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Eyes on the Road . . . Turtles Crossing By Frederick Boyce Spring is a favorite time for most creatures, human and otherwise, and while most anyone can certainly enjoy the sunshine and warmer temperatures, spring holds special joys for those who love animals and nature. This is when the world comes alive again—when the migratory birds and butterflies return (and the migratory humans), and all the things that have been asleep all winter are waking up and starting to bloom and bud or move around. It is the time I long for each year as my reward for patiently enduring another dreary winter devoid of turtles, snakes and lizards. Sadly, however, the joy that I experience is increasingly tempered by the dreadful and depressing certainty that I am bound to see many of my favorite creatures being crushed and mangled on our roadways, each one representing another notch down in what are already declining populations, especially here in the increasingly crowded confines of Bogue Banks. There is no question that most reptiles are getting more difficult to find in the county, and next to habitat loss, road mortality takes the greatest toll. One animal that is especially and perilously conspicuous on the roadways each spring and fall is our official state reptile, the eastern box turtle, Terrapene carolina carolina. These terrestrial relatives of the common pond sliders of local waterways can be extremely colorful (especially the males), and are about the size of a softball. They have rather grumpy and antisocial dispositions and much prefer to be left to themselves, but are shy and inoffensive creatures whose main defense is to withdraw entirely into their shells, which they are able to close up tightly like a box (hence the name) with the aid of a flexible, fleshy hinge that divides the lower shell (the plastron). The upper shell is tall and domed, and not flattened as it is with aquatic turtles, helping to better conserve water on land. It is structurally much stronger as well, such that these land turtles are better able to withstand the pressure of being stepped on by a large animal. This time-tested design, however, which has served these hardy turtles well for some 15 million years, offers virtually no protection from the ubiquitous brainchild of Henry Ford. It is a sad thing to see a crushed box turtle in the road. These erstwhile sturdy little animals can easily live 50 years or more, a life-span comparable to a human’s, and there are credible instances of their having lived for more than a century. A well-known female from the West Tisbury woods of Martha’s Vineyard had dates from 1861, 1881, 1932 and 1955 carved into her shell. This turtle was seen and photographed as recently as 2006 and was the subject of two articles in the Vineyard Gazette, one in 1989 and an earlier one in 1932 that included an interview with the man who had carved the 1881 initials when he was a boy 14 years of age. His family had known two of the young men who had carved their initials in 1861, just before going off to die in the Civil War. Box turtle shells are living, feeling tissue made of bone overlaid with a thin veneer of semi-translucent scutes (dermal bony plates) made of keratin, the same protein that comprises our fingernails, and carving into them would be a painful and cruel thing to do, but people did not know any better in those days. Box turtles can be found in woodlands across all of North Carolina, from the mountains to the sea, so they are indeed a fitting choice for the NC State Reptile, but their populations are steadily declining. Eastern box turtles are highly variable, typically being some combination of yellow, white, black and brown, but some flamboyant specimens will have lots of orange or red. Males often, but not always, have red eyes, while the eyes of females tend to be brown, and males will usually be larger and more elongated in shape, with the rear edge of the shell being flared. Females normally have shorter, rounder shells. The lower shells of the males are deeply concave, which helps a lot during breeding (think about it), while the females have flat bellies, providing more room for eggs. Although small and attractive to people, box turtles do have a fierce and determined sort of dignity and really do not like being picked up, so I try to avoid doing so unless it is absolutely necessary. If you spot one crossing the road, you can help by stopping your car while it crosses. What are a few minutes of impatient screaming and honking from other motorists when we are talking about an animal that could live for more than 100 years? Besides, this is the beach and no one should be in a hurry anyway. If you think the turtle needs some help crossing, place it as far off the road as possible on the side toward which it was moving. Check it carefully for injuries, and if you see blood or other signs of injury, the turtle should be immediately taken to the Outer Banks Wildlife Shelter (OWLS) off of Highway 24 at 100 Wildlife Way in Newport (phone: 240-1200). Be sure to note the exact location so they can release it later. Box turtles occupy a small home range and will not survive if moved more than a mile away from where they were found. Do not take them home unless you have no plans for the next 50 to 100 years or so, but you can encourage their presence by leaving some unmowed natural areas with native plants (they love blackberries) in your yard, and a compost pile with lots of veggie scraps, such as watermelon rind, strawberries and tomatoes, which will be greatly appreciated. They will also take cover and even overwinter under large piles of leaves or brush. The Carolina Herp Atlas (carolinaherpatlas.com) is an online database available for anyone to log their box turtle and other reptile or amphibian sightings. Photographs, location information, and other details that you include are then available for biologists to view and monitor. Another good resource for general information is boxturtles.com. Sources for this article: “Field Observations of North America’s Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina)” by William Belzer, Box Turtle Conservation Trust and ncwildlife.org/portals/0/Learning/documents/Profiles/Eastern_Box_Turtle.pdf. Frederick Boyce is the staff herpetologist at the NC Aquarium at Pine Knoll Shores. Above: A male box turtle relaxes on his “front porch” in a forest Down East. Below: Boxed up tight—box turtles can enclose themselves in their shells more completely than any other turtle. 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DAY 1, Workshop Sessions 1 and 2 1A 2A Hidden History: Understanding the Impact of Indian Residential School on Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples, Grade 7 Unit Over the past two years, our school district has engaged grade 7 students in 6 to 8-week sessions where they learn about Indian residential schools through literature, literature circles and multimedia resources. Teachers have been amazed at the students’ degree of engagement and this resource is proving to be an excellent tool for teaching about Aboriginal history, dispelling myths, starting informative discussions at home, and teaching empathy. Ilona Weiss, District Curriculum Teacher and Birdy Markert, District Aboriginal Principal, SD #54 (Bulkley Valley) 1B 2B “My biggest barriers to being successful in school? Teachers and social workers” Stories from Aboriginal Children in BC’s Child Protection System Aboriginal children represent more than half of the 9000 children in BC’s foster care system and we know that their chance of graduating with a Dogwood Diploma, prepared for post-secondary, is less than 2%. In 2009-10 this Indigenous researcher asked about the education experiences of 15 Aboriginal adults that grew up in BC’s child protection system and 14 Indigenous people working in two First Nations agencies in Vancouver and Victoria. What they told her needs to be heard by every teacher, social worker and foster parent in BC. Shelly Johnson, Assistant Professor, School of Social Work, Thompson Rivers University 1C 2C The Brave New World of Text Author, artist and filmmaker Chris Bose will showcase innovative ways to introduce Grades 4-12 students to creative writing and the oral storytelling traditions using a range of short films, digital texts, spoken word texts and a sampling of the work that he has done with students. He will show how these non-traditional forms of text engage students and allow them to express themselves and their ideas in exciting new ways. Chris Bose is of the Nlaka’pamux/Secwepemc Nations in BC and he is always building new songs, books and documentaries to unleash upon an unsuspecting world. Chris Bose, Workshop Facilitator 1D 2D Simple Problem-Solving Strategies from JUMP Math This session, led by JUMP Math founder and 2010 Order of Canada recipient, Dr. Mighton, and Liz Barrett, is focussed on developing solid problem-solving skills. It will guide you through some powerful teaching strategies and activities that will help you develop effective ways for developing problem solving skills in young people. We will also examine key questions that good problem solvers ask. Examples and activities will be shared, aimed at developing the essential skills of guesswork, list-making, diagrams and drawings (great for developing an understanding of probability!). Dr. John Mighton, Founder of JUMP Math and Liz Barrett, First Nations Outreach for JUMP Math 1E 2E The Not So Secret Ingredient for Academic Success and the Achievement of Excellence When we encourage young people to “think big” and to “reach for the stars” we take the first step in Norming Excellence. Teachers and what they do in classrooms can make the difference. When teachers provide effective direct instruction, when there is respectful engagement between learners and teachers, and where the mastery of knowledge and skills are both expected and achieved, EXCELLENCE HAPPENS! This workshop will provide a framework for the use of effective pedagogy in classrooms so teachers can; - Encourage children and youth to “think big” - Engage young people with learning - Empower students with the tools to achieve excellence Eric Wong, Anti-Racism Consultant, FNESC 1F 2F Hooking Pre-Teens Back into School, Family and Community through Literacy and Recreation Chehalis Community School and the Xwela:lam Read-n-Rec Program offer a 3-week literacy based and recreation program for students who have had challenges in a regular school program. Through team-building, collaboration and trust, students let go of their fears and become more accountable and responsible for their learning in a safe environment. Participants will learn about all stages of the program and gain new tools to design a local read-n-rec program. Stephanie Stephens, Literacy Coordinator and UBC NITEP Education Coordinator and Cheryl Charlie, Recreation Coordinator and Box Program Teacher, Chehalis Community School 1G 2G Normalizing Common Knowledge and Learning for Students See how Indigenous Learning can be brought into the school! The focus of the workshop will be on how “old traditional teachings,” practical skills, social skills and social consciousness can be transferred to present day school and community learning. There will be exercises, discussions and time for the participants to develop some of their own ideas that are particular to their own traditions. We have successfully used this format for a boys group, extracurricular programs supporting children in care and First Nations awareness. Mark Albany, First Nations Counsellor, Aboriginal Nations Education Division, Greater Victoria School District and James Young, Aboriginal Nations Education Liaison, Victoria Native Friendship Centre 1H 2H Using Technology for Teaching Language The presenters will demonstrate how they have worked with local elders to translate Robert Munsch children’s stories (with his permission) and created online, interactive digital resources for use by preschools and elementary schools, parents, caregivers, and any interested individuals. Using Robert Munsch stories is a great transition between cultures as many of the themes, such as sharing are segues into traditional stories. All children love these stories and hearing and reading them in Aboriginal languages not only builds literacy in both languages, it also builds self esteem. Dan Norman, Secondary School Technology Specialist, Alice Kedves, Teacher Librarian and Danny Norris, Halalt Elder, Chemainus Secondary 1I 2I Bringing Curriculum to Life Traditionally, Indigenous children were taught by many community and family members, and often through the use of storytelling. This workshop will show how the delivery of BC First Nations 12 at Victoria High School emulates aspects of traditional teaching practices through the use of guest speakers and hands-on learning opportunities. You will hear about the many positive impacts that these authentic learning experiences have for students from both the perspective of the teacher and the guest speaker. Student feedback and assessment results speak to the power of bringing the curriculum to life. This workshop shows how community members can be brought into the classroom to provide a richer level of learning for students, leading to both greater academic success and satisfaction in the learning process. Anne Tenning, Teacher and Aboriginal Counsellor, Victoria High School and Alex Nelson, Educational Guest Speaker 1J 2J Alternative Delivery, not Alternate School Learn how one school district and one secondary school has changed focus to delivery alternative ways to learn within their own four walls, rather than having students be re-located to a different site. The team will discuss how their alternative delivery model works and its ability to re-engage and retain all students, particularly Aboriginal students, and get them through their graduation program. Rick Fitch, Vice-Principal Grad Program, Denise Laslo, Youth Care Worker (Alternate Program), and Tina Ramsay, Aboriginal Support Worker, Hatzic Secondary, SD #75 (Mission) 1K Full Day Kindergarten Full Day Kindergarten is a new Ministry initiative that is being phased in over a two-year period to offer more early learning opportunities to all children in BC. Many schools have been offering Full Day Kindergarten to Aboriginal children over the past decade and as such there is much to share as this program is offered to more children. In this workshop, staff from the Ministry of Education will facilitate a session to share ideas about how to best provide inclusive and welcoming environments that best meet the needs of Aboriginal children, based on the richness of Aboriginal culture and literature. 2K Effective Enhancement Agreements For the past 10 years, Aboriginal communities, School Districts and the Ministry of Education have used the Enhancement Agreement process to increase the success rates of Aboriginal students. What impact has this process had? What is different now than 10 years ago? What are we learning from this collaborative process? What has been a district's experience compared to a provincial perspective? This workshop will discuss these questions and more and provide examples of past Enhancement Agreement annual reports as a guide for those who are writing their own. Ted Cadwallader, Field Director and Colleen Hannah, Enhancement Agreements Coordinator, Aboriginal Education Enhancements Branch, BC Ministry of Education 1L How Non-Aboriginal Teachers can Incorporate Language & Culture into the K-7 Classroom Traditional language and culture is the responsibility of all those who work with First Nations children. In this workshop we will share resources, teaching methods and practices that we have used to successfully incorporate language and culture into the K-6 classroom in all subject areas. We will demonstrate that valuing students and using their skills and interests to involve them in the planning and materials creation process can lead your lessons to exciting places. Our focus is to give classroom teachers, whether Aboriginal or not, the responsibility and ability to apply the cultures and traditions of their community's heritage within their programs, regardless of the resources that may or may not be available. Participants will receive complete lessons and the required methodology to replicate activities in their own classrooms. Michael Derech, Principal, Aqamnik Elem., Amanda Patterson, Grade 3/4 Teacher, Aqamnik Elem., and Karen Smith, Director of Education, St. Mary's Band 1M Be a Champion of Children’s Rights The Representative for Children and Youth’s child rights workshop is designed to provide community partners with information and skill-building activities that will assist them in understanding and advocating for children’s rights. Focusing on the rights as set out in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, this workshop offers reflective exercises that assist natural advocates to expand their resources and skills. Andrew Robinson, Associate Deputy for Advocacy Aboriginal and Community Relations and Wilma Clarke, Director of Advocacy Aboriginal and Community Relations, Office of the BC Representative for Children and Youth DAY 2, Workshop Sessions 3 and 4 3A 4A ALEÑENEĆ: Homelands and Nuts’amaat Shqwaluwun: One Thought, One Mind – A Parks Canada Collaborative Species at Risk Project Excite First Nations students about science! In 2008, Parks Canada collaborated with the Hul’q’umi’num’ Treaty Group to develop and deliver species at risk programs for Hul’q’umi’num’ students. In 2009, Parks Canada collaborated further with the Saanich Indian School Board and this program was delivered to WSÁNEC students in both First Nation and district schools. The core message is one of care and respect for plants and animals, with a special focus on species that are at risk. The program incorporates Hul’q’umi’num’ and WSÁNEC First Nations language and culture. The project resulted in excellent posters and species at risk cards which were developed collaboratively between the Parks Canada interpreter and the First Nation participants. Be inspired! Athena George, Park Interpreter, Parks Canada - Gulf Islands National Park Reserve, Philomena Pagaduan, First Nations Educator, Hul’q’umi’num’ Treaty Group and MENETIA Elliot WASANEC, Language Apprentice, Saanich Indian School Board 3B 4B From IEP or Learning Plan to a Dogwood– Here’s How! High levels of learning for every student is the principle of this workshop. Learn how the Pyramid of Interventions in the Professional Learning Community Model supports the IEP/Learning Plan model when students need intensive intervention. Pyramids of support/intervention are critical to ensuring students reach high levels of learning. Collaborative team planning and parental involvement is key to success of all learners and is an integral component of the IEP Learning Plan Process using teacher-driven assessment tools and charting student growth consistently will be discussed in this session, as well as high commitments of learning and support from all team members. Madeline Price, Education Consultant, FNESC/FNSA 3C 4C An Introduction to the FirstVoices Language Tutor and FirstVoices Mobile Application The FirstVoices Language Tutor is part of the FirstVoices suite of language revitalization applications that give communities tools to document and teach their languages online. The Language Tutor delivers language exercises in vocabulary development, reading comprehension, listening and speaking. The FirstVoices Mobile application is a portable multimedia dictionary and phrase collection that allows users to customize content by adding personal pictures, sounds and notes to any word or phrase entry. *Participants are encouraged, but not required, to bring a laptop to this session Shay Boechler, FirstVoices Trainer, First Peoples' Heritage Language and Culture Council, Peter Brand, FirstVoices Coordinator, First Peoples' Heritage Language and Culture Council Boys Will Be Boys; So What Are We Doing About It? There is a growing body of work that provides some of the answers to why boys are lagging behind girls when it comes to achieving academic excellence in schools. The research presents a variety of strategies targeted to boys as a way to enhance educational opportunities for young males to allow them to catch up to their female counterparts. There is much we know and still do not know about why Aboriginal boys have so many struggles and challenges when it comes to school success. This workshop will review what we currently know about creating learning environments that encourage and mentor boys and young men to achieve excellence. This review will be presented in the context of the real lives and experiences of Aboriginal boys and young men. Eric Wong, Anti-Racism Consultant, FNESC In Ways They Can Be Heard ... Teaching Story and Stories in English First Peoples 10 and 11 People learn lessons from stories. As a teacher for social justice, Chelsea continually tries to teach lessons about valuing diversity and respecting human rights in her classes, and is most successful doing so through story and stories. Students learn the lessons through stories – they learn the lessons in ways they can be heard. In this workshop, she will discuss how to teach for social justice in English First Peoples 10/11. Chelsea Nyeste-Prince, Teacher, Salmon Arm Sec., SD #83 Math Problem Solving: Building Real Understanding Give Aboriginal students the tools to become problem solvers! In this workshop you will learn a variety of effective methods including the Bar Model method, which helps develop in students a deeper understanding of fundamental concepts in mathematics and develop their abilities in problem solving and mathematical thinking. By introducing new and exciting ways to teach mathematics and promoting role models, the Pacific Institute for the Mathematical Sciences (PIMS) is making a significant difference in the way students view science and technology and their own mathematical abilities. Melania Alvarez, BC Education Coordinator, Pacific Institute for the Mathematical Sciences A Framework for Family Engagement and Empowerment In this session you will learn about a series of four workshops to hold in your community to build and support on-going relationships with the school and families. Participants will be provided with the workshop templates to enable them to host the series. Through the series of four workshops, families will become empowered as they learn about each other and address the educational needs and issues of the children and youth. Families will also learn valuable advocacy skills to enable them to approach the school system to achieve an equal, respectful partnership to improve their child’s education program. Holly Smith, Special Education Resource / Consultant, FNESC/FNSA 3H 4H Moving Forward from Full Day Aboriginal Kindergarten to an Aboriginal Primary Program In light of the changes to Aboriginal Kindergarten programs across BC this year, it is with increased vigor that we are forging ahead with our Aboriginal Primary Program! Our curriculum follows protocols from the local K’omoks territory and our daily routine supports our classrooms’ Aboriginal values. The curriculum focuses on “Place” and it follows the seasons of the Salmon Forest outside our classroom, as well as the Ministry directed Learning Outcomes for K/1. Combined with effective programs including “Jolly Phonics,” “Button Blanket Math,” and “Math Makes Sense,” we are experiencing wonderful results. Susan Leslie, Aboriginal Teacher / Program Developer and Roland Ginger, Aboriginal Education Assistant École Puntledge Park Elem. 3I 4I Models of Indigenous Pedagogy for Student Success By using Indigenous models we can support excellence in Aboriginal student success! This highly interactive workshop will introduce participants to several models of Indigenous pedagogy including Aboriginal Headstart’s Values and Beliefs about Children, Inuit IQ, the Metis Learning Tree, First Peoples Principles of Learning, the Ojibwe seven good life teachings, and the Lil’wat Principles of Teaching and Learning. Participants will examine their own beliefs about learning and student success, and then be given a possible framework that can be used to help students examine their own learning priorities. Finally, participants will discuss how to transform classrooms to better reflect Indigenous values about definitions of student success and ways that student success can be achieved. While this workshop will be especially useful for educators teaching English First Peoples Literature 10, 11, or 12 it will be relevant to anyone who works with Aboriginal youth. Starleigh Grass, Secondary Teacher, SD #74 / Lillooet Sec. School 3J 4J What Aboriginal Education Isn’t: BC’s First Public Aboriginal Choice School The first of its kind in BC, the Aboriginal Choice School in Prince George is rooted in an Indigenous Knowledge framework, supporting innovative practices in First Nations education and resting in a web of community support. This workshop will chronicle the 15-year process that lead to the establishment of BC’s first Aboriginal Choice School. Sharing research and oral literature review within the public education context for Aboriginal students, the presenters will make explicit education as a relationship. Current and future initiatives are highlighted in an Aboriginal framework of best practice. Charlotte Henay, Aboriginal Education District Principal / Aboriginal Choice School Principal, Marlene Erickson, Chair, Aboriginal Education Board, and Kathy Richardson, Vice-Principal Aboriginal Choice School, SD #57 (Prince George) Meeting the Needs of BC’s Children in Care In February 2009, the Representative for Child and Youth raised the concern about the school success of children in care and noted that the majority of these students are Aboriginal. Since then, the Ministry of Education, school districts, and the Ministry of Children and Family Development have been working together to establish processes to better meet the needs of children in care. In this workshop, Ministry and school district representatives will provide a system-wide and district-wide perspective on how this work is progressing. The workshop will include small group discussions to share local experiences, promising strategies, and steps that can be taken to better meet the needs of children in care. Dean Goodman, Education Officer, BC Ministry of Education, and school district representatives Imagining New Possibilities Explore culturally inclusive, imaginative education through highly original and exciting hands-on activities with two experienced LUCID teachers. Widely-recognized LUCID methodology has shown very positive results in SD#52 for increasing student engagement and achievement for all learners, but especially Aboriginal and at-risk students. This approach is supported by differentiated instruction and dynamic assessment. This is an initiative of the Aboriginal Education Council of SD #52. LUCID (Learning for Understanding through Culturally Inclusive Imaginative Development) Colleen Pudsey, Teacher and Raegan Sawka, Teacher, LUCID Project, School District #52 (Prince Rupert) Getting Aboriginal Youth Active! Learn about the Aboriginal Sport, Recreation and Physical Activity Partners Council and discuss the value of sports and recreation for Aboriginal youth. In this workshop we will explore the physical literacy concepts outlined in the Canadian Sports for Life (CS4L) Long-Term Athlete Development Model for parents, coaches, communities and educators. Joe Akerman, Regional Engagement Coordinator, Aboriginal Sport, Recreation and Physical Activity Partners Council	<urn:uuid:d53461e8-23a1-47c2-9ec6-3ae8a1bd5a51>	CC-MAIN-2023-06	https://www.pims.math.ca/files/Workshop_Descriptions.pdf	2023-02-04T08:21:34+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500095.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20230204075436-20230204105436-00056.warc.gz	969,440,789	4,075	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.990926	eng_Latn	0.993162	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 2676, 5222, 8223, 10759, 13577, 16469, 19329, 21395 ]	[ 2.875, 2.171875 ]	1	0
Last total solar eclipse of the century The last total solar eclipse of this century is going to be visible from North Atlantic Ocean to India via large parts of Europe and Middle East on 11 August 1999. In India the umbral shadow of the moon on the ground which causes temporary darkness will move from Northern Gujarat to the Bay of Bengal via parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andra Pradesh. It will occur in the evening. In Gujarat it will occur well before sunset but in Maharashtra at most of the places it will occur shortly before sunset. Although the eclipse occurs in the monsoon season, if it is not either cloudy or rainy, it may be visible in a belt comprising Bhuj, Vadodara, Khandwa, Akola, Bastar, Koraput, Vishakhapatnam and Vizianagram districts. In the Bay of Bengal the eclipse will end with the sunset. The best place to watch and conduct scientific experiments related to it in India will be in western parts of Gujarat state. The visibility of the corona of the sun there will be the best and longest. The shape of this shadow on the Earth will be nearly elliptical with the direction of major axis nearly east–west because the sun’s position in the sky is angular with respect to the horizon and not right over the head. Its altitude at the time of its entry in India (in Kutch, Gujarat) will be at $13^\circ$ and the same while leaving the Andhra Pradesh’s coastline will be only $7^\circ$. Its duration in Kutch will be approximately 65 s but the same in the Bay of Bengal will be less than 25 s. The partial eclipse in India will start from 1600 h 53 m 03 s and the totality from 1700 h 59 m 21 s. From the start of the partial eclipse itself the intensity of the sunlight starts reducing slowly initially, the rate of which continuously changes becoming faster with time later and at the moment of start of the totality phase it drops abruptly to its lowest value. At the end of totality, the light intensity of the sun starts increasing abruptly to slowly later to the normal. After this eclipse the next total solar eclipse in India will be visible on 22 July 2009, the path of which will traverse from China to Bangladesh via Bhutan and Indian states Assam and Meghalaya. After that no total solar eclipse will be visible in India for about four decades. Salahuddin Ahmad Environmental Assessment Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, India NEWS DST sponsored SERC summer school NMCMP-V The advent of computers has transformed all areas of research and development. Areas which were once considered to be remote from the field of computers are getting active help from this technology. This importance of computers has been enhanced many folds with the arrival of the Internet within the reach of an ordinary man. It is against this background that the Scientific and Engineering Research Council (SERC) of the Department of Science & Technology (DST), Government of India, devised a five-year cycle of summer/winter schools on ‘Databases, Numerical methods and Computer Modelling in Modern Approach to Petrology (NMCMP)’. The aim was to train manpower for the utilization of computer technology to facilitate research work in Earth Sciences. To achieve this objective, research scholars, teachers and professional earth scientists from different organizations were invited to participate in these schools. The course content was devised putting thrust on computer application supplemented with classroom lectures and demonstrations by eminent scholars in this field. The first school of this series was organized at the Delhi University under the directorship of P. K. Verma in 1993. It evoked a strong response. The successive schools of this cycle were later held at Jadavpur University, Calcutta under S. C. Sarkar in 1994, at Allahabad University, Allahabad under Alok K. Gupta in 1996 and at Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun under K. K. Sharma in 1996. The fifth and last school of this cycle was held again at the Department of Geology, Delhi University under P. K. Verma from 23 March to 7 April 1999. A number of participants had attended more than one school of this series. The thrust of the last school of this series was on the use of internet and MS-Access for research purposes. A large chunk of a research scholar’s time is spent on literature survey. To search the voluminous literature available in the libraries of different universities and institutions is too tedious a job for the limited resources of a researcher. Furthermore, once searched this literature is not readily available for reference at a later time. To overcome this difficulty, MS-Access can be utilized effectively. Each and every reference can be assigned a unique ID number. Different tables can be correlated through these ID numbers. With the help of a scanner, important data tables and pictures too can be stored. The school served a great purpose by imparting the basic know-how of this database technique. The course started with a very thought-provoking lecture by V. Rajamani, J.N.U. on the topic ‘The making of Bharat’. MS-Access was taught by P. K. Verma with active support from his colleagues from the departments of Geology and Computer Sciences. S. C. Sarkar (Jadavpur University) threw light on different aspects of metallogeny throughout the Indian subcontinent. A. K. Gupta (Allahabad University) delivered lectures on different processes of magma generation and the genesis of Komatites. G. S. Nurulla (DDG, GSI, NW region) talked on seismic hazards and their evaluation. K. R. Gupta (DST) presented a talk on the funding of research projects and the role of DST in it. A. Dey (Calcutta University) delivered his talk on the different aspects of basalt petrogenesis with special reference to the Deccan basalts. K. K. Sharma (Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun) discussed the nature of crustal growth throughout geological past and correlations of different Indian shields. R. S. Sharma (emeritus professor) taught various processes responsible for melt generation during the process of metamorphism. R. N. Singh (CMMACS, Bangalore) dwelt at length on the thermal modelling of the lower continental crust. S. K. Tandon (Delhi University) talked on how to understand the past climates with the help of different proxy indicators. J. P. Srivastava (Delhi University) presented a series of lectures on the geochemistry of the Deccan basalts. C. S. Dubey (Delhi University) demonstrated how to extract geological informations of our own interest from the Internet. Each participant was given a task to prepare a representative database related to his own research work, which all the participants completed with support from faculty members and the Central Library staff. As this was the last school of the series, there were discussions on future planning for running such schools. A suggestion made was to organize a workshop next winter for the participants to present their progress. Such schools have been very helpful for research workers. They are provided a platform to discuss their problems and to arrive at solutions with the help of fellow-workers and scientists from the different parts of the country. Vachaspati Pandey, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Allahabad University, Allahabad 211 002, India; Rajesh K. Singh, Department of Geology Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi; Divya Prakash, Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India RESEARCH NEWS Getting at the core of the colinearity of Hox genes Rakesh K. Mishra Discovery of homeotic genes was a major step towards understanding the genetic control of development. Mutations in homeotic genes convert one body part into another; for example, bithorax mutation of Drosophila transforms part of the haltere towards wing. Pioneering work of Ed Lewis showed that bithorax locus is complex of several distinct genetic elements and, most importantly, that bithorax mutations map in an order that corresponds to the order of the body parts that are affected by these mutations$^1$. This colinearity – correspondence of order of genes on the chromosome with the order of body parts that are under the control of these genes – is conserved up to vertebrates. All homeotic genes were later found to have a 60 a.a DNA binding domain called the ‘homeobox’. In fact, most of the homeotic genes outside Drosophila have been identified on the basis of this homology. Although the ‘colinearity’ of homeotic genes was first discovered in Drosophila, the fly seems to be an exception to the rule! Unlike other organisms, homeotic genes of Drosophila exist in two clusters (Figure 1a): the Antennapedia complex (ANT-C) that controls development of the head and half of the thorax and the bithorax complex (BX-C) that controls development of the rest of the thorax and abdomen. In vertebrates, the corresponding homeotic genes exist in one cluster and there are four such clusters per haploid genome (Figure 1b). Moreover, genetic experiments showed that colinear arrangement within the BX-C is not essential; for example, both Ubx and AbdB can function even when displaced to different locations in the genome. Another difference between fly and vertebrate Hox complexes is that the complexes in vertebrates are compact, 80 to 120 kb, while in Drosophila the BX-C alone spans more than 300 kb, 95% of which constitutes cis-regulatory elements. The colinearity in the BX-C extends to this vast cis-regulatory region also. Such a striking colinearity in homeotic gene clusters observed in all animals with anterior-posterior axial polarity could not be an accident. Unlike in Drosophila where determination of entire anterior-posterior axis takes place simultaneously, in vertebrates there is a temporal order for this – anterior parts are determined earlier and posterior parts later. The Hox genes are, accordingly, activated in this temporal order – the spatial colinearity is accompanied by a ‘temporal colinearity’$^2,3$. Why does this organization of homeotic genes persist? In other words, what is the mechanism that utilizes this organization in the transcriptional regulation of homeotic genes? Several observations suggest that the mechanisms involved in regulation of homeotic genes are conserved. Transgenic animals, both flies and mice, carrying a reporter gene driven by a cis-regulatory element from the Hox cluster often show an expression pattern which is consistent with the property of the regulatory element in question$^4-8$. Also, when a reporter gene is inserted with the complex, its expression is driven by the cis-regulatory elements of complex in...	<urn:uuid:61ec9419-fe64-48c7-aa69-f0b0e14476ae>	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/77/02/0212.pdf	2023-12-02T22:34:34+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100452.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20231202203800-20231202233800-00232.warc.gz	231,907,108	2,306	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995358	eng_Latn	0.995993	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 5216, 10710 ]	[ 2.546875 ]	1	1
EMOTIONS OF PRESCHOOLERS The preschooler is full of emotions that contradict themselves. One minute they feel one way, the next minute they feel just the opposite. They cannot always control these emotions. It is the responsibility of the adult working with the child to help the child learn to control these emotions. INDEPENDENCY/DEPENDENCY: Preschoolers go through times when they want to be and insist on being independent. They refuse help from adults and others. There are other times when they are very dependent and want to be helped. Parents and caregivers should show unconditional love and respect for the child's feelings and strive to recognize when to help and when to step back. Simple measures, such as arranging the home in such a way that make it easy for preschoolers to be independent help to eliminate power struggles; e.g., low coat hooks for children to hang their coats on, small chairs for their size, etc. FEAR/ANXIETY: Fear and anxiety are a natural human protector against danger. However, too much or too little fear and anxiety are not healthy. Preschoolers' fears usually become more intense than during the toddler years. They show fear of the unknown or they imagine monsters, vampires, etc., that are associated with the dark. They often fear injury and pain. To deal with these fears, a parent or caregiver should: - Listen to and accept the child's fears. - Resolve or handle one fear at a time. - Assure the child that you will protect him/her and keep them/her safe. - Be a role model of courage. (Don't pass on your own fear of things, such as animals or thunderstorms, to the child.) ANGER/AGGRESSION: Anger and aggression become specific during the preschool years. Instead of general anger and aggression displayed during the toddler years. Anger is a feeling, an emotion that is expressed if they fall off a bike or do not get to play with a certain toy, etc. Aggression is an attempt to hurt someone or something. Aggression is seen when another person takes away a toy and the child hits, kicks, or bites the individual. Anger, the emotion, should be contained or stopped. Preschoolers need to learn how to get rid of and deal with their feelings of anger in socially acceptable ways. Aggression, on the other hand, does need to be contained because it could be harmful to another human being. A child's aggressive acts should NEVER be disciplined with aggressive forms of punishment, such as spanking. This only demonstrates that a person can get what they want by hitting. The best way to limit aggressive acts is to prevent them from occurring; e.g., eliminate competition, encourage cooperation, and redirect activities that begin to get "heated" before they turn into a problem. JEALOUSY/SIBLING RIVALRY: Jealousy occurs when a child recognizes that he/she must share the love and attention of an adult with another person. When that other person is a sibling, often times sibling rivalry occurs. Preschoolers, like toddlers, may resort to crying, sucking a bottle, clinging, wetting their pants, and signs of dependence to express their jealousy. These are called regressive behaviors. Parents should discuss the child's feelings. The parent and child should spend their own special time together going to the zoo or to the store. If the jealousy is over a new baby, provide a doll for the older child to play with. This helps him/her limit the feelings of jealousy. Having the child help with the needs of the new baby may cause increased jealousy and sibling rivalry. GRIEF: Preschool-age children are just beginning to understand the concept of death and, therefore, begin to have feelings of grief over a death of a person and/or pet. If the child asks about death, at anytime, parents should talk about it and answer his/her questions openly and honestly. If a terminal illness occurs or a death occurs, the parents or adult should explain, truthfully, their personal belief concerning death. This should be on the child's level. The child should be encouraged to ask questions. Children also sometimes blame themselves for a death. This belief should always be addressed by the parent or adult to make sure the child does not feel this way. Most importantly, the child should be encouraged to talk about the memories of the person (or animal) that died, as well as ask questions and discuss death for a long time after the death. Children should know it is OK to feel sad or to cry. Adults should allow the child to see them cry or feel sad at times. Decisions concerning the child's presence at funerals or viewing services should be based on the child's age, the child's wishes, and the belief of the family. For example, some believe that the child actually seeing the body and coffin and grave sight help the child to say good-bye and make the death more real. Others believe it is too much for the child and that the child should remember the person as living. If the child is to attend the services, the rituals and things that the child will see should be explained in advance and discussed afterwards as well. An adult should be by the child to explain what is happening and to answer the child's questions.	<urn:uuid:0f88515c-51ec-4238-a1e8-c1bac51e2bcb>	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://www.uen.org/cte/family/child_development/downloads/growth/emotions.pdf	2023-12-02T21:33:23+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100452.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20231202203800-20231202233800-00231.warc.gz	1,217,826,671	1,070	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997368	eng_Latn	0.997401	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 2733, 5180 ]	[ 3.78125 ]	2	0
Because the death and resurrection of Jesus is the central belief for Christians the theme of Easter is relevant throughout the whole year, not just during the Easter period. Before most people could read and write they would learn their stories of the life of Jesus through pictures on church walls and in the stained glass windows. In Rochester Cathedral the Lady Chapel has a set of windows that cover the story of Jesus from the annunciation to his mother, Mary, by the angel Gabriel, through to the ascension into heaven forty days after his resurrection at Easter. Easter is the most important festival of the year for Christians, showing the love of God, who gave his only son to redeem Mankind, and the love of Jesus, who suffered and died for the sins of Mankind. His resurrection shows the power of God over death. Using the windows to tell the story of Holy Week, the crucifixion, the resurrection and ascension we take your pupils through a significant part of the Christian year. Not only will the pupils learn about important facets of Christian belief, their visit will cover a number of curriculum areas which are outlined below. As communication through means other than the written word is central to this visit it is suitable for pupils whose learning difficulties make reading and writing hard for them. PREPARING FOR YOUR VISIT Your visit will incorporate a number of curriculum areas Religious Education History Literacy Art and Design Design Technology Careful preparation before you come to the cathedral greatly enhances the educational benefits obtained from your visit. Preparing for the Religious Education element ❖ Study at least two different gospel accounts of the Easter story ❖ Learn about the Jewish feast of the Passover, described in the bible accounts ❖ Discuss the events from the viewpoints of different participants ❖ How could the outcome have been different ❖ What would it mean to Christians if Christ had not died ❖ What would it mean to Christians if Christ had not risen ❖ What symbols are associated with Easter Preparing for the History element ❖ Who wrote the accounts of the Easter story ❖ How long after the event were they written ❖ Make a timeline of the events of Holy Week and Easter ❖ What effect did these events have on the people at the time Preparing for the Literacy element - How do the different gospel versions vary - Are there any words we would not use now - Find alternative modern words for out-of-date words - Find out the meanings of unknown words using contextual clues Preparing for the Art and Design element - Find out about art in churches - Why were there pictures and stained glass windows in churches Preparing for the Design Technology element - Find out about how stained glass windows were made - Find examples of very old stained glass windows and modern stained glass windows - See if the techniques have changed Background Information RE - There are Bible narratives in all four gospels – Matthew chapters 21 – 28, Mark chapters 11 – 16, Luke 19:28 – 48 and chapters 20 – 24, and John 11:55 – 57 and chapters 12 - 21. The particular events to note are Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem (Palm / Passion Sunday), the Last Supper, time in the Garden of Gethsemene, Judas’ betrayal and Peter’s denial (Maundy Thursday), the trials, crucifixion and burial (Good Friday) the resurrection (Easter) and Ascension (40 days after Easter). A children’s Bible, such as The New Light Children’s Bible, will provide easily understood versions of the gospel stories. Jesus could have fought or run away, and the outcome would have possibly been different, but he didn’t. Discuss why Jesus did not run away. Christians believe that Jesus died to redeem them and this shows his love and forgiveness for the faults of mankind. His resurrection proves he was truly God and that God has power over death. Symbols of Easter include palm crosses (triumphant entry into Jerusalem), crucifix (death of Jesus), empty cross (resurrection), eggs (new life / spring). The word “Easter” comes from the Anglo-Saxon word “Oestre”, the goddess of the dawn, or new life. History – The gospel accounts were by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. The stories were related orally at first, then written down on clay tablets followed by papyrus scrolls. Finally, in about the 4th century, they were written on vellum. The word “bible” comes from “byblos” – Greek for “book”. A timeline of Holy Week would start with the triumphant entry into Jerusalem and include the death, resurrection and ascension into heaven (40 days after Easter). Note how the feeling of euphoria on what we now call Palm / Passion Sunday changed to the death cry within days. The crowd were easily swayed by events. The disciples felt bewildered and frightened. Literacy – Using a children’s Bible (The New Light Bible: Children’s Version, ISBN 0-304-68670-7, published by Hodder and Stoughton) look at the narratives mentioned above. The children’s version could be compared to a standard version, particularly to find archaic language. Art and Design – Pictures (paintings and stained glass windows, and Stations of the Cross in particular relating to Holy Week / Easter) existed in churches when the majority of people were unable to read. Through these they learned their stories of Christ. Design Technology – Stained glass windows and wall paintings were an important way for those who could not read to learn Bible stories and stories of the life of Christ and of the saints. In England, at the time of the Reformation much church art was destroyed, as it was thought to be a distraction rather than an aid to prayer. At Rochester cathedral the first fresco to be painted in an English cathedral for 800 years is nearing completion. The technique of Fresco painting is different to that of mural painting. Background Research Useful internet sites:- History of the Bible – www.education.bl.uk/projects/bibles Medieval writing – www.beaconlc.org/ctech/medieval/SCRIPT.HTM www.medievalwriting.50megs.com/writing.htm Stained glass - www.stainedglassmuseum.com www.agsa.org/history.html www.bbc.co.uk/history/culture Fresco Painting www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/6981/fresco.htm Booklist:- Medieval Cathedral Fiona MacDonald Simon and Schuster 1991 ISBN 0-7500-0787-7 Medieval Monastery Fiona MacDonald Simon and Schuster 1994 ISBN 0-7500-1415-6 Life in a Medieval Abbey Tony McAleavy English Heritage ISBN 1-85074-592-7 Cathedral, forge and waterwheel Francis and Joseph Gies Harper Perennial 1994 ISBN 0-06-092581-7 Life in a Medieval City Francis and Joseph Gies Harper Collins 1981 ISBN 0-06-090880-7 Life in a Medieval Village Francis and Joseph Gies Harperperennial Library 1991 ISBN 0-06-092046-7 The Easter Angels Bob Hartman Lion Children’s Books ISBN 0-7459-4420-5 Cathedral David Macaulay HarperCollins Children’s Books 1991 ISBN 0-00-192160-6 The Christian Faith and its Symbols Jan Thompson Hodder and Stoughton 1996 ISBN 0-340-66379-0 Vocabulary List CHURCH CATHEDRAL SYNAGOGUE LADY CHAPEL NAZARETH JERUSALEM GALILEE GETHSEMANE PASSOVER UNLEAVENED PROPHET SABBATH CRUCIFIXION EASTER RESURRECTION ASCENSION SCRIPTURE BIBLE PARABLE SANHEDRIN APOSTLE DISCIPLE PHARISEE JUDAS CAESAR HEROD PONTIUS PILATE BARABBAS ARCHITECTURE PERPENDICULAR TRACERY GOTHIC RE Writing Frames Events A major event in the life of Christ was .... The main people involved were .... The event is important to believers because .... Believers remember this event today by .... Stories An important story in Christianity is .... The part I remember best is .... The story teaches that .... It also teaches believers .... The message in the story for me was ..... Visit to a place of worship We visited the Cathedral First we looked at .... Then we saw .... We also looked at .... It was interesting to me because .... I learnt that .... General I was puzzled about .... I also wondered why .... A question I would like answered is .... YOUR VISIT Your visit will divide into sections - Discussion of the need for stained glass windows and church art as a way of telling the story of the life of Jesus without using the written word - Looking at the Easter windows in the Lady Chapel - An alternative view of Easter – using the story The Easter Angels (Bob Hartman, published by Lion Children’s Books, ISBN 0-7459-4420-5) - Discussion about the above story - Activity – designing the “missing” window (the angel announcing the resurrection of Jesus) - Sharing ideas on the design of the window and how to tell the story in pictures, giving story clues non-verbally - Reviewing the whole story The pupils will need clipboards and pencils. A template will be provided for the design session. An activity which gives further insight on the cathedral as a centre of Medieval Learning, as well as prayer and worship, is the Monks Experience. A separate set of teacher’s notes is available for this complementary activity, which would further enhance your visit. CLASS-ROOM EXTENSION WORK RE - Having learnt about the events of Easter and the resurrection think about how Jesus felt in the situations in which he found himself. The religious festivals of many faiths occur at about the same time. How do Christian pupils celebrate Easter. How do pupils of other faiths celebrate new life and what other faiths have celebrations in the springtime. History – Look at the ways in which history was passed on before the majority of people could read / write and before the printing press made books more available to more people. Literacy – Write your own version of the events of the Easter period, using different genres (personal diary, newspaper article, official report back to Rome, letter to a friend etc.). Art and Design – Complete the stained glass window design, and select colours for the window. Make sure you “tell the story” in the picture. Design Technology – Make the window designs in materials such as coloured tissues, coloured acetates etc. ROCHESTER CATHEDRAL Draw the missing window for the Lady Chapel, telling the story of Jesus rising from His tomb at Easter	<urn:uuid:d821ce06-d546-4fcc-b030-c7e6568ec826>	CC-MAIN-2017-30	http://rochestercathedral.org/documents/education/RC-stories-in-glass-KS2-notes.pdf	2017-07-28T02:49:12Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-30/segments/1500549436321.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20170728022449-20170728042449-00500.warc.gz	281,492,031	2,308	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.914796	eng_Latn	0.993646	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 1329, 2319, 3890, 5857, 7009, 7991, 9018, 10021, 10146 ]	[ 4 ]	2	1
DEVELOPMENT DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE--KEY 1. Healthy babies gain 1-2 pounds per month during the first six months and about 1 pound(s) the last half of the first year. 2. The average height by one year is about 30 inches. 3. Compared to adult proportions, a baby's head and abdomen are LARGE, the legs and arms are SMALL. 4. What are three signs to look for in an infant to determine if he/she has a hearing problem? a. NOT STARTLED BY A SHARP CLAP b. NEVER TURNS TOWARD SOUNDS c. NOT AWAKENED BY LOUD NOISES 5. What are two symptoms of teething? ANY OF THE FOLLOWING: CRANKY, RESTLESS AND WAKEFUL, MAY REFUSE FOOD AND DROOL EXCESSIVELY 6. Which teeth come in first? THE BOTTOM, FRONT TWO 7. Physical development proceeds from (please include an example of each): a. HEAD TO FOOD--FIRST BABIES LEARN TO LIFT THEIR HEADS (CEPHALO-CAUDAL) B. NEAR TO FAR--BABIES ARE ABLE TO SCOOT THEIR ENTIRE BODY TO AN OBJECT, WAVE AT IT, GRAB AT IT, PICK IT UP (PROXIMAL-DISTAL) C. SIMPLE TO COMPLEX--FROM BEING FED TO EATING WITH THEIR OWN HANDS 8. What are motor skills? MOTOR SKILLS ARE ABILITIES THAT DEPEND ON THE USE AND CONTROL OF MUSCLES. 9. What type of motor skills are related to the large muscles of the body? Please give an example. GROSS MOTOR SKILLS ARE LARGE MUSCLE CONTROL SUCH AS CRAWLING OR WALKING. 10. What are the skills related to the small muscles of hands and fingers called? Please give an example. FINE MOTOR SKILLS RELATE TO THE USE OF SMALL MUSCLE CONTROL SUCH AS WRITING, COLORING, OR EATING. 11. What is it called when a child has the ability to move from one place to another? LOCOMOTION 12. What term describes the ability to use hands and fingers to hold and grasp objects? MANIPULATION 13. When handling a newborn, what is important to remember? NECK MUSCLES ARE NOT DEVELOPED, THE HEAD MUST BE SUPPORTED. 14. Why will a baby cry? WANTS TO BE HELD, HAS A SOILED DIAPER, IS ILL, IS HUNGRY 15. What are some ways to comfort a baby? ANY APPROPRIATE ANSWER 16. What is a newborn's eyes and vision like? A BABY'S STARES SEEM BLANK AND UNCOMPREHENDING. THEIR EYES BLINK SEPARATELY OR LOOK IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS. THERE ARE NO TEARS AT FIRST. 17. When does the sense of smell develop? DURING THE FIRST FEW DAYS OF LIFE, INFANTS BECOME SENSITIVE TO ODORS. 18. What is the danger of shaking a baby younger than two years old? CREATES A HIGH RISK OF SEVERE BLEEDING IN THE BRAIN 19. What is as important to the baby as food? CUDDLING, BODY CONTACT, AND SOFT WORDS THAT GO WITH FEEDING 20. When should strained foods be added to the baby's diet? BETWEEN THE FOURTH AND SIXTH MONTH 21. What is the problem with propping a bottle for the baby to drink? IT CAUSES MILK TO GUSH INTO THE MOUTH. THIS LEADS TO DIGESTIVE PROBLEMS AND EAR INFECTIONS. IT ALSO PROVIDES A CONSTANT SOURCE OF MILK IN THE MOUTH, WHICH CAN BEGIN TOOTH DECAY. 22. When do babies begin to eat with their fingers? EIGHT TO TEN MONTHS 23. Which babies are more likely to be overfed: bottlefed or breastfed? Why? BOTTLEFED BABIES ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE OVERFED BECAUSE THE PARENTS ARE TEMPTED TO URGE THE BABY TO TAKE ANY FORMULA THAT IS LEFT IN THE BOTTLE. 24. Do infants need to worry about low-fat diets or cholesterol? NO 25. The best way to learn to walk is BAREFOOT. 26. What does the term cruising mean? THE INFANT STANDS AND WALKS ALONG FURNITURE. 27. Young babies should be placed on their SIDE or BACK to sleep. 28. What is SIDS? SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME OR CRIB DEATH	<urn:uuid:df579644-77e4-4d82-8ffa-03add770e5f7>	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://www.uen.org/cte/family/child_development/downloads/growth/development-key.pdf	2023-12-02T21:52:21+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100452.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20231202203800-20231202233800-00234.warc.gz	1,183,222,823	997	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.990156	eng_Latn	0.991216	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 1346, 2905, 3558 ]	[ 3.828125 ]	1	0
Ratios Reduce each ratio to lowest terms. 1. 6 to 12 20 to 4 24 to 30 5 to 75 8 to 18 2. 9 : 3 45 : 100 7 : 42 16 : 160 35 : 14 3. $\frac{5}{15}$ $\frac{8}{2}$ $\frac{66}{3}$ $\frac{40}{80}$ $\frac{7}{28}$ Solve for the unknown. 4. $\frac{3}{4} = \frac{b}{24}$ $\frac{2}{7} = \frac{6}{m}$ $-\frac{r}{9} = \frac{3}{27}$ $\frac{1}{2} = \frac{t}{48}$ $\frac{5}{w} = \frac{4}{12}$ 5. $\frac{8}{3} = \frac{24}{c}$ $\frac{f}{6} = \frac{3}{1}$ $\frac{60}{g} = \frac{10}{100}$ $\frac{3}{5} = \frac{p}{30}$ $\frac{s}{5} = \frac{100}{20}$ Solve these problems. Show your work. 6. The car dealer discovered that 3 of every 5 cars sold are black. If the dealer sold 35 cars last month, how many cars were black? 9. The city hires 18 lifeguards for every mile of beach. If the city has 11 miles of beach, how many lifeguards must it hire? 7. Maya can drive her SUV 96 miles on 8 gallons of gas. Maya plans to travel 240 miles tomorrow. How many gallons of gas will she use? 10. Henry usually earns $60 in tips when he works a 4-hour shift. Next weekend he will work 12 hours. How much does he expect to earn in tips? 8. When making spaghetti, Enzo uses 3 pounds of hamburger for every 8 cups of tomatoes. When Enzo uses 12 pounds of hamburger, how many cups of tomatoes will he use? 11. The distance on the map between New Orleans, Louisiana, and Boston, Massachusetts, is 6 inches. If each inch represents 225 miles, about how far is it from New Orleans to Boston? Ratios Reduce each ratio to lowest terms. 1. 6 to 12 \[ \frac{6}{12} = \frac{1}{2} \] 2. 9 : 3 \[ \frac{9}{3} = 3 : 1 \] 3. $ \frac{5}{15} $ and $ \frac{1}{3} $ \[ \frac{5}{15} = \frac{1}{3} \] 4. 20 to 4 \[ \frac{20}{4} = 5 : 1 \] 5. 24 to 30 \[ \frac{24}{30} = \frac{4}{5} \] 6. 5 to 75 \[ \frac{5}{75} = \frac{1}{15} \] 7. 8 to 18 \[ \frac{8}{18} = \frac{4}{9} \] Solve for the unknown. 4. $ \frac{3}{4} = \frac{b}{24} $ \[ b = 18 \] 5. $ \frac{2}{7} = \frac{6}{m} $ \[ m = 21 \] 6. $ \frac{r}{9} = \frac{3}{27} $ \[ r = 1 \] 7. $ \frac{1}{2} = \frac{t}{48} $ \[ t = 24 \] 8. $ \frac{5}{w} = \frac{4}{12} $ \[ w = 15 \] Solve these problems. Show your work. 6. The car dealer discovered that 3 of every 5 cars sold are black. If the dealer sold 35 cars last month, how many cars were black? \[ \frac{3}{5} = \frac{x}{35} \] \[ x = 21 \] 7. Maya can drive her SUV 96 miles on 8 gallons of gas. Maya plans to travel 240 miles tomorrow. How many gallons of gas will she use? \[ \frac{1}{12} = \frac{8}{96} = \frac{x}{240} \] \[ x = 20 \] 8. When making spaghetti, Enzo uses 3 pounds of hamburger for every 8 cups of tomatoes. When Enzo uses 12 pounds of hamburger, how many cups of tomatoes will he use? \[ \frac{3}{8} = \frac{12}{x} \] \[ x = 32 \] 9. The city hires 18 lifeguards for every mile of beach. If the city has 11 miles of beach, how many lifeguards must it hire? \[ \frac{18}{1} = \frac{x}{11} \] \[ x = 198 \] 10. Henry usually earns $60 in tips when he works a 4-hour shift. Next weekend he will work 12 hours. How much does he expect to earn in tips? \[ \frac{60}{4} = \frac{x}{12} \] \[ x = 180 \] 11. The distance on the map between New Orleans, Louisiana, and Boston, Massachusetts, is 6 inches. If each inch represents 225 miles, about how far is it from New Orleans to Boston? \[ \frac{225}{1} = \frac{x}{6} \] \[ x = 1350 \]	<urn:uuid:ad88af8e-e2c8-4a75-90cd-84f284f72581>	CC-MAIN-2021-10	https://wikis.westchesterlibraries.org/occfiles/ratios.pdf	2021-02-28T00:22:56+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178359624.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20210227234501-20210228024501-00527.warc.gz	637,563,447	1,320	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.934985	eng_Latn	0.953776	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 1526, 3485 ]	[ 4.125 ]	1	0
