bill the House passed April 4. The vote was 115-15. Rep. Tom Workman (R-Chanhassen) is sponsoring the bill (HF3274/SF2785*), which would allow the vehicles to travel on roads that usually have weight restrictions for eight weeks in the spring. Public utility vehicles need to be able to travel on side roads when emergencies occur, Workman said. “For them to come onto your street and restore your power, they are technically breaking the law,” Workman said during a House Transportation Policy Committee meeting in February. “That’s ridiculous.” This bill provides for emergency use of the road, and not general transportation for larger vehicles, Workman said. Exempted vehicles under this bill must not exceed 20,000 pounds per axle. The bill also would allow recycling trucks to travel on the restricted roads. Workman said the way the law is written now, recycling companies would be required to buy two smaller trucks and employ twice as many workers to pick up recycling during the eight-week stretch to avoid breaking road restrictions. “It is a complete impossibility to do that,” Workman said. He noted that school buses, which are heavier than recycling trucks, travel on restricted roads 10 times a week, while a recycling truck makes that route once a week at most. Reps. Tom Bakk (DFL-Cook) and Gary Kubly (DFL-Granite Falls) then offered successful amendments to exempt trucks containing raw sewage or milk. The Senate version, sponsored by Sen. Steve Murphy (DFL-Red Wing), does not include those exemptions. Glen Engstrom, manager of Minnesota Road Research for the state Department of Transportation, explained that the eight-week restriction is enforced when the ice thaws and roads become particularly soft. Transportation officials decide the beginning date of the restriction based on several weather factors. The starting date changes each year. Road restrictions are generally placed on state and county highways or city streets. By starting the weight restrictions on time, the department saves $10 million annually in road replacement costs, Engstrom said. The bill now heads to a House-Senate conference committee. **State immunity from liability** A bill that would make the state immune from civil lawsuits involving recreational motor vehicle accidents that occur in a highway right-of-way passed the House on April 5. The vote was 79-53. The measure, sponsored by Rep. Mary Liz Holberg (R-Lakeville), would exempt the state from liability when accidents or injuries occur involving snowmobiles or other off-road recreational vehicles. “This bill would require a warning,” Holberg said. “The warnings would have to be reasonable.” The sports vehicles — such as snowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles — are supposed to drive on the side of the ditch opposite the roadway, not at the bottom or the side closest to the highway. Rep. Carol Molnau (R-Chaska) spoke in favor of the bill, saying the immunity protection would be the same language under the law as for state parks. Rep. Alice Johnson (DFL-Spring Lake Park) spoke against the bill, saying the state should be responsible for the land it owns. “This is poor public policy,” Johnson said. “We have made our ditches public trails.” Rep. Kris Hasskamp (DFL-Crosby) also had concerns about the measure. “Snowmobilers better know this before they hit the trail next season,” Hasskamp said. The bill (HF3613/SF3307*) now heads to the governor’s desk. **Newspaper’s stance questioned** A *Star Tribune* official appeared before the House Transportation Finance Committee on March 30 to defend the newspaper’s editorial stance on the proposed Hiawatha Corridor light-rail transit project. Critics of the light-rail project have pointed out that the newspaper has changed its editorial position from criticism of the project to support in recent months. Frank Parisi, senior vice president at the *Star Tribune*, said the newspaper’s view toward light rail has evolved over the past couple of years. However, the paper’s switch to support light rail is not based on possible gains the company could receive from a station located near its downtown Minneapolis headquarters, Parisi said. “We have never made an editorial decision based on the company’s bottom line,” Parisi told the committee. “The *Star Tribune* editorial page is not for sale.” The current light-rail proposal in the Hiawatha Corridor would include tracks along Fifth Street in Minneapolis. The tracks would cross one of the *Star Tribune*’s parking lots, requiring the newspaper to be compensated. A preliminary survey places the value of the lot at $10 million. Parisi said the newspaper has not verified how much the property is actually worth. However, Parisi said the paper would not benefit from selling the block to make way for the light-rail project. The 249 parking spots on the block are a necessity for *Star Tribune* employees, Parisi said. “Anyone who claims that loss of this block will benefit the Star Tribune Company is completely out of touch with reality,” Parisi said. Two legislators, Alice Hausman (DFL-St. Paul) and Dan Larson (DFL-Bloomington) left the meeting shortly after it began, saying they refused to question a newspaper on the merits of its editorials. “The very fact that we are diving into a newspaper’s views and judgments . . . not only is it unprecedented, I think it is an outrage,” Larson said. Rep. Ray Vandeveer (R-Forest Lake) said the paper is entitled to its opinion. He questioned the proposed location of the line when several reports indicated that Fifth Street would be a poor route. “What concerns me is the implication that proponents of the light-rail project placed the station near the *Star Tribune* to garner political support,” Vandeveer said. David Strom, legislative director for the Taxpayers League of Minnesota, testified that the newspaper supports the project because of possible benefits to the company. “The *Star Tribune* not only supported the plan, but pushed for subsidies along the line,” Strom said. “It questions the journalistic ethics for not revealing (land ownership) on the editorial page.” Action on feedlot rules Bill would settle dispute between Pollution Control Agency and farmers regarding changes to rules governing feedlots By MIKE DE LARCO The House passed a bill March 30 that would ease a set of new feedlot rules proposed in December by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA). The vote was 80-49. The bill’s passage followed weeks of public testimony opposing new rules for the permit process for animal feedlots. The agency’s rules are now before an administrative law judge and an opinion on proposed changes is expected later this month. The measure the House passed addresses changes to the plan that farmers requested to happen before any support could be given to a revision of the agency’s 20-year-old feedlot guidelines. If it becomes law, the measure would settle the matter, making the judge’s ruling unnecessary. “Something needed to be done to address the concerns brought forward by farmers in my district and producers all over the state.” Farmers are concerned that new requirements will drive small feedlots out of business. In addition, cattle producers oppose having their pastures regulated under feedlot rules, Kuisle said. Furthermore, counties would see a greater responsibility for enforcement shifted in their direction under new agency rules, a task many counties consider to be overly time consuming and burdensome. Last month, the Pollution Control Agency took some of the concerns expressed by farmers to heart and suggested it would consider making amendments to the most controversial sections of the proposed feedlot rules. Kuisle said his bill (HF3692) would give specific instruction to the agency on how the rules should be amended before their final adoption. Under the bill, state livestock operations would be allowed to grow, and regulations by the MPCA would be reduced. More time would be given to producers to make changes. Officials estimate that eight out of 10 feedlots in Minnesota would be exempt from making lot upgrades viewed as necessary by the agency to protect the environment under Kuisle’s bill. Gary Pulford, feedlot manager for the agency, said approximately half of the state’s 40,000 feedlots are in compliance with the agency’s current rules. Of the other half, about 8,000 are reported to have waste run-off problems. The status of the remaining lots, Pulford said, is unknown. The agency has proposed a 10-year window for small farmers to cut down on environmental problems. The most prevalent violation the agency is focusing on involves the flow of animal waste from lots into rivers and streams. Another is air pollution. Pollution problems caused by livestock odor was a concern of many who voted against Kuisle’s bill. HF3692 would exempt animal feedlots from state ambient air quality standards for up to seven days after animal manure is removed from lot storage facilities. And by allowing feedlots to grow in size, air pollution could potentially increase, said Rep. Ted Winter (DFL-Fulda). “This bill expands the numbers of animals and decreases the oversight without considering the problems that that’s going to cause,” Winter said. Kuisle responded to concerns by saying that while livestock odor is a problem at some sites, limiting feedlot expansion isn’t the answer. In the meantime, the agency’s new plan would put limits on hydrogen sulfide gas found in manure and require that manure spills on roads be treated as serious problems. Sloppy handling of manure could result in fines if revised rules, as they stand now, go into effect. The agency’s new rules would not apply, however, to feedlots with fewer than 400 animal units if HF3692 were to become law. In addition, a feedlot operator with fewer than 500 animal units could not be forced to dish out more than $3,000 to address agency requests for lot upgrades unless offered a significant cost match under the bill. There are some similarities in the bill to modifications the agency considered making in March. Some provisions, however, differ greatly. Language in the bill and the proposed agency changes are far apart on a turn-around time for permits to be issued and an exemption of rules for smaller producers. “Both sides may have to give a little,” Kuisle said. The bill now moves to the Senate. A compromise to build House and Senate bonding bills differ by $232 million, with major divides related to higher education, environment, and state building projects By Jon Fure A House and Senate conference committee is working to reach a compromise on a bonding bill, which would pay for repairs to state buildings and new construction projects, mainly through the sale of state bonds. The House and Senate versions of the bill (HF4078*/SF3811) each would spend more than the $499.7 million that is proposed under Gov. Jesse Ventura’s capital budget plan. That figure includes money that would be spent by canceling appropriations to capital projects from previous years. Under the House and Senate bills, bonding would total $532 million and $763.6 million respectively. The House bill would use more revenue from user-financed bonds than the governor’s plan — $76.9 million compared to the governor’s proposed $33.9 million. The Senate bill would use $82.8 million from user-financed bonds, and it would spend more money than the other proposals in general obligation bonding and direct spending from the general fund. Also, the Senate bill would cancel smaller amounts of money from old projects than the other two proposals. In general obligation bonding, the House bill and the governor’s plan each would use about $400 million, but the Senate bill would use about $665.6 million. Some lawmakers have been critical of proposals to borrow money by selling bonds due to the $1.8 billion projected budget surplus. When the bill was debated on the House floor, Rep. Satveer Chaudhary (DFL-Fridley) said borrowing money and paying interest on the bonds would be like a person using a credit card instead of cash. But Rep. Jim Knoblach (R-St. Cloud), sponsor of the House bill, said that the capital projects such as state buildings are used for many years, so it is appropriate to spread the costs over a period of time, instead of using tax dollars that were paid by people and organizations in the current biennium. Rep. Dave Bishop (R-Rochester) added that Minnesota is one of only a few states that has a AAA bond rating, which delivers bonds at the most attractive interest rates, due to its fiscal policies in previous years. The state has limited the amount of money it spends on interest payments on bonds, or debt service, to a maximum of 3 percent of the total revenue in a biennium. Overall spending for higher education would be $169.9 million under the House bill and $296.9 million under the Senate bill, compared to $118.3 million under the governor’s plan. All three proposals would spend $35 million on a Molecular Cellular Biology building at the University of Minnesota. The Senate bill would spend $21 million for a new Art Building, which would receive $2 million for design costs under the House bill. But the House bill would not fund a $10 million Microbial and Plant Genomics building at the U of M campus in St. Paul, which would be funded under the Senate bill and the governor’s plan. The Art Building on the University of Minnesota’s West Bank would be replaced by a $21 million facility under the Senate bonding bill. The House bill would provide only $2 million for design of a new building. Also, Bishop said the state’s payments are amortized so that 40 percent of the overall cost is paid within five years and 70 percent is paid within 10 years, which helps reduce the amount of money that the state spends on interest. Under those guidelines, Bishop said the state could authorize $970 million in bonds this year and still be on solid financial ground. The conference committee has had some preliminary meetings, but so far no major compromise has been reached regarding the amounts of money that should be spent or borrowed. Here are some highlights of the projects in the House and Senate proposals. U of M facilities The House and Senate would fund other projects at U of M campuses in St. Paul, Crookston, and Morris that would not receive funding under the governor’s plan. The Senate bill would fully fund the $16 million request for maintenance and repair. Continued on page 23 A plan for parenting Bill would give divorcing parents the option to work out their own custody agreements rather than fighting it out in court By CHRIS VETTER A bill that would allow divorced parents to create parenting agreements passed the House March 30. The measure received approval by a 116-12 vote. The measure, sponsored by Rep. Andy Dawkins (DFL-St. Paul), would allow divorced couples to make agreements on splitting parenting time. Currently, parenting agreements are neither specifically forbidden nor allowed in state law. “This bill would allow parents to reinsert their own plan,” he said. “Why choose one parent over another parent when you have two good parents?” Parenting plans could specify anything from where a child lives during the day to which parent can teach religious philosophy or which parent picks up the child from soccer practice. Child support would be a separate issue not included in parenting plans, he added. Dawkins, a family lawyer, said he has worked on the issue for several years. He introduced a similar bill in 1997, which did not pass either the House or Senate. However, a Parental Cooperation Task Force to study parenting agreements was established as part of the omnibus judiciary law in 1998. He said his current bill (HF3311/SF3169*) incorporates many of the task force’s recommendations. Parenting plans would encourage mediation and reduce lengthy custody battles and further litigation, Dawkins said. “Our current law has a winner-take-all mentality to it,” Dawkins said. “And I think that has a wrong angle to it.” Under both the Senate and House bills, a parenting plan could be formed if both parents agree to it. However, the House bill would allow the court to require mediation if only one parent agrees. That provision is not in the Senate bill. During the mediation, each parent would work with the mediator to negotiate the terms of the parenting plan. Both parents would be bound by the decision reached at mediation. Dawkins said the judge should have the authority to require parenting plans to get the two sides talking. Without the judge’s authority, “we’re back to the current law,” he said. The House bill would not allow judges to require a parenting plan if there are previous allegations of domestic abuse. William Howard, judge with the Fourth Judicial District, supports the Senate bill because it applies only to couples that submit to parenting plans. “It gives them the option to do it,” Howard said. “But don’t force people to do it. (The Senate version) is a permissive bill.” Howard said parenting plans would allow a whole spectrum of relationships. “This clears up the murkiness of the court to submit to parent plans,” he said. A Minnesota Supreme Court ruling from September 1999, *Frauenshuh vs. Giese*, made some parent agreements invalid, Dawkins said. In the case, the couple was allowed to establish a custody agreement based on a different standard from the one typically applied by the court to such cases. The Supreme Court ruled that the couple should not have been allowed, by the lower court, to use a different standard, and thereby ruled their agreement invalid. Dawkins contends that couples should be given the freedom, with proper legal representation, to reach any custody agreement they prefer, subject to approval of the court, presuming it is in the best interest of the child. “That threw out all these cases where two good lawyers and two good parents decided what is best for children,” he said. The House bill has a retroactive effective date of Sept. 1, 1999, to re-instate parenting plans invalidated by the court’s decision. Suzanne Born, family lawyer and member of the task force, disagreed. Born said the ruling threw out a specific parenting plan, but did not eliminate all previous agreements. According to the task force summary, at least 20 states currently allow parenting plan agreements. Washington County has developed a written plan format, which could become a model for other counties, said Mindy Mitnick, a child psychologist at the Uptown Mental Health Center. The packet asks parents to decide which adult is responsible for doctor visits, physical custody of the child, or dividing holidays. “What we have now is specific forms, so counties don’t have to keep starting over from scratch,” Mitnick said. All references to “visitation” in statute would be eliminated under the bill. Visitation would be replaced by the phrase “parenting time,” which is defined as the time a parent spends with a child regardless of the custodial designation of the child. “It always bothered me, the word ‘visitor,’” Dawkins said. “You both have parenting time.” Born agreed, saying she is happy with the word change. “Visitation is a very offensive word to parents who have been involved with their kids their whole life,” Born said. The bill also would allow the non-custodial parent to object when the custodial parent chooses to move out of Minnesota. The bill would require a hearing be held to discuss the issue. If the court determines the move is not in the best interest of the child, the court must forbid the move from occurring, according to the bill. The bill now moves to a House-Senate conference committee. A legislative lesson Fourth-grade students combine school projects into real-life civics lesson and successfully campaign for 13th state symbol By Jon Fure It all started as a school project about monarch butterflies. But when Rep. Harry Mares (R-White Bear Lake) visited OH Anderson Elementary School in Mahtomedi to explain how a bill becomes a law to fourth-graders there, the students had a brilliant idea — why not put the two projects together? What they ended up with is a new law, making the monarch the official state butterfly. Gov. Jesse Ventura signed the law March 31, making the state butterfly the 13th state symbol. The students brought the idea to Mares, who sponsored the bill. Mares had been asked to visit the school last November, and he said the students wanted to participate in the law-making process. They were studying the monarch butterfly through a program called “Monarchs in the Classroom,” which Mares said is among the largest education programs in the country. The program is administered through the University of Minnesota, and more than 20,000 students participate statewide. Mares said those students learn about science, conservation, and the ecosystem by studying the monarch’s life cycle and migratory flight to and from Minnesota each year. They use computer technology to follow the monarch’s flight to central Mexico, so they also learn about geography. While establishing a new state symbol may not seem as important as some other types of legislation, Mares said the monarch is an appropriate choice for the state butterfly for several reasons. “A lot of people have an early introduction to the magical world of nature through the monarch, and as we get older it becomes a thread that takes us through science to beauty and aesthetics,” Mares said. Birchwood resident Randy LaFoy, whose daughter attends the school, said it helped the students — and their parents — learn firsthand about how a bill becomes law. He said about 60 students attended House and Senate committees and wrote letters to various lawmakers, and several students made public presentations. The students also met the governor and several lawmakers. “It was a great lesson in civics, and what a great country that allows fourth graders to get involved and make a difference,” LaFoy said. LaFoy added that many people tend to be more familiar with other aspects of law, such as police officers or the court system. The students enjoyed the experience at the Legislature because it brought that part of the lawmaking process to life, LaFoy said. A similar bill (HF3508) that was proposed this year would make the timber wolf the official state mammal, but that bill has not advanced through the committee process in either the House or Senate. The last state symbol to be established was the blueberry muffin in 1988, which was proposed by third-grade students from Carlton, a small town near Duluth. The students felt that the choice was appropriate because blueberries are plentiful in northern Minnesota, and farmers throughout the state produce other ingredients needed to make the muffins. Other state symbols are the state flag and state seal, state tree (red or Norway pine), state song (“Hail! Minnesota”), state bird (loon), state fish (walleye), state mushroom (morel), state drink (milk), state grain (wild rice), state flower (lady slipper), and state gemstone (Lake Superior agate). Sen. Charles Wiger (DFL-North St. Paul) sponsored the measure in the Senate. The law is effective Aug. 1, 2000. HF2588/SF2326*CH306 A challenge ahead A former speaker of the House is leaving to take a top post with the Ramsey County attorney By MICHELLE KIBIGER When Rep. Phil Carruthers (DFL-Brooklyn Center) came to the Legislature in 1986, he brought his criminal justice background in an effort to change the system. “I felt that the criminal justice system needed more accountability, especially concerning drunk driving and violent crime,” Carruthers said. “I feel we’ve made some good progress.” Now, 14 years later, the former speaker of the House will take that knowledge back into the justice system as he leaves the Legislature for a job with the Ramsey County Attorney’s Office. “I won’t have to stay up until three in the morning debating on the floor,” he said with a smile. Carruthers said being a member of the House has been very rewarding for him, especially his work with individual constituents to promote legislation. He said he decided during his last term, when he was speaker and the DFL Caucus had a majority, that he would not seek an 8th term. When he looks up from his desk, pictures of his sons — 11-year-old Alex and 8-year-old Rory — greet his eyes. They often accompany him to the Capitol. Family played a big role in his decision to leave the House. Carruthers said he is ready for a more regular, normal life. “It’s a very intense job,” he said. “It’s exciting and satisfying. I have young kids. I’d like to have a little bit more sane lifestyle, a little more predictable.” Carruthers grew up in St. Anthony and attended the University of Minnesota, where he obtained a degree in political science and later attended law school. He received his law degree in 1979 and worked for a number of different firms. In 1983, Carruthers was appointed to the Metropolitan Council. He served there for three-and-a-half years, until his election to the House of Representatives. His two goals as a legislator were to change the criminal justice system and institute more openness in government. During his first few years in the House, Carruthers served on committees dealing with judiciary, taxes, and financial institutions. In 1990, he sponsored a law clarifying the provisions of the state’s no-fault insurance law. And by 1992, he had sponsored the omnibus drunken-driving and data practices laws. He also sponsored laws providing due process for police officers in dispute situations and further clarifying the implied consent provisions for drunken driving arrests. In 1993, he sponsored legislation restricting violent criminals’ ability to be licensed foster parents. He also supported the provision that instituted zero-tolerance alcohol provisions for people younger than 21. Later that year, Carruthers was elected as House Majority Leader, after Rep. Irv Anderson (DFL-Int’l Falls) became speaker of the House. Carruthers served in that role for three years, until he was selected to replace Anderson in the speakership. At the time, Carruthers’ supporters said he would bring more openness to the House and would strive for more cooperation between the DFL and Republican caucuses. The DFL lost control of the House after the 1998 election, and Rep. Steve Sviggum (R-Kenyon), assumed the role of speaker. Looking back now, Carruthers said the most important lesson he learned was to get along with people and work with them. He said the House is not about partisanship, but it’s about making the best decisions for constituents. “It doesn’t matter what party you are or what part of the state you’re from,” Carruthers said. “Everyone has something to contribute. “It’s easier and quicker for a few people to make the decision. But I don’t think it makes for better laws.” Carruthers said it’s important to get as many people and points of view involved as possible. He said he worries that the Legislature is becoming too partisan at the expense of the average citizen and his or her concerns. “Minnesota has a very open legislative system,” Carruthers said. “Average people can make suggestions and see them actually get accomplished. But the House tends to be too partisan in my view. Satisfaction is working hard to solve a problem in society.” Carruthers, who has been a city prosecutor in Hennepin County for 20 years, will serve as chief of the prosecution division for the Ramsey County attorney, when he begins his job. He will supervise the prosecution of juvenile and adult criminal cases. Though the job will likely put Carruthers in the courtroom, he’ll spend most of his time developing prosecution policies and working with the prosecutors in the office. “It’s very exciting,” Carruthers said. “I’m looking forward to it.” STEPPING DOWN Rep. Phil Carruthers DFL District 47B – Brooklyn Center Terms: 7 Career notes: After serving as majority leader, Carruthers was elected speaker of the House in 1997. He led the House during years that were marked by passage of property tax rebates and rejection of public financing for a baseball stadium. Throughout his career, Carruthers has specialized in legislation related to civil and criminal law. Health care pioneer Greenfield known for persevering to make revolutionary MinnesotaCare program become law By DAVID MAEDA When Rep. Lee Greenfield (DFL-Mpls) was elected 22 years ago, one of the issues he ran on was ensuring that the state’s health care system took care of all Minnesotans. For Greenfield, 58, who was active in the civil rights and anti-war efforts in the 1960s, it was just another policy issue for the under-represented in need of political reform. “I’ve always believed that everybody should be treated equally,” said Greenfield, who still has a hint of a New York accent in his voice, betraying a Brooklyn upbringing. Greenfield’s political activism brought him to Minnesota to work. That activism ultimately led him to seek and win election to the House in 1978. Perhaps the legislative achievement he will best be remembered for, and the one he still points most proudly to, is being one of the so-called “gang of seven” legislators who in 1992 helped establish MinnesotaCare, the state’s health care system working toward health care access for all Minnesotans. Greenfield was then serving as chair of the House Health and Human Services Finance Division. He worked with members from both parties and former Gov. Arne Carlson to pass the legislation that expanded the state’s health coverage of the uninsured from children to all residents who did not have access to employer-supported coverage. The group gained its nickname through tenacity in addressing the concerns raised by officials from the insurance and health care industries, among others, in the state’s effort to become the first to achieve health care access to all. The gang of seven also included DFLers Sens. Linda Berglin and Pat Piper and former Rep. Paul Ogren, and former Republican Sen. Duane Benson and Reps. Dave Gruenes and Brad Stanius. Greenfield said Minnesota has one of the lowest uninsured rates of any state in the country — a tribute to how progressive and strong the state’s system continues to be. Since the MinnesotaCare program’s inception, the rate of uninsured in the state has dropped from 6.1 percent to 5.2 percent. The national rate is around 16 percent. Greenfield said he is confident the state will remain a leader in health care access because the state’s citizens believe it is important to subsidize care for all. With a degree in physics from Purdue University and graduate work in philosophy of science at the University of Minnesota, he said his scientific background uniquely prepared him for his legislative work and led to his interest and involvement in health care issues. Greenfield said the scientific method values hard data over anecdote. But with the abundance of data presented in crafting legislation, he said he learned that often the use of a personal story can be more effective in swaying legislators. Yet in the final analysis, he said, his roots in science were useful in helping him form objective decisions. He said that he felt fortunate to be at the leading edge of many of the causes he fought for because of the liberal nature of the area he represents, which includes parts of the West Bank, Powderhorn Park, and Seward neighborhoods in Minneapolis. Ironically, it is Greenfield’s devotion to the health care arena that has led to his decision not to seek re-election to the House. “My interests keep narrowing,” he said. “As a member you have to maintain a broad perspective.” Greenfield said that although he isn’t quite sure what he will do next, he is pursuing several opportunities that will allow him to continue his commitment to health care related issues, including universal health care, from a different angle. He said he will miss being part of the legislative process and working with many of his colleagues. And he is proud of playing a part in helping to maintain and improve the state’s programs for people with disabilities, community mental health services, and expanding home health care for senior citizens. “Many of the most exciting things I’ll ever do will have been done here in this chamber,” Greenfield said. **Stepping down** Rep. Lee Greenfield DFL District 62A – Minneapolis Terms: 11 Career notes: Greenfield made his name working on issues related to health and human services, and he was instrumental in the creation of MinnesotaCare, the state’s health insurance program for low-income residents. Once a bill has passed both the House and Senate in identical form, it’s ready to be sent to the governor for consideration. The governor, who has several options when considering a bill, can: - sign the bill and it will become law; - veto the bill; - line-item veto individual items within an appropriations bill; - or do nothing, which can have two different effects. The timing of these actions is as important as the actions themselves. In the second year of the biennium (even-numbered years), a bill passed by the Legislature and presented to the governor before the final three days of the session will become law unless the governor vetoes it by returning it to the Legislature within three days. The governor normally signs the bills and files them with the secretary of state, but his signature is not required. But if a bill is passed during the last three days of session, the governor has a longer time to act on it. He or she must sign and deposit it with the secretary of state within 14 days after the Legislature adjourns “sine die” (Latin for adjournment “without a date certain”). If the governor does not sign a bill within this time frame, it will not become law, an action known as a “pocket veto.” The governor is not required to provide a reason for the veto. Only on appropriations bills can the governor exercise the line-item veto authority. This option allows the governor to eliminate the appropriation items to which he or she objects. As with all vetoes (save pocket vetoes) the governor must include a statement listing the reasons for the veto with the returned bill. Here, too, the timetable is either 14 days after adjournment for bills passed during the final three days of the session, or within three days after the governor receives the bill at any other time. A two-thirds vote of the members in each house is needed to override a veto. But because only the governor can call a special session of the Legislature, anything vetoed after the Legislature adjourns is history — at least until the next year. The governor’s veto authority is outlined in the Minnesota Constitution (Article IV, Section 23). This information is also available on the governor’s Web site (www.governor.state.mn.us). Select the “It’s a New Day” link, then click on “The Legislative Log.” Key: CH=Chapter; HF=House File; SF=Senate File | CH | HF | SF | Description | Signed | Vetoed | |----|------|-------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|--------| | Res.4 | 4060 | 2348* | Resolution for release of Americans held in North Korea, China, Russia and Vietnam. | 4/3/00 | | | 300 | 3219 | 2903* | Omnibus gambling bill. | 3/31/00| | | 301 | 1333 | 2193* | Wood sales contracts regulated. | 3/31/00| | | 302 | 2785 | 2821* | Charitable organization annual report filing requirements modified. | 3/31/00| | | 303 | 2883 | 2579* | Prescription drug discounts regulated. | 3/31/00| | | 304 | 2675 | 2569* | Vicarious liability insurance coverage for punitive and exemplary damages authorized. | 3/31/00| | | 305 | 3399 | 3145* | Minnetonka qualified newspaper designation priority variance. | 3/31/00| | | 306 | 2588 | 2326* | Monarch designated as the state butterfly. | 3/31/00| | | 307 | 3209*| 2699 | Health care cost containment major commitment expenditure report requirements modified. | 4/3/00 | | | 308 | 3352 | 3586* | Lighted fishing lures authorized. | 4/3/00 | | | 309 | 2719*| 2436 | Rental automobile insurance coverage regulated. | 4/3/00 | | | 310 | 2809*| 2631 | Ah-Gwah-Ching nursing center admissions criteria clarified. | | 4/3/00 | | 311 | 2688*| 2769 | Omnibus crime prevention and judiciary finance bill. | 4/3/00 | | | 312 | 3226 | 2896* | Nursing home resident assistants authorized and survey process procedure developed. | 4/3/00 | | | 313 | 2994 | 2748* | Ambulance service and EMT requirements modified. | 4/3/00 | | | 314 | 3212 | 2734* | Home care and personal care provider transportation expense reimbursement studied. | 4/3/00 | | | 315 | 3048 | 2868* | New medical assistance case-mix system based on federal minimum data set transition time lines. | 4/3/00 | | | 316 | 3107 | 2634* | Civil commitment relative notification provided and minor voluntary treatment consent provisions modified. | 4/3/00 | | | 317 | 3306 | 3549* | Residential hospice program requirements modified. | 4/3/00 | | | 318 | 3023 | 2701* | Lawful gambling fraud defined and criminal penalties imposed. | 4/3/00 | | | 319 | 3365 | 2941* | Vulnerable adult neglect and medical error provisions modified. | 4/3/00 | | | 320 | 3220 | 2510* | Real property recording and redemption and common interest ownership provisions modified. | 4/4/00 | | | 321 | 3596 | 3369* | Special environmental purpose districts pilot projects. | 4/4/00 | | | 322 | 3310 | 3055* | Health plan contract stacking regulated and remedy provided. | 4/4/00 | | *The legislative bill marked with an asterisk denotes the file submitted to the governor.* | CH | HF | SF | Description | Signed | Vetoed | |-----|------|------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|--------| | 323 | 3290 | 2894*| Occupational safety and health discrimination complaint communications classified as privileged. | 4/4/00 | | | 324 | 3555 | 3283*| Snowmobile metal traction device sticker requirement civil enforcement provided. | 4/4/00 | | | 325 | 1590*| 1952 | Warrant authority of alcohol and gambling agents clarified. | 4/4/00 | | | 326 | 2819 | 2444*| Stearns County land conveyance authorized. | 4/4/00 | | | 327 | 3103 | 3005*| Human services licensing provisions modified. | 4/4/00 | | | 328 | 3152 | 2905*| Local government units purchase provisions modified. | 4/4/00 | | | 329 | 3169*| 3167 | Dakota County personnel board of appeals provisions modified. | 4/4/00 | | | 330 | 2670*| 2566 | Mental retardation community-based waivered services and family support grants provisions modified. | 4/4/00 | | | 331 | 3868 | 3260*| Aquatic farm licensing requirements modified. | 4/4/00 | | | 332 | 4076 | 2653*| Internet state agency grant information required and uniform application developed. | 4/4/00 | | | 333 | 2940*| 2735 | Dry cleaner environmental response and reimbursement law modified. | 4/4/00 | | | 334 | 2936 | 2511*| Public and private property entry authorized for the purposes of examinations and surveys. | 4/4/00 | | | 335 | 3327 | 2676*| Local government authorization to petition to amend or repeal rules sunset modified. | 4/6/00 | | | 336 | 3571 | 2828*| Gambling regulated, activities prohibited, and shipment of gambling devices regulated. | 4/6/00 | | | 337 | 2559 | 2546*| Inland water sunken logs recovery and historical artifacts ownership provided. | 4/6/00 | | | 338 | 3342 | 3025*| Foster care providers medical equipment operation competency required. | 4/6/00 | | | 339 | 3134*| 2857 | Metropolitan Mosquito Control Commission authority to enter specified state lands limited. | 4/6/00 | | | 340 | 3122*| 2901 | Medical Assistance, General Assistance, MinnesotaCare, and other health care program provisions modified. | 4/6/00 | | | 341 | 3510*| 3378 | Taking two deer authorization extended in specified counties. | 4/6/00 | | | 342 | 2656*| 3441 | Auto glass repair and replacement regulated, and rebates and incentives limited. | 4/6/00 | | | 343 | 3806 | 3554*| Nonprofit organization re-employment compensation provisions modified. | 4/6/00 | | | 344 | 465 | 624* | Firefighter training and education board created. | 4/6/00 | | **Constitutional Officers** **Governor** Jesse Ventura 130 State Capitol 75 Constitution Ave. St. Paul 55155 ............... (651) 296-3391 **Lieutenant Governor** Mae Schunk 130 State Capitol 75 Constitution Ave. St. Paul 55155 ............... (651) 296-3391 **Attorney General** Mike Hatch 102 State Capitol 75 Constitution Ave. St. Paul 55155 ............... (651) 296-6196 **Secretary of State** Mary Kiffmeyer 180 State Office Building 100 Constitution Ave. St. Paul 55155 ............... (651) 296-2803 **State Auditor** Judith H. Dutcher Suite 400 525 Park St. St. Paul 55103 ............... (651) 296-2551 **State Treasurer** Carol Johnson 303 Administration Building 50 Sherburne Ave. St. Paul 55155 ............... (651) 296-7091 Continued from page 4 reservations about the court’s decision to sever the disputed provision from the law as a whole. “[T]he court has taken on the role of a super legislature, deciding which provisions of [the law] will be given effect by picking and choosing between the law’s various provisions, even though all of its provisions are unconstitutional,” Page writes. “Under Article IV, Section 17 (of the constitution), this court is not vested with the power to determine that certain provisions of an enactment will become law and that others will not. The court’s only power is to declare the entire law either constitutional or unconstitutional.” Page also complains that allowing the rest of the 1997 law to stand means the ruling will not discourage the Legislature from improper bundling of unrelated provisions. “Given the possibility that the law may not be challenged at all or if challenged, may be held constitutional, there is no downside to enacting such legislation if the worst position the Legislature will be in if the law violates the constitution is the same position it would have been in had the offending provision not been enacted,” Page writes. **Bill Introductions** **Monday, April 3** - **HF4135—Peterson (DFL)** - **Crime Prevention** Law enforcement expanded notice to school chemical abuse pre-assessment teams provided for probable cause student underage drinking and driving violations. **Tuesday, April 4** - **HF4136—Hackbarth (R)** - **Crime Prevention** Death penalty imposed in first degree murder cases involving criminal sexual conduct, automatic appellate review provided, and statutory and administrative framework provided. **Wednesday, April 5** - **HF4137—Jennings (DFL)** - **Governmental Operations & Veterans Affairs Policy** Legislature size modified, biennial legislative sessions provided and length reduced, joint House and Senate fiscal committees required, and constitutional amendment proposed. - **HF4138—Marko (DFL)** - **Commerce** Cottage Grove authorized to issue an on-sale liquor license to the Cottage Grove Economic Development Authority for River Oaks Golf Course. - **HF4139—McCullom (DFL)** - **Crime Prevention** Killing or harming service animals provided criminal penalties, and restitution required. **Thursday, April 6** - **HF4140—Seifert, M. (R)** - **Taxes** Re-employment insurance taxable wages definition modified. - **HF4141—Peterson (DFL)** - **Agriculture Policy** Rural revitalization fund established for economic development purposes. - **HF4142—Seifert, M. (R)** - **Governmental Operations & Veterans Affairs Policy** Public service messages by candidates for state office prohibited. - **HF4143—Seifert, J. (R)** - **Rules & Legislative Administration** Revisor’s bill correcting miscellaneous oversights, inconsistencies, ambiguities, unintended results, and technical errors. - **HF4144—Abeler (R)** - **Taxes** Commuter rail construction materials and equipment sales tax exemption provided. - **HF4145—Murphy (DFL)** - **Commerce** Public utilities required to notify property owners prior to tree trimming or removal, and penalties imposed. - **HF4146—Skoglund (DFL)** - **Crime Prevention** Challenge incarceration program offender participation county attorney notification provided, and phase 1 participation for one-half of prison term required. --- **Reflections** The present governor is not the first to advocate for government reform. In 1939, Harold E. Stassen became governor; he made some sweeping changes by propagating progressive labor relations, by signing civil service legislation into law, and by implementing a major program for state government reorganization. At age 31, Stassen was the youngest person ever to be elected to such a position. The “boy wonder” governor had his eyes on public office years before — about the time he graduated from Humboldt High School in St. Paul at age 15. Because of his age, he had to wait a year before he entered the University of Minnesota. Here, he became so involved in activities that he hired a fraternity brother to be his personal secretary. He also laid the groundwork for the Young Republican League. By 1929, Stassen graduated from the university’s law school, passed the bar, opened a law office, and was elected to public office as county attorney — all in one year. In his race for governor, Stassen out-campaigned the conservative candidates of the Republican old guard with help from his Young Republican “upstarts.” Included was Warren A. Burger, the future chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Stassen was a political prodigy. The little-known county attorney overwhelmingly beat the popular Farmer-Labor incumbent, Gov. Elmer Benson, by 291,000 votes. At the height of World War II, he won election to a third term, even though he said he would resign and go on Naval duty “where I belong.” On Wednesday, April 21, 1943, when the legislative session adjourned sine die, Gov. Stassen signed bills until midnight, then resigned the next day to serve in the U.S. Navy. He was assigned to Admiral Bill Halsey as his chief of staff with the Pacific Fleet. Stassen was a vocal proponent of peace among nations, international disarmament, and for mediating disagreements among countries. His visionary concepts were made known before President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a united organization of nations. In 1945, Roosevelt assigned him to lead a United States delegation in San Francisco for creating a United Nations Charter. His wife, Esther, also played a key role by noting that the Russian wives suggested an emissary be sent to speak directly with Stalin to counteract the stubbornness of his delegation. The Russians relented and the Charter was completed. Stassen was one of its eight signatories. The Minnesota statesman was never elected to public office after he resigned as governor. But for many years, he either filed or ran a campaign — 10 times for U.S. president, and in races for U.S. senator and congressman. Many said he was like the fictional character, Don Quixote, out “fighting windmills.” But the compassionate attorney from West St. Paul often stated that he campaigned many times so that his beliefs could be heard. Stassen’s amazing and full life will reach 93 years at his birthday on April 13. His dedication to end war and his international arbitration for making the world a better place may be equated to a quote on the Isaiah Wall in New York’s Tudor City, across the street from the United Nations Secretariat: *They shall beat their swords into plowshares,* *And their spears into pruning hooks.* *Nation shall not lift up sword against nation.* *Neither shall they learn war any more.* — LeClair Grier Lambert Photo from *The Story of Minnesota’s Past* by Rhoda R. Gilman Continued from page 15 projects on all U of M campuses, which would receive $9 million in the proposals from the House and the governor. The Senate bill also would spend $3 million for the law school and $8 million for sports and music performance buildings in Duluth. Total bonding for the U of M would be about $66.7 million in the House bill and $122.7 in the Senate bill. **MnSCU construction** Projects in the Minnesota State Colleges and Universities (MnSCU) system would receive $174.2 million under the Senate bill, compared to $103.2 million in the House bill. Anoka-Hennepin Technical College would receive $14.7 million under the Senate bill compared to $12.5 million under the House bill for roof repairs; improvements to the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning system; and other necessary work. Initially, the MnSCU board decided to close the campus because it couldn’t afford to make the necessary repairs. Ventura’s plan did not recommend funding the repairs. The House and Senate proposals would keep the campus open. The House and Senate bills each would provide $6.9 million for construction of athletic and academic facilities at Minnesota State University, Mankato. The money would be part of the Taylor Center project, which benefited from a $9.2 million donation from Minnesota Timberwolves owner and Mankato businessman Glen Taylor. The Senate bill would spend $49 million for maintenance and repair projects throughout the MnSCU system, which would receive $30 million under the House bill and the governor’s plan. MnSCU requested $100 million for maintenance and repair, and officials said at least $56 million would be needed to prevent the system’s $500 million maintenance backlog from growing even larger. **State buildings** The House bill would spend a total of $48.5 million for building and maintenance projects for the state-owned buildings that are used by state agencies and departments. The Senate bill would spend $85.2 million for those projects. The Senate bill would fund the $58 million proposal for a new building for the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension. The House bill would spend only $28 million to build a laboratory facility. The House bill would include $150,000 for a World War II memorial on Capitol grounds, a project that was line-item vetoed by Ventura in 1999. The project would not be funded under the Senate bill or the governor’s plan. **Environment and agriculture** The House bill would spend about $82.7 million for projects related to agriculture, environment, and natural resources. The Senate bill would spend $147.8 in those areas. Wastewater system improvements would receive $32.6 million under the House bill and $47.2 million under the Senate plan. The money would provide matching grants to communities through the Public Facilities Authority, which is part of the Department of Trade and Economic Development. The Board of Water and Soil Resources would receive $20 million for the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program under the House and Senate bills. The program is matched by federal funds, and it establishes conservation easements on agriculture land along the Minnesota River, which reduces soil erosion into the river, helps control flooding, and establishes wildlife habitat. A total of $140 million in federal matching funds is available through September 2002. **Transportation improvements** House and Senate bonding proposals for transportation are not comparable because most of the Senate’s transportation bonding is included in its omnibus transportation finance bill rather than a bonding measure. The House bill would spend $44 million for repairs to bridges throughout the state, $5 million for Rail Service Improvement Loans, $10.4 million for a Department of Transportation headquarters in St. Cloud, $8.7 million for an addition to the Detroit Lakes headquarters, and $1.6 million for a Moorhead Truck Station. Health and family Births in Minnesota, 1998 ................................................................. 65,207 In the United States, 1998, in millions ........................................... 3.9 In Minnesota, 1997 ........................................................................ 64,491 In Minnesota, 1940 ....................................................................... 52,915 Births to married mothers, 1998 .................................................. 48,449 Births to mothers younger than 15, 1998 .................................... 90 To mothers age 15 to 17 .............................................................. 1,850 To mothers older than 45 ............................................................. 77 To mothers age 25 to 29 .............................................................. 19,354 Births where mother received no pre-natal care, 1998 ................ 115 Average number of first births occurring daily, 1998 .................. 70 Percentage of 1998 births to African American mothers, 1998 .... 6 To Asian American mothers ......................................................... 5 To American Indian mothers ....................................................... 2 Deaths statewide, 1998 ................................................................. 37,152 In 1997 ......................................................................................... 36,878 Violent deaths, 1998 .................................................................. 2,379 Number of counties where deaths outnumber births, 1998 ........ 19 Deaths attributed to heart disease (most of any cause), 1998 ...... 9,372 Deaths attributed to cancer ......................................................... 8,963 Deaths caused by motor vehicle accidents or falls ....................... 1,741 Suicides statewide, 1998 ............................................................. 463 Percentage increase from 1997 .................................................. 10 Marriages statewide, 1998 .......................................................... 32,218 In 1997 ......................................................................................... 32,598 In 1940 ......................................................................................... 27,419 Marriages in Hennepin County (most of any county), 1998 .......... 8,689 In Traverse County (least of any county), 1998 .......................... 15 Divorces and annulments statewide, 1998 .................................. 15,165 In 1997 ......................................................................................... 15,568 In 1940 ......................................................................................... 2,957 Number of counties where divorces outnumber marriages ............ 1 Number of divorces where both spouses were age 35 to 39 (most of any age group) ................................................................. 1,255 Source: 1998 Minnesota Health Statistics, Minnesota Center for Health Statistics, Department of Health, January 2000. FOR MORE INFORMATION For general information, call: House Information Office (651) 296-2146 or 1-800-657-3550 To obtain a copy of a bill, call: Chief Clerk's Office (651) 296-2314 To find out about bill introductions or the status of a specific bill, call: House Index Office (651) 296-6646 For an up-to-date recorded message giving committee meeting times and agendas, call: Committee Hotline (651) 296-9283 The House of Representatives can be reached on the World Wide Web at: http://www.house.leg.state.mn.us Teletypewriter for the hearing impaired. To ask questions or leave messages, call: TTY Line (651) 296-9896 or 1-800-657-3550 Check your local listings to watch House committee and floor sessions on TV. This document can be made available in alternative formats.