## Bethlehem Central School District Preschool (3 year old) Cognitive Skills Rubric \| Category \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| \|---------------------------------\|----------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------\| \| Conceptual/Personal Knowledge \| Rarely Demonstrates Requires direct instruction, a high level of cueing, modeling, and/or hand-over-hand support. \| Developing skill with support: Needs direct instruction and a moderate level of cueing to generalize to other school settings \| Skill is inconsistent or emerging with some increased independence Still requires presets or coaching to generalize. \| Consistently Demonstrates Skill is comparable to general population \| \| Begins to understand basic cause/effect \| \| \| \| \| \| Demonstrates basic understanding that actions have associated consequences \| \| \| \| \| \| Discriminates between food/non-food items \| \| \| \| \| \| Identifies own and others’ gender \| \| \| \| \| \| Knows first and possibly last name \| \| \| \| \| \| Begins to understand part/whole concepts \| \| \| \| \| \| Can use objects to represent other objects \| \| \| \| \| \| Understands basic spatial concepts (in, on, over, under) \| \| \| \| \| \| Math Concepts \| \| \| \| \| \| Understands the concepts of one and two \| \| \| \| \| \| Able to count 2-3 objects \| \| \| \| \| \| Understands the concepts of more, big, little \| \| \| \| \| \| Matches shapes and colors given a model \| \| \| \| \| \| Matches objects by their function \| \| \| \| \| \| Names at least one color \| \| \| \| \| \| Pre-Literacy Concepts \| \| \| \| \| \| Enjoys being read to \| \| \| \| \| \| Can sit for short stories given prompts \| \| \| \| \| \| Attention \| \| \| \| \| \| Sustains attention to a task for at least one minute \| \| \| \| \| \| Recognizes environmental sounds \| \| \| \| \| \| Filters low level noise to attend to speaker \| \| \| \| \| \| Sustains attention for short books \| \| \| \| \| \| Memory/Organization \| \| \| \| \| \| Recalls events from yesterday \| \| \| \| \| \| Repeats up to 4-6 word sentences \| \| \| \| \| \| Remembers where he/she left items \| \| \| \| \| \| Knows where common objects are kept/can be found \| \| \| \| \| \| Knows basic daily routine \| \| \| \| \| \| Follow simple 1-2 step directions \| \| \| \| \| \| Follows novel 1-step directions \| \| \| \| \| \| Repeats simple rhymes \| \| \| \| \| \| Visual/Spatial/Perceptual/Sensory \| Matches objects to pictures \| Identifies simple actions in pictures \| Recognizes basic environmental sounds \| Able to complete 3-4 piece puzzles \| Imitates actions of others \| \|----------------------------------\|----------------------------\|--------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------\|---------------------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|	<urn:uuid:80e54faf-ecf8-4883-b5ce-5bcd5f52fd5a>	CC-MAIN-2019-04	https://www.bethlehemschools.org/wp-content/uploads/SE_Rubric_Preschool_3_Cognitive_Skills.pdf	2019-01-17T04:56:30Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583658702.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20190117041621-20190117063621-00088.warc.gz	712,609,765	690	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.950331	eng_Latn	0.950331	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 2485, 3942 ]	[ 3.5625 ]	1	0
Mission: Hubble Equipping the Next Generation of Explorers! Grade Levels: 6-12 Focus Questions: How does the Hubble Space Telescope add to our understanding of our universe? What are the characteristics of the astronomical phenomena detected by Hubble and how is this data attained through technology? Instructional Objectives: 1. Students will learn that the universe is a system and that different parts of the system interact to form all that we observe in the universe. 2. Students will understand and describe the factors that contribute to star, galaxy, and nebula formation. 3. Students will analyze data from the Hubble Space Telescope. 4. Students will communicate their understanding by developing short stories outlining the lives of an astronomical phenomena. 5. Students will learn how technology contributes to our understanding of our universe. National Standards: Science: • Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry • Understanding about scientific inquiry • Understanding about science and technology • Understanding of transfer of energy • Understanding of motion and forces • Understanding of origin and evolution of the universe Mathematics: - Understand patterns, relations, and functions: represent, analyze, and generalize a variety of patterns with tables, graphs, words. - Use mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative relationships. - Analyze change in various contexts. - Understand measurable attributes of objects and the units, systems, and processes of measurement. - Formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, and display relevant data to answer them. - Communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others. Technology: Social, ethical, and human issues: - Students will develop positive attitudes toward technology uses that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits, and productivity. Basic Operations and Concepts: - Students are proficient in the use of technology. Technology Research Tools: - Students use technology to locate, evaluate, and collect information from a variety of sources. Technology Research Tools: - Students use technology tools to process data and to report results. Language Arts: - Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and non-print texts, artifacts, and people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience. - Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, and video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge. - Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. - Students use a variety of strategies to read for perspective. Geography: The world in spatial terms: • How to use maps and other geographic representations, tools, and technologies to acquire, process, and report information. The world in spatial terms: • How to analyze the spatial organization of people, places, and environments on Earth’s surface. INTRODUCTION Mission: Hubble! YOUR STUDENTS can become researchers, NASA scientists and authors all at the same time!! NASA is the premier organization for detection and analysis of the objects that make up our universe and NASA researches stellar, galaxy, and quasar formation. This challenge integrates many curricular areas to ensure a complete understanding of Hubble discoveries, analysis of data, understanding of technology, and effective communication of understanding to others. The challenge contains appropriate scaffolding so that each task builds upon the previous task. Your students will complete a month-long journey that includes consulting with a NASA scientist, assessing what they already know, generating questions, finding ways to answer those questions, analyzing NASA data, and then communicating their understanding. The culminating activity allows students to demonstrate their understanding of a Hubble discovery by telling its story! Students will become a galaxy, nebula, quasar, or other object and describe their lives in the form of a story. As educators know, the best way to demonstrate understanding is to communicate and teach others. Classmates will be enthralled as each student relates their life as a Hubble discovery. They will have the chance to hear and discuss the lives of the other Hubble objects in the class. Students will also develop a unique method to present their stories to others outside of their class. Mission Requirements Pre Mission Requirements: 1. Student Pre-Assessment: Students will complete the Hubble pre-assessment that is attached or the online quiz at http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/news/archive/2008/03/think.php 2. Student Engagement: Show the NASA e-clip, Our World: Changing Theories -The Scientific Method in Action and have your students complete a Hubble KWL graphic organizer. http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/nasaeclips/ourworld/playlist.html Objectives Objective One: - Students can participate in the NASA Digital Learning Network, “Astronomy: Bringing the Past to Light”. In order for students to understand the factors that affect Hubble discoveries, it is essential that students understand the timeline of astronomical history and telescope development. [http://dln.nasa.gov/dln/index.jsp](http://dln.nasa.gov/dln/index.jsp) - Prior to participating in the videoconference, ask students to define a telescope. An effective strategy is work in groups of 3-4 and generate a definition of a telescope and three examples of objects detected by telescopes. - While participating in the videoconference, students will continue to add to their Hubble KWL. - Ask students to pay particular attention to the questions that they generated on their pre-activity KWL. As the NASA scientist facilitates the videoconference, are there any questions on their KWL logs that can be addressed? Objective Two: - Students will use their KWL to complete a web-quest through the website “Telescopes from the Ground Up”, [http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/](http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/) - This is a student-directed web-quest. Students are in charge of their own learning. As students look for ways to answer questions on their KWL, think about what how telescopes contributed to our understanding of the universe. Also, they should think about how technology is used to gather data about our universe. - As students answer their own questions, they will again have more questions. They will continue to fill out the KWL with evidence of their learning and with questions that they generate. Objective Three: - Compare and contrast galaxies by using the NASA resource: “Exploring with Light and Color. Specifically, students will complete Activity 2: Classifying Deep Field Objects - From the guide: Next, have students refer to the HUDF image provided on page 18. Students should take note of the numbered objects if they have not already done so. Ask students to describe the numbered objects and predict what they might be. Challenge students to devise a way of grouping or classifying the objects based upon observed similarities in their characteristics. Each student should create their own unique categories, and sort the 16 numbered objects into their categories accordingly” - http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/274682main_Light_and___Color_Educator.pdf - Students will develop bar graphs based on the variables they used to classify the objects. Examples might include color, size, shape, and location. - Hold a class discussion during which students share their findings with the rest of the class. Students can tape their graphs to the wall and compare the characteristics that they used for sorting with those of their classmates. Hold a class discussion around the methods that scientists use in defining classification systems. Objective Four: - This is the culminating activity: Students adopt a Hubble discovery and become that discovery! Students will write a short story from the perspective of an object using the knowledge that they gained in Objectives 1 -3. Students will include a description of their life from birth to death. For example, a story might start, I was born 10.5 billion years ago when the universe was relatively young. Conditions were just right for my conception as planetary dust and gas swirled and coalesced. Students should include scientific data, an analysis of that data, a timeline of their life, what humans know about them, and the unknowns of their life. - The Hubble Discoveries website provides a plethora of information and images outlining Hubble discoveries: http://hubblesite.org/hubble_discoveries/ - Other websites include: http://www.nasa.gov/ http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/artificial_satellites_worldbook.html http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/space_level2/hubble.html Hand out the Adopt a Hubble discovery instruction sheet to students. Allow two weeks for students to conduct research and synthesize their story. Post Mission Requirements: 1. Post-assessment: Once the activity is complete and students have written their life story, hand out a post-assessment. 2. Sharing of stories: As a class, the students will devise a way to share their stories. This can include reading the stories to younger students, engaging in a literacy circle, forming a readers theatre, designing science fair boards, or many other methods of scientific communication. The important thing to remember is that accomplished scientists not only analyze the data, but must also be able to communicate their thinking to others. 3. Peer evaluation of stories: You may either use the Praise, Polish, Praise model described below$^1$ or use your own method of peer evaluation. 4. Teacher evaluation of stories: Use the attached rubric to select one story for submission to the challenge. --- $^1$The Praise, Polish, Praise model of peer evaluation allows students to give constructive feedback while validating the strong points of another student’s story. After a student has shared their story in the format that they choose, the audience raises their hands to offer feedback. The presenter calls on a student for feedback. The student presents their feedback by starting off with something that they felt was strong in the presentation, offers a suggestion for improvement, and ends with a positive validation of another portion of the story. An example may sound like this: I think that you clearly explained all of the size and shape components of the galaxy. I was a little unclear as to how scientists determined your age, and I think that your visuals really helped me to understand the difference between the categories of galaxies. The final feedback is done by the presenter on their own presentation. The presenter will share feedback with the class about their presentation in the same Praise, Polish, Praise format. \| CATEGORY \| 4 \| 3 \| 2 \| 1 \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Introduction \| First paragraph has a "grabber" or catchy beginning. \| First paragraph has a weak "grabber". \| A catchy beginning was attempted but was confusing rather than catchy. \| No attempt was made to catch the reader’s attention in the first paragraph. \| \| Accuracy of Facts \| All facts presented in the story are accurate. \| Almost all facts presented in the story are accurate. \| Most facts presented in the story are accurate (at least 70%). \| There are several factual errors in the story. \| \| Focus on Assigned Topic \| The entire story is related to the assigned topic and allows the reader to understand much more about the topic. \| Most of the story is related to the assigned topic. The story wanders off at one point, but the reader can still learn something about the topic. \| Some of the story is related to the assigned topic, but a reader does not learn much about the topic. \| No attempt has been made to relate the story to the assigned topic. \| \| Components of the Report \| All required elements are present and additional elements that add to the report (e.g., thoughtful comments, graphics) have been added. \| All required elements are present. \| One required element is missing, but additional elements that add to the report (e.g., thoughtful comments, graphics) have been added. \| Several required elements are missing. \| \| Background sources \| Several reputable background sources were used and cited correctly. Material is translated into student’s own words. \| A few reputable background sources are used and cited correctly. Material is translated into student’s own words. \| A few background sources are used and cited correctly, but some are not reputable sources. Material is translated into student’s own words. \| Material is directly copied rather than put into students own words and/or background sources are cited incorrectly. \| \| Hubble Discover Analysis \| The relationship between the Hubble Space Telescope and the discovery is discussed and trends/patterns logically analyzed. Predictions are made about what might happen if these factors were changed. \| The relationship between the Hubble Space Telescope and the discovery is discussed and trends/patterns logically analyzed. \| The relationship between the Hubble Space Telescope and the discovery is discussed but no patterns, trends or predictions are made based on the data. \| The relationship between the Hubble Space Telescope and the discovery is not discussed. \| \| Data \| Professional looking and accurate representation of the data in tables and/or graphs. Graphs and tables are labeled and titled. \| Accurate representation of the data in tables and/or graphs. Graphs and tables are labeled and titled. \| Accurate representation of the data in written form, but no graphs or tables are presented. \| Data are not shown OR are inaccurate. \| \|----------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Scientific Concepts \| Report illustrates an accurate and thorough understanding of scientific concepts underlying the mission. \| Report illustrates an accurate understanding of most scientific concepts underlying the mission. \| Report illustrates a limited understanding of scientific concepts underlying the mission. \| Report illustrates inaccurate understanding of scientific concepts underlying the mission. \| 1. What conditions must exist for humans to image accurate pictures of astronomical phenomena? 2. Name and describe the categories of galaxies. 3. Describe how technology is used to study astronomical phenomena. 4. Briefly describe the history of telescopes. 5. How is Hubble different from past telescopes? Mission: Hubble! Post Assessment Your pre-assessment will be handed back to you. Review your earlier answers and then complete each of the following items. 1. Analyze your pre-assessment answers. What parts of your original answers indicated clear understanding of the concept addressed? 2. Write additional information for each answer based on the knowledge and skills you obtained during the challenge. 3. Construct a diagram for each question that shows visually that you understand the concept. 4. What further questions could you ask based on your new knowledge? Be the discovery—Feel the power!!! This is your chance to shine! You will write a story about a Hubble discovery’s life as if you were that galaxy, star, nebula, quasar, or . Think like your object—you will need to include the following information in your presentation: 1. Who are you? When were you born? Where were you born? 2. What factors contributed to your birth? 3. When were you imaged by Hubble? 4. What data is significant? Include things like distance from Earth, chemical composition if known, nearby objects, conflicting data. 5. What is your category (if you are a galaxy) and what does that mean? 6. Who are your brothers and sisters (objects formed around the same time)? 7. Analyze the factors that contributed to your existence. Be sure to quote specific data. What might have happened if any of those factors changed? 8. What technology enabled people to learn about you? How was this technology used? 9. What path did your life take? You will need to use at least one graph and one picture in your story. Be scientifically accurate and most of all have fun! Remember, you ARE the Hubble discovery! Extensions Teachers will find that students will desire extensions and additional opportunities to explore Hubble and mapping the universe. Possible extensions include: 1. Compare and contrast other telescopes with Hubble. Choices may include Spitzer Space Telescope, WISE Telescope, Chandra Telescope, and Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. These telescopes utilize different wavelengths and together, provide a comprehensive view of the universe. Students can place the telescopes along a wall-size electromagnetic spectrum chart. The possibilities are endless ranging from researching discoveries made by each telescope, to building models of the telescopes, to comparing areas of overlap. Several websites are of use for this extension: http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/F_NASA_Great_Observatories_PS.html http://wise.ssl.berkeley.edu/mission.html 2. Utilize a lithograph of Hubble Space Telescope to construct a question and answer game for students at the end of the entire Hubble Mission! Lesson. Teachers are familiar with game-show formats and can use their favorite format. Possibilities include a concentration style game, Jeopardy, or Pictionary. The lithograph can be found at: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/print/lithos/hst_litho.pdf 3. Advanced students can download images taken by Hubble and compare these to images taken by other telescopes utilizing different wavelengths of light. For example, many of Hubble’s spectacular images are in visible light. Other telescopes utilize different wavelengths that give a different, yet complementary picture. Students can download a Hubble image and blink it with an image of the same object viewed through a different telescope and describe the differences. Advanced students can use graphical analysis programs such as ImageJ to measure phenomena captured in each image. The following website contains many Hubble images: http://hubble.nasa.gov/multimedia/astronomy.php 4. Students can build a model of Hubble by referring to the following site: http://hubblesite.org/the_telescope/hand-held_hubble/	<urn:uuid:3d08e641-0021-4eb8-92b6-cf0649ebbab7>	CC-MAIN-2017-39	http://topstars.strategies.org/resources/Mission%20Hubble!%20Equipping%20the%20Next%20Generation%20of%20Explorers%20Lesson%20Plans.pdf	2017-09-26T18:09:37Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818696677.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20170926175208-20170926195208-00368.warc.gz	341,988,594	3,731	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.994775	eng_Latn	0.997038	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 1158, 2979, 3272, 4735, 6945, 9208, 11276, 14575, 15910, 16223, 16797, 17921, 20031 ]	[ 4.8125, 4.8125 ]	1	0
of Columbus) in respect to our knowledge of terrestrial space. It not only infinitely extended our insight into creation, but also, besides enriching the sphere of human ideas, raised mathematical science to a previously unattained splendor, by the exposition of new and complicated problems. Thus the increased power of the organs of perception reacts on the world of thought, to the strengthening of intellectual force, and the ennoblement of humanity. To the telescope alone we owe the discovery, in less than two and a half centuries, of thirteen new planets, of four satellite-systems (the four moons of Jupiter, eight satellites of Saturn, four, or perhaps six of Uranus, and one of Neptune), of the sun's spots and faculae, the phases of Venus, the form and height of the lunar mountains, the wintery polar zones of Mars, the belts of Jupiter and Saturn, the rings of the latter, the interior planetary comets of short periods of revolution, together with many other phenomena which likewise escape the naked eye. While our own solar system, which so long seemed limited to six planets and one moon, has been enriched in the space of 240 years with the discoveries to which we have alluded, our knowledge regarding successive strata of the region of the fixed stars has unexpectedly been still more increased. Thousands of nebulae, stellar swarms, and double stars, have been observed. The changing position of the double stars which revolve round one common center of gravity has proved, like the proper motion of all fixed stars, that forces of gravitation are operating in those distant regions of space, as in our own limited mutually-disturbing planetary spheres. Since Morin and Gascoigne (not indeed till twenty-five or thirty years after the invention of the telescope) combined optical arrangements with measuring instruments, we have been enabled to obtain more accurate observations of the change of position of the stars. By this means we are enabled to calculate, with the greatest precision, every change in the position of the planetary bodies, the ellipses of aberration of the fixed stars and their parallaxes, and to measure the relative distances of the double stars even when amounting to only a few tenths of a seconds-arc. The astronomical knowledge of the solar system has gradually extended to that of a system of the universe. We know that Galileo made his discoveries of Jupiter's satellites with an instrument that magnified only seven diameters, and that he never could have used one of a higher power than thirty-two. One hundred and seventy years later,	<urn:uuid:271aa6ed-e2a6-4f80-ac8c-225a2d0e94ec>	CC-MAIN-2023-50	http://geology.19thcenturyscience.org/books/1858-Humboldt-Cosmos/Vol-III/PDFpages/1858-Humboldt-Cosmos-III-0061.pdf	2023-12-05T04:46:30+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100545.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20231205041842-20231205071842-00383.warc.gz	18,182,373	519	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998731	eng_Latn	0.998731	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 2591 ]	[ 2.078125 ]	1	0
Climatological Data for January, 1910. DISTRICT No. 10, GREAT BASIN. ALFRED H. THIEMEN, District Editor. GENERAL CLIMATOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. The month of January, while much colder than usual and one of the coldest Januaries on record, was nevertheless 3.2° warmer than December, 1909, although normally it is several degrees warmer. Not only was the mean temperature higher than that of December, but the minimum temperatures were not so low. Nearly every station reported temperature deficiencies. This abnormally cold weather was due to the high barometric pressure over this district during the month. The precipitation averaged somewhat more than normal, and was fairly well distributed. TEMPERATURE. The mean temperature for the district averaged 23.2°, which was 3.9° below the normal. The local means ranged from 39.1° at Jean in the extreme southern portion of Nevada to 10.8° at Border in the extreme southwestern portion of Wyoming. The warm weather which prevailed generally over the Great Basin on the last day of December, 1909, continued on the 1st day of January, 1910, except in Oregon and northern Nevada, where very cold weather prevailed. But after the 1st it became colder in all portions of the district until the 6th, and the lowest temperatures for the month were generally recorded during this period. After the 6th the temperature rose until the 16th, which marked the beginning of another cold spell which continued, however, only a few days. The last decade of the month was much warmer throughout the entire district. The lowest temperatures generally occurred, as noted above, from the 2d to the 6th. The lowest reported in Wyoming was −27° on the 5th at Cokeville. In Idaho the lowest was −20° on the 12th and other dates at Paris. The lowest in Utah was −22° on the 6th at Pinto. Most of the stations in Utah reported their lowest temperatures as occurring on the 5th and 6th, but a few stations recorded their lowest on the 7th, 8th, and 13th. Burns, Oreg., reported −24° on the 2d, while the lowest at other stations in that State occurred on the 3d. In Nevada and the portion of California in District No. 10 the minimum temperatures were generally observed on the 5th and 6th, but a few stations in Nevada recorded their lowest temperatures on other dates. The lowest temperature for these two States was −28° at Elko and Quinn River Ranch, Nev., on the 11th and 5th, respectively, which was the lowest for the district. The highest temperature for the month occurred during the last decade, except at a few stations in Utah and Nevada where they were recorded on the 1st. The highest temperature for the district was 65° at Scipio, Utah, on the 19th, and at Jean, Nev., on the 22d and other dates. PRECIPITATION. The precipitation for the district averaged 1.59 inch, which is 0.39 inch above the normal. The distribution varied greatly from the normal at stations very close to one another, some reporting amounts below normal and others amounts above normal. As a rule the greatest deficiencies occurred in Nevada and the greatest excesses in Utah. The greatest monthly amount was 7.83 inches at Glen Alpine Springs, Cal., and none occurred at Jean, Nev. Precipitation occurred over practically the entire district on the 1st day of the month, and many stations reported large amounts on that day. It continued for a few days in Utah and at a few stations in the remaining parts of the district. Considerable precipitation occurred during the remainder of the month, the periods, however, were ill-defined over most of the district, but centered around the 15th and 25th, except in the portion of California, where quite general precipitation was observed on the 9th, and from the 13th to the 17th, and from the 23d to the 26th. Most of the precipitation of the month fell as snow. In Utah the amount of snow which fell in the mountains during the month was less than usual, but the total depths of snow in the mountains and canyons at the end of the month was thought to be somewhat more than usual, insuring a good water supply for the ensuing season. In Wyoming there was less than usual at this season. Stations in Nevada reported less than the January fall of last year. NOTES. The cooperative observer at Burns reported that the winter had been severe up to the end of January and that the loss to stock was slight, but if the cold weather continued it would be heavy, as feed was getting scarce. The Jordan River, which drains Utah Lake into Great Salt Lake, was reported on January 2 to be higher than ever before. The high temperatures of December 31, 1909, and January 1, 1910, had caused the snow in the mountains to melt to a large extent, swelling the streams enormously. It was not expected that the high water would do any damage, as the channels are capable of carrying all the water at its present stage. The following information regarding the conditions in the Truckee and Carson basins is furnished by Mr. Thos. H. Means, Project Engineer, Fallon, Nev.: The dangerous conditions referred to previously are still present. On the last day of the year and on New Year's day we had heavy precipitation at Fallon, the first half of the storm being rain, passing into sleet, and finally into snow. Approximately 2.50 inches of precipitation fell. The storm seemed to have been a general one and I presume the precipitation was heavy in the mountains to the west of us. At any rate we have approximately from 6 to 12 inches of snow in the desert and foothills tributary to the Truckee and Carson rivers, lying on frozen, wet ground. This will rapidly melt in case of warm weather or warm rain and will bring down large quantities of water. There seems to be a good deal of light snow in the mountains higher up, but we do not expect a heavy flow from the higher portion of the watershed this time of the year as warm wind or rain on this snow will simply melt the top and the water will be largely absorbed by the underlying snow. The observer at Paisley, Oreg., writes: I beg to say that some sheep losses were reported owing to frozen feed and that the losses among cattle were small. The heavy rain in November brought up the Chewaucan higher than ever known before, flooded the marsh, and destroyed 15,000 tons of hay. The town of Paisley suffered severely from an ice jam in the river which caused an inundation. The river was jammed for 2 miles with a solid pack of ice, and the entire town site was flooded with from 2 to 3 feet of ice and water. The ice still covers the town site (January 31, 1910). Over half of the people had abandoned their homes, but have now returned. FLOODS ON THE DESERT NEW YEAR'S DAY, 1910. The unusual occurrence of an energetic low pressure area passing over middle California and southern Nevada about New Year's Day, 1910, caused the exceptional phenomenon of disastrous floods on the desert; and but for the fact that the lower Great Basin is quite typically a desert region, and devoid of most of the enterprises of civilization, the loss would have been tremendous. December snows were comparatively heavy and numerous in southern Nevada, and the rounded, wind-worn hills, and the sageless flats were covered with from a trace to several feet of snow, generally moist and solid, and in a very uncertain condition to remain there in the event of even a moderate thaw, or a light rain. Both of these flood-making conditions came at once on New Year's Eve, when the temperature rose to from 40° to 50°; strong warm winds swept in from the southwest and rain fell in torrents, all of which conditions persisted steadily for about 48 hours. On the morning of January 3, as the low pressure center moved off to the southeast, the rain turned to snow, with a cold northwest wind, and the temperature dropped to near, or below, zero, stopping the floods almost as quickly as they began, but leaving the hills bare and brown. During the night of December 31-January 1 the melting snow and drenching rain dashed quickly from the slopes to the natural drainways and into the beds of the streams, where the ice was quickly floated, and the formation of jams produced water heads which soon broke, only to form again in the narrow places back of clogged débris, again to crush forward with enormous force and in tremendous volumes, cutting the canyons and demolishing the improvements, but leaving the few mining towns, as a rule, far above the chaos. The largest stream in the region of greatest flood is the Virgin, flowing across southwestern Utah, or "Dixie" as it is called because of its tropical tendencies of climate, northwestern Arizona, and southeastern Nevada. Its principal tributary is the Muddy River, which flows (when there is sufficient water) through the Meadow Valley Wash, west of the north and south Mormon Range of mountains, which is the route of the San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad. While the Virgin floods were the greatest known to settlers there, and farm buildings were carried away like packing boxes, and entire farms cut away, or buried with débris, the destruction in this valley was lessened because of its breadth, and of the greater length of the drainage slopes; but in the narrow box canyons of the Meadow Valley Wash, where the railroad runs, the results were truly terrible, the tracks and other railroad property being almost completely obliterated from Barclay to Guelph (just above Moapa), a distance of 83 miles. The towns along the line were deserted, and many buildings destroyed; however, the population of Caliente, the most important place, moved back into town with few exceptions, after the flood had subsided. Mr. Channing Thomas, Railroad Editor of the Salt Lake Tribune, made an extensive study and report of the damage by the flood in Mormon Canyon, or Meadow Valley Wash, in which he has the following to say: The scanty population in the devastated district was quite well aware of the danger that was imminent when the rain and warm weather set in, and they moved quickly to the higher places, hence there was no loss of life reported in the various towns. One trackwalker, caught by the floods in the darkness, was killed and a human body was seen in the angry waters, but was not recovered and his identity is unknown. A westbound train consisting of 17 cars of steel for building construction, 2 cars of horses, and a few cars of miscellaneous freight was stopped for safety by the crew, on a high piece of track, but the floods tore away the mountain side and let the entire train, except the engine, tumble into the torrent. The horses were killed and the steel beams were strewn down the canyon from 3 to 8 miles, and were twisted and jammed and bent as if they had been so many wires. A lone passenger train still stands marooned on the only other stretch of safe track remaining in the canyon, just a short way above Moapa. A stack of railroad rails at Caliente was swept away, not a single rail being found over than one-half a mile from them having been polished bright in their travels. A number of steel gondolas cars were torn from their tracks by repeated overturning, and the bodies were driven several miles from the track south of Guelph, and heavy timbers and other railroad wreckage have been found 18 miles off the right of way, down the Muddy toward the outlet on the Virgin. At Caliente the water rose above the floors of many business houses and was several feet deep in the roundhouse after the local dike gave way, and 17 engines stood in water to the tops of the drive wheels. Smaller buildings near the main stream were carried away like barrels and the remainder of the town was deserted, the people having gone to the higher ground for safety. After the disastrous washout in February, 1907, the railroad track through this canyon was laid 6 feet above the highest previous water stage known in 47 years, and during this year's flood the water averaged about 2 feet above, nearly the entire freight track, and was in places 8 feet above the rails. The passenger train and the lone freight engine are about 80 feet above the bottom of the Wash. It is said to be the greatest calamity that has ever befallen a railroad in history, the destroyed property having cost about $2,000,000, which, owing to the canyon defacements, will cost about $3,000,000 to replace at a higher level; the directly resultant loss of business during the time of restoration is estimated at another $5,000,000. The loss of property to ranchers and farmers in the lower Muddy and in the Virgin valleys was not particularly great in value for the reason that this region is but sparsely settled and there was comparatively little property to destroy. However, several farms were completely ruined and the occupants rendered destitute, having lost their buildings and animals as well as their crops in the fields. Harry Gentry, of St. Thomas, Nev., says of the flood: In December, 1909, we had our first snow for 20 years, and the warm weather, winds, and rains that occurred in the last of December and the first of January caused the largest body of water to flow down this valley any resident has ever known. The stream here, ordinarily but a creek, was 10 feet deep and 1,200 feet wide for a while. The bridges were taken out and the land was considerably washed, ruining several acres of grain and about 300 rods of fence. Mr. Thomas J. Jones, postmaster at Overton, Nev., just above St. Thomas, on the Muddy River, says: The storm was the heaviest for several years. The snow was the first I have seen in Moapa Valley, and was more than any of the old residents here have ever seen. There was little damage right here, but both valleys near here were flooded from the Virgin and the Meadow Valley Wash. From the railroad, near Guelph and Rox, the flood water spread into Moapa Valley carrying fences away and ruining the grain fields, littering them badly. Our valley was too wide to wash greatly. On parts of the Virgin, much of the land was washed away leaving some families homeless, and leaving the people in general suffering much more loss than we did here in the Moapa, though we lost about 200 acres of wheat and barley and probably 50 acres of garden truck. Our greatest loss is that our railroad to the East is gone, and our produce markets for this year are in doubt. Mr. J. I. Earl says: This was one of the most destructive floods that ever went down the Virgin River. A great deal of land has been washed away and much property has been destroyed. Mr. H. P. Iverson's home was washed away, together with his granary containing 100 bushels of wheat, his new farm wagon, his hay stacks, and his corrals. Mr. Samuel Reber, sr., also lost his hay and stock corrals. The dam and head works of the irrigation ditch, and some of the farms below it, at Mesquite, Nev., on the Virgin at the Nevada-Arizona line, have all gone down the river, and the dam and a number of miles of ditch at Bunkerville, the next community below Mesquite on the Virgin, were washed away. No lives were lost. The Official in Charge of the Local Office of the United States Weather Bureau at Modena, Utah, says: Local damage was slight. The stage carrying the mail for St. George, Utah, which left here at 9 a.m. December 31, was caught in the torrent of a swollen creek about 40 miles from here and the wagon, both horses, the mail bags, and the baggage were swept down stream and lost, the driver managing to escape with some difficulty. The total precipitation on the 31st of December and 1st of January was 0.90 inch, a large amount for this region, being mostly rain, and was accompanied by warm southwesterly winds causing rapid melting of the accumulated snows. Mr. Joseph T. Atkin, Foreman of the Utah Agricultural College Experimental Farm at St. George, Utah, writes: The damage caused by the floods of January 1, 1910, in this section amounted to many thousand dollars. On the Santa Clara (uniting with the Virgin from the north at St. George) alone, it did at least $15,000 damage. Much land was washed on the Virgin, and the water-systems suffered greatly. Mr. William Hurst, Supervisor in the United States Forest Service at Beaver, Utah, says: Rain fell as high as the 8,000-foot contour on January 1, 1910, and to say there was a world of water puts it mildly. Every draw, hollow, stream, and drainage course was filled to its fullest carrying capacity, as the slopes had been covered with about 12 inches of snow, and in the hills it was much deeper. By the time the water had all concentrated in the channel of the Beaver River at Milford, or rather, tried to concentrate there, the stream was about a mile and a quarter wide. During my residence in this section of the State, covering a period of over 20 years, I can not remember of seeing so much water as I saw on January 1 in a drive to the town of Milford, on the Salt Lake route, the lower end of which was inundated, teams having to be sent to the railroad shops to get the men out. A fortunate freeze on the night of January 1 solidified everything again. High temperatures, with rain or moist snow produced more or less flood conditions throughout the entire Great Basin, from Oregon to southeastern Utah on the 1st of January, and the greater part of this region was underlain with a layer of frost, which hastened the run-off even on the more level slopes. The freeze following, throughout the Basin, being quite a hard one, closed the streams abruptly. RELATION OF THE FARMER TO THE WEATHER BUREAU. By Prof. Lewis A. Merrill, Agronomist, Utah Agricultural College. THE ARID FARMER. Not more than 10 years ago practically all the dry farming carried on in this State was confined to the section of the State lying north of Salt Lake City. For a great many years dry farming had been carried on in Cache, Boxelder, and Davis counties, but until 1904 it was believed by the farmers south of Salt Lake City that the production of grain without the use of irrigation water was impracticable. About that time a study was made of the amount of precipitation in some of the counties of the State, the records of which had been made by the voluntary weather observers, working under the direction of the observer at Salt Lake City. The records at these stations showed that the precipitation at Fillmore, Millard County, was equal to the precipitation at Logan, in Cache County, the center of the dry farming area of the north, and that the precipitation in Wasatch County and Juab County was in excess of that at Logan. It was found that even some sections of Washington, Iron, and Beaver counties had an average annual precipitation equal to that of those localities where dry farming was successfully practised. As a consequence of the accumulation of this data experiments were conducted and demonstrations carried on, showing that by properly conserving the precipitation, cereals could be produced without the use of irrigation water, and in consequence there are thousands of acres of land in this State under cultivation at the present time by dry farming methods. The reclamation of this vast area has been due, very largely, to the establishment of the observation stations by the Weather Bureau. Since that time other stations have been located, and dry farming has been established as a successful farm practise in San Juan, Sevier, Kane, Utah, Tooele, and a number of other counties of the State. An important factor in connection with the determination as to the feasibility of dry farming in any given locality is the time at which the precipitation comes. While it is unquestionably true that success can be had, if proper methods of moisture conservation be followed independent of the time at which the precipitation occurs, yet greater success is attained when there is an ample supply of moisture during the growing months of April, May, and June. In localities where the precipitation is extremely light, if there is an assurance of ample supply of moisture during these three months, the prospects for successfully establishing dry farming are very much better. Utah's dry farming area has developed around those centers where the Weather Bureau has already shown that there is an ample supply of moisture, and it has failed to develop in other localities where the Weather Bureau has shown that the precipitation is insufficient. There are other localities in the State where even the most venturesome has not dared to go, because there is no record of the amount of precipitation available. The information from some of the most fertile areas of Utah, regarding the amount of precipitation, is so incomplete that the work of reclaiming these deserts is somewhat handicapped by the insufficiency of data at hand. The chief concern of the arid farmer is to so conserve the precipitation in his soil that there will be little or no loss from evaporation. Many experiments have been made in recent years to determine the maximum and minimum amounts of water necessary for the production of vegetable organic matter. A problem the arid farmer has to solve—and this is also true of the man who is growing crops by irrigation—is the determination of the conditions under which the maximum amount of vegetable substances of best quality may be reproduced with a minimum amount of water. As a result of these experiments, it has been determined that cultivation of the soil largely reduces the evaporation of water, and the more cultivation received by the plant the less amount of water transpires from the plant in the production of a pound of dry matter. A number of other determining factors have been discovered. For example, it has been shown that shade diminishes greatly the evaporation of water from the soil, and that increasing the saturation of the soil increases in a somewhat larger ratio the yields of dry matter from that soil, and that approximately the same amount of water is required under various conditions of soil saturations for the production of a pound of dry matter. It has been found that fertile soils will produce crops with a much smaller amount of water than will infertile soils. The number of pounds of water required for the production of a pound of dry matter varies greatly with the crop, the soil, the season, and the method of cultivation practised, and the amount of water required for the production of plants is very much higher in our arid climate than in the humid sections. In all of these questions the Weather Bureau, in ascertaining the necessary data in relation to the amount of precipitation, the velocity of the wind, and the number of days of sunshine, has a wonderful field, and it is a great pleasure to know that the Weather Bureau is greatly interested in establishing such data. The writer regards the establishment of the Weather Bureau stations as fundamental to any locality where farming is to be practised, and particularly desirable in those localities where dry farming methods are to be relied upon entirely. THE FRUIT GROWER. Successful fruit growing in this State will depend largely upon the information furnished by the United States Weather Bureau. Fortunately for the fruit grower, methods have been discovered whereby a greater part of the loss to the fruit crop from frost and freezing weather can be avoided. Recent experiments in orchard heating in Colorado have demonstrated that a safe temperature can be maintained when the thermometer goes down to 20° above zero, or even lower. The application of this discovery means that there is to be a revolution in the fruit-growing industry through the entire west. It means that the successful fruit grower will equip his orchard with apparatus to protect him from spring frosts. In this work the Weather Bureau will have a very important part to play, since a warning will be sent out as to when frosts may be expected, and the fruit grower, relying upon this warning, will be enabled to adopt such methods as will result in saving the crop. The records from those stations where orchard heating has been most successful show that frosts are insidious in most cases, but the possibility of their coming can generally be forecast by the Weather Bureau. In the fruit-growing belts it will be necessary for a telephone to be installed on every fruit farm, and by cooperation with the Weather Bureau, the changes in the thermometer and general trend of air currents may be easily ascertained. Warnings can be sent out by the Weather Bureau, fires directed started in the orchards, and the crop can be saved. THE IRRIGATION FARMER. Utah has an area of 54,000,000 acres of land. Of this amount 20,000,000 acres are taken up by mountains and lakes. There are 12,000,000 acres of coal, salt, and mineral lands, leaving 22,000,000 acres of land subject to cultivation. If this land is ever put under cultivation most of it will have to be done by dry farming methods. There still remains, however, a considerable acreage of the most valuable land to be farmed by irrigation. ### Table 1.—Climatological data for January, 1910. District No. 10—Continued. \| Stations \| Counties \| Elevation, feet. \| Length of record, yrs. \| Temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit. \| Precipitation, in inches. \| Sky. \| \|-------------------\|----------------\|------------------\|------------------------\|-------------------------------------\|---------------------------\|------\| \| \| \| \| \| Mean. \| Departure from the normal.\| Total. \| Departure from the normal. \| Greatest daily range. \| Total rainfall in inches. \| Number of clear days. \| Number of partly cloudy days. \| Number of cloudy days. \| Prevailing wind direction. \| Observers. \| \| Nevada—Cont'd. \| \| \| \| Highest. \| Date. \| Lowest. \| Date. \| Greatest daily range. \| Total. \| Departure from the normal. \| Number of clear days. \| Number of partly cloudy days. \| Number of cloudy days. \| Prevailing wind direction. \| Observers. \| \| Fallon \| Churchill \| 3,965 \| 5 \| 17.0 \| 42 14 \| -15 \| 5 41 \| 1.98 + \| 1.44 \| 1.69 10.5 \| 2 3 18 6 e. \| U.S. Reclamation Service. \| \| Fernley \| Douglas \| 4,306 \| 2 \| 19.5 \| 31 14 \| -14 \| 5 35 \| 0.97 + \| 0.13 \| 0.78 5.4 \| 3 9 12 10 w. \| Mrs. A. J. Rankin. \| \| Gardnerville \| Douglas \| 4,060 \| 5 \| 22.4 \| 50 14 \| -14 \| 5 40 \| 0.10 + \| 0.10 \| 0.10 0.0 \| 2 3 11 4 s. \| Mrs. J. F. Wambolt. \| \| Gayser \| Lincoln \| 5 \| 22.4 \| -2.3 \| 59 23 \| -15 \| 6 32 \| 0.40 + \| 4.9 \| 0.40 4.9 \| 14 13 4 s. \| C. C. Henningzen. \| \| Glenbrook \| Douglas \| 27.0 \| 50 23 \| -1.5 \| 6 37 \| 4.60 + \| 2.01 72.5 \| 5 14 0 0 17 sw. \| Southern Pacific Co. \| \| Glenconda \| Humboldt \| 4,897 \| 21 \| 16.5 \| 41 31 \| -16 \| 5 29 \| 0.27 + \| 0.27 \| 0.27 0.0 \| 10 10 10 n. \| Do. \| \| Halleck \| Elko \| 5,011 \| 17 \| 39.1 \| 64 22 \| -8 \| 6 42 \| 1.30 + \| 0.03 \| 1.30 13.0 \| 1 6 7 18 sw. \| Salt Lake Route. \| \| Jean \| Clark \| 2,074 \| 3 \| 22.7 \| 227 \| -1 \| 5 43 \| 0.00 + \| 0.00 \| 0.00 0 \| 8 17 6 sw. \| U.S. Reclamation Service. \| \| Leetville \| Churchill \| 4,026 \| 3 \| 27.2 \| 58 23 \| -18 \| 8 43 \| 3.10 + \| 1.15 \| 3.10 10.0 \| 10 10 10 n. \| Mrs. Lewis. \| \| Lewers Ranch \| Humboldt \| 5,590 \| 7 \| 17.8 \| 46 24 \| -17 \| 57 49 \| 0.56 + \| 0.56 \| 0.56 34.0 \| 8 12 9 n. \| J. N. Case. \| \| Lovelock \| Humboldt \| 3,977 \| 6 \| 25.0 \| 52 25 \| -8 \| 4 40 \| 1.50 + \| 0.87 \| 1.50 7 \| 15 4 12 s. \| C. M. Rundkirch. \| \| McAfee's Ranch \| Esmeralda \| 4,838 \| 6 \| 25.0 \| 59 31 \| -7 \| 17 39 \| 1.00 + \| 0.80 \| 10.0 3 \| 21 3 7 sw. \| Fred J. Jones. \| \| Millard \| Esmeralda \| 4,604 \| 3 \| 30.1 \| 58 27 \| -7 \| 17 39 \| 3.35 + \| 26.2 \| 12 15 8 8 sw. \| Southern Pacific Co. \| \| Mina \| Esmeralda \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Fred Elkman. \| \| Mount Rose Ranch \| Washoe \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Miss Connie McConnell. \| \| Palm Springs Ranch \| Esmeralda \| 6,780 \| 20 \| 21.7 \| 48 22 \| -13 \| 5 38 \| 0.00 + \| 0.00 \| 0.00 40 \| 3 3 6 6 19 s. \| Miss Mamie Potts. \| \| Potts \| Nye \| 6,966 \| 17 \| 21.7 \| 80 23 \| -28 \| 5 36 \| 0.60 + \| 0.21 \| 6.0 7 \| 11 5 15 w. \| F. M. Payne. \| \| Quinn River Ranch \| Humboldt \| 4,850 \| 8 \| 16.6 \| 80 23 \| -28 \| 5 36 \| 0.60 + \| 0.21 \| 6.0 7 \| 11 5 15 w. \| U.S. Weather Bureau. \| \| Reno \| Washoe \| 4,140 \| 3 \| 24.1 \| 58 23 \| -6.9 \| 5 34 \| 0.89 + \| 0.89 \| 0.89 0 \| 10 10 10 n. \| U.S. Weather Bureau. \| \| Soda Lake \| Churchill \| 4,534 \| 3 \| 16.4 \| 41 23 \| -19 \| 5 37 \| 0.54 + \| 0.39 \| 0.54 7 \| 6 11 14 n. \| U.S. Reclamation Service. \| \| Tecoma \| Elko \| 4,815 \| 32 \| 26.4 \| 34+ 23 \| -30 \| 16 57 \| 0.40 - \| 0.30 \| 0.40 4.0 \| 1 13 10 8 sw. \| Southern Pacific Co. \| \| Tonopah \| Nye \| 6,008 \| 2 \| 19.8 \| 48 24 \| -15 \| 5 44 \| 1.22 + \| 0.85 \| 7.5 7 \| 18 18 se. \| U.S. Weather Bureau. \| \| Wahska \| Lyon \| 5,347 \| 2 \| 19.8 \| 48 24 \| -15 \| 5 44 \| 1.22 + \| 0.80 \| 7.5 7 \| 18 18 se. \| J. G. Young. \| \| Wells \| Elko \| 5,631 \| 38 \| 13.7 \| 42 16 \| -15 \| 6 44 \| 0.60 + \| 0.30 \| 0.30 3 \| 6 10 15 ne. \| Southern Pacific Co. \| \| Winnemucca \| Humboldt \| 4,432 \| 31 \| 20.0 \| 47 23 \| -15 \| 5 36 \| 0.70 - \| 0.28 \| 0.60 9.2 \| 9 4 14 13 ne. \| U.S. Weather Bureau. \| * a, b, c, etc., indicate, respectively, 1, 2, 3, etc., days missing from the record. * Precipitation included in that of the next measurement. † Temperature extremes are from observed readings of the dry-bulb; means are computed from observed readings. ‡ Also on other days. § Separate dates of falls not recorded. ¶ Data are from standard instruments not supplied by the U. S. Weather Bureau. \|\| Instruments are used in the morning; the maximum temperature then read is charged to the preceding day, on which it almost always occurs. \|\| Estimated by observer. \|\|\| Precipitation for the 24 hours ending on the morning when it is measured. T. Precipitation is less than 0.01 inch rain or melted snow. \| Stations \| River basins \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| 10 \| 11 \| 12 \| 13 \| 14 \| 15 \| 16 \| 17 \| 18 \| 19 \| 20 \| 21 \| 22 \| 23 \| 24 \| 25 \| 26 \| 27 \| 28 \| 29 \| 30 \| 31 \| Total \| \|--------------------------\|--------------------\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| Nevada \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Aurora \| East Walker \| .08 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Austin \| Reese \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Bear Mountain \| Humboldt \| .70 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Beowawe \| do \| .35 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Buckskin \| Walker \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Carlin \| Humboldt \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Carson Dam \| Carson \| .97 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Cherry Creek \| Humboldt \| .14 \| .20 \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Clover Valley \| Humboldt \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Colusa \| do \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Columbia \| Desert \| .87 \| .03 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Dutton \| Humboldt \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Elko \| Humboldt \| .05 \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Ely \| Humboldt \| .34 \| .37 \| T \| .04 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Eureka \| Humboldt \| .28 \| T \| .01 \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Fallon \| Carson \| .94 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Fernley \| Truckee \| .78 \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Gardnerville \| Carson \| 1.06\| .39 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Gaspard \| Humboldt \| * \| .46 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Glenbrook \| Truckee \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Golconda \| Humboldt \| .07 \| .30 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Haileck \| Humboldt \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Jean \| Desert \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Lestville \| Carson \| 1.15\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Lewers Ranch \| Truckee \| .30 \| .40 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Lovelock \| Humboldt \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| McAfees Ranch \| Desert \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Milliet \| Carson \| .87 \| .08 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Mine \| Carson \| 1.15\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Mount Rose Ranch \| Truckee \| * \| .55 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| North Fork \| Humboldt \| .56 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Rainier \| Humboldt \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Paradise Valley \| Little Humboldt \| .63 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Potts \| Reese \| .40 \| T \| .05 \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Quilchena River Ranch \| Humboldt \| .14 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Reno \| Truckee \| .21 \| .05 \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Rose Creek \| Humboldt \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Smith \| Walker \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Spooners Ranch \| Truckee \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Soda Lake \| Carson \| .39 \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Stewart \| East Walker \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Tecoma \| Humboldt \| T \| T \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Tonopah \| Desert \| .10 \| T \| .12 \| .12 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Walker \| Humboldt \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Wells \| Humboldt \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Willow Point \| Little Humboldt \| .46 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Winnemucca \| Humboldt \| .26 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Total: 0.11 1.03 1.00 0.65 0.29 0.97 0.81 0.90 0.90 0.43 1.36 0.71 1.98 0.97 4.16 0.40 0.37 1.30 1.25 8.40 1.50 1.00 3.35 0.91 1.20 0.80 0.98 0.37 0.54 0.40 0.55 1.22 0.90 1.09 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15. Health promotion and community participation 15.1 Definitions This chapter presents two aspects of disaster management that are essential to all the technical and management aspects presented in previous chapters: community participation and health promotion. In this book, the following definitions are used: Community participation Community participation is the active involvement of people from communities preparing for, or reacting to, disasters. True participation means the involvement of the people concerned in analysis, decision-making, planning, and programme implementation, as well as in all the activities, from search and rescue to reconstruction, that people affected by disasters undertake spontaneously without the involvement of external agencies. While the opportunities for community participation may vary greatly from place to place and at different points in the disaster-management cycle, a participatory approach to disaster-related activities should be promoted to achieve sustainable development. Health promotion Health promotion was defined in the Ottawa Charter as “the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health. To reach a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, an individual or group must be able to identify and to realize aspirations, to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is, therefore, seen as a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. Therefore, health promotion is not just the responsibility of the health sector, but goes beyond healthy life-styles to well-being” (World Health Organization 1986). In the context of disaster management, health promotion involves working with people to prevent, prepare for, and respond to disasters so as to reduce risk, increase resilience and mitigate the impact of disasters on health. Community participation is the basis of successful health promotion. Health education and hygiene education Health education is one important activity that is commonly undertaken to promote health. It is the communication of information that enables people to make informed decisions about health-related activities at all stages of the disaster-management cycle. Health education might involve subjects such as the risk of flooding in areas where people are building houses, the location of earthquake shelters, or the areas where safe defecation is possible in a new emergency settlement. Hygiene education is concerned specifically with communicating on those areas of health that are related to water supply, sanitation, vector-borne disease control, and hygiene practice. Following a disaster, hygiene education is particularly important for reducing the risk of communicable disease and its transmission. Hygiene promotion Hygiene promotion follows the same approach as health promotion, in that it is concerned not only with the transmission of information, but with understanding and promoting the capacities of people to improve their own health, chiefly through their ability to: make best use of prevailing environmental-health conditions and existing services and facilities; act to improve environmental-health conditions; and make behavioural changes to reduce certain environmental risks at the household level. Hygiene promotion is concerned with achieving improvements in health through the joint efforts of individuals, families and communities on one hand, and external agencies, health authorities, etc. on the other. It is a process in which environmental-health conditions and hygiene-related behaviours are assessed, and changes in conditions, services and behaviours are achieved. A key feature of hygiene promotion is that it depends for its success on the careful analysis of people’s constraints, opportunities and strengths in any situation, to seek solutions to hygiene problems that are realistic and appropriate to people’s desires and ways of living. Recent work on hygiene promotion in development and emergency situations has underlined the advantages of hygiene promotion over the more traditional and narrower approach of hygiene education and health education (United Nations Children’s Fund, 1999; Ferron, Morgan & O’Reilly, 2000). In this chapter, the terms hygiene promotion and hygiene education are used broadly to include aspects of health, such as avoiding exposure to all types of hazards, as well as aspects more narrowly defined as relating to hygiene, such as the control of communicable diseases in an emergency. 15.2 Hygiene promotion and community participation in the disaster-management cycle Vulnerability reduction is achieved not solely by physical measures to mitigate the destructive effects of a hazard. Social measures that help to reduce negative impacts and enhance the resilience of the population are also essential. Safety and health promotion, environmental awareness, and the strengthening of community organization are essential elements in helping people to become less vulnerable to emergencies and disasters. Moreover, the success of any technical intervention—whether before or after a disaster strikes—depends on the way that it is received and used by the community involved. People must be consulted about their needs and wishes, and be involved in planning as well as in implementation. Their knowledge and capacities must be acknowledged and strengthened as appropriate. Community participation is thus an essential element in emergency-management planning (see Section 3.5.4). Health promotion and community participation activities are important at all stages of the disaster-management cycle, before and after disaster events, as follows: - Emergency prevention and preparedness: community participation in assessing risks and vulnerability; promoting awareness of environmental hazards and safety consciousness; and strengthening community resilience and organization. Awareness raising and training are essential aspects of disaster mitigation and emergency preparedness. - Emergency response and recovery: community participation in the response phase and in the communication of specific health messages in the immediate aftermath of a disaster; ensuring sustainable and incremental improvements in environmental health. Emergency prevention and preparedness are rarely followed immediately by an emergency requiring a response. Prevention and preparedness programmes should therefore promote environmental health and support the development needs of communities, regardless of the benefits that they may offer if an emergency occurs. These programmes should be part of the ongoing development activities of communities. The occurrence of a disaster produces a fundamental change in the way that a community functions. In a relatively short time, the health needs of the people, their capacities to respond, and the community support available to them may change dramatically. Much of the success of emergency management depends on the ability of prevention and preparedness programmes to mobilize people at risk and help develop their awareness and knowledge about managing the hazards they face. The opportunities and needs for community participation and health education in the various phases of emergency management are summarized in Table 15.1. 15.3 Community participation The involvement of the community is essential for reducing vulnerability to disasters, for facilitating recovery after a disaster has struck, and for stimulating community organization that is the basis for sustainable development. Both research and practical experience have shown that people are most committed to implementing programmes that they have helped plan. This is as true of disaster-related programmes as of any others. People should be encouraged to take part in identifying the hazards that they face, in assessing their own vulnerability, and in planning ways to increase their preparedness for a disaster. For example, representatives from a community may be invited by emergency-management planners to inspect the area that they inhabit. They may be asked to discuss existing or potential health hazards and to identify vulnerable people and places. This will achieve two very useful objectives: - Emergency planners will gain very detailed information about local hazards and vulnerability. - Communities will become more aware of the health risks that they face. Communities should also be involved in planning environmental-management programmes that seek to reduce the risk of disasters. The best way for a community to increase its preparedness for, and recovery from, a disaster is to develop strong community organization and leadership with experience in mobilizing its members and coordinating programmes. It is important, therefore, that vulnerable communities are supported with community development programmes before a disaster strikes. However, even where there is no history of strong local organization, community participation should be an essential part of disaster relief and recovery. In an emergency, when rapid action is needed, it is all too easy for the providers of relief to make assumptions about people’s priorities. In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, it may indeed be difficult to set up an effective mechanism for consultation and participatory planning. Nonetheless, every effort should be made at least to establish the principle of consultation and participation, which can then be developed over time. A major disaster can sometimes provide a unique opportunity for reinforcing community organization. People have their own ways of coping with disasters. They are not helpless or passive. Forms of organization emerge spontaneously after a disaster (see Box 15.1), producing new leaders who are able to inspire and mobilize their communities. Building on this new leadership can be a useful way of promoting community involvement in long-term development programmes. However, care must be taken to avoid increasing the influence of leaders who are not motivated by the well-being of the affected community. \| Disaster-management phase \| Community factors \| Time factors \| Opportunities and needs for community participation \| Opportunities and needs for health promotion \| \|---------------------------\|-------------------\|-------------\|--------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------\| \| Prevention \| Baseline situation \| No special limitations \| Identification of community leaders and groups \| Preparation of messages based on existing problems and practices and potential emergency health hazards \| \| \| \| \| Identification of health problems \| Adaptation of methodologies to actual and potential needs \| \| \| \| \| Identification of emergency health hazards \| Promoting good health practices in community development and everyday life \| \| \| \| \| Study of safety and health beliefs and practices \| Preparation of additional messages geared to emergency health-response strategy \| \| Preparedness \| Baseline situation \| Few, if any, limitations \| As above, plus identification of emergency preparedness needs and allocation of responsibilities \| Review of actual health situation as modified by the emergency \| \| \| \| \| Training of volunteers and health professionals \| Strong focus on basic emergency health needs \| \| Emergency response \| Unstable but adapting \| Limited or severely limited \| Community cohesion sometimes affected \| Identification of specific messages and communications methods appropriate to the situation \| \| \| \| \| Family units, neighbours, etc., will be essential in search and rescue \| Adjustment of health-promotion activities to prevailing environmental health conditions and scarcities, if any \| \| \| \| \| Heavy reliance on volunteers and trained professionals in the identification of needs and priorities \| Use of messages based on problems and practices associated with recovery phase \| \| \| \| \| Community participation in assessment of situation and definition of response \| Gradual blending into more stable conditions, focusing of health-education messages on differences from pre-emergency situation, if any \| \| Recovery \| Setting into new situation \| No special limitations \| Community leadership may be strong, loose, evolving, or in turmoil. If necessary, adjustment of community participation plan based on lessons learned in the preceding phase \| Need to deal with psychosocial problems of unsettled situations and uncertain futures \| \| Long-term postemergency situations \| From unstable to settled \| No special limitations \| Identification of new needs for health leadership \| Building a sense of community responsibility in protecting the environment \| \| \| \| \| Building on solidarity of small units (families, tribal groups) to accept responsibilities in protecting environmental health \| Focus on disaster preparedness and prevention \| \| \| \| \| Replacement of traditional channels of communication affected by the emergency \| \| 15.3.1 Principles of community participation Community participation means the involvement of people from the earliest stages of the development process, as opposed to simply asking their opinion of project proposals that have already been developed, or for their contribution to the implementation of projects imposed from outside. Participatory approaches have been widely tested in the fields of water, sanitation and hygiene, and experience has shown that involvement of the community can produce wide-ranging benefits. The main principles are: - Communities can and should determine their own priorities in dealing with the problems that they face. - The enormous depth and breadth of collective experience and knowledge in a community can be built on to bring about change and improvements. - When people understand a problem, they will more readily act to solve it. - People solve their own problems best in a participatory group process. Community-focused programmes therefore aim to involve all members of a society in a participatory process of: assessing their own knowledge; investigating their own environmental situation; visualizing a different future; analysing constraints to change; planning for change; and implementing change. As shown in Figure 15.1, the success of participatory action depends on a continuous community dialogue, where provisional goals are set and tested, subsequent action is based on analysis, research, and education, and experience is fed back into the process. Box 15.1 Spontaneous organization by Salvadoran refugees$^1$ Refugees from El Salvador, arriving in Honduras in 1981–1982, quickly set up camp committees responsible for ensuring that their concerns were represented before the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the nongovernmental organizations that became involved. In time, subcommittees were formed to deal with specific issues, such as public health, sanitation, hygiene and education. Refugees who had arrived as illiterate farmers soon acquired effective skills in management, administration and negotiation, and built up a sustainable social structure on which they would build on their return to El Salvador. $^1$ Source: Oxfam (1995). Figure 15.1 The process of participatory action 15.3.2 Obstacles to community participation While past experience has taught the value of community participation, it has also highlighted the difficulties of mobilizing people. These difficulties are summarized here: Apathy and disempowerment There are real difficulties in involving people who are not used to making decisions, who feel powerless, who are apathetic or who are dependent on others. Those in authority may be unwilling to allow people to participate in decision-making. Political, religious and commercial interests may discourage participation. Conflicts and divisions Most communities include people from a wide range of social and economic backgrounds, with different needs and interests: rich and poor, young and old, men and women, people from different ethnic or religious groups. A community project designed for the common good may in fact be divisive if it is seen as benefiting one section of the society more than another. Where paid employment is involved, jealousies and conflicts can ensue. There may also be conflict between individual and group interests. For example, in a densely-populated urban slum, discussions might reveal the need to relocate some houses to make fire breaks or drainage channels that would benefit everyone. But the questions “Whose house?” and “How will the owner be compensated?” may give rise to conflicts and divisions. Poverty Lack of resources, ill-health and poverty prevent people from participating. Many people work seven days a week for long hours just to be able to feed their families, and may not have the time to participate. As the poorest members of the community, these are often the most vulnerable people and their opinions are most valuable. Special efforts must be made to enable them to participate. Cynicism In the past, the word “participation” has often been misused. People have been invited to participate in plans and projects and found later that they were being asked only to “rubber stamp” official plans. Worse, they may have simply been asked to contribute their labour, for example digging trenches for water pipes, a task that would normally be done by municipal authorities in middle-class areas. In the light of such experiences, people’s unwillingness to participate is understandable. 15.3.3 Overcoming obstacles and reaching the community Methods of overcoming obstacles to community participation include the following: Finding an entry point to the community It is essential to find an appropriate entry point to the community. This will most often be an existing community-based organization with its roots in the community. Where a primary health-care system exists, a community-health worker may provide the necessary entry point. Much of what the community-health worker tries to do is highly relevant to risk reduction, especially education on oral rehydration therapy, food and water hygiene, water-supply protection, vector-borne disease control, and disposal of wastes. When the health worker is supported by a community-health committee, this can provide a useful core structure for efforts to prevent or mitigate hazards (such as contamination of drinking-water sources, landslides due to poor building practices, etc.). Care must be taken, however, not to delegate too many additional tasks to community-health workers without providing the necessary extra support in the form of materials, transport and finances. It is also possible to use existing local health programmes as the starting point. Thus, in Indonesia, a system called local area monitoring has been successful in achieving high childhood immunization coverage. As a result, there were plans for other health programmes, including an environmental health programme, to take advantage of this community-based system (S. Nugroho, personal communication, 1992). Working with community leaders A proven method for achieving community participation is to work through individuals who are able to bring people together and promote action. Political and religious leaders must be involved in their official capacity, but selecting other types of leaders may provide a useful balance. Different leaders will need to be identified to reflect the ethnic, caste and religious diversity of the population. Women leaders are particularly important for their ability to represent and articulate women’s interests and needs. A method of identifying women leaders is described in Box 15.2. Once interested leaders have been identified, they may require training, not only in health matters, but also in skills in dealing with people, listening, encouraging and sharing responsibilities and power in emergencies. They must also be supported and their credibility within the community maintained by ensuring that they participate in emergency-planning processes. It is often important to work with people with strong political, religious and commercial influence, to encourage participation, or at least to overcome obstacles to participation. Box 15.2 Methods of identifying women leaders - Ask a random sample of women to name the three women they would go to for advice about sickness, a family quarrel, money problems, etc. - Note the names most often mentioned and then ask these women to name the women they themselves would consult. - A shorter list will emerge and the top names can be singled out as leaders. Ensuring official support for community-led projects Any community-based programme will need support from health workers and educators. These in turn will need the full support of their managers and of municipal, ministerial and other officials. People’s investment of their own time in discussing risk and vulnerability reduction should be seen to produce visible results. Understanding the socioeconomic make-up of the community To overcome conflicts of interest, environmental-health personnel must take care to understand the socioeconomic make-up of the community, its divisions, and its past history of self-help community projects (especially if these have failed). For methods of social analysis that can be used to develop an understanding of the socioeconomic make-up of refugee communities, see United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1992b). Making special arrangements to encourage participation Special arrangements should be made to encourage the participation of all members of the community, for example providing free child care to allow parents of young children to participate. 15.3.4 Community organization in urban and rural areas Even the poorest and apparently most chaotic village or neighbourhood is organized to a certain extent. Environmental-health workers and disaster-prevention planners need to understand the forms of organization if they are to find appropriate ways to mobilize people to reduce their vulnerability to hazards. Formal (or political) organizations can be divided into three types: those headed by traditional leaders (chiefs, elders, etc.); those headed by appointed leaders (i.e. selected local representatives); and those headed by elected local representatives. In addition, there are many kinds of traditional or informal social relations. People may exchange labour and services, there may be patterns of kinship and friendship, and religious groups and special-interest groups may provide a common centre. In urban areas, informal organizations may include: — workers’ guilds or trades unions, which may unite people practising the same trade or working for the same employer; — cultural and sports clubs, such as carnival dance clubs or local football clubs; — political action groups, which often link people in very efficient communications networks. In rural areas, ties of kinship may be stronger than in urban areas, and tribal or clan elders may have considerable influence. Other examples of informal rural organization include: — rural industries, such as plantation work or logging, which may create a sense of solidarity among the workers concerned; — cooperative societies for farmers or other producers: where well-run and successful, these can be a major resource; on the other hand, they will not be useful if they are unpopular because of high service charges, late payments to farmers, or even corruption; — health establishments and schools: these often provide a social focus in rural areas (the local school head or teacher may enjoy high prestige and be a leader in the community). Recently-created informal urban settlements in many of the fast-growing cities of the world may present great challenges, as they often lack both the traditional social structures found in rural areas and the formal structures of established urban areas. People in these settlements are also often particularly vulnerable to disasters because of the nature of the land on which they are settled, combined with high levels of poverty. Environmental-health workers attempting to encourage local participation in a community programme should be aware of the potential usefulness of all these kinds of social organization. They may provide, for example, a forum for the discussion of risk reduction, a source of local knowledge and experience of the hazards faced in an area, and an efficient communications network for disseminating messages and ideas. In addition, local or international nongovernmental organizations may have ongoing projects in an area that may provide a basis for new work on vulnerability reduction and emergency preparedness. For example, there may be literacy groups, microenterprise support groups, and health and sanitation projects. Before a commitment to collaboration is made, however, it is essential to investigate the history and nature of such projects to understand how effective they are and how they are perceived by the community and the local authorities. 15.4 Hygiene promotion and hygiene education 15.4.1 Perception of risk and predisaster awareness raising Although most communities have considerable collective understanding of environmental hazards and how to deal with them, some underestimate the risks that they face. Others may be aware of the risks but feel there is little they can do: they underestimate the possibility that risks and/or vulnerability can be reduced, or may simply lack the organizational or physical means to change the situation and may have no alternative. These communities are often those most at risk, because of their poverty, for example, or because of environmental degradation. Perception of risk may be formed by personal experience, recent local events or folklore. A rich tradition of coping with recurrent risks is often built into cultural practices and passed on informally from generation to generation. However, familiarity with uncommon hazards may be limited, so that people do not recognize their causes and danger signs, or the threats posed to health and the environment. Public awareness raising and mobilization programmes therefore play an essential part in reducing disaster vulnerability by: — increasing public awareness of environmental health hazards; — informing people how disasters can be prevented or how their impact can be reduced; — increasing people’s awareness of the threats to health and safety that may result from a disaster, or that may exist and intensify during an emergency; — encouraging people to participate in protecting themselves, their environment and their health services from disaster and the effects of disaster. The promotion of awareness and safety consciousness is not something to be considered only during disasters and emergencies. It should be a routine, long-term, continuing activity that starts with the identification and analysis of risks to specific geographical areas and communities. This analysis is essential for preparedness and prevention activities, and should include information that needs to be communicated to communities at risk (see Sections 3.4 and 3.5). Communities themselves should be involved in the identification and assessment of the risks they face, and the participative approaches described in Section 15.3 should be used to promote community involvement. Communications activities designed to promote awareness of hazards, risks and appropriate countermeasures may take many forms, such as: — education in schools for children and adolescents; — special education programmes for adults, either specifically on disaster preparedness or as an integral part of ongoing health or development programmes; — public information through the mass media; — information and mobilization through local organizations and community groups. A combination of communications methods is usually appropriate. Programmes for promoting awareness of environmental hazards should be participatory, focused and specific, without being alarmist. The emphasis should be on strengthening existing organizations and activities in the community, and on encouraging people to participate in community activities and to change their own behaviour. To this end, education campaigns should focus on populations in particular settings, such as schools and workplaces, and in the many local organizations already in place, such as cooperatives and women’s groups. People should be encouraged to participate in community groups concerned with hazard awareness, disaster prevention and safety. Messages must be specific and deal with the particular hazards to which a population is vulnerable. Care should be taken not to create panic or anxiety. Messages should therefore emphasize mitigation and prevention rather than emergency responses, emphasizing that these activities often produce immediate benefits. 15.4.2 The need for hygiene promotion in emergencies Following disasters, hygiene promotion may be particularly important because: - People will expect information about the disaster itself and its aftermath. They will need to know, for example, how they can be reunited with friends and family and where it is safe to stay. In some cases, such as chemical and radiation emergencies, there may be a good deal of suspicion, misinformation and rumour, and it is then essential that people have access to authoritative information. - There may be many unfamiliar arrangements for water and food supply, excreta disposal, etc., especially when people are forced to evacuate their homes. Rapidly available information about the new arrangements and the importance of complying with them (e.g. the importance of using designated defecation fields) is essential. - Environmental health staff need to understand rapidly the health risks faced by the affected population and the services required to reduce those risks. They need to know what can be provided by the affected population, how much external assistance will be required, and the best way to organize external assistance to meet the needs and wishes of the affected people. - Disaster-affected people may face greatly increased risks to their health, and will need to develop adequate responses. For example, under normal circumstances, defecation in fields around houses may be quite customary and safe, but in a crowded camp the same behaviour poses a serious hazard. Water sources may become contaminated as a result of overcrowding, which may also lead to increased transmission and incidence of communicable diseases. 15.4.3 Setting up a hygiene promotion programme in an emergency A possible plan of action might include the following activities: - Rapidly establish a team to deal with hygiene promotion and to provide information on environmental health. - Rapidly assess the health risks to be addressed using information, education and mobilization, and focus on: - key health problems, in order of priority and magnitude; - physical resources needed and those available (the types of shelter, food, water, sanitation, etc.); - human resources available for hygiene promotion activities (health workers, teachers, religious leaders, nongovernmental organizations with available staff, writers, artists, etc.); - community characteristics (whether and to what extent there is a sense of community, a pattern of leadership, or local organization, and whether there are cultural traditions regarding health); - means of communication and hygiene-education materials available (radio transmitters and receivers, visual material, megaphones, newspapers, printing and copying equipment, and traditional communications channels, such as singing and story-telling). Form close liaison with the community. This may be achieved by working through existing community organizations such as women’s groups, trade unions, etc., or by establishing community-health committees. Choose the subjects to be covered and the type of preventive action to be taken (e.g. promoting hand-washing, ensuring water safety), with a focus on priority issues, rather than a broad range of topics. Actions that can have the greatest impact on reducing morbidity and mortality should be emphasized. Behaviour changes that are promoted should be chosen on the basis of the assessment of health risks, environmental health facilities, and services available in each situation. Identify and select trainers, health motivators and leaders from the affected population and from nongovernmental organizations, including children, women and others who can provide peer-group education. It is particularly important to involve women: in many societies women play a major role in water collection and domestic and personal hygiene and they may also be particularly affected by the change in environmental health conditions. Develop clear health messages and choose the educational approach and methods to be used. This can be based on pre-prepared messages and communications systems, but must be done in collaboration with selected trainers and community representatives to ensure that the cultural background, traditional practices and perceptions of the target population are taken into account. Develop, field-test and use new educational materials, or review existing materials (e.g. posters, leaflets, radio scripts, health talks) and adapt them as necessary. Review activities and their immediate impact, and revise and adapt approaches to reflect changes in conditions and health status, if necessary. This may involve interviews, observation and questionnaire surveys to evaluate changes in knowledge, practice and environmental health conditions. To help meet the needs of particularly vulnerable people among new arrivals at emergency settlements, special measures may be needed to raise their awareness about health risks, hygiene practices, arrangements for water supply and sanitation, and about the support for families and community groups. Hygiene promotion activities should be coordinated to ensure that messages address priority issues, are consistent and complementary, and that hygiene education is integrated with measures to improve services and facilities. 15.4.4 Participatory approach to hygiene promotion Hygiene promotion necessarily involves close liaison with the affected population, even in an emergency. To establish successful contacts with the community, it is necessary to: - Avoid making assumptions about what people already know or do not know about health, hygiene, sanitation, etc. Even the most obvious request or arrangement should be discussed with the community health committee or equivalent representatives, who may themselves need to take soundings from the population. - Establish rapid procedures for obtaining reactions, ideas and information from communities. Appropriate activities include observing current practices, in-depth interviews with key informants (such as local leaders, teachers, midwives), survey interviews, discussions with focus groups, and various other forms of participatory appraisal techniques. - Approach people with respect and empathy. - Build on indigenous knowledge and practices (while explaining how to adapt to emergency conditions in which such practices may become difficult or dangerThis approach may give rise to useful innovations and improvisations by the community. - Remember, that in all communities there are people with useful ideas, skills and experience that can be shared with others. For further information on community liaison, see Pan American Health Organization (1994). ### 15.4.5 Environmental health messages in emergencies Following disasters, environmental health is concerned with areas that include water supply and sanitation, waste disposal, vector control, personal hygiene, shelter and food safety. These, in turn, may be subdivided and specific health messages identified, as suggested in Annex 6. It is most important that only a small number of very important messages are chosen for communication, based on an assessment of health risks, to avoid confusing the target audience, and wasting efforts on behavior changes that have little impact on health. Hygiene messages and communications methods should be chosen in answer to four key questions (United Nations Children’s Fund, 1999): - Which specific practices are placing health at risk? - What could motivate the adoption of safe practices? - Who should be targeted by the programme? - How can one communicate with these groups effectively? ### 15.4.6 Communication methods Communication of health information is most effective when a variety of methods, approaches and materials are used. Broadly speaking, there are three main approaches: Person-to-person contact Captive audiences may be found at clinics, feeding centres, food-distribution centres, water-collection points and so on, where health workers and trained volunteers will be able to give advice. In nonemergency periods, health clinics, schools and workplaces may provide similar audiences. Meetings may be called for specific groups, or selected individuals may be brought together for focus group discussions on specific topics, and individual families may also be visited. The influence of existing local groups or social organizations can be very useful in increasing the impact of the information. This direct approach, particularly if it involves some interaction between health workers and individuals, is most effective in tackling specific issues and encouraging particular changes in behaviour, and in checking that messages are seen as relevant and useful by the people concerned. Activities suitable for person-to-person exchanges or for small groups include the discussion of personal feelings and experiences, demonstrations, story-telling, role-playing, case studies and educational games (particularly in nonemergency situations). Teaching aids Suitable teaching aids include printed materials, posters, films, slides, videos, murals, flannel graphs and flip charts. These are useful for transmitting information and as support to the spoken word, but must be reinforced by interaction and personal contact with members of the target audience. Using mass communication Radio, audiocassettes, television, video, newspapers, placards, plays, puppet shows and megaphones are effective means of communicating information quickly to a large number of people and creating awareness of a problem or idea. The relevance and impact of messages, and the effectiveness with which they are communicated, need to be evaluated by discussion with a sample of people. Following a disaster, mass media may be unavailable or at least severely disrupted. However, radios may be available, and in long-term emergency settlements it may be possible to produce a camp newspaper and to make arrangements with a nearby radio station to broadcast regular programmes on health issues. 15.4.7 Choosing an approach When deciding on the message and the communications methods to use, it is essential to: — establish the need for, and relevance of, the hygiene education activity through an assessment that is as participatory as possible, given the nature and urgency of the situation; — be aware that a hygiene education campaign may be aimed at some people who are not literate: in such circumstances, participatory learning techniques are the most appropriate; — select and adapt methods to suit the characteristics and interests of the particular target group—young/old, male/female, membership of a religious group, etc. (e.g. fables about animals may be more suitable for children than adults); — establish procedures at the outset for evaluating the effectiveness of the health promotion campaign, by selecting appropriate indicators for measuring changes in people’s health status, behaviour and environment; — reinforce existing health practices that are beneficial and discourage those that are harmful; — choose messages that are positive, attractive and based on what people already know, what they want and what they consider to be achievable; — involve people in the community in the production of their own teaching materials (this is educational in itself and will ensure that such materials are relevant and culturally appropriate); — use the effectiveness of young people and children in teaching and mobilizing others; — avoid messages that imply that people are to blame for their own or their children’s ill-health: messages and methods must not be judgmental. 15.5 Further information For further information on: — community participation, see: Chambers (1983), Chambers, Pacey & Thrupp (1989), World Resources Institute (1990), Cernea (1991), Evans & Appleton (1993), Chambers (1994), Eade & Wright (1994), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1996); — women and children in emergencies, see: Aarons & Hawes (1979), United Nations Children’s Fund (1984), International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (1991), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1991), Wiest (1992), Walker (1994), United Nations Children’s Fund (1996); — gender and social diversity, see: Cernea (1991), Moser (1993), Steady (1993), Eade & Williams (1995); — hygiene promotion and communication, see: Werner & Bower (1982), Downie, Fyfe & Tannahill (1990), Boot (1991), Bunton & Macdonald, eds. (1992), Boot & Cairncross (1993), Hubley (1993), Bentley et al. (1994), Hermann & Bentley (1994), Eade & Williams (1995), Geefhuysen, Bennet & Lewin (1995), Almedom, Blumenthal & Manderson (1997), United Nations Children’s Fund (1999), Ferron, Morgan & O’Reilly (2000), Sphere Project (2000).	<urn:uuid:202f780a-1773-4bbf-afc9-9bdfe0cf83eb>	CC-MAIN-2023-50	http://www.disaster-info.net/watermitigation/i/publications/EnvDisaster/em2002chap15.pdf	2023-12-05T04:38:25+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100545.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20231205041842-20231205071842-00380.warc.gz	67,131,818	7,538	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.926	eng_Latn	0.996191	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 2911, 6587, 10258, 13733, 16011, 19078, 22291, 25768, 29279, 32598, 36184, 39131, 42164, 42596 ]	[ 1.7265625, 3.4375 ]	1	0
Drax Power Station calls itself the “world’s largest decarbonisation project”; however, in reality it is increasing carbon emissions, as well as fuelling forest destruction and environmental injustice. Drax has long been famous as a climate criminal, for a number of reasons: it is the UK's largest power station and largest single emitter of CO₂; and its portfolio now contains three forms of dirty energy – biomass, coal and gas. Biomass In 2018, Drax burnt imported wood pellets made from over 14 million tonnes of trees. By comparison, the UK produces around 11.2 million tonnes of wood each year. Even before the UK started burning millions of tonnes of wood in power stations, we were already 80% dependent on net imports for all the wood used in this country. Drax has to import nearly all the wood it burns, primarily from the US, Canada and the Baltic States, with smaller quantities coming from Portugal, Brazil, Belarus, the UK and ‘other European countries’. Drax’s biggest supplier in the US is the world’s largest wood pellet company, Enviva. Enviva admits that most of its pellets are made from hardwood – which, in the southern US, means they come from the clearcutting of from highly biodiverse forest ecosystems. Drax also owns three pellet mills in the southern US, which source from monoculture pine plantations. Across the region, such plantations have been expanded at the expense of rich forest ecosystems. They are sterile plantations with virtually no undergrowth, inhospitable to wildlife. As well as destroying forest ecosystems and contributing to climate change, the wood pellet industry exacerbates existing environmental injustice in the southern US. The industry has a track record of siting its facilities in areas already affected by other polluting industries and inequality. Further, an investigation by the Environmental Integrity Project discovered a “shocking pattern” of air quality violations by the wood pellet industry. Residents then face the impacts of wood dust, noise and heavy traffic as well as seeing their local forests turned into pellets and shipped overseas to be burned. In Europe, Drax buys pellets from Graanul Invest, an Estonian company with pellet mills in Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Graanul is Europe’s largest and the world’s second largest pellet producer. Half of Estonia is classified as forest, although much of that has been cleared of all or most trees. 12% of Europe’s threatened species live in Estonia – including the Eurasian Flying Squirrel (close to extinction in Estonia), brown bears and wolves – and logging is a key threat to wildlife. The Nature Conservation Commission of the Estonian Academy of Sciences has warned: “Today’s forest management as a whole is unsustainable in its present trend, does not guarantee biodiversity conservation, takes little account of ecosystem services and therefore needs to change.” Yet the government wants to see annual logging rates increased further still. Enviva’s logging, Sampson County, North Carolina. Photo by Dogwood Alliance. Coal While Drax has reduced its coal use in recent years, it still burnt two million tonnes in 2018, sourced mainly from Russia, the USA and the UK. In Russia, coal mining is linked to serious human rights abuses for indigenous people. A report by the Coal Action Network and Fern shows how in the Kuzbass region (where most of the coal burnt at Drax comes from) entire villages are being destroyed, people, wildlife and plants are poisoned by toxic coal dust, and mountains of coal ‘waste’ dominate the landscape. The indigenous Shor have depended on wildlife for their subsistence way of life, which is being destroyed by coal. In the USA, mountaintop removal mining is still causing the destruction of large areas in the Appalachian Mountains. In the UK, despite the Government’s commitment to a coal phaseout by 2025, new opencast mines are still being approved, most recently in the Pont Valley and Field House, both in Durham. Gas In 2018 Drax announced plans to replace its current coal-burning capacity with much larger units burning gas. If this goes ahead, Drax will become the UK’s largest burner of gas. This replacement of one fossil fuel with another would lock the UK’s power supply into dirty energy for decades to come and blow any chances we have of meeting our commitments under the Paris Climate Agreement to stay within 1.5 degrees of global warming. The big new gas capacity which Drax wants to build will play into the hands of frackers by boosting the UK’s demand for fossil fuel gas for decades to come. Following its takeover of Scottish Power assets at the start of 2019, Drax also owns four gas power stations with a combined capacity of more than 2 gigawatts (Damhead Creek, Rye House, Shoreham, Blackburn). It also holds planning consents for four new gas power plants: Hirwaun Power Station near Merthyr Tydfil, Progress Power Station in Mid Suffolk, Milbrook Power Station in Bedfordshire, and Abergelli Power Station, north of Swansea. These are smaller peaking power stations. Subsidies During 2018, Drax ‘earned’ £789.2 million in renewable electricity subsidies. That’s £2.16 million every day. Renewable electricity subsidies are financed through a surcharge on electricity bills. Drax’s biomass subsidies exceed its gross profits, which means the company couldn’t keep operating the power station without them. Redirecting the massive subsidies which Drax receives could create a windfall for genuinely low-carbon renewable energy and make an important contribution to reducing the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions. Sadly, recent Government policy has seen subsidies for onshore wind and solar power and for energy efficiency and conservation slashed. For Biofuelwatch’s campaign to redirect subsidies, see https://www.biofuelwatch.org.uk/2018/scrap-wood-burning-subsidies-info/ Carbon Capture? Recently, Drax has been boasting about investing in Carbon Capture and Storage from its biomass plant – although what it is doing is in fact a tiny product testing exercise for a startup company, with no carbon whatsoever being stored anywhere. BioEnergy with Carbon Capture and Storgae (BECCS) is a false solution to climate change. 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Kateri and Modern Youth by Anne Tansey She has much in common with modern youth Although Kateri Tekakwitha was an Indian girl and lived back in the 1600's she had much in common with modern youth. She lived under similar conditions in many ways and faced the same spiritual and moral problems as Catholic boys and girls of today. Evil surrounded her on all sides, but she did not succumb to it. Wrapping the light of Christ closely about her Kateri emerged unscathed and set her footsteps firmly on the pathways which lead to sainthood. Today Catholic youth is living in the midst of modern pagans, many of whom do not believe in God and deny His existence. It was the same with Kateri. Her people, the Indians, were pagans who rejected the teachings of Christ as brought to them by the missionaries. Kateri had to keep her Faith a secret and when it was discovered she was ridiculed and actively persecuted. Like many Catholics behind the Iron Curtain in our day Kateri had to flee her native village in order to safeguard her Faith and be able to practice her religion. The pagan Indians, like many of our modernists ate to the point of gluttony and drank themselves into a state of intoxication. Kateri would have been very popular if she had joined her relatives and neighbors in this feasting and drinking, but she was not that kind of a girl, she would not participate in pagan orgies while professing to be a Catholic. Rather than offend God by being "one of the crowd," she remained in her own quarters fasting and praying. Modern girls can remember her example when faced by similar temptations, when the crowd is off to some questionable drinking place or night club. The Indians with whom Kateri lived were as proud and vain as many of our modernists. The girls painted their faces, strutted about in pretty dresses and adorned themselves with costume jewelry. Rather than follow their example Kateri dressed as simply as possible and wore no jewelry at all after she grew up and could do as she chose. Like some modernists Indian girls as a rule were very lazy and wanted nothing but good times. Unlike them Kateri was very industrious and never idled a moment. She not only worked for herself but for others as well, in spite of the fact that she was in very poor health. Another modern evil which was quite prevalent among the Indians was the consulting of fortune tellers. Just as modern youth go to Coffee Annies and Tea Marys, Kateri's Indians friends went to the tents of fortune tellers among the Indians. This Kateri refused to do as it was a sin to inquire into the future through such occult means. Unfortunately modern youth is quite given to gossiping and slander. These two evils beset Kateri also. The Indians were greatly given to gossiping and told terrible lies about each other. Oftentimes the missionaries had a hard time ascertaining the truth, even among their Christian converts. Kateri never engaged in such practices. Serious lies were told on her, but she took no reprisals and eventually was exonerated. She freely forgave those who had slandered her. Impurity and sex crimes were as prevalent among the Indians in 1676, when Kateri was 20 years old, as they are today in 1952. It was very hard for a girl to live chaste and pure in Kateri's surroundings, with sin and temptation on all sides, just as it is today when running around with the crowd. Kateri did not run around with any crowd. She chose the companionship of only virtuous and pious women. While others were out having "a good time" offending God, Kateri was praying and doing penance. She might well be called the first Catholic girl on this continent in the full sense of the word, and as such is a worthy patron of modern youth, who, like Kateri, are surrounded by sin and paganism on all sides. Kateri can lead others along the path which she followed, setting the example of a real Lay Apostle.	<urn:uuid:44b91847-1c28-4aa6-831e-fab72a0412bc>	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://rd.uqam.ca/Tekakwitha/I/Kateri/1952.12-EV05N01p10-11.pdf	2023-12-05T05:37:24+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100545.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20231205041842-20231205071842-00378.warc.gz	562,704,004	858	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998798	eng_Latn	0.998798	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 3911 ]	[ 2.40625 ]	1	0
Gene makes fetal skin become watertight While growing in a fluid-filled womb, safe from most infectious microbes, a fetus has little need for a protective coating. Yet the outside world is a far drier and more dangerous place. About a month before it's due, a human baby prepares for its new environs by transforming its skin into a watertight barrier that also keeps out bacteria and viruses. By disabling a single mouse gene, scientists have now created a strain of mice unable to develop such a life-preserving skin barrier. Study of the animals, which die less than a day after birth from shock brought on by rapid dehydration, should help investigators identify other genes that play a role in barrier formation. The mutant mice may also point the way toward drugs to help human infants born months before this crucial shield takes effect. These premature babies face a high risk of infection and dangerous weight loss due to dehydration. "If you could pharmacologically intervene and accelerate [skin-barrier formation], you could improve survival," says dermatologist Dennis Roop of Baylor College of Medicine in Houston. Scientists compare the skin barrier to bricks and mortar. The bricks, nearly indestructible aggregates of protein, collectively form a scaffold called the cornified envelope. Cells in the uppermost layer of skin create this envelope as they die. Lipids, which are fatty molecules, then provide the mortar that fills the spaces in the scaffold. The gene for a protein called Klf4 appears to serve as a switch that turns on barrier formation, Julia A. Segre, Christoph Bauer, and Elaine Fuchs, all of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute at the University of Chicago, report in the August Nature Genetics. Klf4 belongs to a family of DNA-binding proteins, each of which regulates a different set of genes. Investigators knew that the gene for Klf4 is extremely active in maturing skin cells, but they didn't know the protein's exact function. The Chicago team addressed that issue by creating mice that have a mutation in the Klf4 gene. The resulting newborns looked normal, but all died within 15 hours of birth. The researchers observed that the pups failed to feed, but that didn't explain their early deaths because newborn mice can survive for a full day without feeding. Suspicious that the mutant mice had a defective skin barrier, the researchers dipped the animals and normal newborn pups in a blue dye. The dye barely stained the normal mice but suffused the newborns lacking Klf4, a sign that the skin barrier was absent in those rodents. By measuring the skin's ability to conduct an electrical current, which increases with the amount of water in the tissue, Segre and her colleagues showed that the mutant mice were losing significant amounts of water through their skin. In people, a similarly dramatic loss of water would lead to kidney shutdown, shock, and ultimately death. Beginning their search for genes regulated by Klf4, the investigators have already found three that encode proteins of the cornified envelope. In the mutant mice, these genes are abnormally active, leading to the formation of a distorted envelope. The investigators now hope to use the rodents to identify drugs that can trigger skin-barrier formation in fetuses and newborns. Today, physicians have few options. They can prescribe potentially harmful growth-stimulating hormones to women they suspect will deliver prematurely or, after a baby is born early, place the infant in a humidified incubator and slather its skin with Vaseline. —J. Travis Kansas cuts evolution from curriculum In a dramatic revision of science education in the state, the Kansas Board of Education voted 6–4 last Wednesday to remove almost all mention of evolution from its required curriculum. If the decision stands, one of science's central concepts will be cut from state assessment tests at all grade levels. It will become optional for teachers to cover the origins and history of life on Earth, as well as principles that require Earth to be older than creationists believe. These would include theories of the Big Bang, geologic time, and plate tectonics. Although other states, including Nebraska, New Mexico, Alabama, and Arizona, have taken steps to curtail the teaching of evolution in recent years, none has gone as far as Kansas, says Mollie Matsumura of the National Center for Science Education in El Cerrito, Calif. "These are some of the most thorough changes we've seen, across multiple curriculum areas," Matsumura says. Although a 27-member science committee wrote a draft curriculum containing evolution, the Kansas board established the new policy when it removed "pages and pages of material" that the committee had recommended for statewide science tests, she adds. According to Tom F. Willis of the Creation Science Association for Mid-America in Cleveland, Mo., which helped the board change the curriculum, because evolution cannot be reproduced in a laboratory, it should not be taught "as though it is the only theory believed by sane individuals." He adds, "I absolutely feel that [the new curriculum] would improve science and would improve the honesty with which it is taught." "We are talking about a complete misunderstanding of how the sciences are integrated," University of California, Berkeley paleontologist Kevin Padian says of the board's action. "It's so absurd to pretend that you can rope off one part of science—especially one such as evolution, which is the central organizing theory of biology—and think that it won't have ramifications." Many scientists fear that without being required to teach evolution, teachers may bow to local pressures to skip it, leaving students ill prepared for college. "In a lot of small, rural Kansas towns, the science teacher is the most trained person there, so it's just that one person against an entire community, sometimes," says Brad Williamson, a high school biology teacher in Olathe, Kan. The new curriculum may be short-lived, however. Four of the board members who voted against evolution will be up for reelection in November. Many scientists hope that voters will oust the four and elect a new board to restore evolution to the curriculum. "There's a great outrage in the state right now," says biologist Helen M. Alexander of the University of Kansas in Lawrence. "The governor came out against [the new curriculum]. The presidents of the universities came out against it. In the long run, I would be surprised if it stayed." Even so, she says, if teachers skirt the subject of evolution, "the net effect is that children won't be exposed to it, and the decision will have long-term effects on science education." Following the decision, the American Geophysical Union called for scientists to become more involved in their local school districts. Matsumura agrees that scientists are often best equipped to fight efforts to pull evolution out of the classroom. She says, "People talk about the truth winning out in the end, but truth does not win all by itself. It wins with committed exponents." —S. Carpenter	<urn:uuid:6a1bb927-43b5-4fb0-8ddc-b87013fa33d8>	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://www.sciencenews.org/wp-content/uploads/1999/08/00368423.ap071226.07a00070.pdf	2023-12-05T06:22:10+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100545.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20231205041842-20231205071842-00374.warc.gz	1,098,678,943	1,408	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999239	eng_Latn	0.999239	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 7129 ]	[ 2.78125 ]	1	0
Lesson 14 Activity 2 Justin Jabowski Answer A concise introductory text integrating biochemistry with physiology and cell biology and is aimed specifically at introductory health science students. Laura Batmanian, University of Sydney. Accounting: Tools for Business Decision Making, 7th Edition is a two-semester financial and managerial accounting course designed to show students the importance of accounting in their everyday lives. Emphasizing decision-making, this new edition features relevant topics such as data analytics as well as the time-tested features that have proven to be of most help to students. Every new print copy includes Navigate Advantage Access Fit to Be Well, Sixth Edition takes a behavior-change approach to communicating healthy diet and exercise habits while deploying both a workbook and pedagogical features that teach students how to become smart consumers of health news. It provides students with the tools they need to reach the goal of good health and fitness—regardless of their age or physical condition—by delving into exercise, proper nutrition, and stress management. The content in Fit to Be Well is organized in a succinct, easy-to-navigate manner that allows students to become more aware of each aspect of a physically fit lifestyle. Using a wealth of special features and online learning tools, the text encourages students to improve their eating habits by incorporating healthier foods into their diet, increasing their level of physical activity, keeping their body composition and weight at a healthy level, increasing their self-esteem, and reducing stress. Go vegan the fabulous way with this helpful guide from an editor of VegNews, an award-winning vegan media outlet. Maybe you're interested in it for the food, maybe it's the animals, or maybe climate change has got you thinking. Whatever your reason, maybe you don't quite know where to start. After all, doesn't going vegan mean you have to give up tasty snacks, cool shoes, a sense of humor, and your leather couch? (Nope, nope, no way, well . . . eventually.) Covering everything from nutrition (you will get enough protein, promise) to dating (vegans have better sex. It's true) to fitness (you want to lift a car over your head? Sure), Jasmin Singer and the team at VegNews bust all the myths and give you all the facts about a plant-based lifestyle. With 30 easy recipes to get you started, The VegNews Guide to Being a Fabulous Vegan will help you adopt a lifestyle that's better for you, the animals, and the planet. And what's more fabulous than that? Telling God's Story, Year One: Meeting Jesus: Student Guide & Activity Pages (Telling God's Story) The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Opioids from a Non-Opium Source Financial and Managerial Accounting Teaching Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education Magic, Ritual, and Gender from Late Antiquity to 1000 Justin Martyr, a second-century Gentile Christian apologist, was active in the Christian-Jewish propaganda war to convert each other and the pagans. He radicalized the ideas of St. Paul on the divine Election, Abraham, the Pentateuch, and the Gentiles. Justin's background, sources, and thought, and his place in the inter-religious propaganda war, are discussed, as are the irreconcilable views of Jesus and Paul on the Pentateuch and the Gentiles. Justin Martyr and the Jews considers the place of Paul and Justin's teachings in today's Christian-Jewish dialogue about the roots of early Christian Antisemitism, showing that the presuppositions of Paul and Justin must be abandoned if Christians and Jews today are to reach true understanding. As part of the search for such understanding, recent scholarly literature has been concerned with pre- and post-Holocaust inter-religious relations, as well as with the roots of Christian Antisemitism. Some scholars have endeavoured to show that Pauline teachings were misunderstood, and thereby exonerate Paul from the responsibility for Christian persecutions of Jews through the ages. These scholars have also attempted to make Paul a bridge between Christians and Jews in their modern dialogue. The present writer argues that this interpretation of Pauline teaching, followed and even radicalized by Justin, is unfounded. In The Intertextual Reception of Genesis 1-3, Stephen Presley examines Irenaeus' intertextual interpretation of scripture and shows how the contours of his theological arguments utilize a series of reading strategies that correlate these Genesis texts with the rest of scripture. An English translation from Greek of Justin Martyr's two major apologetic works, which are recognized as a formative influence on the development of Christian theology in the early church. "When and how may Christians first be shown to have used the Gospel of Luke and its companion volume, The Acts of the Apostles? Andrew Gregory offers the first book-length discussion of the reception of Luke and of Acts in the period before Irenaeus. The research project which was the basis of this monograph was originally conceived as a comparison of the pneumatology of Luke-Acts with the pneumatologies presented in Christian literature of the second century. Recent scholarship on Lukan pneumatology is agreed that Luke has a particular interest in the Spirit, but it is divided as to whether his pneumatology is part of a homogenous early Christian understanding or a distinctive presentation that is to be sharply differentiated from that of Matthew and Mark, of John, and of Paul. Noting a lacuna identified by Turner, the author set out to originally ask two questions. First, whether it might be possible to identify in second century pneumatologies any characteristics that New Testament scholars might label as distinctively Lukan. Second, whether such characteristics might be sufficient to indicate not only the influence of Lukan pneumatology but also a conscious appropriation of distinctively Lukan theology by other early Christians. Contents include: Introduction and methodology, Previous research, The evidence of the earliest manuscripts and notices, Do narrative outlines of episodes in the life of Jesus presuppose Luke?, Collections of the sayings of Jesus, Marcion, Justin Martyr, The reception of Luke in the Second Century, The reception of Acts in the Second Century, Early and Ambiguous Evidence, Justin Martyr, Narrative accounts explicitly concerning the Post-resurrection teaching of Jesus and the activity of Apostles and other prominent figures, The reception of Acts in the Period before Irenaeus, The reception of Luke and Acts in the Period before Irenaeus." Learning to Teach Science Telling God's Story, Year Three: The Unexpected Way: Student Guide and Activity Pages Bulletin Introduction, Text, and Commentary Physical Activity and Public Health Practice The First and Second Apologies "Fifty school based activities ...targeted at the pre-service teacher and mentor. Each activity has a commentary for mentors as well as notes for student teachers." -- back cover. The first major commentary on the text of 2 Clement since J.B. Lightfoot's magisterial work in the 19th century. Provides a new edition of the Greek text, together with an English translation; in addition there is a full Introduction and a detailed commentary on the Greek text. A new religion curriculum from the team that brought you The Story of the World. These lesson plans, designed to accompany the weekly lessons laid out in Telling God's Story, Year One (available separately), provide coloring pages, craft projects, and group activities to fill out an entire week of home school or private school study; a core set of activities is also provided for the use of Sunday school teachers. Coloring pages accompany each lesson and accurately reflect the historical setting of the original stories, while a full range of crafts and activities help young students understand and remember. Financial and Managerial Accounting, 4th Edition, provides students with a clear introduction to the fundamental financial and managerial concepts needed for anyone pursuing a career in accounting or business. Through a focus on accounting transactions, real-world industry examples, and robust assessment, students develop a solid understanding of how to apply accounting principles and techniques in practice. By connecting the classroom to the business world with an emphasis on decision making and key data analysis skills appropriate at the introductory level, Financial and Managerial Accounting ensures students are more engaged and better prepared for careers as professionals in the modern business world. Tools for Business Decision Making The Evolution of Service When Bad Christians Happen to Good People 1 and 2 Thessalonians Telling God's Story, Year Two: The Kingdom of Heaven: Student Guide & Activity Pages 2 Clement The 2e of this classic Guide to Protein Purification provides a complete update to existing methods in the field, reflecting the enormous advances made in the last two decades. In particular, proteomics, mass spectrometry, and DNA technology have revolutionized the field since the first edition's publication but through all of the advancements, the purification of proteins is still an indispensable first step in understanding their function. This volume examines the most reliable, robust methods for researchers in biochemistry, molecular and cell biology, genetics, pharmacology and biotechnology and sets a standard for best practices in the field. It relates how these traditional and new cutting-edge methods connect to the explosive advancements in the field. This "Guide to" gives imminently practical advice to avoid costly mistakes in choosing a method and brings in perspective from the premier researchers while presents a comprehensive overview of the field today. Gathers top global authors from industry, medicine, and research fields across a wide variety of disciplines, including biochemistry, genetics, oncology, pharmacology, dermatology and immunology Assembles chapters on both common and less common relevant techniques Provides robust methods as well as an analysis of the advancements in the field that, for an individual investigator, can be a demanding and time-consuming process Now in its 4th edition, State and Local Public Finance provides a comprehensive and sophisticated analysis of state and local government public finance practices and issues, using the basic tools of economics. For this new edition, there is a focus on the most important services provided in the state-local sector: education, health and welfare, public safety, and transportation. This textbook provides an examination and analysis of public finance practices and problems in a federal fiscal system, focusing on the fiscal behaviour and policies of state and local governments. The author presents detailed descriptions of significant institutions. Modern economic theory is applied to examine the way these institutions are used to produce and finance services, and to provide evaluation of alternative policies. Although the emphasis is on U.S. institutions and issues, much of the economic analysis can be applied to any federal system or to fiscal decentralization. This fully revised new edition sees updates throughout to data, topics, and applications. The Headlines and Applications sections reflect the most current policy issues affecting state and local governments. These include the effects of the Great Recession on state and local governments, changes in the tax treatment of internet purchases, the Affordable Care Act and implications for Medicaid spending by state governments, demographic changes and the implications for state-local finances, the implications of changes in automobile technology for transportation financing, and the potential for increased gambling activity. This text will continue to be invaluable reading for those who study public finance, local government finance, urban economics and public policy and public administration. Provide your students with the best in keyboarding education from the proven keyboarding leader--now fully updated to Microsoft Office 365/2016. This latest edition of CENTURY 21 COMPUTER SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS helps students in middle school through high school prepare for a lifetime of keyboarding and computer success with innovative solutions updated to reflect today's business challenges. Century 21 pedagogy takes a cycle approach as students learn a foundation of basic skills and then revisit them multiple times to improve, enhance, and build business technology skills. Other online keyboarding software does not offer triple control guidelines for timed writings or content and practice with current technologies like voice-recognition software and working in the cloud, or allow students to work collaboratively or practice career-focused scenarios and digital citizenship skills. CENTURY 21 COMPUTER SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS prepares students to excel in today's business environment, and increase communication skills with relevant, step-by-step activities. Students learn to master computer applications using Microsoft Office 365/2016 for e-mail, database, electronic presentations, spreadsheets, and advanced word processing. Trust the leader who has taught more than 85 million people to type...bringing more than 100 years of publishing experience and a century of innovations together in a complete line of keyboarding solutions. NOW AVAILABLE WITH ONLINE KEYBOARDING IN SAM, students can read the full, interactive eBook, and practice well-known keying drills previously in MICROTYPE in an updated, ADA-compliant, online environment. Online Keyboarding in SAM offers auto-grading for keying drills and customizable weighting for timed writing assignments, so you can choose where you want your students to focus throughout your course, whether that be on GWAM, Accuracy Percentage, Number of Errors, or Speed. Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the ebook version. "Dave allowed God to navigate him through the pain of religious moralism to arrive at insightful, compelling, and gracious wisdom. He remains a sincere lover of God's church and people as he directs weary pilgrims to safer lodging." -John Lynch, coauthor of TrueFaced and Bo's Café Have you been betrayed by a Christian friend? Are you disillusioned with the church? If you have been hurt by Christians, you know all about anger and resentment. But what about a workable solution? How can the words and actions of "bad Christians" be addressed so the mistakes are not repeated? When Bad Christians Happen to Good People offers a workable response and, ultimately, a new way of living. In this revised and updated edition, you will find healing for hurts inflicted by others. At the same time, you will discover ways to help Christians and church leaders recognize the damage that is done by unexamined assumptions, words, and actions. After dealing with his own hurt, Dave Burchett now shows believers how to: ■ Live as Jesus followers, not rule enforcers ■ Stop using religious performance as the standard for accepting others ■ Let go of moralism, legalism, and an allegiance to trying harder ■ Discover God's grace as a daily reality, not just a word to use in evangelism Working toward a solution will benefit your own life at the same time it helps others. Whether you have been a bad Christian in the past, or have been hurt by one, there is a better way to live. The World Book Encyclopedia Based Upon Actual Pupil Problems in Citizenship and Life Adjustment Look Good, Feel Good & Do Good in 30 Days The Origin and Persistence of Evil in Galatians Sabbath and Sunday among the Earliest Christians, Second Edition Guide to Protein Purification Opioids such as morphine, codeine, and oxycodone are extracts or analogs isolated from a single source: the opium poppy. For a long time, it was believed to be nature's only source of opioids. But it now appears that biological diversity has evolved an alternative source of opioid compounds—those derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa. This plan Hands-on troubleshooting methods on the most recent release of SQL Server The 2012 release of SQL Server is the most significant one since 2005 and introduces an abundance of new features. This critical book provides in-depth coverage of best practices for troubleshooting performance problems based on a solid understanding of both SQL Server and Windows internals and shows experienced DBAs how to ensure reliable performance. The team of authors shows you how to master the use of specific troubleshooting tools and how to interpret their output so you can quickly identify and resolve any performance issue on any server running SQL Server. Covers the core technical topics required to understand how SQL Server and Windows should be working Shares best practices so that you know how to proactively monitor and avoid problems Shows how to use tools to quickly gather, analyze, and effectively respond to the source of a system-wide performance issue Professional SQL Server 2012 Internals and Troubleshooting helps you to quickly become familiar with the changes of this new release so that you can best handle database performance and troubleshooting. A new religion curriculum from the team that brought you The Story of the World. At around 4.00pm 11 June 323 BC in Babylon, Alexander the Great breathed his last. He left one of the largest empires the world had seen, stretching from Greece to the Punjab. Surrounding the king's deathbed were his highest subordinates: young, experienced and charismatic commanders — some of the greatest military minds of antiquity — each with their own insatiable ambitions for power, glory and legacy. Only recently these men had fought side-by-side on the battlefield, kept in line by Alexander's overarching aura. But now, with Alexander dead and leaving no clear successor, many of these former brothers-in-arms quickly became fierce foes as they vied for dominance. What followed was an extraordinary time for military campaigns. Powerful warlords and warrior queens attempted to assert their authority throughout the length and breadth of Alexander the Great's former empire; from Afghanistan to Athens, from Africa to Asia powerful armies decided matters by the spear. This first book covers the initial years of the conflict and several major campaigns that immediately seized the kingdom. The Reception of Luke and Acts in the Period Before Irenaeus The Truth About Guys Middle School Your Federal Income Tax for Individuals Learning, Earning and Investing Ethical Decision Making for the 21st Century Counselor THE EVOLUTION OF SERVICE Serving others is what we do, yet when we fail to serve ourselves, we fail to create the lives we were meant to lead. What makes a great leader? Why do some professionals progress and inspire the best out of their contemporaries while others struggle to be professional? The principles of leadership have not changed over time. What has changed is how we lead. The demands of our world force us to get more out of every member on our team. To serve and lead at the highest level we must instigate both individual and collective leadership to have a compounding effect on our community. Trafficking with Demons explores how magic was perceived, practiced, and prohibited in western Europe during the first millennium CE. Through the overlapping frameworks of religion, ritual, and gender, Martha Rampton connects early Christian reckonings with pagan magic to later doctrines and dogmas. Challenging established views on the role of women in ritual magic during this period, Rampton provides a new narrative of the ways in which magic was embedded within the foundational assumptions of western European society, informing how people understood the cosmos, divinity, and their own Christian faith. As Rampton shows, throughout the first Christian millennium, magic was thought to play a natural role within the functioning of the universe and existed within a rational cosmos hierarchically arranged according to a "great chain of being." Trafficking with the "demons of the lower air" was the essence of magic. Interactions with those demons occurred both in highly formalistic, ritual settings and on a routine and casual basis. Rampton tracks the competition between pagan magic and Christian belief from the first century CE, when it was fiercest, through the early Middle Ages, as atavistic forms of magic mutated and found sanctuary in the daily habits of the converted peoples and new paganisms entered Europe with their own forms of magic. By the year 1000, she concludes, many forms of magic had been tamed and were, by the reckoning of the elite, essentially ineffective, as were the women who practiced it and the rituals that attended it. Okay, it's a fact. God made guys and girls different in more ways than just the physical. But how different could we really be? After all, we are all made in His image, right? Well, yes, but let's just say that guys and girls view the world in such different ways, that it's a miracle we communicate at all. What's worse is that girls this age often think they know what makes guys tick. That couldn’t be more wrong! Chad Eastham tells it like it is... to girls... from a guy’s perspective. As a popular presenter at Revolve conferences, he is known for his ability to speak truth and to give girls clearer perspective about guys and themselves as well as understand their own value. Chad explains, “You are incredibly valuable and worthy simply because God created you.” Readers will also love watching Chad in action through free online streaming of his Truth About Guys DVD, which includes Chad’s stage presentation as well as on-the-street interviews with teens and friends in the music industry. Meets national education standards. The eastern Celtic tribes, known to the Greeks as Galatians, exploited the waning of Macedonian power after Alexander the Great’s death to launch increasingly ambitious raids and expeditions into the Balkans. In 279 BC they launched a major invasion, defeating and beheading the Macedonian king, Ptolemy Keraunos, before sacking the Greeks’ most sacred oracle at Delphi. Eventually forced to withdraw northwards, they were defeated by Antigonus Gonatus at Lysimachia in 277 BC but remained a threat. A large Galatian contingent was invited to cross to Asia to intervene in a war in Bithynia but they went on to seize much of central Anatolia for themselves, founding the state of Galatia. Antiochos I curbed their power in ‘the Elephant Victory in 273 BC’ but they remained a force in the region and their fierce warriors served as mercenaries in many armies throughout the eastern Mediterranean. John Grainger narrates and analyses the fortunes of these eastern Celts down to their eventual subjugation by the Romans, Galatia becoming a Roman province in 30 BC. Celtic Invaders of Greece and Asia Minor Activities for Student Teachers and Mentors The VegNews Guide to Being a Fabulous Vegan State and Local Public Finance Irenaeus of Lyons and the Theology of the Holy Spirit The Single Parent Coloring pages, craft projects, group activities, and lesson plans turn Telling God's Story, Year Three into a complete, easy-to-use elementary religion curriculum. Designed for historical accuracy in consultation with historian Susan Wise Bauer. These lesson plans, designed to accompany the weekly lessons laid out in Telling God's Story, Year Three, provide enough additional activities to fill out an entire week of home school or private school study; a core set of activities is also provided for use of SundaySchool teachers. Coloring pages accompany each lesson and accurately reflect the historical setting of the original stories, while a full range of crafts, games, and activities help young students understand and remember. Peace Hill Press has already produced best-selling activity books to accompany its award-winning educational series The Story of the World: History for the Classical Child; First Language Lessons for the Well-Trained Mind; and The Complete Writer: Writing with Ease. According to Christian sources from before the middle of the third century AD, the ancient evidence is unanimous that, although there were a few slight differences as to how weekends should be observed, one thing is certain and was uncontroversial: the main day of the week for early Christians to gather and worship was not the seventh-day Saturday Sabbath, but Sunday, which they sometimes called "the first day" or "the eighth day," or "the Lord's Day." The booklet also considers (1) whether the Lord's Day replaces the Sabbath, (2) whether the Sabbath was abolished, (3) whether Sabbath-keeping is forbidden, (4) whether the Roman Catholic church changed the Sabbath to Sunday, (5) whether Sunday is to be a day of rest as well as the chief day of public worship, (6) a critique of sources and authorities on which Sabbatarians rely in advancing their contentions, (7) whether some Christians before Constantine observed Sunday rather than Saturday to prevent the Roman government from considering them to be Jews, who were allegedly persecuted before his reign, and (8) where readers can find translations of the sources for themselves. Focusing on pagan Roman and Jewish sources, this second edition considers whether Sunday-keeping began as a result of the Jewish revolts of AD 66-70 and/or AD 132-135 and examines the work of Samuele Bacchiocchi. Host a feast like ones Jesus and his disciples might have eaten. Defend a flock from wolves. Learn about compassion by playing the Good Samaritan Game, and re-create Jesus’ final days with the Passion Week comic strip. These lesson plans, designed to accompany the weekly lessons laid out in Telling God's Story: Instructor Text and Teaching Guide, Year Two (sold separately), provide enough additional activities to fill out an entire week of home school or private school study. A core set of activities is also provided for the use of Sunday School teachers. Coloring pages accompany each lesson and accurately reflect the historical setting of the original stories, while a full range of crafts, games, and activities help young students understand and remember. Teaching Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education is the ideal resource for understanding and integrating social and emotional learning (SEL) competencies into the structure of a physical education program, alongside physical activity and skill development goals. This text should be incorporated as a key resource to guide physical education teacher education courses specifically focused on social and emotional learning while also providing supplemental readings for courses related to physical education curriculum, instruction, assessment, and/or models-based practice. Similarly, practicing physical education teachers who are interested in developing a stronger focus on SEL in their teaching will find that the book provides a comprehensive resource to guide their professional learning and practice. Biochemistry for Health Professionals Where We Have Failed Each Other and How to Reverse the Damage Looking for Luke in the Second Century Accounting When Was the Day of Public Worship? Professional SQL Server 2012 Internals and Troubleshooting In this study, Tyler A. Stewart investigates narrative explanations for evil in Galatians set in the context of Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity. Scholarship has typically interpreted Paul's view of evil based on Adam's fall or a mere reflex of Christology. In contrast, the author argues that in Galatians Paul's view of evil is based on the narrative of rebellious angels found in the Book of Watchers. Additionally, he claims that Paul's use of Enochic tradition is consistent with Second Temple Jewish literature and finds support in early Christian reception of Galatians. An encyclopedia designed especially to meet the needs of elementary, junior high, and senior high school students. Ethical practice is an essential aspect of counselor training. In order for counselors to competently work with clients, they must be well versed in ethical codes, ethical decision making, and legal issues impacting the profession. Ethical Decision Making for the 21st Century Counselor provides the fundamentals of ethical practice, with emphasis on ethical decision making and is structured to facilitate the development of these skills. Authors Donna S. Sheperis, Stacy L. Henning, and Michael M. Kocet move the reader through a developmental process of understanding and applying ethical decision making. Individuals will be able to incorporate ethical practice into their understanding of the counseling process and integrate ethical decision making models into their counseling practice. This unique approach differs from existing texts because of its strong emphasis on practical decision making and focus on understanding the process of applying a standard ethical decision model to any ethical scenario. Students build a foundation in how to evaluate an ethical situation. and feel confident that they have applied a set of decision models to reach the best decision. Learning, Earning and Investing Middle School Council for Economic Education Century 21 Computer Skills and Applications, Lessons 1-88 The Intertextual Reception of Genesis 1-3 in Irenaeus of Lyons Firefighter Self Rescue Telling God's Story, Year One: Meeting Jesus: Student Guide & Activity Pages Fit to Be Well Justin Martyr and the Jews A close study of aspects of Irenaeus' pneumatology that demonstrates how Irenaeus combined Second Temple Jewish traditions of the spirit with New Testament theology to produce the most complex Jewish-Christian pneumatology of the early church. This publication contains 16 lessons that introduce middle school students to the world of investing, its benefits and risks, and the critical role it plays in fostering capital formation and job creation in our free market system. 1 and 2 Thessalonians is another release in the Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament series—the only commentary series with a graphical display, theology in application section and identification of the main idea for each section. Designed for the pastor and Bible teacher, the Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament brings together commentary features rarely gathered in one volume. Written by notable evangelical scholars, each volume treats the literary context and structure of the passage in the original Greek and each author provides an original translation based on the literary structure. The series consistently provides a main point, exegetical outline, verse-by-verse commentary, and theology in application in each section of every commentary. Critical scholarship informs each step but does not dominate the commentary, allowing readers to concentrate on the biblical author's message as it unfolds. While primarily designed for those with a basic knowledge of biblical Greek, all who strive to understand and teach the New Testament will find these books beneficial. Physical Activity in Public Health Practice provides the first evidence-based, practical textbook to guide readers through the process of conceptualizing, justifying, implementing, and evaluating physical activity interventions across a broad array of settings and populations. Section One begins with an overview of epidemiology, measurement, critical milestones, and the importance of moving beyond individual-level physical activity intervention, to interventions aimed at policy-, systems-, and environmental-level changes. Section Two considers planning interventions across a variety of settings and populations, including general concepts for implementation and evaluation, how to build effective coalitions, steps for developing community-, regional- or state-level strategic plans, and effectively translating policy into practice. Section Three addresses how to implement physical activity strategies across a variety of settings, including worksites, faith-based settings, healthcare settings, schools, and parks and recreation. This section also provides guidance on the complexities and challenges of targeting interventions for specific populations, such as families, older adults, persons with disabilities, as well as different strategies for urban and rural populations. Lastly, Section Four outlines effective strategies for how to evaluate interventions depending upon impact, outcome, and cost evaluation, and dissemination models for your intervention. Presented from both a research and a practice perspective while discussing the best available research, this book provides the basis for planning and implementing physical activity programs that work. and can build healthier communities. This hands-on text incorporates learning objectives, real-world examples, case studies, and bulleted lists whenever possible so that the content can be digested easily not only in undergraduate and graduate course settings but also by public health workers and other health educators in practice. Written by world experts and augmented by practical applications, this textbook prepares public health students and practitioners to develop effective interventions and spur greater physical activity in their communities. Key Features: - Provides effective strategies for properly measuring and increasing physical activity in communities - Demonstrates how to carry out physical activity interventions across a variety of settings, including schools, communities, worksites and many more - Discusses methods for directing physical activity interventions to specific populations - Delivers strategies for building successful partnerships and coalitions Practical group activities, exercises, discussion questions, audio podcast discussions, and a full instructor packet accompany the textbook. A Suggested Program in Homemaking for Secondary Schools Trafficking with Demons Kratom and Other Mitragynines Justin Martyr The Perdiccas Years, 323320 BC The Galatians	<urn:uuid:3db767ba-17e3-4d9a-a095-4640bb52b48a>	CC-MAIN-2023-06	https://raceandwealth.coas.howard.edu/pharmative/opini/sql.php?keyword=lesson-14-activity-2-justin-jabowski-answer-pdf&isbn=92714a633ec8b6c5f1547e3fdac799f4	2023-02-03T14:32:49+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500056.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20230203122526-20230203152526-00681.warc.gz	490,234,899	6,536	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995532	eng_Latn	0.996624	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 2306, 5770, 9029, 11768, 14532, 18115, 21377, 24285, 26813, 29357, 33068, 34370 ]	[ 1.90625, 2.015625 ]	1	0