8c7067a6-e18c-4947-ac7e-ecceb06ea5ca
CC-MAIN-2025-05
https://www.house.mn.gov/hinfo/swkly/1999-00/sw1000.pdf
2025-01-19T03:44:28+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-05/segments/1736703362456.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20250119015228-20250119045228-00426.warc.gz
872,812,192
24,599
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.976186
eng_Latn
0.998807
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 68, 3473, 8739, 11250, 17470, 23204, 30027, 34902, 40050, 47073, 52998, 59823, 66719, 71010, 75158, 80429, 83991, 89085, 93501, 99186, 104094, 109815, 113751, 117638 ]
[ 1.234375, 2.046875 ]
4
0
Alexander Hamilton: Can a man’s character be the cause of his death? DAY 1 1. Discuss the learning targets with students: a. I can use primary and secondary sources to find character traits for Hamilton. b. I can connect how Hamilton’s character led to his death. 2. Hamilton – The Man a. Discuss quote from the PowerPoint: *Character is revealed when pressure is applied* i. Ask students what they believe the quote means and to apply it to their own lives. 3. Document A: Funeral Procession – quote from page 711 of Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow a. Source the document with the students. Who wrote it? When was it written? b. Read section aloud to class from slide. The slide also has pictures I took of Hamilton’s grave when I was in New York. He was buried in the graveyard at Trinity Church in New York City. Might also mention that his funeral rivaled the size of Washington’s. c. Have students annotate what they think shows that Hamilton was important. d. After reading the paragraph, have the students share what they underlined. Make sure to discuss the different groups represented and explain that Hamilton had an effect on each of those groups. Who would be at my funeral? I have not had that kind of effect on that many groups. 4. Document B: Hamilton Accomplishments a. Source the document b. Give students a chance to look over Hamilton’s accomplishments and answer the question. Students star the things they believe are Hamilton’s most important accomplishments. c. As a class discuss students’ answers about why Hamilton deserved such a dignified funeral as was described in Document A. Students should mention economic plan, advisor to Washington during the Revolutionary War, Federalist Papers, etc. d. If students do not point the abolitionist accomplishment, make sure to do so. Corroborate Document A with Document B. Explain that Hamilton would have wanted his funeral led by two small black boys because he was a man who believed in equality and ending slavery. He was an abolitionist long before there was a large movement. e. Discuss what these accomplishments say about Hamilton’s character. What words could be used to describe him? 5. Document C: Hamilton’s letter to Eliza a. Before the students read the letter, point out Eliza’s grave on the PowerPoint slide. Explain that she was buried right next to Alexander, so she could spend eternity with him. Also, mention that she devoted the fifty years after his death to honoring his memory by sharing his accomplishments. b. After students source the document, give students context of when the letter was written in comparison to when Hamilton died on July 12, 1804. c. Explain to students there will be a word that jumps out at them as they read the document (the word is interview, but don’t tell them that). Have them circle the word and write out what they believe the word means. d. Students will read the letter with a partner and answer the two questions about the letter. e. Through a class discussion (using the Smart Board) make sure students identify what is most important to Hamilton based on the letter (the respect of his family & the respect he has for himself has to mentioned even though it is not in the letter). What does it say about Hamilton’s character that he was willing to die to not lose this respect? 6. Document D: *Alexander Hamilton* – lyrics of the song from *Hamilton* the Musical a. The purpose of the song is for students to gather character traits that could later be used to justify why Hamilton would participate in the duel – **do not tell students he was in a duel yet**. b. Play video of Lin Manuel Miranda singing Alexander Hamilton at the White House. The video has been edited so the portion where Lin Manuel Miranda states he is playing Aaron Burr has been removed, so students will not know who shot Hamilton. c. Students are to follow along with the lyrics (Document D) as they watch the performance. d. Have the students work with their partner to come up with character traits that could describe Hamilton based on the lyrics of the song. e. Students will complete the two questions about Document D on the guided questions handout. f. Discuss answers and character traits with students. Make sure to concentrate on the lines in the song about him being a man that would never back down and always speak his mind (second line of the last stanza). What does this say about him? How do we react in when the pressure is on? Do we back down or fight? g. Refer to an example on him not backing down from an earlier class where we discussed Hamilton’s feud with John Adams. i. John Adams referred to Hamilton as a creole bastard, did not pick Hamilton to be the leader of the U.S. military forces, and fired two of Hamilton’s friends from the his Cabinet. ii. In return Hamilton wrote a 56-page letter to close friends and allies explaining why John Adams should not be elected in 1800 even though he and Adams were from the same political party. Show students the printed version of the letter (color printed and bond with materials) or the link to source - [https://archive.org/details/letterfromalexan00hami2](https://archive.org/details/letterfromalexan00hami2) h. Ask students how Hamilton died based on the song. Then ask if they have any idea who might have shot him. They might say Jefferson or Adams. i. State the following: “We know he had beef with Jefferson (refer back to his time in Washington’s Cabinet) and Adams, now let’s look at the problems he had with Jefferson’s Vice President, and former Senator Aaron Burr” 7. Bring up the PowerPoint slide titled, *Hamilton & Burr* a. Discuss the quote: *Character is destiny* b. Could Hamilton’s character (never backing down, always speaking his mind, prideful, etc.) been a reason as to why he died? Can character lead to death? 8. Read the PowerPoint slide about the Election of 1800 from Gilder Lehrman a. The presidential election of 1800 had resulted in a tie between the two Democratic Republicans, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The founders had not foreseen the rise of political parties and the effects that development would have on the operations of the Electoral College. As that body was created at the Constitution Convention of 1787, each elector had two votes to cast and had to cast his votes for different individuals. The candidate receiving the highest number would become president; the candidate with the second highest number would become vice president. The presidential election of 1800 provided Alexander Hamilton, former secretary of the treasury, with a dilemma: a tie between Thomas Jefferson, a man whose principles were in direct opposition to Hamilton’s own, and Aaron Burr, a man Hamilton believed to have no principles at all. As the House of Representatives prepared to vote to break the deadlock, Hamilton conducted a furious letter-writing campaign to urge fellow Federalists to vote for Jefferson. The letter from Hamilton to Otis shows Hamilton’s feelings about Burr. b. Discuss why Hamilton would endorse Jefferson (his mortal enemy and the man he disagreed with on everything), over Burr. Lead students to an understanding that Hamilton was a man of principle and would have no respect for a man without any principles. Point out the Burr moved political parties when he could for political gains. **DAY 2** 9. Restate the learning targets from the previous class and show the series of slides that ended the previous class i.e. *Character is destiny*, and the Gilder Lehrman slide about the Election of 1800. Concentrate on the second paragraph to introduce the next document. 10. **Document E:** Letter from Alexander Hamilton to Harrison Gray Otis a. Source the document b. With a partner, students will read the letter from Hamilton to Otis (Document E) and annotate all the negative things that Hamilton says about Burr. c. Students will answer the questions and discuss them with a partner. d. Discuss the letter and have student share what they underlined (on the Smart Board). e. Students might conclude that Burr killed Hamilton because he cost him the presidency. Explain (again) that Hamilton did not die until July 12, 1804. 11. **Document F:** Timeline of Hamilton and Burr from PBS a. Students need to source the document b. Have students underline or star the biggest reasons that Burr and Hamilton would dislike one another. Students should also circle the part in the timeline that surprises them most (Hamilton’s son was killed in a duel...discuss what happens in a duel, so they know that information for later). c. Also, mention the Reynolds pamphlet of 1797. It might have been Burr that released the information to the press. In return, Hamilton writes the pamphlet thinking he could write his way out of the affair. He was wrong. It is because of the affair and the pamphlet that Hamilton will never be president. 12. **Document G:** Hamilton’s letter to Burr a. Read the background information about the Cooper letter and Burr’s response the Cooper letter to students aloud. Answer any questions students might have before they read the letter from Hamilton to Burr. b. Have students source the letter (once again reminding them of when Hamilton died). Students will read (Document G) Hamilton’s response to Burr with a partner. Have students annotate as they read and write down any questions they have. c. Students will answer the questions about Hamilton’s response. d. Discuss the letter with students (using the Smart Board). Concentrate on the second paragraph where Hamilton never answers Burr’s question. Instead, he tries to show Burr how much smarter he is and educate him on the levels of despicability. Ask the students how they would react if they were in Burr’s position. e. Make sure to point out the last paragraph where Hamilton says he will abide by the consequences if Burr does not see it in the same light as Hamilton. 13. Document H: Burr’s letter to Hamilton a. Students need to source the letter (once again remind them of the date Hamilton dies). b. Have students read the letter and annotate for understanding as they read. Have them circle the part in the letter that they believe led to the duel (hopefully, they will circle “false pride”) with a partner and answer the corresponding questions. c. Point out (using the Smart Board) that Burr is correct when he states Hamilton did not answer the question and that he uses the same word - consequences as Hamilton. Burr also blamed the encounter that is about to take place on Hamilton. d. Ask students what part of the letter would make Hamilton accept the “interview”. What would make him go to a place he could possibly die? Hopefully, they will point out Burr states Hamilton has “false pride”. Knowing what they do about Hamilton’s character, could he have ever back down from the “interview”? By backing down, would he have lost respect he has for himself or that his family has for him? 14. Document I: excerpt from TIME article – *A “Dangerous” Man Lives Up to the Insult* a. Before giving students the document, explain that Burr questioning Hamilton’s pride led them to Weehaken, New Jersey on the morning of July 11, 1804 where they would fight each other in a duel. b. Play the beginning of *The World Was Wide Enough* from *Hamilton* the Musical with lyrics - [https://youtu.be/o51rzRr1GJY](https://youtu.be/o51rzRr1GJY). Stop song at the gunshot (before Hamilton starts to speak). c. Give students an excerpt of the Time magazine article (Document I), so they know how the duel ended. d. The article also has a small blip about Hamilton and the possibility that he threw away his shot. Briefly discuss that with the class. What does that say about Hamilton? If it is true, what does it say about Burr? 15. Give students a graphic organizer about Hamilton and his character and have them fill out the organizer with the help of a partner. 16. Students will then answer the culminating question(s) on their own (either the two 4-point responses or the 10-point question could be used). The graphic organizer will help students with both questions. Students’ answers should use specific evidence from the provided documents and explain how each piece of evidence supports their claim. **DAY 3** 17. Students will turn in their responses for a grade. 18. Give students handout titled *Burr the Rest of the Story* from [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/duel/peoplevents/pande01.html](http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/duel/peoplevents/pande01.html), so they can figure out what happened to Burr after the duel. *Note: All documents, questions and PowerPoint slides are in the Appendix* *Appendix A: Documents and Culminating Questions* *Appendix B: PowerPoint Slides* Appendix A: Documents & Culminating Questions Mr. Emrich American History – Alexander Hamilton: Can a man’s character cause his death? That Saturday morning, guns fired from the Battery, church bells rang with an unhappy sound, and ships in the harbor flew their colors at half-mast. Around noon, to the somber thud of military drums, New York militia units set out at the head of the funeral procession, bearing their arms in reversed position, their muzzles pointed downward....Then came the most affecting sight of all. Preceded by two small black boys in white turbans, eight pallbearers shouldered Hamilton’s corpse, set in rich mahogany casket with his hat and sword perched on top. Hamilton’s gray horse trailed behind with the boots and spurs of its former rider reversed in the stirrups. Then came Hamilton’s four eldest sons and other relatives, followed by representatives of every segment of New York society: physicians, lawyers, politicians, foreign diplomats, military officers, bankers, merchants, Columbia College students and professors, ship captains, mechanics, and artisans: Collectively, they symbolized the richly expanded economic and political variety that Hamilton imagined for America.... Source: Excerpt from Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow (2004) Document B: Hamilton’s Accomplishments - By 17 he had published multiple essays in support of American Independence - At 18 Hamilton joined the war. Two years later, General Washington, promoted him to aide-de-camp. He became George Washington’s most able and trusted aid during the Revolutionary War. He was entrusted to attend high-level meetings and to help draft letters to governors, generals, and Congress. Later Hamilton issued orders on behalf of Washington. - At Yorktown he commanded an infantry & helped force the British to surrender. - Hamilton opposed slavery & wanted slavery eradicated. In 1785 (almost 50 yrs before the abolitionist movement) Hamilton formed the New York Manumission Society, an organization dedicated to abolishing slavery in New York - He wrote 51 of 85 of The Federalist Papers, which helped to ensure the ratification of the Constitution - Hamilton was an outstanding trial lawyer in New York - He published the first manual on civil procedure in the United States. - Hamilton established the 1st National Bank - As Treasury Secretary he stabilized the economy (was in shambles) by spearheading the establishment of a gold-based dollar, ensuring that the war debt was paid, and stating that the purchasers (instead of the original holders) of war bonds would be paid their current value. This demonstrated that the federal government respected property rights and the sanctity of contract. - The financial reforms advocated by Hamilton led to a growth in the number of American corporations from 8 to 311 in the 1790s. - Hamilton helped shape Washington’s foreign policy based on American self-interest. Hamilton advised Washington on the Neutrality Proclamation, which declared that America would not become entangled in foreign affairs but would be friendly to both nations and impartial in their dispute. - Hamilton advocated for a paid military, founded the U.S. Coast Guard, & introduced a bill to establish West Point Military Academy - Wrote some 28 essays, which helped secure the ratification of the Jay Treaty with Great Britain. - Hamilton was the founder of the oldest continuously published daily U.S. newspaper — the New York Post, which he began in 1801. - Hamilton’s gravestone sums up his career well — “The PATRIOT of incorruptible INTEGRITY/The SOLDIER of approved VALOUR/The STATESMAN of consummate WISDOM.” Source: Two sources used to compile the information: Alexander Hamilton: A Short Life with Great Moments by Ed Mannino (2013) Celebrating Alexander Hamilton’s Achievements on His Birthday by Robert Begley (2014) Documents A and B 1. Using Document B, explain why Hamilton was so important that he deserved to have such a dignified funeral as was described in Document A. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ This letter, my very dear Eliza, will not be delivered to you, unless I shall first have terminated my earthly career; to begin, as I humbly hope from redeeming grace and divine mercy, a happy immortality. If it had been possible for me to have avoided the interview, my love for you and my precious children would have been alone the reason. But it was not possible, without sacrifices which would have rendered (reduced) me unworthy of your esteem (respect). I need not tell you of the pangs (pains) I feel, from the idea of quitting you and exposing you to the anguish which I know you would feel.... Source: From a letter Alexander Hamilton sent to his wife Elizabeth Hamilton, New York, July 4, 1804 1. In the letter Hamilton stated “the interview” was unavoidable “without sacrifices which would have rendered me unworthy of your esteem”. Explain what he meant by this statement. What would have made him unworthy of his wife’s esteem? 2. What does this tell you about his character? Use specific evidence from the document to support your answer. How does a bastard, orphan son of a whore And a Scotsman, dropped in the middle of a forgotten spot in the Caribbean By providence, impoverished, in squalor, grow up to be a hero and a scholar? The 10 dollar founding father without a father Got a lot farther by working a lot harder, by being a lot smarter By being a self-starter, by 14 they had placed him in charge of a trading charter And everyday while slaves were being slaughtered and carted away across the waves, our Hamilton kept his guard up Inside he was longing for something to be a part of The brother was ready to beg, steal, borrow or barter Then a hurricane came, and devastation reigned Our man saw his future drip, dripping down the drain Put a pencil to his temple, connected it to his brain And he wrote his first refrain, a testament to his pain Well the word got around, they said "This kid is insane, man!" Took up a collection just to send him to the mainland "Get your education, don't forget from whence you came And the world's gonna know your name. What's your name man?" Alexander Hamilton His name is Alexander Hamilton And there's a million things he hasn't done But just you wait, just you wait When he was 10, his father split, full of it, debt ridden 2 years later, see Alex and his mother bed-ridden Half-dead, sitting in their own sick, the scent thick And Alex got better but his mother went quick Moved in with a cousin, the cousin committed suicide. Left him with nothing but ruined pride, something new inside A voice saying, "Alex you gotta fend for yourself" He started retreating and reading every treatise on the shelf There woulda been nothing left to do for someone less astute He woulda been dead and destitute without a cent of restitution Started working, clerking for his late mother's landlord Trading sugar cane and rum and all the things he can't afford Scanning for every book he can get his hands on Planning for the future, see him now as he stands on The bow of a ship headed for a new land In New York you can be a new man The ship is in the harbor now see if you can spot him Another immigrant coming up from the bottom His enemies destroyed his rep America forgot him And me, I’m the damn fool that shot him Alexander Hamilton, we’re waiting in the wings for you You could never back down, you always had to speak your mind But Alexander Hamilton we could never take your deeds from you And our cowardice and our shame we will try to destroy your name The world will never be same Alexander Yeah, I’m the damn genius that shot him Source: Lyrics are from the opening song, *Alexander Hamilton*, from *Hamilton the Musical* written by Lin Manuel Miranda. **Document D** 1. Based on the song, what was Hamilton’s upbringing like? What does this tell you about his character? Use specific evidence from the song to support your answer. 2. Based on the song, what kind of man was Hamilton? Give character traits using specific evidence from the song to support your answer. My opinion is, after mature reflection, that if Jefferson and Burr come with equal votes to the House of Representatives, the former ought to be preferred by the Federalists. M'r. Jefferson is respectably known in Europe—M'r. Burr little and that little not favorably for a President of the United States—M'r. Jefferson is a man of easy fortune—M'r. Burr, as I believe, is bankrupt beyond redemption. M'r. Jefferson is a man of fair character for integrity—Very different ideas are entertained of M'r. Burr... M'r. Jefferson, though too revolutionary in his ideas, is yet a lover of liberty and will be eager of something like orderly Government—M'r. Burr loves nothing but himself—thinks of nothing but his own enhancement—and will be content with nothing short of permanent power in his own hands... If M'r. Jefferson is likely from fondness for France to draw the Country into War on her side – Mr. Burr will certainly attempt to do it for the sake of creating the means of personal power and wealth. This portrait is the result of long and attentive observation on a man with whom I am know personally well – and in respect to whose character I have had peculiar opportunities of forming a correct judgment. By no means, my Dear Sir, let the Federalists be responsible for his Elevation – In a choice of Evils let them take the least—Jefferson is in every view less dangerous than Burr... Y'r's. with great respect, A. Hamilton Source: Letter from Alexander Hamilton to Harrison Gray Otis, written on December 23, 1800 Document E 1. List the specific objections Alexander Hamilton had to Aaron Burr. ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Why does Hamilton believe Jefferson, as president, would be the lesser of two evils? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ 1791 Republican Aaron Burr wins the New York US Senate seat from Federalist Philip Schuyler (Alexander Hamilton's father-in-law). To take the seat, Burr will use the support of the powerful Clinton and Livingston families, who are enemies of Hamilton and Schuyler. 1800 Aaron Burr publishes a document written by his political enemy, Alexander Hamilton. This document titled "The Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq., President of the United States" attacks Adams and his presidency. Hamilton had intended this to only be shared with his close friends & allies. The document causes an permanent split in the Federalist Party. When Burr and Jefferson tied in election of 1800, Congress had to vote to decide who should be president. Hamilton was opposed to Jefferson, but he distrusted Burr. Hamilton campaigns against Burr. Congress votes to make Jefferson president. 1801 George I. Eacker and Alexander Hamilton's son Philip duel at Weehawken. Eacker had made a speech accusing Alexander Hamilton of being willing to overthrow Jefferson's presidency by force. On Nov. 20th, 19 year old Philip Hamilton and his friend Richard Price confronted Eacker. The resulting duel on November 23 left Phillip Hamilton dead. 1804 February: After Jefferson tells Burr he would not be his Vice President if he was elected to a 2nd term, Burr changes political parties & allies himself with a group of Federalist in New England who wanted to secede from the Union. Burr decides to run for New York governor (it is rumored he will use this position to lead New York out of the Union). Alexander Hamilton learns of Burr’s involvement & tries to convince New York Federalists not to support Aaron Burr in the New York governor's race. Hamilton's attacks on Burr have little effect on the governor's race. Burr loses the general election largely as a result of public attacks by George and DeWitt Clinton. Burr is furious over remarks allegedly made by Hamilton during the campaign and anxious to repair his failing career. March: Thomas Jefferson names New York Governor George Clinton as his running mate for the 1804 presidential elections. Burr helped provide the New York electoral votes that Jefferson needed to win the presidency in 1800, but Jefferson has driven Burr out of the Republican Party. The slight hurt Burr's chances in the New York governor's race. Source:http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/duel/timeline/index.html?utm_source=tumblr&utm_medium=thistdayhistory&utm_campaign=tdih_the_duel Document F 1. Using the timeline, list reasons why Hamilton and Burr would dislike each other. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ After reading the letter from Dr. Cooper initially, Aaron Burr sent a message to Alexander Hamilton asking for a clarification of the situation. He specifically wanted Hamilton to either admit or deny the statement. Hamilton’s response is as follows: **Document G (Modified)** Sir, New York June 20, 1804 I have reflected on the subject of your letter; and the more I have reflected the more I have become convinced, that I could not make the avowal (confirmation) or disavowal which you seem to think necessary. The clause pointed out by Mr. Van Ness is in these terms “I could detail to you a still more despicable opinion, which General Hamilton has expressed of Mr. Burr.” The language of Doctor Cooper plainly implies, that he considered this opinion of you, which he attributes to me, as a despicable one; but he affirms (confirms) that I have expressed some other still more despicable; without however mentioning to whom, when, or where. ’Tis evident, that the phrase “still more despicable” admits of infinite shades, from very light to very dark. How am I to judge of the degree intended? How could you be sure, that even this opinion had exceeded the bounds which you would yourself deem admissible between political opponents? It cannot reasonably be expected, that I shall enter into an explanation upon a basis so vague as that which you have adopted. I trust, on more reflection, you will see the matter in the same light with me. If not, I can only regret the circumstance, and must abide the consequences. The publication of Doctor Cooper was never seen by me ’till after the receipt of your letter. A. Hamilton Source: From Alexander Hamilton to Aaron Burr – June 20, 1804 1. What is the issue between Hamilton and Burr mentioned in the background information and Document G? 2. Why does Hamilton refuse to apologize in the letter? After another round of correspondence between the two men failed to accomplish anything regarding the dispute, Aaron Burr sent the following message to Alexander Hamilton: **Document H (Modified)** I was greatly disappointed in receiving from you a letter which I could only consider as evasive and which in manner, is not altogether well-mannered. In one expectation however, I was not deceived, for at the close of your letter I find a hint, that if I should dislike your refusal to acknowledge or deny the charge, you were ready to meet the consequences. This I seemed a sort of defiance.... Yet, ...I believed that your communication was the offspring, rather of false pride... and, as I felt the utmost reluctance (unwillingness) to proceed to extremes while any other hope remained, my request was repeated in terms more definite. To this you refuse all reply.... Thus, Sir, you have invited the course I am about to pursue.... If therefore your determinations are final... Mr. Van Ness is authorized to communicate my further expectations.... **Source:** Letter from Aaron Burr to Alexander Hamilton – June 22, 1804 **Document H** 1. Identify & describe the three ways Burr describes Hamilton’s character in Document H. 2. What “course” is Burr “about to pursue”? Why would he feel the “utmost reluctance” to take this course? Each leveled his pistol at the other, and two blasts sounded, with puffs of smoke, in close succession. Burr’s ball caught Hamilton on his right side. He gave out a cry of pain as the impact of the bullet twisted him onto the balls of his feet and then sent him sprawling back onto the ground. He lay there stunned, ashen-faced, gasping. Burr took a step toward his fallen enemy, a flash of “regret” on his face, said his second, before he hurriedly left the field without a backward glance. “I am a dead man,” Hamilton told his own second, Pendleton, and added to Hosack, who rushed to his aid, “This is a mortal wound.” And so it was. The bullet had cracked through his ribs, shredded his lungs and pierced his liver before lodging tight against his lower spine, leaving him paralyzed all down his legs as blood pooled in his gut. Pendleton and Hosack eased him down the steep slope and into the rowboat, which conveyed him back to Manhattan, every stroke of the oars excruciating. The news from Weehawken went up as a bulletin at the Tontine coffeehouse, a gathering spot for the city’s business class. *General Hamilton was shot by Colonel Burr this morning in a duel, the general is said to be mortally wounded.* The electrifying news spread quickly in every direction, and an eerie quiet settled over much of the island. Much of the city’s business stopped, and on the street, people were desperate to find out what others had heard. Despite his agony, as he lay on his deathbed at a friend’s house in Manhattan, Hamilton tried to comfort his delicate wife, who had rushed to his side from the Grange, thunderstruck at the news. She’d dissolved into a fit of explosive weeping the moment she saw him. “Remember, my Eliza, you are a Christian,” Hamilton urged her. To soothe herself, she fanned him throughout the rest of the hot day. Her beguiling sister Angelica came and crumpled into tears too. Hamilton sought Communion, but neither minister he summoned would oblige a man dying from a duel, “I have no ill will against Colonel Burr,” he assured the second one, the Episcopal bishop Benjamin Moore. “I met him with a fixed resolution to do him no harm. I forgive all that happened.” With that, Bishop Moore gave Hamilton the sacrament after all. He labored through the night, and in the morning Eliza brought in his seven children and stood them at the foot of his bed, a sight that left Hamilton unable to speak. More friends came, 20 in all, a scene of desperate grief. Only Hamilton, it appeared, was able to keep his composure. His last words were political: “If they break this union, they will break my heart.” He died so easily, his wife weeping beside him, that people did not immediately realize he was gone. *Source: Excerpt from a TIME magazine article titled A “Dangerous” Man Lives Up To The Insult by John Sedgwick (2015)* Who Shot First? According to the two eyewitnesses at the duel, the shots were not fired simultaneously, but rather about four or five seconds apart. It is an unusual gap. Aside from separating the calm from the impatient, the delay suggests a divergence in strategy that says something about the otherwise mysterious mind-sets of the two men. Who shot first? Was it Burr, the more soldierly one, firing immediately to deliver a mortal wound? Or was it Hamilton, immediately “throwing away” his fire, as he had claimed he would—and then leaving it to Burr to shoot him at his leisure if he chose? The Hamilton forces insisted that it was Burr and that Hamilton’s gun had gone off only by a spastic reflex. Hamilton’s second, Nathaniel Pendleton, returned to the dueling ground the next day and claimed to find a cherry-tree branch “about 12 and a half feet” up from where Hamilton stood that seemed to have been drilled by his bullet. The Burr camp maintained that it was Hamilton and that their man had no way of knowing his adversary hadn’t shot to kill. “The falsehood ‘that H. fired only when falling & without aim’ has given to very improper suggestions . . . ,” Burr later wrote in an unusually clipped style that revealed his anxiety about the matter. To show that Hamilton fully intended to shoot with purpose, the Burr camp contributed the detail that after the distance had been paced off, and with the two men facing each other down, Hamilton stopped the proceedings to say the sunlight was glinting off his glasses, obscuring his vision. John McLane Hamilton, however, said his grandfather didn’t wear glasses. Burr was determined to show that he had followed the prescriptions of the code duello; the Hamilton people contended that Burr had killed a defenseless man in cold blood. If the evidence favors the former, it has been the latter position that has won the day. In this, the dead Hamilton outdid the living Burr. REVENGE Hamilton lost the battle but afterward won the war of public opinion. Document I 1. If Hamilton indeed did “throw away” his shot (as some historians believe he did), what does this tell you about his character? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. If Hamilton indeed did “throw away” his shot, what does this tell you about Burr’s character? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Traits (accurate) – 1 pt. each: ______/2 Direct Evidence (accurate) – 1 pt. each: ______/2 Explanation (accurate and meets expectations from question) – 2 pts. each: ______/4 Cite (specific document) – 1 pt. each: ______/2 Total Points ______/10 Mr. Emrich American History – Alexander Hamilton: Can a man’s character cause his death? Burr: The Rest of the Story On July 11, 1804, on the dueling grounds at Weehawken, New Jersey, Burr shot Hamilton dead. In New York and New Jersey, Burr was charged with murder. And in much of the Northeast, Hamilton was mourned as a fallen hero. But to many Americans, particularly in the South, Burr was viewed as a man who had rightfully defended his honor. Although he was a wanted man, Burr nonetheless enjoyed immunity from prosecution in Washington, D.C. There, he presided over the impeachment trial of Samuel Chase, an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Burr set a remarkable standard for decorum and fairness during the trial, in which Chase was acquitted. This would not be the last time Burr appeared in a highly publicized federal trial. The next time he would be the defendant in a trial for treason. The United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803. Aaron Burr saw the territory as a place where his political hopes could be revived. Conspiring with James Wilkinson, Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Army and Governor of Northern Louisiana Territory, Burr hatched a plot to conquer some of Louisiana and maybe even Mexico and crown himself emperor. Burr sought help from both Britain, who considered his proposals but turned him down. With private backing, Burr trained and outfitted a small invasion force. But Wilkinson betrayed him, and Burr was captured in Louisiana in the spring of 1807 and taken to Richmond, Virginia, to stand trial for treason. Acquitted on a technicality, he faced resounding public condemnation and fled to Europe. Burr’s European adventures proved less than rewarding. Again, plotted to take territory in North America, but failed to gain support from European powers. He returned to the United States, a fugitive from debtors’ prison. When Burr arrived in New York, the US was on the brink of war with Britain. His treason plot and the killing of Hamilton largely forgotten, Burr was able to get the murder charges against him dropped, and he once again began to practice law. The death of his daughter Theodosia, whose ship was lost at sea in 1813, devastated Burr, who said he felt "severed from the human race." In 1833, Burr married again, this time to Eliza Jumel, a wealthy widow; the marriage soon ended in divorce. He died three years later, at the age of 80, a nearly forgotten man. Appendix B: PowerPoint Slides Mr. Emrich American History – Alexander Hamilton: Can a man’s character cause his death? Alexander Hamilton: Can a man’s character cause his death? Learning Targets - I can use primary and secondary sources to find character traits. - I can connect how Hamilton's character led to his death. Hamilton – The Man Document A: Funeral Procession on July 15, 1804 That Saturday morning, guns fired from the Battery, church bells rang with an unhappy sound, and ships in the harbor flew their colors at half-mast. Around noon, to the somber thud of military drums, New York militia units set out at the head of the funeral procession, bearing their arms in reversed position, their muzzles pointed downward. Then came the most affecting sight of all. Preceded by two small black boys in white turbans, eight pallbearers shouldered Hamilton’s corpse, set in rich mahogany casket with his hat and sword perched on top. Hamilton’s gray horse trailed behind with the boots and spurs of its former rider reversed in the stirrups. Then came Hamilton’s four eldest sons and other relatives, followed by representatives of every segment of New York society: physicians, lawyers, politicians, foreign diplomats, military officers, bankers, merchants, Columbia College students and professors, ship captains, mechanics, and artisans. Collectively, they symbolized the richly expanded economic and political variety that Hamilton imagined for America. Source: Modified excerpt from *Alexander Hamilton* by Ron Chernow (2004) Document B: Hamilton’s Accomplishments - Look over Document B titled *Hamilton’s Accomplishments*. - Why was Hamilton so important to have such a dignified funeral as was described in Document A? Document C: Letter from Hamilton to his wife - With your partner, read Document C and answer the two questions on the guided questions handout. Document D: *Alexander Hamilton* from the musical - Song time 😊 - Follow along with the lyrics and highlight parts that show Hamilton’s character traits. --- Hamilton & Burr Character is destiny Heraclitus PictureQuotes.com The presidential election of 1800 had resulted in a tie between the two Democratic Republicans, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The founders had not foreseen the rise of political parties and the effects that development would have on the operations of the Electoral College. As that body was created at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, each elector had two votes to cast and had to cast his votes for different individuals. The candidate receiving the highest number would become president; the candidate with the second highest number would become vice president. The presidential election of 1800 provided Alexander Hamilton, former secretary of the treasury, with a dilemma: a tie between Thomas Jefferson, a man whose principles were in direct opposition to Hamilton’s own, and Aaron Burr, a man Hamilton believed to have no principles at all. As the House of Representatives prepared to vote to break the deadlock, Hamilton conducted a furious letter-writing campaign to urge fellow Federalists to vote for Jefferson. The letter from Hamilton to Otis shows Hamilton’s feelings about Burr. With a partner read the letter and answer the questions that follow. Document F: Timeline of Events - With a partner read the timeline and answer the question that follows. Document G: Letter from Hamilton to Burr - With a partner read the background information and letter. Then answer the questions that follow. Document H: Letter from Burr to Hamilton - With a partner read the background information and letter. Then answer the questions that follow. Document I: TIME Magazine Article - The World Was Wide Enough from Hamilton the Musical - Read portion of Time article to find out what happened to Hamilton Complete culminating questions - Make sure to address all parts of the questions, use specific evidence, and explain how the evidence supports your claim. What happened to Burr? - Now, for the rest of the story...
<urn:uuid:bc3c6224-6216-4181-9a49-004f5769faa9>
CC-MAIN-2017-26
https://www.scholastic.com/content/dam/teachers/articles/2016-2017/teacher-magazine/Emrich-hamilton-unit.pdf
2017-06-25T19:02:12Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128320570.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20170625184914-20170625204914-00040.warc.gz
912,199,038
8,679
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.979266
eng_Latn
0.999293
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2927, 6250, 9496, 12855, 12993, 14138, 17057, 18116, 20151, 21106, 23320, 26354, 28056, 28217, 29558, 32412, 35018, 35356, 37732, 37854, 38060, 39280, 39625, 39856, 41030, 41582, 41800 ]
[ 4.8125, 4.09375 ]
1
0
Inside this issue … Teen Digital Dilemmas Plus … Expert Resources You Can Trust! Coming to SeeChange This Summer Be Your Best Self Digital Life Skills Camp For Ages 10 to 15 An innovative new program to help you - find your digital voice, - create your online persona, and - make good choices in ways that are enjoyable and safe, responsible, purposeful and impactful. By working through real-life examples and mini-projects in digital citizenship, you will learn the six “must-knows” to be your best self online: * balanced media time * ethical use * positive relationships * ensuring privacy * handling cyberbullying * cybersecurity * You will be taught by teachers who know all about digital security and ethics, and will earn credits towards a TQUK-endorsed Level 1 Certificate in Digital Life Skills. https://seechange-edu.com/events/digital-life-skills/ The Spirit of the Olympics International Public Speaking Competition 2021 For Ages 5-18 Make yourself heard! Submit a video of your speech on sports and the Olympics - by 10 July to pre-qualify for the Competition Finals and to vie for an invitation to speak at Hong Kong’s public celebrations of the Tokyo Olympics, or - by 10 August to enter the preliminary round of the competition. Topics and Time Limits Ages 5-9 My Favourite Sport (1 - 2 minutes) Ages 10-12 /13-15/16-18 What Sports Mean To Me (3 - 4 minutes) Finalists will participate in the online Impromptu Speech Competition where they will discuss and present on a wide range of topics related to sports including the Olympics spirit, fairness and e-sports. All finalists’ videos will be shared in a celebratory special viewing for the public. www.seechange-edu.com/competition/ How should you respond to cyberbullying? Peter recorded a video of Samuel at his first tennis lesson and posted it on his story for everyone to see. Samuel was shocked and asked Peter to please take the video down. Peter didn't listen. He thought the video really funny. Plus, a lot of their friends were commenting and saying Peter was hilarious for posting it. By the next day, it seemed like everyone at school had seen the video and was laughing at Samuel's clumsiness. Samuel tried to act like their teasing didn't bother him, but he was really embarrassed. That evening he told his best friend Chris he wasn't feeling well and would stay away from school a few days. Artwork by @bradennessa What does it mean to be a good friend on social media? Alan started messaging Lisa a lot, every day. The two had known each other since kindergarten and had sometimes worked on school projects together. At first, Lisa was happy to be chatting with Alan outside of school. Alan was having a hard time at home and Lisa always tried to be kind and supportive when Alan sent a message. But then the messages became just too many. Keeping up with Alan was beginning to feel burdensome. It was also affecting her study time. Lisa knew she needed to set some boundaries, but she wasn't sure how and didn't want to make things harder for Alan by not being a good friend. Each one of these scenarios is a digital dilemma - a tricky situation that can occur in digital life. A digital dilemma seldom has an obvious right or wrong answer. Even when someone has been hurt or wronged, the best way to respond is often unclear. How important is it to be popular online? For weeks, Jessica and her three friends had been waiting for a new movie to come out. Their favourite actor was in it, and they had promised to see it together and then go out for pizza. On the movie's opening weekend, Jessica had a last-minute emergency and couldn't go. The others decided to go anyway because they had been looking forward to it. That night, they posted constantly about their fun and new inside jokes. Jessica wanted to keep connected but seeing the constant posts really upset her. When her sister Marilyn asked her what was wrong, Jessica cried that she felt like no one cared that she had missed out on their plans. Artwork by @bradennessa Young people are constantly navigating situations like these in their everyday digital lives. By understanding and working through the complexity of others’ dilemmas, they can respond thoughtfully to the actual issues they face and come up with realistic action steps. - **Digital life skills** are more than about using social media technologies to communicate with others, to learn and to contribute to their communities. - **Digital life skills** are about confidence. By engaging them correctly, young people stand more ready to succeed in a global society where curiosity, creativity and innovation inform collaboration and problem solving. - **Digital life skills** are about being: - **Inclusive** Interacting with others online with respect and kindness - **Informed** Evaluating information for accuracy, perspective and validity - **Engaged** Using technology as a force for good - **Balanced** Prioritizing their time and activities online and offline - **Alert** Knowing how to be safe online and create safe spaces for others At See Change Education we use real-life examples and critical thinking routines to empower young people develop skills and dispositions to lead empathetic and responsible digital lives while ensuring their personal safety and privacy. Our classes promote positive language and the enhancement of family values. *Click here* to receive our resource guide with tips from experts on how to discuss these and other digital issues with your child! **CLICK FOR EXPERT RESOURCES!** See Change Education is focused on helping students (age 5-16) to develop life-skills in “communications,” critical 21st century skills – from debate and public-speaking, to writing, and digitalized skills. See Change Education brings to students its proprietary curriculum, adaptive teaching methodology, global classroom, and world-class coaches with strong track record. Our students will benefit from a personalized education experience, so that they can discover their passion, and be future-ready to lead a purposeful life in harmony with nature and the changing world that we are in. "Learn what you need but don’t always get in traditional classrooms." SUMMER COURSES www.seechange-edu.com Click Here For Debate & Public Speaking Click Here For Writing Courses Click Here For Digital Life Skills Camp Click Here For Other Enrichment Courses Click Here For Outdoor Science Camp Click Here For Competitions (Age 5 - 18) Contact Us For Schedules (852) 9722 0818 email@example.com www.seechange-edu.com
8dab6176-1b6c-46cf-ba7d-db5af37d4001
CC-MAIN-2021-43
https://seechange-edu.com/uploadfile/newsletter/NewsletterJune2021.pdf
2021-10-18T17:32:26+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585204.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20211018155442-20211018185442-00528.warc.gz
653,427,573
1,385
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.969551
eng_Latn
0.998399
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 82, 1726, 4054, 5586, 6610 ]
[ 3.5625 ]
1
0
Amami Islands National Park is located in southern Kagoshima Prefecture. Amami Islands National Park includes several islands, but Amami Oshima is the largest island within the national park. The area designated as Amami Islands National Park was also designated as a national park because it preserves a diverse natural environment, rare ecosystems that can only be found in this area, and cultural landscapes. **Amami Islands National Park** - **Designation:** March 7, 2009 - **Area:** 42,181 ha (land area), 33,082 ha (sea area) - **Place:** Kagoshima Prefecture **Rare Creatures of Amami** Percentage of creatures that are only found in Amami among those living in Amami - **amphibian** - 9/10 species - 90% - **land mammal** - 8/13 species - 62% - **reptiles** - 10/16 species - 63% Top left: Forest with subtropical plants Top right: Mangrove forest Bottom left: Four species of sea turtles come ashore to lay eggs from May to July Bottom right: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima only inhabitant, the Amami rabbit In recognition of its biodiversity and rich nature, four areas of Amami Oshima, including Tokunoshima, northern Okinawa Prefecture, and Iriomote Island, were designated as World Natural Heritage sites in 2021. In these areas, which are home to a number of endemic and endangered species, are the focus of various efforts to protect their rich natural environment. In Amami Oshima, promoting eco-tourism by training eco-tour guides, maintaining the Amami Trail, and making rules. **Biodiversity and Culture of Amami** Amami Oshima Island has a unique traditional culture that makes the most of its rich natural environment, and is imbued with the wisdom of "protecting nature while using it sustainably." **Traditional Crafts - Oshima Tsumugi** Oshima tsumugi, a traditional craft of Amami Oshima Island, is characterized by the glossy black color produced by mud dyeing. Many of the woven patterns of Oshimatsumugi are based on motifs of Amami's animals and plants. Seaweed and coral are also used as materials for the dyeing, showing that the rich nature of Amami Oshima is the reason for its culture. Top left: Experiencing mud dyeing Top right: Rhaphiolepis umbellata used as a raw material for dyeing Bottom left: A village where traditional coral stone walls still remain Bottom right: Noodles (udon) and porridge made from cycad nuts **To protect the nature of Amami Oshima Island** The national park includes 17 villages, where visitors can experience not only the natural environment but also the traditional culture that has been nurtured in harmony with nature and the lives of the local people. The park is also a place where one can experience the traditional culture that has been nurtured in harmony with nature and the lifestyles of the people of the region. However, due to lifestyle changes and other factors, people are losing their connection with nature. In the future, it will be important not only to protect nature, but also to pass on cultures and traditions that are deeply connected to nature. More information email@example.com This poster was funded by the Japan Fund for Global Environment.