What else did Paul say? Count the cracks on each tombstone to put the letters in order. alive in to sin Christ God but to dead Jesus “Count yourselves 1 2 3 4 alive 5 6 7 8 9 10.” Paul wrote a letter to the Christians in Rome. He told them, “Just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life.” Find the letters of the words “A NEW LIFE” hidden below. Cherryvale UMC Paul wrote, “We will certainly also be united with Him in …” what? Solve the Sudoku puzzle, by making sure each row, column and box contains the numbers 1-9. Then use the letters that go with each number to fill in the blanks below. “His …” Paul wrote, “Our old self was crucified with Him.” What else did he say about this? Starting in the top left corner, follow the arrows on the crosses below to find the message. “If we believe in Christ, we will live to Him.” “____ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________, ____ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________.” We are alive to God in Christ Jesus! Use the chart to decode the message. \| \| A \| B \| D \| E \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| G \| H \| I \| L \| \| N \| O \| R \| S \| \| T \| U \| V \| W \| \| \| \| \| \| Circle the 3 letters that appear in the same order in every word inside the heart. Write them on the blanks. sink resin closing cousin Sinai sing using sine basin since sinew casino single sinister singes assassin We died to ___ ___ ___; how can we live in it any longer? Cherryvale UMC Let’s be dead to sin, but alive to God in Christ Jesus. Match the puzzle pieces. Write in the letters. Live a New Life Don’t live in sin. Christ died for our sins. Match the pictures and shadows. When we are baptized, we have a new life in Christ. Circle the 1 picture that is different. Christ died once for all. The life He lives He lives for God. Match the shapes. We are alive in Christ. Match and trace the letters. Ages 3+ June 21, 2020 • Romans 6:1-11 Alive in Christ Jesus died and was raised again. Match the pictures and shapes. Cherryvale UMC Baptism is a death of your old life and a birth of a new life. Circle the hidden words in the puzzle. BAPTISM OLD NEW LIFE We will live with Jesus. Jesus is walking with us everywhere we go. Follow the maze. BEGIN END	<urn:uuid:1f2441f3-e4b2-4de7-a66f-e3abdc0d3f0c>	CC-MAIN-2024-42	https://www.cherryvaleumc.com/_files/ugd/84ec57_cddd2621a94145eb9d28c54ecc7161b3.pdf	2024-10-09T07:02:21+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-42/segments/1727944253572.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20241009054103-20241009084103-00885.warc.gz	617,599,787	643	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997904	eng_Latn	0.999047	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 432, 1039, 1523, 1724, 1900, 2093, 2320 ]	[ 3.125 ]	1	1
Now Thomas believed. Jesus said, “Blessed are those who have not seen and yet have ... Match the puzzle letters. Write each letter. believed Jesus Appears to His Disciples After Jesus rose from the dead, His disciples — except for 1 — were together in a room with the doors locked. Which disciple was not there? Find and circle Thomas. Peter Andrew James Thaddeus Philip Bartholomew James, son of Alphaeus John Simon Thomas Matthew When Thomas returned, the other disciples told him, “We have seen the Lord!” But he said to them, “Unless I see the nail marks in His hands and put my finger where the nails were, and put my hand into His side, I will not believe.” Circle what is wrong with the picture. A week later His disciples were in the house again, and Thomas was with them. Though the doors were locked, Jesus came and stood among them and said, “Peace be with you!” Add these things to the picture. - A locked door. - Surprised faces on the apostles. - A cup on the table. Then Thomas said, “My Lord and my God!” What did Jesus say back to him? Unscramble the names below. Use the numbered letters to fill in the blanks. 1. VIDAD 6 2 2. LAPU 12 9 3. RAMY 10 5 14 4. BOCAJ 17 13 5. PHOSEJ 15 18 6. REWAND 16 1 7. BELITHEZA 8 3 7 8. ONHJ 4 11 “ 3 18 17 16 12 15 18 14 13 12 4 16 2 18 15 18 18 11 10 18 14 13 12 4 16 2 18 3 18 9 8 18 2 18 6 3 9 18 15 15 18 6 16 5 18 7 4 13 15 18 1 4 13 4 16 2 18 11 13 7 15 18 18 11 16 11 6 14 18 7 4 16 2 18 3 18 9 8 18 2 18 6.” Children’s Worship Bulletin Ages 7+ April 19, 2020 • John 20:19-31 Jesus Appears to His Disciples After Jesus rose from the dead, He appeared to the disciples. But one of them was not with them when Jesus came. Which disciple was missing? Shade in all the areas with an ODD number. Find the answer. At first Thomas doubted Jesus was alive. But later when he saw him and touched him, he believed! Circle the 6 differences in the second picture. Name ___________________________ Blessed are those who believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God. Use the list of words to complete the story. Then find them in the word search. Place the six left-over letters on the lines. \| My \| side \| nail \| house \| believe \| \|----\|------\|------\|-------\|---------\| \| not \| hand \| seen \| Peace \| doubting \| \| God \| week \| doors \| finger \| disciples \| Jesus came into the ________ where the ___________ were meeting. He came through locked ___________. He said, “__________ be with you!” Thomas was not present. When the disciples told him that Jesus was alive, he said he could _____ believe unless he could touch with his _____________ where the __________ had pierced Jesus’ hand. A ______ later, Jesus appeared again. Thomas was there and saw Jesus for himself. Jesus showed him his ______ and his ________. He said, “Stop ______________ and ____________.” Thomas said, “______ Lord and my ______!” Jesus said, “Blessed are those who have not ________ and yet have believed.” To find the missing letters, determine which numbers are missing from the equation. A=1, B=2, C=3, D=4, E=5, F=6, G=7, H=8, I=9, J=10, K=11, L=12, M=13, N=14, O=15, P=16, Q=17, R=18, S=19, T=20, U=21, V=22, W=23, X=24, Y=25, Z=26 Miraculous signs (such as Jesus appearing through locked doors) are written that ...Y __ O __ U 25 + 15 + 21 = 61 M A __ believe that __ E S U S I __ the Christ, __ H E 13 + 1 + __ = 39 __ + 5 + 19 + 21 + 19 = 74 9 + __ = 28 __ + 8 + 5 = 33 S __ N O __ G O __ . 19 + __ + 14 = 48 15 + __ = 21 7 + 15 + __ = 26 Use the code to find out why believing so important. \| / \| @ \| # \| ® \| © \| ≠ \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| A \| B \| E \| F \| G \| \| H \| I \| L \| M \| N \| \| O \| S \| U \| V \| Y \| Name ___________________________	<urn:uuid:322f57c4-cbe3-4686-a7fc-56fa292b3e39>	CC-MAIN-2024-42	https://www.cherryvaleumc.com/_files/ugd/84ec57_d5b380db14fb4f52adfa050f950eec3b.pdf	2024-10-09T06:27:41+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-42/segments/1727944253572.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20241009054103-20241009084103-00889.warc.gz	599,645,190	1,198	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.904302	eng_Latn	0.994466	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 437, 991, 1793, 1974, 3726 ]	[ 3.671875 ]	1	1
Summer Term 2022 Year 1 Year 1 is taught by Miss Kenny and supported by Miss Fowler and Mrs Brayshaw. English In English, we will begin the term by embedding previously taught skills and applying them to a range of writing genres including letter writing, poetry and non-chronological reports. During the summer term, we will revise all the phase 5 phonics sounds and continue to use them within our writing and identify them when reading. Please continue to encourage your child to use these skills when they are reading and writing at home. Maths In Maths, we will continue to consolidate all previous learning, especially number facts such as addition and subtraction facts to 20, number bonds and counting in multiples of 2, 5 and 10. We will further our understanding of doubling and halving to learn about multiplication using the array method and division through sharing. Then these new ideas will be applied to a range of mathematical problems to develop our mathematical reasoning as we explain our answers and working out. In addition to this, we will begin to look at multiplication and division, fractions and representing data using graphs and charts. Science In Science, we will continue to learn about plants, especially the common plants that we see around us in our local environment. We will learn about a range of plant types and explore what plants need to survive. We will also revisit and extend our learning about materials, grouping and classifying, investigating properties and carrying out fair tests. Topic Our topics for this term are ‘Significant People’ and ‘What is the geography of my local area?’. We will begin by discussing a variety of historical figures and investigating what makes them significant. We will make comparisons between people from explorers of the past and in the modern day world. After the half term holiday, we will start to investigate our local area and examine the human and physical features of the area. We will also develop our understanding of key geographical terms and use some mapping technology. RE In RE, we will be learning about baptism and linking this to the idea of ‘belonging’ to different groups. We will re-enact a baptism in the classroom, discussing the meaning of each part of the ceremony. We will then explore ceremonies from other faiths that focus on ‘belonging’ and make comparisons between these different ceremonies. Also in RE, we will explore the question ‘What is a Saint?’ by discussing our ideas and taking other ideas from a range of sources. Music Children will explore timbre, tempo and dynamics. They will perform a chant and change their voices to describe different feelings eg hot, tired, sad. They will select and layer sounds for an accompaniment to a song and create musical interludes to perform with the song ‘Noah’s Ark’. PE With the Sports Coaches, the children will be focussing on improving their understanding and skills through a range of sports. Helpful information: Reading books – Please bring them every day, with reading records so children can read in school. Books will be collected in on a Wednesday for changing. PE – Week A - Tuesday and Wednesday. Week B – Tuesday and Friday Spelling test – Friday Homework: Reading – everyday, please sign your child’s reading record each time they read with you. Spellings – short practice every day. Other homework will be issued on a Friday to be back in school by the following Wednesday.	<urn:uuid:634e2f83-98ae-44c1-9b77-3bc03fe023d7>	CC-MAIN-2022-33	http://stmichaelscebam.rochdale.sch.uk/serve_file/6216277	2022-08-17T17:22:59+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573029.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817153027-20220817183027-00763.warc.gz	54,281,331	704	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998381	eng_Latn	0.998296	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 24, 1545, 2992, 3497 ]	[ 3.890625 ]	1	0
Basic Books in Science Book 4 Motion and Mass: First Steps into Physics Roy McWeeny BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE – a Series of books that start at the beginning Book 4 Mass and motion – first steps into Physics Roy McWeeny Professore Emerito di Chimica Teorica, Università di Pisa, Pisa (Italy) The Series is maintained, with regular updating and improvement, at http://www.learndev.org/ScienceWorkBooks.html and the books may be downloaded entirely free of charge This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (Last updated 10 November 2011) Acknowledgements In a world increasingly driven by information technology no educational experiment can hope to make a significant impact without effective bridges to the ‘user community’ – the students and their teachers. In the case of “Basic Books in Science” (for brevity, “the Series”), these bridges have been provided as a result of the enthusiasm and good will of Dr. David Peat (The Pari Center for New Learning), who first offered to host the Series on his website, and of Dr. Jan Visser (The Learning Development Institute), who set up a parallel channel for further development of the project. The credit for setting up and maintaining the bridgeheads, and for promoting the project in general, must go entirely to them. Education is a global enterprise with no boundaries and, as such, is sure to meet linguistic difficulties: these will be reduced by providing translations into some of the world’s most widely used languages. Dr. Angel S. Sanz (Madrid) is preparing Spanish versions of the books and his initiative is most warmly appreciated. We appreciate the interest shown by universities in Sub-Saharan Africa (e.g. University of the Western Cape and Kenyatta University), where trainee teachers are making use of the Series; and that shown by the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy (IMSA) where material from the Series is being used in teaching groups of refugee children from many parts of the world. All who have contributed to the Series in any way are warmly thanked: they have given freely of their time and energy ‘for the love of Science’. Pisa, 2007 Roy McWeeny (Series Editor) BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE About this Series All human progress depends on education: to get it we need books and schools. Science Education is of key importance. Unfortunately, books and schools are not always easy to find. But nowadays all the world’s knowledge should be freely available to everyone – through the Internet that connects all the world’s computers. The aim of the Series is to bring basic knowledge in all areas of science within the reach of everyone. Every Book will cover in some depth a clearly defined area, starting from the very beginning and leading up to university level: all will be available on the Internet at no cost to the reader. To obtain a copy it should be enough to make a single visit to any library or public office with a personal computer and a telephone line. Each book will serve as one of the ‘building blocks’ out of which Science is built; and together they will form a ‘give-away’ science library. About this book This book, like the others in the Series, is written in simple English – the language most widely used in science and technology. It builds on the foundations laid in Book 1 (Number and symbols), Book 2 (Space) and Book 3 (Relationships, change – and Mathematical Analysis). Book 4 starts from our first ideas about the world around us: when we push things they usually move and the way they move depends on how ‘heavy’ or ‘massive’ they are. From these simple ideas about mass and motion, and a few experiments that anyone can do, we can lay the foundations of Physics: they are expressed mathematically in the ‘laws of motion’, which form the starting point for the Physical Sciences. Almost all of Physics and its applications, up to the end of the 19th century, can be understood using only the laws of motion! The rest involves Electricity (to be studied in Book 10) and takes us into Modern Physics and all that has happened during the last 150 years. So we’re starting on a very long journey of discovery .... Looking ahead – Now you know something about numbers and symbols (Book 1) and about space and geometry (Book 2); and you’ve learnt (in Book 3) how to use these ideas to study relationships between measurable quantities (how one thing depends on another). So at last you’re ready to start on Physics. Physics is a big subject and you’ll need more than one book; but even with only Book 4 you’ll begin to understand a lot about a large part of the world – the physical world of the objects around us. Again, there are many important ‘milestones’…. - Chapter 1 deals with actions like pushing and pulling, which you can feel with your body: they are forces, which can act on an object to make it move, or to change the way it is moving. But every object has a mass, which measures how much it resists change. By the end of the chapter, you’ll know about force, mass, weight and gravity; and the famous laws put forward by Newton. You’ll know that forces are vectors (which you first met in Book 1) and how they can be combined. - In Chapter 2 you’ll think about lifting things: you do work and get tired – you lose energy. Where has the energy gone? You find two kinds of energy: potential energy, which you can store in an object; and kinetic energy, which is due to its motion. The sum of the two is constant: this is the principle of energy conservation. - Chapter 3 extends this principle to the motion of a particle (a ‘point mass’) when it is acted on by a force and moves along and curved path. Energy is still conserved. You learn how to calculate the path; and find that what’s good for a small particle seems to be good also for big ones (e.g. the Earth going around the Sun). - Chapter 4 asks why this can be so and finds a reason: think of a big body as a collection of millions of particles, all interacting with each other, and use Newton’s laws. One point in the body, the centre of mass, moves as if all the mass were concentrated at that point and acted on by a single force – the vector sum of all the actual forces applied to the big body. You’ll also learn about momentum and collisions. - Time to think about rotational motion. Chapter 5 shows how to deal with rotation of a many-particle system about its centre of mass. Corresponding to “Force = rate of change of (linear) momentum”, there is a new law “Torque = rate of change of angular momentum”. You’ll learn how torque and angular momentum are defined; and how the new law applies just as well to both one-particle and many-particle systems. So you can study the Solar System in more detail and calculate the orbits of the planets. - In Chapter 6 you’ll be thinking of a rigid body, in which all the particles are joined together so that the distances between them can’t change. If the body is moving you are studying Dynamics; but if it is in equilibrium (at rest or in uniform motion), then you are studying Statics. You’ll be able to solve many every-day problems and you’ll be well prepared for entering the Engineering Sciences. - Chapter 7 deals with simple machines, illustrating the principles from earlier Chapters, going from levers to water-wheels and clocks. - The final Chapter 8 carries you to the present day and to the big problems of the future; we all depend on energy – for machines and factories, for transporting goods (and people), for digging and building, for almost everything we do. Most of that energy comes from burning fuel (wood, coal, oil, gas, or anything that will burn); but what will happen when we’ve used it all? We probably need to solve that problem before the end of this century: how can we do it? Do we go back to water-mills and wind-mills, or to the energy we can get from the heat of the sun? In this last chapter you’ll find that mass is a form of energy and that in theory a bottle of seawater, for example, could give enough energy to run a big city for a week! – if only we could get the energy out! This is the promise of nuclear energy. Some countries are using it already; but it can be dangerous and it brings new problems. To understand them you’ll have to go beyond Book 4. In Book 5 you’ll take the first steps into Chemistry, learning something about atoms and molecules and what everything is made of – and inside the atom you’ll find the nucleus! Chapter 1 Mass, force, and weight 1.1 What makes things move? 1.2 How can we measure force? 1.3 Combining forces 1.4 How to work with vectors Chapter 2 Work and energy 2.1 What is work? 2.2 Two kinds of energy 2.3 Conservation of energy 2.4 Doing without the pictures – by using calculus 2.5 Another kind of energy – a stretched spring 2.6 Rate of working – power Chapter 3 Motion of a single particle 3.1 What happens if the force on a particle is variable and its path is a curve? 3.2 Motion of a projectile 3.3 A numerical method 3.4 Motion of the Earth around the Sun 3.5 More about potential energy Chapter 4 From one particle to many – the next big step 4.1 Many-particle systems 4.2 Conservation of linear momentum 4.3 Elastic and inelastic collisions Chapter 5 Rotational motion 5.1 Torque 5.2 Angular momentum and torque 5.3 Another look at the solar system 5.4 Kepler’s laws Chapter 6 Dynamics and statics of rigid bodies 6.1 From connected particles to rigid bodies 6.2 Rigid bodies in motion – dynamics 6.3 Rigid bodies at rest – statics Chapter 7 Some simple machines 7.1 Levers 7.2 Weighing machines 7.3 The wheel 7.4 Clocks and Mechanisms Chapter 8 Turning mass into energy 8.1 Reminder of relativity theory 8.1 Vectors in 4-space 8.3 Momentum and energy: $E = mc^2$ – a hope for the future? Notes to the Reader. When Chapters have several Sections they are numbered so that “Section 2.3” will mean “Chapter 2, Section 3”. Similarly, “equation (2.3)” will mean “Chapter 2, equation 3”. Important ‘key’ words are printed in boldface, when they first appear. They are collected in the Index at the end of the book, along with page numbers for finding them. Chapter 1 Mass, force, and weight 1.1 What makes things move? When you take hold of something (we’ll usually call it an ‘object’ or a ‘body’) and pull it, towards you, or push it, away from you, it usually moves – unless it’s fixed or too big. In both cases you ‘apply a force’ to the object. Push and pull are both forces, which can be big or small (depending on how strong you are and on how ‘hard’ you push or pull). So a force has a magnitude (size) and a direction: it is a vector (see Book 1, Section 3.2) and is often represented by an arrow, pointing one way or another (away from you if you are pushing, towards you if you are pulling); and the length of the arrow is used to show the magnitude of the force it represents (long for a big force, short for a small one). When you apply a force to a body it will also have a ‘point of application’, usually you – where you take hold of the body – and this can be shown by putting the end of the arrow (not the sharp end!) at that point. We’re now all set to go. Fig.1 represents the force you might apply to a cart full of stones to make it move away from you – in the direction of the arrow. The bold dot marks the point of application. At first the cart is standing still; it is ‘at rest’ or ‘stationary’. But then, as you keep on pushing, it begins to move – very slowly at first, but then faster and faster, until it seems to be going by itself! Even when you stop pushing it keeps on going – until something stops it (perhaps the ground is rough and a wheel gets stuck in a hole). Another example could be a barge (a flat-bottomed boat for carrying heavy loads), usually pulled (or ‘towed’) by a horse or other strong animal, walking along the ‘tow path’ at the side of the river or canal (Fig.2). Starting from rest, the barge moves very slowly at first, even when the horse is pulling as hard as it can. But then it goes faster and faster, even when the animal is just walking and seems to be pulling hardly at all – the barge is moving almost by itself. This second example brings in another idea. The ‘pulling’ force in Fig.2 is applied at the dot (●) by means of a rope, connecting the animal to the barge, and the rope is stretched tight. We say that there is a tension in the rope and that this tension carries or ‘transmits’ the pull from one end of the rope (the animal) to the other end (the barge). The tension is just a special kind of force but it has the important property of being able to carry force from one point to another. If you cut the rope at any point (P, say) you can keep everything just as it was by holding the two cut ends together (if you’re strong enough!) as in Fig.3. To do that you have to pull the left-hand piece of rope with a force $T_1$ (equal to $T$, the one at first applied by the horse) and the right-hand piece with a force $T_2$ just as big as $T_1$ but pointing in the opposite direction. The forces must be equal, because otherwise you’d be pulled off your feet! The forces you are applying are now $T_1 = T$ (you’re now standing in for the horse!) and $T_2 = -T_1 = -T$, where the minus sign just shows the direction of the force (let’s agree that negative means to the left, positive to the right). Of course the animal is still there, pulling with the same force $T$ on the far end of the right-hand rope, so we show it as the last force vector on the right. The force applied to the barge ($T_1$) is called the action, while the equal but opposite force $T_2$, is called the reaction of the barge against whatever is pulling it. Since the point P could be anywhere in the rope, it is clear that the tension must be the same at all points in the rope and that it can be represented by a pair of arrows in opposite directions $\leftarrow \bullet \rightarrow$. The equal and opposite forces at any point are what keeps the rope tight; and the tension is simply the magnitude of either force. We can talk about a ‘pushing’ force in a similar way. But you can’t transmit a push with a length of rope or string; it just folds up! You need something stiff, like a stick. When you push something with a stick you can describe it using a diagram similar to the one in Fig.3 except that the directions of all the forces are reversed. Just imagine cutting a little piece out of the stick at point P (you can do it in your head – you don’t need a saw!). Then you have the two halves of the stick, separated by the bit you’re thinking of taking away (this takes your place in Fig.3, where you were holding the two pieces of rope together). If you’re pushing something on your left (perhaps trying to stop the barge that was still moving) then the forces in the stick can be pictured as in Fig.4a (magnified so you can see what’s going on): the first bit of stick is pushing the barge with a force $-F$ (i.e. F in the negative direction – to the left) and so feels a reaction $+F$; each piece of stick pushes the next one with a force $F$ and is pushed back by a force $-F$. ![Diagram](image) (a) compression (b) tension Figure 4 Whenever there is a pair of equal but opposite pushes at any point in the stick we say it is in compression; and it is now the compression that transmits the force from one end of the stick to the other. Notice that in Fig.4(a) we’ve shown the forces acting on the piece of stick: they are applied to the ‘faces’ (i.e. the cut ends) of the piece and point into it. To be clear about the difference between compression and tension, look at Fig.4(b) – which shows a little piece of the rope (Fig.3) when it’s in tension: the forces acting on this piece of rope are applied at its cut ends and point out of it. When you were standing in for that missing piece of rope (Fig.3) these were the forces you could actually feel, as if they were trying to pull you over: they were the reactions to the forces you were applying to the barge (on the left) and the horse (on the right). Tension and compression are two very important ideas, that we’ll use a lot. We now want to bring all these ideas, taken from everyday life, together and to express them in a few simple principles or ‘laws’ – the laws first proposed by Newton in his ‘Principia’, a book published in 1686. ### 1.2 How can we measure a force? In Physics we need to measure all the things we talk about. To measure force we start by looking for a law, in the form of an equation, to express what we’ve found from everyday experience. Force, let’s use the letter $F$ to stand for its magnitude, is what makes a body move; but it does not move as soon as the force is applied – you have to wait until it starts to move, slowly at first and then faster and faster. So force, applied to a body at rest (not fixed but free to move), will lead to an increase in its speed from zero to some value $v$, where $v$ is the magnitude of the velocity (another vector quantity like the force itself). Since $v$ increases as time passes, provided we go on applying the force, we can say $v$ is a ‘function of the time $t$’ (see Book 3 Chapter 1) and write $v = v(t)$. The rate at which $v$ increases (how much extra speed the body gains in every second) is called the acceleration of the body, usually denoted by $a$, and $a$ will also be a function of time: $a = a(t)$. Notice, however, that even when the magnitude $v$ of the velocity vector $\mathbf{v}$ is not increasing the vector may be changing direction, so more correctly acceleration means the rate of change of the vector $\mathbf{v}$. (If you swing something round your head, on the end of a string, its speed may be constant but the velocity is continually changing direction. The vector $\mathbf{v}$ is constant only if it keeps always the same direction; but you can feel the tension in the string – and that is what pulls it to one side and makes it go in a circle instead.) Everything we do seems to tell us that “the bigger the force applied to a body, the bigger will be its acceleration”: to double the acceleration of the cart, or the barge, we need to double the force applied (e.g. by having two people, instead of one, doing the pushing or the pulling). But the result will also depend on the object being pushed or pulled: a cart full of stones needs a much harder push than one that’s empty! We can now put all we know about moving things into one very simple equation. In words it will say The force $F$ needed to make an object move with an acceleration $a$, is proportional to the value of $a$. The proportionality constant is called the mass ($m$) of the object. or in symbols $$F \propto a \quad \text{or} \quad F = ma.$$ \hspace{1cm} (1.1) More fully the quantity $m$ is called the inertial mass, being a measure of the ‘inertia’ or slowness of the object to change its state of motion when acted on by a force. Equation (1.1) is usually called ‘Newton’s second law of motion’. It really includes the law he stated first – that any body continues in its state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted on by some ‘external agency’ (i.e. a force). To see why this is so, we take away the force by putting $F = 0$; from (1.1) this means the acceleration ($a$) must be zero; and this means the velocity of the body ($v$) is a constant – which includes the special case ($v = 0$) when the body is at rest. So a body may be going very fast, even when no force is applied to it! And we’ve seen examples of this with the cart and the barge – when you stop pushing or pulling, the thing still keeps on going ‘by itself’, until something stops it. Notice again that ‘uniform motion’ must be in a straight line, because velocity is really a vector and if the motion is in a curve then the direction of the vector $\mathbf{v}$ is changing; in other words, the acceleration will not be zero! Notice also that $\mathbf{v}$ (in special type), is used from now on to indicate the velocity vector, which is not the same as its magnitude $v$ (shown in ordinary italic type). We’ve already discovered Newton’s third law of motion when we were thinking about tension and compression in the last Section: when two forces act at the same point they must be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction – “action and reaction are equal but opposite”. Newton’s great idea, however, was much more general than that: he realized that action and reaction together make up the interaction between two things. Whenever A acts on B with a force $\mathbf{F}$ (the ‘action’), B acts on A with a force $-\mathbf{F}$ (the ‘reaction’): if A and B interact in any way whatever, then one feels a force $\mathbf{F}$ and the other feels a force $-F$ – and it doesn’t matter which one we call the action and which we call the reaction. So Newton’s third law of motion can be put as “To every action there must be an equal and opposite reaction.” In other words, there is no such thing as a single force! With Newton’s three laws we are almost ready to do marvellous things. But not quite – because we still don’t know how to measure the force and the mass! So how can we actually use equation (1.1)? To answer this question we need to know something about gravity, a word coming from the Latin gravis, meaning ‘heavy’. (Like many of the great philosophers of the time, Newton wrote in Latin and when he needed a new word that’s where he took it from.) When we let go of an object it falls to the ground, even if we aren’t applying any force to it; and it falls with a certain constant acceleration of $a = 0.981 \text{ m s}^{-2}$, as was noted in Section 1.1 of Book 3. So there must be a force acting on it, even if we aren’t even touching it. Where does that mysterious force come from? It is called the ‘force due to gravity’ and it arises because any two masses attract each other even when they aren’t connected in any visible way. This doesn’t really explain what gravity is; and even Einstein’s theory of ‘general relativity’ doesn’t tell the whole story. But the general idea is simple: any massive body, like the Earth itself, has a small effect on the space around it; it ‘bends’ the space very slightly and this bending shows itself as a field of force, which is ‘felt’ by any other mass which enters the field. This has been mentioned already, in the last Chapter of Book 2; but hundreds of years before Einstein, Newton had already proposed, on the basis of observation, what turned out to be the correct (very nearly) law of universal gravitation – ‘universal’ because it seemed possible that it was true for all the stars and planets in the Universe! And the law is again surprisingly simple: in words it says that there is a force of attraction $F$ between any two masses $m$ and $M$, proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, $R$ say, between them. Written as an equation this law becomes $$F = G \frac{mM}{R^2}, \tag{1.2}$$ where $G$, the ‘constant of gravitation’ is a proportionality constant which can only be found by experiment. The force $F$ in (1.2) is our first example of an interaction between two bodies that doesn’t depend on their being in contact, or being connected by strings or held apart by sticks. And yet Newton’s third law applies: if the force on mass $m$, produced by mass $M$, is represented by the vector $\mathbf{F}$ pointing from $m$ towards $M$, then the force on $M$, produced by $m$, is represented by the vector $-\mathbf{F}$ pointing in the opposite direction. It may seem strange that an apple falls to the ground (i.e. towards the centre of the Earth) as soon as we let it go, while the Earth doesn’t seem to move towards the apple – when both feel the same force of attraction. But that’s because the mass of the Earth is many millions of times that of the apple, so according to (1.1) its acceleration towards the apple would be almost zero – even if we consider only the apple and the Earth and not all the other ‘small’ things (from birds to battleships!) that feel the Earth’s gravitational pull and all attract each other in different directions. We still don’t know how to measure force and mass! So where do we go from here? 1.3 Force, mass, and weight The ‘laws’ represented in equations (1.1) and (1.2) are not really laws at all. They should be called hypotheses – proposals, based on everyday experience and guesswork but not proved: they can’t be accepted as laws until they’ve been thoroughly tested and found to be true. But we’re doing Physics, and that’s the way it goes: we look around us and experiment, we measure things and guess how they may be related, and then we make proposals which can be tried and tested; if they don’t work we throw them away and start again; but if they do then we accept them and go ahead, taking them as the ‘laws of Physics’. Now that we have a few laws, we can come back to the problem of how to measure forces and masses. Let’s use the letter $g$ for the ‘acceleration due to gravity’ ($g = 0.981 \text{ m s}^{-2}$), the rate at which the speed of a freely falling body increases – nearly 1 metre a second in every second! The most remarkable thing about $g$ is that it really is a constant: it’s the same for all bodies, pebbles or plastic, people or paper, as long as they’re really free to fall. You might feel sure that heavier things fall faster, thinking of stones and feathers, but really things falling through the air are not quite free - the air slows them down a bit and this ‘bit’ is very important for a feather, which just floats slowly to the ground, but not for a heavy stone that just pushes the air out of its way. If we take away the air (doing the experiment in a big glass jar, after sucking out all the air with a pump) we find that everything does fall just as fast: $g$ has the same value for all falling bodies. It was the Italian, Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642), who first found this was so and became one of the first people in history to use the ‘scientific method’ – observing, measuring, proposing a law, and testing it. Before that, people just followed what other people had said. And the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) had said that heavier things fell faster, so everyone believed him, for nearly 2000 years, just because he was so famous! Why is all this so important? If we have two masses ($m_1$ and $m_2$) and let them fall, in the gravitational field of the Earth, the second law tells us that the forces acting on the two masses must be $F_1 = m_1 g$ and $F_2 = m_2 g$, respectively. We call the force $F = mg$ associated with any mass $m$ its weight. So if $m = 1 \text{ kg}$ is the standard mass unit, the ‘kilogram’, kept in Paris (see Section 1.1 of Book 1), then $w = mg$ will be 1 ‘kilogram weight’ or, for short, 1 kg wt. Mass and weight are two different things: weight is the force that acts on a mass, because of the gravitational field. And if you take your kilogram to the Moon it will not weigh as much because the Moon’s gravitational field is less strong, $M$ in equation (1.2) being much smaller for the Moon than $M$ for the Earth. Perhaps you’ve seen pictures of astronauts on the Moon jumping to great heights because they don’t weigh as much; and this shows that $g$ is much smaller for bodies on the Moon. All the same, we live on the Earth and the easiest way for us to compare and measure masses is through their weights. This is possible, as we can now see, because the ratio of two masses is just the same as the ratio of their weights: \[ \frac{w_2}{w_1} = \frac{m_2g}{m_1g} = \frac{m_2}{m_1} \] (1.3) – the $gs$ cancelling. So the use of a weighing machine in Book 1 as a way of measuring masses (i.e. comparing any mass $m$ with a given unit mass) gives the right answer, wherever you do the experiment – even on the Moon, where $g$ is not the same as it is here – provided you use the weighing machine to compare the mass with a standard mass and don’t just use the marks on a scale. (Can you say why? - remembering that the ‘spring balance’ in Book 1 works by stretching a spring.) Now we have a fairly complete system of units (for measuring masses, lengths, and times, and all quantities depending only on M,L,T) as long as we don’t meet electric charges. The units of length and time are the metre (m) and the second (s), respectively. The unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). The unit of force is called the Newton (N): it is defined as the force which will give unit mass (1 kg) an acceleration of 1 m s$^{-2}$. In other words, \[1 \text{ N} = (1 \text{ kg}) \times (1 \text{ m s}^{-2}) = 1 \text{ kg m s}^{-2},\] which means [force] = MLT$^{-2}$ – “force has the dimensions MLT$^{-2}$”. Since the force acting on a body of mass $m$ is $mg$, and is the weight of the body, we can say \[1 \text{ kg wt} = 1 \text{ kg} \times (9.81 \text{ m s}^{-2}) = 9.81 \text{ kg m s}^{-2} = 9.81 \text{ N}.\] To convert a force of $x$ kg wt into Newtons we just have to multiply by 9.81, obtaining $9.81x$ N. ### 1.4 Combining forces In Section 1 we noted that forces were vectors and that when two forces act at a point (e.g. any point in a stretched rope or string) they must be equal and opposite (equal in magnitude but opposite in direction): they are called action and reaction; and the object on which they act (e.g. a little bit of string at point P) doesn’t move because the combined action of the forces is zero – they are ‘in balance’ and have a ‘resultant’ which is the same as no force at all. ![Figure 5](image) Forces are combined, or added, using the law of vector addition: you represent each force vector by an arrow and put the arrows ‘head to tail’, without changing their directions. (i.e. by sliding them but not turning them). An arrow pointing from the first ‘tail’ to the last ‘head’ will then represent the vector sum of the forces. We’ll find that this is a general rule, however many forces there may be, but for the moment let’s talk about just two. Fig.5(a) shows two forces acting on something at point P, while Fig.5(b) shows how they are combined to give a resultant which is zero – represented by an arrow with zero length (just a point). When there is no resultant force acting on a body it does not move and we say it is in equilibrium. (You may think all this can’t be true: if point P is on the rope that’s pulling the barge it will be moving so how can it be in equilibrium? But remember that Newton’s first law talks about a ‘state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line’ – so there’s really no contradiction.) But what happens if more than two forces act at the same point? They may ![Figure 6](image) even have different sizes or different directions, so how do we find their resultant? To have a real-life example, let’s suppose the forces $F_1$, $F_2$ and $F_3$ are the tensions in three strings tied to a small bead at point P. The tensions are produced by two equal 2 kilogram weights ($w_1 = w_2 = 2$ kg wt), hanging from strings as in Fig.6(a). The strings pass over smooth nails, hammered into a vertical board, so the force $F_1 = w_1$ is transmitted to the bead – the tension being the same at all points on the string – and so is $F_2$. The third force, $F_3 = w_3$, is the tension in the vertical string that supports the weight $w_3$. (Notice that the nails are only needed, so as to change the vertical pull of the weights $w_1, w_2$ into a sideways pull on the bead.) The directions of the three forces are represented by the thick arrows in Fig.6(a); and we suppose the bead has come to rest at point P, which is then its equilibrium position. This means that the resultant force on the bead, the vector sum $F_1 + F_2 + F_3$, should be zero. To form the vector sum of $F_1, F_2, F_3$ and show that it is zero, we simply put their arrows head to tail (again by sliding them around without changing their lengths and directions, which means the vectors will not be changed in any way). The result is shown in Fig.6(b): the vectors now form a closed triangle and the fact that it is closed (no distance between the first ‘tail’ and the last ‘head’) means the vector sum is zero $ F_1 + F_2 + F_3 = 0 $. But wait a minute! We didn’t say how big the third weight was. If we took $ w_3 = 3 $ kg wt, for example, the sides would not form a closed triangle, the vector sum would not be zero, and the bead at P would not be in equilibrium. In fact, we took $ w_3 = 1.789 $ kg wt and this is the only value that makes the triangle close exactly. So what have we done? Since the angles at the corners of a triangle, with sides of known lengths, are easy to calculate by simple geometry (see Book 2), we can actually calculate the angles between any three forces that meet at a point and are in equilibrium. Once we know how to work with vectors we don’t always have to do experiments – we can do it all in advance, on paper! ### 1.5 How to work with vectors To end this Chapter, let’s remember the rules for dealing with vectors by introducing their components. When we work in three-dimensional space (‘3-space’, for short), rather than on a flat surface (a 2-space), we sometimes have to do complicated geometry. This can often be made easier by representing vectors in terms of their components along three axes, the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis, as in Section 5.3 of Book 2. Usually, the axes are chosen perpendicular to each other (or orthogonal) and are defined by three unit vectors $ e_1, e_2, e_3 $ pointing along the three axes, each with unit length. If you think of the vector $ v $ as an arrow, then its components $ v_1, v_2, v_3 $ along the three axes are the numbers of steps you have to take along the three directions to express $ v $ in the form \[ v = v_1 e_1 + v_2 e_2 + v_3 e_3, \] (1.4) where $ v_1 e_1 $, for example, is the vector $ v_1 $ times as long as $ e_1 $ and the vectors are added using the usual ‘arrow rule’. The order of the terms in the sum doesn’t matter; and to add two vectors $ a, b $ we simply add corresponding components. So if $ c $ is the vector sum of $ a $ and $ b $, then \[ c = a + b \quad \leftrightarrow \quad c_1 = a_1 + b_1, \quad c_2 = a_2 + b_2, \quad c_3 = a_3 + b_3 \] (1.5) - the symbol $ \leftrightarrow $ simply meaning that the things it separates are exactly equivalent, the single vector equation is equivalent to three ordinary equations among the numerical components. Sometimes you can go a long way with vector equations (for example, using $ F_1 + F_2 + F_3 = 0 $ as a condition for three forces at a point to be in equilibrium): but in the end you’ll need to get numbers (e.g. the magnitudes of forces and the angles between them) – and then you’ll go to the components. To find the component of a vector along some given axis, all you need do is think of it as an arrow starting at the origin and drop a perpendicular from the tip of the arrow onto the axis: the part of the axis that goes from the origin to the foot of the perpendicular is the projection of the arrow on the axis; and its length is the value of the component. In Section 3.2 of Book 2 we noted three important quantities, all relating to the angles in a triangle. If we call the angle $ \theta $ (‘theta’), then the sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle are (see Fig. 7(a)) \[\sin \theta = \frac{BC}{AC}, \quad \cos \theta = \frac{AB}{AC}, \quad \tan \theta = \frac{BC}{AB},\] where $AB, BC, AC$ are the lengths of the three sides. Fig.7(b) shows how the components of the vector $v$ in (1.4) can be expressed in terms of the angles it makes with two unit vectors in the same plane: \[v_1 = v \cos \theta, \quad v_2 = v \sin \theta,\] (1.6) where $v$ is the length of the vector (its magnitude or ‘modulus’). Most of the time, we don’t need anything else – not even Tables of sines and cosines for all angles – because we know that in the right-angled triangle Fig.7(a) $AC^2 = AB^2 + BC^2$ (Book 2, Chapter1), so given any two sides we can easily get the other side, and then all the ratios. To see how it all works, let’s go back to the example in Fig.6, but making it a bit more difficult: if all three weights are different, the bead is pulled over to one side – so how can we find the new ‘equilibrium position’? – and how will this depend on what weights we use? Suppose we choose $w_1 = 2$ kg wt, as in Fig.6, but aren’t sure what $w_2$ and $w_3$ must be to keep the ‘lop-sided’ arrangement in Fig.8(a) in equilibrium. How can we decide? To be in equilibrium, the resultant force acting on the bead at P must be zero – for otherwise it would start moving. So let’s resolve the vector sum $F_1 + F_2 + F_3$ into horizontal and vertical components, as in Fig.7(b), and take each one separately. The force $F_3$ points vertically downwards and has no horizontal component; but $F_1$ and $F_2$ have horizontal components $-F_1 \sin \theta_1$ and $F_2 \sin \theta_2$, respectively, where $F_1, F_2$ are the magnitudes of the force vectors and $\theta_1, \theta_2$ are the angles shown in Fig.8(a). The horizontal component of the resultant force in the positive (right-hand) direction is thus \[-F_1 \sin \theta_1 + F_2 \sin \theta_2 = -w_1 \sin \theta_1 + w_2 \sin \theta_2\] – the forces (tensions) in the left-hand and right-hand strings being $w_1$ and $w_2$ in units of 1 kg wt. The angles in Fig.7(a) give (think of the triangles with horizontal and vertical sides of length 3,3 for $\theta_1$ and 1,3 for $\theta_2$) \[\sin \theta_1 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}, \quad \sin \theta_2 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{10}}.\] With $w_1 = 2$ kg wt we can only prevent the bead moving sideways by choosing $w_2$ kg wt, so that $2 \times \left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\right)$ kg wt $= w_2 \times \left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{10}}\right)$. And if you solve this equation (see Book 1) you’ll find $w_2 = 4.472$ kg wt. For equilibrium we still have to choose $w_3$ so that the bead will not move up or down; and this means the total force must also have zero component in the vertical direction. The positive (upward) component of the forces in the two strings will be $$F_1 \cos \theta_1 + F_2 \cos \theta_2 = 2 \times (1/\sqrt{2}) \text{ kg wt} + 4.472 \times (3/\sqrt{10}) \text{ kg wt},$$ where we’ve put in the value of $w_2$ just found; and this must exactly balance the negative (downward) component due to weight $w_3$ hanging from the vertical string. If you put in the numbers (do it yourself!) you’ll find that $w_3$ must have the value $w_3 = 5.657 \text{ kg wt}$. The ‘triangle of forces’ is shown in Fig.8(b). Notice how the sides, which represent the force vectors with a scale 1 cm to every kg, are parallel to the strings in Fig.8(a); and that the triangle closes only when the third weight is chosen so that the vector sum of the forces on the bead’s exactly zero. Instead of carefully drawing pictures, and sliding the vectors around to form the triangle, we’ve been able to do all the work using only simple arithmetic. Remember (see Book 2) that the Greeks couldn’t work this way because they never quite managed to bring algebra and geometry together. In the Exercises that follow, you’ll find other examples of how to use equilibrium conditions; but they are all solved in the same way – by first of all asking what forces are acting at a point and then resolving them into their components along two perpendicular directions (for forces in two dimensions - a plane); or three directions for forces in three dimensional space. The science of forces in equilibrium is called Statics. When the forces are not in equilibrium, and result in movement of the bodies they act on (usually non-uniform motion), we are dealing with Dynamics. Statics and Dynamics together are branches of the science of Mechanics. In the next Chapter we begin to think about the way massive objects – from projectiles to planets – move under the influence of forces. Exercises 1) Express the tensions in the strings (Figures 6 and 8), which keep the bead in equilibrium, in force units (Newtons). 2) How much do you weigh, in Newtons? And what is your mass? How much would you weigh if you were an astronaut, standing on the moon (where the value of $g$ is about 1.70 m s$^{-2}$)? 3) A bucket, hanging from a rope, is used to take water from a well. When empty it weighs 1 kg wt; when full it holds 9 litres of water and every litre has a mass of about 1 kg. What force (in Newtons) is needed to raise the full bucket? (The litre is a unit of volume: 1 litre = $10^{-3}$ m$^3$.) 4) The bucket (in the last exercise) can be lifted by passing the rope over a wheel, or ‘pulley”, as in Fig.9(b) below – so you can pull down, which is easier, instead of up. Do you have to pull just as hard in (b) as in (a)? Now pass the rope under the handle of the bucket and fix the loose end to a point ($\bullet$) on the beam that supports the pulley, as in (c). If you pull down hard, and produce a tension $T$ in the rope, what force will you apply to the bucket? How big must $T$ be, now, to raise the full bucket? 4) Suppose you have to lift a heavy iron bar, weighing 150 kg, which is much too much for any normal person. The last exercise shows you how it can be done, using only a rope and some pulleys. You need eight pulleys, a long rope, and two pieces of wood – and a few ‘bits and pieces’ for fixing them together as in Fig.10. The top piece of wood just supports four of the pulleys. The other piece of wood carries the other four pulleys; and has a hook and chain under it, for lifting things. Show that, if you can pull with a force of 20 kg wt, then you can lift up to 160 kg! Explain why. 5) A heavy truck is being pulled up a slope, as in Fig.11; its total mass is 1000 kg and it has wheels so it can run freely. The slope is ‘1 in 10’ (1 metre vertically for every 10 metres horizontally). How hard must you pull on the rope (i.e.what tension $T$ must you apply) to keep the truck from running downhill? (Hint: resolve the forces acting into components along and perpendicular to the slope, making things simpler by supposing the forces all act at a point – the middle of the truck. Don’t forget that, besides the weight and the tension in the rope, the ground exerts an upward force $R$ (the reaction of the ground, taken perpendicular to the slope) to support part of the weight $W$. You will also need the sine and cosine of the angle of slope ($\theta$, say): they are $\sin \theta = 0.0995, \cos \theta = 0.9950$. Can you calculate them for yourself? 6) Now suppose two trucks are being pulled up the same slope, as in Figure 12. Both have the same weight; but what about the tensions $T_1$ and $T_2$ in the two ropes – can you calculate them? (Use the same method as in Exercise 5, writing down the conditions for equilibrium and solving the equations to get the values of $T_1$ and $T_2$.) If the load is too heavy, which rope will break first? Chapter 2 Work and energy 2.1 What is work? Now you know something about force, and how it can be used to move things, we can start thinking about some of the other quantities that are important in mechanics – and the first of these is work. If you carry something heavy upstairs, or raise a bucket full of water from the well, you are doing work – and it makes you feel tired. In both cases you are applying a force ($F$, say) to an object; and you are moving it (a distance $d$, say, in the direction of the force). The force you are applying is equal to the weight of the object, $mg$, but in the opposite direction: taking the positive direction upwards, it is $F = mg$ ($m$ being the mass of the object), while the weight has the same magnitude $mg$ but is downwards. Let’s use $W$ to stand for the work you’ve done (don’t mix it up with weight!) and ask how it will depend on $F$ and $d$. Suppose we double the mass of the object, then we double its weight $mg$ ($g$ being constant), which is also the force $F = mg$ needed to support it. And doubling the weight means doubling the work you have to do to raise the object through a distance $d$ – carrying two sacks of flour upstairs, instead of just one, makes you feel twice as tired! In other words, the work done ($W$) is proportional to the force applied ($F$). In the same way, doubling the distance through which you raise the object (going up two floors, instead of one) means doubling the work you have to do: so the work done ($W$) is also proportional to the distance ($d$). To summarize, we suppose that $W$ is proportional to the product of $F$ and $d$: $W \propto F \times d$. And we can choose the unit of work (not yet fixed) so that $$W = Fd.$$ (2.1) To be accurate, $W$ is the work done when the force acting, $F$, “moves its point of application a distance $d$ in the direction of the force”. The unit of work is now defined, through (2.1) as the work done when $F = 1$ N and $d = 1$ m: it is 1 Nm, 1 Newton-metre. The physical dimensions of work are thus $[W] = \text{MLT}^{-2} \times \text{L} = \text{ML}^2\text{T}^{-2}$. The “Newton-metre” is a big word for a unit; and usually we call it by the shorter name, the “Joule”, after James Joule (1818-1889), one of several people thinking about such things at about the same time. The formula (2.1) is something we have guessed, through thinking about our own experience with lifting weights, but we’ll find that it also holds good very generally for small massive objects moving under the influence of all kinds of force. Remember, however, that the $W$ defined in (2.1) is the physics definition of work! You might feel you’re working hard even just to hold a weight up – without actually lifting it (which makes $d = 0$ and $W = 0$). But in that case work is being done inside your body; your muscles are keeping themselves tight, so you can support the weight, and they are using the chemical energy that comes from ‘burning up’ your food. In Physics we’re not usually talking about that kind of work, which is very difficult to measure. Suppose now you’ve lifted a heavy stone (1 kg wt, say) to a great height (50 metres, say, above the ground). The work you’ve done is given by (2.1) and is $W = mg \times h = (1\text{kg}) \times (9.81 \text{ m s}^{-2}) \times (50 \text{ m}) = 490.5 \text{ J}$ – which seems quite a lot. But where has all that work gone? The stone doesn’t look any different; but you’ve changed its position and it’s now in a position to give you all that work back. When it’s able to do work we say it has energy; and this particular kind of energy, which depends only on the position of the stone, is called potential energy and is usually denoted by the symbol $V$. How do we turn that energy back into work? We simply let the stone fall back to the ground: it does work by digging itself a hole in the ground or by breaking anything that tries to stop it! There are many other ways in which a falling weight can turn its potential energy back into useful work: think of a clock, driven by hanging weights – which you wind up at night, giving them enough energy to drive the clock all through the next day. We now want to find out about other forms of energy and how one form can be changed into another, or into useful work. ### 2.2 Two kinds of energy Suppose you have a mass $m$ at height $h$ above the ground and you let it fall, from rest (i.e. not moving when you let go). Its potential energy (often we use ‘PE’, for short) is then $V_0 = mgh$ at the start of its fall. When it’s fallen a distance $s$, however, its PE will be smaller, because its height above the ground will then be $h - s$ of instead of $h$. So the loss of PE is $mgs$. Where has it gone? The only thing the stone has got in return is motion – it started from rest and now, after time $t$ say, it’s going quite fast. We say the lost PE has been changed or ‘converted’ into kinetic energy (the Greek word for motion being kinos). Let’s now try to express this kinetic energy (KE for short) in terms of things that have to do with motion. The force acting on the stone, due to gravity, is constant and produces an acceleration $g$: so in every second its velocity will increase by 9.81 m s$^{-1}$; and after time $t$ it will be $gt$. More generally, we can suppose that anything moving with constant acceleration $a$ will have a velocity $v_1 = at_1$ at time $t_1$ and will have gone a distance $s_1$; and at some later time $t_2$ it will have a velocity $v_2$ and will have gone a distance $s_2$. So we know the force acting, $F = ma$, and the distance moved in the direction of the force, $s = s_2 - s_1$. All we need now is a formula giving $s$ in terms of $t$; and this we already know from Book 3, Section 2.1. We got the formula by a graphical method: Fig.13 will remind you of it. We used $T$ for the upper limit of time and found that the distance gone as $t$ increases from $t = 0$ to $t = T$ was given by $$s = \frac{1}{2}aT^2.$$ (2.2) This is represented by the area under the line $v = at$, between the lower and upper boundaries at $t = 0, T$ – which is just half the area of a rectangle with sides $T$ (horizontally) and $V = aT$ (vertically). The result is exact in the limit where the strips, into which the area is divided, become infinitely narrow: it is called the “definite integral of the velocity, with respect to time, between the limits 0 and $T$”. What we really need is $s_2 - s_1$, the distance moved as $t$ goes from $t_1$ to $t_2$. This is represented instead by the shaded area in Fig.14 – which is that of a rectangle (of width $t_2 - t_1$ and height $v_1$), with a triangle (of the same width, but vertical height $v_2 - v_1$) sitting on top of it. The sum of the two areas thus gives us $$s_2 - s_1 = (t_2 - t_1)v_1 + \frac{1}{2}(t_2 - t_1)(v_2 - v_1)$$ $$= (t_2 - t_1)[v_1 + \frac{1}{2}(v_2 - v_1)]$$ $$= \frac{1}{2}(t_2 - t_1)(v_2 + v_1).$$ (2.3) Now we can get the work $W$ done by the constant force $F$ during the time $t_2 - t_1$. The force is related to the acceleration by $F = ma$, and since $a$ is the slope of the straight line giving velocity against time we can say $$F = ma = m \times \frac{v_2 - v_1}{t_2 - t_1}.$$ (2.4) Thus $W = (\text{Force}) \times (\text{distance})$ is the product of (2.4) and (2.3): \[ W = m \times \frac{v_2 - v_1}{t_2 - t_1} \times \frac{1}{2}(v_2 + v_1)(t_2 - t_1) \] \[ = \frac{1}{2}m \times (v_2 - v_1)(v_2 + v_1) \] \[ = \frac{1}{2}mv_2^2 - \frac{1}{2}mv_1^2 \] – in which the only variables left are mass and velocity! As the time increases from $t_1$ to $t_2$, the velocity increases from $v_1$ to $v_2$, and the quantity $\frac{1}{2}mv^2$ increases from $\frac{1}{2}mv_1^2$ to $\frac{1}{2}mv_2^2$. This quantity gives us the precise definition of what we have been calling the kinetic energy: The kinetic energy of a point mass ($m$), moving with velocity $v$ is \[ \text{Kinetic energy} \quad K = \frac{1}{2}mv^2 \tag{2.5} \] We’ve now solved the mystery of where the potential energy went! In summary, \[ \begin{align} \text{Work done by gravity on a falling point mass} \\ &= \text{loss of potential energy } (V_1 - V_2) \\ &= \text{gain in kinetic energy } (K_2 - K_1). \end{align} \] So if we use $E$ to stand for the total energy $K + V$, we can say \[ E_1 = K_1 + V_1 = K_2 + V_2 = E_2 \tag{2.6} \] – the total energy $E$ does not change as we go from time $t_1$, at the beginning of the motion, to $t_2$, at the end of the motion. We say the total energy is ‘conserved’ throughout the motion ($t_1$ and $t_2$ being arbitrary times at which we make the observations). This result, which we’ve found only in one special case (for two kinds of energy and for motion under a constant force) is an example of one of the great and universal principles of Physics, that of the Conservation of Energy, which we study in more detail in later Sections. Remember, all this is for a small ‘point’ mass – like the falling pebble – which we usually call a ‘particle’. You can think of a big object as being made up from many small ones: it can then have an extra kinetic energy, coming from its rotational motion – but we’ll come to that in Chapter 6. Until then we’re going to talk only about the motion of single particles; or of things that can be treated approximately as just ‘big particles’ (not asking how? or why? until much later). Remember also that this is the way science works: you go in small steps, using the simplest ‘model’ you can imagine, as long as it includes the things (like mass, velocity, force) that seem to be important. Models in the mind can easily be thrown away if they don’t work! You don’t have to make them and then break them up. ### 2.3 Conservation of energy A system such as a falling particle, in which the energy is constant – as in (2.6) – is an example of a conservative system; no energy is going in or out and the energy it has is conserved. With this simple idea we can describe many kinds of particle motion, even without making calculations. All we need do is draw a graph to show how the potential energy of the particle ($V$) depends on its position ($x$, say, if it is moving along the x-axis). Suppose, for example, you throw a stone vertically upwards with a velocity $v$. Its potential energy, if we use $x$ to mean distance above the ground, will be $V(x) = mgx$. So plotting $V$ against $x$ will give a straight line of slope $mg$, as in Fig.15 which shows a “potential energy diagram”. A horizontal line has been added, at height $E$ in the diagram, to represent the constant total energy. What can this tell us about the motion? At the start, $E = K_1 + V_1$ is entirely KE, the energy of motion you have given to the stone. $V_1 = V(x_1)$ (the PE) is zero when $x_1 = 0$. At any later time, when the stone is slowing down and has risen to height $x_2$, we can say $K_2 + V_2 = E$. So the new KE will be $K_2 = E - V(x_2)$ – and this is represented by the distance from the PE curve up to the horizontal line at energy $E$. Now the important thing to notice is that $K$ must always be positive, being proportional to the square of the velocity; when $x = x_2$ is the point where the $E$-line crosses the PE curve the KE has fallen to zero and the stone stops, for an instant. The value of $x_2$ is then the maximum height of the stone; it can go no higher for that value of $E$. After that point, the value of $x$ can only get smaller: going back down the curve you again reach the point $x = x_1 = 0$ and the stone hits the ground again – with all the KE you gave it at the start. Another example is shown in Fig.16, where the PE curve describes the motion of a pendulum - a small weight on the end of a string, which can swing backwards and forwards. Here $x = 0$ describes the position of the weight when it is hanging vertically, in equilibrium, and non-zero values of $x$ will correspond to displacement of the particle when you push it away from the vertical. When you push it you have to do work and the amount of work done gives you $V = V(x)$, the PE function. As in the first example, the increase in PE as $x$ changes from $x = x_1 = 0$ to $x = x_2$ gives you the energy stored, $V_2 = V(x_2)$; and, if you then let go, $$K_1 + V(x_1) = K_2 + V(x_2) = E,$$ (2.7) will describe how the balance of energies (between kinetic and potential) can change. If you release the particle from rest at $ x = x_1 = X $, the KE will be zero and $ E = V(X) $ will fix the constant total energy. At all other points the KE will be $ K = E - V(x) $, represented as in the Figure: it can never go negative and so the motion is bounded at $ x = X $ and $ x = -X $, the ends of the swing at which $ K $ becomes zero and the motion reverses. Notice that in both examples we are getting a lot of information about the motion without actually solving (or ‘integrating’) Newton’s equation (1.1) – but that’s really because we’ve done it already in finding the energy conservation equation (2.6)! You’ll understand this better in the next Section, where we begin to use what we know about calculus. First, however, remember that the conservation equation was found only for one particular kind of force, the force due to gravity, which is constant; and that in this case the potential energy is a function of position, $ V = V(x) $, as indicated in (2.7). Forces of this kind are specially important: they are called conservative forces and they can always be derived from a potential function. We look at more general examples in the next Chapter. ### 2.4 Doing without the pictures – by using calculus Our starting point for studying the motion of a particle was Newton’s second law (1.1): $ F = ma $, where $ F $ is the force acting on the particle, $ m $ is its mass, and $ a $ is the rate at which its velocity increases (in the same direction as the force). If you’ve read some of Book 3, you’ll remember that the rate of change of velocity $ v $ with respect to time $ t $ (which defines the acceleration, $ a $) can be written as \[ a = \frac{dv}{dt} \] and is the limiting value of a ratio $ \delta v / \delta t $ – where $ \delta v $ is a very small change of $ v $, arising in the small time change $ \delta t $. Now the mass is just a constant factor, multiplying $ a $, so Newton’s law can also be stated as \[ F = m \frac{dv}{dt} = \frac{d(mv)}{dt} = \frac{dp}{dt}, \] (2.8) where $ p = mv $, the mass of the particle times its velocity, used to be called the “quantity of motion” in the particle when it moves with velocity $ v $: nowadays it’s usually called the momentum of the particle, or more fully the linear momentum since it’s ‘in a line’. The usual symbol for it is $ p $, but others are sometimes used (so watch out!). Although we’ve been talking mainly about force, the rate of change of $ p $, the momentum itself is also an important quantity. You’ll understand this when we talk about collisions in which something massive and moving fast is suddenly stopped: if you’re going fast and run into a stone wall it’s your momentum that does the damage! Newton’s law in the form (2.8) is a differential equation: it determines the momentum $ p $ as a function of time ($ t $), provided we know $ F $ as a function of time. And we know from Book 3 Chapter 2 that if we’re told the rate of change of something then we can find the ‘something’ by integration. When $ \frac{dp}{dt} = F(t) $ we say \[ p = \int F(t) \, dt, \] (2.9) where $ \int ... \, dt $ means “integrate with respect to $ t $” to get $ p $ as a function of time. If the force is applied at time $ t_1 $ and continues to act until $ t_2 $ we can also find the change of momentum, $ \Delta p = p_2 - p_1 $, as the ‘definite’ integral \[ \Delta p = p_2 - p_1 = \int_{t_1}^{t_2} F(t) \, dt, \] (2.10) between the ‘limits’ $ t = t_1 $ (the ‘lower’ limit) and $ t = t_2 $ (the ‘upper’ limit). So (2.9) gives you a function of time, $ p = p(t) $, whose derivative is $ F(t) $ – for whatever value $ t $ may have; while (2.10) gives you a single quantity $ \Delta p $ – the difference of $ p $-values at the end ($ p_2 = p(t_2) $) and at the beginning ($ p_1 = p(t_2) $) of the time interval. Where does all this get us if we don’t know the force $ F $ as a function of time – how can we do the integration? Well, in general, we can’t! But so far we were always talking about motion under a constant force; and in that very special case we could do the integration, for $ F = ma $, $ a $ being the constant acceleration. In that case \[ p = \int (ma) \, dt = mat = mv, \] where $ v = at $ is the velocity at time $ t $ of the particle moving with acceleration $ a $. Let’s do something less easy. At some time, everyone plays a game with a bat (or heavy stick) and ball: you hit the ball with the stick and see how far you can send it. You hit the ball as hard as you can; but the ‘hit’ lasts only a very short time - a tiny fraction of a second - and the rest of the time the ball is on its journey through space, with only a much smaller force acting on it (gravity, which in the end brings it down to the ground). Imagine what happens at the time of the hit: the stick strikes the ball with a great force, that knocks it out of shape a bit and sends it on its way. As soon as the ball moves it loses contact with the stick and the force drops to zero. Now we ask how the force $ F = F(t) $ must look, as a function of time, during that split second when the bat and ball are in contact. Perhaps it will be something like Fig.17: $ F $ will be zero (neglecting the small force due to gravity) except between times $ t_1 $ and $ t_2 $, say, when the bat meets the ball and the ball leaves it. But during the time of contact, perhaps only a thousandth of a second, it will rise very suddenly to a very large value and then drop very suddenly to almost nothing. In other words the ‘force curve’ will show a very sharp peak; and to make things easy we could think of it as a rectangular ‘box’ of width $ \Delta t $ and height $ F_{av} $ (the ‘average’ value of the force). By using this simple ‘model’ of what’s going on, with the approximate force curve shown in Fig.18, we can get a good idea of how big the force must be. Suppose the ball has a mass of 0.2 kg and you give it a velocity of 10 ms$^{-1}$, starting from rest. Then $p_2$ in (2.10) will have the value $0.2 \times 10$kgms$^{-1}$, which will also be the value of $\Delta p$. With the model we’re using (Fig.18), this change of momentum is produced in $10^{-3}$s. And the definite integral in (2.10) is simply the area under the curve of $F(t)$ between limits $t_1$ and $t_2$, which is the area of the ‘box’ and has the value (height $\times$ width) $F_{av} \times 10^{-3}$s. So, according to (2.10), \[ F_{av} \times 10^{-3}\text{s} = 0.2 \times 10\text{kgms}^{-1} \] and the average force acting on the ball before it leaves the bat will be \[ F_{av} = \left( \frac{0.2 \times 10\text{kgms}^{-1}}{10^{-3}\text{s}} \right) = 0.2 \times 10^4\text{kgms}^{-2} = 2000\text{N}. \] That’s about 200 kg wt! – as if two very heavy men were standing on the ball. And all you did was hit it with a small piece of wood! A force of this kind, which is very large but lasts only a very short time, is called an ‘impulsive’ force, or just an impulse. This kind of force produces a sudden change of momentum, which we get by integrating $F$ with respect to the time. But in Section 2.2 we found that a force could also produce a change of kinetic energy, obtained by integrating $F$ with respect to distance over which the force acts (i.e. moves its point of application in the direction of $F$). To end this Section let’s look at the connection between these two ideas. The change of KE is equal to the work done when the particle is displaced through a distance $\Delta s = s_2 - s_1$ in the direction of the force: it is the definite integral \[ \Delta K = K_2 - K_1 = \int_{s_1}^{s_2} F ds, \tag{2.11} \] where the integrand (the part following the integral sign) represents the work done in the infinitesimal displacement ds. But the change of momentum is given in (2.10), written out again here to show how similar the two things look: \[ \Delta p = p_2 - p_1 = \int_{t_1}^{t_2} F \, dt. \] In (2.11), we think of $ F $ as a function of distance gone: $ F = F(s) $; but the values of any one of the variables $ s, t, v $ will determine a particular point on the path, so we can equally well think of $ F $ as a function of $ t $, or of $ v $. And in Book 3 we learnt how to ‘change the variable’, obtaining the rate of change of a function $ y = f(x) $, with respect to $ x $, in terms of that for another variable $ u = u(x) $: the rule for differentiating was (Chapter 2 of Book 3) \[ \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{dy}{du} \frac{du}{dx} \] and in Chapter 4 we applied this rule to integration (the inverse process), where it took the form \[ \int f(x) \, dx = \int f(v) \frac{dv}{dx} \, dx = \int f(v) \, dv \] (2.12) – remembering that, in the integral, the name we give the variable doesn’t matter. Now in (2.11), even though we don’t know $ F $ as a function of $ s $, we can easily introduce the velocity $ v $ as a new variable: thus \[ F = ma = m \frac{dv}{dt} = m \frac{dv}{ds} \frac{ds}{dt} = mv \frac{dv}{ds}. \] This means the definite integral in (2.11) can be rewritten as \[ \int_{s_1}^{s_2} F \, ds = \int_{s_1}^{s_2} mv \frac{dv}{ds} \, ds = \int_{v_1}^{v_2} mv \, dv = \frac{1}{2} m (v_2)^2 - \frac{1}{2} m (v_1)^2 = K_2 - K_1. \] Of course, you’ll say, we knew this result already from the graphical method we used in Section 2.2; but the results we got were only for motion under a constant force (giving constant acceleration), as in the case of a freely falling body. But now we know how to handle the general case, by using the calculus. If there is a force (e.g., the resistance of the air), trying to slow the particle down, we can still calculate what will happen – provided we know how the force depends on the velocity – even though the energy conservation equation may no longer hold. ### 2.5 Other forms of energy So far, we’ve come across two main kinds of energy: potential energy (PE), which depends on position of a particle in space and not on how fast it is moving; and kinetic energy (KE), which depends only on its velocity. There are other kinds, which may not even involve a particle, which we’ll meet in other Chapters. Here we’ll introduce only one more kind of PE – the energy of a stretched spring or piece of elastic, which we just call a ‘system’. If we change such a system by bending it or stretching it, then we do work on it and the work done is stored as potential energy. When we let go, the system returns to its normal condition and this energy is released. It may turn into KE (the spring may jump into the air) or, if it’s a clock spring, it may come out slowly – turning wheels and pointers to show you the time. Usually, the system is in equilibrium before you do any work on it; and this means that some ‘coordinate’ (like the length of a spring before you stretch or compress it) has an ‘equilibrium value’ which can be taken as $ x = 0 $. And the force you have to apply will be proportional to the amount of the displacement from $ x = 0 $: we write \[ F(x) = -k\|x\|, \] (2.13) where $ F(x) $ is the force in the spring when the displacement is $ x $ and $ k $ is called the “force constant”. The modulus $ \|x\| $ (i.e. $ x $ without any $ \pm $ sign) is used because usually it’s only the amount of the displacement that counts – not whether it’s in one direction or the other (left or right, up or down). But the $ - $ sign before the $ k $ means that if $ x $ is positive the force $ F(x) $ will be negative, towards $ x = 0 $, while if $ x $ is negative the force will be in the direction of the positive $ x $-axis. In both cases the force is a ‘restoring force’, trying to bring the system back to its equilibrium condition with $ x = 0 $. The force law (2.13) is known as “Hooke’s law” and the value of $ k $ is a property of the system, to be found by experiment. The energy stored in the spring, for any value of $ x $, can be obtained by integrating the force you have to apply to stretch it. Thus, taking $ x $ positive, the force to be applied will be opposite to that in the spring and will be $ F = +kx $, while the work done in increasing $ x $ to $ x + \delta x $ will be \[ \delta V = \text{force in positive direction} \times \delta x = kx\delta x. \] It follows that the potential energy corresponding to a finite displacement $ x $ will be the definite integral \[ V(x) = \int_0^x kx \, dx = [\frac{1}{2}kx^2]_0^x = \frac{1}{2}kx^2. \] (2.14) This function is symmetric about the point $ x = 0 $, taking the same value when $ x $ changes sign, and is in fact the parabola shown in Fig.16 which applies for a swinging pendulum. The same form of PE function holds good for many kinds of energy storage device. ### 2.6 Rate of working – power We started to talk about work and energy in Section 2.1 and have come quite a long way, finding important general principles such as the conservation of the total energy $ E = K + V $ for any system with only conservative forces. The ‘work equation’ (2.1) expressed our everyday experiences of carrying sacks of flour upstairs as a simple formula, which led us on to everything that followed. But now we need a new concept. The work you can do is not the only important thing: sometimes how fast you can do it is even more important. The rate of doing work is called power; and the more sacks of flour you can carry upstairs in a given time the more powerful you are! The same is true for machines, of course: you can do more work in the same time if you use a more powerful machine. All we have to do now is make the definition a bit more precise and decide how to measure power – what will be its units? Suppose that one or more forces act on a system and do an amount of work $W$ (calculated by using (2.1) for each force acting) in a time interval $t$. Then the ratio $W/t$ will be the average rate of doing work during that interval: it will be called the “average power” consumed by the system and denoted by $P$. When $W$ is measured in Joules and $t$ in seconds, $P$ will be expressed in units of J s$^{-1}$ (Joules per second). The dimensions of $P$ will be $[P] = \text{ML}^2\text{T}^{-2} \times \text{T}^{-1} = \text{ML}^2\text{T}^{-3}$ and the unit of power will thus be 1 J s$^{-1}$ or, in terms of the primary units, 1 kg m$^2$ s$^{-3}$; this unit is called the Watt (after James Watt, who invented) the steam engine and 1 W = 1 J s$^{-1}$. The Watt is quite a small unit and the power of small engines in everyday use is very often several thousand Watt, a few kW (kiloWatt). In science we are usually interested in the instantaneous power a machine can give us, not in the average over a long period of time, and this is defined by going to the limit where $t$ becomes infinitesimal: $$P = \frac{dW}{dt}. \quad (2.15)$$ In the Exercises that follow you’ll find examples of how all such concepts can be used. Exercises 1) Look back at Fig.9(b) (end of Section 2.1) which shows a bucket of water being raised from the well. Suppose the bucket, with its water, has a mass of 10 kg and that it has to be raised by 4 m. How much work ($W$) has to be done? and what force is doing the work? 2) Now look at Fig.9(c), where the bucket seems to be carried by two ropes (even though there’s really only one). Why is the tension ($T$) you have to apply to the rope only half what it was in Exercise 1? Is the work you have to do, to raise the bucket through 4 m, now only half as much as it was? If not – why not? 3) If you let the rope slip when the full bucket is at the top, how much KE will it have when it hits the water? and how fast will it be going? 4) Look at Fig.15 which is an energy diagram for a stone thrown vertically upwards. Suppose the stone has mass 0.1 kg and is thrown up with a speed of 10 m s$^{-2}$. How much KE does the stone start with? And how high will it rise before it stops and starts to fall? If you are 1.5 m tall and the stone hits your head on the way down how much KE will it still have? 5) Fig.11 shows a truck being pulled up a slope. The mass of the truck is 1000 kg. Calculate the reaction ($R$) and the tension ($T$) in the rope. How much work must you do to pull the truck slowly up to the top, a distance of 10 m? (and why do we say “slowly”?) Where does this work go to? If the rope snaps, at the top of the slope, what happens to the truck and the forces acting on it? What speed will it have when it reaches the bottom of the slope? 6) In Exercise 4 you calculated the KE (which will also tell you the velocity $v$ of the stone when it hits your head. What will its momentum be? Now suppose the time of contact is about 0.1 s (before you are knocked out!) and use the same ‘model’ as in Fig.18 to estimate the average ‘contact force’ during that short interval. What is its value (i) in Newtons, (ii) in kg wt, and (iii) as a multiple of the weight of the stone when it’s not moving. Chapter 3 Motion of a single particle A note to the reader Some parts of this Chapter are difficult (including the first Section); but don’t be put off – they are only showing how what we know already, about work and energy and motion, holds good very generally. You’ll find that many things start coming together – ideas about space and geometry (from Book 2) and about using the calculus (from Book 3) – and that you can get a good idea of what is happening, even without fully understanding all the details. Later in the Chapter you’ll be surprised by how far you can go with nothing more than simple arithmetic. 3.1 What happens if the force on a particle is variable and its path is a curve? So far we’ve nearly always been thinking of motion in a straight line, resulting from a constant force. The distance moved ($x$ say) was a function of the time $t$, $x = x(t)$, and so was the velocity, $v = v(t)$, while the acceleration $a$ was simply a constant. When we turn to motion in “three-dimensional space” (‘3-space’ for short) things are a bit more difficult because every point in space needs three coordinates to describe its position; and every velocity needs three components; and so on. Book 3 has prepared the way for dealing with motion in 3-space – the science of kinematics – but now we want to deal with real particles (which have mass, and are acted on by forces) and this takes us into physics. We have already met scalar quantities (such as distance, speed, kinetic energy, potential energy) which all have magnitudes but do not depend on any particular direction in space; and also vector quantities, which besides having a magnitude are also dependent on a direction. The first vector we meet is the position vector of a point in space (we’ll nearly always be talking about vectors in 3-space, so the 3 will usually be dropped): it will be the vector that points from the origin of a system of coordinates to the point with coordinates $x, y, z$ and can be expressed as (see Fig.19) $$\mathbf{r} = x\mathbf{e}_1 + y\mathbf{e}_2 + z\mathbf{e}_3 \quad \text{or} \quad \mathbf{r} \rightarrow (x, y, z). \tag{3.1}$$ Note that a special type (e.g.$\mathbf{r}$) is used for a vector quantity, as distinct from a scalar. In the first equation in (3.1), $ \mathbf{e}_1, \mathbf{e}_2, \mathbf{e}_3 $ are unit vectors in the directions of the three coordinate axes ($ \mathbf{e}_1 $ for the x-axis, $ \mathbf{e}_2 $ for the y-axis, $ \mathbf{e}_3 $ for z-axis) and the vector equation $ \mathbf{r} = x\mathbf{e}_1 + y\mathbf{e}_2 + z\mathbf{e}_3 $ simply means you can get to the point with coordinates $ x, y, z $ by taking $ x $ unit steps ($ \mathbf{e}_1 $) in the x-direction, $ y $ in the y-direction, and $ z $ in the z-direction. Remember (Book 2) it doesn’t matter what order you take the steps in (see Fig.19) – you get to exactly the same end point, with coordinates $ x, y, z $. The second statement in (3.1) is just another way of saying the same thing: the vector $ \mathbf{r} $ has associated with it the three numerical components $ x, y, z $. ![Figure 19](image1.png) ![Figure 20](image2.png) One of the nice things about vector equations is that a sum like $ \mathbf{c} = \mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b} $ means the vectors on the two sides of the $ = $ sign are equal component-by-component. A single vector equation is equivalent to three scalar equations: \[ \mathbf{c} = \mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b} \quad \text{means} \quad c_1 = a_1 + b_1, \quad c_2 = a_2 + b_2, \quad c_3 = a_3 + b_3. \tag{3.2} \] Usually, we’ll be working in terms of components; but sometimes it helps to use vector language – if you’re in trouble go back to Book 2. As an example of using vectors in dynamics we’ll be looking at the motion of a particle (or even a planet, moving round the sun!) when the force acting on it is not constant and its path is not a straight line. How must the things we discovered in Chapter 2 be changed? Does the principle of energy conservation, for example, still hold good when we go from motion along a straight line to motion along some curve in 3-space? Clearly the work equation (2.1) must be extended from 1 dimension to 3. We’ll be needing a general definition of the work done when a particle is moved along some path, through an infinitesimal distance $ d\mathbf{s} $, but not always in the direction of the force acting. Let’s write the corresponding bit of work done as (looking at Fig.20) \[ w = F \cos \theta d\mathbf{s} = \mathbf{F} \cdot d\mathbf{s}. \tag{3.3} \] Here $ \theta $ is the angle between the force, which is a vector $ \mathbf{F} $, and the vector element of path, $ d\mathbf{s} $. The work done is thus the magnitude $ F $ of the force times the distance moved, $ \cos \theta d\mathbf{s} $, in the direction of the force; or, equally, the force component $ F \cos \theta $ in the direction of the displacement vector $ d\mathbf{s} $. The second form in (3.3) shows this quantity as the ‘scalar product’ of the two vectors $ \mathbf{F} $ and $ d\mathbf{s} $ – which you will remember from Book 2, Section 5.4. (If you don’t, just take it as a bit of notation for what we’ve described in words.) Now if we resolve the vectors $\mathbf{F}$ and $\mathbf{s}$ into their components along x-, y- and z-axes at the point we’re thinking of, the element of work done (3.3) becomes simply $$w = F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz,$$ (3.4) where $dx, dy, dz$ are the three components of the path element $ds$. In other words, each component of the force does its own bit of work and adding them gives you the work done by the whole force – in any kind of displacement! You’ll be wondering why the letter $w$ has been used for the very small element of work done, instead of $dw$, though $rmdx, dy, dz$ have been used for small distances. That’s because the distance between two points depends only on where they are (on their positions) and not on how you go from one to the other: the small separations are differentials as used in Calculus (Book 3). But the work done in going from one point to another is not like that: if you drag a heavy object over a rough surface, going from Point A to point B, you’ll soon find that the work you have to do depends on what path you follow – the longer the path and the more work you have to do! So it would be wrong to use calculus notation for something that is not a differential. More about this in the last Section of this Chapter. What force are we talking about in setting up equation (3.4)? In Sections 2.1 and 2.2 we met two kinds of force: one was the weight of a particle and came from the field due to gravity (you can’t see it, but you know it’s there because the particle falls; the other was a force you apply to the particle, by lifting it to feel the weight. When you just stop it falling the two forces are equal but opposite, the resultant force is zero and the particle is in equilibrium. By moving something slowly (no kinetic energy!) the work you do on the particle is stored in the particle as potential energy. But, for a particle moving freely in an orbit (no touching!), the work $w$ is being done by the field and is ‘wasted’ work in the sense that the particle is losing its ability to do any further work (which is its potential energy): so $w = -dV$ and (3.4) can be rewritten as $$dV = -(F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz).$$ (Note that $V$, defined in Section 2.1 for a very special example, depended only on position – was a function of position – so a small difference could be correctly called $dV$: now we’re thinking of the general case and we’re going to find the same thing is true.) If you want to get that PE back then you must take the particle slowly back to where it came from by applying equal but opposite forces at every point on the path: that means changing the signs of $F_x, F_y, F_z$ to get a positive $dV$ – which will then be the increase in PE arising from the work you have done on the stone. Now let’s get back to the freely moving particle and ask if the total energy (PE plus KE) is conserved during the motion. To do that, we must now look at the kinetic energy $K$. The KE is a scalar quantity, $K = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$, where $v$ is the magnitude of the velocity (i.e. the speed), and is easily written in terms of the velocity components because $v^2 = v_x^2 + v_y^2 + v_z^2$. Thus $$K = \frac{1}{2}m(v_x^2 + v_y^2 + v_z^2).$$ (3.6) To find how $K$ changes with time we can differentiate (Book 3, Section 2.3): $$\frac{\mathrm{d}K}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{1}{2}m \left( 2v_x \frac{\mathrm{d}v_x}{\mathrm{d}t} + 2v_y \frac{\mathrm{d}v_y}{\mathrm{d}t} + 2v_z \frac{\mathrm{d}v_z}{\mathrm{d}t} \right).$$ But, by the second law, $m(\mathrm{d}v_x/\mathrm{d}t) = ma_x = F_x$, and similarly for the other components. On putting these results into the formula for $\mathrm{d}K/\mathrm{d}t$ we get $$\frac{\mathrm{d}K}{\mathrm{d}t} = F_x v_x + F_y v_y + F_z v_z = F_x \frac{\mathrm{d}x}{\mathrm{d}t} + F_y \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}t} + F_z \frac{\mathrm{d}z}{\mathrm{d}t} = -\frac{\mathrm{d}V}{\mathrm{d}t}, \tag{3.7}$$ where (3.5) has been used. This result is the differential form of the energy conservation principle. When a particle moves along any infinitesimal element of path (represented by a displacement vector $ds$), following Newton’s second law, the change in total energy $E = K + V$ is zero: $$\mathrm{d}E = \mathrm{d}K + \mathrm{d}V = 0. \tag{3.8}$$ A finite change, in which the particle moves from Point 1 on its path to Point 2, will then be a sum of the changes taking place in all the steps $ds$. And $$\Delta E = \Delta K + \Delta V = 0, \tag{3.9}$$ where $\Delta K = (\frac{1}{2}mv^2)_2 - (\frac{1}{2}mv^2)_1$ and $$\Delta V = \int_1^2 -F_x \mathrm{d}x + \int_1^2 -F_y \mathrm{d}y + \int_1^2 -F_z \mathrm{d}z = V_2 - V_1. \tag{3.10}$$ The integral in (3.10) is called a “path integral”, a sum of contributions from all elements ds of the path leading from from Point 1 to Point 2. The remarkable thing about this path integral is that it doesn’t depend at all on the path itself! It has exactly the same value for any route leading from Point 1 to Point 2. We’ll say more about this at the end of the Chapter. But here the important thing is that (3.9) is true for motion of a particle along any path, however long and curved it may be, when it moves according to Newton’s second law. The principle of energy conservation, which we first met in Section 2.2, evidently applies very generally – as we’ll see in the next two Sections. ### 3.2 Motion of a projectile Something you throw or shoot into the air is called a “projectile”: it could be a small pebble from your catapult, or a bullet from a gun. And it moves, under a constant force (that due to gravity), according to the Newton’s second law. The problem is to find its path. This example is different from the one in Section 2.3 – the falling stone – because the motion is now two-dimensional: the projectile may start with a velocity component $V_x$, in the x-direction (horizontally), and a component $V_y$ in the y-direction (vertically); and the only force acting (leaving out the small resistance of the air) is that due to gravity, which is $ mg $ and acts vertically downwards. This is all shown in Fig.21a, where $ V $ indicates the velocity vector at the start and $ \bullet $ shows the projectile at point $ P(x, y) $ at a later time $ t $. So how does the projectile move? Let’s take $ t = 0 $ at the start of the motion: then at any later time $ t $ the components of position, velocity, and acceleration will all be functions of $ t $; call them (in that order) \[ x(t), \quad y(t), \quad v_x(t), \quad v_y(t), \quad a_x(t), \quad a_y(t). \] (3.11) At the start of the motion, we can take \[ x(0) = y(0) = 0 \text{ (the origin)}, \quad v_x(0) = V_x, v_y(0) = V_y \quad \text{(given)}, \] \[ a_x(0) = 0, a_y(0) = -g \quad \text{(constant acceleration, downward)}. \] Motion with constant acceleration was studied in Chapter 2 of Book 3 and the results were used again here in Section 2.2; to summarize Velocity increase at time $ t $ is $ v = at $ Distance gone is $ s = \frac{1}{2}at^2 $. For the projectile we can use the same results for each of the two components, so we need only change the names of the variables. The equations become \[ v_x(t) = V_x + a_x(t) = V_x, \quad x(t) = V_xt \quad \text{(x-component)} \] \[ v_y(t) = V_y + a_y(t) = V_y - gt, \quad y(t) = V_yt - \frac{1}{2}gt^2 \quad \text{(y-component)}, \] where it was remembered that $ at $ gives the velocity increase as time goes from zero to $ t $ and that the starting velocity is, in this example, non-zero – with components $ V_x, V_y $. We can now plot the path of the projectile: at time $ t $ its coordinates will be \[ x = V_xt, \quad y = V_yt - \frac{1}{2}gt^2. \] (3.12) In Fig.21b the whole curve is sketched, up to the point where the projectile hits the ground. Usually, when we plot the curve representing a function $ y = f(x) $, the value of $ y $ (the dependent variable) is given directly in terms of $ x $ (the independent variable) by some formula. But here both $ x $ and $ y $ are expressed in terms of another variable $ t $ (the time), which is a parameter; together they give a parametric representation of the function $ y = f(x) $. However, if we want the more usual form, we can easily eliminate the parameter $ t $; because the first equation in (3.12) tells us that, given $ x $, the time must be $ t = x/V_x $ – and if we put that value in the second equation we find \[ x = V_x t, \quad y = V_y t - \frac{1}{2} g t^2 \cdot y = (V_y/V_x)x - \frac{1}{2}(g/V_x^2)x^2, \] (3.13) which is of the second degree in the variable $ x $ and describes a parabola. From the equation for the path we can find all we want to know. How far does the projectile go before it hits the ground? Put $ y = 0 $ in (3.13) and you get \[ x \left( \frac{V_y}{V_x} - \frac{g}{2V_x^2}x \right) = 0 \] One solution is $ x = 0 $, the starting point, and the other is (get it yourself) $ x = 2(V_x V_y)/g $; this is called the range – the maximum horizontal distance the projectile can go, for a given initial velocity. And how high does the projectile go? The maximum value of the function $ y = f(x) $ (or at least a value for which the slope of the curve is zero - in this case it will be the top) is reached when the first derivative $(dy/dx)$ is zero. So let’s put \[ \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{V_y}{V_x} - \left( \frac{g}{V_x^2} \right)x = 0. \] This tells us that the highest point is reached when $ x = (V_x V_y)/g $; and on putting this value in (3.13) (do it!) you’ll find the corresponding value of $ y $ is $ \frac{1}{2}V_y^2/g $. Before ending this Section, we should note that if we don’t want to know the whole path of the projectile – but only to answer questions like “how far?” and “how high?” – it’s often quicker to use the energy conservation principle. Thus, when the force acting has only a (vertical) y-component the velocity x-component will not change from its initial value $ V_x $; so its contribution to the KE will always be $ \frac{1}{2}mV_x^2 $ and the whole KE will be $ \frac{1}{2}m(V_x^2 + v_y^2) $. The PE will depend on the height $ y $ only and, measured from ‘ground’ level, will be $ mgy $. Energy conservation then means that the constant total energy (KE + PE) will be \[ E = \frac{1}{2}m(V_x^2 + V_y^2) + 0 \quad \text{initially} \quad = \frac{1}{2}mV_x^2 + \frac{1}{2}mv_y^2 + mgy \quad \text{at any later time} \] and thus (x-terms cancelling) $ \frac{1}{2}mV_y^2 = \frac{1}{2}mv_y^2 + mgy $. To get the maximum height we simply put $ v_y = 0 $ (upward velocity fallen to zero) and find the corresponding y-value from $ \frac{1}{2}mV_y^2 = mgy $ – giving the same result $ \frac{1}{2}V_y^2/g $ as before. ### 3.3 A numerical method (A note to the reader: There’s a lot of arithmetic in this Section and the next: you don’t have to work through it all – just check a few lines here and there to make sure you understand what’s going on.) In the last Section we found the path of the projectile analytically – using the methods of mathematical analysis. It’s not always easy, or even possible, to solve problems that way: but if you know the basic equations – in this case Newton’s second law – you can always get there by using only simple arithmetic! To show how to do it we’ll take the projectile problem again. The coordinates and velocity components are all functions of time $t$, so we’ll write them as $x(t), y(t), v_x(t), v_y(t)$ and set things going at $t = 0$, with the initial values $$x(0) = 0, \quad y(0) = 0, \quad v_x(0) = 20, \quad v_y(0) = 20.$$ (3.14) Here we’ve left out the units, but distances will be in (metres) m, velocities in ms$^{-1}$, accelerations in ms$^{-2}$; and we know the units will ‘look after themselves’ as long as we’re careful about physical dimensions (see, for example, Section 2.1). Let’s go step by step from any starting value of $t$, using what Newton’s law tells us and letting $t \to t + \epsilon$, in each step, $\epsilon$ being a small time interval (for example 0.1 s). The increases in coordinates $x$ and $y$ are then, respectively, $\epsilon v_x$ and $\epsilon v_y$; and the new coordinates at the end of the step will be $$x(t + \epsilon) = x(t) + \epsilon v_x, \quad y(t + \epsilon) = y(t) + \epsilon v_y.$$ But what values should we give to the velocity components? – because they will be changing when forces act and produce accelerations. Thus, $v_x$ and $v_y$ will change by $\epsilon a_x$ and $\epsilon a_y$ during the step from $t$ to $t + \epsilon$: the value of $v_x$ will be $v_x(t)$ at the beginning of the step and $v_x(t) + \epsilon a_x$ at the end, and similarly for $v_y$. To allow for the change in velocity components, we’ll use the values corresponding to the mid-point of the step, with $\frac{1}{2}\epsilon$ in place of the full $\epsilon$; so instead of taking, for example, $x(t + \epsilon) = x(t) + \epsilon v_x(t)$, we take $x(t + \epsilon) = x(t) + \epsilon v_x(t + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon)$. This means the velocity components have to be calculated at times $\epsilon$ apart, but halfway through successive intervals: to get $v_x(t + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon)$ from $v_x(t - \frac{1}{2}\epsilon)$ we’ll simply add $\epsilon \times$ acceleration, taking the acceleration at the midpoint which is now $a_x(t)$. Our working equations for calculating quantities at time $t + \epsilon$ in terms of those at time $t$ will now be – for the coordinates $$x(t + \epsilon) = x(t) + \epsilon v_x(t), \quad y(t + \epsilon) = y(t) + \epsilon v_y(t)$$ (3.15) – but for the velocities we should use $$v_x(t + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) = v_x(t - \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) + \epsilon a_x(t), \quad v_y(t + \epsilon) = v_y(t - \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) + \epsilon a_y(t).$$ (3.16) These last two equations allow us to ‘step up’ the times by an amount $\epsilon$, going from one interval to the next for as long as we wish. For the first point, $t = 0$ and we don’t have values of $v_x(-\frac{1}{2}\epsilon)$ – as there’s no interval before the first – but we can safely use $v_x(0 + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) = v_x(0) + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon a_x(0)$ (velocity = time$\times$ acceleration) to get a reasonable start. And after that we can simply go step by step, using (3.15) and (3.16). You’ll see how it works out when we start the calculation. To do this we make a Table to hold the working equations: \[ \begin{array}{\|c\|c\|c\|} \hline t & x(t + \epsilon) = x(t) + \epsilon v_x(t + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) & y(t + \epsilon) = y(t) + \epsilon v_y(t + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) \\ v_x(t + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) = v_x(t - \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) + \epsilon a_x(t) & v_y(t + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) = v_y(t - \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) + \epsilon a_y(t) \\ \hline \end{array} \] and then one to hold them when we’ve put in the numerical values we know: \[ \begin{array}{\|c\|c\|c\|} \hline t & x \rightarrow x + 0.1 \times v_x & y \rightarrow y + 0.1 \times v_y \\ v_x \rightarrow v_x + 0.1 \times (0) = v_x & v_y \rightarrow v_y - 0.1 \times (-10) = v_y - 1 \\ \hline \end{array} \] Here $\rightarrow$ is used to mean “replace by”; and we’ve chosen a ‘step length’ $\epsilon = 0.1$. The (constant) acceleration due to gravity is $a_y \approx -10$ with horizontal component $a_x = 0$. Note that the line which holds the velocity components gives the new values (on the left of the $\rightarrow$) at time $t + \epsilon$ – in terms of values two lines earlier, at time $t - \epsilon$. To remind us of this, the lines are labelled by the $t$-values used in the calculation. Now we’ll make a similar table to hold the numbers we calculate, using the rules above and the special starting values for the entries at $t = 0$. First, however, we note that some ‘true’ values of the $(x,y)$ coordinates, calculated from the formulas in (3.12) at times $t = 0.4$, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0 are (respectively) \[(8.0, 7.2) \quad (16.0, 12.85) \quad (24.0, 16.80) \quad (32.0, 19.20) \quad (40.0, 20.00)\] The first few (double)-lines in our Table of approximate values come out as: \[ \begin{array}{\|c\|c\|c\|} \hline t = 0.0 & x = 0.0 & y = 0.0 \\ (0.05) & v_x = 20.0 + 0.05 \times 0.0 = 20.0 & v_y = 20.0 + 0.05 \times (-10) = 19.5 \\ t = 0.1 & x \rightarrow 0.0 + 0.1(20.0) = 2.0 & y \rightarrow 0.0 + 0.1(19.5) = 1.95 \\ (0.15) & v_x \rightarrow 20.0 + 0.1(0.0) = 20.0 & v_y \rightarrow 19.5 + 0.1(-10) = 18.5 \\ t = 0.2 & x \rightarrow 2.0 + 0.1(20.0) = 4.0 & y \rightarrow 1.95 + 0.1(18.5) = 3.80 \\ (0.025) & v_x \rightarrow 20.0 + 0.1(0.0) = 20.0 & v_y \rightarrow 18.5 + 0.1(-10) = 17.5 \\ t = 0.3 & x \rightarrow 4.0 + 0.1(20.0) = 6.0 & y \rightarrow 3.80 + 0.1(17.5) = 5.55 \\ (0.35) & v_x \rightarrow 20.0 & v_y \rightarrow 17.5 + 0.1(-10) = 16.5 \\ t = 0.4 & x \rightarrow 6.0 + 0.1(20.0) = 8.0 & y \rightarrow 5.55 + 0.1(16.5) = 7.20 \\ (0.45) & v_x \rightarrow 20.0 & v_y \rightarrow 16.5 + 0.1(-10) = 15.5 \\ t = 0.5 & x \rightarrow 8.0 + 0.1(20.0) = 10.0 & y \rightarrow 7.20 + 0.1(15.5) = 8.75 \\ (0.55) & v_x \rightarrow 20.0 & v_y \rightarrow 15.5 + 0.1(-10) = 14.5 \\ t = 0.6 & x \rightarrow 10.0 + 0.1(20.0) = 12.0 & y \rightarrow 8.75 + 0.1(15.0) = 10.25 \\ (0.65) & v_x \rightarrow 20.0 & v_y \rightarrow 14.5 + 0.1(-10) = 13.5 \\ t = 0.7 & x \rightarrow 12.0 + 0.1(20.0) = 14.0 & y \rightarrow 10.25 + 0.1(13.5) = 11.60 \\ (0.75) & v_x \rightarrow 20.0 & v_y \rightarrow 13.5 + 0.1(-10) = 12.5 \\ \hline \end{array} \] If you continue (try it!), you’ll get the nice smooth curve shown in Fig.22. That was easy, and the results agree perfectly (can you say why?) with the exact results in Section 3.2, but what if we want to talk about a planet moving round the sun? In the next Section we’ll find it’s just as easy. ### 3.4 Motion of the Earth around the Sun Suppose we have a single ‘particle’ (anything from a small pebble to the Moon, or the Earth!) moving along some path – like the one shown in Fig.20 – under the action of some force $F$. All we need to know, to find the path, is how the force depends on position of the particle; along with its position and velocity components, $x(0), y(0), z(0)$ and $v_x(0), v_y(0), v_z(0)$, at any time $t = t_0$ – which we call the ‘starting time’ and usually put equal to zero, $t_0 = 0$. It all worked out nicely in the last Section, where we used Newton’s law (acceleration = force/mass) for each of the two components, to estimate how the velocity and position changed as the time increased by a small amount $t \to t + \epsilon$. But now we’re going to do something a bit more exciting: will the same equations and methods work just as well when the ‘particle’ is the Earth – the whole of our world – on its journey round the Sun? If they do, and allow us to calculate that the journey will take about 365 days, then we can feel pretty sure that the law of gravity really is a universal law, applying throughout the Universe! In Section 1.2 the force of attraction between two point masses, $m$ and $M$, was given in equation (1.2) as $F = GmM/r^2$, where $r$ was the distance between them and $G$ was the ‘gravitational constant’. But now we’re working in three dimensions, using vectors and components, this must be written in a different way. Suppose the big mass $M$ (the Sun) is used as the origin of coordinates: then the position vector of $m$ (the Earth) will be $$\mathbf{r} = x\mathbf{e}_1 + y\mathbf{e}_2 + z\mathbf{e}_3,$$ as in Fig.19. The force $F$ is along the line of $r$, but is directed the opposite way – towards the origin – and must therefore be a multiple of $-r$. Since $r$ (the length of $r$) is simply $\|r\|$, we can now write the force vector as $$F = \frac{GmM}{r^2} \left( \frac{-r}{r} \right) = -\frac{GmM}{r^3} r,$$ where the factor $-r/r$, in the middle, is the unit vector pointing from the Earth to the Sun. When we express the final vector $r$ in the form $r = xe_1 + ye_2 + ze_3$, the result is $$F = F_x e_1 + F_y e_2 + F_z e_3,$$ where the components are $$F_x = -\frac{GmM}{r^3} x, \quad F_y = -\frac{GmM}{r^3} y, \quad F_z = -\frac{GmM}{r^3} z.$$ We’re now ready to write down the equations of motion for the Earth as it moves around the Sun, just as we did for the projectile in the last Section. This path will be the orbit of the Earth; and it will lie in a single plane – for if you take this as the xy-plane then the force $F$ will never have a z-component to pull it out of the plane. So let’s suppose the orbit is in the xy-plane with the Sun at the origin and the Earth at the point $(x, y)$. The form of the orbit is shown in Fig.23a, which also shows the force vector $F$ – directed always towards the Sun. We’ll start the calculation at time $t = 0$, when the Earth is at the point (●) labelled ‘Start’, with coordinates $x(0), y(0)$. The equation (mass)×(acceleration)=(force acting) then becomes, for the two components, $$a_x = \frac{dv_x}{dt} = -GM \frac{x}{r^3}, \quad a_y = \frac{dv_y}{dt} = -GM \frac{y}{r^3},$$ where the mass $m$ has been cancelled from each equation and we remember that, in terms of the coordinates $x, y$, the distance from the Sun is $r = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}$. The calculation will follow closely the one we made for the projectile, the main difference being that the acceleration is not constant, its components both being non-zero functions of position $(x, y)$. Instead of (3.14), however, we take a starting point ($t = 0$) on the orbit, with $$x(0) = R_0, \quad y(0) = 0, \quad v_x(0) = 0, \quad v_y(0) = V_0,$$ where $R_0$ is the initial distance from the Sun and $V_0$ is the initial velocity, in a direction perpendicular to the position vector. Another difference, however, is that it’s no longer sensible to work in units of kilogram, metres and seconds when we’re talking about bodies with masses of many millions of kilograms, moving at thousands of metres every second. Wouldn’t it be easier to use, for example, days or months? We know how to change from one set of units to another, provided we know the physical dimensions of the quantities we’re talking about (see Section 1.3). Velocity, for example, has dimensions of distance ÷ time; so we write $[v] = LT^{-1}$ and if we multiply the unit of length by a factor $k$ then we must divide the measure of any length by $k$ – and similarly for the time factor. Suppose we choose an ‘astronomical’ unit of length as $L_0 = 1.5 \times 10^{11}$ m, which the astronomers tell us is the average distance of the Earth, in its orbit, from the Sun; and the Month as the unit of time – 1 Month $\approx 30$ days $= 30 \times 24 \times 3600$ s $= 2.592 \times 10^6$ s. The observed value of the velocity of the Earth in its orbit is also well known: it is about 30,000 m s$^{-1}$ and we’ll take this as the starting value of $V_0$. To express $V_0$ in our new units we simply multiply the value in ms$^{-1}$ by two factors: $(1.5 \times 10^{11})^{-1}$ for the length; and $((2.592 \times 10^6)^{-1})^{-1}$ (i.e. $2.592 \times 10^6$) for the time. The result is $$V_0 = (3 \times 10^4) \left( \frac{2.592 \times 10^6}{1.5 \times 10^{11}} \right) L_0 \text{ Month}^{-1} \approx 51 \times 10^{-2} L_0 \text{ Month}^{-1}.$$ To summarize, a reasonable value of the start velocity seems to be about 0.51 distance units per month. The only other quantity to express in our new units is $GM$ in (3.9): this has dimensions (check it for yourself, using the data for $G$ in Section 1.3) $[GM] = L^3$ T$^{-2}$. The value of $GM$ looks enormous in standard units (the Sun’s mass alone is about $1.99 \times 10^{30}$ kg!), while $G$ has the value – measured in experiments here on the Earth – $6.67 \times 10^{-11}$ m$^3$ s$^{-2}$ kg. Expressed in the new units (check it yourself!) you should find $$GM = 0.264 \ L_0^3 \text{ Month}^{-2}.$$ And now, at last, we can start the calculation! – and we can just use the numbers, from now on, knowing that the units are sure to come out right in the end. Our working equations for calculating quantities at time $t + \epsilon$ in terms of those at time $t$ will now be just like those in (3.15) and (3.16): for the coordinates, $$x(t + \epsilon) = x(t) + \epsilon v_x(t), \quad y(t + \epsilon) = y(t) + \epsilon v_y(t) \tag{3.21}$$ – but for the velocities we should use $$v_x(t + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) = v_x(t - \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) + \epsilon a_x(t), \quad v_y(t + \epsilon) = v_y(t - \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) + \epsilon a_y(t). \tag{3.22}$$ The only difference between these equations and those for the projectile is that the acceleration components $a_x, a_y$ are given by (3.19): they must be calculated in every step instead of being constants (0 and -g). These last two equations allow us to ‘step up’ the times by an amount $\epsilon$, going from one interval to the next for as long as we wish. Again, for the first point, $t = 0$ and we don’t have values of $v_x(-\frac{1}{2}\epsilon)$ – as there’s no interval before the first – but we can safely use $v_x(0 + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon) = v_x(0) + \frac{1}{2}\epsilon a_x(0)$ (velocity = time × acceleration) to get a reasonable start. And we can do exactly the same for the y-component. After that we simply go step by step, using (3.21) and (3.22). Let’s take $\epsilon = 0.2$, which is 6 days ($\frac{1}{5}$ Month in our working units) and make the first few time steps, starting from the values in (3.20) with $R_0 = 0.5$ and $V_0 = 0.51$. We then get the Table on the next page. \| $ t $ \| $ x = 1.0 $ $ v_x = -0.0264 $ $ r = \sqrt{0.9947^2 + 0.1020^2} = 0.9999 $ $ a_x = -0.264(0.9947)(1.0003) = -0.2627 $ $ v_x \rightarrow -0.0264 - 0.2627(0.2) = -0.0789 $ $ y = 0.0 $ $ v_y = 0.5100 $ $ y = 0.1020 $ $ r^3 = 0.9997, \quad 1/r^3 = 1.0003 $ $ a_y = -0.264(0.1020)(1.0003) = -0.0269 $ $ v_y \rightarrow 0.5100 - 0.0269(0.2) = 0.5046 $ \| \|---\|---\| \| $ t = 2\epsilon $ \| $ x = 0.9789 $ $ r = \sqrt{0.9789^2 + 0.2029^2} = 0.9994 $ $ a_x = -0.264(0.9789)(1.0012) = -0.2587 $ $ v_x \rightarrow -0.0789 - 0.2587(0.2) = -0.1306 $ $ y = 0.2029 $ $ r^3 = 0.9988, \quad 1/r^3 = 1.0012 $ $ a_y = -0.264(0.2029)(1.0012) = -0.0536 $ $ v_y \rightarrow 0.5046 - 0.0536(0.2) = 0.4939 $ \| \| $ t = 3\epsilon $ \| $ x = 0.9528 $ $ y = 0.3017 $ \| Notice that, at any given time (e.g. $ t = 2\epsilon = 0.4 $), the two lines after the calculation of the coordinates $(x, y)$ are used in getting the corresponding components of the acceleration $(a_x, a_y)$ – which are then used to get the average velocity components (next line) for calculating the distances gone in the next time step (up to $ t = 3\epsilon = 0.6 $). If you keep going for 60 time steps you’ll reach the point marked ‘Day 360’. The $(x, y)$-values obtained in this way are plotted in Fig.23a. Each time step represents 6 days and the orbit has closed almost perfectly in 360 days – that’s not a bad approximation to 1 year when you remember that we’re doing a rough calculation, using only simple arithmetic (even though there’s quite a lot of it!). It may seem unbelievable that, starting from measurements made by the astronomers and a value of $ G $ obtained by measuring the force of attraction between two lead balls in the laboratory, we can calculate the time it will take the Earth to go round the sun – 150 million kilometres away! So you should check the calculation carefully. To help you on your way, the last few steps, leading from $ t = 58\epsilon $ up to $ t = 60\epsilon $ (360 days), are given below: \| t \| $x$ \| $y$ \| \|-----\|--------\|-----------\| \| 58$\epsilon$ \| 0.9784 \| -0.2059 \| \| \| -0.2585 \| -0.0544 \| \| 59$\epsilon$ \| 0.9944 \| -0.1050 \| \| \| -0.2626 \| 0.0277 \| \| 60$\epsilon$ \| 1.000 \| -0.0030 \| Only the acceleration components are given, for time $t = 58\epsilon$, so you’ll need the velocities $v_x$ and $v_y$ for $t = 57\epsilon$: these are $v_x = 0.1321$ and $v_y = 0.4935$. Now you should be able to fill in the missing values, just as in going from $t = 2\epsilon$ to $t = 3\epsilon$. ![Figure 23a](image1.png) ![Figure 23b](image2.png) You should note that the orbit is not exactly a circle, but rather an ellipse (with a ‘long diameter’ and a ‘short diameter’); but the diameters differ only by less than one part in fifty. However, if you use different starting conditions at $t = 0$, you can get very different results: Fig.23b, for example, shows the effect of changing the starting velocity of the Earth in its orbit from 0.51 units to 0.40. In that case it would be drawn into a more ‘lopsided’ orbit, getting much closer to the Sun for much of its path; and the length of the year would be very different. Other planets, like Mars and Venus, have orbits of this kind: but more about such things in other Books of the Series. A very important final conclusion is that once you know the equations of motion, and the values of the coordinates and velocity components at any given time $t_0$, then the way the system behaves at all future times is completely determined: we say that the equations are deterministic – nothing is left to chance! This is a property of many of the key equations of Physics. ### 3.5 More about potential energy In Section 4.1 we found that the idea of ‘conservation of energy’ applied even for a particle moving along a curved path (not only for the up-down motion studied in Section 2.1), provided Newton’s second law was satisfied. In all cases the gain in kinetic energy, as the particle went from Point 1 to Point 2, was exactly the same as the loss of potential energy – defined as the work done by the forces acting. The differential form of this result, $dK + dV = 0$, where $dK$ and $dV$ are infinitesimal changes in $K$ and $V$ then led us to the result $K + V = \text{constant}$ at all points on the path. (If you’re not sure about using differentials look back at Section 2.3 in Book 3.) This result means that the forces acting on the particle must have a special property: they are said to be conservative forces and when this is possible to define a potential energy function $V(x, y, z)$ – a function whose value depends only on position and whose differential $dV$ appears in (3.5). And for forces of this kind it is possible to get the force components at any point in space from the single function $V(x, y, z)$. To see how this can be done, think of the differentials $dV, dx, dy, dz$ simply as very small related changes, when you pass from point $(x, y, z)$ to an infinitely close point $(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz)$. We can then define a derivative of $V$ with respect to $x$ as the limit of the ratio $dV/dx$ when only $x$ is changed: it is called a partial derivative and is written $\partial V/\partial x$, with a ‘curly’ $d$. Thus \[ \frac{\partial V}{\partial x} = \lim_{dx \to 0} \frac{dV}{dx}, \quad (y, z \text{ constant}). \tag{3.23} \] You will have met partial derivatives already in Book 3: there’s nothing very special about them except that in getting them you change only one variable at a time, treating the others as if they were constants. When you have a function of three variables, like the PE with $V = V(x, y, z)$, you have three partial derivatives at every point in space – the one given in (3.23) and two more, with the ‘special’ direction being the $y$-axis or the $z$-axis. The force components in (3.5) can now be defined as partial derivatives of the potential energy function: \[ F_x = -\frac{\partial V}{\partial x}, \quad F_y = -\frac{\partial V}{\partial y}, \quad F_z = -\frac{\partial V}{\partial z}, \tag{3.24} \] where it is understood that the variables not shown, in each derivative, are kept constant. Now, after all that work (brain work!), we can give a general definition of the potential energy of a particle. We start from any point O (calling it the ‘origin’ or the ‘zero of potential energy’) and carry the particle from O to any other point P. The PE given to the particle is then the work done in moving it from O to P: \[ V_P - V_O = W = \int_O^P (F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz). \] If we label the points as ‘0’ and ‘1’, this can be written \[ V_1 - V_0 = W(0 \to 1) = \int_0^1 (F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz), \tag{3.25} \] so $V_1 = V_0 + W(0 \to 1)$, the PE at Point 1, will always contain a constant $V_0$, which can have any value whatever (an ‘arbitrary’ value depending on where we choose to start from. You might ask what use is a definition like that – if you can never say what value the PE really has at any point in space! But the fact is that the only things we need are differences between the values of $V$ at any two different points; and $$V_2 - V_1 = (V_0 + W_{0 \to 2}) - (V_0 + W_{0 \to 1}) = W_{0 \to 2} - W_{0 \to 1},$$ where the arbitrary constant $V_0$ has disappeared. Finally, suppose we carry the particle from Point 0 to Point 1 and then back again, from 1 to 0, along the same path – as indicated in Fig.24a. The whole change in PE will be zero (we’re back at the starting point, as if we’d never set off), but it is the sum of two parts: $$W(0 \to 1) = \int_0^1 (F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz) \quad \text{(outward journey)}$$ and $$W(1 \to 0) = \int_1^0 (F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz) \quad \text{(outward journey)}.$$ Since the sum must be zero, the second path integral must be the negative of the first: in words, changing the direction of the path changes the sign of the work done. Now it doesn’t matter what names we give the two points: if we call them 1 and 2 we can say $$\int_2^1 (F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz) = - \int_1^2 (F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz). \tag{3.26}$$ This is also a known result from calculus (Book 3): interchanging the upper and lower limits in a definite integral reverses the sign. But suppose now we make the return journey by a different route (as in Fig.24b). The work done, being independent of the path from Point 2 to Point 1, will still be the negative of the work done in the outward journey: but it now follows that the work done by the applied force in going round any closed path or ‘circuit’ is zero. Mathematicians often use a special symbol for this kind of path integral, writing it as $$\oint (F_x \, dx + F_y \, dy + F_z \, dz) = 0. \tag{3.27}$$ Forces that can be derived from a potential energy function, as in (3.24) are said to be “conservative”. Now we have another definition: conservative forces are those for which the path integral of the work they do, taken round any closed circuit is zero. As you must know, not all forces are conservative. If you slide an object over a rough surface it doesn’t go easily, even if the surface is horizontal and the motion is not opposed by gravity: the motion is resisted by friction and the force arising from friction opposes any force you might apply. ‘Push’ or ‘pull’, the frictional force is always in the opposite direction; so however you go round a closed circuit, the work integral (3.27) must be non-zero – work is always done and you never get it back. Another example is the frictional force arising when a fast-moving object pushes its way through the air; the frictional force is always in a direction opposite to the direction of motion. There are other examples of non-conservative forces; but we won’t meet them for a long time (Book 12). Until then, we’ll usually be assuming that friction can be neglected, at least in a first approximation – which can later be improved by adding terms that will allow for it. Exercises – in preparation. Chapter 4 From one particle to many – the next big step 4.1 Many-particle systems Suppose we have a collection of many particles, instead of just one. How will they move when forces act on them? This is an important question because we nearly always want to know about big systems, like the trucks in Fig.20 or the whole Earth, moving around the Sun (Fig.23); and even if they are small compared with the whole Universe we can hardly call them “particles”. Yet we’ve treated them just as if they were single mass points, each body being at some point in space (with a position vector $\mathbf{r}$) and having a certain mass ($m$). It seems like a miracle that everything came out right – that the Earth went round the Sun in about 360 days and so on – that Newton’s second law worked so well. Now we want to know why. So instead of asking how $m\mathbf{r}$ changes when a mass point is acted on by forces, let’s ask the same question about a collection of mass points with mass $m_1$ at point $\mathbf{r}_1$, $m_2$ at point $\mathbf{r}_2$, and so on. The total mass of the whole collection, which we’re going to think of as a single body, will then be $$M = m_1 + m_2 + m_3 + \ldots = \Sigma_i m_i \quad (4.1)$$ where we use the usual shorthand notation $\Sigma_i$ to mean the sum of all similar terms, with the index $i$ taking values 1, 2, 3, … for however many particles we have. And just as $M$ will take the place of a single mass $m$, we’ll define a quantity $$M\mathbf{R} = m_1\mathbf{r}_1 + m_2\mathbf{r}_2 + m_3\mathbf{r}_3 + \ldots = \Sigma_i m_i \mathbf{r}_i \quad (4.2)$$ to take the place of $m\mathbf{r}$. We’ll ask how this quantity changes when forces act on the system. Suppose a force $\mathbf{f}_1$ is applied to the mass $m_1$, a force $\mathbf{f}_2$ to $m_2$, etc., these forces being ‘external’ to the system (e.g. forces due to gravity, or pushes and pulls applied ‘by hand’). All this is shown in Fig.26(a), for a set of particles in a plane, but everything we do will apply just as well in three dimensions. Each particle will move, according to Newton’s second law, $ m_1 $ starting with an acceleration $ a_1 $ such that $ m_1 a_1 = f_1 $, and so on. In calculus notation this means \[ m_i a_i = m_i \frac{d^2 r_i}{dt^2} = f_i \quad (\text{for all } i). \] The quantity $ R $, defined in (4.2) is the position vector of the centroid, or centre of mass of the system. It is \[ R = \frac{m_1 r_1 + m_2 r_2 + m_3 r_3 + \ldots}{m_1 + m_2 + m_3 + \ldots} = \frac{\sum_i m_i r_i}{\sum_i m_i}. \] (4.3) As usual, if we want to use coordinates instead of vectors, we remember that a single vector equation corresponds to three equations for the separate x-, y- and z-components. If $ r_1 = x_1 e_1 + y_1 e_2 + z_1 e_3 $ and $ R = X e_1 + Y e_2 + Z e_3 $, then the coordinates of the centroid will be \[ X = \frac{m_1 x_1 + m_2 x_2 + m_3 x_3 + \ldots}{m_1 + m_2 + m_3 + \ldots} = \frac{\sum_i m_i x_i}{\sum_i m_i}, \] (4.4) with similar equations for $ Y $ and $ Z $. Now for the miracle! If you differentiate (4.3) twice, with respect to time, and remember that all the masses are simply numerical constants, you find that \[ \frac{d^2 R}{dt^2} = \frac{m_1}{M} \frac{d^2 r_1}{dt^2} + \frac{m_2}{M} \frac{d^2 r_2}{dt^2} + \ldots = \frac{1}{M} f_1 + \frac{1}{M} f_2 + \ldots \] (4.5) When you write $ F $ for the vector sum of all the forces acting on the particles of the whole system, and $ A $ for the sum of their separate acceleration vectors i.e. \[ F = f_1 + f_2 + \ldots, \quad A = a_1 + a_2 + \ldots, \] (4.6) what do you get from (4.5)? It becomes simply, multiplying both sides of the equation by $ M $, \[ F = MA = M \frac{d^2 R}{dt^2} \] (4.7) – force = mass × acceleration. But now the ‘force’ is something you calculate, as the vector sum of the forces acting on all the separate particles, and so is the acceleration – which refers to a point in space (the ‘centre of mass’) and not to the motion of any real particle. That is the miracle: Newton’s second law tells us how the whole system would move if we could put all its mass at a point that we have invented and called the ‘centroid’ or ‘mass centre’. But – you will say – it can’t really be so easy. We’ve been talking about independent particles, each one of them feeling only its own ‘external’ force, like gravity or a push applied from outside. The particles inside any real object must also feel some kind of internal forces, which hold them all together, and we don’t know anything about them. Or do we? It’s here that Newton’s third law comes to the rescue: for every action there is an exactly equal but opposite reaction. So if we put all those forces into the vector sum in (4.6), of all the forces acting on all the particles, they must all cancel in pairs! We don’t have to worry about them. Fig.25a shows three particles acted on by three external forces $ f_1, f_2, f_3 $, along with three pairs of internal forces – the force $ f_{12} $ which pulls Particle 1 towards Particle 2, the equal and opposite reaction $ f_{21} $ which pulls Particle 2 towards Particle 1, and so on. To get the sum of all the force vectors you have to put all the arrows head-to-tail, by shifting them but without changing their directions, and the resultant sum is then represented by the arrow that points from the first tail to the last head. The order in which you take the arrows doesn’t matter (vector addition is ‘commutative’, as you will remember from Book 2) so you can follow each action with its reaction – to get a zero vector, which does not change the sum. In the end, only the external forces (shown as the thicker arrows, $ f_1, f_2, f_3 $, in Fig.25a) contribute to the vector sum. They are equivalent to the single force $ F = f_1 + f_2 + f_3 $ shown in Fig.25b – and this is the force which, if applied to a mass $ M = m_1 + m_2 + m_3 $ sitting at the centroid $ \bullet $, will tell us how the whole 3-particle system will move from one point in space to another, according to equation (4.7). That is the second part of the miracle: a collection of particles, acted on by external forces, moves through space as if its particles were all squeezed together into a single point mass at the centroid – even when the particles interact. The interactions may be due to their gravitational attraction or to sticks or strings that fasten them together: it doesn’t matter. That’s why, in the last Section, we were able to treat our whole world – with all its mountains and seas, forests and cities (and you and me!) – like a single enormously heavy pebble travelling around the sun! There’s one thing we do need to worry about, however. We’ve been thinking about bodies moving from one place to another, all their parts moving in the same direction: this is called translational motion. But there can still be other kinds of motion: even if the vector sum of all the forces acting is zero and the centroid of the system is not moving, the forces may tend to turn the system around the centroid, producing rotational motion. In a later Section we’ll find how to deal with rotations; but until then we’ll think only of translational motion. 