46336a02-f6cd-410e-9f8e-1ef6e6fecf4a
CC-MAIN-2023-06
https://condx.jp/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/amamireport.pdf
2023-02-05T14:27:36+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500255.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20230205130241-20230205160241-00134.warc.gz
196,123,833
727
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.994897
eng_Latn
0.994897
[ "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 3172 ]
[ 2.984375 ]
1
0
Did you notice in Chapter 5 that water was called “pure water” when it was identified as a pure substance? Why was it necessary to call it “pure water?” In what way is “pure water” different from “ordinary water?” The water that flows out of a tap or that falls from the sky as rain or that empties into the ocean from a river is not a pure substance. It’s actually a solution. There are very small amounts of dissolved solids such as sodium chloride and dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen. In fact, you would be hard-pressed to find totally pure water anywhere in nature. Water is so good at dissolving things that it cannot stay pure for very long at all. You will find out how pure water, called distilled water, is made when you explore how to separate solutions and other mixtures in the next chapter. In this chapter, you will first learn more about how solutions are made and the factors that affect making them. What You Will Learn In this chapter, you will • identify the solute and the solvent in a variety of solutions • distinguish between soluble and insoluble substances • describe the concentration and solubility of substances qualitatively and quantitatively Why It Is Important You make or make use of solutions each day. Learning how to describe the solutions that you make and use lets you communicate with others more effectively. This is especially important for solutions that require safe handling, such as pesticides. Skills You Will Use In this chapter, you will • express the concentration of a solution and the solubility of a solute • predict and graph the effect of temperature on solubility • investigate factors that affect the rate of dissolving Make the following Foldable to take notes on what you will learn in Chapter 8. **STEP 1** Fold a horizontal sheet of $11 \times 17"$ paper into thirds by folding first the right, then the left sides inward. **STEP 2** Unfold the paper and fold the bottom quarter of the page upward to create a pocket. **STEP 3** Glue or staple the outer edges of the pocket closed. **STEP 4** Label the pockets with the following titles: *Solute, Solvent, Solutions; Soluble and Insoluble Substances; and Qualitative and Quantitative Descriptions.* **STEP 5** Cut small pieces of paper to fit in each pocket. These will be used as note cards. Organize Use the note cards to record main ideas, supporting facts, new terms, and definitions from the chapter. Use half-sheets of grid paper to predict and graph the effect of temperature on solubility. Store these sheets in the appropriate pockets of the Foldable. When one substance dissolves in another, the substance that dissolves is the solute and the substance in which it dissolves is the solvent. A substance is soluble in a solvent when it dissolves in the solvent. A substance is insoluble in a solvent when it does not dissolve in this solvent. The particle theory of matter can explain why soluble substances dissolve in a solvent. Figure 8.1 shows the only type of hummingbird that is found in eastern Canada. Many people like to put out special feeders to attract the quick, colourful bird to their homes. Hummingbird feeders hold a solution that is made by mixing sugar with water. You may recall from Chapter 7 that a solution is a homogeneous mixture. When you mix two substances and they form a solution, you say that one substance dissolves in the other substance. As you can see in Figure 8.2: - The solute is the substance that dissolves. - The solvent is the substance in which the solute dissolves. When you mix sugar and water, the sugar is the solute and the water is the solvent. The sugar dissolves in the water. **Figure 8.1** The ruby-throated hummingbird feeds on insects as well as the nectar (sugary sap) of plants. The birds willingly dine on the sugar-water solution that people make for them, too. **Figure 8.2** To make a solution, a solute dissolves in a solvent. Different States of Solutes and Solvents If you read the labels on liquid products around your home, you will notice that water is the solvent for many different solutes. But water is not the only type of solvent. In fact, solvents can be solids and gases, too! The same is true of solutes. Table 8.1 gives some examples of solutions with their solutes and solvents. In most solutions, there is usually less solute than solvent. Table 8.1 States of Solvents and Solutes for Various Solutions | Solution | Solute | Solvent | State of Solute | State of Solvent | |------------------------|---------------------------------------------|-----------|-----------------|------------------| | air | oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases | nitrogen | gas | gas | | soda water | carbon dioxide | water | gas | liquid | | vinegar | acetic acid | water | liquid | liquid | | filtered ocean water | sodium chloride (salt) and other minerals | water | solid | liquid | | brass | zinc | copper | solid | solid | 8-1A Name That Solute and Solvent In this activity, you will identify the solute and the solvent in a variety of solutions. What to Do 1. Read the four statements about solutions carefully. The way that each statement is written gives you clues to help you tell which part of the solution is the solute and which part is the solvent. 2. For each statement, do the following: (a) Identify the state of the solution that is described. Refer to Table 8.1 if you need help. (b) Identify the solute. (c) Identify the solvent. What Did You Find Out? 1. Explain how you decided which part of the solutions was the solute and which part was the solvent. Soluble and Insoluble As you know, when you mix a solute like sugar with a solvent like water, the sugar dissolves in the water. Another way of saying “the sugar dissolves in the water” is to say “the sugar is soluble in the water.” A substance that is **soluble** is able to dissolve in a certain solvent. What about things that do not dissolve? For instance, sand does not dissolve in water. Another way of saying “sand does not dissolve in water” is to say “sand is insoluble in water.” A substance that is **insoluble** is not able to dissolve in a certain solvent. ### 8-1B Eggshell Shocked Eggshells are mostly calcium carbonate. In this activity, you will see what happens when an egg is left floating in water and another egg is left floating in vinegar. #### Safety - Raw eggshells can sometimes be a source of food poisoning. Wash your hands after you handle the eggs. #### Materials - 2 large beakers (400 mL or 500 mL) or large jam jars - 2 raw eggs - water - white vinegar **Connection** Remind yourself of what calcium carbonate is in section 7.1. #### What to Do 1. Add water to one beaker or jar until it is about half-full. Add vinegar to the other beaker or jar until it is about half-full. 2. Gently place a raw egg in each jar. 3. In your science notebook, write the date and describe the appearance of the egg in each jar. Also, describe the appearance of the water and the vinegar. 4. Observe the two jars each day for a few days. Describe the eggs, the water, and the vinegar each day. Remember to write the date each day. 5. When the activity is over, clean up and put away the equipment you have used. #### What Did You Find Out? 1. What, if any, changes to the egg did you observe in the water? 2. What, if any, changes to the egg did you observe in the vinegar? 3. Is eggshell (calcium carbonate) soluble or insoluble in water? Is it soluble or insoluble in vinegar? Give evidence to support your answers. Insoluble in Some Solvents, Soluble in Others As you can see in Figure 8.3, motor oil does not dissolve in water. In other words, motor oil is insoluble in water. As you can see in Figure 8.4, though, motor oil is soluble in other substances. For instance, motor oil dissolves in gasoline. Figure 8.5 shows another example of a substance that is insoluble in one solvent but is soluble in another. Grass stains are caused by a green-coloured chemical called chlorophyll. Grass stains are hard to wash out of clothing because chlorophyll is insoluble in water. It is also insoluble in laundry detergent. A different solvent, such as rubbing alcohol, is needed to dissolve grass stains. Chlorophyll is soluble in rubbing alcohol. **Figure 8.3** Motor oil is one type of petroleum product. Petroleum products do not dissolve in water. **Figure 8.4** Small engines, like those in some lawnmowers and chainsaws, run on a solution of motor oil and gasoline. A certain volume of the oil is dissolved in a larger volume of gasoline. So, the oil is the solute and the gasoline is the solvent. **Explore More** If a Styrofoam cup comes in contact with nail polish remover, the cup material will dissolve. And yet nail polish remover does not harm fingernails. How can this be? Why are people cautioned to use nail polish remover carefully? Begin your research at www.discoveringscience.ca. **Reading Check** 1. What does the term *soluble* mean? 2. What does the term *insoluble* mean? 3. Vinegar is insoluble in vegetable oil. Does this mean that vinegar is a totally insoluble substance? Explain why or why not. **Suggested Activity** Conduct an Investigation 8-1C on page 259. Why Some Substances Dissolve The particles of a substance stay together because they are attracted to each other. What happens to the attraction among sugar particles when you put sugar in water? Why does each sugar crystal break up and dissolve? There must be other attractions. The sugar particles are also attracted to the water particles, so they mix with the water particles. A group of water particles can attract a sugar particle more strongly than the other sugar particles around it. Figure 8.6 shows what happens to sugar particles on the edge of a sugar crystal. The process in Figure 8.6 continues until all of the sugar is dissolved. Particles of sugar gradually move around and mix evenly amongst the particles of the water. A solution is formed. A solution can also form when oil is mixed with gasoline. In this case, the attractions between the oil particles and the attractions between the gasoline particles are alike. They are both very weak. Do not forget, the particles in each are always moving. When these two substances mix, the weak attractions are broken by the motion of the particles and a solution is formed. Why Some Substances Do Not Dissolve Just mixing two substances together does not always make a solution. Why are some substances insoluble? Think about the attraction of fat particles and the attraction of water particles in a glass of milk. For the particles of fat to dissolve in the water, they would have to be more attracted to the water particles than to the other particles of milk fat. But fat particles are not more attracted to the water particles. So the fat particles stay together and form insoluble globules in the liquid. This idea of particle attraction applies to many other combinations of substances. For instance, it can help to explain why grass stains are tough to get out of clothing. The particles of chlorophyll in the grass stains are more attracted to each other than they are to water particles. To get out the grass stains, you need to use a different solvent—one whose particles attract the particles of chlorophyll. As you learned on the previous page, rubbing alcohol is such a solvent. Reading Check 1. Why are some substances insoluble in a certain solvent? 2. When sugar is added to water, which is stronger: the attraction of water particles for sugar particles or the attraction of sugar particles for sugar particles? In this activity, you will test two solutes to see how well they dissolve in different solvents. **Safety** - Do not taste, eat, or drink any of the substances in this activity. **Materials** - 4 small transparent containers (such as small beakers or plastic cups) - 4 labels - 4 stir sticks - water - vegetable oil - salt - flour - measuring spoons **What to Do** 1. Copy the table of observations below into your science notebook. Give your table a title. | Container | Name of Solvent | Name of Solute | Observations | |-----------|-----------------|----------------|--------------| | 1 | | | | | 2 | | | | | 3 | | | | | 4 | | | | 2. Label the four cups 1, 2, 3, and 4. 3. Use a measuring spoon to pour about 2 mL of water (about half a teaspoon) into cups 1 and 2. Pour about 2 ml of vegetable oil into cups 3 and 4. 4. Record the solvent in your table. 5. Predict whether each of the two solutes (salt and flour) will dissolve in one, both, or neither of the solvents. Record your predictions. 6. Using the stir sticks, add a little salt to cups 1 and 3 and a little flour to cups 2 and 4. Record the names of the solutes in your table. 7. Stir each mixture. Observe the contents of each container to see if the solutes have dissolved. Record your observations in your table. 8. Clean up and put away the equipment you have used. **What Did You Find Out?** 1. Write a summary of your results. 2. Were your predictions accurate? Explain why you think they were or were not. 3. Predict what would happen if you did this activity again using ethanol (a type of alcohol) as a third solute. Give reasons to explain your prediction. If there is time, test it. (Make sure you observe all safety rules when handling the ethanol.) The Strange Case of the Water That Wasn’t In 1966, a Russian scientist who was giving a talk in England told the scientists of a new discovery. He said that Russian scientists had discovered a new form of liquid water. The particles of this new form of water were held together in a way that made the water thicker and denser than ordinary water. This new water, called polywater, could stay a liquid at temperatures as low as $-55^\circ\text{C}$ and at temperatures as high as $260^\circ\text{C}$. It was made in the lab by heating and condensing water in very narrow glass tubes. But the process was so painstaking that only a few drops could be made at a time. The difficulty of making polywater didn’t stop other scientists from studying it. During the late 1960s and the early 1970s, hundreds of scientists from around the world published their thoughts and experiments with polywater. Some proclaimed dire consequences if polywater ever got out of the lab and into nature. It would, the scientists predicted, change all normal water into polywater. It took about seven years for the truth about polywater to emerge. And the truth was: There was no such thing! “Polywater”, it turned out, was just a solution. Small amounts of silicon and a few other impurities had dissolved from the thin glass tubing into water. Polywater, it turned out, was water that was polluted with impurities. The polywater event happened for a simple reason. Scientists forgot, for a period of time, about water’s abilities as a solvent. Check Your Understanding Checking Concepts 1. Give two examples of substances that are soluble in water. 2. Give two examples of substances that are insoluble in water. 3. Give one example of a substance that is insoluble in water but is soluble in a different solvent. 4. Identify the solute and the solvent in these examples. (a) Your friend makes lemonade by mixing lemon-flavoured drink crystals with water. (b) Vinegar is a solution that is made up of 5% acetic acid and 95% water. (c) Humid air is a solution of water vapour in air. (d) Home-made window cleaner can be made by dissolving vinegar in water. (e) One way to make apple juice is by mixing water with frozen concentrated apple juice. (f) A small outboard motor on a boat is fuelled with a mixture of motor oil and gasoline. (g) Some people prefer to drink tea with lemon juice. (h) Therapeutic massage oil is a solution that contains the oil of a medicinal plant such as sage mixed with almond oil. 5. In Chapter 7, you learned that a stainless steel frying pan is a solution called an alloy. (a) Name the solvent in stainless steel. (b) Name one solute in stainless steel. Understanding Key Ideas 6. Use the particle theory of matter to explain why glass is insoluble in water. Use diagrams as well as words to answer this question. 7. Some people suggest using hairspray to remove ink stains. Use the terms “soluble,” “solvent,” and “insoluble” to explain this suggestion. 8. (a) List six substances (two solids, two liquids, and two gases) that dissolve in water. (b) List six substances that do not dissolve in water. (c) Water is often called “the universal solvent.” How do you know that this statement is incorrect? (d) Even though it is incorrect to call water a universal solvent, the statement is still useful and accurate. Explain why. Pause and Reflect What is the difference between a substance that is soluble and a substance is insoluble? Imagine that you have to explain this difference to a class of grade 5 students. Devise an analogy that will make this difference simple and understandable to the students. (An analogy is a type of comparison in which you use something that is familiar to explain something that is or might be unfamiliar.) 8.2 Concentration and Solubility A concentrated solution has a larger mass of solute for a certain volume of solvent. A dilute solution has a smaller mass of solute for a certain volume of solvent. The concentration of a solution may be expressed quantitatively in units of grams of solute per litre of solvent (g/L). When a solution is unsaturated, more solute can dissolve in the solvent at the same temperature. When a solution is saturated, no more solute can dissolve at the same temperature. Different solutes have different solubilities. The solubility of most solids in a liquid can be increased by increasing the temperature. Stirring a solution increases the rate of dissolving, but not the solubility of a solute. The solubility of gases in a liquid can be increased by decreasing the temperature. **Key Terms** - concentrated solution - concentration - dilute solution - saturated solution - solubility - unsaturated solution Figure 8.7 shows two cups of tea. Both cups have the same volume of tea. And both tea bags are the same size. You can see, though, that the tea on the right is lighter in colour than the tea on the left. How can you explain this difference? Look at the light-coloured tea on the right. Because of its light colour, you might guess that the tea bag has not been sitting in the water for very long. Only small quantities of the substances in the tea bag have dissolved in the water. Now look at the dark-coloured tea on the left. The tea bag likely has been sitting in the water for several minutes or longer. The substances in the tea bag have had more time to dissolve in the water. The dark-coloured tea contains more dissolved substances than the light-coloured tea. The darker tea is a concentrated solution of tea and water. A **concentrated solution** has a large mass of dissolved solute for a certain quantity of solvent. In comparison, the lighter tea is a dilute solution of tea and water. A **dilute solution** has a small mass of dissolved solute for a certain quantity of solvent. Suppose that you make a fruit drink with drink crystals. If you find that the taste is too sweet, you can add water to make the solution more dilute. If you find that the taste is not sweet enough, you can add more drink crystals to make the solution more concentrated. **Concentration** The quantity of solute that is dissolved in a certain quantity of solvent is the **concentration** of the solution. You can describe concentration *qualitatively* (with words) if you use the terms “concentrated” and “dilute.” You can also express concentration *quantitatively* (with numbers). This is especially important when safety is an issue. For instance, manufacturers include the concentration of the solution on the label of many products. That way, people know how to use the product safely. One of the most common ways to show concentration is in units of grams per litres (g/L). This tells you the mass of solute that is dissolved in 1 L of solution. For example, the product shown in Figure 8.8 is a herbicide (a plant-killing chemical) commonly used to kill weeds before a crop is planted. Roundup™ is a solution of a chemical called glyphosate and water. The label shows that this product contains 7 g/L of glyphosate. This means that there are 7 g of glyphosate in 1 L of the product. **Reading Check** 1. You put three teaspoons of sugar in a jug with half a litre of water. You put two teaspoons of sugar in a second jug with half a litre of water. Which jug is more concentrated? 2. How is the qualitative definition of concentration different from the quantitative definition? 3. Explain what g/L means. **Figure 8.8** The active ingredient in this herbicide is glyphosate. According to the label, what is the concentration of glyphosate? What other information does the label show? Why? **Suggested Activity** Find Out Activity 8-2B on page 270 Find Out Activity 8-2C on page 271 A Limit to Concentration If you put a spoonful of salt in a glass of water, the salt will dissolve. You can add a second spoonful and a third and a fourth. With each spoonful, the solution becomes more and more concentrated. Can you continue to add salt to the same volume of water forever? No. Eventually, you reach a point at which the salt will not dissolve in this volume of water any more. At this point, the solution is said to be saturated. A **saturated solution** forms when no more solute will dissolve in a specific amount of solvent at a certain temperature. For example, a saturated solution of salt and water is formed when 357 g of salt are dissolved in 1 L of water at 0°C. If more salt is added to this solution at this temperature, the salt will not dissolve. Figure 8.9 shows a saturated solution of water and a substance called bluestone. Notice the lump of undissolved solid that is left on the spoon. An **unsaturated solution** is a solution that is not yet saturated. Thus, more solute can dissolve in it. Solubility **Solubility** refers to the mass of a solute that can dissolve in a certain amount of solvent at a certain temperature. For example, you read earlier that 357 g of salt will dissolve in 1 L of water at 0°C. In other words, the solubility of salt in water at 0°C is 357 g/L. Table 8.2 lists the solubility of several common substances in water. Notice that the solubilities are given as mass of solute (in grams) that will dissolve in 1 L of water at 0°C to form a saturated solution. | Substance | State (of Solute) | Solubility in Water (g/L) | |-----------------|-------------------|--------------------------| | baking soda | solid | 69 | | bluestone | solid | 316 | | calcium hydroxide | solid | 1.9 | | carbon dioxide | gas | 3.4 | | Epsom salts | solid | 700 | | ethanol | liquid | unlimited | | limestone | solid | 0.007 | | nitrogen | gas | 0.03 | | oxygen | gas | 0.07 | | salt | solid | 357 | | sugar | solid | 1792 | Rate of Dissolving You know from your daily life that it takes a while to dissolve sugar in water. But you may also know from your daily life that you can make sugar dissolve faster. For instance, sugar will dissolve faster if the water is at a higher temperature. What factors do you think affect how fast something will dissolve? When you investigate a question like this, you are talking about the rate of dissolving. The rate of dissolving refers to how quickly a solute dissolves in a solvent. You probably already know another way of making a solute dissolve more quickly: stirring. For example, if you make a fruit drink with drink crystals, you likely do what the student in Figure 8.10 is doing. You stir the mixture to increase the rate of dissolving. Figure 8.11 explains why. Figure 8.11 The particle theory of matter can be used to explain how stirring increases the rate of dissolving. (A) Before the mixture is stirred, the sugar particles move into the solution at a rate that depends only on the natural movement of the nearby water particles. The solution close to the crystal is more concentrated, and the solution farther from the crystal is more dilute. (B) When you stir the mixture, you cause the solute and the solvent to interact more quickly. Stirring pushes some of the concentrated solution away from the crystal. At the same time, stirring also pushes dilute solution closer to the crystal. Because there is more interaction between the solute and the solvent when you stir, the rate of dissolving increases. Word Connect In Table 8.2, the solubility of ethanol in water is listed as unlimited. This means that any amount of ethanol will dissolve in any amount of water. Liquids such as these, which can dissolve in any amount in each other, are said to be miscible. Miscible comes from a Latin word that means “to mix.” Figure 8.10 Why might stirring or shaking a mixture make a solute dissolve faster? Suggested Activity Conduct an Investigation 8-2A on page 268 Size of Solute and Rate of Dissolving You probably know from experience that smaller pieces of solute will dissolve more quickly than larger pieces. For instance, smaller grains of sugar dissolve faster than larger grains of sugar. (You can try this yourself to verify it.) Why does the size of sugar or any other solid solute affect the rate of dissolving? Dissolving a solid in a liquid takes place at the surface of the solid. By breaking a large solid into smaller pieces, you expose more surfaces. Now there are more surfaces for the solvent to interact with. Because there is more interaction between the solute and the solvent, the solute dissolves faster—the rate of dissolving increases. You can see how this idea works in Figure 8.12. The photo shows a whole sugar cube and a sugar cube that has been broken into smaller pieces. Both sugar cubes have the same mass. The surfaces of both cubes were coloured red with a felt pen before one cube was broken. Breaking the cube has made more surfaces, which are white in the photo. So, now the total surface area of the pieces of sugar is greater than the surface area of the whole cube. Now there can be more interaction between the cube pieces and a solvent. So, the broken cube will dissolve faster than the whole cube. Figure 8.12 These two sugar cubes are identical in size and in mass. But the broken sugar cube has more surfaces (many red and white surfaces) that can interact with a solvent than the whole sugar cube (just six red surfaces). Pressure and the Solubility of Gases in Liquids A sealed bottle of pop like the one in Figure 8.13 has a lot in common with a deep-sea diver like the one in Figure 8.14. Both are under pressure, and both contain concentrated solutions of gases in liquids. In a bottle of pop, carbon dioxide gas is pumped under pressure into the water in the bottle. Gases are more soluble in liquids when the pressure is higher. The higher pressure forces extra gas particles into the spaces between the water particles. But the extra gas particles dissolve only because they are forced into the solution under pressure. When the cap is removed, the pressure inside the bottle lowers very quickly. This causes the gas to be less soluble. As a result, the gas comes out of solution. That’s why you see lots of small bubbles when you open a bottle of pop such as the one in Figure 8.13. This is similar to what happens inside a diver’s blood. The diver’s body is under pressure caused by the deep water, so the blood contains more gas particles than normal. These gases stay dissolved only as long as the pressure remains. As the diver rises to the surface, the pressure on the diver’s body (and blood) becomes less. If the diver rises too quickly, the gases in the blood come out of solution very quickly. They form bubbles in the diver’s blood, just like the bubbles in a bottle of pop. These gas bubbles are released from the blood into body tissues with painful, and possibly fatal, results. This condition is often called “the bends.” To avoid it, a diver must ascend gradually from any depth greater than 9 m. This helps the nitrogen gas to come out of solution slowly and into the lungs so that it can be exhaled safely. Reading Check 1. What is the difference between a saturated solution and an unsaturated solution? 2. The solubility of salt is 357 g/L at 0°C. Explain what this statement means. 3. How does the size of the solute affect the rate of dissolving? 4. What happens to carbon dioxide gas when the pressure on a solution of pop is reduced? Do you think heating a solvent will affect the amount of solute that will dissolve in it? The data table below shows the solubility of three different solutes in water at various temperatures. In this activity, you will examine these data to develop a hypothesis about how temperature affects solubility. Then, you will design an experiment to test your hypothesis. **Question** How does temperature affect the solubility of a solid solute in a liquid solvent? **Procedure** **Part 1—Analyzing Solubility** 1. Draw the axes for a graph. Label the $y$-axis *Solubility (g/L)*. Label the $x$-axis *Temperature ($^\circ$C)*. Mark the scale for the $x$-axis to go from 0 to 100. 2. Plot the data in the table below. Use a different colour for each solute. Include a legend to show the solute that each colour represents. | Temperature ($^\circ$C) | Sugar (Sucrose) | Potassium Chlorate | Ammonium Chloride | |-------------------------|-----------------|--------------------|-------------------| | 10 | 1910 | 50 | 320 | | 20 | 2040 | 70 | 370 | | 30 | 2200 | 110 | 410 | | 40 | 2390 | 150 | 460 | | 50 | 2610 | 210 | 500 | | 60 | 2870 | 270 | 550 | | 70 | 3200 | 340 | 600 | * Values have been rounded to the nearest 10. 3. Connect the points for each solute by drawing a line of best fit. 4. Use dashes to extend (extrapolate) the line for each solute so that it crosses 100$^\circ$C. 5. Give your graph a title. 6. Answer Analyze questions 1, 2, and 3, and answer Conclude and Apply question 1. Part 2—Design Your Own Solubility Study 1. Based on the evidence from Part 1, how does temperature affect solubility for a solid solute that is mixed with a liquid solvent? Write a hypothesis. 2. Design an investigation to test your hypothesis. Here are some other tips and reminders that you might find useful. - There is more than one safe way to increase the temperature of a liquid. - Heating a liquid is not the only way to investigate the effect of temperature on solubility. - Which variables will you control? Which variable will you change (independent variable), and which variable do you expect will change in response (dependent variable)? - How will you guarantee safety for yourself and everyone else in the class? - How will you record your data? 3. Write the procedure for your investigation. Get your teacher’s approval. Then, carry it out. 4. Clean up and put away the equipment you have used. 5. Answer Analyze question 4, and answer Conclude and Apply question 2. Analyze 1. Describe the shape of the lines on your graph. 2. What happens to the lines as temperature increases? 3. Predict the solubility of each solute at 90°C. (Use your dashed line to help you make your prediction.) 4. How did the solubility in warmer water of the substance you tested compare with its solubility in colder water? Science Skills Go to Science Skill 1 for tips on drawing graphs. Go to Science Skill 2 for tips on how to work with variables. Conclude and Apply 1. What happened to the solubility of each solid solute as the temperature of the water increased? 2. How well did your results support your hypothesis? Is there a limit to the amount of solute that can dissolve? In other words, can a solution be made more and more concentrated, with no limit? Does it matter what the solute is? You will explore these questions in this activity. **Safety** Materials - graduated cylinder - 250 mL beaker - measuring spoon - about 40 g of salt - Petri dish (or piece of paper) - water - stirring rod - balance - additional substance provided for testing (for example, sugar, bluestone, calcium hydroxide) **What To Do** 1. Use the graduated cylinder to measure 100 mL of cold tap water. Pour the water into the beaker. 2. Pour the salt into the Petri dish. Place the Petri dish on the balance. Measure and record the mass of the salt and dish. Use a table like the one below to record your measurements. Remember to include the units of mass. Then remove the Petri dish from the balance. 3. Use the measuring spoon to add a small amount (about 2.5 mL—half a teaspoon) of salt to the water. Stir the mixture until all the salt is dissolved. 4. Repeat step 3. After each stirring, check to see if there is any salt that does not dissolve. Keep repeating step 3 until you see that some of the salt will no longer dissolve. 5. When you reach the point at which no more will dissolve, place the Petri dish with its remaining salt on the balance. Measure and record the mass in your table. 6. Find the mass of salt that dissolved in the water. Record this mass in your table. 7. Your teacher will provide you with one more substance. Follow all safety guidelines for this substance provided by your teacher. Test this substance in the same way that you did with salt. Prepare a table like the one you used for salt to record your observations. **What Did You Find Out?** 1. (a) What was the volume of water that you used to dissolve the salt? (b) What was the total mass of salt that you were able to dissolve in this volume of water? 2. (a) What was the volume of water that you used to dissolve the second substance? (b) What was the total mass of this substance that you were able to dissolve in this volume of water? 3. Did different students get different results? If so, suggest reasons for the different results. 8-2C Concentrations of Consumer Products In this activity, you will look for concentrations on consumer products that are solutions. **Safety** Handle each product carefully as you observe its label. As a precaution, have an adult with you while you do this activity. **What to Do** 1. In your home, look for five products that show their concentration on the label. The chart below shows some ways to recognize how concentration may be expressed on a label. | Unit of Concentration | What It Tells about the Solution | |-----------------------|----------------------------------| | g/L | tells how many grams of solute per litre of solution | | ppm (parts per million) | tells the ratio, 1:1 000 000, of the mass of solute in the mass of solution | | % | tells the percentage of solute in the solution by volume (in other words, the volume of the solute divided by the total volume of the solution) | | % | tells the percentage of solute in the solution by mass (in other words, the mass of solute divided by the total mass of the solution) | 2. Use a table with the following headings to record information about each product. | Name of Product | Solute | Solvent | Concentration | |-----------------|--------|---------|---------------| **What Did You Find Out?** 1. In the products you listed, what is the most common solvent? 2. Why do you think the manufacturer provided concentration information on the label? --- 8-2D Dissolved Carbon Dioxide Soda water is water with dissolved carbon dioxide gas. In this activity, you will make observations about solubility with your ears and eyes. **Safety** - Use sealed, plastic bottles of pop. - Compare cold and warm (not hot) bottles. **What to Do** Design an experiment to compare the solubility of carbon dioxide gas in cold water with its solubility in warm water. You will not be able to measure the solubility in grams of solute per litre of solvent. You will need to find another way to compare the two solutions. (Hint: What do you hear when you open a can or bottle of pop? What causes the noise?) **What Did You Find Out?** 1. If you wanted to have a very bubbly bottle of pop when you open it, would you store it in a cold fridge or in a cupboard? Explain answer. 2. The ocean waters around the North Pole and the South Pole have more sea life than the ocean waters near the equator. Infer a reason why. (Hint: All ocean life depends on oxygen that is dissolved in the water.) Working with Concentration Units Look again at Table 8.2 on page 264. Notice that the concentrations are expressed as grams of solute per litre of water (g/L). In the Find Out Activity on page 270, notice that the mass of solute being investigated is dissolved in 100 mL of water. How can you convert units of g/mL to g/L? How can you convert units of g/L to g/mL? To answer these questions, start by thinking about how millilitres (mL) and litres (L) are related to each other. For instance, how many millilitres are there in one litre? If you are not sure, look at the scale on a graduated cylinder or on a beaker. You also might find it helpful to review Science Skill 4, Measurement. Verify to yourself that there are one thousand millilitres in one litre (1000 mL = 1 L). Use this information to help you solve the Practice Problems that follow. Practice Problems 1. Devise a method to convert from mL to L. Test your method by converting the six units below. Check your answers with the class before going to step 3. (a) 1000 mL = ? L (b) 500 mL = ? L (c) 100 mL = ? L (d) 10 mL = ? L (e) 5 mL = ? L (f) 1 mL = ? L 2. Now devise a method to convert from g/mL to g/L. Check your answers with the class to make sure that everyone understands how to convert the units. (a) 10 g/100 mL = ? g/? L (b) 52 g/100 mL = ? g/? L (c) 65 g/100 mL = ? g/? L (d) 100 g/100 mL = ? g/? L (e) 137 g/100 mL = ? g/? L (f) 0.15 g/100 mL = ? g/? L 3. Review your methods closely. Then, convert all the solubilities in Table 8.2 from g/L to g/mL. Check Your Understanding Checking Concepts 1. Which is the most soluble substance listed in Table 8.2 on page 264? 2. (a) Which is the least soluble substance listed in Table 8.2? (b) How might the low solubility of this substance explain why it is a good choice for a building material? 3. Suppose that you add some solid detergent to the water in a washing machine. Then, you decide that your clothes are really dirty, so you add more detergent. Is the solution of detergent and water now more concentrated or more dilute? Explain how you know. 4. (a) The solution for a hummingbird feeder is made by dissolving 30 g of sugar in 100 mL of water at 0°C. Is the solution saturated or unsaturated? If it is unsaturated, how much more sugar could you dissolve in it before it becomes saturated? (b) You decide to boil the 100 mL of water for the hummingbird feeder in question (a) before adding the sugar. How much sugar, in total, can you add to the boiled water before it is saturated? (Hint: What is the temperature of boiling water?) 5. Refer to the Temperature versus Solubility table on page 268. Which solute has the highest solubility at each of the following temperatures? (a) 20°C (b) 60°C (c) 90°C Understanding Key Ideas 6. Imagine that you are conducting a test for saturation. You add a small amount of solute to three different solutions, labelled A, B, and C. Based on the observations given, is each solution saturated or unsaturated? - Solution A: The added solute dissolves. - Solution B: The added solute does not dissolve. - Solution C: The added solute does not dissolve at first, but after some stirring the solute dissolves. 7. To keep roads safer in winter, road crews often spread salt on the roads to melt ice and snow. Which form of salt would you expect to stay on the road longer: rock salt (larger crystals) or table salt (smaller crystals)? Give reasons for your answer. 8. Suppose that you are dissolving a solute into 500 mL of water at 0°C. You find that no more than 495 g of solute will dissolve. Calculate the solubility of the solute. Pause and Reflect Your teacher asks you to help prepare some solutions for another class. Use the information in Table 8.2 to create a spreadsheet or a hand-drawn table that shows the number of grams of solute that are needed to make 10 mL, 50 mL, 100 mL, 500 mL, and 1000 mL of the following saturated solutions at 0°C: bluestone, Epsom salts, salt, sugar. Explain how you came up with the data for your table. Prepare Your Own Summary Create your own summary of the key ideas from this chapter. You may include graphic organizers or illustrations with your notes. (See Science Skill 9 for help with using graphic organizers.) Use the following headings to organize your notes: 1. Solutes and Solvents 2. Concentration 3. Solubility 4. Rate of Dissolving Checking Concepts 1. Identify the solute and the solvent in each of the following statements about solutions. Explain your reasoning. (a) A dentist prescribes a sodium fluoride solution to a patient who has severe tooth decay. The solution is 1.1% sodium fluoride in water. (b) Bronze is an alloy (a solid solution) of copper in tin. (c) There are 30 g of sugars in 1 L of Gatorade™. (Hint: The solvent for Gatorade™ is water.) (d) Bubbly soda water comes from underground springs such as those found in the town of Spa, in Belgium. Soda water is a solution of carbon dioxide gas in water. (e) Stainless steel may be made by dissolving carbon in iron. (f) One brand of apple juice, made from concentrate, has 100 g/L of sodium. 2. Describe the difference between: (a) a saturated solution and an unsaturated solution (b) a dilute solution and a concentrated solution (c) a substance that is soluble in water and a substance that is insoluble in water (d) a substance that has a high solubility in water and a substance that has a low solubility in water 3. Why must you include information about temperature when you state the solubility of a substance? 4. Neatly sketch a line graph or a bar graph that shows what happens to the concentration of a solution ($y$-axis) as you add solute to it ($x$-axis). 5. Ringer’s solution is a fluid that doctors use for people and animals when they have lost too much water (are dehydrated). The solution contains some key salts in the same concentrations as they are in blood. These salts are sodium chloride (table salt), potassium chloride, and calcium chloride. Each 100 mL of Ringer’s solution contains the following masses of these salts: - sodium chloride: 0.86 g - calcium chloride: 0.033 g - potassium chloride: 0.03 g Convert these values to concentration in units of g/L. 6. You mix 65 g of Epsom salts with 100 mL of water at 0°C. (a) Is the solution saturated or unsaturated? Explain how you know. (b) If the solution is saturated, how much solute is undissolved? If the solution is unsaturated, how much more solute could you dissolve in it? 7. You put some sugar in a jar of water, put a lid on the jar, and shake it. Why does shaking the jar increase the rate of dissolving. 8. Neatly sketch a line graph that shows what happens to the solubility of a substance (y-axis) as the solvent in which it is dissolved increases in temperature (x-axis). 9. Describe how pressure affects the solubility of a gas that is dissolved in a liquid. Understanding Key Ideas 10. The solubility of ammonium chloride (a solid) at 60°C is 550 g/L. (a) If the temperature of the solution is reduced to 40°C, would you expect more solute to dissolve or less? Explain why. (b) If you want to dissolve 580 g of solute, would you have to raise the temperature of the solution or lower it? Explain why. (c) If the solution of ammonium chloride is heated to 75°C, is the solution now saturated or unsaturated? Explain why. 11. Which is more dilute: a solution with a concentration of 25 g/100 mL or a solution with a concentration of 20 g/80 mL? (Hint: Look at the concentrations very carefully.) 12. Your friend tells you that she is able to dissolve 39 g of salt in 100 mL of water. She says that there is no undissolved solute at the bottom of the container. However, the solubility of salt in water is 35.7 g/100 mL. Could your friend be telling the truth? Explain why or why not. 13. Compare the terms solubility and rate of dissolving. In what ways are they similar? In what ways are they different? Pause and Reflect The top rock layer of Niagara Falls is made of limestone. The solubility of limestone is 0.007 g/L at 0°C. With 200 000 000 t of water going over the falls each day, 1400 t of limestone could be dissolved. Only a tiny fraction of this amount actually dissolves, though. Give a reason to explain why.
029c7417-e3a2-4040-8557-68dad594dffc
CC-MAIN-2022-27
https://learningcentre.nelson.com/student/9780070726024/DS7_SE_CH_8.pdf
2022-06-25T04:37:31+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103034170.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20220625034751-20220625064751-00037.warc.gz
418,897,160
10,507
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998137
eng_Latn
0.998863
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 935, 2604, 3946, 5954, 7902, 9583, 11986, 13940, 15466, 17749, 19463, 21689, 24094, 26100, 27610, 29660, 31594, 33243, 35460, 37971, 39511, 42032, 44246, 46305 ]
[ 4.71875, 4.96875 ]
1
0
ISSUES AND FACTS and what citizens can do individually. Environmental Science is a huge field of utmost importance to the survival of humans. Three of the main issues are pollution, global warming and biodiversity all interrelated. Considering that postponing mowing to allow the bloom of clover and wildflowers feeds and promotes livelihood of honeybees which pollinate our other wanted plants. Dr. Doug Tallamy, author of Bringing Nature Home, why landscaping with native plants is the sustainable choice for birds, insects, and people. He suggests the best thing to do is Plant Oaks and native plants. 96% of North America’s landbirds need insects to feed their young. Native plants produce four times as much insect biomass compared to non-native plants. If we want to continue to see birds in our yards and natural areas, we must provide the resources they need to reproduce. Support your local birds by trading ornamental plants for natives. Plant an oak tree — oaks support over 500 species of butterflies and moths (aka baby bird food). Suburban lawns made up of non-native grasses are almost as valuable to wildlife as a parking lot. In the United States, we have converted an estimated 32 to 40 million acres into suburban lawns. We mow, apply fertilizer and pesticides, and remove every “weed” that mars the monoculture of sterile lawn. Share your lawn with wildlife — create a “wild” unmowed corner, incorporate native plants into your landscaping, or create a native hedgerow. Habitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest threats to bird populations. Of our beloved Neotropical migrants, 127 species are in decline, with 60 species experiencing a severe decline. Help reverse these trends by providing a “convenience store” in your yard — a place for migrants to refuel on their long journey. Plant shrubs and trees that bloom early (red oak, willows, elm, hickory, red-osier dogwood) for spring and produce autumn berries (dogwood, red cedar, viburnum, elderberry) for fall. Birds and bats also eat millions of mosquitoes. What are the best evergreen trees for birds? The selection of conifers for feeding birds is quite broad. The seed-filled cones of spruces, firs, pines and many others appeal to nuthatches, finches, grosbeaks, chickadees and other seed-eating birds. Junipers and yews provide a feast of berrylike cones for species like waxwings, robins, bluebirds and sparrows. Norway spruce also produces the most oxygen and does so year around. Norway Spruce is second and both provide tremendous shelter especially to nesting birds. Birds love the thick stiff branches and prickly needles for concealing nests, providing safe roosting sites, and deterring predators. Spruce are a favorite nesting site for robins, magpies, several species of sparrow, and a variety of other birds. From nuthatches and woodpeckers to chickadees and titmice, a variety of birds liked to congregate within the Blue Spruce’s branches. A host of other birds, including Eastern Towhees, Dark-eyed Juncos and White-throated Sparrows liked to feed on the ground beneath the tall trees. Pines produce the least oxygen and offer less protection for birds. Norway Spruce can also be easily reproduced from simple clippings. They also smell and look nice and provide shade, wind break and beauty year around. Pollution Looking at history in the 1700s, the water was so pure one could see the bottom of Lake St Clair and the Detroit River. Now the lakes and ground water have been polluted and some Great lakes fish are unsafe to eat. Obviously, it is up to the regional and city water people to deal with these issues but citizens can also help by not releasing toxins into our sewers or ground. The air was pure in past centuries but now mainly due to industrial and private burning of fossil fuels emissions from gasoline and diesel automobiles must be dealt with. Some progress is being made. Volcanic eruptions and occasional forest fires happen. The latter is most now helped along by climate warming caused by CO2 in the atmosphere. This often-caused drought making vegetation tinder boxes. Warren citizens can refrain from outdoor burning, including using solar barbeques, use low emission cars of which the best is the Hydrogen fuel cell car next the electric charged by solar power or at least propane or natural gas-powered vehicles. Bicycles and trikes and walking are good health choices also. Data sources Data from the global burden of disease 2019 study, observational fine particulate matter and population data from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) satellites, and atmospheric chemistry, aerosol, and relative risk modelling for 2019. Results Globally, all cause excess deaths due to fine particulate and ozone air pollution are estimated at 8.34 million (95% confidence interval 5.63 to 11.19) deaths per year. Most (52%) of the mortality burden is related to cardiometabolic conditions, particularly ischaemic heart disease (30%). Stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease both account for 16% of mortality burden. About 20% of all-cause mortality is undefined, with arterial hypertension and neurodegenerative diseases possibly implicated. An estimated 5.13 million (3.63 to 6.32) excess deaths per year globally are attributable to ambient air pollution from fossil fuel use and therefore could potentially be avoided by phasing out fossil fuels. This figure corresponds to 82% of the maximum number of air pollution deaths that could be averted by controlling all anthropogenic emissions. Smaller reductions, rather than a complete phase-out, indicate that the responses are not strongly non-linear. Reductions in emission related to fossil fuels at all levels of air pollution can decrease the number of attributable deaths substantially. Estimates of avoidable excess deaths are markedly higher in this study than most previous studies for these reasons: the new relative risk model has implications for high income (largely fossil fuel intensive) countries and for low and middle income countries where the use of fossil fuels is increasing; this study accounts for all-cause mortality in addition to disease specific mortality; and the large reduction in air pollution from a fossil fuel phase-out can greatly reduce exposure. Conclusions Phasing out fossil fuels is deemed to be an effective intervention to improve health and save lives as part the United Nations' goal of climate neutrality by 2050. Ambient air pollution would no longer be a leading, environmental health risk factor if the use of fossil fuels were superseded by equitable access to clean sources of renewable energy. Global Warming is a crisis now causing millions of deaths yearly with the threat of the extinction of humans. Earth is now having the hottest days ever, in thousands of years and hottest air and water temperatures triggering rapid acceleration in the huge release of methane from melting permafrost which is greatly increasing the heating effect, resulting in increasingly more severe storms, droughts, floods and glacier melt. This is now affecting almost everyone on this planet either directly or thru higher costs and shortages. What are the 11 warmest years on record? 2010, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023. Most is caused by the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the process through which heat is trapped near Earth's surface by substances known as 'greenhouse gases.' Imagine these gases as a cozy blanket enveloping our planet, helping to maintain a warmer temperature than it would have otherwise. Greenhouse gases consist of carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and water vapor. Water vapor, which reacts to temperature changes, is referred to as a 'feedback', because it amplifies the effect of forces that initially caused the warming. Because there has been so much CO2 released into the atmosphere in the last 100 years the Earth’s temperature has risen. During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up in the sunlight. At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But some of the heat is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm and cozy 58 degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average. The Earth's average surface temperature would be about $-18^\circ C$ ($-0.4^\circ F$) without the greenhouse effect,[1][2] compared to Earth's 20th century average of about $14^\circ C$ (57 °F), or a more recent average of about $15^\circ C$ (59 °F).[3][4] In addition to naturally present greenhouse gases, burning of fossil fuels has increased amounts of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere.[5][6] As a result, global warming of about $1.2^\circ C$ (2.2 °F) has occurred since the Industrial Revolution,[7] with the global average surface temperature increasing at a rate of $0.18^\circ C$ (0.32 °F) per decade since 1981.[8] CO2 is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation.[37] Measurements of CO2 from the Mauna Loa Observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million (ppm)[38] in 1960, passing the 400 ppm milestone in 2013.[39] The current observed amount of CO2 exceeds the geological record maxima (=300 ppm) from ice core data.[40] Over the past 800,000 years,[41] ice core data shows that carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 ppm to the pre-industrial level of 270 ppm.[42] Paleoclimatologists consider variations in carbon dioxide concentration to be a fundamental factor influencing climate variations over this time scale.[43][44] See Wikipedia for references. What are the effects of global warming? Rising temperatures and changes in weather patterns are increasing the frequency and severity of heat waves, wildfires, droughts, floods, landslides, hurricanes, and other causes of injury and illness. Heat waves and extreme weather events have a big impact on health both directly and indirectly. Since the Industrial Revolution, the global annual temperature has increased in total by a little more than 1 degree Celsius, or about 2 degrees Fahrenheit. Between 1880—the year that accurate recordkeeping began—and 1980, it rose on average by 0.07 degrees Celsius (0.13 degrees Fahrenheit) every 10 years. Since 1981, however, the rate of increase has more than doubled: For the last 40 years, we've seen the global annual temperature rise by 0.18 degrees Celsius, or 0.32 degrees Fahrenheit, per decade. The result? A planet that has never been hotter. The 11 warmest years since 1880 have occurred since 2005. The impacts of global warming are already harming people around the world causing widespread deaths. Farmers can't farm, droughts, floods, and severe storms are killing people. Now climate scientists have concluded that we must limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius by 2040 if we are to avoid a future in which everyday life around the world is marked by its worst, most devastating effects: the extreme droughts, wildfires, floods, tropical storms, and other disasters that we refer to collectively as climate change. These effects are felt by all people in one way or another but are experienced most acutely by the underprivileged, the economically marginalized, and people of color, for whom climate change is often a key driver of poverty, displacement, hunger, and social unrest. And the scientists say we are near a tipping point of no return because the effects on melting permafrost and ocean warming will accelerate things at a rate that is impossible for mankind to reverse. Evergreen trees such as spruce and firs produce oxygen year around and set above grass and are often cleared of snow by the wind so continue to produce oxygen while the grass is smothered under snow. Norway and Blue spruces actually have more leaf area than many broad-leaf trees. Leaf area is a big factor in oxygen production. If we plant both grass and trees we get even more. So cities need to create and maintain more parks with lots of grass and trees. Also we can gradually replace sidewalks with tough walkable grass or other tough walkable plants like mosses. In damper areas two strips of asphalt separated by grass or tough walkable grass like cover could replace sidewalks. This would enable strollers and wagons and eliminates snow shoveling by substituting snow sweeping which is easier and can be automated. Also grass is much friendlier and healthier to human feet and body and for children. This would increase oxygen production. Another benefit is in regions of winter snow the black asphalt often melts the snow or ice. Trees store much of their carbon within their leaves and woody biomass, while grass stores most of its carbon underground. This means that when a tree catches fire, it releases its stores of carbon back into the atmosphere. But when a fire burns through grasslands, the carbon fixed underground tends to stay in the roots and soil. How much CO2 does 1 acre of grass absorb? An acre of grass, whether maintained or left alone to grow unmolested, will sequester approximately 3,600 pounds of greenhouse gas annually. How much CO2 do trees absorb per acre? How Much Carbon Does an Acre of Trees Absorb? An acre of trees can absorb up to 2.6 tons of carbon dioxide each year based on a calculation that one average tree absorbs 48 pounds of CO2. Trees shelter birds better who eat insects. Even one acre of trees plays an essential part in preventing unprecedented climate change. One acre of trees takes in the same amount of CO2 that a vehicle creates after driving 26,000 miles. This same acre of trees also takes in the amount of carbon dioxide that two vehicles create within a year. Of the air that we breathe, oxygen is one-fifth of it. Annually, one acre of trees can produce enough air for 18 people. Trees and other photosynthesizing plants are imperative for all animal lives, including human lives, on Earth. Otherwise, we would eventually be unable to breathe. As trees emit life-giving O2, they also take in carbon dioxide; clearly, trees have a deep impact on our environment. Carbon dioxide is the primary cause of the greenhouse effect, which holds heat in our planet’s atmosphere. This makes Earth warmer and, ideally, a more tolerable place to live. Trees hold carbon dioxide in their trunk fibers. This, in turn, purifies the air around them and minimizes the harmful effects of CO2. This enhancement of air quality is especially beneficial in cities that have more pollutants than other areas. The size of the leaf area also known as Specific leaf area SLA and Leaf Mass per Area LMA are major factors in determining how much Oxygen is produced and how much carbon is removed. See Wikipedia Specific Leaf area. Some plants have bigger leaves, but how many heaves are in an area of land or water is more important. Some plants produce more than others. The plant winner with the greatest leaf area per plant per land or water area are Evergreen Gymnosperm trees which include spruce and fir trees. Some like the Norway Spruce and Colorado Blue Spruce have a huge amount of leaves, grow world wide and also provide habitat for other animals while producing Oxygen and removing carbon year around. Below are the trees that produce the least to the most amount of oxygen: Least O2: pines, which are coniferous (cone-bearing) and evergreen (stay green all year). Average O2: oaks and aspens, which are primarily deciduous (shed leaves). Most O2: maples, beeches, true firs, spruces, and Douglas-firs. These trees are a mixture of deciduous, coniferous, and evergreen. Regarding oxygen production, a mature silver maple tree, for instance, can emit enough O2 in one day for two people. On the same day, a silver maple can consume nearly 100 gallons of water from the soil and disperse it into the atmosphere. Within a year, a silver maple can take in about 48 pounds of carbon dioxide. In terms of oxygen production, a mature short-needled Norway spruce, for instance, can emit 58% more O2 than a beech tree. In fact, a Norway spruce can photosynthesize for 260 days per year while a beech can only photosynthesize for 176 days per year. Maple and beech, are deciduous. The three others, true fir, spruce, and Douglas-fir, are evergreen. Again, neither one of these types of tree absolutely surpasses the other in oxygen production. Genetically engineered trees show promise of emitting high levels of O2. Some of these trees have been recorded to grow at 35 feet each year, Investing more in these trees might have a significant effect on our atmosphere. The world currently has over 3.1 trillion trees, according to Nature. While this is a stunning number, it’s below half the total number of trees that were on the planet prior to human impact. Given that carbon dioxide has substantially increased during the last 50 years, it’s more important than ever to protect the tree population. Trees are truly a treasure. Along with their natural allure, they provide a heap of necessities that improve the health of Earth. They enhance air quality, balance climate temperatures, raise the quality of soil, and offer food, shade, and shelter for people around the world. Trees Reduce Harmful Effects Of Climate Change The above are direct quotes from https://treejourney.com/what-trees-produce-the-most-oxygen-and-how-they-do-it/ We need to plant more trees. Great family project to do with children and communities to support. Grass is also very important because it also generates our life saving oxygen. By the way Lawns are an excellent producer of oxygen. A lawn area 50 ft x 50 ft produces enough oxygen for the daily needs of a family of four. An acre of grass will produce enough oxygen for 64 people a day. Reducing your carbon footprint begins right at home. Source ScienTurfic Sod https://www.scienturficcsod.com/resources/air-and-water A lawn can produce significant amounts of oxygen, in fact, studies show that one 5,000 sq ft of grassland can produce enough oxygen for up to 35 people! But how does this compare to trees? Does grass produce more oxygen than trees? It’s a lesser-known fact that grass, the often-overlooked green foliage lining the Earth’s surfaces, plays a crucial role in producing oxygen for our environment. A lawn produces oxygen at a rate greater than trees! Studies show that while 5,000 sq ft of trees with full canopy coverage produces enough oxygen for between 8 and 18 people, the same area covered in grass produces enough for almost 35 people! That’s a significant difference. Also the grass produces more oxygen if we cut it higher. Michigan State University states there is a direct relationship between cutting height and the amount of roots a grass plant can maintain. Lowering the mowing height reduces the root system. This restricts the ability of the plant to absorb water and nutrients… Current standards suggest between 2 and 3.75 inches. Higher cut lawn grasses are more stress tolerant. This is especially important during the summer heat period. Taller grass plants with higher density have a profound shading effect on the soil surface, which reduces germination of weed seeds, particularly crabgrass. This is an excellent way to reduce herbicide use, especially where the lawn is properly fertilized and watered to maintain vigor. **Greenhouse gasses** - **Carbon dioxide (CO₂):** Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and other biological materials, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., cement production). Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere (or "sequestered") when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle. - **Methane (CH₄):** Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices, land use, and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills. - **Nitrous oxide (N₂O):** Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural, land use, and industrial activities; combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste; as well as during treatment of wastewater. - **Fluorinated gases:** Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of household, commercial, and industrial applications and processes. Fluorinated gases (especially hydrofluorocarbons) are sometimes used as substitutes for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons). Fluorinated gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases, but they are potent greenhouse gases. With global warming potentials (GWPs) that typically range from thousands to tens of thousands, they are sometimes referred to as high-GWP gases because, for a given amount of mass, they trap substantially more heat than CO₂. Each gas's effect on climate change depends on three main factors: **How abundant are greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?** Concentration, or abundance, is the amount of a particular gas in the air. Larger emissions of greenhouse gases lead to higher concentrations in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gas concentrations are measured in parts per million, parts per billion, and even parts per trillion. One part per million is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into about 13 gallons of liquid (roughly the fuel tank of a compact car). To learn more about the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, visit the [Climate Change Indicators: Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases](#) page. **How long do greenhouse gases stay in the atmosphere?** Each of these gases can remain in the atmosphere for different amounts of time, ranging from a few years to thousands of years. All of these gases remain in the atmosphere long enough to become well mixed, meaning that the amount that is measured in the atmosphere is roughly the same all over the world, regardless of the source of the emissions. **How strongly do greenhouse gases impact the atmosphere?** Some gases are more effective than others at making the planet warmer and "thickening the Earth's atmospheric blanket." For each greenhouse gas, a [Global Warming Potential (GWP)](#) was developed to allow comparisons of the global warming impacts of different gases. Specifically, it is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time, typically a 100-year time horizon, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO$_2$). Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy, per ton emitted, than gases with a lower GWP, and thus contribute more to warming Earth. Note: All emission estimates are from the [Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2021](#). The Inventory uses 100-year GWPs from IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). ### Carbon Dioxide Emissions #### Properties of Carbon Dioxide - **Chemical Formula:** CO$_2$ - **Lifetime in Atmosphere:** See below - **Global Warming Potential (100-year):** 1 Carbon dioxide (CO$_2$) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. In 2021, CO$_2$ accounted for 79% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon cycle (the natural circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals). Human activities are altering the carbon cycle—both by adding more CO$_2$ to the atmosphere and by influencing the ability of natural sinks, like forests and soils, to remove and store CO$_2$ from the atmosphere. While CO$_2$ emissions come from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions are responsible for the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution. Note: Total Emissions in 2021 are 6,340 Million Metric Tons of CO₂ equivalent. Percentages may not add up to 100% due to independent rounding. Greenhouse gas emissions from commercial and residential buildings increase substantially when emissions from electricity end-use are included (from 11% to 30%), due to the relatively large share of electricity use (e.g., heating, ventilation, and air conditioning; lighting; and appliances) in these sectors. Also, if emissions from electricity use are allocated to the industrial end-use sector, industrial activities account for a much larger share of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. More information is also in the electricity end-use emissions section of this web area. Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry in the United States is a net sink and offsets 12% of these greenhouse gas emissions. This net sink is not shown in the above diagram. All emission estimates from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2021. The main human activity that emits CO₂ is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) for energy and transportation. Certain industrial processes and land-use changes also emit CO₂. The main sources of CO₂ emissions in the United States are described below. - **Transportation**. The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel to transport people and goods was the largest source of CO₂ emissions in 2021, accounting for 35% of total U.S. CO₂ emissions and 28% of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. This category includes domestic transportation sources such as highway and passenger vehicles, air travel, marine transportation, and rail. - **Electricity**. Electricity is a key source of energy in the United States and is used to power homes, business, and industry. In 2021, the combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity was the second largest source of CO₂ emissions in the nation, accounting for 31% of total U.S. CO₂ emissions and 24% of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. The types of fossil fuel used to generate electricity emit different amounts of CO₂. To produce a given amount of electricity, burning coal will produce more CO₂ than natural gas or oil. - **Industry**. Many industrial processes emit CO₂ through fossil fuel consumption. Several processes also produce CO₂ emissions through chemical reactions that do not involve combustion, and examples include the production of mineral products such as cement, the production of metals such as iron and steel, and the production of chemicals. The fossil fuel combustion component of various industrial processes accounted for 15% of total U.S. CO₂ emissions and 12% of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2021. Many industrial processes also use electricity and therefore indirectly result in CO₂ emissions from electricity generation. Carbon dioxide is constantly being exchanged among the atmosphere, ocean, and land surface as it is both produced and absorbed by many microorganisms, plants, and animals. Emissions and removals of CO₂ by these natural processes, however, tend to balance over time, absent anthropogenic impacts. Since the Industrial Revolution began around 1750, human activities have contributed substantially to climate change by adding CO₂ and other heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere. In the United States, the management of forests and other land (e.g., cropland, grasslands, etc.) has acted as a net sink of CO₂, which means that more CO₂ is removed from the atmosphere, and stored in plants and trees, than is emitted. This carbon sink offset about 13% of total emissions in 2021. For more details, see the discussion in the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry section. To find out more about the role of CO₂ in warming the atmosphere and its sources, visit the Climate Change Indicators page. **Trends** Carbon dioxide emissions in the United States decreased by 2% between 1990 and 2021. Since the combustion of fossil fuel is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States, changes in emissions from fossil fuel combustion have historically been the dominant factor affecting total U.S. emission trends. Changes in CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel combustion are influenced by many long-term and short-term factors, including population growth, economic growth, changing energy prices, new technologies, changing behavior, and seasonal temperatures. In 2021, the increase in CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel combustion corresponded with an increase in energy use as a result of economic activity rebounding after the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, in addition to an increase in coal use in the electric power sector. **Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions** The most effective way to reduce CO₂ emissions is to reduce fossil fuel consumption. Many strategies for reducing CO₂ emissions from energy are cross-cutting and apply to homes, businesses, industry, and transportation. **Examples of Reduction Opportunities for Carbon Dioxide** | Strategy | Examples of How Emissions Can be Reduced | |----------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Energy Efficiency | Improving the insulation of buildings, traveling in more fuel-efficient vehicles, and using more efficient electrical appliances are all ways to reduce energy use, and thus CO₂ emissions. | | | • See EPA's ENERGY STAR® program for more information on energy-efficient appliances and ways to save at home and work. | | | • See EPA's and DOE's fueleconomy.gov site for more information on fuel-efficient vehicles. | ### Examples of Reduction Opportunities for Carbon Dioxide | Strategy | Examples of How Emissions Can be Reduced | |-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Energy Conservation | Reducing personal energy use by turning off lights and electronics when not in use reduces electricity demand. Reducing distance traveled in vehicles reduces petroleum consumption. Both are ways to reduce energy CO₂ emissions through conservation. Learn more about What You Can Do at Home, at School, in the Office, and on the Road to save energy and reduce your carbon footprint. | | Fuel Switching | Producing more energy from renewable sources and using fuels with lower carbon contents are ways to reduce carbon emissions. | | Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) | Carbon dioxide capture and sequestration is a set of technologies that can potentially greatly reduce CO₂ emissions from new and existing coal- and gas-fired power plants, industrial processes, and other stationary sources of CO₂. For example, a CCS project might capture CO₂ from the stacks of a coal-fired power plant before it enters the atmosphere, transport the CO₂ via pipeline, and inject the CO₂ deep underground at a carefully selected and suitable subsurface geologic formation, such as a nearby abandoned oil field, where it is securely stored. Learn more about CCS. | | Changes in Uses of Land and Land Management Practices | Learn more about Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry Sector. | --- 1 Atmospheric CO₂ is part of the global carbon cycle, and therefore its fate is a complex function of geochemical and biological processes. Some of the excess carbon dioxide will be absorbed quickly (for example, by the ocean surface), but some will remain in the atmosphere for thousands of years, due in part to the very slow process by which carbon is transferred to ocean sediments. 2 IPCC (2021). *Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis*. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2391 pp. ## Methane Emissions ### Properties of Methane **Chemical Formula:** CH₄ **Lifetime in Atmosphere:** 12 years **Global Warming Potential (100-year):** 28¹ In 2021, methane (CH₄) accounted for 12% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Human activities emitting methane include leaks from natural gas systems and the raising of livestock. Methane is also emitted by natural sources such as termites. In addition, natural processes in soil and... chemical reactions in the atmosphere help remove CH₄ from the atmosphere. Methane's lifetime in the atmosphere is much shorter than carbon dioxide (CO₂), but CH₄ is more efficient at trapping radiation than CO₂. Pound for pound, the comparative impact of CH₄ is 28 times greater than CO₂ over a 100-year period.\(^1\) Globally, 50-65% of total CH₄ emissions come from human activities.\(^2\) Methane is emitted from energy, industry, agriculture, land use, and waste management activities, described below. **U.S. Methane Emissions, By Source** Note: All emission estimates from the *Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2021*. - **Agriculture.** Domestic livestock such as cattle, swine, sheep, and goats produce CH₄ as part of their normal digestive process. Also, when animal manure is stored or managed in lagoons or holding tanks, CH₄ is produced. Because humans raise these animals for food and other products, the emissions are considered human-related. The Agriculture sector is the largest source of CH₄ emissions in the United States. For more information, see the *Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks* Agriculture chapter. - **LULUCF:** While not shown in the figure, emissions of CH₄ also occur as a result of land use and land management activities in the *Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry* sector (e.g. forest and grassland fires, management of flooded lands such as reservoirs, decomposition of organic matter in coastal wetlands). - **Energy and Industry.** Natural gas and petroleum systems are the second largest source of CH₄ emissions in the United States. Methane is emitted to the atmosphere during the production, processing, storage, transmission, distribution, and use of natural gas, and the production, refinement, transportation, and storage of crude oil. Coal mining is also a source of CH₄ emissions. For more information, see the *Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks* sections on Natural Gas Systems and Petroleum Systems. - **Waste from Homes and Businesses.** Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes and in the treatment of wastewater. Landfills are the third-largest source of CH₄ emissions in the United States. Methane is also generated from domestic and industrial wastewater treatment and from composting and anaerobic digestion. For more information, see the *Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks* Waste chapter. Methane is also emitted from a number of natural sources. Natural wetlands that are not managed or changed by human activity are the largest source, emitting CH₄ from bacteria that decompose organic materials in the absence of oxygen. Reservoirs and ponds with high organic matter and low oxygen levels also produce methane through the microbial breakdown of organic matter. Smaller sources include termites, oceans, sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires. To find out more about the role of CH₄ in warming the atmosphere and its sources, visit the [Climate Change Indicators](#) page. **Trends** Methane emissions in the United States decreased by 16% between 1990 and 2021. During this time period, emissions increased from sources associated with agricultural activities, while emissions decreased from other sources including landfills and coal mining and from natural gas and petroleum systems. ![U.S. Methane Emissions, 1990-2021](image) Note: All emission estimates from the [Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2021](#). These estimates use a [global warming potential](#) for methane of 28, based on reporting requirements under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. **Reducing Methane Emissions** There are a number of ways to reduce CH₄ emissions. Some examples are discussed below. EPA has a series of voluntary programs for reducing CH₄ emissions, in addition to [regulatory initiatives](#). EPA also supports the [Global Methane Initiative](#), an international partnership encouraging global methane reduction strategies. | Emissions Source | How Emissions Can be Reduced | |------------------|------------------------------| | Industry | Upgrading the equipment used to produce, store, and transport oil and natural gas can reduce many of the leaks that contribute to CH₄ emissions. Methane from coal mines can also be captured and used for energy. Learn more about the EPA's [Natural Gas STAR Program](#) and [Coalbed Methane Outreach Program](#). | | Agriculture | Methane from manure management practices can be reduced and captured by altering manure management strategies. Additionally, modifications to animal feeding practices may reduce emissions from enteric fermentation. Learn more about improved manure management practices at EPA's [AgSTAR Program](#). | In 2021, nitrous oxide (N₂O) accounted for 6% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Human activities such as agriculture, fuel combustion, wastewater management, and industrial processes are increasing the amount of N₂O in the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide is also naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's nitrogen cycle and has a variety of natural sources. Nitrous oxide molecules stay in the atmosphere for an average of 121 years before being removed by a sink or destroyed through chemical reactions. The impact of 1 pound of N₂O on warming the atmosphere is 265 times that of 1 pound of carbon dioxide.\(^1\) Globally, 40% of total N₂O emissions come from human activities.\(^2\) Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, land use, transportation, industry, and other activities, described below. ### U.S. Nitrous Oxide Emissions, By Source | Source | Percentage | |-------------------------|------------| | Agriculture | 37% | | Land Use | 18% | | Transportation | 14% | | Industry | 10% | | Other Activities | 11% | ### References \(^1\) IPCC (2013). *Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis*. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp. \(^2\) IPCC (2021). *Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change* [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2391 pp. Note: All emission estimates from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2021. Agriculture. Nitrous oxide can result from various agricultural soil management activities, such as application of synthetic and organic fertilizers and other cropping practices, the management of manure, or burning of agricultural residues. Agricultural soil management is the largest source of N\textsubscript{2}O emissions in the United States, accounting for 75% of total U.S. N\textsubscript{2}O emissions in 2021. While not shown in the figure and less significant, emissions of N\textsubscript{2}O also occur as a result of land use and land management activities in the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry sector (e.g. forest and grassland fires, application of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers to urban soils (e.g., lawns, golf courses) and forest lands, etc.). Fuel Combustion. Nitrous oxide is emitted when fuels are burned. The amount of N\textsubscript{2}O emitted from burning fuels depends on the type of fuel and combustion technology, maintenance, and operating practices. Industry. Nitrous oxide is generated as a byproduct during the production of chemicals such as nitric acid, which is used to make synthetic commercial fertilizer, and in the production of adipic acid, which is used to make fibers, like nylon, and other synthetic products. Nitrous oxide is also emitted from use in other applications such as anesthesia and semiconductor manufacturing. Waste. Nitrous oxide is also generated from treatment of domestic wastewater during nitrification and denitrification of the nitrogen present, usually in the form of urea, ammonia, and proteins. Nitrous oxide emissions occur naturally through many sources associated with the nitrogen cycle, which is the natural circulation of nitrogen among the atmosphere, plants, animals, and microorganisms that live in soil and water. Nitrogen takes on a variety of chemical forms throughout the nitrogen cycle, including N\textsubscript{2}O. Natural emissions of N\textsubscript{2}O are mainly from bacteria breaking down nitrogen in soils and the oceans. Nitrous oxide is removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by certain types of bacteria or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation or chemical reactions. To find out more about the sources of N\textsubscript{2}O and its role in warming the atmosphere, visit the Climate Change Indicators page. Trends Nitrous oxide emissions in the United States decreased by 3% between 1990 and 2021. During this time, nitrous oxide emissions from mobile combustion decreased by 56% as a result of criteria pollutant emission standards for on-road vehicles. Nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils have varied during this period and were about the same in 2021 as in 1990. **U.S. Nitrous Oxide Emissions, 1990-2021** Note: All emission estimates from the [Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2021](#). **Reducing Nitrous Oxide Emissions** There are a number of ways to reduce emissions of N\textsubscript{2}O, discussed below. **Examples of Reduction Opportunities for Nitrous Oxide Emissions** | Emissions Source | Examples of How Emissions Can be Reduced | |------------------|------------------------------------------| | Agriculture | The application of nitrogen fertilizers accounts for the majority of N\textsubscript{2}O emissions in the United States. Emissions can be reduced by reducing nitrogen-based fertilizer applications and applying these fertilizers more efficiently,\textsuperscript{3} as well as modifying a farm’s manure management practices. | | Fuel Combustion | • Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fuel combustion, so reducing fuel consumption in motor vehicles and secondary sources can reduce emissions. • Additionally, the introduction of pollution control technologies (e.g., catalytic converters to reduce exhaust pollutants from passenger cars) can also reduce emissions of N\textsubscript{2}O. | | Industry | • Nitrous oxide is generally emitted from industry through fossil fuel combustion, so technological upgrades and fuel switching are effective ways to reduce industry emissions of N\textsubscript{2}O. • Production of nitric acid and adipic acid result in N\textsubscript{2}O emissions that can be reduced through technological upgrades and use of abatement equipment. | **References** \textsuperscript{1}IPCC (2013). *Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis*. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp. \textsuperscript{2}IPCC (2021). *Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis*. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Unlike many other greenhouse gases, fluorinated gases have no significant natural sources and come almost entirely from human-related activities. They are emitted through their use as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances (e.g., as refrigerants) and through a variety of industrial processes such as aluminum and semiconductor manufacturing. Many fluorinated gases have very high global warming potentials (GWP) relative to other greenhouse gases, so small atmospheric concentrations can nevertheless have large effects on global temperatures. They can also have long atmospheric lifetimes—in some cases, lasting thousands of years. Like other long-lived greenhouse gases, most fluorinated gases are well-mixed in the atmosphere, spreading around the world after they are emitted. Many fluorinated gases are removed from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed by sunlight in the upper atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the most potent and longest lasting type of greenhouse gases emitted by human activities. There are four main categories of fluorinated gases—hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF$_6$), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF$_3$). The largest sources of fluorinated gas emissions are described below. **U.S. Fluorinated Gas Emissions, By Source** Note: All emission estimates from the *Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2021*. - **Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances**. Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, foam blowing agents, solvents, and fire retardants. The major emissions source of these compounds is their use as refrigerants—for example, in air conditioning systems. in both vehicles and buildings. These chemicals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) because they do not deplete the stratospheric ozone layer. CFCs and HCFCs are also greenhouse gases; however, their contribution is not included here because they are being phased out under an international agreement called the Montreal Protocol. HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with high GWPs, and they are released into the atmosphere during manufacturing processes and through leaks, servicing, and disposal of equipment in which they are used. Newly developed hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) are a subset of HFCs and are characterized by short atmospheric lifetimes and lower GWPs. HFOs are currently being introduced as refrigerants, aerosol propellants and foam blowing agents. *The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act* of 2020 directs EPA to address HFCs by providing new authorities in three main areas: to phase down the production and consumption of listed HFCs in the United States by 85% over the next 15 years, manage these HFCs and their substitutes, and facilitate the transition to next-generation technologies that do not rely on HFCs. - **Industry**. Perfluorocarbons are produced as a byproduct of aluminum production and are used in the manufacturing of semiconductors. PFCs generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and GWPs near 10,000. Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing and semiconductor manufacturing, as well as a tracer gas for leak detection. Nitrogen trifluoride is used in semiconductor manufacturing. HFC-23 is produced as a byproduct of HCFC-22 production and is used in semiconductor manufacturing. - **Transmission and Distribution of Electricity**. Sulfur hexafluoride is used as an insulating gas in electrical transmission equipment, including circuit breakers. The GWP of SF$_6$ is 23,500 making it the most potent greenhouse gas that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has evaluated. To find out more about the role of fluorinated gases in warming the atmosphere and their sources, visit the [Fluorinated Greenhouse Gas Emissions](#) page. **Trends** Overall, fluorinated gas emissions in the United States have increased by 105% between 1990 and 2021. This increase has been driven by a 349% increase in emissions of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) since 1990, as they have been widely used as a substitute for ozone-depleting substances. Emissions of perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF$_6$) have declined during this time due to emission-reduction efforts in the aluminum production industry (PFCs) and the electrical transmission and distribution industry (SF$_6$). **U.S. Fluorinated Gas Emissions, 1990-2021** Note: All emission estimates from the *Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2021*. **Reducing Fluorinated Gas Emissions** Because most fluorinated gases have a very long atmospheric lifetime, it will take many years to see a noticeable decline in current concentrations. There are, however, a number of ways to reduce emissions of fluorinated gases, described below. | Emissions Source | Examples of How Emissions Can be Reduced | |------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Substitution of Ozone-Depleting Substances in Homes and Businesses | Refrigerants used by businesses and residences emit fluorinated gases. Emissions can be reduced by better handling of these gases and use of substitutes with lower global warming potentials and other technological improvements. Visit EPA's [Ozone Layer Protection site](#) and [HFC Phasedown site](#) to learn more about reduction opportunities in this sector. | | Industry | Industrial emitters of fluorinated gases can reduce emissions by adopting fluorinated gas capture and destruction processes, optimizing production to minimize emissions, and replacing these gases with alternatives. EPA has experience with these gases in the following sectors: - Aluminum - Magnesium - Semiconductor | | Electricity Transmission and Distribution | Sulfur hexafluoride is an extremely potent greenhouse gas that is used for several purposes when transmitting electricity through the power grid. EPA is working with industry to reduce emissions through the [SF$_6$ Emission Reduction Partnership for Electric Power Systems](#), which promotes leak detection and repair, use of recycling equipment, and consideration of alternative technologies that do not use SF$_6$. | | Transportation | Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are released through the leakage of refrigerants used in vehicle air-conditioning systems. Leakage can be reduced through better system components and through the use of alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials than those presently used. EPA’s [light-duty and heavy-duty vehicle standards](#) provided incentives for manufacturers to produce vehicles with lower HFC emissions. | **References** IPCC (2013) *Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis*. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.K.](#) 6,340 million metric tons of CO₂: What does that mean? An explanation of units: A million metric tons equals about 2.2 billion pounds, or 1 trillion grams. For comparison, a small car is likely to weigh a little more than 1 metric ton. Thus, a million metric tons is roughly the same mass as 1 million small cars! The U.S. Inventory uses metric units for consistency and comparability with other countries. For reference, a metric ton is slightly more (approximately 10%) than a U.S. "short" ton. GHG emissions are often measured in carbon dioxide (CO₂) equivalent. To convert emissions of a gas into CO₂ equivalent, its emissions are multiplied by the gas's Global Warming Potential (GWP). The GWP takes into account the fact that many gases are more effective at warming Earth than CO₂, per unit mass. The GWP values appearing in the Overview of Greenhouse Gases and Sources of Greenhouse Gas web pages reflect the values used in the U.S. Inventory, which are drawn from the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). For further discussion of GWPs and an estimate of GHG emissions using updated GWPs, see Annex 6 of the U.S. Inventory and the IPCC's discussion on GWPs (PDF) (151 pp, 14.2MB). --- The following is the general Wikipedia article on Environmental issues are disruptions in the usual function of ecosystems.[1] Further, these issues can be caused by humans (human impact on the environment)[2] or they can be natural. These issues are considered serious when the ecosystem cannot recover in the present situation, and catastrophic if the ecosystem is projected to certainly collapse. Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment on the individual, organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the environment and humans. Environmentalism is a social and environmental movement that addresses environmental issues through advocacy, legislation education, and activism.[3] Environment destruction caused by humans is a global, ongoing problem.[4] Water pollution also cause problems to marine life.[5] Most scholars think that the project peak global world population of between 9-10 billion people, could live sustainably within the earth's ecosystems if human society worked to live sustainably within planetary boundaries.[6][7][8] The bulk of environmental impacts are caused by excessive consumption of industrial goods by the world's wealthiest populations.[9][10][11] The UN Environmental Program, in its "Making Peace With Nature" Report in 2021, found addressing key planetary crises, like pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss, was achievable if parties work to address the Sustainable Development Goals.[12] Types[edit] Main articles: List of environmental issues and List of environmental disasters Major current environmental issues may include climate change, pollution, environmental degradation, and resource depletion. The conservation movement lobbies for protection of endangered species and protection of any ecologically valuable natural areas, genetically modified foods and global warming. The UN system has adopted international frameworks for environmental issues in three key issues, which has been encoded as the "triple planetary crises": climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss.[13] Human impact This section is an excerpt from Human impact on the environment. Human impact on the environment. - Top-left: Satellite image of Southeast Asian haze. - Top-right: IAEA experts investigate the Fukushima disaster. - Middle-left: a picture from 1997 of industrial fishing, a practice that has led to overfishing. - Middle-right: a seabird during an oil spill. - Bottom-left: Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto. - Bottom-right: depiction of deforestation of Brazil's Atlantic forest by Portuguese settlers, c. 1820–25. Human impact on the environment (or anthropogenic environmental impact) refers to changes to biophysical environments and to ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources caused directly or indirectly by humans. Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society (as in the built environment) is causing severe effects including global warming, environmental degradation (such as ocean acidification), mass extinction and biodiversity loss, ecological crisis, and ecological collapse. Some human activities that cause damage (either directly or indirectly) to the environment on a global scale include population growth, neoliberal economic policies, and rapid economic growth, overconsumption, overexploitation, pollution, and deforestation. Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss, have been proposed as representing catastrophic risks to the survival of the human species. The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human activity. The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist Alexey Pavlov, and it was first used in English by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in reference to human influences on climax plant communities. The atmospheric scientist Paul Crutzen introduced the term "Anthropocene" in the mid-1970s. The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution produced from human activity since the start of the Agricultural Revolution but also applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment. Many of the actions taken by humans that contribute to a heated environment stem from the burning of fossil fuel from a variety of sources, such as: electricity, cars, planes, space heating, manufacturing, or the destruction of forests. Degradation This section is an excerpt from Environmental degradation. Eighty-plus years after the abandonment of Wallaroo Mines (Kadina, South Australia), mosses remain the only vegetation at some spots of the site's grounds. Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Environmental concerns can be defined as the negative effects of any human activity on the environment. The biological as well as the physical features of the environment are included. Some of the primary environmental challenges that are causing great worry are air pollution, water pollution, natural environment pollution, rubbish pollution, and so on. Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change of the United Nations. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as "the reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs". Environmental degradation comes in many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, the environment is degraded. Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources management. Mismanagement that leads to degradation can also lead to environmental conflict where communities organize in opposition to the forces that mismanaged the environment. Conflict Hambach Forest protest against coal mine expansion Environmental conflicts or ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) are social conflicts caused by environmental degradation or by unequal distribution of environmental resources.[42][43][44] The Environmental Justice Atlas documented 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide as of April 2020 and emphasised that many more conflicts remained undocumented.[42] Parties involved in these conflicts include locally affected communities, states, companies and investors, and social or environmental movements;[45][48] typically environmental defenders are protecting their homelands from resource extraction or hazardous waste disposal.[42] Resource extraction and hazardous waste activities often create resource scarcities (such as by overfishing or deforestation), pollute the environment, and degrade the living space for humans and nature, resulting in conflict.[47] A particular case of environmental conflicts are forestry conflicts, or forest conflicts which "are broadly viewed as struggles of varying intensity between interest groups, over values and issues related to forest policy and the use of forest resources".[48] In the last decades, a growing number of these have been identified globally.[49] Frequently environmental conflicts focus on environmental justice issues, the rights of indigenous people, the rights of peasants, or threats to communities whose livelihoods are dependent on the ocean.[42] Outcomes of local conflicts are increasingly influenced by trans-national environmental justice networks that comprise the global environmental justice movement.[42][50] Environmental conflict can complicate response to natural disaster or exacerbate existing conflicts – especially in the context of geopolitical disputes or where communities have been displaced to create environmental migrants.[51][44][47] The terms socio-environmental conflict, environmental conflict, or EDCs are sometimes used interchangeably. The study of these conflicts is related to the fields of ecological economics, political ecology, and environmental justice. Costs[edit] See also: Cost of pollution and Cost of global warming This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2016) Action[edit] Justice[edit] This section is an excerpt from Environmental justice.[edit] Environmental justice or eco-justice, is a social movement to address environmental injustice, which occurs when poor or marginalized communities are harmed by hazardous waste, resource extraction, and other land uses from which they do not benefit.[52] The movement has generated hundreds of studies showing that exposure to environmental harm is inequitably distributed.[53] The movement began in the United States in the 1980s. It was heavily influenced by the American civil rights movement and focused on environmental racism within rich countries. The movement was later expanded to consider gender, international environmental injustice, and inequalities within marginalised groups. As the movement achieved some success in rich countries, environmental burdens were shifted to the Global South (as for example through extractivism or the global waste trade). The movement for environmental justice has thus become more global, with some of its aims now being articulated by the United Nations. The movement overlaps with movements for Indigenous land rights and for the human right to a healthy environment.[54] The goal of the environmental justice movement is to achieve agency for marginalised communities in making environmental decisions that affect their lives. The global environmental justice movement arises from local environmental conflicts in which environmental defenders frequently confront multi-national corporations in resource extraction or other industries. Local outcomes of these conflicts are increasingly influenced by trans-national environmental justice networks.[55][56] Environmental justice scholars have produced a large interdisciplinary body of social science literature that includes contributions to political ecology, environmental law, and theories on justice and sustainability.[52][57][58] Environmental law is the collection of laws, regulations, agreements and common law that governs how humans interact with their environment. This includes environmental regulations; laws governing management of natural resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries; and related topics such as environmental impact assessments. Environmental law is seen as the body of laws concerned with the protection of living things (human beings inclusive) from the harm that human activity may immediately or eventually cause to them or their species, either directly or to the media and the habits on which they depend. Environmental Impact assessment (EIA) is the assessment of the environmental consequences of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. In this context, the term "environmental impact assessment" is usually used when applied to actual projects by individuals or companies and the term "strategic environmental assessment" (SEA) applies to policies, plans and programmes most often proposed by organs of state. It is a tool of environmental management forming a part of project approval and decision-making. Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, and may be subject to judicial review. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made". EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision-makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts. Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century. The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement), is a social movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to create sustainable living. Environmentalists advocate the just and sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in (not an enemy of) ecosystems, the movement is centered on ecology, health, as well as human rights. The environmental movement is an international movement, represented by a range of environmental organizations, from enterprises to grassroots and varies from country to country. Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the environmental movement is not always united in its goals. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals, religious devotees, politicians, scientists, nonprofit organizations, and individual advocates like former Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson and Rachel Carson in the 20th century. Environmental issues are addressed at a regional, national or international level by government organizations. The largest international agency, set up in 1972, is the United Nations Environment Programme. The International Union for Conservation of Nature brings together 83 states, 108 government agencies, 766 Non-governmental organizations and 81 international organizations and about 10,000 experts, scientists from countries around the world. International non-governmental organizations include Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth and World Wide Fund for Nature. Governments enact environmental policy and enforce environmental law and this is done to differing degrees around the world. There are an increasing number of films being produced on environmental issues, especially on climate change and global warming. Al Gore's 2006 film *An Inconvenient Truth* gained commercial success and a high media profile.
b83293d8-482c-4a71-a58b-cd102672a27d
CC-MAIN-2024-22
http://dogoodforall.today/Enviromental%20facts%20and%20issues.pdf
2024-05-27T22:00:09+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971059045.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20240527205559-20240527235559-00080.warc.gz
12,500,830
14,015
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.976785
eng_Latn
0.995933
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 4410, 8334, 13242, 17475, 21248, 24075, 27392, 29810, 33456, 36206, 38257, 40355, 42792, 45598, 47310, 50211, 53114, 56419, 60468, 64604, 68731, 68957 ]
[ 3.0625, 2.078125 ]
2
0
DESIGN YOUR OWN SUMMER ICE LOLLY YOU WILL NEED Coloured paper/card, crayons/pens, wooden lollipop stick, scissors & glue STEP 1 Using a pair of scissors, cut out two ice lolly shapes from coloured paper/card. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 2 Decorate your ice lollies using cut-out pieces of coloured card and crayons/pens. STEP 3 Add a wooden lollipop stick to the back of one of the ice lollies. STEP 4 Glue the other coloured-in ice lolly to the back of the ice lolly and stick. STEP 5 Enjoy your ice lolly! MAKE YOUR OWN FLOATING JELLYFISH YOU WILL NEED Printable template, coloured tissue paper, crayons/pens, wobbly eyes, string, scissors & glue STEP 1 Using a pair of scissors, cut out the jellyfish template. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 2 Colour in the jellyfish faces and handle with crayons/pens and add two wobbly eyes. STEP 3 Tear off some long strips of coloured tissue paper and glue them to the back of the jellyfish faces to make the tentacles. STEP 4 Gently bend the two jellyfish faces and glue them together. STEP 5 Attach the handle to create your floating jellyfish! MAKE YOUR OWN PAPER FLOWER POTS YOU WILL NEED Coloured paper/card, crayons/pens, scissors & glue STEP 1 Trace around your hand with a crayon/pen onto some coloured card STEP 2 Using a pair of scissors, cut around your hand template. Ask a grown-up to help you STEP 3 Using a pair of scissors, cut out two leaves, a stalk and a plant pot from some coloured card. Ask a grown-up to help you STEP 4 Draw the veins on the leaf using a crayon/pen STEP 5 Glue your cut-out shapes together to create a paper flower pot Children must be supervised by an adult when crafting MAKE YOUR OWN SUMMER SUNSHINE YOU WILL NEED Coloured paper/card, coloured tissue paper, crayons/pens, scissors & glue STEP 1 Using a pair of scissors, cut out a semicircle from yellow coloured card. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 2 Add a face onto your sunshine using crayons/pens. STEP 3 Using a pair of scissors, cut out some triangles from yellow and orange coloured card. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 4 Glue the triangles along the curve of the semicircle to make the sunrays. STEP 5 Tear off some long strips of coloured tissue paper and glue them to the back of the sun to make a rainbow. MAKE YOUR OWN BOUNCING FROG YOU WILL NEED Printable template, coloured paper/card, crayons/pens, wobbly eyes, scissors & glue STEP 1 Using a pair of scissors, cut out the shapes from the template and two long strips of green card. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 2 Colour in the shapes with a green pen/crayon. STEP 3 Add two wobbly eyes and a mouth to the front of the face and glue the two smaller feet to the back of the face. STEP 4 Glue two ends of the long strips of paper together, and repeatedly fold them over each other to make a spring. STEP 5 Glue the end of the spring together, and glue the bigger feet to the bottom of the spring to make your bouncing frog! MAKE YOUR OWN COLOURFUL BIRDS YOU WILL NEED Coloured pipe cleaners, coloured feathers, wobbly eyes, scissors & glue STEP 1 Roll each end of a pipe cleaner towards the centre to make two connected spirals STEP 2 Glue a wobbly eye to the middle of the smaller spiral STEP 3 Using a pair of scissors, cut out a small triangle shape from coloured card. Ask a grown-up to help you. Glue it to the outside of the smaller spiral to create the beak STEP 4 Glue a coloured feather to the outside of the larger spiral to create the tail! Children must be supervised by an adult when crafting MAKE YOUR OWN FIRE-BREATHING DRAGON YOU WILL NEED Coloured paper, coloured tissue paper, pom poms, wobbly eyes, crayons/pens, scissors & glue STEP 1 Roll half a sheet of coloured card into a tube and glue it together STEP 2 Add two large pom poms to one end of the tube, and two smaller pom poms to the opposite end of the tube STEP 3 Glue a wobbly eye to each of the large pom poms STEP 4 Tear off some long strips of coloured tissue paper STEP 5 Glue the strips of coloured tissue paper to the end of the tube below the smaller pom poms Children must be supervised by an adult when crafting MAKE YOUR OWN HANDPRINT DINOSAUR YOU WILL NEED Coloured paper/card, crayons/pens, pom poms, wobbly eyes, scissors & glue STEP 1 Trace around your hand with a crayon/pen onto some coloured card STEP 2 Using a pair of scissors, cut out your hand template, a dinosaur neck shape and a dinosaur head shape. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 3 Glue the neck and head to the handprint body STEP 4 Glue some pom poms to your dinosaur’s back STEP 5 Add two wobbly eyes and a mouth to create your dinosaur’s face! Children must be supervised by an adult when crafting MAKE YOUR OWN HANDPRINT FLAMINGO YOU WILL NEED White paper/card, paint & pens STEP 1 Paint your hand with pink paint STEP 2 Press your hand onto a sheet of white paper/card to create a pink handprint STEP 3 Using a paintbrush, paint the flamingo’s neck and head STEP 4 Draw on two legs and a beak with an orange crayon/pen, and draw on a small eye with a black crayon/pen to make your flamingo! Children must be supervised by an adult when crafting MAKE YOUR OWN HANDPRINT LADYBIRD YOU WILL NEED Coloured paper/card, crayons/pens, black paint, scissors & glue STEP 1 Trace around your hand with a crayon/pen onto some red card STEP 2 Using a pair of scissors, cut around your handprints. Ask a grown-up to help you STEP 3 Using a pair of scissors, cut out a circle for the ladybird’s body. Ask a grown-up to help you STEP 4 Glue your handprints to the ladybird’s body with the thumbs facing outwards STEP 5 Dip your finger in the black paint and press it onto the red card to make the ladybird’s spots Children must be supervised by an adult when crafting MAKE YOUR OWN HOT AIR BALLOON YOU WILL NEED Coloured paper/card, crayons/pens/paint, string, scissors & glue STEP 1 Using a pair of scissors, cut out a large circle shape and a small square shape. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 2 Decorate your hot air balloon with crayons/pens/paint. STEP 3 Draw a basket pattern on the small square shape. STEP 4 Using a pair of scissors, cut two short lengths of string. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 5 Glue each length of string to the back of the hot air balloon and the back of the basket. MAKE YOUR OWN POM POM CATERPILLAR YOU WILL NEED Printable template, coloured paper/card, pom poms, wobbly eyes, pens, scissors & glue STEP 1 Place a piece of coloured card beneath the template and using a pair of scissors, cut out the shapes from the template. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 2 Using a pair of scissors, cut a few small holes in the front of your leaf. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 3 Glue three pom poms in a row on your leaf. STEP 4 Glue two wobbly eyes to the front pom pom to give the caterpillar some eyes! MAKE YOUR OWN SUMMER FLOWERS YOU WILL NEED Coloured paper/card, wooden lollipop stick, scissors & glue STEP 1 Using a pair of scissors, cut out 15 long strips of paper and a small circle. Ask a grown-up to help you. STEP 2 Glue one end of each strip of paper to the lollipop stick. STEP 3 Fold the paper strips over so that the ends meet and it creates a loop. Glue the ends together in the centre of the flower. STEP 4 Add a small circle to the centre to create your summer flower! MAKE YOUR OWN ZIG ZAG GIRAFFE YOU WILL NEED Card, coloured paper, wobbly eyes, crayons/pens, scissors & glue STEP 1 Fold two long strips of yellow paper back and forth to make two zig zags STEP 2 Using a pair of scissors, cut out two giraffe head shapes with two ears. Ask a grown-up to help you STEP 3 Glue each end of the long zig zag to the page, and glue the heads to the top of the zig zags to make your giraffes STEP 4 Decorate your giraffes using crayons/pens and wobbly eyes STEP 5 Using a pair of scissors, cut out some leaf shapes and glue them onto your card to decorate. Ask a grown-up to help you Children must be supervised by an adult when crafting
dac834a0-ec92-4e9e-b819-61e2818b81d4
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://gkbr-p-001.sitecorecontenthub.cloud/api/public/content/06234a6c95074388aa575cb4913635b2?v=31331cc6
2024-07-18T10:59:40+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763514828.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20240718095603-20240718125603-00739.warc.gz
240,046,797
2,116
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.989494
eng_Latn
0.993088
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 518, 1107, 1681, 2289, 2970, 3559, 4160, 4726, 5182, 5797, 6338, 6877, 7366, 8038 ]
[ 2.984375 ]
1
0
GCSE CHEMISTRY Foundation Tier Paper 1 Time allowed: 1 hour 45 minutes Materials For this paper you must have: • a ruler • a scientific calculator • the periodic table (enclosed). Instructions • Use black ink or black ball-point pen. • Pencil should only be used for drawing. • Fill in the boxes at the top of this page. • Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Do not write outside the box around each page or on blank pages. • If you need extra space for your answer(s), use the lined pages at the end of this book. Write the question number against your answer(s). • Do all rough work in this book. Cross through any work you do not want to be marked. • In all calculations, show clearly how you work out your answer. Information • The maximum mark for this paper is 100. • The marks for questions are shown in brackets. • You are expected to use a calculator where appropriate. • You are reminded of the need for good English and clear presentation in your answers. This question is about atoms. Figure 1 represents an atom of an element. Draw one line from each name to the correct label. | Name | Label | |----------|-------| | Neutron | A | | Proton | B | An atom of element Y has: - an atomic number of 9 - a mass number of 19. Give the number of electrons and the number of neutrons in this atom. Choose answers from the box. [2 marks] Number of electrons ________________ Number of neutrons ________________ Table 1 shows information about two isotopes of element Z. | Table 1 | Mass number | Percentage abundance (%) | |---------|-------------|--------------------------| | Isotope A | 39 | 93.3 | | Isotope B | 41 | 6.7 | 01.3 Calculate the relative atomic mass ($A_r$) of element Z. Use Table 1 and the equation: $$A_r = \frac{(\text{mass number} \times \text{percentage}) \text{ of isotope A} + (\text{mass number} \times \text{percentage}) \text{ of isotope B}}{100}$$ Give your answer to 3 significant figures. [3 marks] __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ $A_r$ (3 significant figures) = ____________________________ 01.4 Suggest the identity of element Z. Use the periodic table. Element Z [1 mark] 01.5 Complete the sentence. Choose the answer from the box. [1 mark] electrons neutrons protons Isotopes of the same element have different mass numbers because the isotopes have different numbers of _________________________. There are no questions printed on this page DO NOT WRITE ON THIS PAGE ANSWER IN THE SPACES PROVIDED This question is about elements, compounds and mixtures. 02.1 Which type of substance is hydrogen? Tick (✓) one box. Element Compound Mixture The diagrams in Figure 2 represent different substances. ○ ● and ○ represent atoms of three different elements. Figure 2 A B C D Use Figure 2 to answer questions 02.2 and 02.3. 02.2 Which diagram represents a mixture of compounds? [1 mark] A B C D 02.3 Which diagram represents a mixture of elements? [1 mark] A B C D Turn over ▶ Substances can be separated from mixtures by using different methods. 02.4 Complete the sentence. Sand can be separated from a mixture of sand and water by ________________________. A mixture of four liquids was fractionally distilled. Figure 3 shows the apparatus used. Table 2 shows the boiling points of the four liquids in the mixture. | Liquid | Boiling point in °C | |--------|---------------------| | A | 97 | | B | 138 | | C | 78 | | D | 118 | This question is about acids. A student added four metals, A, B, C and D to hydrochloric acid. Figure 4 shows the rate of bubbling in each tube. Use Figure 4 to answer questions 03.1 and 03.2. 03.1 Which metal is copper? Tick (✓) one box. A [ ] B [ ] C [ ] D [ ] 03.2 Which metal is the most reactive? Tick (✓) one box. A [ ] B [ ] C [ ] D [ ] 03.3 A metal oxide reacts with an acid to produce zinc sulfate and water. Name the metal oxide and the acid used in this reaction. [2 marks] Name of metal oxide ____________________________________________ Name of acid _________________________________________________ Universal indicator is used to measure the pH of a solution. Draw one line from each pH to the colour of universal indicator in a solution with that pH. [2 marks] | pH | Colour of universal indicator | |----|-------------------------------| | 1 | Blue | | 7 | Green | | | Purple | | | Red | | | Yellow | Question 3 continues on the next page A student reacts an acid with an alkali in a titration. 03.5 What is the type of reaction when an acid reacts with an alkali? Tick (✓) one box. Combustion Decomposition Neutralisation [1 mark] 03.6 Figure 5 shows a piece of equipment used to measure the volume of the acid in the titration. Figure 5 What is the name of this piece of equipment? Tick (✓) one box. Burette Pipette Syringe Tube [1 mark] Turn over for the next question DO NOT WRITE ON THIS PAGE ANSWER IN THE SPACES PROVIDED This question is about the periodic table. Figure 6 shows an early version of the periodic table published by a scientist. **Figure 6** | H | | | | | | | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | Li | Be | B | C | N | O | F | | | | Na | Mg | Al | Si | P | S | Cl | | | | K Cu | Ca Zn | ? ? | Ti ? | V As | Cr Se | Mn Br | Fe Co Ni | | Rb Ag | Sr Cd | Y In | Zr Sn | Nb Sb | Mo Te | ? I | Ru Rh Pd | 04.1 The scientist left gaps in the periodic table in Figure 6. Each gap is represented by a question mark (?). Give one reason why the scientist left gaps in this periodic table. [1 mark] 04.2 Which scientist published the periodic table in Figure 6? Tick (✓) one box. Bohr Chadwick Mendeleev The modern periodic table is different from the periodic table in Figure 6. One extra group of elements has been added. What is the name of the extra group of elements in the modern periodic table? Tick (✓) one box. Alkali metals Halogens Noble gases 04.4 Why do the elements in Group 1 of the modern periodic table have similar chemical properties? Tick (✓) one box. The elements all form negative ions. The elements all have one electron in the outer shell. The elements all have the same number of shells. Table 3 shows the melting points of the first five elements going down Group 1. | Element | Melting point in °C | |-----------|---------------------| | Lithium | 181 | | Sodium | 98 | | Potassium | X | | Rubidium | 39 | | Caesium | 29 | Predict value $X$. $X = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_°C$ Give one observation you would see when a small piece of potassium is added to water. Table 4 shows information about the first five elements going down Group 7. | Element | State at 150 °C | Symbol | Formula of the compound with hydrogen | |-----------|-----------------|--------|--------------------------------------| | Fluorine | gas | F | HF | | Chlorine | _______________ | Cl | HCl | | Bromine | gas | Br | HBr | | Iodine | liquid | I | HI | | Astatine | solid | At | ____________ | Complete Table 4. [2 marks] The elements in Group 7 consist of molecules. What is the formula of a molecule of bromine? Tick (✓) one box. - Br - Br₂ - Br² - 2Br [1 mark] A student investigated the reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid. Figure 7 shows the apparatus used. This is the method used. 1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 7. 2. Cut 10 mm of magnesium ribbon. 3. Remove the stopper. 4. Add the magnesium ribbon to the conical flask. 5. Replace the stopper as quickly as possible. 6. Record the final reading on the gas syringe when the reaction has stopped. 7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 three more times. 8. Repeat steps 1 to 7 with different lengths of magnesium ribbon. 05.1 Which gas is produced when magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid? Tick (✓) one box. Carbon dioxide Chlorine Hydrogen Oxygen [1 mark] 05.2 What was the independent variable in the investigation? [1 mark] 05.3 Give one control variable in the investigation. [1 mark] Table 5 shows the results for one length of magnesium ribbon. | Volume of gas produced in cm$^3$ | Trial 1 | Trial 2 | Trial 3 | Trial 4 | |----------------------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------| | | 19 | 36 | 37 | 32 | One of the results was anomalous. 05.4 Which trial in Table 5 gave an anomalous result? Trial 05.5 Suggest one reason for the anomalous result in Table 5. Table 6 shows the mean volume of gas produced for each length of magnesium ribbon. | Length of magnesium ribbon in mm | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | |---------------------------------|----|----|----|----|----|----| | Mean volume of gas produced in cm$^3$ | 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | 35 | 42 | Plot the data from Table 6 on Figure 8. Draw a line of best fit. [3 marks] Complete the sentence. As the length of the magnesium ribbon increases, the mean volume of gas produced _________________. This question is about carbon and compounds of carbon. Figure 9 shows diagrams that represent different structures. Use Figure 9 to answer questions 06.1 and 06.2. 06.1 Which diagram represents graphite? Tick (✓) one box. A [ ] B [ ] C [ ] D [ ] 06.2 Which diagram represents poly(ethene)? Tick (✓) one box. A [ ] B [ ] C [ ] D [ ] Figure 10 represents the structure of diamond. **Figure 10** Key - Carbon atom 06.3 How many covalent bonds does each carbon atom form in diamond? [1 mark] 06.4 Which is a property of diamond? Tick (✓) one box. Conducts electricity Low melting point Very hard [1 mark] Figure 11 shows a model of a molecule. Complete the molecular formula of the molecule. Molecular formula = C__ H__ Carbonic acid is a compound of carbon. The formula of carbonic acid is $H_2CO_3$. Which ion is produced by carbonic acid in aqueous solution? Tick (✓) one box. - $H^+$ - $OH^-$ - $O^{2-}$ Calculate the relative formula mass ($M_r$) of carbonic acid ($H_2CO_3$). Relative atomic masses ($A_r$): $H = 1 \quad C = 12 \quad O = 16$ Relative formula mass ($M_r$) = This question is about small particles. Coarse particles, fine particles and nanoparticles are all small particles. Which is the largest particle? Tick (✓) one box. Coarse particle Fine particle Nanoparticle Figure 12 shows a cubic nanoparticle. The surface area of the cubic nanoparticle is 24 nm$^2$. Calculate: - the volume of the cubic nanoparticle - the simplest surface area : volume ratio of the cubic nanoparticle. Volume = ____________ nm$^3$ Simplest surface area : volume ratio = _______________ : 1 Catalysts made of nanoparticles are often more effective than catalysts made of normal sized particles. Complete the sentences. Compared with normal sized particles, the surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles is ________________________. This means that the mass of a nanoparticle catalyst needed to have the same effect as the same catalyst made of normal sized particles is ________________________. Silver nanoparticles can be added to the material used to make socks. Some facts about silver and bacteria are: - silver nanoparticles are small enough to be breathed in - silver is very expensive - silver can kill bacteria - bacteria can cause infections - bacteria can break down sweat to produce unpleasant smells. Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of wearing socks containing silver nanoparticles. Advantage ____________________________________________________________ Disadvantage __________________________________________________________ An atom has a radius of $1 \times 10^{-10}$ m. A spherical nanoparticle has a radius of $1 \times 10^{-8}$ m. How many times larger is the radius of the nanoparticle than the radius of the atom? Tick (✓) one box. 2 times 10 times 100 times 200 times Turn over for the next question This question is about electrolysis. Ionic compounds decompose when they are electrolysed. A student electrolyses sodium sulfate solution. Figure 13 shows the apparatus used. Sodium sulfate solution contains: - hydrogen ions - hydroxide ions - sodium ions - sulfate ions. Oxygen is produced at the positive electrode. Which ions are discharged at the positive electrode to produce oxygen? Tick (✓) one box. Hydrogen ions Hydroxide ions Sodium ions Sulfate ions Figure 14 shows one of the measuring cylinders during the electrolysis. What is the volume of gas in the measuring cylinder? \[ \text{Volume of gas} = \_\_\_\_\_\_ \text{cm}^3 \] Ionic compounds can be electrolysed when molten or dissolved in water. Why can ionic compounds not be electrolysed when solid? You should answer in terms of ions. Table 7 shows the products of electrolysis of two molten compounds. | Molten compound | Product at negative electrode | Product at positive electrode | |------------------|-------------------------------|------------------------------| | Potassium iodide | Potassium | ____________________________ | | Zinc bromide | ____________________________ | Bromine | Complete Table 7. [2 marks] The electrolysis of molten sodium chloride is used to extract sodium metal. Why is sodium metal extracted by electrolysis instead of by reduction with carbon? Tick (✓) one box. Carbon conducts electricity. Carbon is less reactive than sodium. Carbon reduction uses more energy. What is the state symbol for molten sodium chloride? Tick (✓) one box. (aq) [ ] (g) [ ] (l) [ ] (s) [ ] Titanium can be produced from titanium oxide by electrolysis. The equation for the reaction is: \[ \text{TiO}_2 \rightarrow \text{Ti} + \text{O}_2 \] Calculate the percentage atom economy for the production of titanium from titanium oxide by electrolysis. Use the equation: \[ \text{Percentage atom economy} = \frac{\text{Relative atomic mass of desired product}}{\text{Relative formula mass of reactant}} \times 100 \] Relative atomic mass (\(A_r\)): \( \text{Ti} = 48 \) Relative formula mass (\(M_r\)): \( \text{TiO}_2 = 80 \) \[ \text{Percentage atom economy} = \text{______________________} \% \] This question is about metals and non-metals. Figure 15 shows an outline of part of the periodic table. **Figure 15** Element Q is a dull solid with a melting point of 44 °C. Element Q does not conduct electricity. Which section of the periodic table in Figure 15 is most likely to contain element Q? Tick (✓) one box. A [ ] B [ ] C [ ] D [ ] Element R forms ions of formula $R^{2+}$ and $R^{3+}$ Which section of the periodic table in Figure 15 is most likely to contain element R? Tick (✓) one box. A [ ] B [ ] C [ ] D [ ] Give two differences between the physical properties of the elements in Group 1 and those of the transition elements. 1. ____________________________ 2. ____________________________ Complete Figure 16 to show the electronic structure of an aluminium atom. Use the periodic table. [1 mark] Figure 16 09.5 Aluminium is a metal. Describe how metals conduct electricity. Answer in terms of electrons. [3 marks] 09.6 Name the type of bonding in compounds formed between metals and non-metals. [1 mark] Magnesium oxide is a compound formed from the metal magnesium and the non-metal oxygen. Describe what happens when a magnesium atom reacts with an oxygen atom. You should refer to electrons in your answer. [4 marks] Sodium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid in an exothermic reaction. The equation for the reaction is: \[ \text{Na}_2\text{CO}_3(\text{s}) + 2\text{HCl}(\text{aq}) \rightarrow 2\text{NaCl}(\text{aq}) + \text{CO}_2(\text{g}) + \text{H}_2\text{O}(\text{l}) \] A student investigated the effect of changing the mass of sodium carbonate powder on the highest temperature reached by the reaction mixture. Plan a method to investigate the effect of changing the mass of sodium carbonate powder on the highest temperature reached. [6 marks] Figure 17 shows a line of best fit drawn through the student’s results. Highest temperature reached by the reaction mixture in °C Mass of sodium carbonate in grams Another student repeated the investigation but added sodium carbonate until the sodium carbonate was in excess. Which sketch graph shows the results obtained when sodium carbonate was added until in excess? Tick (✓) one box. [1 mark] A Highest temperature reached by the reaction mixture in °C B Highest temperature reached by the reaction mixture in °C C Highest temperature reached by the reaction mixture in °C Figure 18 shows a reaction profile for the reaction of sodium carbonate with hydrochloric acid. **Figure 18** - **X** - **Y** - Reactants - Products Progress of reaction --- 10.5 What do labels X and Y represent on Figure 18? [2 marks] X ____________________________ Y ____________________________ 10.6 How does the reaction profile show that the reaction is exothermic? Use Figure 18. [1 mark] ______________________________ ______________________________ There are no questions printed on this page DO NOT WRITE ON THIS PAGE ANSWER IN THE SPACES PROVIDED There are no questions printed on this page Copyright information For confidentiality purposes, all acknowledgements of third-party copyright material are published in a separate booklet. This booklet is published after each live examination series and is available for free download from www.aqa.org.uk. Permission to reproduce all copyright material has been applied for. In some cases, efforts to contact copyright-holders may have been unsuccessful and AQA will be happy to rectify any omissions of acknowledgements. If you have any queries please contact the Copyright Team. Copyright © 2022 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved.