4.2 Conservation of linear momentum In earlier Sections we found a principle of energy conservation, the total energy $E$ (KE + PE) being conserved in time: in other words, $E$ after an interval of time $(\Delta t) = E$ before (i.e. at $\Delta t = 0$, provided the forces acting were of a certain kind. Another important principle refers to collisions in which two or more particles may be involved: it states that the total momentum of the particles after a collision is the same as that before, the total momentum being $$M \mathbf{V} = m_1 \mathbf{v}_1 + m_2 \mathbf{v}_2 + m_3 \mathbf{v}_3 + \ldots = \Sigma_k m_k \mathbf{v}_k$$ \hspace{1cm} (4.8) as follows from (4.2) on differentiating with respect to time and putting $d\mathbf{R}/dt = \mathbf{V}$ and $d\mathbf{r}_i/dt = \mathbf{v}_i$. When there are no external forces acting on the system of particles, $\mathbf{F} = 0$, and (4.7) tells us that $\mathbf{A} = 0$ and hence $\mathbf{V}$ in the last equation must be a constant vector. In this case the vector sum of the particle momenta in (4.8) must have exactly the same value before and after the collision: $$m_1 \mathbf{v}_{1i} + m_2 \mathbf{v}_{2i} + m_3 \mathbf{v}_{3i} + \ldots = m_1 \mathbf{v}_{1f} + m_2 \mathbf{v}_{2f} + m_3 \mathbf{v}_{3f} + \ldots,$$ \hspace{1cm} (4.9) where the labels ‘i’ and ‘f’ mean ‘initial’ and ‘final’ values (before and after). The only collision we’ve studied so far was that between a bat and a ball in Section 2.4. There, the important thing was that the force involved was an impulse, creating almost at once a sudden change of momentum, and that other forces were so small they could be neglected. But this is generally true in collisions; the forces acting do so only at the moment of contact; they produce changes of momentum; and the conservation of momentum, expressed in (4.9), is the key equation to use. Let’s go back to a similar example, where a ball of mass $m$ is struck by a hammer of mass $M$ (as in the game of ‘croquet’, pictured in Fig.27(a). ![Figure 27a](image1.png) ![Figure 27b](image2.png) In Section 2.4 the mass of the ball was taken as $m = 0.2$ kg and the blow was enough to give it a velocity of 10 ms$^{-1}$. The hammer was not considered; but we’ll suppose it has a mass $M = 1$ kg and is travelling at 10 ms$^{-1}$ when it hits the ball; and we’ll take the left-right direction as positive for all velocities. We then have (still using subscripts $i$, $f$ for ‘initial’ and ‘final’) : Initially, total momentum = $MV_i + mv_i = (1\text{kg}) \times (10 \text{ ms}^{-1}) + 0 = 10 \text{ kg ms}^{-1}$ Finally, total momentum = $MV_f + mv_f = MV_f + (0.2\text{kg}) \times (10 \text{ ms}^{-1})$ On equating the two values of the total momentum we get $MV_f = 10\text{kg ms}^{-1} - 2\text{kg ms}^{-1} = 8\text{kg ms}^{-1}$, so, since $M = 1 \text{ kg}$, the hammer velocity is reduced from 10 to 8 m s$^{-1}$ (shown by the shorter arrow). What about the kinetic energy, before and after the collision? Initially, total KE = $\frac{1}{2}Mv_i^2 = \frac{1}{2}100 \text{ kg m}^2\text{s}^{-2} = 50 \text{ kg m}^2\text{s}^{-2}$ Finally, total KE = $\frac{1}{2}MV_f^2 + \frac{1}{2}mv_f^2 = \frac{1}{2}64 \text{ kg m}^2\text{s}^{-2} + \frac{1}{2}(0.2\text{kg}) \times (100 \text{ m}^2\text{s}^{-2})$. So before the collision the KE is 50 kg m$^2$s$^{-2}$, or 50 Joules (with the named units first used in Section 2.1); but after collision the KE is reduced to 42 J. Where has the lost KE gone? Well, the forces acting in a collision don’t have to be conservative: there is no potential energy function and no principle of conservation of the total energy. A collision usually makes a loud noise and it generates heat (the hammer and the ball can both get quite warm); and both are forms of energy – even if 8 Joules is hardly enough to heat a spoonful of water. ### 4.3 Elastic and inelastic collisions Are there any kinds of collision in which no kinetic energy is lost? – at least in good approximation. An example will remind you that there are. You must at some time have bounced a rubber ball on a stone pavement. When you drop it, its downwards velocity increases (PE turning into KE) and when it hits the pavement it’s going quite fast; then it bounces back, coming almost up to your hand; then down again and so on. If it came all the way back, the upward velocity after the bounce (collision) would be the same as the downward velocity when it hit the pavement. And you could say the collision was ‘perfectly elastic’ – there would be no loss of KE. Nothing is quite perfect, or the ball would go on bouncing forever! But the example gives us the idea: we define an elastic collision as one in which there is no loss of kinetic energy. And for such collisions we can use the principle of energy conservation in addition to that of momentum conservation. On the other hand, if you try to bounce a lump of wet clay it just doesn’t play! it simply says “shlop” and sticks to the surface. And if two lumps of wet clay collide they just become one; and you have an example of a perfectly inelastic collision. To see how important the kind of collision can be, we can go back to the croquet hammer and ball. But let’s not suppose the ball goes away with a velocity of 10 ms$^{-1}$ (the velocity of the hammer when it struck the ball) – which was only a guess anyway. Conservation of momentum then requires that $mv_i + MV_i = mv_f + MV_f$ or $$m(v_i - v_f) = M(V_f - V_i), \quad (a)$$ in which both final values are now unknown. To get them we need a second equation (to solve for two unknowns we need two equations); so we try assuming the collision is perfectly elastic, which means the total kinetic energy will also be conserved. This gives us a second condition: $\frac{1}{2}m_1v_{1i}^2 + \frac{1}{2}m_2v_{2i}^2 = \frac{1}{2}m_1v_{1f}^2 + \frac{1}{2}m_2v_{2f}^2$. And this means \[ m(v_i^2 - v_f^2) = M(V_f^2 - V_i^2), \] which can also be rearranged to give \[ m(v_i - v_f)(v_i + v_f) = M(V_f - V_i)(V_f + V_i). \quad (b) \] The initial velocities are given, $v_i = 0, V_i = 10 \text{ ms}^{-1}$, and the two equations, (a) and (b), are now enough to give us both of the final velocities. Divide each side of equation (b) by the corresponding side of (a) (the two sides being in each case equal!) and you get \[ v_i + v_f = V_f + v_i \quad \text{or} \quad v_f - V_f = V_i - v_i. \quad (c) \] But (a) and (c) together make a pair of simultaneous linear equations: both must be satisfied at the same time and they are linear in the two unknowns, which we can call $x = v_f$ and $y = V_f$ – so as to see them more clearly. Thus, (c) in the first form can be written \[ y = v_i + x - V_i, \] while (a) becomes \[ m(v_i - x) = M(y - V_i). \] We can get rid of $y$ in this last equation by substituting the value $y = v_i + x - V_i$ from the one before it. And then we only have to get out the $x$ by untangling the messy thing that’s left. That’s a bit of simple algebra (see Book 1, Chapter 3) so you can do it yourself: you should get \[ x (= v_f) = \left( \frac{m - M}{m + M} \right) v_i + \left( \frac{2M}{m + M} \right) V_i. \quad (4.10) \] If you do it the other way round, substituting for $x$ instead of $y$, you will find the solution for $y$: \[ y (= V_f) = \left( \frac{2m}{m + M} \right) v_i + \left( \frac{2M}{M - m} \right) V_i. \quad (4.11) \] On putting in the numerical values we now find $v_f = (50/3) \text{ ms}^{-1}$ and $V_f = (20/3) \text{ ms}^{-1}$: so if the collision is perfectly elastic the ball takes more than the initial velocity of the hammer (indicated by the long arrow in Fig.27(b)). And we can be sure that the total kinetic energy will still be just what it was before the hit (because we made it so! – by supposing the collision to be elastic). You can check the numbers: you should find $(250/9)$ J for the ball and $(200/9)$ J for the hammer, giving altogether the 50 J before the ball was hit. And what if the collision is perfectly inelastic? – if the hammer strikes a ball of wet clay. The two things, hammer and ball, then stick together and become one. To see what difference it makes, suppose the masses are the same as in the last example and that the hammer has the same initial velocity. In this case we have: Initially, total momentum $= mv_i + MV_i = (1 \text{ kg}) \times (10 \text{ ms}^{-1})$ Finally, total momentum $= (m + M)V_f = (1.2\text{kg}) \times V_f,$ where $V_f$ is the final velocity of hammer plus clay, moving as one, and is the only unknown. There must be no change of total momentum, so \[ V_f = \frac{(1\text{ kg}) \times (10\text{ ms}^{-1})}{1.2\text{ kg}} = (25/3)\text{ms}^{-1} \] As for the kinetic energy, it started with the value 50 J but is now $\frac{1}{2}(m + M)V_f^2 = \frac{1}{2} 1.2\text{ kg} \times (25/3)^2 (\text{ms}^{-1})^2 = (125/3) \text{ kg m}^2\text{s}^{-2} = 41.667 \text{ J}$ – so more than 8 J of the initial KE is lost, without any useful result (the ball is still sticking to the hammer). For the present, that’s all you need to know about the conservation of momentum; but, remember, we’re talking about linear momentum and motion in a straight line. Sometimes we’ll need to talk about the momentum of, say, a wheel, spinning around an axis. That will be angular momentum and we’ll begin to think about it in the next Chapter. Exercises (in preparation) Chapter 5 Rotational motion 5.1 Torque Suppose we have a system of particles moving through space with constant velocity $V$ (which may also be zero) and want to know what goes on inside the system. The vector $V$ refers to the centre of mass, which moves according to (4.8) when external forces are applied to the system. (Note that capital letters, like $M$, $V$, $F$, will now be used as in Section 4.1 for quantities that refer to the whole system – not to a single particle.) When the vector sum of these forces is zero $$\frac{d}{dt}(MV) = m_1 \frac{d^2 r_1}{dt^2} + m_2 \frac{d^2 r_2}{dt^2} + \ldots = 0 \quad (5.1)$$ but this does not mean that $m_1(d^2 r_1/dt^2) = 0$ etc. for each separate term in (5.1). It only means that one point $R$ with coordinates $X, Y, Z$ (given in (4.4) etc.) will move with constant (or zero) velocity. We can take it as a new origin and call it $O$. What else can happen? The system can turn around $O$, which from now on we’ll think of as a fixed point. Let us take two axes, $e_1$ and $e_2$ in the plane of $r_1$, so that (see Fig. 28a) $$r = xe_1 + ye_2, \quad (5.2)$$ The vector $r$ is the position vector of the point with coordinates $(x, y)$ relative to the centre of mass, which we’ll often call the ‘CM’. And we’ll suppose one of the particles, of mass $m$, is at point $(x, y)$. When particle labels are needed they are sometimes put in the upper position, so they don’t get mixed up with indices for different vectors or components; but for the moment let’s just leave them out. A third axis, along the unit vector $e_3$, can be chosen using the ‘corkscrew rule’ (Book 2, Section 5.4): $e_3$ shows the direction in which a corkscrew would move in a turn that sends $e_1$ towards $e_2$. When $m(d^2r/dt^2) \neq 0$ it measures the force $f$ acting on the mass $m$ (Fig.28b), which is trying to move it so that its position vector $r$ will turn around the axis $e_3$. You know quite a lot about rotations from Chapter 4 of Book 2. A rotation around $e_3$ turns a unit vector $e_1$ so that it will point along $r$ in Fig.28b and is measured by the rotation angle $\theta$, counted positive when $e_1$ turns towards $e_2$. A turning force is called a torque. How do we measure a torque? Suppose you have to loosen a nut on a bolt that sticks upwards out of an iron plate – in the plane of the paper in Fig.29a. You can use a ‘key’ or ‘wrench’, which fits over the nut and has a long handle, to which you can apply a force – as shown in the Figure. The key lies along the x-axis, while the nut you’re trying to loosen is at the origin; and the force is in the direction of the y-axis. The longer the ‘arm’ of the key, the greater the torque, and the easier it is to turn the nut; the arm ‘magnifies’ the turning effect of the force. When the force is perpendicular to the arm it has the greatest effect. So let’s try a definition: the torque of a force around an axis is measured by the product Torque = (force applied) × (perpendicular distance of its line of action from the axis) How does this translate into symbols? If we use $a$ for the length of the arm and $f$ for the magnitude of the force, then the torque of $f$ about the z-axis $e_3$ will be the product $af$. We can’t call it $t$, because $t$ always stands for the time – and we find it everywhere. So let’s use the corresponding Greek letter, $\tau$ (‘tau’), and then we won’t get mixed up. Now the arm $a$, in Fig.29a, is the x-coordinate of the point $(x, y)$ at which the force is applied; $f$ is the y-component (the only one) of the vector $f$; and $\tau$ is going to be a component of the torque around the z-axis. So let’s add the labels and write $$\tau_z = xf_y.$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.3) This component of the torque is also called the moment of the force about the z-axis. But to get a more general definition we have to look at the case shown in Fig.29b, where the key does not lie along one of the axes and the applied force is not perpendicular to it. Of course you can use the same definition in words, but then you have to work out the perpendicular distance from the origin to the line of action of the force. There’s a simpler way, which is quite general and looks much nicer. You know from Section 4.1 that any force can be expressed as the vector sum of two other forces acting at the same point: so $f$ in Fig.29b is exactly equivalent to $$f = f_x e_1 + f_y e_2 = f_x + f_y,$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.4) where $f_x, f_y$ are the vectors, parallel to the two axes, with magnitudes $f_x, f_y$. The torque applied by the $f_y$, which is perpendicular to the x-axis, is $xf_y$ – exactly as in (5.4) – and is in the positive (anticlockwise) sense. But the torque due to $f_x$, perpendicular to the y-axis, has an arm of length $y$ and acts in the negative (clockwise) sense – giving a turning force $-yf_x$. The two forces together give the torque about the z-axis: $$xf_y - yf_x = \tau_z,$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.5) which works for any directions of the key, and the force acting at point $(x, y)$, in the xy-plane. Remember the order of the x,y,z and you can’t go wrong: x (first term) turning towards y (second term) gives the z-component $\tau_z$. The beauty of this result is that it holds even in three dimensions! This must be so, because if you rotate the whole system about the origin – so that the axes x,y,z turn into new axes pointing along the y,z,x directions – everything will look just the same from inside the system. (This is what we called an “invariance principle” in Book 2: there’s nothing special about different directions in space, so rotating everything will make no difference to our equations.) In this way you will find, instead of (5.5), three equations, which can be collected into $$xf_y - yf_x = \tau_z, \quad yf_z - zf_y = \tau_x, \quad zf_x - xf_z = \tau_y.$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.6) It’s enough to remember xyz → yzx → zxy, in ‘rotating’ the labels x,y,z. But remember also that the order matters; if you swap only x and y, for example, that doesn’t correspond to a pure rotation of the axes in space, but rather to a reflection in which only two axes are interchanged. If you know about vector products, from Book 2 Sections 5.4 and 6.3, you may have noticed that (5.6) says that $\tau_x, \tau_y, \tau_z$ are the three components of a vector product: $$\tau = r \times f.$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.7) This is not a ‘true’ vector. In addition to having an axis in space, it has a sense of rotation around the axis, like a screw: it is called a pseudo-vector, but here we use it only as a convenient notation for the three equations (5.6). ### 5.2 Angular momentum and torque Just as the torque is expressed as the moment of the force vector $ \mathbf{f} $ around an axis through the origin, the moment of any other vector can be defined in a similar way. If a particle of mass $ m $, at point $(x, y)$, moves with velocity $ \mathbf{v} $ and has linear momentum $ \mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v} $, then its moment of momentum, or angular momentum is defined as (again using the Greek letter $ \lambda $ instead of ‘el’ – which sometimes gets mixed up with ‘1’) \[ \lambda = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{p}. \] (5.8) In terms of components, this means \[ xp_y - yp_x = \lambda_z, \quad yp_z - zp_y = \lambda_x, \quad zp_x - xp_z = \lambda_y. \] (5.9) We know that force produces linear momentum: can it be that torque produces angular momentum? To answer this question we write Newton’s second law in the component form \[ f_x = \frac{\mathrm{d}p_x}{\mathrm{d}t}, \quad f_y = \frac{\mathrm{d}p_y}{\mathrm{d}t}, \quad f_z = \frac{\mathrm{d}p_z}{\mathrm{d}t}, \] (5.10) and ask if there is a parallel relation between components of the torque $(\tau_x, \tau_y, \tau_z)$ and the rates of change of the three angular momentum components $(\mathrm{d}\lambda_x/\mathrm{d}t, \ \mathrm{d}\lambda_y/\mathrm{d}t, \ \mathrm{d}\lambda_z/\mathrm{d}t.)$ In fact, we’d like to know if $ \tau_x = \mathrm{d}\lambda_x/\mathrm{d}t $ and similarly for the other two components. At first sight this doesn’t look very promising, because the components of $ \lambda $ in (5.9) contain products of both coordinates and momentum components – and all of them depend on time. Differentiating might just give us a mess! But let’s try it, differentiating $ \lambda_x $ with respect to the time $ t $: \[ \frac{\mathrm{d}\lambda_x}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}(yp_z - zp_y) = y\frac{\mathrm{d}p_z}{\mathrm{d}t} + p_z\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}t} - z\frac{\mathrm{d}p_y}{\mathrm{d}t} + p_y\frac{\mathrm{d}z}{\mathrm{d}t} \] But now remember that $ p_z = mv_z = m(\mathrm{d}z/\mathrm{d}t) $ and $ p_y = mv_y = m(\mathrm{d}y/\mathrm{d}t) $ and put these values in the line above. You’ll get, re-arranging the terms, \[ \frac{\mathrm{d}\lambda_x}{\mathrm{d}t} = y\frac{\mathrm{d}p_z}{\mathrm{d}t} - z\frac{\mathrm{d}p_y}{\mathrm{d}t} - p_y\frac{\mathrm{d}z}{\mathrm{d}t} + p_z\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}t}. \] The last two terms on the right are $-mv_yv_z$ and $+mv_zv_y$, respectively, and therefore cancel; while the first two terms together give $ yf_z - zf_y = \tau_x $ – the middle equation in (5.6). So we’ve done it: the result we hoped to find, and two others like it, are \[ \tau_x = \frac{\mathrm{d}\lambda_x}{\mathrm{d}t}, \quad \tau_y = \frac{\mathrm{d}\lambda_y}{\mathrm{d}t}, \quad \tau_z = \frac{\mathrm{d}\lambda_z}{\mathrm{d}t}. \] (5.11) These results are very similar to Newton’s second law in the form (5.10): it’s enough to change a force component, such as $f_x$, into a torque component ($\tau_x$); and a linear momentum component, such as $p_x$, into an angular momentum component ($\lambda_x$) – and you get (5.11). In Section 4.1, we extended Newton’s second law to a whole system of particles, however many, and found the same law applied to a single imaginary particle of mass $M = m_1 + m_2 + \ldots$, located at a single imaginary point with position vector $\mathbf{R}$, defined in (4.2). In fact, $\mathbf{F} = \frac{d\mathbf{P}}{dt}$ where $\mathbf{P}$ is the total linear momentum. In these last two Sections, however, we’ve been thinking about rotational motion, in which a force is applied to one particle, at point $(x, y)$, as it turns around an axis through the origin of coordinates. Instead of Newton’s law for translational motion, we’ve now obtained equations (5.11) which describe rotational, or angular, motion: but they still apply only to a single point mass, such as a particle moving in an orbit. What we need now is a corresponding law for whole system of particles, possibly moving around its centre of mass – which may be at rest at point $\mathbf{R}$, or may be travelling through space according to equation (4.7). To get the more general equations all we have to do is add up all the equations for the single particles; and in doing this we remember that only the external torques need be included – because every action/reaction pair will consist of equal and opposite forces with the same line of action, giving the same equal and opposite moments about the origin and hence zero contribution to the total torque. Thus, the equation $\frac{d\lambda}{dt} = \tau$ becomes, on summing, $$\frac{dL}{dt} = \mathbf{T},$$ where the capital letters stand for the sums over all particles (i) of single-particle contributions: $L = \sum_i \lambda(i)$ and $\mathbf{T} = \sum_i \tau(i)$. The particle label $(i)$ is shown in parentheses so that it doesn’t get mixed up with the labels $(x, y, z)$ for coordinate axes. When we remember that the angular momentum and torque are each 3-component quantities, and that each vector equation corresponds to three equations for the components, this all begins to look a bit messy. But equation (5.12) only says that $$\frac{dL_x}{dt} = T_x, \quad \frac{dL_y}{dt} = T_y, \quad \frac{dL_z}{dt} = T_z,$$ where $$T_x = \sum \tau_x, \quad T_y = \sum \tau_y, \quad T_z = \sum \tau_z,$$ are total torque components (leaving out the particle label $i$ in the summations) and $$L_x = \sum \lambda_x, \quad L_y = \sum \lambda_y, \quad L_z = \sum \lambda_z,$$ are total angular momentum components. We know that if the vector sum ($\mathbf{F}$) of all the external forces applied to a system of particles is zero the CM of the system will either remain at rest or will travel through space with constant velocity; but we have now found that in either case the system may still turn around the CM, provided the applied forces have a non-zero torque. The next great principle we need applies to this rotational motion: it says simply that if the total torque – or turning force – is zero then the system will either have no angular momentum or will go on rotating with constant angular momentum. In that case, \[ L_x = L_y = L_z = \text{ constant}. \] (5.16) In other words, there is a principle of conservation of angular momentum, which corresponds to that of linear momentum for a system on which no external force acts. In the next Section we begin to see how important this principle can be. ### 5.3 Another look at the solar system In Section 3.4, we were able to find how the Earth moves around the Sun – using nothing but simple arithmetic to get an approximate solution of the ‘equation of motion’, which followed from Newton’s second law. But the results may have seemed a bit strange: for centuries people had believed that the path of the Sun, its orbit, was a circle; but our results gave an orbit which was not quite circular. And astronomers knew long ago, from their observations, that some of the other planets moved in orbits which were far from circular. Why this difference? According to the principle of energy conservation, the sum of $ \frac{1}{2}mv^2 $ (the kinetic energy) and $ V $ (the potential energy) should give the constant total energy $ E $. When the force of attraction towards the Sun is given by (1.2), as $ F = -GmM/r^2 $ (putting in the minus sign to show the force is in the negative direction along the vector $ r $), the PE must be such that $ F = -(dV/dr) $ – the rate of decrease of $ V $ with $ r $. Thus $ V $ must satisfy the differential equation \[ \frac{dV}{dr} = \frac{GmM}{r^2}. \] The solution is easy to see, because (Book 3, Chapter 3) the function $ y = x^n $ has the derivative $ (dy/dr) = nx^{n-1} $ and thus, for $ y = r^{-1} $, it follows that $ dy/dr = -r^{-2} $. This does not necessarily mean that $ V = -GmM \times r^{-1} $ (which gives the right derivative), because you can add any constant $ c $ and still get the right function $ F $ when you form $ (dV/dr) $. What it does mean is that \[ V = -\frac{GmM}{r} + c \] is a general solution, whatever the value of $ c $. To choose $ c $ we must agree on a ‘zero of potential energy’ – for what value of $ r $ shall we take $ V = 0 $? The usual convention is to count $ V $ as zero when the two masses, $ m $ and $ M $, are an infinite distance apart: this gives at once $ 0 = 0 + c $, and so $ c $ must also be zero. The PE of a planet of mass $ m $ at a distance $ r $ from the Sun is therefore chosen as \[ V = -\frac{GmM}{r}. \] (5.17) The energy conservation equation now requires $\frac{1}{2}mv^2 - (GmM/r) = \text{constant}$; but if the orbit is not exactly circular, so the distance of the Earth from the Sun is not fixed, the separate terms (KE and PE) cannot both be constant. When the Earth goes closer to the Sun (smaller $r$) its PE must become more negative and its KE, and velocity, must increase; and when it goes further away its PE will become less negative and it will travel more slowly. To understand what’s happening, we need to use the other great principle: the conservation of angular momentum, which applies to any orbital motion in the presence of a central field i.e. a force directed to one fixed point (in this case the Sun, taken as origin). The central force $F$ has zero torque about the origin (see Fig.30, which lies on its line of action. (Note that $F$, shown as the bold arrow in the Figure, lies on top of the position vector $r$ but has the opposite direction – towards the Sun.) ![Figure 30](image1.png) ![Figure 31](image2.png) The Earth’s angular momentum around the Sun (i.e. its moment of momentum) must therefore remain constant. Here we’re thinking of the Earth as a single particle, but equation (4.23) applies for any number of particles – so we can keep the same notation even for a one-particle system, using the symbols $L$ and $T$ instead of $\lambda$ and $\tau$. The conservation principle for $L$ may then be written, with the vector product notation used in (5.8), $$L = r \times mv = \text{constant} = m h \hat{n} \quad (5.18)$$ – a vector of constant magnitude in a direction normal to the plane of the orbit, written as a unit vector $\hat{n}$ multiplied by a constant $h$. In fact, $h$ is the product of the magnitudes of the vectors $r$ and $v$ multiplied by the sine of the angle between them: $h = rv \sin \phi$, as shown in Fig.30. The constant $h$ has a simple pictorial meaning. The base of the shaded triangle in the Figure has a length $v$, which is the distance moved by the Earth in unit time; and the height of the vertex (at the Sun) is the length of the perpendicular, $p = r \sin \phi$. The area of this triangle is thus Area=$\frac{1}{2}$ base $\times$ height (as we know from simple geometry, Book 2, Chapter 3). So $h = vp = rv \sin \phi$ is just twice the area of the shaded triangle – twice the area ‘swept out’ by the radius vector $r$, in unit time, as the Earth makes its journey round the Sun. We say that $h$ is twice the areal velocity; and what we have discovered is that the areal velocity is a constant of the motion for the Earth and all the other planets as they move around the Sun. This important result was first stated four hundred years ago by Kepler, on the basis of astronomical observations, and is usually called “Kepler’s second law”. His “first law”, published at the same time, stated that the orbit of any planet was an ellipse, not a circle, and his “third law” concerned the period of the planet – the time it takes to go round the Sun. Of course, Kepler didn’t have Newton’s laws to guide him, so his discoveries were purely experimental. Much later, in fact, Newton used Kepler’s observations to show that the force of attraction between two bodies must be given by an equation of the form (1.2), an inverse square law. The interplay of experiment and theory is what leads to continuous progress in Physics and makes it so exciting; you never know what’s coming when you turn the next corner! 5.4 Kepler’s laws From the two principles we have – conservation of energy and conservation of angular momentum – we can now get all the rest! First we note that the velocity $ \mathbf{v} $, being a vector, can be written as the sum of two perpendicular components. There will be a radial component, along the direction of the unit vector $ \hat{\mathbf{r}} $ (shown in Fig.31), and a transverse component, in the transverse direction $ \hat{\mathbf{s}} $. As $ \mathbf{r} $ sweeps out the shaded area in Fig.30, both $ \hat{\mathbf{r}} $ and $ \hat{\mathbf{s}} $ will change. In a small increase of the angle $ \theta $, call it $ d\theta $, the tip of the (unit-length) arrow representing $ \hat{\mathbf{r}} $ will move through $ d\theta $ in the transverse direction. And if this change takes place in a small time interval $ dt $ the rate of change of $ \hat{\mathbf{r}} $, as it rotates, will thus be $ (d\theta/dt)\hat{\mathbf{s}} $. The rate of increase of the angle $ \theta $, with time, is the modulus of the angular velocity and the corresponding increase in the unit vector $ \hat{\mathbf{r}} $ is written $ d\hat{\mathbf{r}}/dt = (d\theta/dt)\hat{\mathbf{s}} $. If you next think about the way $ \hat{\mathbf{s}} $ changes (look again at Fig.31), you’ll see the length of the unit vector changes by the same amount – but in the negative direction of $ \mathbf{r} $! These two important results together can now be written, denoting the angular velocity by $ d\theta/dt = \omega $, \[ \frac{d\hat{\mathbf{r}}}{dt} = \omega \hat{\mathbf{s}}, \quad \frac{d\hat{\mathbf{s}}}{dt} = -\omega \hat{\mathbf{r}}. \tag{5.19} \] Notice that the two rates of change are written with the notation of the usual differential calculus; but each is the derivative of a vector, with respect to time, and although the time is a scalar quantity (measured by a single number $ t $) the vectors $ \hat{\mathbf{r}} $ and $ \hat{\mathbf{s}} $ are not. The vectors change with time and are said to be “functions of a scalar parameter” $ t $. But the definition of the time derivative of a vector is parallel to that of any scalar quantity $ y = f(t) $: just as $ (dy/dt) $ is the limiting value of the ratio $ \delta y/\delta t $, when the changes are taken smaller and smaller, so is $ dv/dt $ the limiting value of the change $ \delta v $ divided by the number $ \delta t $. Notice also that the magnitude of the angular momentum vector, $ \|\mathbf{L}\| = h $ in (5.18) is simply a multiple of the angular velocity $ \omega $: \[ \mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \times m\mathbf{v} = h\hat{\mathbf{n}}, \quad \|\mathbf{L}\| = h = mrv = mr(r\omega) = mr^2\omega. \tag{5.20} \] We’re now ready to find the two missing laws. Kepler’s first law The first law states that the orbits of all the planets in the solar system are ellipses. An ellipse is shown in Fig.32: it is the figure you get if you knock two pegs into the ground and walk around them with a ‘marker’, tied to a long loop of string passing over the pegs and kept tightly stretched, as in the Figure. If $O_1$ and $O_2$ are the positions of the pegs, and $M$ is the position of the marker, then the loop of string (constant in length) makes the triangle $O_1MO_2$. The points $O_1$ and $O_2$ are called the foci of the ellipse; and Kepler noted that, for all the planets, the Sun was always to be found at one of the foci. If the two foci come together, to make a single focus, the orbit becomes a circle. ![Figure 32](image) (Note. The proof that follows is quite difficult! Don’t worry about the details – you can come back to them when you’re ready – but look at the equation (5.25), which will tell you how to calculate the ellipse.) To show that the orbit is, in general, an ellipse we start from the fact that the angular momentum (5.20) is a constant of the motion, while the Earth still moves according to Newton’s second law $m\mathbf{a} = \mathbf{F}$. The acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity vector with time; and such a rate of change is often indicated just by putting a dot over the symbol for the vector. With this shorthand, $\mathbf{a} = \dot{\mathbf{v}}$ and similarly $\dot{\mathbf{r}}$ will mean $\frac{d\mathbf{r}}{dt}$. In the same way, two dots will mean differentiate twice: so $\mathbf{a} = \ddot{\mathbf{v}} = d\dot{\mathbf{r}} = \frac{d^2\mathbf{r}}{dt^2}$. From (5.19) the velocity vector can be written in terms of its radial and transverse components, in the directions of unit vectors $\hat{\mathbf{r}}$ and $\hat{\mathbf{s}}$. Thus $$\mathbf{v} = \frac{d}{dt}(r\hat{\mathbf{r}}) = \frac{dr}{dt}\hat{\mathbf{r}} + r\frac{d\hat{\mathbf{r}}}{dt} = \dot{r}\hat{\mathbf{r}} + r\dot{\theta}\hat{\mathbf{s}}.$$ (5.21) $$\mathbf{a} = \dot{\mathbf{v}} = \left(\frac{d^2r}{dt^2}\hat{\mathbf{r}}\right) + \left(\frac{dr}{dt}\omega\hat{\mathbf{s}}\right) + \left(\frac{d(r\omega)}{dt}\right)\hat{\mathbf{s}} + (r\omega)(-\omega\hat{\mathbf{r}}).$$ (5.22) At the same time, by (1.2), the force vector is $\mathbf{F} = -(GmM/r^2)\hat{\mathbf{r}}$. Newton’s second law (mass × acceleration = force) then equates two vectors, $m\mathbf{a}$ and $\mathbf{F}$, both lying in the plane of the orbit – whose normal is the constant vector $\mathbf{L} = h\hat{\mathbf{n}}$, according to (5.20). Now let’s take the vector product of both sides of the equation with $\mathbf{L} = h\hat{\mathbf{n}}$. Why? Because we know the motion must be in the plane and the vectors must therefore have no normal components: taking the vector product of the equation with $\hat{\mathbf{n}}$ will simply ‘kill’ any components normal to the plane because the vector product of a vector with itself is zero! The in-plane components, which we want, will be obtained by solving the equation that remains; and this becomes $ m \mathbf{a} \times h \hat{\mathbf{n}} = -(GmM/r^2) \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times h \hat{\mathbf{n}} $. But \[ m \mathbf{a} \times h \hat{\mathbf{n}} = m \frac{d}{dt} (\mathbf{v} \times h \hat{\mathbf{n}}) \] while, using $ L (= r \times v) $ in place of $ h \hat{\mathbf{n}} $, \[ -(GmM/r^2) \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times h \hat{\mathbf{n}} = -(GmM/r^2) \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times (r^2 \omega) \hat{\mathbf{n}} = -(GmM) \omega \hat{\mathbf{s}}, \] since the three unit vectors $ \hat{\mathbf{r}}, \hat{\mathbf{s}} $ and $ \hat{\mathbf{n}} $ form a right-handed basis with $ \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \hat{\mathbf{s}} = \hat{\mathbf{n}}, \hat{\mathbf{s}} \times \hat{\mathbf{n}} = \hat{\mathbf{r}}, \hat{\mathbf{n}} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}} = \hat{\mathbf{s}} $. (Look back at Book 2, Section 5.4, if you’re not sure about vector products.) On taking away a common factor $ m $, and remembering that $ d\hat{\mathbf{r}}/dt = \omega \hat{\mathbf{s}} $, the equation of motion can be written \[ \frac{d}{dt} (\mathbf{v} \times h \hat{\mathbf{n}}) = GM \frac{d\hat{\mathbf{r}}}{dt} = \frac{d}{dt} (GM \hat{\mathbf{r}}). \] But if the derivatives of two vector quantities are equal the quantities themselves can differ only by a constant vector, call it $ e \hat{\mathbf{a}} $ – a numerical multiple of the unit vector $ \hat{\mathbf{a}} $, which fixes a direction in space. We can therefore write \[ (\mathbf{v} \times h \hat{\mathbf{n}})/(GM) = \hat{\mathbf{r}} + e \hat{\mathbf{a}}. \tag{5.23} \] Now let $ \theta $ be the angle between the position vector $ \mathbf{r} $ and the constant vector $ \mathbf{a} $; and take the scalar product of the last equation with $ \mathbf{r} $. The result will be, putting the right-hand side first, \[ \mathbf{r} + er \cos \theta = \mathbf{r} \cdot (\mathbf{v} \times h \hat{\mathbf{n}})/(GM). \tag{5.24} \] The final step depends on the result (Book 2, Section 6.4) that in a ‘triple-product’, like that on the right, the order of the ‘dot’ and the ‘cross’ can be interchanged; so the last equation can be re-written in the standard form \[ \mathbf{r}(1 + e \cos \theta) = (\mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{v}) \cdot h \times \mathbf{n})/(GM) = h^2/GM. \tag{5.25} \] There are two numerical parameters in this equation: $ e $ is called the eccentricity and determines whether the ellipse (Fig.32) is long and thin, or shorter and ‘fatter’; the other, $ h^2/GM $, gives half the ‘length’ of the ellipse, the value of $ a $ in the Figure. Suppose we are told the values of these parameters. Then any pair of values of the variables $ r $ and $ \theta $ that satisfy equation (5.25) will fix a point on the ellipse (see Exercise xxx). By starting with $ \theta = 0 $ and increasing its value in steps of, say, 45 degrees, calculating corresponding values of $ r $ from (5.25), you’ll find a series of points $ P(r, \theta) $ (like $ P_0, P_1, P_2, P_3 $ in Fig.32) which fall on the ellipse. We can find the value of $ a $ (which is called the “length of the semi-major axis) from the values of $ r $ at points $ P_0 $ and $ P_2 $: they are easily seen to be $ r_0 = l/(1+e) $ and $ r_2 = l/(1-e) $, from which it follows that $ a = l/(1-e^2) $. (Check it yourself!) With a bit more geometry (see Exercise xxx) you can find the length of the other axis: $ b $ in Fig.32 is the semi-minor axis. To summarize, the length and width of the ellipse are determined as $2a$ and $2b$, with $$a = \frac{l}{1 - e^2}, \quad b = \frac{l}{\sqrt{1 - e^2}}.$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.26) Knowing all this about the ellipse, we can come back to the last of Kepler’s famous laws. Kepler’s third law The third law answers the question: How long does it take a planet to complete its journey round the Sun? This time ($T$) is called the period: the period of the Earth is about 365 days, while that of the moon as it goes around the Earth is about 28 days. The orbits of the planets are all ellipses, even though their masses ($m$) may be very different, because equation (5.25) does not contain $m$: they differ only in having different values of the parameters $l = h/GM$ and $e$ – and these are fixed once we know one point P on the orbit, along with the corresponding velocity vector. We take the parameter values as ‘given’ because they must have been determined millions of years ago, when the solar system was being formed, and they change very very slowly as time passes. What Kepler wanted to do was to find a rule relating $T$ to the form of the orbit. And, as a result of careful measurements, he found that, for all the known planets, the square of the period is proportional to the cube of the long axis of the orbit; in other words $T^2 \propto a^3$. Now that we know the forms of the orbits, we should be able to prove that Kepler’s third law will correctly describe how the length of the year, for any of the planets, varies with the half-length ($a$) of the orbit. First let’s remember that, from (5.18) and the paragraph that follows it, that $h$ is twice the areal velocity of the planet (the shaded area in Fig.30, which is swept out in unit time by the vector $r$): so if we know the area of the whole ellipse we can simply divide it by $\frac{1}{2}h$ and that will give us the number of time units taken to sweep over the whole area. You may think the area of an ellipse will be hard to find: but it’s not. You known from Book 2 that the area of a circle is $\pi r^2$; and an ellipse is only a ‘squashed’ circle. Think of a circle of radius $a$ and imagine it cut into thin horizontal strips of width $d$, so that $n \times d = a$. To squash the circle you simply squash every strip, so that the width is reduced to $d'$, without changing the number of strips or their lengths. When $nd' = b$ you’ll have an ellipse of half-length $a$ and half-width $b$, as in Fig.32. And because every strip has been reduced in area (i.e. width$\times$length) by a factor $b/a$, the same factor will give the change in the whole area: the area $\pi a^2$ for the circle will become $\pi a^2 \times (b/a)$ for the ellipse. Thus, $$\text{area of an ellipse} = \pi ab \quad (a = \text{halflength}, \ b = \text{halfwidth}).$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.27) On dividing the whole area of the orbit by the amount swept over in unit time ($\frac{1}{2}h$) we get the number of time units needed to complete the whole orbit: $$T = \frac{\pi ab}{\frac{1}{2}h} = \frac{2\pi ab}{\sqrt{GMl}},$$ where we have used the definition of the parameter $l$, namely $l = h^2/(GM)$, just after equation (5.25). That’s all right: but we can’t get $l$ just by looking at the sky! On the other hand we \textit{can} observe the length and width of an orbit; and from (5.26) we can get $l$ in terms of $a$ and $b$. Thus \[ \frac{b^2}{a} = \left( \frac{l^2}{1 - e^2} \right) \left( \frac{1 - e^2}{l} \right) = l. \] (5.28) And now, by substituting this value in the equation for the period $T$, we find \[ T = \frac{2\pi ab}{\sqrt{GM}} \frac{\sqrt{a}}{b} = \left( \frac{2\pi}{GM} \right) a^{3/2}. \] (5.29) This is Kepler’s third law. In words, it states that the square of the period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the half-length of its orbit. But now this result has been \textit{proved}, from Newton’s laws, we have obtained the actual value of the proportionality constant: it is $2\pi/(GM)$ and depends only on the mass of the Sun, which is the same for all planets in the solar system, and the gravitational constant $G$, which we can find for ourselves by measuring the force of attraction between two heavy bodies in the laboratory – here on Earth! Another thing – our Sun has been in the sky for a long time (about 5000 million years is the estimated age of the solar system) and the Sun’s mass $M$ is slowly changing, because it burns up fuel in producing sunshine. As $M$ gets smaller, the orbit’s half-length $a$ gets bigger and so does the period $T$: the planet spends longer far away from the Sun and takes longer to go round it. And it’s the same for all the planets: it may be another 5000 million years before the Sun uses up all its fuel and the solar system dies – but, when it does, we’ll all go together! \textbf{Exercises} (in preparation) Chapter 6 Dynamics and statics of rigid bodies 6.1 What is a rigid body? We’ve spent a long time in space – thinking about the planets moving around the Sun, as if each one was a single particle, moving independently of the others. Now we’ll come back to Earth and to systems of many particles, not moving freely but all joined together, somehow, to make a rigid structure. A simple example was studied in Section 4.1, where Fig.26a showed three massive particles joined by light sticks (so light that we could forget they had any weight): the sticks are needed only to keep the distances between all pairs of particles fixed. The fact that the distances between all the mass points stay fixed, even when they may be moving, is what makes the structure rigid. The structure shown in Fig.26a lies in a plane – it is flat – but all our arguments about internal and external forces, actions and reactions, and so on are unchanged if there are many particles and they are not all in one plane. All we must do is use three coordinates for every mass point and three components for every vector (force, velocity, etc.). So what we did in Section 4.1 was very general. This model of a rigid structure can be extended to rigid bodies in which there may be millions of particles – all so close together that no space (almost) is left between them. If you cut out, from a flat sheet of metal, a shape like that in Fig.26a, you will get a plane triangular lamina, or plate: think of this as made up from an enormous number of tiny bits of metal, all joined together so that the distance between any two bits doesn’t change as the lamina moves. You then have a rigid body in the form of a lamina. And we don’t have to ask about how the bits are joined together because (as we saw) Newton’s third law tells us that actions and reactions always come in equal pairs – and that’s enough! If we number all the particles and suppose there is a bit of stuff with mass $m_1$ at the point with coordinates $(x_1, y_1)$, one with mass $m_2$ at $(x_2, y_2)$, and so on, then we can define things like the coordinates of the centre of mass just as we did in Section 4.1. The total mass of the body ($M$, say) will be given by (4.1) and the position vector ($\mathbf{R}$) of the centre of mass will follow from (4.3). Let’s repeat the equations: $$M = m_1 + m_2 + m_3 + \ldots$$ \hspace{1cm} (6.1) is the mass of the whole body, while the centre of mass, or centroid, is at the point \[ R = \frac{m_1 r_1 + m_2 r_2 + m_3 r_3 + ...}{m_1 + m_2 + m_3 + ...} = \frac{\sum_i m_i r_i}{\sum_i m_i}. \] (6.2) The coordinates $(X, Y, Z)$ of the centroid (components of $R$) are given by \[ X = \frac{m_1 x_1 + m_2 x_2 + m_3 x_3 + ...}{m_1 + m_2 + m_3 + ...} = \frac{\sum_i m_i x_i}{\sum_i m_i}, \] (6.3) with similar equations for $Y$ and $Z$. In a real ‘rigid body’, made out of some continuous material like metal or hard plastic, there will be too many particles to count – an infinite number. But we can imagine the body cut into small pieces, each one being given a number, and go ahead in the same way using this ‘model’ of the continuous body. If you’ve studied the Calculus (in Book 3) you’ll be able to guess how the equations need to be changed. Suppose, for example, you have a long iron bar and want to find its CM. Measure distances along the x-axis, so that the ends of the bar are at $x = 0$ and $x = L$; and suppose every unit of length has a mass $m_d$, which is called the mass-density – just the mass per unit length. Then a piece of the bar between points $x$ and $x + dx$, with length $dx$, will have a mass $m_d(x)dx$, where in general $m_d$ may depend on position and so is written as a function of $x$. The total mass of the bar will be the sum of the masses of all the bits, in the limit where the bits get smaller and smaller but you have infinitely many of them. This is something you’ve met in calculus; and the limit of the sum in an equation like $M = \sum_i m_i$ is written \[ M = \int_0^L m_d(x)dx, \] which is a definite integral taken between $x = 0$ and $x = L$, the two ends of the bar. In the Exercises at the end of the Chapter, we’ll see how such integrals can be evaluated, but for the moment we’ll just suppose it can be done. ### 6.2 Rigid bodies in motion. Dynamics To get some ‘feeling’ for what happens when a rigid object moves through space, we can start with a very simple system, thinking first of just two masses $(m_1, m_2)$ at the two ends of a light stick (Fig.33a). We’ll call it a “stick-object”. In this case, measuring distances $(x)$ from the position of mass $m_1$, so that $x_1 = 0, x_2 = l$ (the length of the stick), the centroid will have x-coordinate \[ x_c = \frac{(m_1 \times 0 + m_2 \times l)}{(m_1 + m_2)} = \frac{m_2 l}{m_1 + m_2} \] – where we use $x_c$ instead of $X$, because this is the distance from $m_1$, a point fixed in the body, not one of the coordinates $(X, Y, Z)$ of the centroid as it moves through space. The centroid is indicated in Fig.33a by the ‘bullet’ ●, for the case where the first mass is twice as heavy as the second: $ m_1 / m_2 = 2 $, which gives $ x_c = l/3 $ – one third of the way along the stick. If you now throw the stick-object into the air it will move as if all its mass is concentrated at the centroid, whose coordinates $ X, Y, Z $ will change with time. But as the centroid moves the stick will also rotate. As soon as you let go of the stick it will move under the influence of gravity; and, as we know from Section 3.2, the centroid (moving like a single particle) will follow a parabola. Fig.33b shows where the centroid has got to after some time $ t $; and also shows how the stick might have rotated during that time. What can we say about the rotational motion? The details will depend on how the object is thrown, on the force we apply before letting go. And, to be simple, we’ll suppose the force ($ F $ in Fig.33a), which is an impulsive force, is applied to $ m_1 $ in the vertical plane – so that the rotating stick always stays in the vertical plane and we need only think about x- and y-components of the forces acting. The stick, after it leaves your hand, will go on rotating about a horizontal axis through the CM; and the only forces acting on it will be $ f_1, f_2 $, as shown in Fig.33b. How will they change its rotational motion? In Section 4.4 we discovered a very general principle: that angular momentum is conserved, according to (5.12), when no torque is acting on a system; so we need to know how much torque (if any) is produced by the forces $ f_1, f_2 $. Remember we’re thinking of the torque (the moment of the forces) around the centre of mass and that each moment can be written nicely as a vector product (5.7). Thus \[ T = \tau_1 + \tau_2 = r_1 \times f_1 + r_2 \times f_2, \] where all distances are measured from the CM; so $ r_i $ is the position vector of mass $ m_i $ relative to the mass centre. If we use this reference frame to calculate the position of the centroid, using (4.2), it must of course come out as $ R = 0 $ because we’re there already! In other words, \[ (\sum_i m_i)R = \sum_i m_i r_i = 0. \] Now look at the total torque in (6.4), putting $ f_i = m_i g \hat{f} $, where $ \hat{f} $ is a unit vector pointing vertically downwards: it can be written \[ T = \sum_i \tau_i = \sum_i r_i \times (m_i g) \hat{f} = \left( \sum_i m_i r_i \right) \times g \hat{f} = 0, \] – since we have just seen that $ \sum_i m_i r_i = 0 $, and if a vector is zero then so is its product with any other vector. We’ve shown that the torque around the centroid of any object, due to gravity, is zero – that there is no resultant turning force that would produce a rotation. This is one of the most important properties of the centre of mass and is the reason why the CM or centroid used to be called the “centre of gravity”. We know from Chapter 4, Exercise (xxx) that the CM of a uniform bar is at its midpoint, so if we hang it from that point there will be no turning force to make it tip over to one side or the other. Similarly If you support the stick-object in Fig.33a at one point only, directly below the CM ($ \bullet $), it will stay horizontal as long as $ F = 0 $ even though one of the weights at its two ends is twice as big as the other; and we say it is “in balance”. There’s more about the principle of the balance in the next Chapter, where we talk about making weighing machines. But now we’re talking about the motion of the stick-object when it is thrown in the air. When it is in free flight (Fig.33b) there is no applied torque and according to (5.12) the angular momentum $ L $ must stay constant with the value you gave it before letting go. So the stick-object will go on rotating, around a horizontal axis through the CM, as it makes its journey through space. That’s all supposing you threw the stick ‘straight’, so the motion started off in the vertical plane, with the axis horizontal: otherwise the stick would ‘wobble’, with the rotation axis continually changing direction, and that gives you a much more difficult problem. So for the rest of this Section we’ll think only about rotation of a body around an axis in a fixed direction. Motion around a fixed axis is very important in many kinds of machinery and it’s fairly easy to deal with. But it still seems that angular motion is very different from motion through space. We know that Newton’s second law applies directly to a rigid body, the total applied force $ F $ giving a rate of change of linear momentum $ P $ according to (4.7), namely $ F = (dP/dt) = M(dV/dt) $ – just as if the total mass was all at the CM and moved with linear velocity $ V $. But for the rotational motion we have instead $ T = (dL/dt) $ and there seems to be no similar last step, relating $ L $ to the angular velocity $ \omega $. Wouldn’t it be nice if we could find something like (5.12) in the form \[ T = \frac{dL}{dt} = I \frac{d\omega}{dt}, \] where $ \omega $ is the angular velocity produced by the torque $ L $ and $ I $ is a new proportionality constant? To show that this is possible we only need to express $ L $ in terms of the angular momentum vectors for all the separate particles that make up the body. Remember that $ L $ is a vector (of a special kind) and is simply a sum of one-particle terms $ \lambda_i $, given in (5.8) with components in (5.9). We want to find $ L $ in the easiest possible way, so let’s take the axis of rotation as the z-axis and evaluate $ \lambda_z $, given in (5.9), for the particle with mass $ m_i $. But haven’t we done this already? In talking about the Earth (with mass $ m $) going around the Sun we wrote the angular momentum as \[ r \times p = r \times (mv) = mr v \sin \phi \] where $ r $ was the distance from the axis (through the Sun and normal to the plane of the orbit) to the point with coordinates $ x, y $; and $ \phi $ was the angle between the vectors $ r $ and v. It’s just the same here: the z-component of $ \lambda $ will be $ \lambda_z = mr v $ because this is a rigid body, with $ r = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2} $ (fixed) and v perpendicular to the position vector $ r $. We can also introduce the angular velocity, as we did in (5.20), because $ v = r \omega $ and therefore \[ \lambda_z = mrv = mr(r\omega) = m(x^2 + y^2)\omega. \tag{6.6} \] To get the total angular momentum we simply take one such term for every particle (of mass $ m_i $ at point $(x_i, y_i)$ – $z_i$ not appearing) and add them all together. The total angular momentum around the axis of rotation is then \[ L_z = \sum_i \lambda_z = \sum_i m_i(x_i^2 + y_i^2)\omega = I_z \omega, \tag{6.7} \] where $ I_z $ is property of the rotating body, evaluated for a given axis (in this case called the z-axis) from the formula \[ I_z = \sum_i m_i(x_i^2 + y_i^2) = \sum_i m_i r_i^2, \tag{6.8} \] where $ r_i^2 $ is simply the square of the distance of the mass $ m_i $ from the given rotation axis. Note that the moment of inertia of an object is not determined once and for all time – like the mass – just by weighing it: it depends on the shape of the object, the masses of all its parts and where they are placed, and on what axis you choose. If you have an egg-shaped object, for example, there will be different moments of inertia for spinning it around its long axis and a short, transverse, axis. For a three-dimensional object there are three of them, all calculated in the same way, called principal moments of inertia; and often the principal axes are ‘axes of symmetry’ (see Chapter 6 of Book 1) around which you can rotate the object without making any change in the way it looks (as in the case of the egg – where any transverse axis gives the same value of the moment, so there are only two different principal values). All this will be clear when you try to calculate a moment of inertia, as in some of the Exercises at the end of the Chapter. But let’s start things off with an example – An Example A bicycle wheel spinning around its axis Put the wheel in a horizontal plane, with its axis vertical. From above it will look like Fig.34a, below; or, if you add masses ($ \bullet $) on the rim, like 34b. The masses on the rim won’t apply any torque to the wheel, because each mass will feel only a downward force $mg$, parallel to the axis, with zero torque around the axis). You can spin the wheel, in either case, by applying a horizontal force $F$ to the rim. The magnitude of the applied torque is then $T = F \times R$, where $R$ is the radius of the wheel. To say what will happen to the wheel you need to know its moment of inertia, $I$. That’s easy: you just use (6.8). If any bit of the rim has mass $\Delta M$ it will contribute $R^2 \times \Delta M$ to the moment of inertia about the axis; and since all the bits are the same distance from the axis the total moment of inertia for the whole wheel will be $I_0 = R^2 M$ (forgetting about the wire spokes, which are very light). If you apply the force $F$ for a short time the wheel will start spinning about its axis. But after adding the masses, as in Fig.34b, the wheel will not start spinning so easily – it will have much more inertia. If each lump of stuff has a mass $m$, and there are 18 of them, the loaded wheel will have a moment of inertia $I = I_0 + 18R^2 m$. You’ll now have to apply a much larger torque, and perhaps for a longer time, to get the wheel moving (i.e. to increase its angular momentum) – as follows from equation (5.12). And once you’ve got the wheel moving it will be much harder to slow it down – as you’ll discover it you put a stick between the spokes! One last thing about rotational motion of a body around a fixed axis: since every bit of mass is moving, because it has an angular velocity, as well as the velocity due to its translation through space, it will have a kinetic energy. Just the kinetic energy of translation is $\frac{1}{2}MV^2$, we might expect something similar for the rotational kinetic energy, but with an angular velocity $\omega$ in place of the velocity $V$ of the CM and a moment of inertia $I$ in place of the total mass $M$. And that’s exactly what we find. To get the kinetic energy of rotation we can use the same method as in getting the angular momentum (moment of momentum) around the axis (the ‘z-axis’). Every element of mass $m_i$ is moving with a linear velocity $v_i = r_i \omega$, where $\omega$ has the same value for all points in the body, and therefore has a kinetic energy $$\frac{1}{2}m_i v_i^2 = \frac{1}{2}m_i r_i^2 \omega^2.$$ If we add all contributions, remembering that $\omega$ is the same for all of them, the result will be $$T_{rot} = \frac{1}{2}I_z \omega^2,$$ where $I_z$ is the moment of inertia as defined in (6.8). Even when the axis of rotation is not fixed, but is free to turn and twist in any direction about one fixed point, a similar calculation can be made (though it is much harder). And even when the body is completely free and has no point fixed in space the total kinetic energy can be written as $$T = T_{trans} + T_{rot},$$ where $T_{trans}$ is the KE of the total mass $M$, as if it were concentrated at the CM and moving with velocity $V$, while $T_{rot}$ is the extra KE due to rotational motion of all elements relative to the CM, as if it were fixed. So the ‘separation’ of the motion of a rigid body into translational and rotational parts is very general indeed – even though it’s all in our minds, to help us to think and calculate! 6.3 Rigid bodies at rest. Statics In Chapter 1, when we first started to talk about forces acting on a particle, we were mainly interested in equilibrium – where the forces were ‘in balance’ and didn’t produce any motion. And we noted that Statics and Dynamics were the two main branches of the Science of Mechanics. Since then, we’ve nearly always been studying bodies in motion (i.e. Dynamics). Whatever happened to Statics, which is what most books do first? We did it that way because Statics is only a ‘special case’ of Dynamics, in which the bodies move with zero velocity! So once you’ve done Dynamics you can go straight to Statics without having to learn anything new. You only need ask for the conditions under which all velocities are zero - and stay zero. These conditions follow from the two equations (4.7) and (5.12) which state, respectively, that (i) force produces linear momentum (and hence translational motion), and (ii) torque produces angular momentum (and hence rotational motion). The conditions for no motion at all – for equilibrium – can therefore be stated as \[ F = \sum f = 0 \] (6.11) – the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body must vanish – and \[ T = \sum r \times f = 0 \] (6.12) – the vector sum of all the torques acting on the body must also vanish. Here the terms have not been labelled, but it is understood that, for example, $ \sum r \times f $ means $ r_1 \times f_1 + r_2 \times f_2 + ... $, where force $ f_i $ is applied at the point with position vector $ r_i $ and the sum runs over all particles ($ i = 1, 2, 3, ... $) in the body. If these two conditions are satisfied at any given time, then the forces will produce no changes and the conditions will be satisfied permanently, the body will stay in equilibrium. So far, we have supposed that the torque refers to any axis through the centre of mass O. This was important in Dynamics; but in Statics there is no need to use the CM. If we take a new origin $ O' $, with position vector $ R $ relative to the CM, the position vector of any point P will become $ r' = r - R $, instead of $ r $. (If you’re not sure about this make a diagram with dots at points O, $ O' $, P and draw the arrows $ R $ (from O to $ O' $), $ r $ (from O to P), and $ r' $ (from $ O' $ to P): you’ll see that $ r' $ is the vector sum of $ r $ and $-R$). The torque about an axis through $ O' $ and perpendicular to the plane of the vectors $ r, R $, will then be \[ T' = \sum r' \times f = \sum (r - R) \times f = \sum r \times f - R \times (\sum f) = T, \] as follows from (6.12). In statics, you can take moments about just any old point and the equilibrium condition $ T' = T = 0 $ is always the same! Since the total force $ F $ and the total torque $ T $ are both 3-component quantities, and will only vanish if all their components are separately zero, the vector equations (6.11) and (6.12) are equivalent to two sets of ordinary (scalar) equations: \[ F_x = 0, \quad F_y = 0, \quad F_z = 0 \] (6.13) and, for the torque components, \[ T_x = yF_z - zF_y = 0, \quad T_y = zF_x - xF_z = 0, \quad T_z = xF_y - yF_x = 0, \] (6.14) where, as usual, we use Cartesian coordinates where the x-, y-, and z-axes are all perpendicular to each other. Remember that the order of the labels $(x, y, z)$ in each of the torque equations is cyclic – in the first equation, the x-component (on the left) depends on y- and z-components (on the right), while in the second you replace xyz by yzx and similarly in the third you again move the first letter to the end (yzx → zxy). In the Examples, we’ll see how these six scalar equations can be solved to find the kinds of equilibrium that can result. Example 1 - a loaded bench The Figure below represents a wooden plank, of weight $w$, supported at two points, P₁ and P₂. ![Figure 35](image) We can also add a number of loads (e.g. people sitting), of weights $w_1, w_2, \ldots$, say, at distances $x_1, x_2, \ldots$ to right or left of the midpoint ●. When the system is in equilibrium, what will be the values (in kg wt) of $f_1, f_2$, the upward forces exerted by the two supports? As we know already, the force on the plank due to gravity can be represented by a vector of length $w$ pointing vertically down from its midpoint. Two other forces, with their points of application, are also shown in the Figure. Notice that any two forces with the same line of action are exactly equivalent: the point of application doesn’t matter – you can slide the force along the line without changing its effect (its moment around any point stays the same). This is sometimes called the “principle of transmissibility of force”. So the up arrows $f_1$ and $f_2$ are drawn as if the forces are applied at the top surface of the bench, while $w$ starts from the underneath surface (not the CM, which is inside): this just makes the drawing clearer. Let’s now write down the two conditions, (6.12) for zero total force and (6.13) for zero torque. The first means (taking x-axis left-right along the bench, y-axis vertically upwards, and z-axis pointing towards you out of the paper) \[ f_1 + f_2 - w = 0. \quad (\text{A}) \] There is only one equation, for the force components in the y-direction. The x- and z-components are zero. The second condition (6.13) also gives only one equation (can you say why?), where the support-points, $P_1$ and $P_2$, are at $x = -X$, relative to the mid-point as origin. This is (noting that $w$ has zero moment about the origin) $$-Xf_1 + Xf_2 = 0, \quad (B)$$ which means $-f_1 + f_2 = 0$; and if we solve these two simultaneous equations (see Book 1) by adding them together, it follows that $2f_2 - w = 0$. So $f_2 = \frac{1}{2}w$. The second unknown follows on putting this result back in the first equation: $f_1 + \frac{1}{2}w - w = 0$ and therefore $f_1 = \frac{1}{2}w = f_2$. As we'd expect, each support carries just half the weight of the bench. Remember that the zero-torque condition applies for any choice of axes, when we calculate the moments. So we can check our results by taking moments around, say, an axis through point $P_1$. Again, the forces give only z-components of torque, but now instead of equation (B) we find $$2Xf_2 - Xw = 0,$$ since $f_1$ has zero moment about the new axis, while $w$ has a negative (clockwise) moment. Thus, $f_2 = \frac{1}{2}w$ and you get the same result as before. It's more interesting to ask what happens if a heavy person, of weight $W$, sits on the bench, with his CM at a distance $x$ from the mid-point. In this case the conditions (A) and (B) are changed: they become $$f_1 + f_2 - w - W = 0, \quad (A)$$ for zero vertical force, and $$-Xf_1 + Xf_2 + xW = 0, \quad (B)$$ for zero torque about the z-axis through the origin. Suppose now the person weighs four times as much as the bench, so $W = 4w$, and sits down half way between the left-hand support ($P_1$) and the middle. In that case, $x = \frac{1}{2}X$ and the new equations are $$f_1 + f_2 = 5w, \quad (A) \quad \text{and} \quad -Xf_1 + Xf_2 = -2Xw. \quad (B)$$ Again, the two equations can be solved to give the values of the two unknowns, $f_1, f_2$. Cancelling a common factor $X$ from (B) and adding the result to (A), gives $2f_2 = 3w$ so $f_2 = (3/2)w$; and if we put this result back in (A) we get $f_1 = 5w - (3/2)w = (7/2)w$. That's the complete solution: the right-hand support carries three times the weight it carried before the person sat down, while the left-hand support carries seven times as much. Things like this are going to be very important if you ever have to build a bridge, with heavy trucks running over it. You'll want to know how strong the supports must be and how many of them will be needed. Example 2 - a lifting device The Figure below shows a device for moving heavy loads. The load hangs from a beam (shown shaded grey), carried by a strong wire cable. At the start, the load will lie on the ground; but the beam can be pulled into a more vertical position by a second wire cable, which passes over a smooth bar and can be wound round a drum (shown as a circle on the left). What you’ll want to know are the tensions $T_1$ and $T_2$ in the two cables; and also the reaction $R$ of the ground – which acts against the pressure applied to it by the beam. So there are three unknowns, one of which is a vector (and we don’t even know which way it points). In the Figure, the load has been lifted clear of the ground and the beam is in equilibrium when all the forces acting on it satisfy the conditions (6.12) and (6.13). First we have to say exactly what they are. As you’ll remember from Chapter 1, the tension in a string or cable is the same at all points: there are two forces, equal but acting in opposite directions. We’ll usually just show the magnitude of the tension, without putting in all the arrows. $T_1$ is produced by the winding machine, $T_2$ by the weight it has to support. As usual, we’ll resolve all forces into horizontal and vertical components, so that $T_1$ acting on the beam will have components $T_{1h}$ (pointing to the left) and $T_{1v}$ (pointing vertically upwards). Similarly $R$ will have components $R_h$ (pointing to the right) and $R_v$ (pointing directly upwards). The other forces are vertical – the weight $W$ of the beam and the tension $T_1$, which has the same magnitude as the weight $w$ it supports. For equilibrium, the total horizontal force on the beam must be zero and so must the total vertical force. So we can write the conditions on the magnitudes of the forces as \[(a): \quad R_h - T_h = 0, \quad (b): \quad R_v + T_v - W - w = 0.