4c34567a-1a6b-40d9-aa41-15665a17f347
CC-MAIN-2024-30
https://media.accesstuition.com/Exam-Papers/2022-AQA-GCSE-(Foundation)-Chemistry-Paper-1-QP.pdf
2024-07-21T16:29:26+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763517747.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20240721152016-20240721182016-00684.warc.gz
329,790,390
4,406
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.971685
eng_Latn
0.996823
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 981, 1193, 1455, 2282, 2601, 2703, 3193, 3738, 4366, 4845, 5262, 5352, 6084, 6605, 7070, 7886, 8416, 8699, 9153, 9646, 9987, 10267, 10755, 11278, 12251, 12542, 13016, 13364, 14196, 14808, 15529, 15854, 16074, 16619, 16786, 17207, 17675, 17777, 18423 ]
[ 4.0625 ]
1
0
In NSW, weeds are regulated by the NSW Biosecurity Act, 2015. All land managers have a General Biosecurity Duty to contain the spread of weeds. “General Biosecurity Duty means that any person dealing with plant matter must take measures to prevent, minimize or eliminate the biosecurity risk (as far as is reasonably practicable).” The Regional priority for Prickly pears is Asset Protection. In order to achieve this, Land Managers are asked to: Mitigate the risk of new weeds being introduced to their land and reduce impacts on priority assets. The plant should not be bought, sold, grown, carried or released into the environment. For further information, contact your local Biosecurity (Weeds) Officer via Central West Local Land Services or visit NSW WeedWise. Habit and description Prickly pears refer to cacti belonging to the genus *Opuntia*. These can take the form of either a shrub or a small tree. Its succulent stems (pads) vary in shape (flattened, cylindrical, club-shaped or compressed). These are dotted with spots (areoles) that sport hair-like bristles (glochids) and spines. Most species are monoecious (with male and female flowers) that also vary in colour (from yellow to purple). Fruits attached to the pads can be solitary or sometimes form chains. The insides can be dry or juicy, and its skin covered with glochids. Multiple seeds can be found in each fruit, varying in shape (round, irregular, kidney-shaped). These cacti are found over a wide variety of habitats but is naturalized in sub-humid, semi-arid and arid areas. Reproduction and spread Some Prickly pears do not produce seeds in Australia and rely on detached plant parts to spread. However, some species, such as Common pear (*O. stricta*) can produce seeds with long viability. These are spread by birds and other animals. Impacts Agriculture - Infestations create a physical barrier which makes it difficult for livestock to move to pastures or watering holes. - It can cause injury to livestock due to its spines. - These cacti also lower productivity in cultivated land. Native vegetation - Prickly pear is a Weed of National Significance (WoNS) in Australia (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2017). - When Prickly pears occur in dense infestations, these can affect the growth and regeneration of other native plants, especially shrubs and other short plants. Management Chemical - Spraying is the preferred method of applying herbicide. As the plant may regrow, follow-up treatments maybe required. - Spray when the plants are actively growing. Avoid spraying when the plant is under stress or during hot, dry conditions. - Seek the guidance of an experienced Weeds Officer for expert advice on herbicide use. - Visit [www.apvma.gov.au](http://www.apvma.gov.au) for a list of registered products, product labels and permit requirements. - NSW DPI (2018) provides a list of recommended herbicides for the control of Prickly pears at [https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/PricklyPearsOpuntias](https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/PricklyPearsOpuntias) Non-chemical - Physical removal is effective for small and scattered infestations. Ensure that the whole plant is removed to prevent regrowth. - Mechanical removal is recommended against dense infestation and also opens up access for follow-up treatments. - Cochineal insects are an effective long-term control against Prickly pears. Certain insects target only certain cacti. Thus, identifying the correct species of the cacti is key to determining what kind of insect to use. Contact the local weed officer for advice. Management calendar | JAN | FEB | MAR | APR | MAY | JUN | JUL | AUG | SEP | OCT | NOV | DEC | |-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| | ![Life cycle](image) | ![Flowering](image) | ![Fruiting](image) | ![Germination](image) | ![Vegetative growth](image) | ![Management tools](image) | **Hand removal** can be used for isolated plants. (Year round but preferably when soils are moist to ensure removal of whole plant) **Mechanical removal** are preferred for larger infestations. (Year round but preferably during dry conditions for easier clean-down procedures and reduce likelihood of spread). Herbicide can be applied through **foliar spraying**. Avoid spraying when the plant is under stress or during hot, dry conditions. Conduct follow-up treatments as re-sprouting is common. **Biological control** using cochineal insects is an effective way to control weed infestations. Consult your Weeds Officer for the specific cochineal insect appropriate to the species of cacti present in your property. Optimal control options may vary depending on your location and climate. Consult an experienced Weeds Officer based in your local government area for control methods suited to your conditions. All herbicides must be used in accordance with the herbicide label and permit requirements. **Further information** For more information on your general biosecurity duties, visit [www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity](http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity). For the best guidance on how to meet this duty on your property, contact your expert Weeds Officer at your local council or via Local Land Services [www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/central-west](http://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/central-west). References NSW Department of Primary Industries. (2017). *Weeds of National Significance*. Retrieved from NSW WeedWise: [https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/WeedListPublics/CategoryResults?showImages=True&categoryId=1&pageTitle=Weeds%20of%20National%20Significance](https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/WeedListPublics/CategoryResults?showImages=True&categoryId=1&pageTitle=Weeds%20of%20National%20Significance) NSW DPI. (2018). *NSW WeedWise*. [https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/PricklyPearsOpuntias](https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/PricklyPearsOpuntias)
1dcd04b2-8374-48e4-b192-856094026ca9
CC-MAIN-2024-26
https://bogan.nsw.gov.au/images/12575849__PWCW_BSC_Prickly_Pears_Opuntia_230427.pdf
2024-06-20T11:17:29+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-26/segments/1718198861940.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20240620105805-20240620135805-00187.warc.gz
115,171,216
1,380
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.975409
eng_Latn
0.983046
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 769, 1557, 3587, 5866 ]
[ 2.203125 ]
2
0
WELCOME Dear Family, We are excited that you are considering our Early Education Program for your child. The beginning of wonderful Early Childhood starts in our infant room. Our Toddler room offers a nurturing environment that provides the structure that allows the students to grow and learn while feeling safe and comfortable. Our Preschool room is always preparing young minds for kindergarten which is the primary goal of the teachers as they encourage verbal skills, teach self-help skills and promote self-assurance. No matter what classroom your child is in our program, we offer a nurturing environment that is meant to feel like home. Children spend a lot of time in their childcare program and it is essential that we become part of your family as we help raise the Next Generation of children together. Thank you for considering Next Generation. We look forward to providing your child with a caring and enriching environment. Best Wishes, Sara LeBlanc Sara LeBlanc Owner/Business Manager # Table of Contents ## About Us - Mission - Encouraging developmental growth in a natural environment. - Hours of Operation - Holidays/Celebrations - Inclusion - Non-Discrimination - Family Activities - Confidentiality - Staff Qualifications - Child to Staff Ratios - Communication & Family Partnership - Open Door Policy - Publicity - Regulations - Lead Water Testing ## Curricula & Learning - Learning Environment - Curricula & Assessment - Developmental Screening - Outings and Field Trips - Transitions - The transition from home to the center - The transition between learning programs - Transition to elementary school - Electronic Media - Multiculturalism - Celebrations - Rest Time/Sleep Policy - Toilet Training ## Guidance - General Procedure - Challenging Behavior - Physical Restraint - Notification of Termination of Care ## Tuition and Fees | Section | Page | |----------------------------------------------|------| | Payment | 16 | | Late Payment Charges | 16 | | Returned Checks/Rejected Transaction Charges | 17 | | Late Pick-up Fees | 17 | | Special Activity Fees | 17 | | Additional Fees/ Credits | 17 | | Attendance & Withdrawal | 17 | | Absence | 17 | | Vacation | 17 | | Withdrawal | 18 | | Transfer of Records | 18 | | Closing Due to Extreme Weather | 18 | | Drop-off and Pick-up | 18 | | General Procedure | 18 | | Authorized & Unauthorized Pick-up | 18 | | Child Release | 19 | | What to Bring | 19 | | Cubbies | 19 | | Lost & Found | 20 | | Toys from Home | 20 | | Nutrition | 20 | | Foods Brought from Home | 20 | | Food Prepared for or at the Center | 21 | | Food Allergies | 21 | | Snack/Meal Time | 21 | | Infant Feedings | 22 | | Children 24 Months and Older | 22 | | Health | 22 | | Immunizations | 22 | | Physicals | 23 | | Illness | 23 | | Allergy Prevention | 24 | | Communicable Diseases | 25 | | Safety | 25 | | Clothing | 25 | | Extreme Weather and Outdoor Play | 26 | | Communal Water-Play | 27 | | Injuries | 27 | | Topic | Page | |--------------------------------------------|------| | Biting | 28 | | Respectful Behavior | 28 | | Smoking | 28 | | Prohibited Substances | 28 | | Dangerous Weapons | 28 | | Child Custody | 29 | | Suspected Child Abuse | 29 | | Emergencies | 29 | | Lost or Missing Child | 29 | | Fire Safety | 29 | | Emergency Transportation | 29 | About Us Philosophy Our philosophy blends a mix of teaching pedagogies. We are a blend of Reggio, Montessori, Waldorf and our own Discovery-based learning in the natural world. Through building relationships, observation, and conversation, we adjust our curriculum to meet the individual needs of each child. We offer a home-like environment for all children to thrive where they have the opportunity to discover and learn. These opportunities allow each child to build strong, positive relationships with adults and other children around him/her. We work towards developing positive self-concepts by creating an atmosphere geared to successful experiences. We like to promote children’s character development by teaching and demonstrating to children the values of caring. It is our goal to provide quality, professional, nurturing childcare. We respect and recognize that there are individual differences among children. Teachers will focus on the strengths of each child while facilitating the successful development of the whole child. All children will be cared for at the fullest capacity of the caregivers. Children will be allowed to grow and explore at their own pace with the guidance of professional and compassionate caregivers. Mission Encouraging developmental growth in a natural environment. A Parents Guide to Outdoor Play Definition of Family In this handbook we refer to the family as a parent, legal guardian, sponsor or anyone else who provides for the well-being, best-interest and responsibility of the child in our care. Hours of Operation Regular operating hours are 7:30 AM-4:30 PM except for closings for various holidays, and inclement weather as described in the Family Handbook. Please consult the current calendar for the holidays. There is no reduction in tuition as a result of center closures. The procedure to notify families should severe weather or other conditions prevent the program from opening on time or at all will be announced on the radio/TV as mentioned in the handbook. If it becomes necessary to close early, we will contact you or someone listed in the Emergency Contact and Release, and it will be your responsibility to arrange for your child’s early pick-up. **Holidays/Celebrations** In observance of all Federal holidays, professional development days and parent-teacher conferences we will be closed on certain days. Please refer to our [Calendar](#) page on the website for all closings and events. **Admission & Enrollment** All admission and enrollment forms must be completed and enrollment fee and first tuition payment paid prior to your child’s first day of attendance. An enrollment fee of $25 is due at the time of enrollment. This fee is non-refundable and will be used to purchase your child’s required nap items. We purchase the proper fitted bedding that goes with our cots and cribs. In addition to the registration fee, we require a two week deposit for your child. Deposits are non-refundable and we require a 2-week notice if you choose to withdraw your child for any reason – including moving out of town/state or choosing to go to another preschool/daycare including an EEE program, etc. Please provide as much notification and as soon as possible to the Pedagogista if you are planning any changes. If proper notification is given you can use your deposit towards your last week of care. Based on the availability and openings, our facility admits children from 6 weeks to 6 years of age. Our process for introducing children to our program is for you and your child to come and explore our program together. A partial day or week may be best to get your child used to the transition. Children are admitted without regard to race culture, sex, religion, national origin, or disability. We do not discriminate on the basis of special needs as long as a safe, supportive environment can be provided. **Inclusion** Next Generation believes that children of all ability levels are entitled to the same opportunities for participation, acceptance and belonging in child care. We will make every reasonable accommodation to encourage the full and active participation of all children in our program based on his/her individual capabilities and needs. If your child has an identified special need, please let us know. **Non-Discrimination** At Next Generation equal educational opportunities are available for all children, without regard to race, color, creed, national origin, gender, age, ethnicity, religion, disability, or parent/provider political beliefs, marital status, sexual orientation or special needs, or any other consideration made unlawful by federal, state or local laws. Educational programs are designed to meet the varying needs of all students. **Family Activities** Each family is a child’s first teacher. We value families as partners in the growth and development of children in our program. We encourage parents and other family members to be involved in the program, visit children’s classrooms, participate in events, and provide feedback on the program. We offer a variety of ways in which families can participate in helping us establish and reach our program goals. Please see the list of Family Activities at the end of this booklet. **Confidentiality** Unless we receive your written consent, information regarding your child will not be released with the exception of that required by our regulatory and partnering agencies. All records concerning children at our program are confidential. **Staff Qualifications** Our staff is hired in compliance with the state requirements and qualifications as a base minimum. We aim for higher qualifications. You can see staff qualifications and Bios on our website and on our meet the Staff section on the entryway bulletin board. Typical staff certifications are as follows: | Position Title | Education/Certification | Experience | |-------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------| | Teacher | At a minimum an Associate Degree in Early Childhood Education- preference will be a Bachelors | 2 years | | Teacher Assistant/Aide | Child Development Associate Credential | 1 year | | Trainee | In a Human Services Program or other Training | 0+ | Caregivers participate in orientation and ongoing training at a minimum of 15 hours of professional development a year in the areas of child growth and development, healthy and safe environments, developmentally appropriate practices, guidance, family relationships, cultural and individual diversity, and professionalism. We strongly discourage families from entering into employment arrangements with staff (i.e. babysitting). Any arrangement between families and our caregivers outside the programs and services we offer is a private matter, not connected or sanctioned by Next Generation. **Child to Staff Ratios** Children are supervised at all times. All caregivers receive scheduled breaks which reduce fatigue and help to ensure alertness. We maintain the following standards for child to staff ratios: | Age | Maximum Group Size | Staff/Child Ratio | |----------------------------|--------------------|-------------------| | Birth – 18 months | 8 | 1:4 | | 18 months – 30 months | 10 | 1:4 | | 24 months – 36 months | 10 | 1:5 | | 32 months – 42 months | 15 | 1:6 | | 36 months – Kindergarten | 20 | 1:10 | | 1st grade and up | 26 | 1:13 | **Communication & Family Partnership** **Daily Communications.** Daily notes from center staff will keep you informed about your child’s activities and experiences at the center. **Bulletin Boards.** Located throughout the center, bulletin boards provide center news, upcoming events, faculty changes, holiday closing dates, announcements, etc. **Newsletters.** Our newsletters provide center news, events, announcements, etc. These newsletters are posted on the center bulletin Boards and sent home at a minimum monthly. **Email.** We encourage you to provide an email address that you use regularly so that we may send you announcements, event invitations, newsletters, and general updates. **Parent Resources** We will share parent resources as we receive them. We also have various references in our main entrance for you. **Family Visits.** Family participation is encouraged. Visit our classrooms, volunteer, come along on a field trip, or eat a meal with your child. Signing in is required for the safety and protection of our children if you are not just dropping your child off. The sign-in will be with the Pedagogista. **Family Night.** Family nights are scheduled on a regular basis. These nights include snacks, drinks, and fun-filled age-appropriate activities for families. Family Nights allow families and children time to share, learn, and have fun. Families have an opportunity to be a part of their child’s learning experience and connect with other families. We will also offer families the opportunity to have a monthly date night. For an additional charge you can go out for an evening and we will provide care. This will be at the center but during our non-regulated hours. **Conferences.** Family & teacher conferences occur twice a year. During these conferences, we will discuss your child’s strengths, likes and dislikes, and styles of learning. We will work together to set goals for your child’s growth and development. You may request additional conferences regarding your child’s progress at any time. We encourage you to communicate any concerns. **Open Door Policy** We are delighted to have family members participate in our program. Parents/Guardians are welcome to visit the program any time during regular program hours. The infant room welcomes parents/guardians to nurse or feed their infants. Open Door Policy does not mean the doors will be unlocked. For the safety and protection of the children, external doors will be kept locked at all times. Our team will always do their best to speak with parents/guardians. Since staff days are devoted to caring for children, it is usually not feasible to have a long discussion during regular program hours. If a situation requires a longer discussion, kindly arrange for an appointment. **Publicity** Occasionally, photos will be taken of the children at the center for use within the center or on our website. Written permission will be obtained prior to the use of photographs. Unless the family indicates that they want their child to participate, we will not use pictures and names of children for publicity. **Regulations** We adhere and follow all regulations set forth by the State of Vermont Child Development Division and a copy of the regulations listed below for you to reference as well there is a copy at each teacher stand in each classroom at our centers and on [our website](#). We follow the guidelines for Child Development as [listed here](#) with the State of Vermont Child Development Division. Should you ever have any concerns or a complaint please reach out to the Pedagogista or Owner. We take all concerns seriously and will work with families together. If you need further assistance with any complaints please reach out to the Child Care Consumer Line at 1-800-649-2642. [REGULATIONS.pdf](#) **Lead Water Testing** The Health Department, [Agency of Natural Resources](#), and the [Agency of Education](#) led a joint pilot project from November 2017 to March 2018 to gather information about lead levels in the drinking water of Vermont schools. The State of Vermont passed a new law in 2019 that requires all schools and child care providers to test their drinking water for lead. Samples of water from every tap at our schools that is reasonably expected to be used for drinking or cooking were collected and sent to the Vermont Department of Health Laboratory for analysis. **Results for Next Generation Northern Campus & Georgia’s Next Generation - Updated December 16, 2019:** - All the taps sampled had results **BELOW** the 4 part per billion (ppb) action level. - No further action is currently necessary. The drinking water can continue to be used. Lead exposure poses a special risk to children because they absorb lead into their systems more easily than adults do. Lead can slow down growth, impair development and learning, and can cause behavior problems. While the major source of lead poisoning in Vermont children is paint, lead in plumbing pipes and fixtures can add to a person’s overall exposure. Drinking water in schools and homes may contain lead from old pipes, plumbing fixtures (such as fountains and faucets), or the solder that joins pipe sections together. **More Information** - For questions about the water testing process, or about the law and its requirements, please dial 2-1-1. - You can view school and child care results, remediation and any follow-up testing at [leadresults.vermont.gov](http://leadresults.vermont.gov). (NOTE: If your child’s preschool or after school program is located at a school, the results will be listed under the school’s name.) For more information visit: - Schools: [healthvermont.gov/school-drinking-water](http://healthvermont.gov/school-drinking-water) - Child Care Programs: [healthvermont.gov/childcare-drinking-water](http://healthvermont.gov/childcare-drinking-water) - If you have questions or concerns about our facility and the actions we are taking, please contact Kate Driver (firstname.lastname@example.org). To learn more about lead hazards and lead poisoning prevention, visit [healthvermont.gov/lead](http://healthvermont.gov/lead). If you want to test your home drinking water for lead, contact the Health Department Laboratory to order a $12 first draw lead test kit. Call 802-338-4736 or 800-660-9997 (toll free in Vermont). Curricula & Learning Learning Environment We provide a rich learning environment with curricula that are developmentally appropriate to the specific ages in each classroom. We have a flexible daily routine that allows children to advance at their own pace. We strongly believe that learning happens through play. Learning and exploring are hands-on and are facilitated through interest areas. Our program is designed to enhance children’s development in the following areas: creativity, self-expression, decision-making, problem-solving, responsibility, independence, and reasoning. We encourage openness to that which is different from us, and the ability to work and play with others. Our PLAY and NATURE BASED curriculum will promote: | Social and Emotional skills | Individual, Small Group, and Large Group activities | |-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------| | Positive self-concepts | Many opportunities for success through open-ended activities | | Language and literacy | An environment of respect for individual and cultural diversity | | Physical development in both indoor and outdoor setting | Opportunities for children to solve problems, initiate activities, experiment and gain mastery through learning by doing | | Sound health, safety, and nutritional practices | Many opportunities to learn through their Natural environment | | Creative expression and appreciation for the arts | Indoor and outdoor creative expression | Curricula & Assessment Next Generation uses developmental checklists from the American Academy of Pediatrics and we conduct weekly observations. As part of this curriculum, we gather information about each child's developmental abilities and evaluate progress so we can modify and adjust what we are doing in our classroom so as to deliver the best individualized instruction for each child. This evaluation is communicated to families periodically during the school year using various formal and informal tools, forms, and resources. For information about your child's day, please see copies of daily schedules and lesson plans posted in each classroom. **Developmental Screening** To coincide with curriculum-based assessment(s), we monitor each child's achievement of developmental milestones, share observations with parents/guardians, and provide resource information as needed for further screenings, evaluations, and early intervention and treatment. The developmental screening process is a collaborative one, involving parents/guardians and done in conjunction with the child's primary care provider and health, education, and early intervention consultants. Developmental screening is conducted with written consent from the child's parent/guardian(s). **Outings and Field Trips** Weather permitting; we conduct at a minimum of 30 minutes of supervised outdoor play and/or walking trips around the neighborhood for all children. Children are accounted for at all times. A permission statement for participation in walking trips is included in the enrollment package. We have an outdoor classroom/Gazebo that allows us to get out even when it's raining. Fresh air is important! From time to time, there will be supervised field trips, and we encourage you to join your child on the trip. *Permission Slips* for each trip must be signed by the child's family. For field trips, please dress your child appropriately for the season. Walking shoes are a must. Sandals and flip-flops are not appropriate for walking and make it difficult for your child. The safety of children and staff will be guarded in all activities of childcare programs. Proper restraint systems (seat belts) and the correct use of them are critically important during travel to/from the childcare program as well as during field trips. Proper insurance according to the state licensing regulations must also be acquired. **Transitions** Your child's transition in childcare should be a positive and exciting learning adventure. We will work with you and your child to ensure the smoothest possible transition occurs as new routines and new people are introduced. **The transition from home to the center** Prior to your child's first day, you will have an opportunity to tour the center, meet with your child's peers and teachers, and communicate any anticipated concerns. At this time please share the best communication methods that the teacher may use to reach you. The transition between learning programs Children are transitioned to the next classroom based on age, developmental readiness, state licensing requirements, and space availability. During the transition, current and future teachers will meet with you to propose a plan to introduce your child to the new program. Transition to elementary school Transition activities such as a field trip to a local elementary school, creating a mural of special friends and special times at our center will be part of your child’s education at our center. We will provide you with information on local schools, what to expect, and ideas on how to talk to your child about going to elementary school. Electronic Media Our normal daily routine does not include electronic media (television/TV, video, DVD) viewing and computer use but from time-to-time, we may use a video without advertisements as a teaching aid and discussion stimulator. All Electronic Media will be screened prior to use and will consist of non-violent and high-quality educational material. Our focus is to provide your child with a positive experience with an increased understanding of the world. Electronic Media will be offered only as a free choice, used to meet a developmental goal, and limited to no more than 15 minutes per week per child. There will be no screen time for children under two. This includes TV, videos and computers. Multiculturalism Multiculturalism is vital for all children because it sets social goals and promotes respect for all people and the environment we inhabit. We utilize books, music, games, and a wide range of activities as aids to teach our children respect for our world and the diversity of life upon it. Celebrations Our holiday policy encourages an enhanced understanding of and respect for different cultures and beliefs of children, families, staff, and community. Rest Time/Sleep Policy Infants sleep according to their own schedule and are put to sleep on their backs. Caregivers/teachers directly observe infants by sight and sound at all times and check on sleeping infants every After lunch, all children less than 5 years of age, participate in quiet rest time. Children are not required to sleep and may be given quiet activities. Children are allowed one "lovey" which is a small blanket or stuffed animal that acts as a tool to help your child sleep. The lovey needs to fit in the nap bag provided by Next Generation and must stay at school. It will be washed during our weekly nap laundry. **Toilet Training** The most important factor in making the toilet learning experience successful and as low-stress as possible is a family/teacher partnership that supports the child. Research indicates that children cannot successfully learn how to use the toilet until they are physically, psychologically, and emotionally ready. Many pediatricians say that most children under 24 months of age are not physically capable of regulating bladder and bowel muscles. Most positive toilet training occurs only after children show signs of physical control or awareness of their bodily functions and when they demonstrate an interest or curiosity in the process. We are committed to working with you to make sure that toilet learning is carried out in a manner that is consistent with your child's physical and emotional abilities and your family's concerns. **Guidance** **General Procedure** Next Generation is committed to each student’s success in learning within a caring, responsive, and safe environment that is free of discrimination, violence, and bullying. Our center works to ensure that all students have the opportunity and support to develop to their fullest potential and share a personal and meaningful bond with people in the school community. Thoughtful direction and planning ahead are used to prevent problems and encourage appropriate behavior. Communicating consistent, clear rules and involving children in problem-solving help children develop their ability to become self-disciplined. We encourage children to be fair, to be respectful of other people, of property, and to learn to understand the results of their actions. **Discipline Policy** We have created a discipline policy that reflects our philosophy of positive guidance with children. A copy of the discipline policy is included in your enrollment package for you to review and sign. **Challenging Behavior** Children are guided to treat each other and adults with self-control and kindness. Each student at Next Generation has a right to: ● Learn in a safe and friendly place ● Be treated with respect ● Receive the help and support of caring adults When a child becomes verbally or physically aggressive, we intervene immediately to protect all of the children. Our usual approach to helping children with challenging behaviors is to show them how to solve problems using appropriate interactions. When discipline is necessary, it is clear, consistent and understandable to the child. We maintain a zero-tolerance to bullying. If you have any concerns about this at any time, please report it to the Pedagogista of the Center. **Physical Restraint** Physical restraint is not used or permitted for discipline. There are rare instances when we need to ensure a child’s safety or that of others and we may restrain a child by gently holding her or him only for as long as it is necessary for control of the situation. **Transitions** ● The program pedagogista will work with parents to create and utilize a positive transition plan when admitting a new child into Next Generation. This will involve such procedures as the exchange of pertinent information concerning the child, phased-entry to the program, and the assignment to a group of children and a staff member or team. ● The program pedagogista will create and utilize a positive transition plan with the introduction of a new staff member and will ensure that parents are notified. ● The program pedagogista and staff will ensure that a positive transition plan is created and utilized with parental knowledge and support when a child is moved from one (1) group or room to another group or room. ● Next Generation supports continuity of care and education. In the event that a child’s continued enrollment is at risk, the following shall apply: 1. The program pedagogista shall consult with the child’s parent(s) and professionals, as appropriate, to develop and implement a plan to address concerns, with the goal of continuing the child’s enrollment. 2. In the event that the concerns cannot be resolved, written notice to the child’s parent(s) is required with at least five (5) days’ notice prior to expulsion. **Tuition and Fees** **Payment** Payment is always due in advance with no deduction for any absences, holidays, or closures due to inclement weather, power outages, or other situations beyond our control. Payment is due by 9:00 AM on the Monday for the current week, as outlined in the *Enrollment Agreement*. A non-refundable registration fee is due prior to enrollment. **Late Payment Charges** Late payments can pose serious problems for our programs. Therefore we have put procedures in place to reduce their impact. If payment is not received on the day that it is due, a late fee of $15 will be added to your next tuition payment for each day that it is late. If your account has not been paid in full within 5 business days, your child may be discharged from the program. Any payments made will be applied to the oldest charges and late fees may still apply if the account is not paid in full by the next tuition due date. Repeated late payments will result in your family being required to set up automatic payments or credit card payments. If payment is more than 5 business days past due, we may attempt to recover payment in small claims court and/or your account may be sent to a 3rd party collections agency. You will be responsible for all expenses associated with these actions including all court and attorney fees. **Returned Checks/Rejected Transaction Charges** All returned checks or rejected ACH (automatic debits) or credit card transactions will be charged a fee of $35. This charge may be collected electronically. Two or more returned checks or rejected transactions will result in your account being placed on “cash only” status. **Late Pick-up Fees** Late pick-up is not a normal program option and will only be considered as an exceptional occurrence. Additional charges will be incurred for each repeated late pick up. The charge is $2 per min, up to the first ten minutes. Past ten minutes it’s an immediate $50 charge. **Special Activity Fees** From time-to-time, there will be additional fees associated with special activities or field trips. These fees are due prior to the event, activity or trip. **Additional Fees/Credits** A non-refundable enrollment/registration fee of $25 is due one time upon enrollment. We will use these funds to purchase blankets, sheets for your child for nap time. We choose to purchase these so we can ensure they fit our cots and cribs snuggly. **Credits & No Credits** - No Credit will be given for Absences - No Credit be given for Sick Days – there are no credits for sick days. No Credit be given for Inclement Weather - if we do not open due to inclement weather on a day that your child is scheduled to attend, you are still responsible for payment if you attend that day. Attendance & Withdrawal Absence If your child is going to be absent or arrive after 8:45 AM, please call us. We will be concerned about your child if we do not hear from you. Vacation While we recognize the value of family vacations, the center does not provide credit for vacation days. Withdrawal A written three-week notice, 3 weeks in advance, is required by the center when a child is being withdrawn. Failure to notify will result in us filing in small claims court if the 3 weeks is not paid before departure. Transfer of Records Whether transitioning to the next program setting or to a new classroom, your child’s records will be transferred internally. If your child is transitioning to a new school, a written request from you with instructions to where the records should be sent is required. Closing Due to Extreme Weather Should severe weather or other conditions (i.e., snow, storms, floods, tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, blizzards, loss of power, loss of water) prevent us from opening on time or at all, notification to the families will be announced on local school closing lists. More information will be shared before the winter months. If it becomes necessary to close early, we will contact you or your emergency contacts as soon as possible. Your child’s early pick-up is your responsibility to arrange. Drop-off and Pick-up General Procedure We open at 7:30 am. Please do not drop-off your child prior to the opening. Parents are expected to accompany their children and sign them in and wash their hands. Our day starts at 9:00 am and we ask that all children be in attendance by 9:00 am. We understand there will be occasional appointments that will require a later drop-off. If you do have a rare appointment then we will need to be notified in advance of the day that your child will need an alternative drop off time. If your child is not in attendance by 9:00 am then they cannot attend that day. We close at 4:30 pm. Please allow enough time to arrive, sign your child out, and leave by closing time. Authorized & Unauthorized Pick-up Your child will only be released to you or those persons you have listed as Emergency and Release Contacts. If you want a person who is not identified as an Emergency and Release Contact to pick-up your child, you must notify us in advance, in writing. Your child will not be released without prior written authorization. The person picking up your child will be required to show a picture ID as verification. Please notify your pick-up person of our policy. In order to safeguard your child, we will need copies of any court-ordered custody agreements. Without a custody agreement, we are not able to prevent the release of your child to a parent. If a child has not been picked up after closing and we have not heard from you, attempts will be made to contact you, and the contacts listed as Emergency and Release Contacts. Provisions will be made for someone to stay with your child as long as possible, but if after hours we have not been able to reach you or a person listed as an Emergency and Release Contact, we will call the local child protective services agency. Child Release If we have reasonable cause to suspect that any person picking up a child is under the influence of drugs or alcohol, or is physically or emotionally impaired in any way that may endanger the child, to protect your child, we may request that another adult listed as an Emergency and Release Contact pick-up the child or we may call the police to prevent potential harm to your child. Recurring situations may result in the release of your child from the program. Personal Belongings What to Bring - **Infants**: enough clean bottles for a day’s use, at least 6 diapers per day, and at least 2 changes of clothes per day. All bottles must be labeled and dated. You may leave a full package of diapers, and two bottles at the center if that helps. - **Toddlers**: enough clean bottles for a day’s use (if applicable), six diapers and at least two changes of clothes per day. All bottles must be labeled and dated. You may leave a full package of diapers, and two bottles at the center if that helps. - **Older Toddlers**: at least two changes of clothes or more per day if going through the toilet training program. - **Preschoolers**: at least one change of clothes, socks, and shoes. Please label all items brought from home with your child’s name (i.e., clothes, bottles, diapers, pacifiers, crib sheet, blanket, etc.) to prevent items from becoming misplaced or lost. We are not responsible for lost or damaged items. Sheets and soiled clothing will be sent home on an as-needed basis for laundering and return to the center. Cubbies Upon enrollment, each child will be assigned a “cubby.” Cubbies are labeled with your child’s name. Please check your child’s cubby on a daily basis for items that need to be taken home. Lost & Found You can look for lost items and bring found items to the Lost-and-found Box located by the front door where you remove shoes. Please note that we are not responsible for lost personal property. Toys from Home We request that you do not allow your child to bring toys from home into the center. This is for the following reasons: - Toys from home carry different scents and germs that we want to keep out of the schools - Toys can get lost or damaged at school - We are working on sharing the materials at school, and sometimes with toys from home children are less likely to want to share, which ends up causing problems. - Children are allowed one "lovey" which is a small blanket or stuffed animal that acts as a tool to help your child sleep. The lovey needs to fit in the nap bag provided by Next Generation and must stay at school. It will be washed during our weekly nap laundry. Please help us by having your child leave these special items at home. Nutrition Foods Brought from Home for Individual Consumption Daily meals must be provided by each family. - Meals must be in a sealed, labeled lunchbox. If you need a lunch box they can be found locally at Walmart, Tj Maxx, LL Bean, Target, Hannaford, etc. - We CANNOT heat up meals (even in the microwave!). Warm meals should be kept in a thermos. - Lunch boxes will not be put into a fridge. Per licensing they MUST have 2 ice packs. - Upon arrival, you will put your child’s morning and afternoon snacks in the corresponding labeled bin in your child’s classroom. Snacks MUST be labeled with your child’s name. Foods Brought from Home to Share Food brought from home is permitted under the following conditions: - Perishable food to be shared with other children must be store-bought and in its original package. - Baked goods may be made at home if they are fully cooked, do not require refrigeration and were made with freshly purchased ingredients. A list of ingredients is required, and there must be enough food for all children. - Foods should be labeled with the child’s name, date, and type of food. - Children will not be allowed to share food provided by the child’s family unless the food is intended for sharing with all of the children. - Leftover food will be discarded except for foods that do not require refrigeration and/or come in a commercially-wrapped package that was never opened. - Please provide your child a balanced, nutritional Lunch if you choose to not have your child eat what we provide. If you need suggestions please let us know. We are happy to help! Birthday Parties - You may provide a special treat for your child’s class in celebration of his or her birthday. Please be sure to discuss this option in advance with your child’s teacher and also be considerate of children who may have food allergies in the class. We respectfully ask you to honor the following recommendations for birthday parties that occur after school hours. Please do not distribute birthday invitations at school unless all of the children in your child’s class are invited. Please keep in mind that it can be very painful for a child to discover that she or he is not invited to a birthday party, even if the two children do not seem to be close friends. Good Lunch Box Suggestions for a Balanced, Nutritional Lunch. | Bean & cheese dip | Chicken strips | |-------------------|---------------| | Tortilla chips (crackers) | Whole Wheat Roll | | Tropical fruit salad | Orange wedges | | Broccoli | Broccoli | | Milk | Milk | | Cheese quiche | Whole Wheat Macaroni & Tuna Salad | |---------------|----------------------------------| | Fresh fruit cup | Green Beans | | Broccoli | Carrots | | Milk | Milk | **Morning and Afternoon Snack Provided by Next Generation** Next Generation will provide a morning and an afternoon snack for children every day of the week. The snacks will be on the rotating schedule below. The fresh fruit and vegetables will vary based on seasonal availability. Morning and afternoon snacks will be served with milk. **Rotating Snack Calendar** | Next Generation | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | |-----------------|--------|---------|-----------|----------|--------| | Breakfast | Cereal in Milk with Fresh Fruit | Fruit Bars with Fresh Fruit | Yogurt with Fresh Fruit or granola | Rice cakes with Sunbutter Or PB crackers | Cereal in milk and Fresh Fruit | | Snack | Animal crackers with a Fruit or Vegetable or pb. | Pretzels with a Fruit or Vegetable (or PB) Infants: cereal | Graham Crackers and applesauce | Goldfish with a Fruit or Vegetable | Cheese stick and fresh fruit or veg | *Please note if your child has dietary restrictions or can’t have any of the above snacks, you will need to provide something from home for them.* **Food Prepared for or at the Center** For special occasions, snacks prepared for or at the center will be properly planned, prepared and portioned according to the Child and Adult Care Food Program (http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/care/) and the state requirements for food service. **Food Allergies** If your child has a food allergy, you must notify us in writing so that we can make appropriate substitutions. The written notification should list appropriate food substitutions and must be updated at least annually. If your child takes medication for an allergy, please read the Medication section. If your child has a food allergy, please leave some food items that can be stored in our freezer to be served to your child in the event of a birthday or other celebration. Food allergies can be life-threatening and each child with a food allergy should have an action plan for emergency care completed by the family physician. Some children experience life-threatening allergies to food. Most notable are peanuts, tree nuts, milk, eggs, and wheat. Please check with your child’s classroom teacher or Pedagogista if you have any questions. **Infant Feedings** Infant feedings follow these procedures: - Infants will be held for bottle-feeding until able to hold his or her own bottle. Bottles will never be propped. - Infants are fed “on cue” to the extent possible (at least every 4 hours and usually not more than hourly) and by a consistent caregiver/teacher. - Breastfeeding is supported by providing a place for nursing mothers to feed their babies. Expressed breast milk may be brought from home if frozen or kept cold during transit. All breast milk and formula shall be returned to the child’s home or discarded at the end of each day. Previously frozen, thawed breast milk must be used within 24 hours. Bottles must be clearly labeled with the child’s name and the date the milk was expressed. Frozen breast milk must be dated and may be kept in the freezer for up to days. - Breast milk and formula brought from home must be dated and labeled with the child’s name. - Labels on all milk/formula containers should be resistant to loss of the name and date/time when washing and handling. - Solid foods will only be introduced after consultation with the child’s family. **Children 24 Months and Older** - No child shall go more than 4 hours without a meal or snack being provided. - Children are encouraged to self-feed to the extent that they have the skills. Children are encouraged, but not forced to eat a variety of foods. - Round, firm foods that pose a choking hazard for children less than 4 years of age are not permitted. These foods include: hot dogs, whole grapes, peanuts, popcorn, thickly spread peanut butter and hard candy. Health Immunizations Immunizations are required according to the current schedule recommended by the U.S. Public Health Services and the American Academy of Pediatrics, www.aap.org. Every year, we check with the public health department or the American Academy of Pediatrics for updates of the recommended immunization schedule. Our state regulations regarding attendance of children who are not immunized due to religious or medical reasons are followed. Unimmunized children are excluded during outbreaks of vaccine-preventable illness as directed by the state health department. All caregivers, teachers, and staff are required to be current with all immunizations routinely recommended for adults by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Physicals Routine physicals are required according to the current recommendations of the American Academy of Pediatrics, www.aap.org. A copy of your child’s physical also known as a well-child exam check-up should be received before enrollment. Families are responsible for assuring that their child’s physicals are kept up-to-date and that a copy of the results of the child’s health assessment is given to the program. Illness We understand that it is difficult for a family member to leave or miss work, but to protect other children; you may not bring a sick child to the center. The center has the right to refuse a child who appears ill. You will be called and asked to retrieve your child within 45 minutes if your child exhibits any of the following symptoms. This is not an all-inclusive list. We will try to keep your child comfortable but he/she will be excluded from all activities until you arrive. - An illness that prevents your child from participating in activities. - An illness that results in a greater need for care than we can provide. - An illness that poses a risk of the spread of harmful diseases to others. - A fever of 100.4 degrees was the recommended temp with COVID that children needed to be sent home through the Department of Health. Licensing says at 101 degrees they must be excluded from the program. We will take into consideration of how the child is doing and make decisions on the fever accordingly. No matter what the child will be excluded at 101. - Diarrhea – stools with blood or mucus, and/or uncontrolled, unformed stools that cannot be contained in a diaper/underwear or toilet. - Vomiting – green or bloody, and/or more than 2 times during the previous 24 hours. - Mouth sores caused by drooling. - Rash with fever, unless a physician has determined it is not a communicable disease. ● Pink or red conjunctiva with white or yellow eye discharge, until on antibiotics for 24 hours. ● Impetigo, until 24 hours after treatment. ● Strep throat, until 24 hours after treatment. ● Head lice, until treatment and all live bugs are removed. ● Scabies, until 24 hours after treatment. ● Chickenpox, until all lesions have dried and crusted. ● Pertussis (Whooping Cough), until 5 days of antibiotics. ● Hepatitis A virus, until one week after immune globulin has been administered. ● Tuberculosis, until a health professional indicates the child is not infectious. ● Rubella, until 6 days after the rash appears. ● Mumps, until 5 days after onset of parotid gland swelling. ● Measles, until 4 days after the onset of rash. ● Has a physician or other health professionals written order that child be separated from other children. Children who have been ill may return when: ● They are free of fever, vomiting, and diarrhea for 24 hours. ● They have been treated with an antibiotic for 24 hours. ● They are able to participate comfortably in all usual activities. ● They are free of open, oozing skin conditions and drooling (not related to teething) unless: ○ The child’s physician signs a note stating that the child’s condition is not contagious, and; ○ The involved areas can be covered by a bandage without seepage or drainage through the bandage. ● If a child had a reportable communicable disease, a physician’s note stating that the child is no longer contagious and may return to our care is required. Here is a link to Appendix A. Appendix A is a chart that outlines various illnesses policies. Next Generation staff uses this chart to assess whether a child can remain in care or needs to go home. The chart is a great resource to determine if your child should attend school. A copy of this chart is posted on the bulletin board in each classroom, as well as the Child Care Licensing Regulations book can be found at each teacher stand. **Allergy Prevention** Families are expected to notify us regarding children’s food and environmental allergies. Families of children with diagnosed allergies are required to provide us a letter detailing the child’s symptoms, reactions, treatments, and care. A list of the children’s allergies will be posted in the main area and kitchen. We are trained to familiarize ourselves and consult the list to avoid the potential of exposing children to substances to which they have known allergies. Medications All medications should be handed to a staff member with specific written instructions for administration. Medications should never be left in the child’s cubby or with the child to administer on their own. Our staff will ensure that the medication is recorded along with the directions and proceed to dispense the medication as directed. The first dose of ALL prescription medications must be conducted by the parents to make sure no adverse reactions. · **Prescription medications** require a note signed by the family and a written order from the child’s physician. The label on the medication meets this requirement. The medication must include your child’s name, dosage, current date, frequency, and the name and phone number of the physician. All medications must be in the original container (you may request pharmacies to fill your prescription in two labeled bottles). Please specify the dosage and time(s) to be administered for each medication. · **Non-prescription medications** require written permission and instructions signed by the child’s parent. The written permission must include your child’s name, dosage, current date, frequency, and all medications must be in the original container. Non-prescription medication should not be administered for more than a 3-day period unless a written order by the physician is received. If your child needs cough or cold medicine your child should remain home. We are only willing to administer Tylenol in the event your child had shots etc. · **Non-prescription topical ointments** (e.g., diaper cream or teething gel), sunscreen and insect repellant require a note signed by the parent, specifying frequency and dosage to be administered as well as the length of time the authorization is valid which cannot exceed 12 months. Communicable Diseases When an enrolled child or an employee of the center has a (suspected) reportable disease, it is our legal responsibility to notify the local Board of Health or Department of Public Health. We will take care to notify families about exposure so children can receive preventive treatments. Included among the reportable illnesses are the following: - Bacterial Meningitis - Botulism - Chicken Pox - Diphtheria - Haemophilus Influenza (invasive) - Measles (including suspect) - Meningococcal Infection (invasive) - Poliomyelitis (including suspect) - Rabies (human only) - Rubella Congenital and Non-congenital (including suspect) - Tetanus (including suspect) - H1N1 Virus - Any cluster/outbreak of illness Safety Clothing Please dress your child in practical clothing that allows for freedom of movement and is appropriate for the weather. Your child will be involved in a variety of activities including painting, outdoor play, sand, weather, and other sensory activities. Our playground is used as an extension of the center, and daily programs are conducted outside whenever the weather permits. One particular aspect of concern is the risk associated with children’s clothing that may become entangled with climbing or sliding equipment that could lead to choking or other serious harm. All drawstrings from children’s clothes should be removed as a precaution. Sandals and flip-flops are not appropriate for center play and make it difficult for your child to participate in some activities. Extreme Weather and Outdoor Play We will follow the US Department of Health Weather Guidelines for determining when we shouldn’t be outside. **Understand the Weather** **Wind-Chill** - 30° is *chilly* and generally uncomfortable - 15° to 30° is *cold* - 0° to 15° is *very cold* - -20° to 0° is *bitter cold* with significant risk of *frostbite* - -20° to -60° is *extreme cold* and *frostbite* is likely - -60° is *frigid* and exposed skin will *freeze* in 1 minute **Heat Index** - 80° or below is considered *comfortable* - 90° beginning to feel *uncomfortable* - 100° *uncomfortable* and may be *hazardous* - 110° considered *dangerous* All temperatures are in degrees Fahrenheit Weather Guidelines for Children **Wind-Chill Factor Chart (in Fahrenheit)** | Air Temperature | Calm 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 | |-----------------|--------|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | 40 | 40 | 36 | 34 | 32 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | | 30 | 30 | 25 | 21 | 19 | 17 | 16 | 15 | 14 | | 20 | 20 | 13 | 9 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | | 10 | 10 | 1 | -4 | -7 | -9 | -11| -12| -14| | 0 | 0 | -11| -16| -19| -22| -24| -26| -27| |-10 | -10 | -22| -25| -32| -35| -37| -39| -41| **Heat Index Chart (in Fahrenheit %)** | Air Temperature (F) | Relative Humidity (Percent) | |---------------------|-----------------------------| | | 40 | 45 | 50 | 55 | 60 | 65 | 70 | 75 | 80 | 85 | 90 | 95 | 100 | | 80 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 81 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 86 | | 84 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 92 | 94 | 96 | 98 | 100 | | 90 | 91 | 93 | 95 | 97 | 100 | 103 | 105 | 108 | 113 | 117 | 122 | 127 | 132 | | 94 | 97 | 100 | 103 | 106 | 110 | 114 | 118 | 124 | 129 | 135 | | 100 | 107 | 114 | 118 | 124 | 129 | 130 | | 104 | 119 | 124 | 131 | 137 | All temperatures are in degrees Fahrenheit Weather Guidelines for Children Weather Guidelines for Children Watching the weather is part of a child care provider’s job. Planning for playtime, field trips, or weather safety is part of the daily routine. The changes in weather require the child care provider to monitor the health and safety of children. What clothing, beverages, and protections are appropriate? **Clothe** children to maintain a comfortable body temperature (warmer months - lightweight cotton, colder months - wear layers of clothing). **Beverages** help the body maintain a comfortable temperature. Water or fruit juices are best. Avoid high-sugar content beverages and soda pop. **Sunscreen** may be used year around. Use a sunscreen labeled as SPF-15 or higher. Read and follow all label instructions for the sunscreen product. Look for sunscreen with UVB and UVA ray protection. **Shaded** play areas protect children from the sun. **Condition GREEN** - Children may play outdoors and be comfortable. Watch for signs of children becoming uncomfortable while playing. Use precautions regarding clothing, sunscreen, and beverages for all child age groups. INFANTS AND TODDLERS are unable to tell the child care provider if they are too hot or cold. Children become fussy when uncomfortable. Infants/toddlers will tolerate shorter periods of outdoor play. Dress infants/toddlers in lightweight cotton or cotton-like fabrics during the warmer months. In cooler or cold months dress infants in layers to keep them warm. Protect infants from the sun by limiting the amount of time outdoors and playing in shaded areas. Give beverages when playing outdoors. YOUNG CHILDREN remind children to stop playing, drink a beverage, and apply more sunscreen. OLDER CHILDREN need a firm approach to wearing proper clothing for the weather (they may want to play without coats, hats or mittens). They may resist applying sunscreen and drinking beverages while outdoors. **Condition YELLOW** - use caution and closely observe the children for signs of being too hot or cold while outdoors. Clothing, sunscreen, and beverages are important. Shorten the length of outdoor time. INFANTS AND TODDLERS use precautions outlined in Condition Green. Clothing, sunscreen, and beverages are important. Shorten the length of time for outdoor play. YOUNG CHILDREN may insist they are not too hot or cold because they are enjoying playtime. Child care providers need to structure the length of time for outdoor play for the young child. OLDER CHILDREN need a firm approach to wearing proper clothing for the weather (they may want to play without coats, hats or mittens), applying sunscreen and drinking liquids while playing outdoors. **Condition RED** - most children should not play outdoors due to the health risk. INFANTS/TODDLERS should play indoors and have ample space for large motor play. YOUNG CHILDREN may ask to play outside and do not understand the potential danger of weather conditions. OLDER CHILDREN may play outdoors for very short periods of time if they are properly dressed, have plenty of fluids. Child care providers must be vigilant about maximum protection of children. Understand the Weather The weather forecast may be confusing unless you know the meaning of the words. **Blizzard Warning**: There will be snow and strong winds that produce a blinding snow, deep drifts, and life threatening wind chills. Seek shelter immediately. **Heat Index Warning**: How hot it feels to the body when the air temperature (in Fahrenheit) and relative humidity are combined. **Relative Humidity**: The percent of moisture in the air. **Temperature**: The temperature of the air in degrees Fahrenheit. **Wind**: The speed of the wind in miles per hour. **Wind Chill Warning**: There will be sub-zero temperatures with moderate to strong winds expected which may cause hypothermia and great danger to people, pets and livestock. **Winter Weather Advisory**: Weather conditions may cause significant inconveniences and may be hazardous. If caution is exercised, these situations should not become life threatening. **Winter Storm Warning**: Severe winter conditions have begun in your area. **Winter Storm Watch**: Severe winter conditions, like heavy snow and ice are possible within the next day or two. Communal Water-Play Communal, unsupervised water play is prohibited. Supervised children are permitted to engage in water-play. Precautions are taken to ensure that communal water-play does not spread communicable infectious disease. Handwashing is always enforced after leaving the sensory table. Injuries Safety is a major concern in childcare and so daily safety inspections are completed inside and outside the center area in order to prevent injuries. First aid will be administered by a trained caregiver in the event that your child sustains a minor injury (e.g., scraped knee). You will receive an incident report outlining the incident and course of action taken. If the injury produces any type of swelling or needs medical attention, you will be contacted immediately. Each classroom is equipped with a first aid kit meeting the state regulations. In the event of a serious medical emergency, the child will be taken to the hospital immediately by ambulance, while we will try to contact you or an emergency contact. Biting Biting is a normal stage of development that is common among infants and toddlers – and sometimes even among preschoolers. It is something that most young children will try at least once. When biting happens, our response will be to care for and help the child who was bitten and to help the biter learn more appropriate behavior. Our focus will not be on punishment for biting, but on effective behaviors that address the specific reason for biting. Notes will be written to the family of the child who was bitten and the biter’s family. We will work together with the families of each to keep them informed and to develop strategies for change. Respectful Behavior All children and families will be treated with respect and dignity. In return, we expect the same from all of our families. We will not tolerate hostile or aggressive behavior. If this occurs, we reserve the right to ask you to control your behavior or to remove your children from our care. Smoking The poisons in secondhand smoke are especially harmful to infants and young children’s developing bodies, therefore the indoor and outdoor center environment and vehicles used by the center are non-smoking areas at all times. The use of tobacco in any form is prohibited on the center’s premises. Prohibited Substances The use of alcohol or illegal drugs is prohibited on the center’s premises. Possession of illegal substances or unauthorized potentially toxic substances is prohibited. Any adult who appears to be inebriated, intoxicated, or otherwise under the influence of mind-altering or polluting substances is required to leave the premises immediately. Dangerous Weapons A dangerous weapon is a gun, knife, razor, or any other object, which by the manner it is used or intended to be used, is capable of inflicting bodily harm. Families, children, staff or guests (other than law enforcement officers) possessing a dangerous weapon will not be permitted onto the premises. In cases that clearly involve a gun or any other weapon on our premises, the police will be called and the individual(s) involved will be immediately removed from the premises. This policy applies to visible or concealed weapons. Child Custody Without a court document, both parents/guardians have equal rights to custody. We are legally bound to respect the wishes of the parent/guardian with legal custody based on a certified copy of the most recent court order, active restraining order, or court-ordered visitation schedule. We will not accept the responsibility of deciding which parent/guardian has legal custody where there is no court documentation. Suspected Child Abuse We are required by law to report all observations of child abuse or neglect cases to the appropriate state authorities if we have reasonable cause to believe or suspect a child is suffering from abuse or neglect or is in danger of abuse or neglect, no matter where the abuse might have occurred. The child protective service agency will determine appropriate action and may conduct an investigation. It then becomes the role of the agency to determine if the report is substantiated and to work with the family to ensure the child’s needs are met. Our center will cooperate fully with any investigation and will maintain confidentiality concerning any report of child abuse or neglect. Emergencies Lost or Missing Child In the unlikely event that a child becomes lost or separated from a group, all available staff will search for the child. If the child is not located within 3 minutes, the family and the police will be notified. Fire Safety Our center is fully equipped with Fire Extinguishers that are checked annually. Our fire evacuation plan is reviewed with the children and staff on a basis. We conduct monthly fire drills and they are posted on the bulletin board in our entryway. Emergency Transportation In the event your child needs to be transported due to a medical emergency, if no other authorized person can be contacted and the need for transportation is essential, an ambulance will be called for transportation. A proper escort will accompany and remain with the child until a family member or emergency contact arrives. Appendix A PLEASE USE THE BELOW FLOW CHART TO DETERMINE IF YOUR CHILD NEEDS TO STAY HOME/WAIT FOR SYMPTOMS TO IMPROVE OR IF YOU NEED TO TEST. We follow the VT child care regulations Appendix A, page 114 to make decisions on illness while in care OR to make the decision if they can return if testing negative OR if further COVID information is presenting itself in the classroom, school or at home. Just because a child tests negative for COVID does not mean they are not contagious with another excludable illness. The individual may return to the childcare program once symptoms are resolved, and they have been without a fever or fever reducing medicine for 24 hours (this is the current infectious disease protocol in child care licensing regulations). Family Handbook Acknowledgement Please sign this acknowledgment, detach it from the handbook, and return it to the center prior to enrollment. This handbook may be updated from time-to-time, and notice will be provided as updates are implemented. Thank you for acknowledging the policies and procedures we have established for the safety and welfare of all children in our care. We look forward to getting to know you and your family. I have received the Next Generation Family Handbook, and I have reviewed the family handbook with a member of the Next Generation staff. It is my responsibility to understand and familiarize myself with the Family Handbook and to ask center management for clarification of any policy, procedure or information contained in the Next Generation Family Handbook that I do not understand. _________________________________ _______________________ Recipient Signature Date
daf760be-2cf4-42f4-abc8-a74d252f3412
CC-MAIN-2024-10
https://www.nextgenerationvt.com/_files/ugd/84d611_fe03d31930004a598b35c523fc3e036f.pdf
2024-02-24T21:28:15+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474569.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20240224212113-20240225002113-00497.warc.gz
936,064,419
13,598
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.992345
eng_Latn
0.99836
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1007, 1873, 4114, 4817, 6846, 9453, 11653, 14617, 16986, 19078, 20788, 23542, 25797, 28094, 30553, 32806, 34345, 36646, 38891, 41231, 42756, 45475, 48134, 50593, 53125, 56028, 61318, 63518, 65523, 66283, 67210 ]
[ 1.6953125, 2.78125 ]
1
0
APEC AND CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change is an existential threat for humanity as a whole. APEC economies are disproportionately affected by, and contribute to, climate change. AN APEC PROBLEM Due to their location and geographic diversity, APEC economies are exposed to climate change, and suffer from more than 70% of global natural disasters. Some effects of climate change: - Higher sea levels, extreme rain, and droughts can make land economically unproductive. - Higher temperatures reduce both agricultural yields and labor productivity. - Flooding can amplify health risks from water-borne diseases. If climate policy remains business-as-usual, resulting in an estimated temperature increase of 3.2°C, the region can expect up to 18.3% GDP loss within the century. HOW APEC CONTRIBUTES TO CLIMATE CHANGE Between 1990 and 2018, the region’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions increased from 16.5 to 27.8 billion tons of CO2 equivalent. - APEC makes up 38% of the world’s population and 55% of GDP, but contributes 60% of global greenhouse gas emissions and 65% of carbon emissions. - 7 of the world’s top 10 CO2 emitting economies are in APEC. - APEC’s share of global greenhouse gas emissions is increasing. NO, COVID-19 DID NOT FIX CLIMATE CHANGE The COVID-19 pandemic led to severe restrictions on transportation and movement, which resulted in a 75% reduction in air traffic. People stayed home more and used land transportation less. According to the International Energy Agency, this resulted in a 6% decline in global energy-related CO2 emissions. However, economic resumption in the latter part of 2020 resulted in a similar recovery in emissions: by December 2020, CO2 emissions were 2% higher than pre-pandemic levels. APEC'S RESPONSE APEC HAS MADE EFFORTS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE - The region’s forest cover increased by 22.7 million hectares in 2008–2020 - Economies are on track to doubling the share of renewables in their energy mix by 2030 - The share of trade in environmental goods has increased to 5.2% of merchandise trade in 2019 - Bonds issued to finance new or existing green projects reached USD 92.3 billion in 2020 The APEC Putrajaya Vision 2040 aims to pursue growth that is strong, balanced, secure, sustainable and inclusive by promoting economic policies that will tackle environmental challenges like climate change. BUT APEC NEEDS TO DO MORE To limit the rise of global temperature to no more than 2.0°C, APEC must reduce GHG emissions by about 900 million tons of CO2 equivalent per year until 2030, then achieve net-zero by 2070. This is roughly like eliminating the carbon emissions of 117 million cars every year for the next 50 years. APEC needs to do a lot more to address climate change. The post-pandemic recovery can be an opportunity to rebuild better and greener. Action beyond commitments - Climate change requires a holistic approach - Green policies need to address negative side effects Concrete measures and policy analysis - Standardize measurements and monitor against climate change targets - Evaluate impacts of green policies Strengthen global and regional cooperation - Make APEC relevant in addressing the climate change crisis This is just the tip of the (melting) iceberg. You’ll find more information about this issue in the full report. Download it at www.apec.org/publications
b3326094-81e9-404e-8ded-323f890f81ed
CC-MAIN-2024-51
https://www.apec.org/docs/default-source/infographics/2021/1104_apec-and-the-climate-change-crisis_a4.pdf?sfvrsn=f1661200_2
2024-12-14T17:23:26+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066125790.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20241214151042-20241214181042-00305.warc.gz
579,370,709
745
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.993678
eng_Latn
0.994325
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1217, 3361 ]
[ 2.28125 ]
2
1
STAR PROGRAMME IMPACT FUND Children | Education FUND OVERVIEW NAME STAR Programme Impact Fund FUND OBJECTIVES This fund aims to break the cycle of intergenerational poverty and enable children from less socio-economically advantaged families to maximise their potential by providing one-to-one professional mentorships over eight years. COUNTRY OF OPERATIONS Singapore LAUNCH DATE October 2024 MINIMUM CONTRIBUTION SGD20,000 Multi-year contributions encouraged FUND TARGET AND DURATION SGD6,000,000 Over 4 years THE ISSUE A child’s development during their early years is critical to future happiness, wellbeing and success. Two key differentiating factors in this are a safe and functioning family environment and psychological well-being. However, children from less socio-economically advantaged families face significant challenges in accessing education and social-emotional development support. Often stretched for time and resources, their families are focused on making ends meet. With current support initiatives in Singapore focused more on adults, there are limited opportunities for direct child intervention. To ensure that all children can achieve and maximise their potential, they need access to proper guidance, positive reinforcement, enriching social interactions, and assistance to nurture their talents and learning. OUR PARTNER In June 2023, SHINE Children and Youth Services (SHINE) piloted STAR, a child-centric, long-term mentoring programme for children aged six to 13. Focusing on families of lower socio-economic backgrounds and living in government-subsidised rental communities, the programme aims to support and uplift these children towards social mobility. Modeled after the evidence-based Friends of The Children programme in the U.S., STAR is an individualised mentoring programme focused on the holistic development of a child. Full time, salaried, Professional Mentors provide consistent, one-to-one guidance to both the child and their parents/caregivers over the course of eight years. These Professional Mentors help children build social emotional competencies, develop age-relevant learning goals, and core life skills. These Mentors also equip parents with the skills and capacity to nurture an environment that best helps children to achieve their potential. Since 1976, SHINE has empowered children, youth, and families through school, center, and community-based social work and educational psychology programmes. Annually, SHINE supports around 6,000 children and youth, helping them build resilience and hope for their future. WHAT YOUR FUNDING COULD UNLOCK SGD30,000 Support two children’s journey with STAR for one year. SGD60,000 Support one child’s journey with STAR for four years. SGD120,000 Support one child’s journey to complete the STAR programme over eight years. KEY PRIORITIES 1. Enabling the development of a child’s social-emotional competencies in their formative years 2. Fostering a child’s development of positive connections with their peers and increase their motivation towards learning 3. Empowering parents to play a bigger role in nurturing their child by providing better access to opportunities and resources CHAMPION DONOR “When designing to solve wicked problems such as social mobility for underserved population, it is imperative to be evidence-informed while considering the local context, user experiences, and last mile solution. STAR programme has been designed with these considerations. We are thrilled to be partnering SHINE in developing STAR programme and playing our part by bringing in the risk capital requisite for social innovation.” RAMAN SIDHU Chief Executive Officer, Octava Foundation Octava Foundation is a Singapore-based private grantmaker committed to promoting equitable education and skills development. Using a venture philanthropy approach, the Foundation supports social purpose organisations in developing solutions and furthering their impact in Singapore and Asia. Through its Young Learners Fund, it aims to close the disadvantaged gap in education for primary school-aged children in Singapore. TO GIVE: Tess Mackean firstname.lastname@example.org Asia Community Foundation 1 Lorong 2 Toa Payoh #05-01 Braddell House Singapore 319637 WHY GIVE? 1. Learn alongside experienced givers Join the champion’s giving journey and learn about the issue and needs. 2. Fund high-quality social impact organisations Support impactful nonprofits with a proven track record of driving positive change. 3. Join a network of donors Be part of a community of impact-minded donors. 4. Focus on your giving Leverage ACF’s grant management capabilities to reduce your administrative burden. 5. Ensure security and accountability Rely on the ACF team to conduct due diligence and manage grant tracking and reporting. 5% of the total funds raised will cover ACF’s fundraising and administrative costs. Individuals with ‘Accredited Investor’ status, their associated private wealth entities, or corporate entities that pass ACF’s Know-Your-Donor process may give through ACF’s various funds. THE BACKGROUND A child’s development in their formative years is crucial in ensuring they grow up to be confident, successful and independent. For children and youth without additional health or developmental conditions, a safe, nurturing family environment and psychological well-being are the most important factors impacting their quality of life. Responsive caregiving has a key role to play. However, the bandwidth of parents running lower-income households is often stretched, leaving limited capacity to provide this support. For some, early childhood education can be an expensive commitment, and they may need to focus their resources on providing day-to-day subsistence. As a result, children from these families may spend much of their time at home, with less access to resources compared to their peers. This means they can also miss out on more peer-enriching social interactions. With parents focused on making ends meet, children also have fewer opportunities to learn from and be guided by the adult figures in their lives. Studies have shown that the presence of a consistent adult figure can lessen the likelihood of risk indicators such as poor school attendance or a lack of pre-education engagement. Meeting these needs helps ensure that a child’s development in literacy, numeracy, and social-emotional competencies are on par with their peers. Despite Singapore’s diverse child development support ecosystem, many existing programmes emphasise short-term, centre-based interventions. With most programmes occurring outside regular school hours, challenges arise in sustaining child engagement and attendance, which impact their overall effectiveness. A high volunteer and social worker turnover rate further complicates these efforts, making it difficult to build lasting trust with children and their parents. Additionally, social work in Singapore traditionally focuses on supporting adults rather than directly engaging children. This limits opportunities for direct intervention and often frames users from a deficit perspective, with assistance provided only when challenges escalate. Without effective and sustained interventions during a child’s critical developmental years, children may face less desirable life outcomes, perpetuating the cycle of intergenerational poverty. To address this gap, there is an urgent need for long-term, consistent, child-centric support to ensure that these children have the best opportunities and environments to reach their full potential. Key factors for a child’s development: 1. Providing a supportive and safe learning environment 2. Ensuring children establish and reach their learning goals 3. Developing their social emotional competencies 4. Having a consistent guiding figure in their lives to reinforce positive behaviours In Singapore, 25% households earn less than half the national median income. References: 1. Poon, A., Chong, S., & National Council of Social Service. Understanding the quality of life of children and youth. In Understanding the Quality of Life of Children and Youth (p. 1). National Council of Social Service. 2022.
91f76567-c087-4f5a-aa97-4fc30f5c72de
CC-MAIN-2024-51
https://asiacf.org/storage/app/media/Impact%20Funds/Factsheet%20-%20STAR%20Programme%20Impact%20Fund.pdf
2024-12-10T21:24:26+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066067826.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20241210194529-20241210224529-00209.warc.gz
90,921,748
1,576
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.994285
eng_Latn
0.994655
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2586, 5118, 8247 ]
[ 2.171875 ]
1
0
JACQUES PÉPIN: A LEGACY OF TECHNIQUE PROGRAM HIGHLIGHTS Learn how to cook more like Jacques Pépin in this 30-hour course featuring: • 11 Units | 48 Lessons | 180+ learning tasks • Over 140 instructional videos featuring Jacques Pépin • Over 130 recipes that reinforce key techniques and concepts • Over 15 hours of video Unit 1: Introduction In this unit you will receive an overview of Jacques Pépin | A Legacy of Technique: the structure of this course, an introduction to our instructors and a walkthrough of the course platform. We hope you will take a moment to complete a welcome survey. Unit 2: A Legacy of Technique In this unit you will gain insight and understanding into Jacques’ core principle that food is precious and worthy of respect. You will learn how to organize yourself mentally and physically to cook, that practice and repetition are necessary for mastery, the importance of knowing and cooking for an audience, and that food is a powerful force for community, health and well-being. Unit 3: Are You Ready to Cook Like Jacques? In this unit, you will learn knife basics, gain an understanding of Jacques’ interpretation of mise en place, and get an overview of Jacques’ pantry and his approach to selecting ingredients. Unit 4: Tender Green and Leafy Vegetables In this unit you will begin to discover the enormously diverse world of tender and green vegetables, some of the fundamentals of vegetable preparation and cooking techniques. The unit introduces categories of techniques including raw, sautéed, blanched and roasted preparations. As in every unit, each preparation is supported with recipes and videos demonstrating the techniques and illustrative descriptions explaining the underlying cooking principles and food science. Unit 5: Firm Vegetables In this unit you will learn preparations for firm vegetables, such as potatoes and other root vegetables, squashes and firm aromatic vegetables. Recipes, videos and discussion focus on select vegetables as exemplars for a variety of techniques ranging from raw and pickled to sautéed to shallow braised to roasted. Unit 6: Eggs Jacques loves eggs! In this unit you will discover the versatility of eggs through a collection of Jacques’ techniques and recipes. You will build your own repertoire of preparations and techniques by exploring examples of eggs cooked simply with direct heat in a pan, with water, or with dry heat, and of course Jacques’ signature French omelet. Unit 7: Poultry In this unit you will learn the skills needed to effectively take apart a whole chicken and to cook its parts and pieces in a variety of different techniques. You will learn techniques for cooking chicken in a sauté pan or pot with liquid, as well as how to best roast a whole turkey or chicken. Unit 8: Fish and Shellfish In this unit you will be exposed to the wide variety of aquatic life that makes up the complex category of seafood. The unit provides background to aid you in making good, sustainable seafood choices. Jacques offers excellent entry points to stimulate your appetite and appreciation, while offering the best paths to excellent results. Unit 9: Fruit as Your Sweet In this unit you will learn some basic handling and cutting techniques for fruit, as well as simple methods for raw and cooked fruit presentations. Throughout the unit, emphasis will be placed on evaluation of the ripeness of the fruit and the application of appropriate techniques to simply exalt the end of a meal. Unit 10: Graded Activity | Jacques as Your Guest In this unit you will apply all you have observed and practiced to complete a meal for the most appreciative of guests, Chef Jacques Pépin. Unit 11: Final Summary In this unit, the primary objective will be to review the course and to complete a final knowledge check. You will also be afforded the opportunity to explore the legacy of Jacques Pépin including his cookbooks and video series, as well as further readings about the Jacques Pépin Foundation. Thank you for being our guest.
f4e8ef6f-95be-4ceb-ad70-237ea14c07b3
CC-MAIN-2021-49
https://rouxbe.s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/PDF/RXB_JacquesPepinLegacy_Syllabus_2021-2.pdf
2021-12-02T19:23:28+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964362287.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20211202175510-20211202205510-00224.warc.gz
495,836,333
819
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.995549
eng_Latn
0.996431
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1764, 4026 ]
[ 2.015625 ]
1
0
Remember: A line is a group of points on a straight path. It can go on and on forever. This line is called line $\overline{XY}$. A line segment is a part of a line that has two end points. This line segment is called segment $\overline{AB}$. A and B are the two end points. This line segment is 4 centimetres in length. Line segments can be measured because they have two end points. A ray is part of a line. It has one end point and the other end goes on and on forever. A ray is named with its end point first followed by any other point on the ray. This ray is called ray $\overline{CD}$. C is the one end point. 1. Are these lines, line segments or rays? Use the letters to name them. a) $\overline{FG}$ b) $\overline{PQ}$ c) $\overline{EF}$ d) $\overline{BA}$ e) $\overline{XY}$ f) $\overline{CD}$ g) $\overline{VW}$ h) $\overline{HG}$ 2. Measure the lengths of these line segments. Use a ruler. a) \( \overline{CD} \) b) \( \overline{EF} \) c) \( \overline{GH} \) d) \( \overline{KL} \) 3. Name one line. ____________________________ Name two line segments. ____________________________ Name two rays. ____________________________ Try this What do you make if you cut a line in half? What do you make if you cut a line segment in half? What do you make if you cut a ray in half? Angles and turning When two lines meet at an end point they make an angle. Angles are measures of turn. You can turn clockwise (in the direction of clock hands) or anticlockwise. 1. Write clockwise or anticlockwise to show the turn. a) turn a tap on ____________________________ b) open this door ____________________________ c) take off a bottle cap _______________________ d) turn the sound up _________________________ This dial has four positions. They are A, B, C and D. Complete the chart. Show the start and finish positions for each turn. | Start position | Turn | End position | |----------------|-----------------------|--------------| | A | $\frac{1}{4}$ turn clockwise | B | | A | $\frac{3}{4}$ turn clockwise | | | B | $\frac{1}{4}$ turn anticlockwise | | | C | $\frac{1}{4}$ turn clockwise | | | D | $\frac{1}{2}$ turn anticlockwise | | | D | $\frac{1}{4}$ turn clockwise | | | B | $\frac{1}{4}$ turn anticlockwise | | | C | $\frac{3}{4}$ turn anticlockwise | | Try this Stand and face the front of the room. Follow these instructions. 1. Make a $\frac{1}{4}$ turn clockwise. 2. Make a $\frac{1}{2}$ turn anticlockwise. 3. Make a $\frac{1}{4}$ turn anticlockwise. 4. Make a $\frac{1}{2}$ turn clockwise. 5. Make a full turn anticlockwise. Which way are you facing? Make up some more instructions for a friend to follow. Right angles This is a square corner. It is called a right angle. Look for shapes around you that have right angles. Right angles can be in any position, not just on the right! 1. Draw 5 right angles with your pencil and ruler. 2. Continue this pattern. 3 Continue this pattern. 4 Look at these shapes. Mark the right angles. Try this How many right angles can you see on this shape? Types of angles A $\frac{1}{4}$ turn is also called a right angle. A complete turn is the same as four right angles. Try to recognise these three types of angle. Right angle Acute angle Less than a right angle Obtuse angle Between a right angle and a straight line 1 Use a set square or a square corner made from folded paper. Name each angle as an acute angle, an obtuse angle or a right angle. a) ____________________________ b) ____________________________ c) ____________________________ d) ____________________________ e) ____________________________ f) ____________________________ g) ____________________________ h) ____________________________ 2 Draw these angles. Follow the instructions. a) Draw a line segment 5 cm long. Draw another 5 cm line segment from an end point to make an acute angle. b) Draw a line segment 4 cm long. Draw a 3 cm line segment from an end point to make an obtuse angle. c) Draw a line segment 6 cm long. Draw another 6 cm line segment from one end point to make a right angle. Use your square corner to help you measure a right angle. 3 These angles have been made by joining three dots. Join three dots on these grids. Make different angles of each type. Right angles Obtuse angles Acute angles Angles and shapes When lines meet to make shapes, different angles are made at each corner. This has a right angle and two acute angles. This has two right angles, two obtuse angles and an acute angle. 1 Look at each shape. Write the number of acute angles, obtuse angles and right angles. a) | acute | obtuse | right | |-------|--------|-------| | | | | b) | acute | obtuse | right | |-------|--------|-------| | | | | c) | acute | obtuse | right | |-------|--------|-------| | | | | d) | acute | obtuse | right | |-------|--------|-------| | | | | e) | acute | obtuse | right | |-------|--------|-------| | | | | f) | acute | obtuse | right | |-------|--------|-------| | | | | Look at the triangles. Put a coloured dot to show each type of angle. - Red: acute angle - Yellow: obtuse angle - Green: right angle Assessment Cut out four strips of card that are different lengths. Cut out four strips of card that are the same length. Put them together to make different shapes with four sides. Explore the different angles you can make by joining four strips. How many right angles can you make in a shape? How many acute angles? How many obtuse angles?
41fd5b3c-5d38-4e0c-aaa4-da281b732903
CC-MAIN-2021-17
https://macmillan.ru/upload/iblock/072/maths_3_b_u13_lines_and_angles.pdf
2021-04-12T23:10:42+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038069267.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20210412210312-20210413000312-00568.warc.gz
473,265,442
1,444
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.990976
eng_Latn
0.9986
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 847, 1307, 1738, 2881, 3140, 3274, 3934, 4536, 5353, 5833 ]
[ 4.53125 ]
2
0
Welcome to school! September 2020 What will it be like? Here is a book to read with your parents and carers at home. It will tell you what it will be like when you come back to St Clement Danes for the new school year. Contents Page 3 What is a bubble? Page 4 At School Page 5 How can we all keep safe? Page 7 What you can bring to school Page 8 Things to remember What is a bubble? Who is in your bubble? When we welcome you in September, you will be in your new class with your new teacher and all your class friends. To make sure we all stay as safe as possible, all our classes will now be joined up with another one to make a ‘bubble’. You will start and finish school, and have all your lunch times and playtimes with your bubble. You will only play with the other children in your bubble. At School... • You will be making new friends and doing a lot of fun indoor and outdoor learning! • You will need to wear your smart school uniform every day. (This includes wearing black school shoes; not boots or trainers. Hair accessories need to be black, navy or white. Coats need to be plain black or navy. [Uniform list](#)) • Our classroom will have a lovely Book Corner with lots of books to enjoy! • We will all wash and sanitize our hands a lot! • As usual, you won’t be able to bring in any toys from home. “Home toys stay home, school toys stay at school.” How we can all help each other to stay safe? As well as staying in our classes and bubbles, we all need to follow some rules to keep everyone safe: CLEAN HANDS Use the school’s hand sanitizer stations when you arrive at school and when you enter your classroom. Clean your hands regularly throughout the day, especially before you go home and before and after playtimes. Wash your hands regularly with soap for 20 seconds, especially: - before you eat - after you use the toilet - after you sneeze, cough or blow your nose Try your best not to touch your face. CATCH IT Cough into a tissue. BIN IT Throw your tissue in the bin after blowing your nose or coughing. KILL IT Wash your hands with soap for at least 20 seconds. How we can all help each other to stay safe? ✓ Speak to an adult if you feel unwell or worried. ✓ If you or someone else in your household shows symptoms of coronavirus then you will need to stay at home until we know it’s safe for you to come back to school. This seems a lot to take in but the teachers will help explain it all to you when you are at school. 😊 What you can bring to school A checklist of what you can bring to school: - A water bottle (Please make sure it has your name on it!) - You may bring a St CD school bookbag but no other rucksacks please - A healthy, nut-free packed lunch (if you’re not having a school lunch) - A healthy fruit snack if you wish - You can bring in your own hand sanitizer (which can then be kept in school). Please make sure it has your name on it. - You can bring your scooter to school if you wish. These will now be kept in the Early Years Playground. - Reception Only – Your school PE kit (Please make sure this is in school from day 1). As always, please remember **not** to bring in any toys from home. Please make sure all your uniform & belongings are clearly named. Things to remember for your child’s first day 1. Put name labels on your child’s uniform and their bag. 2. Pack a bag the night before and show your child what is inside. 3. Leave plenty of time to enjoy the journey to school on Monday morning. 4. Explain your child who will be them up and where at the end of the day. St Clement Danes We are looking forward to seeing you!