\] Now take moments about a horizontal axis through the top end of the beam (which, we’ll suppose, has length $L$ and makes an angle $\theta$ with the ground). Counting anticlockwise torques as positive, this gives a third condition: \[(c): \quad -R_v(L \cos \theta) + R_h(L \sin \theta) + W(\frac{1}{2}L \cos \theta) - T_v(D \cos \phi)a - T_h(D \sin \phi) = 0,\] where $\phi$ is the angle that the ‘lifting’ cable makes with the horizontal. Now let’s put in some numerical values, taking \[L = 4 \text{ m}, \quad w = 20 \text{ kg}, \quad W = 40 \text{ kg}, \quad \theta = 30 \text{ deg}, \quad D = L/4 = 1 \text{ m}\] – $D$ being the distance from the top end of the beam to the point where the ‘lifting’ cable is attached. (To make the arithmetic easier, we’ll choose the height of the wall so that $ \phi = \theta $, but if you have a pocket calculator you can use other values.) The three conditions then become (a) : $ R_h - T_h = 0, $ (b) : $ R_v + T_v = 60 \text{ kg wt}, $ and, for zero torque around a horizontal axis (pointing towards you out of the plane of the Figure), (c) : $ -R_v(4\cos 30 \text{ deg}) + R_h(4\sin 30 \text{ deg}) + W(2\cos 30 \text{ deg}) $ \[ = T_v(3/2)\cos 30 \text{ deg} + T_h(3/2)\sin 30 \text{ deg}. \] There are then four things we don’t know, two components of the reaction $ R $ and two components of the tension $ T_1 $, which is a vector – even though we’ve only used its magnitude $ T_1 = \|T_1\| $. And there’s a golden rule that to find $ n $ ‘unknowns’ you must have $ n $ independent conditions. We have only three – so something is missing. We must find another equation. What can it be? You’ll remember, from Chapter 1, that a string or cable can’t apply a ‘push’. It can only feel a tension – and this force can only be along the string. But here we have resolved the force (the vector $ T_1 $) into two components, one (horizontal) of magnitude $ T_h = T \cos \theta $, the other (vertical) of magnitude $ T_v = T \sin \theta $; and we were hoping to solve our equations as if the two components were independent. In fact, they are not: the ratio $ T_v/T_h $ is fixed by the direction of the string – so here is our missing equation. It is (d) : $ \frac{T_v}{T_h} = \frac{T \sin \theta}{T \cos \theta} = \tan \theta = \tan 30 \text{ deg}. $ And now we can solve the four equations (a),(b),(c), and (d). (Remember that the sine, cosine and tangent of 30 deg can be obtained from an equilateral triangle, all angles being 60deg. Take each side of length 2 units and drop a perpendicular from one corner to the opposite side; each half of the triangle then has one angle of 90deg and sides of lengths 1,2 and $ \sqrt{3} $ units. If you draw it, you’ll see that $ \sin 30 \text{ deg} = \frac{1}{2}, \cos 30 \text{ deg} = \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{3}, $ and $ \tan 60 \text{ deg} = 1/\sqrt{3}. $) On putting in the numerical values and dividing all terms by $ 4\cos 30 \text{ deg} $ equation (c) becomes \[-R_v + R_h(1/\sqrt{3}) - T_v(1/4) - T_h(1/4\sqrt{3}) = -20 \text{ kg wt}. \] But from (a) $ R_h = T_h $ and from (d) $ T_v = T_h/\sqrt{3}; $ so on putting these values in the last equation above we get (check it!) \[-R_v + (1/2\sqrt{3})T_h = -20 \text{ kg wt}. \] We’re nearly there! Equation (b) told us that $ R_v + T_v = 60 \text{ kg wt}, $ which is the same as $ R_v + (\sqrt{3})T_h = 60 \text{ kg wt}. $ If you add this to the last equation above, you get rid of one unknown, $ R_v, $ which cancels out. So you are left with \[(3/2\sqrt{3})T_h = 40 \text{ kg wt}, \quad \text{or} \quad T_h = (80/\sqrt{3}) \text{ kg wt}. \] That’s the first result. The next follows at once because (a) told us that $ R_h = T_h $. And we know from (d) that $ T_v = T_h / \sqrt{3} $. So $ T_v = (80/3) \text{kg wt} $. Finally, putting the values of $ R_v $ and $ T_v $ into (b), we get $ R_v = (60 - 80/3) \text{kg wt} = (100/3) \text{kg wt} $. And we’re done! Notice that the units (the metre and the kilogram weight) have been kept throughout, but if your equations are right you can safely leave out the units – they will ‘look after themselves’. We kept them in just to make sure that everything was OK: the numbers that come out at the end are \[ R_h = 46.189, \quad R_v = 33.333, \quad T_h = 46.189, \quad T_v = 26.667 \] and as they all refer to forces they are correctly measured in ‘kg wt’. The magnitude of the tension in the cable is also important and comes out as $ T = \sqrt{T_h^2 + T_v^2} = 80(2/3) = 53.333 $ – again in ‘kg wt’. Example 3 - equilibrium with friction Sometimes we’ve talked about strings passing over smooth pegs and things sliding down smooth surfaces, as if there was nothing to stop the motion or to slow it down. But we know that real life is not like that: something may be hard to move because it is resting on a rough surface and, however hard you push, it never gets started. Or if it is already moving it doesn’t go on forever – eventually it stops. But Newton’s first law told us that an object could only change its “state of uniform motion in a straight line” if some force was acting on it – to make it move faster or to slow it down. Even when something is falling ‘freely’ through the air – perhaps a man falling from an aircraft, before he opens his parachute – the constant force due to gravity doesn’t produce an acceleration that goes on forever: there is a ‘terminal velocity’ and when the speed stops increasing the total force on the body must be zero. In other words, the force applied by gravity, or by pushing or pulling, must be opposed by some kind of resistance; and when the two forces are equal and opposite the state of motion will stop changing. In Dynamics, we’ve usually left this resistance out of our calculations, saying it was so small we could forget about it and that our equations would be a ‘good approximation’. But in Statics, where the forces acting are ‘in balance’ and result in equilibrium, we can’t neglect anything, however small. The resistance to motion offered by a rough surface, or by the air being pushed out of the way by a falling body, is called friction. It opposes any kind of motion and it’s not easy to make theories about it because it depends on very small details of the ‘interface’ between things in contact. But it’s so important that life would be very different without it. You wouldn’t even be able to walk without it! Try walking on a very smooth slippery surface: if you step forward with one foot, the other one goes backwards and your centre of mass stays where it was – without friction you have nothing to push against. And you wouldn’t be able to write, because without friction the pen would slip through your fingers! So how do we deal with friction in our theories? We have to fall back on experiment, which can give us ‘empirical’ laws, that can then be expressed mathematically. For hundreds of years the laws of friction have been known; and they’re very simple to write down and apply. A body like, say, a brick, resting on a horizontal surface (Fig.37) will feel only the the downward force (its weight $W$) due to gravity, and an upward reaction ($N = -W$) exerted by the surface. Suppose you now apply a horizontal push $F$, as shown in the Figure. What you’ll find is this: At first nothing happens; but then, when $F$ reaches a certain value $F_0$, the equilibrium is broken and the brick begins to slide. At that point, $F$ is exactly opposed by a frictional force $f$, which arises from the contact between the two surfaces – the underneath of the brick and the surface that supports it. So we can say $f \leq F_0$, where the equality applies just when the brick begins to move. Moreover, $F_0$ depends only on the nature of the two surfaces and $N$, the modulus of the normal force $N$ that presses them together: if you double $N$ then you double $F_0$ – the maximum frictional force you can get is proportional to $N$. Putting all this together, the basic law of friction can be written $$f \leq \mu_s N,$$ where the proportionality constant $\mu_s$ is called the “coefficient of (static) friction”. Once the block starts moving, the frictional force usually becomes a bit smaller, but the same relationship holds except that $\mu_s$ is replaced by $\mu_d$ – the “coefficient of (dynamical) friction”. Note that both coefficients, relating one force to another, are numbers – without physical dimensions – and that they relate only the magnitudes of the forces. For any given surfaces they can be found only by experiment. Also $N$ is always normal to the contact surface, while $f$ is perpendicular to $N$ and opposes the force $F$ producing the motion. Equation (6.15) is not an exact law; but it usually holds in good approximation and is easy to apply. Let’s have a go. Figure 38 shows a ladder propped against a vertical wall (the y-axis): without friction between the foot of the ladder and the horizontal floor (the x-axis), there could be no equilibrium (can you say why?). The ladder would just slide down before you could even start to climb it. Suppose the ladder has length $L$, with its CM at the midpoint, and that its foot is at the point $(X, 0)$ while its top is at $(0, Y)$. The labelled arrows indicate the forces acting. $W =$ weight of the ladder, $N =$ normal reaction from the floor, $f =$ frictional force ($f \leq N$), $F =$ normal reaction from smooth wall. Resolving all forces into their x- and y-components, equilibrium requires that (a) $F - f = 0$, (b) $N - W = 0$, for no motion in the x- and y-directions. Now take a horizontal axis through the foot of the ladder: the condition for zero torque around the axis is, (c) $-F \times Y + W \times (\frac{1}{2}X) = 0$. The first question to ask is: Will the ladder stay up, or will it slip? And of course we’ll need to know how long and heavy it is; and also what angle it makes with the wall and what is the value of the coefficient of friction. To make the arithmetic easy let’s take the length as $L = (13/2)$ m and put the foot of the ladder $(5/2)$ m away from the wall. Suppose also that $W = 80$ kg wt and that the coefficient $\mu_s = 0.4$. There are now three conditions (a,b,c) and the things we don’t know are $f, N, F$ – so we have enough equations to find them. It’s easy: from (b) we have $N = W = 80$ kg wt; and from (c) $F \times 6 = W \times (5/4)$, which gives $F = 50/3$ kg wt. Finally, from (a), $f = F = (50/3)$ kg wt. Now the greatest possible value of $f$ is $0.4 \times N = 0.4 \times 80 = 32$ kg wt. So we’ve answered the question: we only need a frictional force of $(50/3) = 16.667$ kg wt to keep the ladder in equilibrium, so all is well – $f$ can go up to 32 kg wt before the ladder will slip! The next question to ask is: How far can I climb up the ladder before it slips? Try to answer this for yourself. Put in your own weight, $w$, and suppose you go a horizontal distance $x$ from the foot of the ladder. Then ask how equations (a),(b) and (c) must be changed and finally solve them. Exercises (in preparation) Chapter 7 Some simple machines 7.1 Levers A machine or device is some kind of tool that will help you to do a particular job, like lifting a heavy weight or digging a hole in hard ground. One of the simplest machines you can imagine is probably a lever, which can take many forms depending on what you want to do; and the simplest lever is just a strong iron bar – strong so it won’t bend when you use it. Two kinds of lever are shown in Fig.39, each being used for a similar purpose – to topple a heavy block of wood. In Fig.39a a long bar is supported (at some point P) by a pivot, strong enough to carry a heavy weight without sinking into the ground and ‘sharp’ enough to allow the bar to turn easily around the particular point P. Suppose you want to push over the big block of wood, on the left in Fig.39a, and it’s much too heavy to move by hand. You can do it by putting one end of the lever under the block (you may have to dig a small hole if there isn’t enough space to get the bar in) and then pressing down with all your weight on the other end. How does it work? Suppose the horizontal distance from the pivot P to the end of the bar, under the block, is $d_1$ and that from P to the point where you apply the force $f$ is $d_2$. Then the force $F$ applied to the block when it just starts to move will be equal but opposite to its reaction $-F$ on the bar. When the bar is ‘in balance’ we can take moments about P and say that the anticlockwise moment of $-F$ plus the clockwise moment of our applied force $f$ must be zero; and that means that $-Fd_1 + fd_2 = 0$. The ratio of the magnitudes of the two forces is thus $R = F/f = d_2/d_1$: the force you can apply to the block is $R$ times as big as the force you have to apply with your muscles. This ratio is called the mechanical advantage of the device – with good reason, because if the bar is 2 m long and you put the pivot 10 cm from the edge of the block you can apply an upward force to the block of twenty times your own weight! Figure 39b shows another kind of lever, in which the bar is bent at one end: that’s the end you use, by putting it under the edge of the block and this time pulling the free end of the bar (which is nearly vertical) towards you. Sometimes it’s easier to pull than to push; and also there’s no need to supply a separate pivot – the bent end of the bar acts as its own pivot, provided you put a bit of iron plate under it so that it doesn’t sink into the ground. In both cases, whether you push or pull, the mechanical advantage is $R = d_2/d_1$; but notice that in Fig.39b the distance $d_1$, from the lifting end to the pivot (the point of contact between bar and ground - or plate) can be very small, making the ratio $R$ correspondingly larger. There are many other kinds of lever, but the idea is always the same: There is a Load, a Pivot, and an Applied Force; and if the distance from Load to Pivot is $d_1$, while that from Applied Force to Pivot is $d_2$, then your mechanical advantage is the ratio $d_2/d_1$ – the force you apply is ‘magnified’ by this factor. ### 7.2 Weighing machines At the beginning of Book 1, the idea of weighing things was introduced. The thing to be weighed was put in a ‘pan’, which moved a pointer over a scale (marked in kilogramme weight units) to show how much the object weighed. The weight is a force and two forces are equal if they move the pointer to the same point on the scale. The weighing machine must be calibrated by putting, in turn, 1,2,3,... standard units (of 1 kg) in the pan and marking the ‘pointer readings’ on the scale in the same way; and if an object put in the pan moves the pointer to half way between the points marked ‘2 kg’ and ‘3 kg’ then we say it weighs 2.5 kg. The basic operation in weighing is that of comparing two weights. The easiest way of doing that is to make a simple balance: all you need is a wooden board and something to act as a pivot as in Fig.40. Near each end of the board you draw a line to show where the weights must be placed. Before putting anything on the board you must make sure it stays ‘in balance’ (i.e. in equilibrium) when you rest it on the pivot, placed halfway between the two lines (if it doesn’t, you can add a lump of clay on one side or the other until it does). When it’s right, as near as you can make it, go ahead – To use the balance you need a standard set of weights: perhaps a small plastic bag of sand would weigh about 100 gm, so you’ll need ten of them to make 1 kg. Make sure they are equal by putting one on each side (on top of the line) and checking that they stay in balance: then, if the distance from the pivot is $d$, one weight will have an anticlockwise moment $d \times w_1$ and the other a clockwise moment $-d \times w_2$; so the total torque will be zero only when $d \times (w_1 - w_2) = 0$ and the units are equal, $w_1 = w_2$. Now you can weigh anything up to 1 kg by putting it on one side and seeing how many 100 gm units you must put on the other side to get equilibrium. When the weight $W$ is balanced by five units $W = 500\text{gm}$. If 5 units are not enough, but six are too much, you’ll need a set of sub-units (each of, say, 20 gm) and you can go ahead in exactly the same way; if you have to add two sub-units to get things to balance then the unknown $W$ will be 540 gm or 0.54 kg. Of course such a simple ‘machine’ is not going to give accurate results (can you give some reasons?) but it can easily be improved. A more accurate type of balance is indicated in Fig.41. It is usually made of metal and contains more than one pivot. The central column supports the horizontal arm on a ‘knife-edge’; and two equal ‘pans’ hang from the two ends of the arm, each being supported on its own knife-edge. There’s usually a pointer, with a scale behind it, to show when things are exactly in balance – but not for showing the weight. The standard weights to be used are now usually very accurately made pieces of metal, coming in units of 100 gm, 50 gm, 20 gm, 10 gm etc. down to 1 gm, 0.5 gm (5 milligrammes), and even smaller sub-units, depending on what the balance is being used for. This kind of balance was used for many years in weighing chemicals, in shops and laboratories, but nowadays you nearly always find electronic devices which automatically show the weight in figures. Another kind of weighing machine is still widely used in markets, for weighing heavy things like sacks of vegetables – or even people. In its simplest form it is made from a long iron bar, hanging from a strong beam (as shown in Fig.42) on a hook which acts as the pivot. Not far from the pivot hangs a scale pan on which you put the thing you want to weigh. The standard weights are usually heavy metal slabs going from, say, 5 kg down to 1 kg that you can put on a metal plate hanging from the bar – on the other side of the pivot – as in the Figure. So if you put two of the big weights and three of the smallest on the plate you’ll have a 13 kg weight. If you want to be more accurate you’ll need also sets of smaller weights, perhaps going down from 500 gm to 50 gm, and a smaller plate to carry them, which you can hang from a different point on the bar – as shown in the Figure: this kind of balance used to be called a “steelyard” (the ‘yard’ being an English measure of length, a bit shorter than the metre, and ‘steel’ being a much stronger material for making the bar from). Often the bar has a number of holes at various points, so you can choose where to put the weights, according to the load you are weighing. To use this kind of balance, you put the load on the scale pan (shown on the left in the Figure) and hang the weight you guess will be about right from the first hole to the right of the pivot. If the distance $d_1$ is twice the distance $d$, and the guessed weight is $W_1$ (e.g. 15 kg if you’ve put three of the 5 kg slabs on the plate), then the balance will go down on the left if the unknown $W$ is greater than $2 \times 15 = 30$ kg; but down on the right if $W$ is less than 30 kg. Suppose it goes down on the right. If you take away one of the 5 kg weights $W_1$ will be 10 kg; and if the balance then tips to the left you can then say $W > 2 \times 10 = 20$ kg – so you took away too much. Try, instead, with $W_1 = 14$ kg (adding two weights of 2 kg): if it still tips to the left, then $W > 2 \times 14 = 28$ kg. So you can say $28 \text{ kg} < W < 30 \text{ kg}$. Of course if your guess of 28 kg was correct the balance will tip neither left nor right – it will “stay in balance” on the knife-edge. But if this is not so, then you’ll have to start with the smaller weights. Suppose the smaller weight ($W_2$) hangs at a distance $d_2 = 4d$ from the pivot. Then the condition for staying in balance – the weights having zero total moment around the pivot – will be $$d \times W - d_1 \times W_1 - d_2 \times W_2 = 0.$$ When this condition is satisfied (with $d_1 = 2d$ and $d_2 = 4d$) we can cancel the factor $d$ and write $W = 2W_1 + 4W_2$. And if equilibrium results when the smallest weight is $W_2 = 150$ g (=0.15 kg) then we can say $W = 28 + 4 \times 0.15 = 28.60$ kg. Balances of this kind have been used for thousands of years in all parts of the world: you find pictures of them in the wall paintings in Egyptian tombs, in ancient Persian manuscripts, and in many other places. They can also be found in improved forms, which are easier to use. For example, the arm of the balance which carries the weights sometimes has a scale, with numbers showing the distance of points from the pivot, and a single fixed weight $W_0$ can slide along the scale. If equilibrium results when the weight (or rather its centre of mass!) is at a distance $D$ then the unknown weight is $W = (D/d)W_0$ – which can be read off directly from the scale, once it has been calibrated. ### 7.3 The wheel Wheels, in one form or another, have also been in use for many thousands of years. In this book, we met them first in thinking about pushing and pulling things, using some kind of cart: without the cart, and its wheels, you’d have to drag everything you wanted to move – so the invention of the wheel was an enormous step forward. Now we know about friction it’s clear that the wheel makes it easier to move things by getting rid (almost completely) of the forces called into play when things rub together: if you try to drag a heavy box over rough ground it may be impossible, but if you put wheels on it it will run smoothly. Until a few hundred years ago this was one of the most important uses of the wheel; another one being that it made it easier also to rotate heavy objects, like a heap of wet clay, by putting them onto a horizontal wheel, or table, with the axis pointing vertically upwards. The “potter’s wheel” has been in use for probably two or three thousand years in the production of urns and pots of all kinds. The next big advance was in the use of wheels for moving water in countries where it hardly ever rains and water is very precious. Nothing can grow without water; and, even if there is a short rainy season, the water soon runs away unless you can get it out of the river and up onto the land, where it’s needed for growing crops. How to do it is the problem of irrigation. And if you have to move water you need energy. One way of solving both problems came with the development of the water wheel. ![Water wheel diagram](image) Figure 43 The first wheels of this kind probably came from Egypt, where they were in use over a thousand years ago: they came to be known as “noria” wheels and in some places they can still be found. At Hama, for example, in Syria there are some giant wheels (20 m or more in diameter!) which have been running continuously for hundreds of years, using water power to lift water from the River Euphrates and supply it to aqueducts, which carry it a long way to irrigate the fields. First, let’s look at a simple water wheel (Fig.43) of the kind that was widely used in some countries during the Industrial Revolution – when people started working with machines, in factories, instead of depending on their own muscles. Fig.43 shows a wheel of the type used in driving a heavy ‘millstone’ for milling grain to make flour for bread. They were also once used for driving mechanical hammers in the steel industry (but more of that later). The ‘water supply’ comes from a point ‘upstream’ on the river, where the water level is higher; it comes to the mill wheel along an open pipe or channel (at the top in the Figure) and falls onto the specially made ‘boxes’ around the edge of the wheel. As the boxes fill with water, their weight produces the torque that turns the wheel. But as they go down the water spills out, and finally it goes back into the river as ‘waste water’ – having done its work. The giant noria wheels at Hama are very similar in design, but do exactly the opposite job: they take water from the river (at low level), by scooping it up in the ‘buckets’ fixed around the rim of the wheel, and then emptying them into the aqueduct (at high level) when they reach the top. A wheel of this kind is shown Fig.44, where you see it from the edge, which lies in the vertical plane with the axle horizontal. The river, shown in blue, is flowing away from you and the top edge of the big wheel is coming down towards you. Because a lot of energy is needed to lift all that water, the wheel needs power to drive it; but, if there’s plenty of fast-flowing water in the river, some of it can be used to turn a much smaller wheel like the one in Fig.44 and this can provide the power. How to get the energy from one wheel to the other is a problem in power transmission, which we’ll think about next. ![Figure 44](image) Suppose we have two wheels, one big and one small, and want to make one drive the other. The simplest way of doing it is to put them side by side in the same plane, each with its own axle, which supports the wheel and provides the axis around which it can turn; and then to tie them together with a loop of rope or a ‘belt’ – as in Fig.45 (below). Each axle must be carried by a pair of ‘bearings’, to hold it in the right place, and the belt must be kept tight so that it doesn’t slip when the wheels are turning. ![Figure 45](image) Note that the wheels don’t have to be close together; but if they are (Fig 45a) then they mustn’t touch. That’s because (as the red arrows show) the two wheels turn in the same sense (clockwise or anticlockwise), so the parts that come closest are going in opposite directions; and if they were rubbing together the friction would slow them down – or even stop them. The big wheels in the Figure have diameters three times as big as the small wheels; so, if they are $d$ and $D = 3d$, any point on the rim of the small one will travel a distance $\pi d$ in one turn and that’s the length of rope it will pull in. It will also be the distance moved by the other end of the rope, where it meets the big wheel; but it’s only a fraction of the distance $\pi \times 3d$ that any point on the big wheel travels in one complete turn. So one turn of the big wheel takes 3 turns of the small one! The small wheel has to turn $D/d$ times as fast as the big one, where $D$ is the diameter of the wheel it is driving and $d$ is its own diameter. This result doesn’t depend on how far apart the wheels are, as long as the belt is tight and there is no slipping. The big wheel in both Fig.45a and Fig.45b goes just three times as slow as the wheel that is driving it. Now we have a way of transmitting power from one rotating wheel to another we can look at ways of using the idea. In Fig.44, for example, the ‘power wheel’ has to transmit its energy (remember that power is the energy spent in unit time) to the noria wheel. If, in the Figure, the river is flowing away from you, then both wheels will turn the same way – their tops coming down towards you. So it’s possible (though I don’t know if this is the way it’s done in Hama!) that the building between the two wheels holds two much smaller wheels, arranged as in Fig.45b, with the smaller of the two fixed on the axle of the power wheel and the bigger one fixed on the axle of the noria wheel. That way the flowing water, pushing against the big flat boards of the power wheel, will drive the noria wheel. Another example is the water-driven mechanical hammer, which was once used in the steel industry, in countries where it rains a lot and there are many small streams coming down from the hills. Some of this machinery, originally made from wood, can still be found today – in museums – and sometimes can be seen actually working! Figure 46 shows how it works. The big hammer on the right has to be lifted and then dropped (it’s very heavy) on a bar of red-hot metal which will be put on the heavy steel ‘anvil’ – where it will be beaten into shape. The power for doing this, again and again, all day long, comes from a water wheel like that in Fig.43. It is transmitted from a small wheel (overhead on the left) through a belt which drives a bigger wheel, which in its turn lifts and drops the hammer. How can it do that? The big wheel has strong pegs sticking out of it, close to the rim, while the shaft of the hammer is supported on a pivot, which allows it to be turned when you press down on the free end. That’s what is happening in Fig.46a, where one of the pegs on the wheel that drives it is pressing down on the end of the shaft – and lifting the hammer. In Fig.46b the hammer is shown in the lifted position and the end of its shaft is just about to slip off the peg as the wheel goes on turning. That gives the man who works the machine just enough time to put the red-hot bar on the anvil before the hammer comes crashing down and flattens the metal; and that’s how knives (and swords) were made! Usually there would be many machines, side by side, all driven by the same water wheel. Nowadays, of course, things have changed and the power needed in our factories hardly ever comes from water: it comes instead from burning fuel – wood or coal, gas or oil – and a lot of the energy it contains is wasted in heat and smoke. We’ll study energy production in other Books of the Series; but the idea of the wheel is here to stay and plays an important part in our daily life. ### 7.4 Clocks and mechanisms The next big advance in using the wheel came with the invention of the gearwheel, a wheel with ‘teeth’ or ‘cogs’ around its rim. Two such wheels are shown in Fig.47, which you can compare with Fig.45a. Instead of the belt, one wheel drives the other by making contact with it, the teeth of the first wheel fitting into the spaces between the teeth of the second; the gearwheels are said to ‘engage’. So when the first wheel turns, the second one turns with it but in the opposite sense, as indicated by the red arrows in the Figure. Of course you may want the second wheel to rotate in the same direction as the one that’s driving it; and if the first wheel is going anticlockwise and you can’t change it (perhaps it’s fixed to a water wheel – and you can’t change the way the water flows!) how can you make the driven wheel go the same way, anticlockwise? The next Figure (Fig.48) shows how it can be done. With the driving wheel on the left, going anticlockwise, the next wheel must go clockwise; but, if you add a third wheel, then that will again go the opposite way – anticlockwise – which is what you wanted! In fact, if you have a ‘train’ of $N$ wheels, the last one will turn the same way as the first if $N$ is an odd number, but the opposite way whenever $N$ is even. And this doesn’t depend on the size of the wheels, or on how many teeth they have. So when you are transmitting power through a train of wheels you can always get the right sense of rotation by using the right number of wheels. You can also make the last wheel rotate faster or slower than the first, because when a small wheel drives a bigger one the speed will be reduced, while a big wheel driving a smaller one will make it go faster. A train of wheels is an example of a mechanism, usually just a part of a machine, which carries out one special job. If you ever take an old clock apart you’ll find it’s full of strange mechanisms, each with its own job to do. In the rest of this Section we’ll look at other examples. In a clock the number 60 is very important: there are 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour. The simplest device for measuring time is the pendulum – just a weight (called a ‘bob’) on the end of a string or a light stick. The time taken for one ‘double-swing’ (back and forth) is the period and this depends (in good approximation) only on the length $l$ of the pendulum and the acceleration due to gravity ($g$, which we met in Chapter 1). When $l \approx 1$ m the period is almost exactly one second; so we could use a simple pendulum as a clock – every 3600 double-swings would tell us that 1 hour had passed. But who is going to count them? That’s the job of the clock. Three things are needed: power to drive the clock; a mechanism to convert every 3600 swings into the turn of a pointer (the ‘hour-hand’) through one twelfth of a complete revolution; and some way of giving the pendulum a little push, now and then, to keep it swinging. It can all be done by using wheels. Let’s start in the middle by looking for reducing the rate of rotation of a wheel by a factor of 60, which is $3 \times 4 \times 5$, so that the clock won’t run down too fast. We already know (Fig.47) that we can get a factor of 3 from two wheels, by making the diameter of one three times that of the other; and clearly we can do the same for factor 4 and 5. In the next Figure (Fig.49a) we show wheels of diameters $d$ and $4d$, with six teeth and 24 teeth, respectively, so the big one will go four times slower than the one that’s driving it. We could even get that factor of 60 by making a wheel sixty times the diameter of the small one and cutting 360 teeth into it – though that would take a lot of material and a lot of patience! ![Figure 49](image) But now we do something clever! We combine this mechanism with the one in Fig.47 by putting the 6-tooth wheel on the same axle as the 18-tooth wheel. So now Wheel 2 will rotate 3 times slower than the driving wheel (Wheel 1) and Wheel 3 will rotate 4 times slower than Wheel 2 – and $4 \times 3 \times$ times slower than the driving wheel! We only need one more pair of wheels, with diameters $d$ and $5d$ (6 teeth and 30 teeth), to get in exactly the same way the remaining factor 5. And then we’ll have a mechanism, with only six wheels and three axles, that will give us the magic factor of sixty! Once we have have made two of them, we can use the first one to go down from pendulum swings (seconds) to minutes; and the second to go down from minutes to hours. All we need now is a source of power, to keep everything moving, and some kind of control to make sure the wheels don’t all turn too fast – running down the clock in almost no time. In the simplest clocks the power is usually provided by a falling weight, the loss of potential energy being changed into rotational motion, which has to overcome the frictional forces that resist the motion. You have to ‘wind up’ the clock at night to give it enough energy to get through the next day; and to do this you can hang the weight on a string (or a wire cable) and wind the cable round a cylinder (or ‘drum’), as in Fig.50a, by turning the handle. To prevent the weight dropping to the ground, as soon as you let go of the handle, another small device is needed. The axle of the drum must have a special kind of toothed wheel on it (called a ‘ratchet’) and something (called a ‘pawl’) to ‘lock’ the wheel if it tries to turn the wrong way. The ‘ratchet and pawl’ is shown in Fig.50b and you can see how it works: in the picture the wheel can only turn in the clockwise direction, the pawl being lifted by the force acting on it and letting the wheel turn – one tooth at a time; if you try to turn it the other way the pawl gets pushed to the bottom of the tooth – and stops it moving. ![Figure 50](image) Now we come to the most important thing, the ‘brain’ of the clock, which controls all its movements: what we need is some device to hold back the wheels, so they don’t let the clock run down (wasting all the potential energy we gave it in winding it up) in the first few seconds. We want it to take 24 hours, so it needs winding up only once a day. The thing that takes care of this is called an ‘escapement wheel’, because it holds back the teeth but lets them ‘escape’ one at a time, once for every double-swing of the pendulum. Figure 51 shows just the top half of such a wheel, along with the ‘escapement’ itself, which has two legs and sits astride the wheel. In the first position (Fig.51a) the left-hand leg is digging its ‘heel’ (really called a “pallet”) in between two teeth; and is pressing itself against the vertical side of a tooth so it can’t turn in the direction of the arrow (clockwise). The power that drives the wheel will have to wait – but for what? At this point, the pendulum (hanging down behind the escapement in the direction of the thick arrow) is just a bit to the right of vertical. But as the pendulum swings back to the left it moves the escapement so that its left leg comes up, letting the tooth ‘escape’ and move one place to the right. At the same time, its right leg goes down (Fig.51b), between two teeth further along the wheel, and again stops the wheel turning. But only until the pendulum completes its double-swing and everything returns almost to Position (a): this really means just before Position (a), where the tooth is just about to move. So the escapement wheel moves by one tooth at a time, once in every double-swing of the pendulum! How does the power keep the pendulum swinging? The pendulum hangs down between the two prongs of a fork (not shown), which is fixed to the axle of the escapement. As the escapement rocks backwards and forwards, the fork gives the pendulum a little push, to the left or the right – just enough to keep it moving. To do this, the pallets must be carefully cut to shape so that, when the pallet slips off a tooth, its ‘sloping’ face (at the bottom) is given a sudden impulse by the tooth as it pushes its way past: that part of the pallet is called the “impulse face”. Similarly, the tooth is ‘stopped dead’ when it meets the “dead face” of a pallet. The impulse goes to the pendulum through the fork that embraces it; and keeps it swinging, once every second, for as long as there is power to turn the wheels. The “tick...tock” of the clock is the noise made by the teeth of the escapement wheel alternately striking the ‘impulse face’ and the ‘dead face’ of the pallets. What a marvellous invention! Such a small and simple thing – which has kept pendulum clocks going, all over the world, ever since it was first thought of 300 years ago. Chapter 8 Turning mass into energy 8.1 A reminder of special relativity theory In Book 2 we started from simple ideas about measuring distance and showed how the whole of Euclid’s geometry could be built up from a metric axiom (Section 1.2): in three dimensional space this states simply that the distance $s$ from some origin $O$ to any point $P$ can be obtained from the formula $$s^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 \quad (8.1)$$ where $x, y, z$, the coordinates of point $P$, are distances from $O$ to $P$ measured along three perpendicular axes (the $x$-axis, $y$-axis, and $z$-axis). (If you’ve forgotten all this, go back and look at Chapter 5 in Book 2.) And for two points whose coordinates differ by amounts $dx, dy, dz$, however small, the distance between them is obtained in the same way $$ds^2 = dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2. \quad (8.2)$$ This ‘differential form’ of (8.1) is called the ‘fundamental metric form’, $dx, dy, dz$ being the differentials (Book 3, Section 2.4). But we ended Chapter 7 of Book 2 by saying how much our ideas about space had changed over the last 100 years. Einstein showed that Euclidean geometry could not be perfectly correct and in his theories of relativity showed how and why it must be changed. The changes needed are so small that in everyday life they are completely negligible; but in Physics they can’t be neglected. By taking them into account, the world has already been changed! In coming to the end of Book 4, the first one on physics, you now know enough to understand what’s been happening; so let’s first remind ourselves of the relativity theory outlined in Section 7.2 of Book 2. The new thing is that the idea of a point in space, indicated by three distances $(x, y, z)$, needs to be replaced by an event in which a fourth ‘coordinate’ $t$ is also included: If I say “I’m here today but there tomorrow” then I’m referring to two events, the first being $x_1, y_1, z_1, t_1$ and the second being $x_2, y_2, z_2, t_2$. The sets of four ‘coordinates’ then indicate two points in spacetime; and if we want to define the ‘separation’ of two ‘nearby’ events we’ll do it by writing \[ ds^2 = -dx^2 - dy^2 - dz^2 + c^2 dt^2, \] (8.3) where the constant $ c $ is put in to keep the physical dimensions right – it must have the dimensions of velocity $ LT^{-1} $ so that when multiplied by a time it gives a distance, like the other quantities $ dx, dy, dz $. But what about the $ + $ and $ - $ signs? Why don’t we just add all the terms together? Equation (8.3) is used as the fundamental metric form in ‘4-space’; and $ ds $ defined in this way is called the interval between the two events. We met a similar equation first in Section 7.2 of Book 2, where we noted that the condition \[ s^2 = c^2 t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2 = 0 \] (8.4) was one way of saying that some kind of signal, sent out from the origin of coordinates $(x = y = z = 0)$ at time $ t = 0 $ and travelling with velocity $ c $, would arrive after time $ t $ at points on the surface of a sphere of radius $ R = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2 + z^2} $. That was why we started to think that separations in ‘ordinary’ space $(dx, dy, dz)$ and those in time, namely $ c \, dt $ (defined after multiplying by $ c $ to get the dimensions right), should be treated differently. By choosing (8.3) as a measure of the ‘interval’ it is clear from the start that a ‘time coordinate’ $ ct $ is not the same as a space coordinate: the interval between two events is said to be ‘time-like’ if the time term $ c^2 dt^2 $ is greater than the space term $ dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2 $, or ‘space-like’ if it’s the other way round. The next important idea in Section 7.2 of Book 2 was that of the invariance of the interval as measured by two different people (the ‘observers’) in different reference frames, each moving with uniform velocity relative to the other. Such frames are inertial frames, in which Newton’s laws about the motion of a particle, and its resistance to change (‘inertia’) when no force is acting, are satisfied for an observer in the same frame as the particle. In the Figure below two such reference frames are indicated within an outer box, Frame 1 holding the first observer and Frame 2 (shaded in grey) holding the second; Frame 2 is moving with constant speed $ u $ along the x-direction and for Observer 2 it’s ‘his world’. ![Figure R1](image) We first met the idea of invariance in Book 2 (Section 5.2), where we noted that certain changes of coordinates, in which $ x, y, z $ are replaced by $ x', y', z' $, left unchanged lengths and angles in 3-space. For example, the distance $r$ from the origin O to Point P, with coordinates $x, y, z$ is given by $r^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2$; and any transformation in which the line OP is simply rotated into OP' leaves invariant the squared length $$x^2 + y^2 + z^2 \rightarrow x'^2 + y'^2 + z'^2 = r^2.$$ But now we’re thinking about events, in which four coordinates are needed to specify a corresponding point in spacetime; and we already know from Book 2 that it’s possible to find transformations in which $x, y, z, t$ are replaced by $x', y', z', t'$ in such a way that the form (8.4) stays invariant. The simplest transformation, is the one that corresponds to shifting the reference frame for Observer 1 along the x-axis by an amount $D$ equal to an x-velocity ($u$) times the time ($t$) on his clock: this is the distance from the origin O to the origin O' of the new reference frame (Frame 2) in which we’re putting Observer 2. This is usually taken as the ‘standard’ Lorentz transformation: it relates the distances and time $(x', y', z', t')$ at which Observer 2 records the event to those $(x, y, z, t)$ recorded by Observer 1. There’s only one event, taking place at the point shown by the bold dot in Frame 2, but both observers can see it. The transformation equations are \begin{align} x' &= \gamma_u(x - ut), \\ y' &= y, \\ z' &= z, \\ t' &= \gamma_u \left(t - \frac{u}{c^2}x\right), \end{align} where the quantity $\gamma_u$, which depends on the speed $u$ with which Frame 2 is moving relative to Frame 1, is given by $$\gamma_u = \frac{1}{\sqrt{(1 - u^2/c^2)}}.$$ $\gamma_u$ is called the Lorentz factor. The transformation ensures that $$s^2 = c^2t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2 = c^2t'^2 - x'^2 - y'^2 - z'^2$$ so that (8.4) is an invariant, even when the space-time interval is not a differential form, the separation between O and P being as big as we please. And now we see why the + and − signs are needed. Some of the amazing results that follow from the Lorentz transformation equations were noted in Book 2 Section 7.2. Perhaps they seemed unbelievable at the time – especially as you hadn’t studied any physics. But now you know something about mass and energy we can start to connect all these strange ideas together; and you’ll get some even bigger surprises. First, however, you’ll have to do a little bit more mathematics: after all we’re going from 3-space to 4-space and that’s a big jump. A hundred years ago the cleverest people in the world were only just beginning to think about it. 8.2 Vectors in 4-space First let’s remember again what (8.4), or its differential form (8.3) really means. A typical ‘event’ can be some kind of signal or disturbance, which travels through space with a certain speed, which we’ve called $c$; it might start at point O and move away in all directions, like the ripples on a pond when you throw a stone into it, arriving at point P (and many others) at some time $t$. Each observer has a clock and the two clocks are set to the same time (or ‘synchronized’) so that when Frame 2 is just passing Frame 1 ($O'$ coinciding with O) they show the same zero time, $t' = t = 0$. And each observer has, we suppose, reliable instruments for accurately measuring distances. So each observer can record the values of the coordinates and times, relative to his own frame, at which the event – the arrival of the signal at P – takes place. Each observer thinks his own time is ‘right’ – after all they have ‘perfect’ clocks and they were set to agree at the start of the experiment; but what does that mean? The fundamental invariant is often written as $$ds^2 = -dx^2 - dy^2 - dz^2 + c^2 dt^2 = c^2 d\tau^2 = \text{invariant}.$$ (8.8) By writing the invariant as $c^2 d\tau^2$, we simply introduce a proper time interval ($d\tau$) between the two events. So if a clock is fixed in any frame it will not move relative to the frame; and in any small interval we can therefore take $dx = dy = dz = 0$, finding $dt = d\tau$. The ‘proper time’ for any observer is the time he reads on his own fixed clock. But this does not mean that the time $t'$ at which an event is observed in Frame 2 (i.e. by Observer 2) is the same as the time $t$ recorded by Observer 1; because both Observer 2 and his clock are moving with velocity $u$ relative to Frame 1 and the times recorded will therefore be related by the Lorentz transformation (8.5). In particular $$t' = \gamma_u \left(t - \frac{u}{c^2} x\right) = \gamma_u t \left(1 - \frac{u^2}{c^2}\right) = \gamma_u t / \gamma_u^2 = t / \gamma_u$$ – since the moving clock (fixed in Frame 2) is now at the point with $x = ut$. Thus, the times at which the event takes place are $t$ for Observer 1 and $t'$ for Observer 2, related by $$t = \gamma_u t'$$ (8.9) – the proper (or ‘local’) time for an observer in Frame 2 must be multiplied by $\gamma_u$ to get the time for one in Frame 1. Since $\gamma_u$ is always greater than 1, it will always appear to Observer 1 that things happen later ($t$ larger) in the moving frame than they ‘really’ do (as shown on the local clock). One outcome of the time relationship (8.9) will seem very strange. If one of two twins travels at enormous velocity in a spacecraft (Frame 2) and returns home after 10 years to the other twin, who never left Frame 1, they may find it hard to recognise each other. The ‘travelling twin’ will say he has been away only 10 years (by his clock); but, if the speed $u$ is big enough to make $\gamma_u = 2$, the ‘stay-at-home’ twin will say it was 20 years – and he will have aged by 20 years, because everything that goes on in living material in Frame 1 will be going on at the same rate as the clock fixed in Frame 1. Of course, this is not an experiment you could actually do because $\gamma_u = 2$ would require the speed $u$ to be unbelievably large (how large? – given that $c \approx 3 \times 10^8 \text{m s}^{-1}$); and the velocity would have to be uniform and rectilinear to satisfy Einstein’s assumptions (Book 2, p.60). All the same, many experiments have been made, with smaller velocities and very accurate clocks, and all confirm the equations of this Section. Now let’s get back to the ideas of mass and motion. In Newton’s second law, the mass of a particle enters as a proportionality constant relating the rate of change of its velocity to the force applied to it. The mass is a property of the particle and is taken to be a constant. In relativity theory, things are different, but it is still supposed that any particle has a property called its proper mass or rest mass, which ‘belongs’ to it and will be denoted by $m_0$. This rest mass, carried along with the particle, is taken to be an invariant, independent of the frame in which observations are made. How should we relate it to the coordinates $(x, y, z)$ and velocity components $(v_x, v_y, v_z)$ when we go from 3-space to 4-space? Note that the particle velocity may not be the same as the frame velocity so a different letter is used for it ($v$, not $u$). First we have to learn how to use vectors in 4-space. With any displacement of a particle in 4-space we can associate a 4-vector, whose ‘length’ squared now includes a time component as in (8.3): $$ds^2 = -dx^2 - dy^2 - dz^2 + c^2dt^2.$$ But what about the vector itself? In Book 2, and also in the present book, distances and lengths of vectors have always been expressed in terms of cartesian components along perpendicular axes: in 3-space, for example, the squared length of a vector $r$ with components $x, y, z$ is given by $r^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2$. Here, instead, there are some minus signs and if we tried taking $(-dx, -dy, -dz, cdt)$ as the components it just wouldn’t work: the sum-of-squares form would contain only positive terms, giving $ds^2 = dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2 + c^2dt^2$ – which is not what we want. The 4-vector components can, however, be chosen in various other ways to give us the correct invariant $ds^2$. The simplest one is to introduce, along with the first three (‘spatial’) components, an extra factor $i$ – the ‘imaginary unit’ with the property $i^2 = -1$, which you met long ago in Book 1. Remember that measurements always give real values and that the components only give a way of getting those values. So let’s take as the components of the 4-vector with length $ds^2$ the ‘complex numbers’ (which contain somewhere a factor $i$) $$-idx_1 = -idx, \quad -idx_2 = -idy, \quad -idx_3 = -idz, \quad dx_4 = cdt$$ (8.10) and note that the sum of squares now gives the right value for $ds^2$: $$ds^2 = dx_1^2 + dx_2^2 + dx_3^2 + dx_4^2 = -dx^2 - dy^2 - dz^2 + c^2dt^2.$$ Sometimes a 4-vector is indicated just by showing its four components in parentheses: thus the infinitesimal interval with squared length (8.3) would be $$ds \rightarrow (-idx_1 \quad -idx_2 \quad -idx_3 \quad dx_4).$$ (8.11) This is the first of a number of important 4-vectors: all have a similar form, the first three components behave like those of a displacement vector in 3-space (e.g. on rotating the frame by changing the directions of the x-, y- and z-axes), but the fourth is a scalar (not depending on axial directions). We can get other 4-vectors, all with invariant lengths, by multiplying the components in (8.10) by any other invariant quantities, for example the proper time interval $d\tau$ or the proper mass $m_0$. First think of the velocity of a particle: it will have three components $v_x = \frac{dx}{dt}, v_y = \frac{dy}{dt}, v_z = \frac{dz}{dt}$ for an observer in Frame 1, and has been called by the letter $v$, because it has nothing to do with the $u$ used for the speed along the x-axis of Frame 2 relative to Frame 1. It is a local velocity whose x-component, for example, is the limit of the ratio of two small quantities, the displacement $(dx)$ of the particle and the time taken $(dt)$ – all measured by Observer 1 in Frame 1. How will this particle velocity look to Observer 2 in Frame 2? To answer this question we must start from the invariant interval, whose components are shown in (8.10) and form the 4-vector (8.11). If we divide every component by the invariant time $d\tau$ corresponding to the time interval $dt$ measured on the clock in Frame 1, we shall get a 4-vector with components (leaving out, for the moment, the factors $-i$ in the first three) \[ \frac{dx}{d\tau}, \frac{dy}{d\tau}, \frac{dz}{d\tau}, \frac{cdt}{d\tau}. \] – and these will behave, on going from Frame 1 to Frame 2, just like those in the basic 4-vector (8.10); they will undergo a Lorentz transformation. But how can we express them in terms of velocity components like $v_x = \frac{dx}{dt}$, as defined above? Clearly, we need an expression for $d\tau$ in terms of Frame 1 quantities. This comes from the definition (8.8), namely $c^2 d\tau^2 = c^2 dt^2 - dx^2 - dy^2 - dz^2$, which gives (note that this is just the ratio of two squares – nothing has been differentiated!) \[ \frac{d\tau^2}{dt^2} = 1 - \frac{1}{c^2} \left( \frac{dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2}{dt^2} \right) = (1 - v^2/c^2), \] where $(dx/dt)^2 = v_x^2$ and the sum of three similar terms gives the squared magnitude of the particle velocity, $v^2$. Now we have $d\tau$ as a function of $dt$, namely $d\tau = \sqrt{(1 - (v^2/c^2))} dt$, we can find the relativistic velocity components that will appear in the velocity 4-vector. A common convention is to name the 4-vector components with a capital (upper-case) letter, so they won’t get mixed up with the ordinary 3-vector components (shown in lower-case letters as $v_x$ etc.). With this notation, the first three 4-vector components (still without the $-i$ factors) will be $V_x = \frac{dx}{d\tau}, \quad V_y = \frac{dy}{d\tau}, \quad V_z = \frac{dz}{d\tau}$. Let’s get $V_x$, knowing the others will be similar: we’ll do it by relating $v_x$ to $V_x$, which is easier. Thus, \[ v_x = \frac{dx}{dt} = \frac{dx}{d\tau} \frac{d\tau}{dt} = V_x \frac{d\tau}{dt}. \tag{8.12} \] Here $v_x$ is a function of $dt$ but is also a function of $d\tau$, since $d\tau$ is related to $dt$ by $d\tau = \sqrt{(1 - (v^2/c^2))} dt$; and we are using what we know from calculus (Book 3, Chapter 3) to ‘change the variable’. Thus \[ \frac{d\tau}{dt} = \sqrt{(1 - (v^2/c^2))} = 1/\gamma_v, \tag{8.13} \] where $\gamma_v$ is defined exactly like the Lorentz factor (8.6) except that now it contains the particle speed $v$ instead of the speed $u$ of Frame 2 relative to Frame 1. On putting this last result into (8.12) we find $$v_x = \frac{dx}{d\tau} \left( \frac{1}{\gamma_v} \right) = V_x / \gamma_u.$$ (8.14) Similar results follow for the y- and z-components of velocity, while the fourth (time) component in (8.10) will give $$\frac{cdt}{d\tau} = c\gamma_v,$$ where we’ve remembered (Book 3, Section 2.4) that when $y = f(x)$ the derivative of $x$ as a function of $y$ (the ‘inverse’ function) is simply $dx/dy = (dy/dx)^{-1}$. On adding the $-i$ factors to the first three (spatial) 4-vector components we finally get the velocity 4-vector $$(-iV_1 - iV_2 - iV_3 \ V_4) = \gamma_v (-iv_x - iv_y - iv_z \ c).$$ (8.15) This particle velocity will behave, under a change of reference frame, just like the basic 4-vector (8.11) for the interval: its components will follow the standard Lorentz transformation. ### 8.3 Momentum and energy: $E = mc^2$ – a hope for the future? In earlier chapters we soon discovered that, in pre-relativistic dynamics, the linear momentum vector $p$ and the kinetic energy $E = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$ were very important quantities. The components of linear momentum of a particle moving with velocity $v$ were simply $$p_x = mv_x, p_y = mv_y, p_z = mv_z, E = \frac{1}{2}mv^2,$$ where of course $v^2 = v_x^2 + v_y^2 + v_z^2$. We now want to know what are the corresponding quantities for a very fast moving particle. In the last section we saw how a new 4-vector could be obtained from a given 4-vector simply by multiplying its four components by any invariant quantity: in that way we got the velocity 4-vector (8.15) from the displacement 4-vector (8.11) on multiplying it by the reciprocal $(1/d\tau)$ of the proper time interval. The next invariant quantity we’ll use is the proper mass $m_0$; and, since linear momentum is particle mass $\times$ velocity, we might expect that $m_0$ times the velocity 4-vector (8.15) will give us something interesting. Let’s try it. The result is $$m_0(-iV_1 - iV_2 - iV_3 \ V_4) = m_0\gamma_v (-iv_x - iv_y - iv_z \ c) = (-i\gamma_vm_0v_x - i\gamma_vm_0v_y - i\gamma_vm_0v_z \ \gamma_vm_0c).$$ (8.16) The first three components are the ordinary (pre-relativistic) momentum components $p_x, p_y, p_z$, multiplied by the Lorentz factor $\gamma_v$ (along with the usual imaginary factor $-i$, for spatial components); the fourth component is $m_0 V_4 = \gamma_v m_0 c$. What does all this mean? What Newton called $m$, the mass, now seems to be replaced by $\gamma_v m_0$ – the rest mass, multiplied by a factor depending on the particle speed $v$. So let’s go on using $m$ for this ‘apparent mass’, noting that when the speed is very small compared with $c$, $m$ will become the same as $m_0$ (quite independent of the speed, just as Newton had supposed and experiments seemed to confirm). The relativistic momentum components can thus be written $$-iP_1 = -imV_1, -iP_2 = -imV_2, -iP_3 = -imV_3, \quad P_4 = mc,$$ capital letters again being used for the components of the relativistic 4-vector. The first three components are all of ‘mass × velocity’ form, as we expected. The fourth component, however, doesn’t look like anything we’ve met before: it’s simply $mc$. To interpret it, remember that in Newton’s dynamics a moving particle had a kinetic energy (KE) of the form $\frac{1}{2}mv^2$. Can you guess what form it will take in the relativistic theory? Perhaps, like the momentum components, it will change only because Newton’s mass $m$ must be replaced by the apparent mass $m = \gamma_v m_0$, which depends on how fast it’s going? It’s easy to test this idea. Putting in the value of $\gamma_v$, from (8.13), the apparent mass becomes $$m = m_0 \gamma_v = \frac{m_0}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}} = m_0 \left(1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}\right) = m_0 \left(1 + \frac{1}{2} \frac{v^2}{c^2} + \ldots\right),$$ where we’ve expanded the square root, using the binomial theorem (Book 3 Section 3.1). On throwing away the negligible terms (represented by the dots) this can be written $m = m_0 + (\frac{1}{2}(m_0 v^2))/c^2$ or, multiplying by $c^2$, $$mc^2 = m_0 c^2 + \frac{1}{2} m_0 v^2. \tag{8.17}$$ Now $\frac{1}{2} m_0 v^2$ is the KE of a particle of mass $m_0$ moving with speed $v$. So what we’ve discovered is that the quantity $m_0 c^2$ (mass times velocity squared – which has the dimensions of energy, ML$^2$T$^{-2}$) is increased by the amount $\frac{1}{2} m_0 v^2$ when the particle is moving. When the particle is not moving, relative to the observer, the KE term in (8.17) is zero and $m \to m_0$; but the energy term $m_0 c^2$ never disappears – it is called the rest energy of a particle of rest mass $m_0$ and was discovered by Einstein, who first wrote down the equation $$E = m_0 c^2 \tag{8.18}$$ – perhaps the most famous equation of the last century. What it tells us is that any bit of mass is exactly equivalent to a certain amount of energy; and because $c$ is so large ($\approx 3 \times 10^8$ m s$^{-2}$) that energy will be enormous. One teaspoonful, for example, holds perhaps 10 grammes of water (mass units) – but $10 \times (3 \times 10^8)^2 = 9 \times 10^{14}$ kg m$^2$ s$^{-2} = 9 \times 10^{14}$ Joules of energy; and that’s enough to boil more than 200 million kg of ice-cold water (roughly 200 million litres)! And that’s where we are today: if only we could get the energy out of matter, where it’s locked away in the form of mass, there would be enough for everyone in the world. You’ll come back to such problems when you know what ‘matter’ is – what’s it made of? This is one of the great questions we meet in Book 5. Before stopping, however, note that the third 4-vector we have found holds nearly all we need to know about the dynamics of a moving particle: it is \[ (-iP_1 \ - iP_2 \ - iP_3 \ E/c) \] (8.19) – where the first three components are just like the x- y- z-components of momentum in pre-relativity times, except that the particle mass is $ m = \gamma_v m_0 $. The fourth component is shown in energy units; and now we know that $ E = mc^2 $ it corresponds to $ P_4 = E/c = mc $ – agreeing with what we found above. The important vector (8.19) is called the energy-momentum 4-vector. Many of the principles we discovered in ‘classical’ (pre-relativistic) dynamics still apply to very fast moving particles, as long as you remember that the mass $ m $ is not the same as for a particle at rest. So we find momentum and energy conservation laws need very little change. These results haven’t been proved here, but they can be proved and you can take them on trust. The very small changes are not noticeable unless the particle speed $ v $ is enormous; but we’ve already noted that the constant $ c $ will turn out (in Book 10) to be the speed of light. There is a natural limit to how fast anything can go; and now we can see what will happen when the speed of a particle gets closer and closer to that limit. When $ v \to c $ in the Lorentz factor $ \gamma_v $, the mass $ m = \gamma_v m_0 $ gets bigger and bigger, going towards the limit $ m_0/0 $, infinity! The faster it goes the heavier it gets, until finally nothing can move it faster. Looking back – You started this book knowing nothing about Physics. Where do you stand now? Building only on the ideas of number and space (Books 1 and 2) and simple mathematical relationships (Book 3), you’ve come a long way: - In Chapters 1 and 2 you’ve learnt about building physical concepts from your own experience of pulling and pushing, working and using you energy. You know about force, mass, weight, and how things move; and about Newton’s famous laws. You’ve learnt that energy is conserved, it doesn’t just disappear – it can only change from one kind to another. - Chapter 3 extended these ideas to the motion of a particle (a ‘point mass’), acted on by a force and moving along any path. Energy is still conserved. You learnt how to calculate the path of the Earth as it goes round the Sun, using the same simple laws that worked for a small particle. Amazing that it came out right, predicting a year of about 360 days! - In Chapter 4 you found out how that could happen, by thinking of a big body as a collection of millions of particles, and using Newton’s laws. You learnt about the centre of mass, which moves as if all the mass were concentrated at that one point; and about momentum and collisions. - Chapter 5 showed how you could deal with rotational motion. You found new laws, very much like Newton’s laws, and met new concepts – ‘turning force’, or torque, and angular momentum. And from the new laws you were able to calculate the orbits of the planets. - In Chapters 6 and 7 you’ve begun to study the Dynamics and Statics of a rigid body; and the construction of simple machines. You’re well on the way to the Engineering Sciences! - The final Chapter 8 brought you to the present day and to the big problems of the future. You found that mass was a form of energy and that in theory a bottle of seawater, for example, could give enough energy to run a big city for a week! – if only we could get the energy out! This is the promise of nuclear energy. We all need energy in one way or another: for transporting goods (and people), for digging and building, for running our factories, for keeping warm, for almost everything we do. At present most of that energy comes from burning fuel (wood, coal, oil, gas, or anything that will burn); but what would happen if we used it all? And should we go on simply burning these precious things (which can be used in many other ways) until they’re finished. If we do, what will our children use? Another thing: burning all that stuff produces tons of smoke, which goes into the atmosphere and even changes the world’s climate – always for the worse! We probably have to solve such problems before the end of this century: how can we do it? Do we go back to water-mills and wind-mills, or do we turn to new things, like trying to trap the energy that comes to us as sunlight – or getting the energy out of the atom? Nuclear power is being used already in many countries; but it brings new problems and many dangers. To understand them you’ll have to go beyond Book 4. In Book 5 you’ll take the first steps into Chemistry, learning something about atoms and molecules and what everything is made of. 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SUBMISSION FORM Submission on a Notified or Limited Notified Application for a Resource Consent To: The Chief Executive Environment Southland Private Bag 90116 DX YX20175 Invercargill I: Matt Francis c/o Waituna Investments Limited (Name(s)) of: Registered Office: 1 Princes Street, Paeroa, 3600, New Zealand (Address) at: (Phone) (Fax) (E-mail) Wish to SUPPORT / OPPOSE / submit a NEUTRAL submission on (circle one) the application of: Name: Lisa Thorne And/or Organisation: Te Runanga o Awarua, Department of Conservation, Environment Southland Application Number: APP-20242456 Location: Waituna Lagoon Section 29 Block XIII Oteramika HUN & Coastal Marine Area My reasons for my submission are: (State the nature of your submission and give clear reasons. Continue on attached pages if necessary) Please refer to attached submission Document 20240902WaitunaInvestmentsSubmission We OPPOSE DUE TO THE FOLLOWING POINTS: - Increased Lagoon Levels Adversely Impacting the Lagoons Ecology. - Impacts to Birdlife Movements - Impacts to Birdlife Habitat - Increased Tannins Affecting Ruppia - Degradation of a Ramsar Site - Impacts to Neighboring Properties impacting property rights, economic values and existing land use. - Erosion of Tributary Banks - The Hydraulic Effect on all of the Surrounding Land on Subsurface Drains and Soil Profiles - Leaching Of Historical Nutrients and Sediments Stored Within the Lagoon - Destruction/Limited Access to Public Property - Lack of Long-Term Research on Economic and Social Impacts - Consent Review and Modify Process - There has been insufficient consultation with the community by the applicants. - The applicants have not provided convincing data to demonstrate that maintaining the lagoon at 2.5 meters will benefit its long-term health. Despite meeting some ecological targets, the algal dominance issue observed in late 2023 serves as a stark example of potential adverse outcomes. - Concerns About the Applicants' Capabilities and the combined expertise and approach of Te Rnanga o Awarua, the Department of Conservation, and Environment Southland. We do not believe these parties have the ability to act together proactively and in a timely manner to manage this consent appropriately. I wish the Council to make the following decision (Give precise details, including the nature of any conditions sought) Please refer to attached submission Document 20240902WaitunaInvestmentsSubmission We propose that the consent be granted to the joint applicant, with the following conditions; 1. Trigger Level: The consent should specify a trigger level of 2.2 meters. This means that the lagoon must be opened when the water level reaches 2.2 meters, and the opening should occur as soon as practicable thereafter. 2. Acknowledgment of Practical Constraints: We recognize that sea and weather conditions may occasionally complicate the timing of the lagoon's opening. However, a trigger level of 2.2 meters is crucial to minimize potential adverse impacts and to ensure timely action. It is anticipated that with a 2.2-meter trigger level, the lagoon could reach 2.3 meters before the opening occurs. This provision ensures that the lagoon remains within safe parameters and helps to mitigate risks. I, am not (choose one) a trade competitor* of the applicant (for the purposes of Section 308B of the Resource Management Act 1991). If trade competitor chosen, please complete the next statement, otherwise leave blank I, am/am not (choose one) directly affected by an effect as a result of the proposed activity in the application that: (a) adversely affects the environment; and (b) does not relate to trade competition or the effects of trade competition. I, do/don't (choose one) wish to be heard in support of my submission. I, do/don't (choose one) wish to be involved in any pre-hearing meeting that may be held for this application. I have served a copy of my submission on the applicant. Yes Signed ___________________________ Date 2 September 2024 If you have any queries about this form or its purpose, please contact the Consents Division of Environment Southland (03) 211 5115 or 0800 76 88 45. Notes: 1. This submission will become publicly available information. 2. The person making this submission must send a copy to the applicant as soon as reasonably practicable after serving Environment Southland. 3. A list of all submissions received will be provided to the applicant. 4. Please be aware that third parties may request a copy of submissions received and that request is subject to the Local Government Official Information and Meetings Act 1987. We OPPOSE this Resource Consent Application for: - An increase in the lagoon opening threshold to 2.5m (above msl) - For years 1-5, summer openings may occur if water levels are at or above 2.5m for 24 hours and winter openings may occur if water levels are at or above 2.3m for seven days; - For years 6-15, openings may occur if water levels are at or above 2.5m for three days; and - For years 16-20, openings may occur if water levels are at or above 2.5m for seven days. (Currently the Lagoon seems to be holding 2.25-2.3m) We OPPOSE DUE TO THE FOLLOWING 12 POINTS: 1. Increased Lagoon Levels Adversely Impacting the Lagoons Ecology. The lagoon margins will be pushed further out which will influence ecology. An increase in lagoon levels will disrupt the delicate balance of the lagoon's ecology, affecting native species, altering habitat structures, and impacting water quality. Why we oppose: Over The past century the ecology of Waituna Lagoon has adapted to current management of water levels and regular openings, a sudden increase in water levels will have significant impacts such as: - Altered Habitat Conditions: The lagoon’s ecosystems have evolved to thrive under specific conditions. A rise in water levels will alter habitats that are critical for various species, including those that rely on the lagoon’s shallow areas, mudflats, and surrounding vegetation. - Disruption of Species: Many species in the lagoon are adapted to specific water levels and conditions. Sudden changes will disrupt breeding cycles, feeding patterns, and migration routes, potentially leading to declines in populations or shifts in community composition. - Changes in Water Quality: Increased water levels will lead to changes in nutrient dynamics, sediment distribution, and water circulation patterns. This will impact the lagoon's water quality, affecting algae blooms to oxygen levels, which in turn influences aquatic life. - Impact on Plant Life: Aquatic and riparian plants have adapted to certain water levels. Changes will likely stress or even eliminate some plant species, affecting the entire food web and habitat structure. • Erosion and Sediment Movement: Higher water levels will increase erosion and alter sediment deposition patterns, impacting the physical structure of the lagoon and surrounding land. • Management and Conservation Challenges: The Ramsar status of the lagoon recognizes its importance for biodiversity and ecological health. Significant changes in water levels will likely challenge ongoing conservation efforts and management strategies designed to maintain the ecological balance. • Impacts on Wildlife: The changes in vegetation will affect wildlife that relies on these plants for food, shelter, or breeding grounds. This will likely lead to shifts in species distributions and affect overall biodiversity. 2. Birdlife Movements* Birdlife is being pushed further out such as geese onto farmland causing damage to pasture. As a general rule, the higher the lagoon level – the more birdlife pushed onto farming land. Why we oppose: Increased lagoon levels pushing birdlife, like geese and blue herons onto farmland will cause significant issues. Higher bird populations on farmland leads to damage to crops and pastures. This shift underscores the broader ecological impact of changing lagoon levels, affecting both wildlife and agricultural activities. 3. Impacts to Birdlife Habitat Reduced wading birdlife habitat, one of the reasons Waituna originally gained Ramsar status was for its birdlife. Why we oppose: Increased water levels will alter the habitat available for wading birds, which are a key factor in Waituna Lagoon’s Ramsar designation. This change threatens the habitat that supports these birds, potentially diminishing the lagoon’s ecological value and its status as a critical site for birdlife. 4. Increased Tannins Affecting Ruppia Shading from tannins in the lagoon at the higher water levels will alter light penetration to the Ruppia affecting its growth. Why we oppose: Higher lagoon levels will potentially lead to increased shading which will limit light penetration and affect the growth of Ruppia, a crucial aquatic plant. This reduction in Ruppia could impact the overall health of the lagoon’s ecosystem, as it serves as an important food source and habitat for various species. 5. Degradation of a Ramsar Site Degradation of a Ramsar site Why we oppose: Higher lagoon levels will lead to the degradation of this existing Ramsar site. The Ramsar designation recognizes the site for its significant ecological value, including its unique habitats and biodiversity. Changes such as altered water levels will disrupt key ecological processes, degrade important habitats, and threaten species that rely on those conditions. This disruption could undermine the site’s value and conservation status. 6. Impacts to Neighbouring Properties Economic value and existing land use (farming) of neighbouring private land will be compromised. Why we oppose: Higher lagoon levels and water “backing up” will impact neighbouring private property rights and economic value for privately owned land situated close to the lagoon. This will have the following impacts; - Flooding and Land Use: Higher water levels will lead to saturation of adjacent lands. This will reduce the usability of these properties for agriculture, recreation, or other purposes. Farmers may face crop damage or loss of pastureland, affecting their income and property value. - Land Value: Properties that experience frequent or prolonged saturation will see a decrease in land market value. The risk of continued or increased saturation will make these lands less attractive for purchase or investment. - Economic Disruption: For properties used for commercial purposes or tourism, changes in lagoon levels that affect the lagoon’s health or accessibility will disrupt business operations and reduce economic returns. - Property Rights and Management: Landowners will face additional costs related to managing or mitigating the impacts of higher water levels, such as constructing barriers or improving drainage systems. These costs can affect property profitability and value. - Regulatory and Legal Issues: Changes in lagoon levels might lead to new regulations or policies aimed at protecting the lagoon’s ecological health. Landowners need to comply with these regulations, which can impact their land use and property rights. 7. Erosion of Tributary Banks Higher water levels eroding Tributary Banks which will increase sediment losses into the lagoon. Why we oppose: Prolonged high-water levels will lead to significant erosion of tributary banks. Higher water levels will lead to; - Saturation of Soil: Extended periods of high-water levels saturate the soil in tributary banks, reducing its stability. Saturated soils become soft and more prone to erosion, particularly during heavy rains or high-flow events. - Bank Erosion: As the soil becomes more saturated and loses its structural integrity, it is more easily eroded by flowing water. This erosion will lead to the undercutting of banks, collapse, and increased sediment movement into the lagoon. - Increased Sediment Load: Eroded sediment from tributary banks is transported into the lagoon. This can increase the sediment load in the lagoon, which will negatively impact water quality by contributing to turbidity and affecting light penetration. - Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems: Increased sedimentation can smother aquatic habitats, such as those used by fish and invertebrates for spawning or shelter. It can also affect the growth of aquatic plants like Ruppia, which are crucial for maintaining ecological balance. - Nutrient Loading: Eroded sediment often carries nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which contribute to nutrient loading in the lagoon. This can exacerbate problems such as algal blooms and reduce oxygen levels, further stressing the aquatic ecosystem. 