efbecd64-ea99-4084-82fa-3309fbfb01c5
CC-MAIN-2021-49
https://stclements-pri.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/document/Welcome-Back-to-School-Booklet-EYFS-September-2020.pdf?ts=1634430610
2021-12-08T19:18:46+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363520.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20211208175210-20211208205210-00260.warc.gz
626,541,958
844
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.995094
eng_Latn
0.997771
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 55, 368, 804, 1376, 2109, 2476, 3239, 3564, 3621 ]
[ 2.671875 ]
2
0
Guide to Sleep Sleep issues are a huge topic of frustration for parents. Research has shown that children with additional needs are more likely to have sleep issues than other children. There are a number of reasons for this which include: - Learning difficulties - Behavioural issues - Physical discomfort - Medical matters - Sensory issues - Inability to self-settle Understanding the basics about sleep can help you to identify why your child may be having difficulties sleeping. It can be tempting to compare your child's sleep issues with those of another child but everyone is different so making comparisons is not helpful... Throughout this talk, we will explore reasons *why* your child may have difficulty sleeping and suggest ways of improving their sleep patterns. Sleep Environment One of the best things you can do to help your child learn to sleep is to create a “sleep-friendly environment”. This means two things: • An environment that is conducive to sleep • Safe Going to bed should be a calm and peaceful experience for children. Sleep Environment Light Is the room dark enough? Managing your child’s exposure to light in their bedroom is essential as darkness gives a visual cue that it’s night time- it’s time to sleep! Darkness also helps to release melatonin, the body's "sleep hormone". Not only does this hormone help us to go to sleep initially, but it also helps us stay asleep for longer overnight. Consider... • Blocking out street lights, natural light from entering the room using window blinds, blackout curtains, heavy drapes • Turn main lights off- bright lights stimulate the brain and stop our bodies from feeling relaxed • The right colour lighting- different colours of light can have huge effects on sleep. White, blue and green based lights (however dim) will inhibit your child's melatonin at night by tricking the brain into believing it is still day light! Red is the least disruptive. Red light has a much higher wavelength which research shows does not inhibit melatonin. Once in bed go RED! Red night light - Amazon Welltop multicolour LED night light - Set to red only! Red light bulb - Maplin's, Homebase, Argos Christmas lights Ewan The Dream Sheep Aromatherapy Diffuser/Red Night Light Combination Sleep Environment Noise Is there any noise inside or outside the home that may be disturbing your child? Some children with sensory issues are hypersensitive to noise. What may seem like a quiet sound to us can seem very loud to them. Consider... • Blocking other sounds using a calming CD, white noise machine, an electric fan • Carpets or rugs as they absorb sounds • Wearing noise cancelling headphones Temperature Is your child too hot or cold? Your child’s sleep environment should be a comfortable temperature between 16 to 20 degrees Celsius. It can sometimes be difficult to judge the temperature of the room therefore using a room thermometer will ensure that the room is kept at a safe temperature. Sleep Environment Distractions The bedroom must become a visually calm, quiet space for all the senses! Keeping your child’s room free from distractions lets them focus on their sleeping. When putting your child down after a calm, quiet routine the last thing you want to do is offer loud, light up musical toys that capture their attention and increases their alertness. Consider... Tidying the bedroom, toys in boxes with lids, removing any colourful posters, rugs, duvets that are too stimulating Comfort Some children are sensitive to certain textures; try to experiment with different nightwear until you find something your child feels comfortable in. Try to think carefully-Is your child’s bed comfortable? Do they have enough pressure on them from their duvet/blankets or too much? Is their pillow soft enough? Or too soft? Screens Screens can affect sleep negatively in two ways: 1. The impact of the blue light source that is emitted, as this influences the production of melatonin, the sleep hormone and keeps children from feeling tired. 2. The stimulating effect that screens can have on the brain. Engaging the brain with exciting and stimulating TV shows before bed (even if they appear soft and calming) may lead to the release of hormones such as adrenaline which can reduce the ability to fall and maintain asleep. Swap the screen time for some simple quiet time activities to help them unwind and to slowly bring down the levels of stimulation before bed time. Quiet time activity examples... Quiet time box Create a box full of quiet activities to help your child wind down and to slowly bring down the levels of stimulation. These boxes will look different for each child... - Try to be as creative as possible to make these activities personalised and tailored to YOUR child's interests. - Rotate the activities on a regular basis so your child doesn’t get bored. - Find a special area where this time takes place; you could consider putting the box on a certain rug/mat which represents ‘quiet time’. Bedtime Routine Routines are very important at bedtime. A calming routine which follows a predictable pattern helps signal ‘it is time to go to sleep’. The same things need to happen in the same order every night for a bedtime routine to be successful. It will also allow your child to feel safe and reassured, as they will always know what is about to happen next. What does your child’s bedtime routine include? Bedtime Routine Here are some things to consider... - Appropriate routine - Visual schedule that your child will understand - checklists, pictures, symbols, photographs or objects - Use the same icon consistently to represent the same activity i.e. only use one bath icon to represent “bath time.” - Transition songs - Limit the number of activities (routine should take no longer than 30 minutes) - Makaton signs - Social stories Over to you!!! Name, Name, go to bed, it’s time to lay your sleepy head. Close your eyes and go to sleep, rest your little hands and feet. Name, Name, go to bed, it’s time to lay your sleepy head. How your child falls asleep Sleep Associations and the importance of self settling One of the main reasons why children have difficulties in independently falling asleep is because of the associations they have developed with night time and falling asleep. Some children rely on certain conditions to be able to settle themselves to sleep. For example, a child may need the television to be on, or an iPad to be playing or their parent present. Just like adults, children sleep in cycles consisting of deep sleep and light sleep. At the end of each cycle we all enter a stage of extremely light sleep and often wake up briefly during this time. Adults and children who have learnt how to sleep independently, just fall back to sleep straight away. However, if your child has not learnt to self settle, when they come into a lighter sleep and are awake enough to realise their original sleep environment is different i.e. no longer with an adult, televisions/ipads have been switched off, they are likely to wake up fully and need help getting back to sleep. This is why it is so important that your child is able to fall asleep independently at bedtime; this way they have a better chance to transition from one sleep cycle to the next and continue throughout the night. Tips for Self settling... - Comforter or bedtime sensory toy - Create the perfect sleep environment - White noise - Sleep inducing snack one hour before bed - Reward charts - Early bedtime to prevent overtiredness - Relaxation techniques - Exercise/fresh air throughout the day - Gradually moving further away from child’s bed each night - Social stories/visuals Bedtime tools Every child is different, it’s up to parents to consider each factor as well as some trial and error when it comes to what works and what doesn’t. Try a combination of these ideas… • Deep pressure- experiment with different pressures • Weighted blankets • Include sensory input in your child's bedtime routine- What are your child's sensory needs? • Sensory retreat- a safe place to be removed from overwhelming sensory stimuli • Sleep Sac • Sleep training clocks • Bedtime Box Night Waking: Keeping a Sleep Diary... A sleep diary is a simple but effective way of getting an insight into your child’s sleep patterns and habits. Sleep diaries can be helpful in identifying reasons why your child is not sleeping. They are also useful for tracking progress! Understanding the reasons why your child is not sleeping can help you work out strategies to promote healthy sleep patterns. Sleep Training - Medical issues - Environmental conditions - Bedtime routines How are you going to teach your child to sleep through the night??? Sleep training needs to be tailored to your child’s individual needs and family lifestyle e.g. siblings, communication, understanding, anxiety, medical conditions, behavioural issues—all need to be taken into consideration. Whichever approach you decide to use—the key is to be consistent and not to give up! **IF YOU ARE PERSISTENT, YOU WILL GET IT. IF YOU ARE CONSISTENT, YOU WILL KEEP IT.** Repetition Remember... To get through the hardest journey we need take only one step at a time, but we must keep on stepping. The first step is always the hardest but the results will be worth it! We want to continue to support families the best we can. Useful websites & Resources - www.tiredout.org.uk - www.gro-store.com - www.autism.org.uk - www.scope.org.uk - www.simplestuffworks.co.uk - www.snugglesac.com - http://ginadavies.co.uk/ - http://www.riversideschool.org.uk/
<urn:uuid:cf2f04f1-b94f-465e-894e-e5b1fe319d7a>
CC-MAIN-2018-22
http://www.riversideschool.org.uk/attachments/download.asp?file=506&type=pdf
2018-05-26T17:54:00Z
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794867841.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20180526170654-20180526190654-00419.warc.gz
460,954,203
1,983
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.954354
eng_Latn
0.99771
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 14, 371, 781, 1058, 2033, 2271, 2986, 3824, 4510, 5026, 5443, 5877, 6076, 7352, 7717, 8213, 8621, 9179, 9368, 9426, 9651 ]
[ 3.8125 ]
1
0
2008-2009 HOT SEASON FOR YOUNG PEOPLE PRESENTS TEACHER GUIDEBOOK GHOST BALLET FOR THE EAST BANK MACHINWORKS HOT Season and Guidebooks sponsored by REGIONS THANKS TO OUR SPONSORS TPAC Education is made possible in part by the generous contributions, sponsorships, and in-kind gifts from the following corporations, foundations, government agencies, and other organizations. HOT SEASON FOR YOUNG PEOPLE SPONSOR AND HOT GUIDEBOOK SPONSOR REGIONS® AT&T Aladdin Industries, Inc. Allstate Insurance American Airlines The Arts Company Bank of America The Bank of Nashville Bass, Berry & Sims PLC Baulch Family Foundation BMI-Broadcast Music Inc. Bridgestone Firestone Trust Fund The Broadway League Brown-Forman The Coca-Cola Bottling Company The Community Foundation of Middle Tennessee Country Music Association The Danner Foundation Davis-Kidd Booksellers, Inc. The Dell Foundation Dex Imaging, Inc. Dollar General Corporation Doubletree Hotel Ford Motor Company Fund The Jeffrey and Donna Eskind Family Foundation Ezell Foundation The John and Carole Ferguson Advised Fund* Patricia C. & Thomas F. Frist Designated Fund* Gannett Foundation Gaylord Entertainment Foundation The Gibson Foundation The Joel C. Gordon and Bernice W. Gordon Family Foundation The Harmon Group Ingram Arts Support Fund* Ingram Charitable Fund* Martha & Bronson Ingram Foundation* Dan J. and Fran F. Marcum Advised Fund The Martin Foundation Interior Design Services, Inc. The Walter and Sarah Knestrick Advised Fund* LifeWorks Foundation Lipman Brothers, Inc. The Memorial Foundation MRCO, LLC. Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority Miller & Martin, LLP Nashville City Club Nashville Predators Foundation New England Foundation for the Arts Nissan North America National Endowment for the Arts Neal & Harwell, PLC The Pfeffer Foundation Piedmont Natural Gas Foundation Pinnacle Financial Partners The Premiere Event Publix Super Markets Charities Mary C. Ragland Foundation Rainforest Café Rechter Family Fund* Regions Bank Reliant Bank Irvin and Beverly Small Foundation Robert Orr Sysco Food Services Company Southern Arts Federation SunTrust Bank, Nashville Earl Swensson Associates, Inc. Target The Tennessean Tennessee Arts Commission Ticketmaster Corporation TPAC Foundation United Way of Metropolitan Nashville Vanderbilt University Vector Management Waller Lansden Dortch & Davis *A fund of the Community Foundation of Middle Tennessee Special Thanks to: The HCA Foundation on behalf of HCA and the TriStar Family of Hospitals. Funding for the ArtSmart program is generously provided by HOT Transportation grants underwritten by Proud sponsor of the HOT Season and TPAC’s Family Field Trip Series Dear Teachers, Welcome, Teachers, to the 2009 TPAC Ed ArtSmart Visual Art Study Unit. We are pleased to invite you and your students to Alice Aycock's "Ghost Ballet for the East Bank Machineworks" for several reasons. Internationally acclaimed sculptor Alice Aycock was chosen from 155 artists to create Nashville’s first work of public art. What does this mean? Although Nashville benefits from many works of art in public places, "Ghost Ballet" is the first created for Nashville with public funds dedicated through the nationally proven Per Cent for Art model. Read more about this on pages 5. The Metro Nashville Arts Commission (MNAC) was the guiding force creating and shaping the policies and procedures for this and public projects to come. (The Metro Public Square Per Cent for Art projects are underway now.) MNAC was also invaluable in the preparation of this guidebook, and provided “An Introduction to Nashville’s Public Art Program” DVDs to participating schools. We are very grateful to them for their constant cooperation. As a monumental, permanent outdoor work of art, your students can activate their explorations and connections with "Ghost Ballet" for as long as they live in or visit Nashville. Engaging them with this stimulating, evocative creation can become an enduring touchstone of their aesthetic and curricular education they can enjoy, remember, and renew for decades. Through its exciting east riverbank location and its many possible curriculum connections, we believe "Ghost Ballet" will offer a dynamic experience for you and your students. Bring your open mind and let's all explore it together! F. Lynne Bachleda for TPAC Education A note from our Sponsor - Regions Bank For over 125 years Regions has been proud to be a part of the Middle Tennessee community, growing and thriving as our area has. From the opening of our doors on September 1, 1883, we are committed to this community and our customers. One area that we are strongly committed to is the education of our students. We are proud to support TPAC’s Humanities Outreach in Tennessee Program. What an important sponsorship this is – reaching over 25,000 students and teachers – some students would never see a performing arts production without this program. Regions continues to reinforce its commitment to the communities it serves and in addition to supporting programs such as HOT, we have over 43 associates teaching financial literacy in our classrooms this year. Thank you, teachers, for giving your students this wonderful opportunity. They will certainly enjoy the experience. You are creating memories of a lifetime, and Regions is proud to be able to help make this opportunity possible. Jim Schmitz Executive Vice President Area Executive Middle Tennessee Area Ghost Ballet, as it is informally known, is made of aluminum, steel, neon, and thermo-formed acrylic shapes. These join steel beams resting upon the base of a gantry overhead crane once used by Nashville Bridge Company to build and launch barges. Ghost Ballet is 100 feet tall, 100 feet wide and 60 feet deep. Aycock’s sculpture is site-specific – integrated with its physical location. It draws the eye to the environs of Cumberland River’s east bank from the Coliseum to Shelby Street. Ghost Ballet also reflects our own time in this site’s long history. It was completed in 2007, with one element being rotated slightly on site in 2008 to more accurately reflect the artist’s vision. Metropolitan Nashville Arts Commission (MNAC) sponsored Ghost Ballet as the city’s first Percent for Public Art Work. This new program funded the roughly $500,000 cost of the sculpture, including artist fees, engineering and fabrication of the sculptural elements; site preparation; restoration of existing steel beams; transportation; signage; installation; and lighting. Ghost Ballet Riverfront Park view, day. Photo credit: Gary Layda, 2008 “Ghost Ballet” is potentially exceptionally rich in curriculum connections. The sculpture can be a touchstone for the following: Boats and barge building Civic process Collaboration and teamwork Colors and their symbolic reference Commerce Definition of public art Design versus manufacture Found versus created art Geography and map reading Historical references Industrial Revolution Language arts in the poetic title Machines Math: measures, curves, angles, scale, geometry Multiple perspectives Negative & positive space Pattern recognition Physical balance Recycling River culture Role and need for public art Rules (in government and in art) Selection criteria Shapes Site-specific sculpture Storytelling from another’s point of view Symmetry and asymmetry Tennessee and Nashville history The nature of ballet in objects Timelines (including past, present, and future) Urban architecture Visual balance What professional artists do Women artists Alice Aycock is an American sculptor born in 1946 at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Considered one of the major sculptors and conceptual artists of the last two decades, many of her early site-specific sculptures deal with the relationship of art and the environment. This includes *Ghost Ballet for the East Bank Machineworks*. She has taught at numerous colleges and universities including Yale and New York’s School of Visual Arts since 1991. Aycock is internationally acclaimed. Her work has appeared in the Americas, Europe, and Japan. Among numerous awards she has received four National Endowment for the Arts Fellowships. Museum collections include the Museum of Modern Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Brooklyn Museum, the Los Angeles County Museum, and the Whitney Museum of American Art. Nashville’s *Ghost Ballet for the East Bank Machineworks* was completed in 2008. Tennessee will have two Aycock outdoor sculptures when work for the Johnson-Ward Pedestrian Mall at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville is completed in the spring of 2009. While she was working on Nashville’s sculpture she was also creating *Strange Attractor for Kansas City* at the Kansas City International Airport, *The Uncertainty of Ground State Fluctuations* for Clayton, Missouri; and *A Little Cosmic Rhythm* for 645 Madison Avenue, New York City. The sculptural properties of the bridges, the sculptural properties of the stadium, and the historical past—I compressed these together into a kind of ballet movement because the piece changes as you move around it. It suggests a certain kind of movement, if you will: positions, dance, movements, which is why I referred to it as a “Ghost Ballet.” --Alice Aycock The Metro Nashville Arts Commission’s (MNAC) public art program was established in June 2000 with the passage of a public art ordinance by the Metro Council. The ordinance dedicates one percent (1%) of the net proceeds of general obligation bonds issued for construction projects to fund public art. MNAC established a Public Art Committee (PAC) as a standing committee to oversee the public art program. Simultaneously the Nashville Civic Design Center hosted forty public meetings that resulted in “The Plan of Nashville” publication that had ten guiding principles for the city’s urban design. One of these was “to integrate public art into the city.” Potential sites for public art were discussed and the East Bank was overwhelmingly the first choice for Nashville’s foray into public art. MNAC distributed an RFQ (Request for Qualifications) and 155 artists responded. The nine member citizen selection committee reviewed resumes and over 3,000 slides twice to select six semi-finalists. These six artists then had eight weeks to design a work of art, build a scale model, develop a budget, and specify a maintenance plan. The selection committee determined that Alice Aycock’s proposal for “Ghost Ballet for the East Bank Machineworks” best fulfilled the goals stated in the RFQ: The artwork should: * focus attention on the Cumberland River and its east and west banks * be seen as a connection to both sides of the river * define the area * attract pedestrians to the site * contribute to the positive experience of downtown for residents and visitors * engage pedestrian and vehicular viewers, both day and night * be a focal point on the east-west axis of Broadway and Shelby Avenue In a broader sense, the project may: * contribute to the visual character and texture of the community * foster collective memory * give meaning to place by recalling local and regional history **Ten Beliefs about Public Art** Why is Public Art Good for Nashville? Public art enriches the lives of citizens and visitors in a number of ways. It can: * enhance an experience of being in a public space * create a sense of place * contribute to the visual character and texture of the community * give visual expression to local values and cultural diversity * foster collective memory and can give meaning to a place by recalling local history * further the community’s sense of spirit and pride **What are Other Benefits of Public Art?** It can: * strengthen the positive reputation of Nashville in local, regional, national and international arenas * contribute to cultural tourism * give citizens a voice in shaping their civic environment * unify neighborhoods around shared traditions and experiences Nashville owes its origins to the Cumberland River. For centuries before the European settlers came, Native Americans built villages, buried their dead, and hunted game along the river and its tributaries. After the Robertson and Donelson parties arrived and built Fort Nashboro and outposts fanning out from the core of the frontier town, the river was the lifeline between the settlers and the outside world. The river provided their water and power, carried goods and travelers, and received waste from manufacturing and milling. Today, both riverbanks in downtown Nashville still reflect that utilitarian character. In today’s zoning terms, it would be said that the West Bank was mixed use. The City Hotel and the county jail were neighbors to varied businesses such as a soap works, a manufacturer of iron stoves, a lumber yard, a creamery, as well as a few rough residential structures. The city wharf was along the west side of the river; Front Street, or today’s First Avenue, grew along the wharf to accommodate the cargo of the river boats. Workers unloaded goods into the east doors of the buildings there, and merchants sold those products, wholesale and retail, out the Second Avenue side. Bars were interspersed with the other businesses, the most well-known being the Silver Dollar Saloon at Market Street (now Second Avenue) and Broadway. Nashville’s rowdier side was especially evident near the river. The East Bank (site of “Ghost Ballet”) was almost totally industrial in character up until the construction of the NFL stadium, long after the west side’s conversion from a mixture of uses to more consistent urban development. Maps of the East Bank show brickyards, lumber companies, a casket manufacturer, and a coal and ice house. Rail lines served these businesses, as they did on the West Bank. As the twentieth century progressed, the Nashville Bridge Company, headquartered in the building still standing adjacent to the Shelby Street Pedestrian Bridge, became increasingly visible on the East Bank. The launching of barges built there in the last decades of the century often drew onlookers from across the river. The Shelby Street Pedestrian Bridge, built 1907-1909, is on the National Register of Historic Places for its significance as one of Nashville’s best examples of modern technology and engineering at the turn of the century, especially its bridge trusses made of reinforced concrete. When the bridge was built, the East Bank was populated by industries that used barges for transportation on the Cumberland River. Some of the industrial artifacts remain today as sculptural elements along the East Bank Greenway. Now a vital link in Nashville’s greenways system, the Shelby Street Pedestrian Bridge stands as one of the longest pedestrian bridges in the world, an important recreational and transit corridor, and a popular destination. “Its presence will be a focal point for the East Bank and will perceptually extend Broadway in a visual way. As one studies it, the piece will pull them in and then visually push them back to see the big picture of all that happens around it—the stadium, the pedestrian bridge, the interstate, the greenway, residential neighborhoods, and the river.” Alice Aycock Ghost Ballet - Day shot from Broadway. Photo credit: Gary Layda, 2008 Art Meets Industry on the East Bank Artist Alice Aycock’s Statement from the Competition Proposal My proposal for the East Bank Greenway is located at the site of the gantry overhead crane. The location of the sculptural installation on the existing concrete pillars and steel trusses is intended to emphasize the historical significance of this place as well as to operate as a memory trace of the past industrial activities there. The installation takes full advantage of the existing structure’s height and presumed structural integrity in order to maximize its placement on the Nashville skyline. The new metaphorical construction operates as a sign signifying the activity and energy that was generated on the site and also refers to the energy and excitement that still exists. The flying trusses and bridgework, which form the compositional structure of the project, refer not only to the cranes that once occupied the site but also to the existing bridges, which span the river. The flying trusses suggest that the viewer experience the entire site as a work of art - a museum without walls. The turbine whirlwind on the ground is a reference to the dynamo, which generates energy for the spiral galactic lighting elements above. These elements could be seen as the “ghost image” of the past as well as the visual manifestation of the energy of the present. The materials are painted aluminum and stainless steel where necessary for structural integrity. (bolts, plates, etc.). Additional sculptural components are neon and thermo-formed acrylic shapes. The neon light will be attached to a small aluminum truss for structural strength. The overall dimensions of the installation are approximately 100’ long x 100’ high x 60’ deep. The design is entirely conceptual and components will be adjusted in consultation with the project structural engineer. The structure will be engineered for hurricane strength winds, snow and human loads. It will be engineered locally, most likely fabricated at Dover Tank and Plate Company in Dover, Ohio where it will be shop fitted before installation and trucked to the site prior to installation. A local construction firm under the supervision of the artist will install it. Wherever feasible local businesses will be utilized. Who Physically Made “Ghost Ballet’s” Elements? Public art often differs from studio art in ways beyond larger scale. For much public art the artist’s role is to have a vision, communicate it to others, and oversee its realization. Alice Aycock did not physically make any of the elements of “Ghost Ballet.” Instead she enabled other experts to harness their talents with her creativity. The end result is a lasting Nashville landmark that no party could have produced on their own. Dover Tank and Plate Company Founded in 1922 in Dover, Ohio, the company fabricated steel and in the process earned a reputation throughout the state of Ohio for excellent quality workmanship. The Dover Design and Management Group, LLC, is staffed by experienced, licensed engineers and draftsmen. Like its sister company, DDMG is dedicated to excellence and quality. DDMG offers complete building design and custom design of bins, tanks and ductwork to suit special requirements. DDMG also offers a full line of engineering & architectural services with a strong emphasis on commercial and industrial projects. Perfection Electricks Founded in 1984, Perfection Electricks is a custom electrical, electro-mechanical, and electronics manufacturer specializing in products for the entertainment business. From their initial focus in television they expanded into the theatrical, film, trade show/industrial and museum industries, as well as artist support. As they say, “Many artists have found themselves trapped between concept and realization, especially when the latest technologies are involved. Perfection Electricks provides technical consultation and solutions to those whose challenges seem insurmountable. Our background has uniquely prepared us for the creative process.” Gantry cranes are particularly suited to lifting very heavy objects. Huge gantry cranes have been used for shipbuilding where the crane straddles the ship allowing massive objects like ships’ engines to be lifted and moved over the ship. —Wikipedia Planning a Class Trip Directions & Map for Tour The purple circle marks the location of *Ghost Ballet for the East Bank Machineworks*. The red star on the West Bank of the Cumberland marks a turnaround at the foot of Broadway at 1st Avenue. *Ghost Ballet* is best viewed from 1) the turnaround; 2) the East Bank Greenway near Titans Way; and/or 3) the Shelby Street Pedestrian Bridge. Here is a suggested tour route: 1) Approach downtown via the Gateway Bridge (Korean Veterans Way). 2) Turn right on 1st Avenue South 3) Drop passengers at the 1st Avenue / Broadway turnaround to view sculpture. This is a no parking zone, so bus will need to circle back around to pick up passengers for next leg of the tour. 4) Take 1st Avenue North to Woodland Street (public restrooms are available at Fort Nashboro along the way) to cross the Cumberland via the Woodland Street Bridge. 5) Turn right on South 2nd Street; right on Victory Avenue; and park on Titans Way. Passengers disembark and cross RR track to view sculpture from the East Bank Greenway. (Stay on sidewalk to avoid hazards). 6) Exit the area via Titans Way, Russell Street; South 2nd Street to Gateway Blvd. To view the sculpture from the pedestrian bridge, passengers may be dropped at South 1st Street and Shelby on the East Bank side, or 4th Avenue South and Shelby on the West Bank side. Exploration One: Connecting Shapes and Lines Warm-Up Have children notice the shapes in the room by outlining them with their fingers and naming them. For example, the circle of the doorknob, the square of the window pane, the rectangle of an eraser, the curve of a curtain pulled back, the line of the edge of a book, the “horse shoe” of a filing cabinet handle, the triangle of a folded piece of paper. Activity In a circle call out a shape and ask children to form it with their bodies. Remind them they don’t always have to stand. They can use the floor, for example. Ask them to find more than one solution for each shape. In groups of eight assign with slips of paper the following (one to each child). If the class does not produce evenly divided groups of eight then the smaller group can work in the same way with fewer shapes. 2 horse shoes 2 straight lines 2 curves 1 circle 2 triangles-composed with one child Using their bodies to make their assigned shapes, ask students to form a group work of art. They need to decide what parts should be touching and what parts should stand alone. The result will be a sculpture. After all groups have worked out their sculpture and can remember how to form them, let each group show the others their creative solution. Ask the others to move around the sculpture and observe it from many different angles. With each group notice how different the sculpture appears as you move around it. For an additional step you may want to ask the sculpture to start to move and the audience to stand still. Discuss and Reflect Group by Group - What shapes did you see? - How did they change, appear, or disappear when the observer moved around the sculpture? - How and what did they feel when moving around the sculpture? Did they move fast or slow? Go high or low? What other choices might dancers make? - What changed when the audience was still and the sculpture began to move? Did they move fast or slow? Go high or low? - Which way was more satisfying? Why? - Older children may discuss their decision-making process. Did a lead artist emerge? View Images of “Ghost Ballet” - Notice the shapes and lines. - How does the sculpture change? - Why did the artist call it a “ballet?” In this activity, students will select a location for a small building project; will work with simple materials to symbolize the past, present, and future; will compare and contrast their choices to Alice Aycock’s work. Materials per child 8 clothes pins 7 pipe cleaners, two colors 1 piece of typing paper Warm Up Discuss what kinds of objects, shapes, and colors they associate with the past, present, and future. Conversation can be initiated and confined to objects in the room. Activity With the knowledge they are going to create a sculpture in a particular place, have them choose a spot in the room and place their white sheet of paper there. Possible locations include desks, the floor, chair seats, window sills, in book cases, on filing cases, etc. Model how each child will use their clothespins to make two free-standing bridge forms (two pins connected end to end make the top, one on either side at right angles form legs). Have them “install” the bridge forms standing up on their paper. Tell them the clothes-pin bridges stand for the past (“yesterday” for young ones). Ask students to assign one of their pipe cleaner colors for present (or “today”) and the other for future (or “tomorrow”) designs. Using all seven pipe cleaners invite children to make forms, lines, or shapes that stand for their ideas about the present and the future. Allow independent play time for students to find a way to combine their pipe cleaner forms and bridges into a single design. To encourage variety, suggest that pipe cleaner forms might connect: to one or both bridges; other pipe cleaners; from any direction. Remind them that their sculpture stands for past, present and future. Reflection - Notice and discuss the creative choices and reasoning of each work of art. - Do certain forms dominate ideas of the present or the future? - What color(s) would they paint the sculpture and why? - How does the sculpture connect, inform, highlight, differ, or resonate with other objects in the room? - What difference does the installation site make? - Can you move around it? - Does it need different lighting? What if the room lights are turned off? - What would it look like at night? View images of “Ghost Ballet.” - Discuss which elements represent the past, present, and future. Why do you think so? - What were the challenges and opportunities of the river bank location? Exploration Three: Communicating Ideas to the Artist Preparation Following the trip to view “Ghost Ballet,” ask students to record their observations in illustrations or written notes. Keep these for later reflection. Warm Up Return the observation journals to students, and continue with discussion about the prompts below. Activity Review instructions for proper letter form as appropriate for your grade level. Write a letter to Alice Aycock. Some potential topics to address include: - What you like best and least and your reasons for each. - Your first impression of “Ghost Ballet” and how impressions changed as you studied it. - How well you think she met the MNAC criteria for selection (see page 5 of this study guide). - Your thoughts on what it is like to be responsible for such a big and public piece of art. - Your thoughts on if the creative response of the artist should be different if the work is paid for with public funds versus private funds. - Your thoughts on whether or not you would like to be an artist and why. Because Alice Aycock is a living artist with a relationship to the Metro Nashville Arts Commission it may be possible to forward letters to her. She may or may not be able to respond. Consult with Leigh Jones, ArtSmart Director 687-4285, to pursue this possibility. Exploration Four: Imagining the World of the Other Warm Up Choose different elements of the sculpture and imagine if they had eyes, ears, a nose, and the ability to taste and feel. Talk about what kind of experiences they might have. Activity Write a poem or a story from the point of view of “Ghost Ballet” as a whole or from the point of view of one of its elements. Resources The artist’s website that has images of her works from the 1970s to the present. http://www.aaycock.com/ Video on the selection process and construction for *Ghost Ballet*, including a short clip of artist Alice Aycock introducing the ideas behind the work. This video should also be found in each school library as *An Introduction to Nashville’s Public Art Program*. http://www.artsnashville.org/pubartprogram/process.php This site has various images of the sculpture, the submissions of the other semi-finalists, and more. http://www.artsnashville.org/pubartprojects/ebgw/ebgwscrapbook.php A Q&A with Sherri Hunter, a Middle Tennessee public mosaic artist with international recognition, who goes into detail about what’s involved in creating public art. Hunter was on the selection panel for *Ghost Ballet*. http://www.artsnashville.org/pubartprogram/pubartres.php Images and history of public art on five continents, plus a balanced essay on the home page about the process and vitality of public art. http://www.publicartaroundtheworld.com “Love it or hate it public art is free to all and should be embraced with delight and mild amusement. It should make us question, admire, reflect, and most importantly, think.” ~Publicartaroundtheworld.com TPAC Education PO Box 190660 Nashville, TN 37219 615-687-4288 Visit us online at WWW.TPAC.ORG/EDUCATION
81c1e130-dea5-4ef7-a677-2e2a968ca342
CC-MAIN-2021-25
https://d3bdanh5n7adyg.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/16170020/GBGhost20Ballet.pdf
2021-06-12T12:25:34+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487582767.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20210612103920-20210612133920-00493.warc.gz
194,490,421
5,951
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.911637
eng_Latn
0.996567
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "dan_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 157, 2694, 5478, 6613, 7567, 9282, 11991, 14871, 15309, 19608, 20962, 23194, 25581, 26893, 27265, 28534, 28640 ]
[ 1.84375, 4.9375 ]
1
0
Listening 1. Eyes forward. 2. Hands folded. 3. Mouth closed. 4. Ears open. Teacher Prompts 1. “Look at me with your eyes.” 2. “Fold your hands on the table or in your lap.” 3. “Close your mouth.” 4. “Listen with your ears.” My eyes are looking forward, My hands are in my lap, My mouth is closed, I put on my thinking cap. My eyes are looking forward, My hands are in my lap, My mouth is closed like that— Shhhh! Look at me with your eyes. I can see you’re listening. Fold your hands in your lap And open up your ears. Chorus French fries-forward eyes! Snip snap-hands in lap! North South-closed mouth! Cheers, cheers-open ears! Chorus Answering a Question 1. Listen to the question; mouth closed. 2. Think of the answer. 3. Raise your hand and look at the teacher. 4. Wait for the teacher’s signal. 5. Answer the question. Teacher Prompts 3. “Mouth still closed.” 4. [Teachers will need to teach students what the “signal” is.] I’m listening to the question with my mouth closed ‘Cause if I’m talking, I won’t hear how it goes. I’m listening to the question with my mouth closed— Yodaleedalodaodallylay! I’m thinking about the question in my head. I think I know it and it hasn’t been said. I’m thinking about the question in my head— Yodaleedalodaodallylay! I’m going to raise my hand and look at the teacher. This is grand. This is great, great, great! I’m going to raise my hand and look at the teacher and wait….wait, wait, wait, (deep breath) and wait! “Cathy?” I’m answering the question. Now it’s my turn. There’re a lot of things that I have learned. I’m answering the question, Now it’s my turn— Yodaleedalodaodallylay! Waiting for Your Turn 1. **Sit or stand** in your Listening Position. 2. **Tell yourself**, “I will wait my turn.” 3. **Listen to or watch** what is happening. 4. **Wait** for the last person to finish and look at you. 5. **Take your turn.** 6. **Option at any time:** Find something else to do if waiting is too hard. Teacher Prompts 1. “Whisper this inside your head.” 2. “Take deep breaths and relax if you need to.” 3. “Get ready when you are next.” 4. “Do or say what you need to.” I’m waiting for my turn. It seems it’s been a while. I’m waiting for my turn, it seems it’s been a while, And I’m still waiting for my turn. I don’t have to think of me. My turn will come eventually. I’m listening to Bo And when he’s done, I’ll know It’s time to take my turn. Oh, I’m going to sit or stand where I am . . . “I will wait my turn, I will wait my turn.” Watch until I’m told I can Take my turn. Chorus in Spanish Sometimes if it takes too long I can go and choose something else to do. Take a breath, I know I can . . . Wait my turn. Instrumental I don’t have to think of me. My turn will come eventually. I’m listening to Bo And when he’s done, I’ll know It’s time to take my turn. Following Directions 1. Listen to the direction. 2. Whisper the direction to yourself. 3. Ask a question if you don’t understand. 4. Get ready to follow the direction. Teacher Prompts 1. “Stay in the Listening Position until you hear the whole direction.” 2. “Repeat the direction out loud, in a whisper, or inside your head.” 3. “Raise your hand to ask a question.” 4. “Think about the steps to the direction.” First I listen to the directions. Then I whisper them to myself. If I don’t get it, I’ll ask a question. Then get ready and follow directions. First I listen to the directions. Then I whisper them to myself. If I don’t get it, I’ll ask a question. Then get ready and follow directions. Are you staying still and waiting until You’ve heard the whole direction? Did you whisper what was said or say it in your head this time? Did you raise your hand if you don’t understand a word or correction? If you follow these steps—1, 2, 3 Listen to preps—do re mi You’ll do fine! Chorus If you follow these steps—1, 2, 3 Listen to preps—do re mi You’ll do fine! Chorus Taking Your Turn 1. Sit or stand in your Listening Position. 2. Tell yourself, “I will wait my turn.” 3. Listen to or watch what is happening. 4. Wait for the last person to finish and look at you. 5. Take your turn. Teacher Prompts 2. “Whisper this inside your head.” 3. “Take deep breaths and relax if you need to.” 4. “Or wait until the teacher looks at you and gives you a signal.” 5. “Do or say what you need to.” OK, are you ready, Hanna, Kate, and Eddie? It’s time that we learn about Taking our turn! Number 1, it seems that it is my mission To sit or stand in Listening Position. (clap, clap) Number 2 is the step where I learn To tell myself, “I will wait my turn.” (clap, clap) Number 3, I can listen and look around, Watching what is going down. (clap, clap) Number 4, I wait until it’s clear That the last person’s finished and my turn is here! (clap, clap) Teacher Prompts 1. (1a and 1b give teachers two situations where they can teach this skill: Group discussions versus Seatwork activities.) 3. “Mouth still closed.” 4. [Teachers will need to teach students what the “signal” is.] Asking a Question 1a. Listen to the discussion; mouth closed. 1b. Focus on your work; mouth closed. 2. Think of your question. 3. Raise your hand and look at the teacher. 4. Wait for the teacher’s signal. 5. Ask your question. I’m in circle time and I’m listening to my teacher, Talking about spiders and other wiggly creatures. She’s talking kind of fast—Arachnids? I don’t understand. I’ve got a question. I’ve got something to say. I’ve got it in my head. I made it up that way. I’ve got a question. I’ve got my question planned. I’m looking at my teacher, now I’ll raise my hand. “Yes, Dorey?” “Mrs. Hickleman, what’s an arachnid?” I’m sitting at the table, Working on my letters. “A” is looking good, but “B” could be better. I get to letter “G”—I can’t remember how to make it—I don’t understand. I’ve got a question. I’ve got something to say. I’ve got it in my head. I made it up that way. I’ve got a question. I’ve got my question planned. I’m looking at my teacher, now I’ll raise my hand. “Yes, Josh?” “Mrs. Hickleman, how do you make the letter “G?”” Chorus Asking for Help 1. **Ask yourself**, “Do I really need help?” 2. **Raise** your hand; mouth closed. 3. **Look** at the teacher. 4. **Wait** for the teacher’s signal. 5. **Say**, “Please, I need help,” and say exactly what you need. Teacher Prompts 1. “Look at it again. Think about it more.” “Can you do it yourself?” “Can you wait and do something else instead right now?” 2. “Or another adult.” 3. [Teachers will need to teach students what the “signal” is.] Do I need help right now? Do I need help right now? I’ll try it myself And if I still need help Then I can— Look at my teacher now. Look at my teacher now. I’ll raise my hand. She’ll call on me and Then I’ll say . . . “Please, I need help,” “Please, I need help today.” Interrupting 1. **Ask yourself,** Do I need help right now? 2. **Walk and stop** near the teacher. 3. **Look** at the teacher; mouth closed. 4. **Wait** for the teacher’s signal. 5. **Say,** “Please, I need help,” and **say** exactly what you need. Teacher Prompts 1. “Try it first yourself.” “Look at it again.” “Think about it more.” “Can you do it yourself?” “Can you wait and do something instead right now?” 2. “If you really need help right now…” “Or another person you need.” (Teachers can train students to use this skill with other adults.) 3. “Or another adult.” 4. [Teachers will need to teach students what the “signal” is.] 5. “Use a nice or friendly voice.” Permission to use concepts, skills, and copyrighted language from the Stop & Think Social Skills Program has been granted to the Core Knowledge Foundation by Project ACHIEVE, Incorporated and SuperWorx Educational Services. Lyrics of “Interrupting” from Core Knowledge Social Skills CD: Oh, how I love to play dress-up. I can choose what I want to be. Today, I’ll be a pirate And sail away on the sea. I’ll put on a patch That covers my eye, And put on a pirate hat, And a coat with gold buttons I’ll put on last— Oh!!! These buttons are hard to fasten, So hard to fasten. I don’t know if I Can get them, but I’ll try again. These buttons are hard to fasten, So hard to fasten. I’ll walk up to my teacher And wait to get her signal—"Cathy, what do you need to get you up to speed?" “Please, may I have help? Please, may I have help with these buttons?” Oh, how I love painting. I can paint whatever I see. Today, I’ll paint a flower And paint it right next to a tree. I’ll make the blossom, A bright, bright pink. The center, I’ll paint blue. And last of all, I’ll add some green. Oh, this green paint is hard to open, so hard to open. I don’t know if I Can get it, but I’ll try again. This green paint is hard to open, So hard to open. I’ll walk up to my teacher and wait to get her signal—"Cathy, thanks for waiting. What will you be needing?” “Please, may I have help? Please, may I have help with this paint?” Oh, how I love doing puzzles. Puzzles they make me grin. First I’ll dump out the pieces And then fit the pieces back in. Now this piece goes here and that piece goes there, And this one right on the top. And this crooked piece goes right underneath. Oh, this piece is hard to fit in, so hard to fit in. I don’t know if I can get it, but I’ll try again. “Hey I got it . . . I didn’t even need help . . . I did it myself!” Ignoring Distractions 1. Turn away or walk away from the distraction. 2. Focus on your work or activity. 3. Ask a teacher for help, or find something else to do. Teacher Prompts 1. “A distraction could be a person or a thing that is bothering you.” 2. “Do not look at the distraction.” 3. “If the distraction continues or is too big.” I’m sitting in a circle, trying to listen to Miss Kate. Henry’s right beside me, whispering “Hey Heidi!” I think it’s hard to concentrate. What could you do if this happened to you? What could you think to say? What could you do if this happened to you? Turn away, turn away, Or if you need it, ask for help. Or, walk away, walk away, And go do something else. I’d have to say I’d walk away. I’m playing with the airplanes. Will is playing with his truck. He’s driving his truck around, Making a real loud sound. Things have really gone amuck. Chorus Hocus pocus! Focus! Focus! Hocus pocus! Focus on your teacher, focus on your work! Don’t focus on the thing that makes you go berserk! Instrumental Chorus Hocus pocus! Focus! Focus! Hocus pocus! Focus on your teacher, focus on your work! Don’t focus on the thing that makes you go berserk! Using Brave Talk 1. **Think** about what you want to say. 2. **Look at** or **walk up** to the person involved. 3. **Hands** by your side; take a deep breath. 4. Be calm and **say** what you want to say. Teacher Prompts 1. “Do you need to be brave?” 4. [Teachers can begin to teach “I messages” here.] I’m building with blocks and I’ve made a town, Little houses in a row. Dameon comes up and he knocks them down, Scatters my village to and fro. I’m mad! What can I do? I’m sad because of you. Egad, I think it’s time to be brave. I’m going to think about what I want to say, Walk right up and say it. Keep my hands out of the way. Keep calm, breathe in. Keep calm, breathe out. Keep calm. “Dameon, that makes me mad. Please don’t do that again.” I’m sitting at the table making a kite. The teacher is telling us what to do. I’m listening to the steps on how to do it right. But she’s on number three and I’m stuck on two. I’m scared stiff! Oh, this feels bad! What if the teacher’s mad? Makes no difference ‘cause it’s time to be brave. Chorus “Mrs. Broderick, I’m confused.” “Here, let me help you with that.” Accepting the Consequences for a Bad Choice 1. Take deep breaths and count to five. 2. Think about your bad choice and what you’ve been told to do. 3. Say, “I’m sorry. I made a Bad Choice.” 4. Tell the person what Good Choice you’ll make next time. 5. Accept the consequence. *Use your Following Direction skill, if needed* Did you make a bad choice? Did you get in trouble? Did you make too much noise? (“Too loud, too loud!”) “Tony, come here on the double!” Think about if you did what your teacher said to do. If you made a bad choice, I think it’s time for you To accept the consequence. Oh, oh, accept the consequence. Did you make a bad choice? Do you wish that you hadn’t? ‘Cause if you’d made a good choice Then you wouldn’t be saddened. Think about if you did what your teacher said to do. If you made a bad choice, I think it’s time for you To accept the consequence. Oh, oh, accept the consequence. Instrumental Take a deep breath and count to five—1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Think about what you’d do next time. You can say “I’m sorry. I made a bad choice. Next time I’ll do better. I’ll make a good choice.” But for now, you’ve got to accept the consequence. Oh, oh, accept the consequence. Asking to Share 1. **Think about** what you want someone to share with you. 2. **Look** at your “partner.” 3. **Ask** in a friendly voice: “Would you share (say thing or activity here) with me?” 4. **Listen** to your partner’s answer. 5a. If “YES”: **Begin** to share. 5b. If “NO”: **Find** something else to do. (Call and Response) Would you like to share? To share with me? Would you like to share? To share with me? Would you share your books with me? OK. This one starts with ABC. Would you like to share? To share with me? Would you like to share? To share with me? Would you like to share? To share with me? “Would you share your paints again?” “Not right now.” “Maybe, I’ll play dress-up then.” Would you like to share? To share with me? First I’ll think about what I want you to share. Then ask if it’s ok— “Will you share?” I won’t shout. I’ll use a friendly voice, Then listen to what you say. Would you like to share? This song with me? Would you like to share? This song with me? We could start with you and me. Add another, we’d have three. Think how nice this world could be . . . when we share. Agreeing to Share 1. Listen to what your “partner” wants you to share. 2. Decide if you want to share. 3. Look at your partner. 4a. If “YES”: Say, “I would be happy to share,” and begin to share. 4b. If “NO”: Say, “I do not want to share right now.” I’ve got a puzzle, a barnyard puzzle. You want to share it, to play with the cow. I’ve got a puzzle, a barnyard puzzle. You want me to Share it right now. Ho Hum, do I want to share it? Tweedaly Dum, do I think I could bear it? Ho Hum, do I want to share it? “Could you find something else? I want to do it myself.” I’ve got a puzzle, a barnyard puzzle. You want to share it. You just want the cow. I’ve got a puzzle, a barnyard puzzle. “No, I do not want to share right now.” I’ve got some blocks, Some really fun blocks. I’ve got some blocks And you want to play, too. I’ve got some blocks, Some really fun blocks. And you want me to Share them with you. Ho Hum, do I want to share them? Tweedaly Dum, do I think I could spare them? Ho Hum, do I want to share them? “Yes, I think I do. I’d like to share them with you.” I’ve got some blocks, Some really fun blocks. I’ve got some blocks And you want to play, too. I’ve got some blocks, Some really fun blocks. “Yes, I’d be happy to share them with you.” Repeat last two verses Playing with blocks is more fun with two! Using a Friendly Voice 1. **Think** about what you want to say. 2. **Look** at the person you want to talk to. 3. **Fold** your hands. 4. **Say** what you want in a happy way. Teacher Prompts 3. “Fold your hands on the table or in your lap.” 4. “Use a happy or friendly voice.” I like to use my friendly voice. I get a lot more smiles. I find that it’s a real good choice To say what I say in a happy way. I like to use my friendly voice. I get a lot more smiles. And when I use my friendly voice, I’d have to say, it brightens up my day! When I see Mr. Mack, dressed in black, I could say, “Hello.”—Oh no! Or I could change my voice to make a pleasant noise and say, “Hello!”—Way to go! Chorus When I see Miss Sue, Dressed in blue, I could say, “Hi.”—Oh my! One good choice, Put a smile in my voice, And say, “Hi!”—Easy as pie! Instrumental THINK about what you want you want to say. LOOK at the person that you want to talk to. FOLD your hands in your lap, And say what you say in a happy way. Then, “Hi, I’m fine”… could be . . . “Hi, I’m fine!” And “See you later” could be “See you later!”
c6c19f00-7d97-46da-bba7-0ede97bf6a19
CC-MAIN-2022-27
https://www.coreknowledge.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/CK-Social-Skills-Posters.pdf
2022-07-03T18:47:39+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104248623.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20220703164826-20220703194826-00477.warc.gz
772,301,770
4,453
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.992332
eng_Latn
0.998528
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 226, 643, 940, 1646, 2142, 2845, 3261, 3928, 4358, 4815, 5281, 6129, 6597, 6868, 7771, 9389, 9732, 10582, 10892, 11710, 12041, 12914, 13234, 14062, 14318, 15402, 15684, 16507 ]
[ 4.875 ]
1
0
Objective: Students will create and observe visual displays of sound vibrations, and they will create their own artworks inspired by different types of music. Materials: - A wide pipe, tube, or drum with an open end such as a paint bucket or a coffee can. - Plastic to stretch over the pipe such as plastic cling wrap, trash bags, or packaging. - Tape such as duct tape to secure the plastic to the pipe. - Speakers and/or instruments such as horns, kazoos. - Construction paper or thin cardboard such as is used in food packaging. - Sand and rice. - Paper and drawing tools (one or any combination of paint and paintbrushes, sharpies, colored pencils, crayons, or oil pastels). Anticipatory Set Ask students to journal for a few minutes in response to the questions: “What does sound look like? What does music look like?” Procedure 1. Have students turn and talk about their responses, and invite a few to share. 2. Explain that some artists are thought to have experienced synesthesia, where one sense is stimulated by another— for example they might see music as an array of visual shapes and colors. The Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky demonstrated this multisensory experience as he explored color and shape through music. Explain that although music can inspire artwork, it can also create artwork with its own vibrations. 3. Explain that today students will learn about a process by which sound vibrations create visual effects. 4. Review vocabulary. **Vocabulary** Wave: represents a disturbance traveling through a medium or space. Cymatics: The study of the visual representation of sound waves and vibration. Standing Wave: When two waves traveling opposite directions with the same amplitude and frequency overlap creating a wave that does not appear to be moving. Node: The part of the wave that does not look like it is moving. Antinode: The part of the wave that is moving the most. Tonoscope: an instrument that renders sound vibrations visually. Synesthesia: a sensation produced in one modality when a sensation is produced in another modality. For example, an artist might hear a certain sound when they see color, or a chef might taste something when they hear certain sounds. 5. Explain that German physicist and musician Ernst Chladni (1756-1827), informally known as the father of acoustics, invented a technique that demonstrated a visual effect for sound vibrations where sand on a thin glass plate moved into different patterns, called nodal patterns, as the sand would gather in lines where no vibration occurred. Chladni would create vibrations on the plate by exposing it to sound. The patterns created became known as Chladni figures. 6. Show students a few examples of Chladni figures. 7. Show students Impossible Science Cymatics video, pausing for students to write down definitions and ask clarifying questions. 8. Explain to students that they will create their own tonoscopes and capture the visuals of different sounds. 9. Demonstrate for students how to stretch plastic film over the open end of a tube, drum, or bucket and secure it with tape so that it is pulled taught and smooth across the surface. 10. Tape construction paper around the edge to create a barrier to hold the sand inside. 11. Place sand or rice on the surface of the plastic film. 12. Blast music into the side of the tube or around the tube and watch as different Chladni figures are formed. **Assessment:** Working in mixed-ability small groups, students should build their own tonoscopes and choose three to six different sounds (loud trumpet, club music with heavy base, etc.) and take photos of the images they create with the sand or rice. Students should display their photos on a slide or poster with the sounds described and have the class guess which sounds created which patterns. **Extension:** Play a variety of different instrumental music with different pace and mood (jazz, classical, ambient, bluegrass, etc.), and invite students to create automatic artworks by moving their instrument (paintbrush, marker, oil pastel, etc.) to the sounds for two minutes each. Categorize the artworks by song and display. **Safety Note:** Adult Supervision Recommended Lesson Plan by Whitney Gallagher based on the “Impossible Science” series. Find more at impossiblescience.com
87e259d6-f411-4372-9930-a1fc7e116a70
CC-MAIN-2024-22
https://impossiblescience.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Standing-Waves-2-16-21.pdf
2024-05-22T09:08:27+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058534.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20240522070747-20240522100747-00681.warc.gz
280,566,269
885
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.998126
eng_Latn
0.998239
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1165, 2736, 4318 ]
[ 4.90625 ]
1
0
A Model Explaining Some of the Catastrophic Effects of a Wave of Ice Bodies Passing Through the Solar System to Bring Water to Earth at the Time of Noah's Flood Trevor Holt Origins Education and Research Centre Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/icc_proceedings The CedarCommons repository provides a publication platform for fully open access journals, which means that all articles are available on the Internet to all users immediately upon publication. However, the opinions and sentiments expressed by the authors of articles published in our journals do not necessarily indicate the endorsement or reflect the views of Digital Services, the Centennial Library, or Cedarville University and its employees. The authors are solely responsible for the content of their work. Please address questions to the Digital Services staff. Browse the contents of this volume of Proceedings of the International Conference on Creationism. Recommended Citation Holt, Trevor (2013) "A Model Explaining Some of the Catastrophic Effects of a Wave of Ice Bodies Passing Through the Solar System to Bring Water to Earth at the Time of Noah's Flood," Proceedings of the International Conference on Creationism: Vol. 7, Article 42. Available at: https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/icc_proceedings/vol7/iss1/42 A MODEL EXPLAINING SOME OF THE CATASTROPHIC EFFECTS OF A WAVE OF ICE BODIES PASSING THROUGH THE SOLAR SYSTEM TO BRING WATER TO EARTH AT THE TIME OF NOAH’S FLOOD. Trevor Holt. B.Sc., Industrial Arts, Origins Education and Research Centre, 44 Brian Street, Balgownie, New South Wales, Australia. 2519 KEYWORDS: uniformitarianism. catastrophism. comets. asteroids. Noah. flood. ice. water. impact. crater. satellite. vectors. acceleration. velocity. resultant. planets. astronomical unit. ABSTRACT The Principle of Uniformitarianism which has pervaded most of geology and cosmology for a few hundred years does not hold as an overall principle. Indeed there have been periods of uniformitarian activity, but there have been periods of short term catastrophism throughout the Universe and the Solar System, particularly around the short time before recorded history began. That time was when a global flood rearranged the earth’s surface and destroyed air breathing life forms, except those who came through the flood according to all the stories handed down in the records from every people group on earth. If the Principle of Uniformitarianism is set aside and a catastrophe which caused a global flood on Earth is extended to include the Solar System, then a model can be developed which can explain many observable aspects of the Solar System, including water, water ice, craters, comets, icy satellites of the major planets, and the asteroids. Outside the catastrophic model much of the Solar System and its history will remain a mystery. The model proposes that a wave of ice bodies entered the Solar System around 2300 years before Jesus Christ and impacted, in order, Saturn, Mars, Earth, Venus and Mercury, then some unknown body or bodies which are now asteroids, then Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune. Many have continued into space but many continue to return as comets. The method used to determine quantitative aspects of the model was to calculate the acceleration caused by the Sun and draw vector diagrams which gave velocities, direction and time to the ice bodies so their paths could be followed through the Solar System. INTRODUCTION From the details given concerning the time of the flood, in the 600th year, on the 17th day of the 2nd month of Noah’s life it began to rain. There have been many people throughout history who have attempted to use the Bible to provide a chronological history of the earth. Using the information from the Bible, a trajectory of a wave of ice bodies can be followed through the Solar System and deliver water for this flood. The method was to use graphical representations of vectors, starting at Neptune’s orbit, and proceeding in towards the inner Solar System. Using Newton’s Law that a body will continue on a straight line path unless acted upon by an external force, successive velocity components were added which were derived from the average acceleration over a set distance by the gravitational effect of the Sun. This enabled a number of specific trajectories, which were found to be hyperbolic, to be plotted through the Solar System intercepting with Earth. By postulating that the bodies will round the Sun and proceed back out of the Solar System with a minimum effect on their trajectory by loss of mass as they approached the Sun, their trajectory was followed out of the Solar System. Using the vector diagrams the various velocities and directions were ascertained when the ice bodies passed through the orbits of the various planets. Using the time restraints as to when the flood occurred the positions of the planets can be found, and allowing for their movement over the time the ice bodies moved through their orbits, a picture was built up for each planet in the path of the ice body wave. The position of Saturn was found to be in the direct path of the ice body wave on its way into the centre of the Solar System. It was at this time that many ice bodies were captured by Saturn and have become icy satellites. At this position in the vicinity of Saturn due to its gravitational effect many ice bodies were dispersed and many bodies collided as they approached Saturn from different sides of the planet. The collisions caused fragmentation and the eventual formation of its ring system. The fact that Saturn’s ring system is more conspicuous than the ring systems of the other outer planets supports the idea that the collisions would be more numerous because the ice body wave was still more intact at this time rather than later on when the ice bodies were on their way out of the Solar System and were more dispersed and reduced in concentration. After intersecting with Saturn’s orbit the ice body wave continued past Jupiter’s orbit. Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Solar System at this time. The planet Mars was the next to be impacted. The result of these impacts resulted in the craters we observe today, and water ice remaining down to the present day. The concentration of ice bodies as they approached Earth was similar to when they impacted Mars. The impact craters on the Moon are similar to those on Mars and we can assume that the proportional numbers were the same for impacting Earth. However, the number of craters so far found on earth only number 170. This indicates that there were different conditions existing on Earth. Namely that water was already present and as impacts occurred into that water previous impacts became obliterated. Comparing relevant numbers of impacts on Mars and Earth’s Moon the number of ice bodies encountering Earth was such that water was added to the Earth’s oceans, eventually covering the Earth. The retreating ice body wave moving out of the Solar System continued on to Jupiter, which was directly in its path and many impacted Jupiter and its natural satellites, and many were captured and went into orbit and are observed today as icy satellites. Many were responsible for rings, which have subsequently become rarer in intensity. The ice bodies then encountered the planet Uranus, where many impacted with it and others captured as icy satellites and a ring system formed. The same occurred at planet Neptune’s orbit where many impacted and others captured as icy satellites and formed a ring system. From the calculation and the plotting of the trajectories of the ice bodies through the Solar System it can be shown that a very complex wave formed which had virtually every individual ice body moving with different velocities and different individual paths, which as the wave rounded the Sun splayed out covering an increasingly larger area with increasing dispersion. By this time the population of ice bodies was still massive and many remaining have elliptical orbits and are now the comets which periodically pass through the Solar System losing part of their mass and diminishing in size as they follow their paths around the Sun. One of the most controversial issues over the last three hundred years is related to whether catastrophic events caused many of the features we observe throughout the Solar System or whether uniformitarian processes over an immense time period can explain these features. This paper explores a catastrophic model to explain features throughout the Solar System including craters, water ice, icy satellites and planetary rings and provides the basis on which other aspects can be built and details refined. The model starts with a swarm of ice bodies, present day comets, entering the Solar System with a velocity of 10 km/sec at Neptune’s orbit, with their destination, to bring water to Earth at the time of Noah’s flood as recorded in Genesis. This velocity has been settled on after much trial and error calculations etc. (There are a number of factors which need to come together for this model.) APPENDIX A. To explain many of the features it is necessary to examine the idea of an initial swarm of ice bodies entering the Solar System and proceeding through it in the form of a wave. This has been done in the following steps so that it can be visualized. The overall trajectory of the path of ice bodies is shown in Figure 1. As the initial swarm of ice bodies is a three dimensional mass, for simplicity sake in the figure only the path to Earth of a particular body is shown. Figure 1. Against the background of the Solar System drawn to scale, the path of an ice body moving in a hyperbolic trajectory, passes through Neptune’s orbit at a particular velocity and inclination to ultimately impact with Earth. The only major influence on the velocity and direction of all the bodies will be the accelerating aspect of the Sun, so by using vector diagrams a plot of their trajectories can be made. By initially choosing a time interval of 31,104,000 seconds which defines a 360 day period, (Cooper, 2009) the trajectory of these bodies is shown in Figure 2 which brings them from Neptune’s orbit to Uranus’ orbit. By continuing the procedure, but using shorter time intervals as the ice bodies get closer to the Sun, a plot of a part of the trajectory into the inner Solar System can be made. Figure 2. Enlarged view of Neptune to Uranus showing part of the trajectory over 5 intervals of 31,104,000 seconds (5 x 360 days) or 5 years. The increases in velocity due to the Sun are indicated. From the procedure outlined in appendix B, an enlarged section from Uranus’ orbit to Saturn’s orbit is shown in Figure 3 with the corresponding velocities. Figure 3. Enlarged view of Uranus to Saturn showing parts 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 of the trajectory. NOTE after section 8 the calculation are done on a 15,552,000 second or 180 day interval. Figure 4 shows the section of the trajectory with the calculated velocities and time lengths from Saturn’s orbit to Jupiter’s orbit. Figure 4. Enlarged view of Saturn to Jupiter showing parts 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 of the trajectory. NOTE after section 12 the calculations are done on a 7,776,000 second or 90 day interval. Figure 5 shows the section of the trajectory with the calculated velocities and time lengths from Jupiter’s orbit to Mars’ orbit. At position 13 the time segment is reduced to 2,592,000 seconds which is now 30 days. Figure 5. Enlarged view of Jupiter’s orbit to Mars’ orbit showing parts 12 through to 23 of the trajectory. NOTE after section 13 the calculation are done on a 2,592,000 second or 30 day interval and at position 20 the time interval is 1,296,000 seconds or 15 days. Figure 6 shows the section of the trajectory with the calculated velocities and time lengths from Mars’ orbit to planet Earth. From position 23 through to position 26 the time segment is reduced to 1,296,000 seconds which is now 15 days and from 26 it was reduced to 3.7 day intervals for the latter detailed Figure 15. **Figure 6.** Enlarged view of Mars’ orbit to Earth’s orbit showing parts 23 through to 29 of the trajectory. NOTE: after section 23 the calculations are done on a 1,296,000 second or 15 day interval. Around position 27 the ice bodies intercept with Earth’s orbit and reach their ultimate destination. So far the picture has been simplified. In actual fact the swarm of ice bodies is a three dimensional wave with inner and outer, and upper and lower boundaries. The outer ice bodies will have a lower velocity because of their further distances from the Sun and the inner bodies will have higher velocities due to their shorter distances from the Sun. Figure 7 shows a two dimensional view of the area the ice body wave has traced out projected onto the ecliptic plane. This view gives the inner and outer boundaries of the wave. Figure 7. View of the column/wave projected onto the ecliptic plane. The Earth impacting region of the wave has taken around 22 years to move from coming into Neptune’s orbit to moving back out again. One of the features of the swarm is that each individual ice body will have its own velocity because of its position relative to the Sun. Another feature has to do with the gravitational effect on relatively close ice bodies as they pass close to the planetary bodies, particularly the major planets. This will result in collisions and rubbing together and because of the nature and structure of the ice even ‘sticking’ together, appendix C, to form a larger agglomeration of bodies. Figure 8 shows the ever changing wave front as it passes through the Solar System. From the centre inward the velocity increased more rapidly. From the centre outward the wave will tilt around until it rounds the Sun from where it will sweep into an increasingly tilted arc. **Figure 8.** Ice body wave front as it moves into the solar system in reasonably straight lines and then sweeps around after it approaches and rounds the Sun. The width of the wave is governed by the length of time it interacts with Planet Earth, keeping in mind that the primary function was to deliver water over a 40 day period. I have estimated that the wave length would be around 0.7 AU at Earth. The next aspect to note is that the column/wave is a three dimensional shape moving in time. This is depicted in Figure 9. **Figure 9.** A three dimensional depiction of the ice body column it traces out as it moves through the Solar System. Planet Positions Now that the complexity of the wave of ice bodies has been established we need to correlate the position of impact with Earth in history. Referring back to Figure 6 we observe the point of intersection between Earth and the wave corresponds to point 26/7. By adding up the time intervals from Neptune’s orbit to point 26/7 at Earth we get the total time for the particular path to reach Earth. Once the position of Earth in its orbit is fixed, using a period in history estimated by a number of people at around 2300 - 2350 years before Jesus Christ. Appendix D. From my own research, appendix E, I have chosen 2303 B.C. And using a web based Orrery (Walker, 2012) the positions of the other planets can be found. (Wall Chart of World History, 1988), (Reese, 1977), (Young, 1972). From these positions, and knowing the time for the ice bodies to traverse the distances between their orbits the approximate position when the front of the wave of ice bodies intercepts with each planet. I have chosen this time because relating the initial velocity of the ice bodies and the time for them to move across the orbits of the planets and assuming that the craters on the planets or their satellites were caused by the same event the most favourable year was 2303 B.C. Figure 10 shows, on the ecliptic plane, the correlating of the ice body wave and the major planet positions. Effects of impacts with the ice body wave The first effect will be impact craters. The model explains that the majority of impact craters throughout the Solar System will have been caused by ice bodies and not rock type bodies or asteroids. Much work has been done since the 1950’s when impacts were first realized to have had an effect on the surface structure of terrestrial bodies including Earth. (Melosh, 1989) Appendix F gives the background to the nature and structure of the ice bodies and the craters they form. Depending on their nature and structure impacts onto terrestrial bodies will have a shape and structure peculiar to those bodies as opposed to impacts by rock bodies. From the information about water ice we find that there is a range of differences in atomic structure and hence properties. If the ice body is reasonably soft in comparison to the impacted body, the ice body will absorb much of the energy as it initially deforms and the amount of heat generated will not have the effect of vaporizing as much of the impacted surface. The structure of ices can produce very hard ice or relatively soft. For this model the ice bodies will be assumed to have the structure of ICE XI, and a density of 500 kg/cubic metre. This implies a hardness of 1.5 on the Moh’s scale and is comparatively soft. This is the same type of ice derived naturally and forms a snow like structure and allows snow to be made into snow balls. The observation that comets begin to lose material around Jupiter’s orbit on their way into the Solar System due to the effect of the Solar Wind gives an indication of their possible composition and structure. Much more research is being done in the whole area of ice body formed craters. **Craters** The foundation for developing this model rests on their being impact craters throughout the solar system and the possibility of three types of bodies which can form craters: ice bodies, ice bodies with mineral material included in their composition and structure, or rock/metallic bodies. The premise for this paper is that the majority of craters were formed by impacts with ice bodies with mineral content. **Specific Details as Ice Body Wave impacts the Planets** An overall view of the planet orbits and the wave of ice bodies through the Solar System are shown in Figure 10. **SATURN** Figure 11 shows the column as it approaches Saturn at one yearly intervals. As Saturn moves in its orbit at around 9690 metres per second and the ice body wave is moving at 14,946 m/s, the wave catches up with Saturn, which is ultimately engulfed by it. As further research is done it could be feasible to correlate the number of captured ice bodies as satellites with the amount of time Saturn was engulfed in the wave, which my calculations puts at around 120 days, and determine a possible concentration of ice bodies per area, working out the gravitational area. Figure 11. The interaction of the Column and Saturn. The blue stripe shows the wave as it approaches and makes contact. The interaction will enable the first ice bodies captured by Saturn to move into retrograde orbits. Figure 12 shows an enlarged view of the ice body wave as it moves at around 14.9 km/s and Saturn moves at 9.69 km/s over a 120 day period. As well as capturing icy satellites the 120 day duration in the ice body wave will enable quite a few bodies to collide and form the particles which form the rings. This extensive length of time will enable a more concentrated ring system compared to the other ring systems of the major planets. Figure 12. Saturn is moving in front of the leading edge of the wave. The wave catches up with Saturn and initial contact will enable ice bodies to be captured and move in retrograde orbits. Another aspect which will be prevalent because of the time Saturn was engulfed in the wave and its gravitational effect, is that many bodies will be deflected into a wide range of orbits: many still moving in towards the Sun and many moving in all direction in the solar system. What we are postulating here is that at least one of the ice bodies was so deflected by Saturn that as it left the orbit of Saturn it again became influenced by the gravitational effect of the Sun and completed its passage into the inner Solar System. From Figure 13 its position is now coming into the inner Solar System on the other side of the Sun so that ultimately it will go into a retrograde orbit and become Halley’s Comet. Further research should be able to trace the origin of some of the comets with elliptical orbits back to this time of interaction with Saturn given the time restraints suggested in this paper. Figure 13. Deflection of an ice body by Saturn which could ultimately go into orbit around the Sun similar to Halley’s Comet. Details at Mars Figure 14 shows the position of the planet as the wave moves through Mars’ orbit. The wave front where the higher velocity bodies are, has moved through Mars’ orbit and Mars is still far enough back to miss being impacted until it catches up with the wave and enters it from the rear. We can work on a 40 day length of bodies which will impact with Mars. This corresponds to a length of 0.7 AU. Figure 14. Ice body wave interacting with Mars. Details at Earth Figure 15 shows the details at Earth. The area of the ice body wave has taken 3918 days to travel from the orbit of Neptune to impact Earth and the Earth will continue in this section of the wave for 40 days. The vertex of the hyperbolic path will be around 3938 days from Neptune’s orbit. To have a minimum velocity with Earth at the time of Noah’s flood, the Earth was in a position moving in the same direction as the ice bodies. The composite velocity for impacts at 90 degrees is around 11 km/s. That is the velocity of ice bodies 41 km/s minus the earth’s velocity 30 km/s. Figure 15. Shows the area of the ice body wave as it approaches and intercepts with Earth’s orbit. The time intervals used in the calculations have been reduced and the 40 day period is shown as being swept out as the green triangle. The axis of the hyperbolic path is indicated and the left over ice bodies will now continue their path out of the solar system. Details at Venus Figure 16 shows Venus’ orbit and the trajectory of ice bodies which directly impact Venus. The surface conditions on Venus with a temperature of around 460 Celsius and the effect of bombarding ice bodies with a velocity of 46 km/s will affect the shape of the craters formed. This is the subject of ongoing research which will provide information on the effects under these planetary conditions as compared to relatively low velocity impacts onto cold planetary bodies. Figure 16. Impact with Venus. Details at Mercury Figure 17 shows the impact at Mercury. The impact velocities of the ice bodies with Mercury are extremely high and a comparison of the crater structure with craters on Earth’s Moon and Mars can reveal something of the nature and structure of the ice bodies. If the ice bodies in all cases were similar and the hardness of the impacted surfaces was similar so that the velocity of impact was the variable, and all the craters look similar, then the structure of the ice bodies must be easily deformed such as would be the case from loosely compacted ice. **Details at Jupiter** Figure 18. Impact with Jupiter. By the time the front of the ice body wave has reached the orbit of Jupiter it is in the position shown. It is moving through the wave almost lengthways. Further research will determine the length of time of interaction and the effect on Jupiter’s natural satellites. Figure 18. Shows wave front as it moves through the Solar System and an enlarged view of Jupiter’s interaction with the wave. Each of Jupiter’s natural moons can be assessed individually with respect to crater size and form. Again the similarity with other craters is noticeable. At this stage of the ice body wave, the distances between the bodies have increased as they disperse. This is relevant to the capture of a number to become icy satellites. The same process which formed the ring system at Saturn will apply here at Jupiter. The rings were discovered on 4 March 1979 by the cameras of the Voyager The density of these rings appears to be about a ‘billion times less than those of Saturn’. (Audouze, et al, 1996) The dispersion of the ice bodies and the subsequent collisions combined with the gravitational effect of Jupiter will have produced a much weaker ring system. **Figure 19.** Position of Uranus when the ice body wave impacts. Again the wave intercepts Uranus from the inside and it moves into the wave. The first ice bodies which are in the right gravitational position will become icy satellites with retrograde orbits. Figure 19 shows the interaction between Uranus and the retreating ice body wave. By this time the dispersion of the wave is increasing so the number of impacts will be considerably reduced. This is evident in the surfaces of Uranus’ natural satellites and the reduced number of captured icy satellites. Of the 27 satellites observed at the present time 4 are considered as natural, so 8 out of the remaining 23 have retrograde orbits. Also the ring system of Uranus is very faint which is to be expected compared to Saturn and even Jupiter. **Ice Body Encounter with Neptune** Figure 20 shows the interaction of Neptune with the ice body wave as it leaves the Solar System. Again the dispersion of the ice bodies will have increased. The planet is considered to have 1 natural satellite Triton, and of the 12 captured icy satellites 3 have retrograde orbits and hence would have been captured probably in the early stages of the encounter. Figure 20. Neptune’s interaction with the retreating ice body wave. From the diagrams Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune move into the ice body wave. The first ice bodies captured will go into retrograde orbits. Figure 21 shows why this will occur for all three major planets. Ongoing research is focusing on correlating all factors involved to determine actual positions of ice bodies in the wave when they were captured and ultimately determining the concentration of ice bodies in the wave and correlating this with the amount of water brought into the solar system. **Figure 21.** Shows how the relationship between Neptune and the ice body wave can cause the capture of some of the icy satellites into retrograde orbits. **CONCLUSION** A swarm of ice bodies entered the Solar System at Neptune’s orbit and proceeded under the gravitational influence of the Sun into the inner Solar System to ultimately deliver water to Earth at the time of the Biblical Noah’s flood. The swarm which developed into a wave through the Solar System impacted every terrestrial body, resulting in the majority of craters we observe today. A number of these ice bodies were captured to become the presently observed icy satellites. Many others in close orbits from different directions around the major planets collided forming rings. Many were deflected from their early interaction with Saturn and later by the other major planets to leave the solar system forever and many went into elliptical orbits which enable them to return periodically as comets. This was a catastrophic event lasting a relatively short time. A model based on Biblical history can be developed which can explain many aspects of the Solar System. The model can be further refined so that more precise quantitative aspects can be developed. These further aspects include calculations relating to many icy satellites, refined analysis of individual craters, the distribution of water ice throughout the Solar System and analysis of cometary bodies, particularly their composition and structure as related to crater formation. An aspect which has not been considered is the formation of asteroids. This will require much more contemplation and calculations within this model and will be a part of the ongoing research. Further development of the model includes equating the quantities of water delivered to the terrestrial bodies, including Earth as impact concentrations relating to cratering should be able to provide a relationship. APPENDIX A The reasoning behind choosing 10 km/s as the velocity at Neptune’s orbit is based on a number of factors. Observation throughout the Solar System indicates that every terrestrial body and the terrestrial type satellites of the gaseous planets have been impacted by bodies which have left Craters. For this paper it is considered that one single event was responsible for the impacts causing the majority of the craters. This event occurred over a short period of time. The model would have the time span for bodies to come into the Solar System and round the Sun and then proceed back out, such that the position of each planet had to successively be in the path of the ice body swarm and they all had to be in particular positions with respect to Earth. For all the planets to be impacted and be in a particular arrangement means that if their velocity is too high some planets will miss being impacted and hence will not show an abundance of craters. If their velocity was too low again the same thing will occur. Some planets will be missed and they will have no craters. By trial and error and co-ordinating all the relevant factors a velocity of around 10 km/s will provide acceptable parameters so that all will be impacted and exhibit craters. This will also allow the low composite velocity when the ice bodies impact with Earth, because both ice bodies and the Earth are travelling in the same direction. APPENDIX B METHOD FOR FINDING THE VELOCITY, SUN’S ACCELERATION, PATH AND TIME FOR ICE BODIES TRAVERSING THE SOLAR SYSTEM Task: to find each section of the trajectory of ice bodies through the Solar System We will use the example at the beginning as the ice bodies enter at Neptune’s orbit. 1. It was decided that the initial velocity of bodies entering the Solar system be taken as 10 000 metres per second. The reason for this is that eventually icy satellites would be captured by Neptune as left over ice bodies exited the Solar System and their velocity is around 10 000 m/s. 2. It was decided to use an initial time span of 1 earth year. A pre-flood year of 360 days was used. This equals 31 104 000 seconds. 3. After many trial and error attempts a trajectory of 355 degrees was selected. 4. Using this information to find distance in the equation \( v = \frac{d}{t} \) \[ d = vt \\ = 10 000 \times 31 104 000 \\ = 311 040 000 000 \text{ m} \] \( v = \) velocity in metres/second \( d = \) distance in metres \( t = \) time in seconds 5. Because of the restrictions of the computer program when drawing the Solar System to scale, a 40m X 40m page was used. We have used Astronomical Units in metres. 1AU = 149 597 870 700 m. So all the units have to be converted into Au’s and visa versa. Hence the first distance is \( = 3.1104e11 \) \[ \frac{149 597 870 700}{1 AU} = 2.079173979 \text{ AU} \] 6. Using this information a line was drawn to scale on a diagram where the Sun and the planet orbits were placed at the appropriate scale distance. Diagram with the Sun and planet positions 7. The distance of each extremity \( d1 \) and \( d2 \) of the line was then measured on the drawing and multiplied by the scale factor of 149 597 870 700 to give the actual distances in metres to the Sun Diagram with the Sun and planet positions \[ d1 \text{ to Sun} = 29.202486 \text{ AU} \times 149 \, 597 \, 870 \, 700 = 4.368629725e12 \text{ m} \] \[ d1 \text{ to Sun} = 31.183204 \text{ AU} \times 149 \, 597 \, 870 \, 700 = 4.66494092e12 \text{ m} \] 8. The Sun’s acceleration was now found for each end of the lines \( d1 \) and \( d2 \) and averaged by using the formula: \[ S \text{ acc} = \frac{G M (\text{Sun})}{d^2} \quad \text{Where } G \text{ is the gravitational constant } 6. \, 673 \times 10^{-11} \text{m}^3.\text{Kg}^{-1}\text{s}^{-2} \] \[ \text{Sun's mass} = 1.98892e30 \text{ Kg} \] \[ GM = 13.2746e19 \] \[ S \text{ acc at } d1 = \frac{13.2746e19}{4.368629725e12^2} = 13.2746e19 \quad = 6.955541892e-6 \text{ m/s/s} \] \[ S \text{ acc at } d2 = \frac{13.2721e19}{4.66494092e12^2} = 13.2721e19 \quad = 6.099990345e-6 \text{ m/s/s} \] \[ \text{Sun's average acceleration} = \frac{6.955541892e-6 + 6.099990345e-6}{1.305553224e-5 \div 2} \] \[ \text{Sun's average acceleration} = 6.527766118e-6 \text{ m/s/s} \] 9. My ‘MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE’ by J. Hannah and M. J. Hillier, Pitman Paperbacks, 1970 metric edition, page 134, in the Chapter on Motion; Velocity and Acceleration, section 7.5 Summary of Equations for Constant Acceleration says: “Note that these equations are not valid if the acceleration is not constant. The first equation only may be used, however, for a varying acceleration if \( f \) is replaced by the average acceleration \( f_{av} \).” This is referring to the equation: \( v = u + ft \) where \( f \) is acceleration, and hence used here as the average acceleration. Therefore \( v = u + ft \) For the position, \( u = 0 \) \( f_{av} = 6.527766118e-6 \) \( t = 31 \, 104 \, 000 \) That is \( v = 6.527766118e-6 \times 31 \, 104 \, 000 \) \[ = 203.0396373 \text{ m/s} \] This is the velocity added to the ice body by the Sun’s gravitational attraction at the average position between \( d1 \) and \( d2 \). 10. From this velocity a distance can be calculated using: \( v = \frac{d}{t} \) That is: \( d = vt \) \[ = 203.0396373 \times 31,104,000 \] \[ = 6.315344880e9 \text{ m} \] 11.a. This distance has to be divided by 149,597,870,700 to give the Sun’s velocity vector. That is \( \frac{6.3153448801e9}{149,597,870,700} \) \[ = 0.042215473 \text{ AU} \] 11.b. This distance 0.042215473 AU was drawn at the line transferred to the point d1 on the vector diagram. 12. This has now to be given direction on the scale vector diagram. This is done by drawing a new line using the Sun’s average acceleration from the Sun to the initial vector. \[ d = \sqrt{\frac{13.2746e19}{6.527766118e-6}} \quad d = \frac{4.50950039e12}{149,597,870,700} \] \[ = 30.14414824 \text{ AU} \] 13. To get the direction draw a line parallel to S-Sa through d1 and transfer the Sun’s vector onto it from d1. 14. Then join d2 to the end of the Sun’s velocity vector d3, and this gives the resultant velocity vector. Measure this length which is in AU, multiply by 149,597,870,700 to give metres and divide by time. Resultant = 2.119380 AU = 3.170547352e11 m Divided by time, 31,104,000 gives velocity = 10,193.37497 m/s From this we can see that the Sun’s acceleration has added to the initial velocity and the ice bodies are now travelling at 10.193 km/s. We now start the process over again using this new velocity and direction to get the velocity and direction at the end of another 31,104,000 seconds. This process is continued until the lines reach Earth’s orbit and start to come back. By reducing the time factor as we go closer to Earth’s orbit we get better definition of the curved path followed by the ice bodies. As we reproduce the first section we can draw the axis of the curve which we find is a conic section in the form of an hyperbola. 2013-4-2 NEW PATHS VELOCITY = 10 000 m/s POSITION 1-6. FROM NEPTUNE’S ORBIT. TIME = 31 104 000 sec - 360 DAYS \[ X \ 149\ 597\ 870\ 700 \text{ and square} \] \[ 13.2746e19 \text{ divided by } d^2 \text{ gives } a \] \[ d_1 = 29.202486 \text{ AU} \quad d_1^2 = 1.908492567e25 \text{ m}^2 \quad a_1 = 6.955541892e-6 \text{ m/s/s} \] \[ d_2 = 31.183204 \text{ AU} \quad d_2^2 = 2.176167379e25 \text{ m}^2 \quad a_2 = 6.099990345e-6 \text{ m/s/s} \] AVERAGE \( a = 6.527766118e-6 \text{ m/s/s} \) **Sun’s velocity component** \[ v = at \quad v = 6.527766118e-6 \times 31\ 104\ 000 = 203.0396373 \text{ m/s} \] \[ d = vt \quad d = 203.0396373 \times 31\ 104\ 000 = 6\ 315\ 344\ 880 \text{ m} \] Divided by 149 597 870 700 to give AU's = 0.042215473 From this draw Sun’s velocity vector. Along Sun’s direction from below. From this also get average Sun’s direction for average acceleration. *This will not give an exact value but will be close enough to get the general trend for the path because of varying Sun’s acceleration* Distance from average acceleration is given by: \[ \text{DIVIDE BY 149 597 870 700} \] \[ d = \sqrt{\frac{13.2746e19}{6.527766118e-6}} \quad d = 4.50950039e12 = 30.14414824 \text{ AU} \] This allows us to get the direction of the Sun’s velocity vector Resultant = 2.119380 AU = 3.170547352e11 m Divided by time, 31 104 000 gives velocity = 10 193.37497 m/s APPENDIX C The possible effect of a large number of ice bodies ‘sticking together and impacting, in this case Argyre Planitia on Mars. I believe this to be a good example of the nature of the ice body structure in that individual bodies because of their movement and proximity in the wave will stick together. APPENDIX D FLOOD DATES. (Reese, 1977), (Wall Chart of World History, 1988), (Young, 1972). The reference here is (Reese, 1977) The Wall chart of World History, 1st published 1890’s. Publishers, Bracken Books, Bestseller publications Limited. 1988. Deluge dates, fold out page 4. Ussher and English Bible, 2348 BC. Hebrew Bible, 2288 BC. Playfair, 2352 BC. Clinton, 2482 BC. Samaritan Pentatuch, 2998 BC. Josephus, 3146 BC. Dr hales, 3155 BC. Septuagint, 3246 BC. (Wall Chart of World History, 1988) Reese, Edward, (1977) p11, 2319 BC. Young, Robert, Youngs Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1972 Edition., p698, 2348 BC. Holt, T. Genealogy of Jesus Christ. 2303 BC. APPENDIX E The section from the Genealogy of Jesus Christ Chart by T. Holt. | Event | Date | |-------------------------------|------------| | WORLDWIDE FLOOD | 2303 BC | | INTO CANAAN | 1935 BC | | EXODUS | 1505 BC | | TEMPLE COMMENCED | 1025 BC | | DATE FROM OUTSIDE THE SCRIPTURES | 561 BC | - 98 SHEM 600 - 368 YEARS FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FLOOD TO ABRAHAM ENTERING CANAAN AGED 75 - PEOPLE OF ISRAEL DWELL IN EGYPT FOR 430 YEARS - 480 YEARS FROM THE EXODUS TO THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE - 464 YEARS FROM THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE TO 37th YEAR OF EXILE JEHOIACHIN - JEHOIACHIN - 37th YEAR OF EXILE OF KING JEHOIACHIN - 1st YEAR OF EVILMERODACH CRATERS AND ICE BODIES A CONCERN ABOUT THE PRESENT STATE OF IMPACT AND CRATER THEORY After perusing a number of papers/books over the years discussing craters, I find that the approach taken does not seem to provide a satisfactory explanation of the craters observable throughout the solar system. There is a need to understand that there seems to be only three types of bodies which could be responsible, ice bodies, ice plus some mineral type material in some form, and solid, hard rock/metal bodies. Much of the research seems to focus on all bodies as being in the rock hard category. Considering that craters were not given credit for having massive influence on the surface features of planetary bodies including Earth until around the 1950’s and that the craters on the Moon were believed to have been the remains of volcanoes, (Melosh, 1989) (H. J. Melosh, Impact Cratering, preface), we need to have an open mind to the possibilities, and particularly as people who have their knowledge of the history of the universe based on the Bible. Within a Biblical framework, considering that the universe and the solar system were supernaturally created by the Creator God and declared very good, anything destructive, that could cause destruction of a planetary world would not have been included as part of the universe. After the change in the whole creation brought about by human disobedience there would be decaying bodies throughout the universe that could cause destruction to other bodies if impacted. With respect to the solar system region I would suggest that there were no asteroids or comets until up until the time of the flood of Noah’s time. The basis of this paper is that ice bodies with varying proportions of water and mineral type material, ranging from only water to almost all mineral material, were responsible for almost all the craters throughout the solar system until such time as the asteroids were formed by the destruction of a terrestrial type of body or bodies at the same time as the ice bodies brought water into the solar system. The following gives some very brief thinking about the crater situation. 1. The impacting bodies are ice bodies which have been described. 2. The impacting velocity of the ice bodies is the same for all bodies into a particular region of a planet. 3. The material they are impacting into, by the time we observe the craters has been impacted a number of times and as well as initially creating small rock fragments as we see for example on the surface of Mars, the surface is saturated with water as the ice bodies have melted due to heat of impact. 4. Most of the surface is basically like mud, (Audouze, *et al*, 1996), (The Cambridge Atlas of Astronomy, page 149, referring to crater Arandas) suggests that the appearance of the surrounding surface is like mud flows or very viscous lava flows. 5. The overall duration of impacts was around 40 days. The latter craters formed will have a range of central peaks ranging from none to quite large depending on the amount of mineral type material with the water. Some craters almost adjoining, that is impacts of ice bodies under the same conditions have produced craters with different peaks. The following is an extract from some work I have done on craters formed by ice bodies. An examination of the sizes, shapes and internal peaks and mounds of the craters on Mars would indicate a tremendous range in the features of the initial bodies which created these craters. Some craters have exceptionally large masses of material in them. The notable one, crater Henry is illustrated in Figure 1, and others in the vicinity indicate large proportions of centre material. There features would indicate that virtually all ice bodies contained different proportions of water to mineral material. Figure 2. The craters with no central peaks would have been caused by all water ice bodies, while craters like Henry would have a large amount of mineral material. ![Image](image.png) **FIGURE 1.** Craters in the vicinity of Henry. PROPOSED STRUCTURE OF IMPACTING ICE BODIES For the crater structure we observe, the type of bodies responsible need to be of a reasonably soft and easily deformed nature. My thoughts are that the bodies were possibly of a honeycomb internal structure which would easily slump when impacting with a terrestrial surface. The heat generated on impact will facilitate melting, and melting as well as direct sublimation into vapour will continue until all the ice has melted and the mineral material settled to the floor of the crater. This type of structure would also be influenced by conditions in space and cause out gassing etc., as the body rotated as well as being dependent on its distance from the Sun. Figure 3 illustrates the type of structure proposed. Figure 3. The structure of the ice body allows it to slump as it forms a crater. Some material will be ejected and as it slumps into the crater it begins to melt and sublime, and the mineral material settles to the floor of the crater. There appears to still be some unmelted ice in many craters which have their floor in perpetual darkness. An example of the type of body described could be Comet Wilde Comet Wilde from 500 km by Stardust spacecraft 3.3 km X 4 km X 5.5 km. About same volume as a sphere 4 km diameter. DETERMINING CRATER PROPORTIONS FROM ICE BODY IMPACTS After considering the situation over a considerable time, I have settled on the shape of the craters formed over the 40 day period as being an oblate ellipsoid inverted dome with a ratio of diameter to depth of 8.5. This proportion was developed by counting the number of pixels across a couple of craters. Crater Euldoxus has around 9 pixels in its wall. Crater Newton which is around 3 times the size also has a count of around 9 pixels on its left wall. This would indicate a limit in this region for crater walls irrespective of their diameter. Figure 4. Figure 4. By using the craters Euldoxus and Newton, a ratio of crater diameter to depth can be determined for impacting ice bodies. The appearance of a range of last day craters shows that the ratio of diameter to depth of 8.5 cannot be maintained across the whole range of crater diameters. As the impacting body’s mass and diameter is a consistent ratio, the resistance to deformation by impact is related to the consistency of the planet surface. This by the final stages of the impact period will have the consistency of mud. This mud layer will be over the whole planet and will have a depth depending on the degree of seepage into the planet surface. As a preliminary study to ascertain the viability of the hypothesis, and assuming a straight line relationship between crater diameter and depth, a crater of 470 km diameter will have a depth of around 13.8 km. A red line on the following graph Figure 5 is considered to give a better ratio at this time. Figure 5. Developing a ratio of crater diameters to depths for impacts of ice bodies into mud. REFERENCES Abbott, W. (1956), Practical Geometry and Engineering Graphics, 6th Edition. Blackie and Son Limited. Audouze, Jean and Israel, Guy, Editors. (1996), Cambridge Atlas of Astronomy. pp. 197. Cooper, B. (2009), The Calendar and the Antiquity of Genesis. *Acts and Facts*, Institute for Creation Research, June, p. 19. Freeman, I. M. (1957), Modern Introductory Physics, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Hugh D., Young, R. A., Freedman, A., and Ford, L. (2008), University Physics, 12th Edition. Sears and Zemansky. Melosh, H. J. (1989). Impact Cratering. A Geological Process. *Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics #1*. Oxford University Press. Price, N. J. (2001), Major Impacts and Plate Tectonics, Routledge. Reese, E. (Ed), (1977). The Chronological Bible. p2 E.E Gaddy and Associates, Inc – Publishers. Nashville, Tennessee. Sargent, D. A. (1982). Comets: Vagabonds of Space. Doubleday & Company Inc., Garden City New York. Spencer, W. R. (1998). Catastrophic Impact Bombardment Surrounding the Genesis Flood. In R. E. Walsh (Ed). *Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Creationism*. (Technical Symposium Sessions pp 553-566). Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Creation Science Fellowship Inc. Wall chart of World History (1988), 1st published 1890’s. Publishers, Bracken Books, Bestseller publications Limited. Deluge dates, fold out page 4. Walker, John.(2012), website. [www.formilab.ch/solar/](http://www.formilab.ch/solar/), Solar System Live. Young, R. (1972), Youngs Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1972 Edition., p. 698. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/
89c2f5bd-adb6-418d-870b-c072b6b8f32e
CC-MAIN-2021-10
https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1298&context=icc_proceedings
2021-02-28T19:47:19+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178361723.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20210228175250-20210228205250-00532.warc.gz
284,032,823
10,794
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.927969
eng_Latn
0.997076
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1341, 3771, 6801, 9634, 10452, 11128, 11802, 12958, 13645, 14327, 14571, 15963, 16381, 18874, 19532, 20631, 21171, 21819, 22671, 22762, 23603, 24213, 24941, 25694, 26138, 27481, 28186, 29615, 31030, 33404, 34601, 35241, 36642, 36954, 37666, 38433, 41062, 42490, 43254, 43778, 44525, 45358, 45994, 47126 ]
[ 2.53125, 1.375 ]
1
0
TRADING THEN AND NOW Then Now When David was a young man he had learnt about the Transatlantic slave trade. This brutal trade in human lives was run by traders from Europe, including British merchants. The Transatlantic slave trade was abolished in 1807, before David was even born, however illegal trading continued. David may have worked with raw cotton picked by enslaved people in American and Caribbean cotton plantations when he worked at Blantyre Cotton Works. While the West African Transatlantic slave trade ceased, the East African slave trade continued for another 60 years on both East and West coasts of Africa, as Middle Eastern merchants traded in enslaved people from the port of Zanzibar on the East Coast. When David arrived in Africa as a missionary doctor he witnessed the East African slave trade. He was so shocked by what he saw that he decided to dedicate his life to ending slavery. This slave trade was run by Middle Eastern and Portuguese traders who worked with African community groups and chiefs to capture and enslave men, women and children. The enslaved people were taken to Zanzibar on the East African coast where they were sold to slave owners. They were then shipped across the world and forced to work in many different types of jobs, such as labourers on plantations of tradeable goods like clove, spices and other foods, sailors, house servants and soldiers. David was horrified by the East African slave trade but he thought he knew how it could be stopped. People were taking part in the slave trade in order to make money, so he looked for ways to create fair trade. This involved identifying natural resources and teaching the local people farming skills so they could grow and sell their own produce, as well as making maps to created new trade routes. David’s actions of opening trade routes contributed to the Scramble for Africa, which saw African territories being colonised by European powers. He hoped that creating new ways to make money through fair trade would replace the slave trade. He also wanted people to follow the Christian religion so they would follow the same values of love, respect and kindness. To encourage trade and the spread of Christianity, David looked for safe travel routes through Africa that both traders and missionaries could use. He believed the combination of commerce and Christianity would bring an end to the East African slave trade and would create a civilised society. This vision of ‘commerce, Christianity and civilisation’ became known as the three Cs. We encourage you to look at the three Cs with critical reflection. ACTIVITY 1 IN SOMEONE ELSE’S SHOES I can gather and use information about forms of discrimination against people in societies and consider the impact this has on people’s lives. SOC 2–16b TASK A Look at the picture below. What do you think is happening? In pairs, create dialogue between the two characters in the middle of the picture. You could act this out to the class or write on speech bubbles. Share your thoughts with the rest of the class. TASK B When David was travelling through Africa he met slave traders who were capturing and enslaving people, taking them to the coast to sell at slave markets. Look at the picture again now that you know this is what it shows. Imagine now what all the other people in the picture might be thinking and feeling. What changes might you make to your drama dialogue? During his travels, David had to also accept help from the slave traders. With this information, would you make any further changes to your dialogue? ‘Mercy’ by Charles d’Orville Pilkington Jackson (David Livingstone Birthplace Museum) © David Livingstone Trust ACTIVITY 2 STRAWBERRIES IN JANUARY?!! I can use evidence selectively to research current social, political or economic issues. SOC 2–15a TASK A Trade – the process of buying and selling things – happens very differently now compared with when David Livingstone was alive. These days, we can buy almost anything we want, from anywhere in the world, at our local supermarket. Why do you think this might be? TASK B How do strawberries get to our supermarket shelves in January? Use the PowerPoint and activity ideas to explore the global supply chain https://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/resources/global-food-challenge-711 ACTIVITY 3 TRADING FAIR? Through exploring ethical trading, I can understand how people’s basic needs are the same around the world, discussing why some societies are more able to meet these needs than others. SOC 2–20a TASK A Although the Transatlantic Slave Trade had been abolished before David was born, the East African slave trade persisted, and unfair rules for commerce were devised by those with the power and money to buy, rather than those who were farming, the raw material. Many of the people enslaved during this time were shipped to the Caribbean to work on sugar-cane plantations. We still import sugar cane from far away today as it is cheaper than sugar beet grown in the UK and Europe. Why do you think this is? Use the activities within Oxfam’s ‘Find Your Way Through Trade’ Lesson 6 and Lesson 7: to experience the frustration of inequality within trading relationships: https://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/resources/find-your-way-through-trade TAKING IT FURTHER It is often difficult to know how the people who have farmed or manufactured the things we buy have been treated. Explore the many different items that are produced as a result of modern slavery here: https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/products_of_slavery_and_child_labour_2016.pdf How many of the following items are produced as a result of modern day slavery? Which do you use every day?: Cotton Bricks Carpets Sugar Leather Locks Gold Textiles Matches Tomatoes Peanuts Flowers Broccoli Coffee
5d33efaf-c4cb-4b87-843c-42c044c71a16
CC-MAIN-2022-27
https://www.david-livingstone-birthplace.org/files/7-trading-then-and-now-v5.pdf
2022-06-25T23:22:42+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103036176.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20220625220543-20220626010543-00390.warc.gz
804,462,710
1,224
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.997184
eng_Latn
0.998069
[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 31, 2617, 3699, 4324, 5830 ]
[ 4.4375 ]
1
0
| **Place No:** | 207 | |---------------|-----| | **Place Name:** | Avenue of Lemon Scented Gums | | **Place Type:** | Trees | | **Other Names:** | | | **Date of Original Assessment:** | April 2018 | | **Date of Review:** | N/A | **Address:** Welshpool Road East **Lot No:** Road Reserve **Plan Diagram:** Road Reserve **Vol Folio:** Road Reserve **Locality:** Wattle Grove **GPS:** -32° 004268 S, 116° 011376 E **Current Use:** Trees **Original Use:** Trees **Ownership:** State Government **Public Access:** Yes ### HERITAGE LISTINGS - SHO Listing: 25917 - Other Listings: ### CONSTRUCTION - **Date of Construction:** Planting c1960 - **Architect:** N/A - **Builder:** N/A - **Architectural Style:** N/A **Physical Description:** The Avenue of Lemon Scented Gums, Wattle Grove consists of two lines of Lemon Scented Gums (*Corymbia citriodora*) lining the southern (westbound) carriageway of Welshpool Road East for a distance of 450m, with one line of approximately 18 trees along the median strip and another line of trees of 17 trees along the southern road reserve. The trees are 15m apart and were roughly planted in pairs on either side of the original alignment of Welshpool Road East. The trees are in good health, and considered to mostly be the same age. Visually, the trees are all approximately the same size with spreading canopies over the southern portion of Welshpool Road East. Together the trees form a substantial avenue for cars travelling west along Welshpool Road East, lining the road for a distance of approximately 450 m. **Method of Construction:** N/A **Condition:** Generally good ### HISTORICAL The settlement of the City of Kalamunda was small and scattered until the 1890s when a railway line was established and the area became a popular holiday and market garden area with small communities dotted along the railway line. In the new century the Kalamunda area continued to develop into a popular tourism destination, and residential area for weekend living. The flat lands at the base of the Darling Range were still largely used for agriculture and the small farming community at Wattle Grove formed a Progress Association in 1912. This group was active in representations to the Darling Roads Board, the preceding organisation of the current City of Kalamunda. The goals of the organisation as stated in *The West Australian*, 2 August 1912, p.3, were: a) The speedy completion of Welshpool Road b) The construction of feeder roads c) The establishment of a school d) The commencement of a bi-weekly postal service e) The construction of a meeting hall f) Promotion of the district. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s infrastructure such as electricity and transport networks were further developed to throughout the Kalamunda district. In the post war period, Wattle Grove remained largely rural but underwent modest subdivision and development. At this time Welshpool Road extended in a straight alignment from Welshpool to the small cluster of orchards at the base of the foothills near Lesmurdie. In 1954, land was resumed adjacent to Welshpool Road at the Canning end of Welshpool Road to service a new railway depot and direct heavy vehicles away from local traffic. Land was also resumed to improve the roads leading to tourist destinations such as the nearby Lesmurdie Falls. A deviation along the Wattle Grove section of Welshpool Road was planned in 1956. In August 1958, land was resumed by Main Roads for this purpose, with the new road route published in January 1959 and formally declared in October the same year. The new deviation was named Welshpool Road East, with the remaining original section of Welshpool Road renamed Crystal Brook Road. At this time a line of Lemon Scented Gums (*Corymbia citriodora*) was planted by Main Roads along either side of the road reserve. Aerial imagery in 1965 shows the trees were planted about 15m apart and in pairs on either side of the road. Street trees in urban areas had been planted from early on in the colony’s development with a preference for exotic trees in the 19th century. Over time, there was a general shift towards the propagation and planting of more native species. After WWI, the demand for Australian and native species increased, and the State Nursery at Hamel provided these and other species for rural and ornamental uses, with continued distribution to government bodies, including the Railways, Municipalities and Roads Boards, and the Zoological Gardens. This trend continued after WWII, and the by this time eucalypts constituted the majority of trees distributed by the Hamel Nursery. Main Roads Western Australia had been in the practise of conserving trees within road reserves since 1949, and in 1953 road reserves were expanded to better allow the government body to engage in such conservation and revegetation. By the mid-1950s this had become a policy of actively planting trees in road reserves to better promote road verges. Don Aitken, Commissioner of Main Roads at this time, was a noted member of the Tree Society, which in 1961 had written to Main Roads to suggest that a 'Tree Expert' be appointed to the department to assist in the planting of trees in median strips. Conversations between the Tree Society and Main Roads at this time focussed on tree planting on median strips along Canning Highway and within Guildford. By 1968, Main Roads had formally appointed a horticultural officer to manage strip plantings. The planting of the avenue of Lemon Scented Gums, Wattle Grove is reputed to have been instigated by Patrick Moran, the Secretary of the Darling Range Road Board and later the City of Kalamunda, to provide an entry statement into the hills region and provide refuge for local wildlife. No further specific information has been found on the Darling Range Road Board's role in this specific group of trees, however it is known that the Board was in the practice of planting exotic tree species along town streets during the inter-war period, switching to Australian native species in the 1970s. It has also been suggested that the planting of the lemon scented gums was linked to notable town planner and architect Margaret Feilman, who is associated with a number of culturally significant urban landscapes in the state, however research by the State Heritage Office has not been able to substantiate this connection. Sometime between 1985 and 1995, Welshpool Road East was duplicated when an eastbound carriageway was constructed to the north of the original road, which then became the westbound carriageway. The lemon scented gums that had formed the northern half of the original avenue were retained in the median strip between the two carriageways. In November 2016, the City of Kalamunda approved the construction of a Place of Worship at Lot 36 (831) Welshpool Road East, Wattle Grove. As part of the development, access to the site required the construction of a turning lane which required the felling of 13 of the mature Lemon Scented Gums. Significant community opposition was expressed to the City of Kalamunda over the proposed felling of the trees and alternate methods of accessing the site are currently [2018] being considered. Expressions of the community concern over the issue included a community meeting, petition of approximately 10,000 signatures, a Facebook page which has 1500 followers, several items in the local press and a fundraising campaign. A feature of the commentary by the community has been the role of the trees as an entry statement to the City of Kalamunda. The Avenue of Lemon Scented Gums, Wattle Grove was referred to the State Heritage Office for assessment in November 2017 and was considered below threshold for inclusion on the State Register of Heritage Places. | Theme: | Transport and communications: Road transport Social and Civic Activities: Environmental Awareness | | Associations: | Don Aitken, Main Roads Commissioner Patrick Moran, Darling Range Road Board Secretary | | Main Sources: | Documentation prepared by the State Heritage Office for assessment of Place 25917 in December 2017. *The West Australian*, 7 August 1912, p.6. | **SIGNIFICANCE** | Level of Integrity: | High | | Level of Authenticity: | High | | Level of Significance: | Some/moderate | **Statement of Significance:** The following statement is drawn from the State Heritage Office Assessment documentation prepared in 2017. Avenue of Lemon Scented Gums, Wattle Grove, consisting of two lines of Lemon Scented Gums (*Corymbia citriodora*) lining the southern carriageway of Welshpool Road East for a distance of 450m, with one line of approximately 18 trees along the median strip and another line of trees of 17 trees along the southern road reserve, has cultural heritage significance for the following reasons: - the place is a visually pleasing vista of Eucalypts along Welshpool Road East, which contributes to the community's sense of place. the place is associated with the post-WWII practice of Main Roads of planting trees in roadside verges and median strips, which was influenced by the Tree Society of Western Australia. **Management Category:** 3 Contributes to the heritage of the locality. Has some altered or modified elements, not necessarily detracting from the overall significance of the item. Conservation of the place is desirable. Any alterations or extensions should reinforce the significance of the place, and original fabric should be retained wherever feasible. **ADDITIONAL PHOTOGRAPHS** 1953, courtesy Landgate, showing original alignment of Welshpool Road 1965, courtesy Landgate, showing alignment of the new Welshpool Road East. Trees on the median strip looking west, 2018 Trees on the median strip, 2018 Trees on south side of Welshpool Road East, 2018 Median strip tree, 2018 Avenue of gums, south side of Welshpool Road East, 2018 View eastwards through both sides of Welshpool Road East, with the avenue of trees on the right side, 2018
05003891-f8c1-4ae1-97cc-d6bf9819b102
CC-MAIN-2024-51
https://www.kalamunda.wa.gov.au/docs/default-source/planningdocs/municipal-inventory-of-heritage-places/municipal-heritage-excerpt-welshpool-road-east-avenue-of-lemon-scented-gums.pdf?sfvrsn=9a6aac28_4
2024-12-04T19:37:13+00:00
crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066304351.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20241204172202-20241204202202-00668.warc.gz
766,048,466
2,175
eng_Latn
eng_Latn
0.959663
eng_Latn
0.9959
[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 1096, 4871, 8996, 9797, 10037 ]
[ 2.078125 ]
1
0