8. The Hydraulic Effect on all of the Surrounding Land on Subsurface Drains and Soil Profiles High water levels in the lagoon will significantly impact surrounding land, especially concerning subsurface drains and soil profiles. Why we oppose: This will affect; - Saturation of Soil Profiles: Prolonged high-water levels can cause the surrounding soil to become saturated. This saturation can alter soil profiles, making them more prone to issues such as reduced aeration and increased risk of compaction. - Impact on Subsurface Drains: Subsurface drainage systems, designed to remove excess water from the soil to prevent waterlogging, becomes less effective or overwhelmed when water levels are persistently high. This can lead to: - Increased Water Table: The water table can rise, leading to waterlogging of fields and reduced effectiveness of subsurface drains. This will affect agricultural productivity by creating overly wet conditions that are detrimental to crop growth. - Drainage System Overload: Higher water levels can exceed the capacity of existing subsurface drains, leading to flooding or pooling in areas that rely on these systems for proper drainage. - Soil Erosion and Stability: Saturated soils are more susceptible to erosion. The increased moisture content leads to soil instability, affecting both surface and subsurface soil layers. This can have long-term implications for soil health and land usability. - Nutrient Leaching: Excessive water in the soil can lead to increased leaching of nutrients from agricultural fields into the lagoon. This can contribute to nutrient pollution in the lagoon, potentially leading to harmful algal blooms and other water quality issues. - Structural Damage: Persistent high-water levels and saturation can cause structural damage to land improvements such as roads, buildings, and infrastructure, particularly if these are built on or adjacent to unstable soils. - Changes in Soil Chemistry: The influx of water and possible changes in pH levels can alter soil chemistry, impacting nutrient availability and soil fertility. This can affect agricultural practices and land management strategies. --- 9. Leaching Of Historical Nutrients and Sediments Stored Within the Lagoon Managing the accumulation of historical nutrients and sediments (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) from various sources, including agricultural runoff, atmospheric deposition, and natural processes. These substances are stored in the lagoon bed. Why we oppose: The potential release of these stored nutrients if water levels rise or conditions change. Stored nutrients and sediments can be resuspended and released back into the water. This release can contribute to nutrient enrichment and result in algal blooms from elevated nutrient levels, particularly of phosphorus and nitrogen. These blooms can deplete oxygen levels in the water, harm aquatic life, and disrupt the lagoon’s ecological balance. --- 10. Destruction/Limited Access to Public Property Higher lagoon levels will impact public property and infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and tourist attractions. For example, the road and new bridge heading to the DOC look out/viewing platform and track, which is part of the Southern Scenic Route and a tourist attraction due to its Ramsar status. Why we oppose: Increased water levels will potentially lead to flooding and erosion of roads, bridges, and other infrastructure, particularly those that are close to or run alongside the lagoon. This can result in prolonged and expensive repair work, and also restricted public access. Restricted public access from damaged infrastructure may impact the Southern Scenic Route, which includes the DOC lookout and viewing platform. The lagoons significance due to its Ramsar status contributes to its tourism appeal. Damage or restricted access can diminish its value as a destination. Limited access may also encourage the public to access the Lagoon through public property – Trespassing. 11. Lack of Long-Term Research on Economic and Social Impacts Lack of research and long-term understanding from the effects and impacts of the higher lagoon levels on the ecology of the area, local economy and cultural impacts. Why we oppose: The following impacts require further assessment: - Economic Effects: Assessment is required on how higher lagoon levels affect local economic activities, such as agriculture and tourism. This includes potential damage to farmland, changes in tourism patterns, and impacts on local businesses. - Local Hunters and Fishermen: Assessment is required on how changes in lagoon levels will affect local hunters and fishermen. This is important for maintaining access to traditional resources and activities. - Tourists: Assessment is required the impact on tourism, including access to sites and overall visitor experience. 12. Consent Review and Modify Process After the first 5 years of the consent how easy will it be to review and alter certain consent conditions Why we oppose: There is no process in the application for the consent to include provisions for scheduled reviews, where conditions are evaluated at specific intervals so that the consent can be modified or changed based on new information or impacts observed. In particular the impacts from water backed up and impacts on agriculture land and farming business. We wish to make the following comments to support our OPPOSITION to the consent application. We are firmly opposed to the application as we believe that granting consent at the proposed levels will have a detrimental impact on both the community and the health of Waituna Lagoon. 1. Environmental Concerns: The proposed consent levels are likely to result in increased sediment runoff from farms, particularly during flood events. This will exacerbate erosion in feeder creeks and lead to a higher influx of nutrients into the lagoon, further compromising its ecological health. 2. Economic Impact: The anticipated increase in nutrients and sediment will degrade the quality of land within the catchment area, making it more challenging to farm and less desirable for land ownership. This is expected to lead to a significant decrease in land values. 3. Infrastructure Damage: The increased flooding and inundation resulting from the proposed levels will negatively impact infrastructure within the catchment. This could restrict access to properties and roads, leading to further economic losses for landowners and affecting their livelihoods. 4. Lack of Consultation: There has been insufficient consultation with the community by the applicants. Their failure to engage meaningfully with local stakeholders suggests a lack of understanding of the complexities of Waituna Lagoon and its surrounding environment. 5. Questionable Expertise and Data: The applicants have not provided convincing data to demonstrate that maintaining the lagoon at 2.5 meters will benefit its long-term health. The algal dominance issue observed in late 2023 serves as a stark example of potential adverse outcomes. Despite meeting some ecological targets, the resulting near-tragedy indicates a deeper lack of knowledge about the lagoon’s complex dynamics. 6. Concerns About the Applicants’ Capabilities: The combined expertise and approach of Te Rūnanga o Awarua, the Department of Conservation, and Environment Southland do not appear to be sufficient to manage the consent effectively, especially given their limited proactive measures to date. We do not believe these parties have the ability to act proactively and in a timely manner to manage this consent appropriately. Given these points, we strongly urge reconsideration of the consent levels proposed and advocate for a more thorough and informed approach to ensure the future health of Waituna Lagoon and the well-being of the community and stakeholder. Decision we would like Environment Southland to make: We propose that the consent be granted to the joint applicant, with the following conditions; 1. Trigger Level: The consent should specify a trigger level of 2.2 meters. This means that the lagoon must be opened when the water level reaches 2.2 meters, and the opening should occur as soon as practicable thereafter. 2. Acknowledgment of Practical Constraints: We recognize that sea and weather conditions may occasionally complicate the timing of the lagoon’s opening. However, a trigger level of 2.2 meters is crucial to minimize potential adverse impacts and to ensure timely action. It is anticipated that with a 2.2-meter trigger level, the lagoon could reach 2.3 meters before the opening occurs. 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Basic Books in Science Book 2 Space: From Euclid to Einstein Roy McWeeny Basic Books in Science – a Series of books that start at the beginning Book 2 Space – from Euclid to Einstein Roy McWeeny Professore Emerito di Chimica Teorica, Università di Pisa, Pisa (Italy) The Series is maintained, with regular updating and improvement, at http://www.learndev.org/ScienceWorkBooks.html and the books may be downloaded entirely free of charge. This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. (Last updated 24 September 2011) BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE About this Series All human progress depends on education: to get it we need books and schools. Science Education is of key importance. Unfortunately, books and schools are not always easy to find. But nowadays all the world’s knowledge should be freely available to everyone – through the Internet that connects all the world’s computers. The aim of the Series is to bring basic knowledge in all areas of science within the reach of everyone. Every Book will cover in some depth a clearly defined area, starting from the very beginning and leading up to university level, and will be available on the Internet at no cost to the reader. To obtain a copy it should be enough to make a single visit to any library or public office with a personal computer and a telephone line. Each book will serve as one of the ‘building blocks’ out of which Science is built; and together they will form a ‘give-away’ science library. About this book This book, like the others in the Series, is written in simple English – the language most widely used in science and technology. It takes the next big step beyond “Number and symbols” (the subject of Book 1), starting from our first ideas about the measurement of distance and the relationships among objects in space. It goes back to the work of the philosophers and astronomers of two thousand years ago; and it extends to that of Einstein, whose work laid the foundations for our present-day ideas about the nature of space itself. This is only a small book; and it doesn’t follow the historical route, starting from geometry the way Euclid did it (as we learnt it in our schooldays); but it aims to give an easier and quicker way of getting to the higher levels needed in Physics and related sciences. Looking ahead – Like the first book in the Series, Book 2 spans more than two thousand years of discovery. It is about the science of space – geometry – starting with the Greek philosophers, Euclid and many others, and leading to the present – when space and space travel is written about even in the newspapers and almost everyone has heard of Einstein and his discoveries. Euclid and his school didn’t trust the use of numbers in geometry (you saw why in Book 1): they used pictures instead. But now you’ve learnt things they didn’t know about – and will find you can go further, and faster, by using numbers and algebra. And again, you’ll pass many ‘milestones’: - In Chapter 1 you start from distance, expressed as a number of units, and see how Euclid’s ideas about straight lines, angles and triangles can be ‘translated’ into statements about distances and numbers. - Most of Euclid’s work was on geometry of the plane; but in Chapter 2 you’ll see how any point in a plane is fixed by giving two numbers and how lines can be described by equations. - The ideas of area and angle come straight out of plane geometry (in Chapter 3): you find how to get the area of a circle and how to measure angles. - Chapter 4 is hard, because it ties together so many very different ideas, mostly from Book 1 – operators, vectors, rotations, exponentials, and complex numbers – they are all connected! - Points which are not all in the same plane, lie in 3-dimensional space – you need three numbers to say where each one is. In Chapter 5 you’ll find the geometry of 3-space is just like that of 2-space; but it looks easier if you use vectors. - Plane shapes, such as triangles, have properties like area, angle and side-lengths that don’t change if you move them around in space: they belong to the shape itself and are called invariants. Euclid used such ideas all the time. Now you’ll go from 2-space to 3-space, where objects also have volume; and you can still do everything without the pictures. - After two thousand years people reached the last big milestone (Chapter 7): they found that Euclid’s geometry was very nearly, but not quite, perfect. And you’ll want to know how Einstein changed our ideas. Chapter 1 Euclidean space 1.1 Distance 1.2 Foundations of Euclidean geometry Chapter 2 Two-dimensional space 2.1 Parallel straight lines. Rectangles 2.2 Points and straight lines in 2-space 2.3 When and where will two straight lines meet? Chapter 3 Area and angle 3.1 What is area? 3.2 How to measure angles 3.3 More on Euclid Chapter 4 Rotations: bits and pieces Chapter 5 Three-dimensional space 5.1 Planes and boxes in 3-space – coordinates 5.2 Describing simple objects in 3-space 5.3 Using vectors in 3-space 5.4 Scalar and vector products 5.5 Some examples Chapter 6 Area and volume: invariance 6.1 Invariance of lengths and angles 6.2 Area and volume 6.3 Area in vector form 6.4 Volume in vector form Chapter 7 Some other kinds of space 7.1 Many-dimensional space 7.2 Space-time and Relativity 7.3 Curved spaces: General Relativity Notes to the Reader. When Chapters have several Sections they are numbered so that “Section 2.3” will mean “Chapter 2, Section 3”. Similarly, “equation (2.3)” will mean “Chapter 2, equation 3”. Important ‘key’ words are printed in boldface: they are collected in the Index at the end of the book, along with the numbers of the pages where you can find them. Chapter 1 Euclidean space 1.1 Distance At the very beginning of Book 1 we talked about measuring the distance from home to school by counting how many strides, or paces, it took to get there: the pace was the unit of distance and the number of paces was the measure of that particular distance. Now we want to make the idea more precise. The standard unit of distance is ‘1 metre’ (or 1 m, for short) and is defined in a ‘measuring-rod’, with marks at its two ends, the distance between them fixing the unit. Any other pair of marks (e.g. on some other rod, or stick) are also 1 m apart if they can be put in contact, at the same time, with those on the standard rod; and in this way we can make as many copies of the unit as we like, all having the same length. In Book 1 we measured distances by putting such copies end-to-end (the ‘law of combination’ for distances) and if, say, three such copies just reached from one point to another then the two points were ‘3 m apart’ – the ‘distance between them was 3 m’, or ‘the length of the path from one to the other was 3 m’ (three different ways of saying the same thing!). Now the number of units needed to reach from one point ‘A’ to another point ‘B’ will depend on how they are put together: if they form a ‘wiggly’ line, like a snake, you will need more of them – the path will be longer. But the distance does not change: it is the unique (one and one only) shortest path length leading from A to B. (Of course the path length may not be exactly a whole number of units, but by setting up smaller and smaller ‘mini-units’ – as in Book 1, Chapter 4 – it can be measured as accurately as we please and represented by a decimal number.) The important thing is that the distance AB is the length of the shortest path between A and B. In practice, this can be obtained by marking the units (and mini-units) on a string, or tape, instead of a stiff measuring-rod: when the tape measure is pulled tight it can give a fairly accurate measure of the distance AB. The shortest path defines a straight line between the points A and B. One thing we must remember about measuring distance (or any other quantity, like mass or time) – it’s always a certain number of units, not the number itself. The distance from home to school may be 2000 m (the unit being the metre), but 2000 by itself is just a number: quantity = number × unit, where the number is the measure of the quantity in terms of a chosen unit. We can always change the unit: if a distance is large we can measure it in kilometres (km) and since 1 km means 1000 m the distance $(d, \text{say})$ from home to school will be $d = 2000 \text{ m} = 2 \text{ km}$. If we make the unit a thousand times bigger, the number that measures a certain quantity will become a thousand times smaller. Thus, \[ d = \frac{\text{old measure}}{1000} \times (1000 \times \text{old unit}) \] and the same rule always holds. In some countries the unit of distance is the ‘mile’ and there are roughly 8 km to every 5 miles: 1 mile $= (8/5) \text{ km}$. Thus, if I want a distance in miles instead of kilometers, (new unit) $= (8/5) \times (\text{old unit})$ and (new measure) $= (5/8) \times (\text{old measure})$. In this way we see the distance to the school is $(5/8) \times 2 \text{ mile} = 1.25 \text{ mile}$. Doing calculations with quantities is often called ‘quantity calculus’ – but there’s nothing mysterious about it, it’s just ‘common sense’! Euclidean geometry (the science of space) is based on the foundations laid by Euclid, the Greek philosopher, working around 300 BC) it starts from the concepts of points and straight lines; and it still gives a good description of the spatial relationships we deal with in everyday life. But more than 2000 years later Einstein showed that, in dealing with vast distances and objects travelling at enormous speeds, Euclidean geometry does not quite fit the experimental facts: the theory of relativity was born. One of the fundamental differences, in going from Euclid to Einstein, is that the shortest path between two points is not quite a ‘straight line’ – that space is ‘curved’. There is nothing strange about this: a ship does not follow the shortest path between two points on the surface of the earth – because the earth is like a big ball, the surface is not flat, and what seems to be the shortest path (according to the compass) is in reality not a straight line but a curve. The strange thing is that space itself is very slightly ‘bent’, especially near very heavy things like the sun and the stars, so that Euclid’s ideas are never perfectly correct – they are simply so close to the truth that, in everyday life, we can accept them without worrying. In nearly all of Book 2 we’ll be talking about Euclidean geometry. But instead of doing it as Euclid did – and as it’s done even today in many schools all over the world – we’ll make use of algebra (Book 1) from the start. So we won’t follow history. Remember, the Greeks would not accept irrational numbers (Book 1, Chapter 4) so they couldn’t express their ideas about space in terms of distances and had to base their arguments entirely on pictures, not on numbers. This was why algebra and geometry grew up separately, for two thousand years. By looking at mathematics as a whole (not as a subject with many branches, such as algebra, geometry, trigonometry) we can reach our goal much more easily. ### 1.2 Foundations of Euclidean geometry The fact that the space we live in has a ‘distance property’ – that we can experimentally measure the distance between any two points, A and B say, and give it a number – will be our starting point. We make it into an ‘axiom’ (one of the basic principles, which we take as ‘given’): The distance axiom There is a unique (one and one only) shortest path between two points, A and B, called the straight line AB; its length is the distance between A and B. The first thing we have to do is talk about the properties of straight lines and the way they give us a foundation for the whole of Euclidean geometry. In fact, Euclid’s geometry can be built up from the following ‘construction’, indicated in Fig.1, which can be checked by experiment. We take it as a second axiom: The metric axiom Given any two points, A and B, we can find a third, which we call the ‘origin’ O, such that the distances $OA$, $OB$, and $AB$ are related by $$AB^2 = OA^2 + OB^2 \quad (1.1)$$ and if the straight lines OA and OB are extended as far as we please (as in Fig.1) then the distance $A'B'$, between any two other points $(A', B')$ is given by the same formula: $(A'B')^2 = (OA')^2 + (OB')^2$. (Note that $AB$, $A'B'$, etc denote single quantities, lengths, not products.) Whenever this construction is possible mathematicians talk about Euclidean space; and say that (1.1) defines the ‘metric’ for such a space (‘metric’ meaning simply that distances can be measured). You can test (1.1) by taking special cases. For example, with $OA = 3$ cm (‘cm’ meaning ‘centimetre’, with 100 cm = 1 m) and $OB = 4$ cm you will find $AB = 5$ cm; and $3^2 = 9$, $4^2 = 16$, so the sum of the squares is $9 + 16 = 25$ – which is $5^2$. The same formula is satisfied by $OA = 5$ cm, $OB = 12$ cm, and $AB = 13$ cm ($25 + 144 = 169 = 13^2$). If you take $OA = 4$ cm, $OB = 5$ cm you should find $AB = 6.403$ cm, because 6.403 is the square root of 41 (= 16 + 25). This construction gives us several new ideas and definitions: The lines OA and OB in Fig. 1 are perpendicular or at right angles. The straight lines formed by moving A and B further and further away from the origin O, in either direction, are called axes. OX is the x-axis, OY is the y-axis. - The points O, A, and B, define a ‘right-angled’ triangle, OAB, with the straight lines OA, OB, AB as its three sides. (The ‘tri’ means three and the ‘angle’ refers to the lines OA and OB and will measure how much we must turn one line around the origin O to make it point the same way as the other line – more about this later!) - All straight lines, such as AB or A’B’, which intersect (i.e. cross at a single point) both axes, are said to ‘lie in a plane’ defined by the two axes. From the axiom (1.1) and the definitions which follow it, the whole of geometry – the science we need in making maps, in dividing out the land, in designing buildings, and everything else connected with relationships in space – can be built up. Euclid started from different axioms and argued with pictures, obtaining key results called theorems and other results (called corollaries) that follow directly from them. He proved the theorems one by one, in a logical order where each depends on theorems already proved. He published them in the 13 books of his famous work called “The Elements”, which set the pattern for the teaching of geometry throughout past centuries. Here we use instead the methods of algebra (Book 1) and find that the same chain of theorems can be proved more easily. Of course we won’t try to do the whole of geometry; but we’ll look at the first few links in the chain – finding that we don’t need to argue with pictures, we can do it all with numbers! The pictures are useful because they remind us of what we are doing; but our arguments will be based on distances and these are measured by numbers. This way of doing things is often called analytical geometry, but it’s better not to think of it as something separate from the rest – it’s just a part of a ‘unified’ (‘made-into-one’) mathematics. Exercises (1) Make a tape measure from a long piece of tape or string, using a metre rule to mark the centimetres, and use it to measure - the distance $(d)$ between opposite corners of this page of your book; - the lengths of the different sides $(x$ and $y$); - the distance $(AB)$ between two points (A and B) on the curved surface of a big drum (like the ones used for holding water), keeping the tape tightly stretched and always at the same height; - the distance between A and B (call it $L$), when A and B come close together and the tape goes all the way round (this is called the circumference of the drum); - the distance between two opposite points on the bottom edge of the drum (this – call it $D$ – is the diameter of the drum). (2) Check that the sum of $x^2$ and $y^2$ gives you $d^2$, as (1.1) says it should. (3) Note that $L$ is several times bigger than $D$: how many? (Your answer should give you roughly the number $\pi$ (called “pi”) that gave the Greeks so much trouble – as we know from Book 1) (4) In some countries small distances are measured in “inches” instead of cm, 1 inch being roughly 2.5 cm (the length of the last bit of your thumb). Put into inches all the distances you measured in Exercise 1. Show that the answers you got in Exercises 2 and 3 are unchanged. (5) Make a simple set square – a triangle like OAB in Fig.1, with sides of 9 cm, 12 cm and 15 cm, cut out from a piece of stiff card. Use it to mark out axes OX and OY on a big sheet of paper (e.g., newspaper or wrapping paper). Then choose several pairs of points, like A,B or A’,B’ in Fig.1, and verify that the distances $AB, A’B’$ etc. are always related to $OA$ and $OB$ (or $OA’$ and $OB’$ etc.) by equation (1.1). (6) Take a big rectangular box and measure the lengths $(a, b, c)$ of the three different edges and the distance $(d)$ between opposite corners (the ones as far apart as you can get). Show, from your measurements, that $d^2 \approx a^2 + b^2 + c^2$, where the sign $\approx$ means ‘approximately’ or ‘nearly’ equal. Use the formula (1.1) to show that the ‘exact’ result should be $$d^2 = a^2 + b^2 + c^2.$$ (Measurements are never quite perfect – so you can never use them to prove something.) Chapter 2 Two-dimensional space 2.1 Parallel straight lines. Rectangles A plane has been defined in the last Section: it is a region based on two intersecting straight lines of unlimited length, called axes. All straight lines which cut the two axes lie in the same plane and any pair with one point in common (to take as ‘origin’) can be used as alternative axes. Such a plane is a two-dimensional region called, for short, a 2-space. A special relationship between two intersecting straight lines is perpendicularity, defined in Section 1.2: two lines are perpendicular when they form a right angle. Thus, the lines AB and AP in Fig.2 are perpendicular and $BP^2 = AB^2 + AP^2$. (Note that the lines AQ and BP, shown as ‘broken’ lines in the Figure, are only put in to help us: they are “construction lines”. Also AQ, for example, shown in Italic (sloping) type as $AQ$, is used to mean the length of the line AQ, which is measured by a single number.) We now need another definition: Definition. If two straight lines in a plane are perpendicular to a third, they are said to be parallel. Let’s also note that in our 2-space all our straight lines lie in the same plane – so we won’t always say it! With this definition we can go to a first theorem: Theorem. Any straight line perpendicular to one of two parallel straight lines is also perpendicular to the other. Proof (If you find a proof hard, skip it; you can come back to it any time.) Suppose AB and PQ in Fig.2 are parallel, both being perpendicular to AP (as in the Definition), and that BQ is the other straight line perpendicular to AB. Then we must show that BQ is also perpendicular to PQ. In symbols, using (1.1), \[ \text{Given} \quad AP^2 + PQ^2 = AQ^2, \] show that \[BQ^2 + QP^2 = BP^2 = BA^2 + AP^2.\] We must show that there is a point Q such that these relationships hold. The lengths BQ and QP are unknown (they depend on where we put Q), but the possibilities are (a) $BQ = AP, \ PQ = AB,$ (b) $BQ = AP, \ PQ \neq AB,$ (c) $BQ \neq AP, \ PQ = AB,$ (d) $BQ \neq AP, \ PQ \neq AB.$ It is easy to see that (b) is not possible, because if $BQ = AP$ then $AQ^2 = AB^2 + BQ^2 = AB^2 + AP^2$; while $AQ^2 = AP^2 + PQ^2$. The two expressions for $AQ^2$ are only the same when $PQ = AB$, so possibility (b) is ruled out; and, by a similar argument, so is (c). If we accept (a), it follows that $BQ^2 + QP^2 = BP^2$ (= $BA^2 + AP^2$) and this is the condition for the lines BQ and QP to be perpendicular: the theorem is then true. But when Q is fixed in this way possibility (d) is also ruled out – because it would mean there was another crossing point, Q' say, with $BQ' \neq BQ$ and $PQ' \neq PQ$, whereas the perpendicular from B can intersect another line at only one point, already found. So (a) must apply and the theorem follows: BQ is perpendicular to PQ. The proof of the theorem introduces other ideas: (i) Plane ‘figures’ (or shapes), like the ‘box’ in Fig.2, are formed when two pairs of parallel lines intersect at right angles: they are called rectangles and their opposite sides are of equal length. When all sides have the same length the shape is a square. (ii) There is only one shortest path from a point to a given straight line, this forming the line from the point to the given line and perpendicular to it. (iii) The shortest path between two parallel straight lines, in a plane, is a straight line perpendicular to both; and all such paths have exactly the same length. This rules out the possibility of the parallel lines ever meeting (one of Euclid’s first axioms), since the shortest path would then have zero length for all pairs of points and the two lines would then coincide (i.e. there would be only one). 2.2 Points and straight lines in 2-space We’re now ready to describe any point in a plane by means of two numbers (more correctly they are distances but as in Book 1, Chapter 1 we’ll often call them ‘numbers’, each distance being a number of units). Suppose the plane is defined by two axes, OX and OY in Fig.3, which we take to be perpendicular. From any point P we can drop perpendiculars onto OX and OY; and the position of the point P is then fixed by giving two distances, $OQ (= RP)$ and $OR (= PQ)$, the equalities following because ORPQ is a rectangle. These two distances, which we denote by $x$ and $y$ respectively, are called the rectangular (or ‘Cartesian’) coordinates of P with respect to the axes OX and OY. We’ll always use axes that are perpendicular, for simplicity, and $x$, $y$ are also called the projections of the line OP, from the origin to the point, on the axes. Any point in the plane is shown by giving its coordinates $(x, y)$; and the whole of plane geometry can be developed algebraically in terms of the number-pairs $(x, y)$ defining the points we want to talk about. First let’s think about straight lines. If P and P’ are any two points in the plane we can drop perpendiculars, as in Fig.4, to find their coordinates, namely $(x, y)$ and $(x', y')$. From the results earlier in this Section, the line from P to P’ has projections $QQ' = x' - x$ and $RR' = y' - y$ on the two axes; and $QQ' = PS$, $RR' = PT$. The length of the line PP’, the separation of P and P’ (denoted by $s$) thus follows from $$s^2 = (x' - x)^2 + (y' - y)^2 \quad (2.1)$$ and this is true no matter how close or far apart P and P’ may be. The starting point for Euclidean geometry (1.1) is now expressed in terms of coordinates in the form (2.1): it is usually written in the case where P and P’ are very close, so $x' - x$ and $y' - y$ are very small differences which we denote by $dx$ and $dy$, respectively, and call differentials. More about differentials in Book 3, Section 2.3. For now, just note that “d” in Roman type (written with a straight back) is used to mean that $dx$ is “a little bit of $x$”, not a product of two quantities $d$ and $x$. (Remember that numbers and quantities are always shown in Italic, sloping, type.) For points close enough together, then, (2.1) can be written $$ds^2 = dx^2 + dy^2, \quad (2.2)$$ which is called the ‘fundamental metric form’. In Euclidean space, the ‘sum-of-squares’ form is true whether the separation of two points is large or small: but if you are making a map you must remember that the surface of the earth is curved – so you can use (2.2) for small distances (e.g. your town) but not for large distances – your country. (Strictly speaking, (2.2) is only true ‘in the limit’ (see Book 1, Chapter 4) when the distances go to zero.) Space may be only \textit{locally} Euclidean. Within the last hundred years our ideas about space have changed a lot, but in everyday life Euclidean geometry still serves perfectly well. Now let’s ask how to describe a straight line using rectangular Cartesian coordinates. Suppose the line intersects the y-axis at the point A with coordinates $(0, c)$ and that it is fixed by giving the coordinates $(x_1, y_1)$ of just one other point, B, that lies on it (see Fig.5). The points A,B,C then define a right-angled triangle, whose sides AC and BC have lengths such that $(BC/AC) = m$: we say they stand in some definite \textit{ratio} $m$, which is just a number – whatever units we use in measuring them. In terms of coordinates, this means $y_1 - c = mx_1$; and it then follows that the coordinates $(x, y)$ of any point D, on the same line, are related in a similar way: \[ y = c + mx. \tag{2.3} \] To test that the new point D, with coordinates related by (2.3), does lie on the same shortest path between A and B, we can use the length formula (2.1): thus $AB^2 = (y_1 - c)^2 + mx_1^2 = (1 + m^2)x_1^2$, $AD^2 = (1 + m^2)x^2$, and $DB^2 = (1 + m^2)(x_1 - x)^2$. On taking the square roots, $AB = \sqrt{1 + m^2}\ x_1$, $AD = \sqrt{1 + m^2}\ x$, $DB = \sqrt{1 + m^2}\ (x_1 - x)$. From this it follows that $AD + DB = AB$; but this means that the two paths, AB and ADB (i.e. A to B, passing through the new point D), both have the same length – that of the unique shortest path between A and B. When the coordinates of any point D are related by (2.3) then that point lies on the straight line through A and B. We say that (2.3) is the ‘equation of a straight line’, $m = BC/AC$ being called the \textbf{slope} of the line and $c = OA$ being its \textbf{intercept} on the y-axis. Note that equation (2.3) will describe any straight line in the plane OXY and that the proof just given does not depend on point D being \textit{between} A and B: if, for example, $x > x_1$, Fig.5 would show D on the line extended beyond B; and a similar argument would show that B must lie on the straight line AD. But we don’t have to draw a different picture for every possible case: if $x, y$ refer to points on the left of the y-axis, or beneath the x-axis, they will simply take negative values – and, as the laws of algebra hold for any numbers, our results will always hold good. Sometimes two lines in a plane will cross, meeting at some point P, as in Fig.6. Whether they do or not is an important question – which was the starting point for all of Euclid’s great work. ### 2.3 When and where will two straight lines meet? Let’s now look again at Euclid’s ‘parallel axiom’ – that two parallel straight lines never meet. What does it mean in algebra? Suppose the two lines have equations like (2.3) but with different values of slope $(m)$ and intercept $(c)$: let’s say \[ y = c_1 + m_1 x, \quad y = c_2 + m_2 x. \tag{2.4} \] In Fig.6 two such lines cross at the point P. How can we find it? The first equation in (2.4) relates the $x$ and $y$ coordinates of any point on Line 1, while the second equation does the same for any point on Line 2. At a crossing point, the same values must satisfy both equations, which are then called simultaneous equations (both must hold at the same time). It is easy to find such a point in any given case: thus, if $m_1 = 1, \ m_2 = 2$ and $c_1 = 1, \ c_2 = -1$, the values of $x$ and $y$ must be such that \[ y = 1 + x \quad \text{and} \quad y = -1 + 2x, \] which arise by putting the numerical values in the two equations. Thus, we ask that $1 + x = -1 + 2x$ at the crossing point; and this gives (see the Exercises in Book 1, Chapter 3) $x = 2$, with a related value of $y = 1 + x = 3$. This situation is shown in Fig.6, Point P being (2,3). If, instead, we took the second line to have the same slope $(m_2 = 2)$ but with $c_2 = 3$, the result would be $x = -2, \ y = -1$. Try to get this result by yourself. Finally, suppose the two lines have the same slope, $m_1 = m_2 = m$. In this case $(x, y)$ at the crossing point must be such that \[ y = c_1 + mx = c_2 + mx, \] which can be true only if $c_1 = c_2$, whatever the common slope of the two lines: but then the two lines would become the same (same slope and same intercept) – there would be only one! All points on either line would be ‘crossing points’. As long as $m_1 \neq m_2$ we can find a true crossing point for $c_1 \neq c_2$; but as $m_1$ and $m_2$ become closer and closer the distance to the crossing point becomes larger and larger. This ‘Point 3’ can’t be shown in Fig.6 – it is ‘the point at infinity’! This simple example is very important: it shows how an algebraic approach to geometry, based on the idea of distance and the metric (1.1), can lead to general solutions of geometrical problems, without the need to draw pictures for all possible situations; and it shows that Euclid’s famous axiom, that parallel lines never meet, then falls out as a first result. Before going on, let’s look at one other simple shape in 2-space – the circle which the ancients thought was the most perfect of all shapes. It’s easy enough to draw a perfect circle: you just hammer a peg into the ground and walk round it with some kind of marker, attached to the peg by a tightly stretched piece of string – the marker will mark out a circle! But how do you describe it in algebra? Let’s take the peg as origin O and the marker as point P, with coordinates $x, y$, say. Then if your string has length $l$, and you keep it tight, you know that the distance OP (the third side of a right-angled triangle, the other sides having lengths $x$ and $y$) will always be the same – always $l$. But with the sum-of-squares metric this means \[ x^2 + y^2 = l^2 = \text{constant}, \] however $x$ and $y$ may change. We say this is the “equation of a circle” with its centre at the origin O; just as (2.4) was the equation of a straight line, with a given slope $(m)$ and crossing the y-axis at a certain point $(y = c)$. The equation of the circle is of the ‘second degree’ ($x$ and $y$ being raised to the power 2); while that of the line is of the ‘first degree’ or linear. In the Exercises and in other Chapters you’ll find many more examples. Exercises 1) Suppose the corners of the rectangle in Fig.3 are at the points O(0,0), Q(3,0), P(3,4), R(0,4) and draw the straight line $y = \frac{1}{2}x$. At what point does it meet the side QP? (Any point on QP must have $x = 3$. So you only need to choose $y$.) 2) What happens if the line through the origin in Ex.1 is changed to $y = 2x$? (The point found in Ex.1 lies between Q and P: it is an internal point. The new point will lie on QP extended (beyond P): it is an external point, lying outside QP.) 3) Repeat Exercises 1 and 2, using in turn the lines \[ y = 3 - \frac{1}{2}x, \quad y = 3 - 2x, \quad y = -3 + \frac{1}{2}x, \quad y = -3 + 2x, \] and describe your results. 4) Instead of using equation (2.3), take $y = 2 + \frac{1}{2}x^2$ and draw the curve of $y$ against $x$. The new equation describes a parabola. Find values of $x$ and $y$ that fit the equation, using, in turn, the values $x = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3$ and ‘plot’ them (i.e. mark the points in a Figure and join them by a curved line.) Find the points where the straight lines in Ex.3 cross the parabola (you need to know how to solve a quadratic equation – see Section 5.3 of Book 1) and show your results in a Figure. Note In all the Exercises $x, y$, etc. are represented in the Figures as distances, so each stands for a number of units; but the size of the unit doesn’t matter, so it is not shown. Chapter 3 Area and angle 3.1 What is area? We talked about rectangles in Section 2.1 and used them again in 2.2 in setting up the rectangular coordinates $(x, y)$ of a point in a plane. One thing we all know about a rectangle is that it has an area: for example, if we are laying tiles to cover a rectangular shape as in Fig.7, we want to know how many will be needed – and this number measures the area. If our tiles are 20 cm square and we are covering a floor 3 m in one direction (the x direction, say) and 2 m in the y direction, then we shall need $3 \times 5$ tiles in each row and there will be $2 \times 5$ such rows; so we shall need $15 \times 10$ tiles and the area will be 150 units, the unit being ‘1 tile’. This is clear from Fig.7(a). If the lengths of the two sides are instead $L_1$ m and $L_2$ m we shall need $L_1 \times L_2 \times 25$ tiles where $L_1$ and $L_2$ are numbers which measure the two lengths in metres. If we were using ‘bigtiles’, each being square with sides of length 1 m, then 1 bigtile would cover exactly the same area as 25 ordinary tiles; they would be equivalent in area and we could say this in the equation \[ 1 \text{ bigtile} = 25 \text{ tiles}, \quad \text{or } 1 \text{ new unit} = 25 \text{ old units}. \] Now we know already, from Section 1.1, that the measure of a quantity depends on the unit we are using: if we take a new unit $k$ times as big as the old unit, then the number which measures the quantity will become $k$ times smaller. So in this example the area of the room will be $A = 150$ tiles = $(150/25)$ bigtiles, the 6 bigtiles corresponding to the area in ‘square metres’ of the $3 \text{ m} \times 2 \text{ m}$ rectangle. This is shown in Fig.7(b): 6 bigtiles just fit. With the metre as the standard unit of length we see that the unit of area is $1 \text{ m}^2$. So if the unit of length is multiplied by $k$, the measure of length will be divided by $k$; but the unit of area will be multiplied by $k^2$ and the measure of area will be divided by $k^2$. We usually say that area has the “dimensions of length squared” or, in symbols, [area] = L$^2$ (read as “the dimensions of area are el squared”). When we use symbols to stand for quantities we must always be careful to get the units right as soon as we use numbers to measure them! The rectangle is a particular ‘shape’ with certain properties, like its area and the length of a side (i.e. the distance between two neighbouring corners). If we move it to another position in space, such properties do not change – they belong to the object. An important thing about the metric axiom (2.2) is that it means all distances will be left unchanged, or invariant, when we move an object without bending it or cutting it – an operation which is called a transformation. From this fact we can find the areas of other shapes. Two are specially important; the triangle $\Delta$, which has only three sides, and the circle $\bigcirc$, which has one continuous side (called its perimeter) at a fixed distance from its centre. The area of a triangle follows easily from that of a rectangle: for a diagonal line divides the rectangle into two halves, each with the same area because each could be transformed into the other (as in Fig.8) without change of shape. To do this, think of the y-axis as a ‘hinge’ and turn the shaded half of the rectangle over (like a door); and then put the two halves together again, by sliding them in the plane until you get the ‘equilateral triangle’ (two sides equal). The base of the triangle is twice the bottom side of the rectangle; and its vertical height is the same as that of the rectangle. But the area of the triangle is still that of the original rectangle. So we get the simple formula $$\text{Area of triangle} = \frac{1}{2} \text{ base} \times \text{vertical height}. \quad (3.1)$$ An interesting thing about this result is that it still holds good even when the top, or vertex, of the triangle is pushed over to one side as in Fig.9. This must be so because if you imagine each horizontal strip to be filled with tiny squares (elements of area), slide each one sideways, and then count the elements in all strips, the total number cannot have changed. So both the triangles shown in Fig.9 will have the same area, given by (3.1). The area of a circle is not quite so easy to find, but the problem was solved by Archimedes (another of the ancient Greeks), who used a very clever method. He noted that a circle could be filled, nearly but not quite, by putting inside it a shape (called a polygon) with $N$ sides, as in Fig.10 for $N=4$, and that each side formed the base of a triangle with its vertex at the centre. Then, by making $N$ bigger and bigger, he could find polygons whose areas would come closer and closer to the area of the circle. For a circle of unit radius, $r = 1$, the first (very rough) approximation was the area of the square, with $A_4 = 4 \times \left(\frac{1}{2} r^2\right) = 2$, as follows from Fig.10. But Archimedes was then able to show that the polygon with $2N$ sides, instead of $N$, had an area $A_{2N}$ given by the formula $$A_{2N} = \frac{N}{2} \sqrt{2 - 2\sqrt{1 - \left(\frac{2A_N}{N}\right)^2}}.$$ (3.2) Using this formula (and given that $\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414214$) you can easily get the area $A_8$ of the 8-sided polygon (shown, in part, by the broken lines in Fig.10) in terms of $A_4$: it will be $$A_8 = 2\sqrt{(2 - 2\sqrt{(1 - 1^2)})} = 2\sqrt{2} \approx 2.828427.$$ – compared with the first approximation $A_4 = 2$. If you go on (you’ll need a calculator!) you will find $A_{16} \approx 3.061468$ and if you go on long enough you will find something very close to 3.141593. This is a good approximation to the number, always denoted by the Greek letter $\pi$ (‘pi’), which is the limit of a series (Book 1, Section 5.1): it is the area of a circle of radius $r = 1$. If you want to go to a circle whose radius is measured by $r$ instead of 1, it’s enough to remember that [A]=L$^2$ – so that when a length is multiplied by $r$ the area will be multiplied by $r^2$. This gives us the important formula $$\text{Area of a circle of radius } r = \pi r^2 \quad (\pi \approx 3.141593),$$ (3.3) which we’ll need right away in defining angle. 3.2 How to measure angles How can we measure the ‘angle’ between two intersecting straight lines when they are neither perpendicular nor parallel – when they simply ‘point in different directions’. The slope $m$ of a line is one such number, for it fixes the direction of the line AB in Fig.5 relative to AC, which is parallel to the x-axis. We say that AB ‘makes an angle’ with AC and call $m (= BC/AC)$ the tangent of the angle. This ratio is obtained easily for any pair of lines by dropping a perpendicular from a point on one of them to the other; and it also follows easily that it does not matter which line is taken first. Two other ratios, $BC/AB$ and $AC/AB$, also give a simple arithmetic measure of the same angle: they are called, respectively, the sine and the cosine of the angle. There is, however, a single number which gives a more convenient measure of the angle – ‘circular measure’, since it relates directly to the circle. To get this we must think about combining angles. Just as two points define a linear displacement which brings the first into coincidence with the second; two straight lines, with one point in common, define an angular displacement, or a rotation, which brings the first into coincidence with the second. The rotation angle is given a sign, positive (for anti-clockwise rotation) or negative (for clockwise) – for rotations in the two opposite senses are clearly different. Just as two linear displacements are called equal if their initial and final points can be put in coincidence (by sliding them about in the plane), we call two angular displacements equal if their initial and final lines can be brought into coincidence. And just as two linear displacements can be combined by making the end point of one the starting point of the next, we can combine two angular displacements by making the end line of one the starting line of the next. These ideas will be clear on looking at Fig.11. Angles are named by giving three letters: the first is the end point of the initial line; the last is the end point after rotation; and the middle letter is the point that stays fixed. The sum of the angles XOP and XOQ is the angle XOP’, obtained by taking OP as the starting line for the second angle, POP’, which is made equal to XOQ. After saying what we mean by ‘combination’ and ‘equality’ of angles, we look for an ‘identity’ (in the algebra of rotations) and the ‘inverse’ of any angle, ideas which are old friends from Book 1. The ‘identity’ is now “don’t do anything at all (or rotate the initial line through an angle zero)”; and the ‘inverse’ of an angle is obtained simply by changing the sense of the rotation – clockwise rotation followed by anti-clockwise rotation of the same amount is equal to no rotation at all! If we write R for a positive rotation and $R^{-1}$ for its inverse (negative rotation). this means $$RR^{-1} = R^{-1}R = I.$$ Next we must agree on how to measure angles. There is a ‘practical’ method, which starts from the fact that rotation of the line OP through a complete circle around the point O, let’s call it 1 ‘turn’, is the same as doing nothing. The ‘degree’ is a small angle, such that 360 degrees = 1 turn; and the angle between two lines in a plane can therefore be measured by a number (of degrees) lying between 0 and 360. Angles, unlike distances (which can be as big as you like), are thus bounded – since we can’t tell the difference between angles that differ only by 360 degrees (or any multiple of 360). This doesn’t mean that angular displacement is bounded: we all know that, in turning a screw, for example, every turn (rotation through 360 degrees) is important; and it can be repeated again and again to get bigger and bigger rotation angles. It is only the angle between two lines in a plane that is bounded: in the case of a screw, rotation has an effect outside the plane and it is then useful to talk about rotations through angles greater than 360 degrees. A more fundamental way of measuring angles follows from the equation (3.3) for the area of a circle. If we use $\theta$ to denote the angle XOP in Fig.11 (angles are usually named using Greek letters and $\theta$ is called ‘theta’), then the ‘circular measure’ of $\theta$ is the ratio of two lengths: $\theta = \text{arc}/\text{radius}$, where ‘arc’ is the length of the part of the circle between point P and the x axis. This is a pure number, not depending on the unit of length, and gets as close as we wish to $\tan \theta$ and $\sin \theta$ as the angle becomes smaller and smaller. To find this number we write (3.3) in another form. The area of the whole circle ($A$) is the sum of the areas of a huge number of tiny triangles, each one with a small area $a \approx \frac{1}{2} \text{arc} \times \text{radius}$: so we find $A = \frac{1}{2} (\text{whole arc}) \times \text{radius}$ where ‘whole arc’ means the sum of all the tiny arcs, one for each triangle, as we go round the perimeter of the whole circle. The length of this arc is the circumference of the circle. So what we have shown is that $A = \frac{1}{2} (\text{Circumference} \times \text{radius}$, and from (3.3) this gives the final result $$\text{Circumference of a circle} = 2 \times \text{Area} \div \text{radius} = 2\pi r.$$ (3.4) Since the circumference is the ‘whole arc’, which is $\Theta \times r$ (where $\Theta$ denotes the whole angle turned through in going all round the circle), we can write $\Theta = 2\pi$ radians. Here, the radian is the ‘natural unit’ of angle and since, in terms of ‘degrees’ $2\pi$ radians = 360 degrees, it follows from (3.3), that $$1 \text{ radian} \approx 57.3 \text{ degrees}.$$ (3.5) Usually, however, it is better to use radian measure: for example, two lines are perpendicular when the angle between them is $\pi/2$ and this does not depend on defining the ‘degree’. More on Euclid Most of Euclid’s work was on plane figures (shapes such as triangles and rectangles that lie in a plane). There’s so much of it that it would fill a whole book, so we just give one or two definitions and key results to start things off: - Two angles like $A$ and $B$ in Fig.12(a), whose sum is $\pi$, are called complementary: each is the complement of the other – together they complete the angle $\pi$. When the angles describe rotations of the arrow, about the fixed point O, the rotation $A$ followed by $B$ is the rotation $A + B = \pi$, which turns the arrow round and makes it point the other way. - When two straight lines cross, as in Fig.12(b), they make two pairs of complementary angles $A,B$ and $A',B'$. If we make a half-turn of the whole picture, around the crossing point, $A$ goes into $A'$ and $B$ into $B'$, but the angle $A$ is unchanged by the operation: so $A' = A$ and similarly $B' = B$ – ‘opposite’ angles are equal. So when two lines cross they make two pairs of equal angles; and the different angles ($A$ and $B$) are complementary. - When a straight line crosses two parallel lines, as in Fig.12(c), it makes two other pairs of equal angles $A' = A$ and $B' = B$; for sliding the picture so as to send $A$ into $A'$ and $B$ into $B'$ is another transformation (see Section 3.1) that does not change the angles. Such pairs of angles are called ‘alternate’. - By adding another straight line to the last picture (Fig.12(d)) we make a triangle (Fig.12(d)) with three ‘internal’ angles, here called $A, B, C$. Now, from the last two results, $A'$ (being opposite to the angle alternate to $A$) is equal to $A$ and similarly $C' = C$. Also the sum of $A' (= A), B,$ and $C' (= C)$ is the angle $\pi$ in Fig.12(a). It follows that the sum of the angles inside any plane triangle is $\pi$ radians (i.e. 180 degrees or two right angles). Euclid and his school proved a great number of other results of this kind, each one following from those already obtained. All these theorems were numbered and collected and can still be found in any textbook of geometry. Note: The next Chapter contains difficult things, usually done only at university, but also much that you will understand. Look at it just to see how many different ideas come together. Then come back to it when you’re ready – perhaps a year from now! Exercises 1) Look at Figs.9,10 and then calculate the area of the 8-sided polygon, part of which is shown by the broken lines in Fig.10. Check that your result agrees with equation (3.2) when you put $N = 4$. (The polygon holds $2N$ triangles, all with the same area. Find the base and the vertical height of each of them, taking the circle to have unit radius.) 2) Express all the angles in Fig.10 both in degrees and in radians. Chapter 4 Rotations: bits and pieces One of the great things about mathematics is that it contains so many ‘bits and pieces’ which, again and again, can be put together like bricks, in building up new ideas and theories. These small pieces are so useful that, once understood, they are never forgotten. In talking about angles and rotations we need to use vectors (Book 1, Section 3.2); the laws of indices (Book 1, Section 4.2); the exponential series (Book 1, Section 5.1); complex numbers (Book 1, Section 5.2); and the idea of rotation as an operator (as in Book 1, Section 6.1). Let’s start with a vector pointing from the origin O to any point P, as in Fig.13. In a rotation around O, any such vector is turned through some angle, let’s call it $\theta$, and, as in Book 1, Section 6.1, we can think of this operation as the result of applying a rotation operator $R_\theta$. There is a law of combination for two such operators: $$R_{\theta'} R_\theta = R_{\theta + \theta'},$$ (don’t forget we agreed in Section 6.1 that the one on the right acts first) and for every operator $R_\theta$ there is an inverse operator, denoted by $R_\theta^{-1}$, with the property $$R_\theta R_{-\theta} = R_{-\theta} R_\theta = I,$$ where I is the Identity operator (rotation through angle zero). These properties define a group (Book 1, Section 6.1) with an infinite number of elements – since $\theta$ can take any value between 0 and $2\pi$ (rotation through $\theta + 2\pi$ not being counted as different from $R_\theta$). We now want to put all this into symbols. In 2-space any point P is found from its coordinates $(x, y)$: to get there, starting from the origin (where $x = 0, y = 0$), you take $x$ steps in the ‘x-direction’ (i.e. parallel to the x-axis) and $y$ steps in the ‘y-direction’. In Book 1, Section 3.2 there was only one axis and e was used to mean 1 step along that axis; but now there are two kinds of step ($e_1$ and $e_2$, say), so we write, for the vector describing the displacement from O to P, $$r = xe_1 + ye_2,$$ (4.1) where $e_1, e_2$ are along the two directions and $r$ is called the ‘position vector’ of P. From Book 1, Section 3.2, it’s clear that the order in which the steps are made doesn’t matter: if $x = 2$ and $y = 3$ then $r = e_1 + e_1 + e_2 + e_2 + e_2$ or, just as well, $r = e_2 + e_1 + e_2 + e_2 + e_1$ – because you arrive at the same point in the end. The distance from O to P is the length of OP, or the magnitude of the vector $r$, and the coordinates $x, y$ may be whole numbers or fractions, positive or negative, or even irrational, as we know from Book 1, Section 4.3. Now let’s think about rotating a vector, turning it through an angle. A rotation of OP (Fig.13) through an angle $\theta$ around the origin can be described in symbols as $$r \rightarrow r' = R_\theta r,$$ (4.2) where $\rightarrow$ means “goes to” and $r'$ is the position vector of point $P'$, after OP has been sent into OP'. The ‘product’ of two rotations, $R_1$ followed by $R_2$ through angles $\theta_1$ and $\theta_2$, respectively, is written $$r \rightarrow r' = R_2 R_1 r = R_3 r \quad (\theta_3 = \theta_1 + \theta_2).$$ (4.3) The fact that the product of two rotations is obtained by adding their rotation angles, reminds us of the laws of indices – where $a^m \times a^n = a^{m+n}$ – a result which is true even when the indices $m, n$ are not only whole numbers. Let’s now look for a connection. In Book 1, Section 5.1 we met a number defined as the limit of a series (remember the shorthand used in Book 1, that $2! = 1 \times 2$, $3! = 1 \times 2 \times 3$, and so on, $n!$ being called “factorial $n$”) $$y = 1 + x + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^3}{3!} + \ldots = f(x),$$ (4.4) when the number of terms becomes infinite. This number depends on the value we give to $x$ and is denoted here by $f(x)$ (read as a “function of $x$” – or, in short, “eff of ex”) to mean only that for every value of $x$ we can find a related value of $y$: $x$ is called the “independent variable” (we can give it any value we like), but $y$ is the “dependent variable” whose value depends on that of $x$. The branch of mathematics that deals with functions is called Analysis, and we’ll say more about it in other Books of the Seies. Here it’s enough to think of a function as a rule – in this case the series (4.4) – by which we can calculate a value of $y$, given the value of $x$. The function defined in (4.4) has amazing properties. Let’s multiply two such series together, using two different values of $x$ (call them $x = p$ in one series and $x = q$ in the other): \[ f(p)f(q) = \left(1 + p + \frac{p^2}{2!} + \ldots\right)\left(1 + q + \frac{q^2}{2!} + \ldots\right) \] \[ = 1 + (p + q) + \left(\frac{p^2}{2!} + pq + \frac{q^2}{2!}\right) + \ldots \] \[ = 1 + (p + q) + \frac{(p + q)^2}{2!} + \ldots, \tag{4.5} \] – including terms only up to the ‘second degree’ (i.e. those with not more than two variables multiplied together). The result seems to be just the same function (4.4), but with the new variable $x = p + q$. And if you go on, always putting together products of the same degree, you’ll find the next terms are \[ (p + q)^3/3! = (p^3 + 3p^2q + 3pq^2 + q^3)/3! \quad \text{(third degree)} \] and \[ (p + q)^4/4! = (p^4 + 4p^3q + 6p^2q^2 + 4pq^3 + q^4)/4! \quad \text{(degree 4.)} \] As you can guess, if we take more terms we’re going to get the result \[ f(p)f(q) = 1 + (p + q) + \frac{(p + q)^2}{2!} + \frac{(p + q)^3}{3!} + \ldots = f(p + q). \tag{4.6} \] To get a proof of this result is much harder: you have to look at all possible ways of getting products of the $n$th degree ($n$ factors at a time) and then show that what you get can be put together in the form $(p + q)^n/n!$. So we’ll just accept (4.6) as a basic property of the exponential function, defined in (4.4) and often written as “$\exp x$.” From (4.6) we find, by putting $p = q = x$, that $f(x)^2 = f(2x)$; and on doing the same again $f(x)^3 = f(x) \times f(2x) = f(3x)$. In fact \[ f(x)^n = f(nx). \tag{4.7} \] This second basic property lets us define the $n$th power of a number even when $n$ is not an integer; it depends only on the series (2.14) and holds good when $n$ is any kind of number (irrational or even complex). Even more amazing, both (4.6) and (4.7) are true whatever the symbols $(x, p, q)$ may stand for – as long as they satisfy the usual laws of combination, including $qp = pq$ (so that products can be re-arranged, as in getting the result (4.6)). In Book 1, Section 1.7, the (irrational) number obtained from (4.4) with $x = 1$ was denoted by $e$: \[ e = 1 + 1 + \frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{6} + \frac{1}{24} + \ldots = 2.718281828\ldots \tag{4.8} \] and this gives us a ‘natural’ base for defining all real numbers. From (4.7), $e^n = f(n)$ is true for any $n$ – not just for whole numbers but for any number. So changing $n$ to $x$ gives \[ e^x = 1 + x + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^3}{3!} + \ldots, \tag{4.9} \] and the ‘laws of indices’ can now be written in general form as \[ e^x e^y = e^{x+y}, \quad (e^x)^y = e^{xy}. \] (4.10) We’re now ready to go back to rotations in space! We know that rotations are combined according to (4.3) and that every rotation $ R_\theta $ is labelled by its rotation angle $ \theta $, which is just a number. For some special values of $ \theta $, we also know what $ R_\theta $ does to a vector in 2-space. For example, $ R_{2\pi} r = r $, but $ R_{\pi} r = -r $ because rotating a vector through half a turn makes it point in the opposite direction, which means giving it a negative sign. But how can we describe a general rotation? Any rotation can be made in small steps, for example in steps of 1 degree at a time, so let’s think of $ R_\theta $ as the result of making $ n $ very small rotations through an angle $ \alpha $: so $ \theta = n\alpha $ and what we mean is that $ R_\theta = (R_\alpha)^n $, where we use the ‘power’ notation to mean the product $ R_\alpha R_\alpha ... R_\alpha $ with $ n $ factors. So $ n $ becomes a measure of the rotation angle $ \theta $ in units of $ \alpha $; and if $ R_\theta $ is followed by a rotation $ R_{\theta'} $, with $ \theta' = m\alpha $, the result will be a rotation through $(m+n)\alpha$. Fig.14 gives a picture of the rotations which carry the position vector of a point $ P_0 $, on the x-axis, into $ P_1 $ (1 step), $ P_2 $ (2 steps), and so on – each step being through a very small angle $ \alpha $ (magnified here, so you can see it). The rotation $ R_\alpha $ sends the point $ P_0 $, with position vector $ r = re_1 + 0e_2 $ (the components being $ x = r $ and $ y = 0 $ when $ r $ points along the x-axis), into $ P_1 $ with $ r' = R_\alpha = x'e_1 + y'e_2 $. In general, the x- and y-components of any rotated vector (call them $ x, y $ for any rotation angle $ \theta $) are related to the sine and cosine of the angle turned through – as we know from earlier in this Section. The definitions are $ \cos \alpha = x/r $ and $ \sin \alpha = y/r $ and the rotation leading to $ P_1 $, with coordinates $(x_1, y_1)$, thus gives \[ r_1 = R_\alpha r = x_1 e_1 + y_1 e_2 = r \cos \alpha \ e_1 + r \sin \alpha \ e_2. \] (4.11) After repeating the operation $ n $ times we reach the vector ending on $ P_n $: in short \[ r_n = (R_\alpha)^n r = x_n e_1 + y_n e_2 = r \cos(n\alpha) e_1 + r \sin(n\alpha) e_2. \] (4.12) Of course, we know how to get the sine and cosine from the picture (by measuring the sides of a triangle) and we know their values for certain special angles like $ \theta = 2\pi $, or $ \pi $, or $ \pi/2 $, or even $ \pi/4 $; but what we really need is a way of calculating them for any angle $ \theta (= n\alpha) $. To do this we start from the series (4.9), remembering that (4.10) gives us a way of finding its $ n $th power just by writing $ nx $ in place of $ x $ (writing $ y = n $ because it stands for any number). And since $ x $ is also any number let’s experiment – putting $ x = i\alpha $, where $ i $ is the ‘imaginary unit’ first introduced in Book 1, Section 5.2. The result is \[ e^{i\alpha} = 1 + i\alpha - \frac{\alpha^2}{2!} - i \frac{\alpha^3}{3!} + ... \] (4.13) where we’re using the fact that $ i^2 = -1 $, $ i^3 = i \times i^2 = -i $, and so on. On collecting together the real terms (no $ i $ factors) we discover a new series: \[ C_\alpha = 1 - \frac{\alpha^2}{2!} + \frac{\alpha^4}{4!} - ... \] (4.14) and, on doing the same with the imaginary terms, find another series \[ S_\alpha = \alpha - \frac{\alpha^3}{3!} + \frac{\alpha^5}{5!} - \ldots . \] (4.15) Putting the two series together shows that \[ e^{i\alpha} = C_\alpha + iS_\alpha \] (4.16) and from (4.10) there’s a similar result when $ \alpha $ is replaced by the large angle $ n\alpha $; so \[ e^{in\alpha} = C_{n\alpha} + iS_{n\alpha}, \] (4.17) where $ C_{n\alpha} $ and $ S_{n\alpha} $ are just like (4.14) and (4.15), but with $ n\alpha $ instead of $ \alpha $. Now look back at where we started: Equation (4.11) gives us the coordinates of $ P_1 $ after rotating OP$_0$ through a very small angle $ \alpha $ and the (geometrically defined) values of $ \sin \alpha $ and $ \cos \alpha $ are, neglecting powers beyond $ \alpha^2 $, $ \sin \alpha \approx \alpha $ and $ \cos \alpha \approx 1 - \frac{1}{2}\alpha^2 $ – and these are the leading terms in the series (4.14) and (4.15)! For small angles, $ C_\alpha \to \cos \alpha, \quad S_\alpha \to \sin \alpha $. From these starting values we continue by (i) making more rotations, in steps of $ \alpha $, getting (4.12) after $ n $ steps; and (ii) multiplying $ e^{i\alpha} $ by the same factor, in every step, to get $ e^{in\alpha} $ after $ n $ steps. The two things go hand in hand. We take a bold step and say that \[ \cos(n\alpha) = C_{n\alpha}, \quad \sin(n\alpha) = S_{n\alpha}, \] (4.18) are the algebraic expressions for the cosine and sine of any angle $ n\alpha $. So we write, for any angle $ \theta $, the general results \[ \cos \theta = 1 - \frac{\theta^2}{2!} + \frac{\theta^4}{4!} - \ldots , \quad \sin \theta = \theta - \frac{\theta^3}{3!} + \frac{\theta^5}{5!} - \ldots . \] (4.19) And, from (4.17) with $ n\alpha = \theta $, \[ e^{i\theta} = \exp i\theta = \cos(\theta) + i \sin(\theta) \] (4.20) The above results lead to many others. Take an example: for any $ \theta $, we may square both sides of equation (4.20) to obtain \[ e^{2i\theta} = (\cos \theta + i \sin \theta)^2 = (\cos \theta)^2 - (\sin \theta)^2 + 2i \sin \theta \cos \theta. \] But we also know that \[ e^{2i\theta} = \cos 2\theta + i \sin 2\theta \] and (from Book 1, Section 5.2) that two complex numbers are equal only when their real and imaginary parts are separately equal; so comparing the last two equations shows that \[ \cos(2\theta) = (\cos \theta)^2 - (\sin \theta)^2, \quad \sin(2\theta) = 2 \sin \theta \cos \theta \] (4.21) – knowing the sine and cosine of any angle you can get them very easily for twice the angle. For example, we know that $ \sin(\pi/4) = \cos(\pi/4) = \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{2} $ (from the right-angled triangle with sides of length 1, 1, $\sqrt{2}$); so doubling the angle gives $\sin(\pi/2) = 1$, $\cos(\pi/2) = 0$; doubling it again gives $\sin(\pi) = 0$, $\cos(\pi) = -1$; and yet again gives $\sin(2\pi) = 1$, $\cos(2\pi) = 0$. The last result shows that the angle $2\pi$ (or 360 degrees) looks no different from zero; and that every rotation through $2\pi$ gives us nothing new – the dependence of sine and cosine on the angle is said to be periodic, they take the same values whenever the angle increases by $2\pi$, called the period. In other words $$e^{2\pi i} = 1 \quad (4.22)$$ – a connection between two irrational numbers ($e, \pi$) and the imaginary unit ($i$), almost beyond belief! This is one of the most remarkable results in the whole of Mathematics. The sine and cosine of the sum of any two angles follows in the same way as for twice the angle. Taking $$\exp i(\theta_1 + \theta_2) = \exp i\theta_1 \times \exp i\theta_2,$$ using (4.20) and expanding the right-hand side, we find (try it yourself!) $$\cos(\theta_1 + \theta_2) = \cos \theta_1 \cos \theta_2 - \sin \theta_1 \sin \theta_2,$$ $$\sin(\theta_1 + \theta_2) = \sin \theta_1 \cos \theta_2 + \cos \theta_1 \sin \theta_2. \quad (4.23)$$ That’s all you need to know about angles – the rest you can do for yourself! A long time ago, in school, when all of geometry was done the way Euclid did it, we had to learn all these results (and many more) by heart – chanting them over and over again – and all because the Pythagoreans threw away their great discovery of algebraic geometry, leaving it for the French mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) to re-discover more than a thousand years later! Now you can get such results whenever you need them, remembering only the laws of indices and doing some simple algebra. Exercises 1) Get the results labelled “(third degree)” and “(fourth degree)”, just after equation (4.5), by multiplying together the results you already know. 2) Obtain the results (4.13) to (4.20) by starting from (4.9) and working through all the details. 3) Starting from (4.23), find expressions for $\cos(\theta_1 - \theta_2)$, $\sin(\theta_1 - \theta_2)$, $\cos 2\theta$, $\sin 2\theta$, $\cos 3\theta$, $\sin 3\theta$. Chapter 5 Three-dimensional space 5.1 Planes and boxes in 3-space – coordinates As we all know, from birth, the real ‘physical’ space we live in is not a 2-space, or plane, in which a point is specified by giving two numbers to define its position. There are points ‘above’ and ‘below’ any plane; and to define their positions we’ll need a third number – to tell us how far up or how far down. Again, as in Section 1.2, we’ll refer a point to a set of perpendicular axes, meeting at a point O – the origin – but now there will be three axes instead of two. Up to now, we’ve been talking about plane geometry; but now we turn to 3-space and to solid geometry. The basic ideas, however, are not much different: we start from an axiom, just like that we used in 2-space, referring to the shortest distance between points; then we set up a few theorems from which all of solid geometry can be derived by purely algebraic reasoning. Of course, we won’t do all of it – just enough to make us feel sure that it can be done. According to the first Axiom (Section 1.2) a straight line is the unique shortest path between two points. And from the definition of a plane (Section 1.2) it follows that if two planes intersect, then they cut each other in a straight line – for if any two points A and B are common to both planes then there is a unique straight line AB and all the points on AB lie at the same time in both planes (i.e. AB, which may be as long as we wish, is the line in which the planes intersect). From this conclusion we can go to a first theorem: Theorem. If a straight line is perpendicular to two others, which it meets at a common point, then it is perpendicular to all others in the same plane and passing through the same point. It is then perpendicular to the plane. The proof follows from Fig.15, where OP is taken perpendicular to both OA and OB and the angle OAB is taken to be a right angle. Let OC be any other straight line, through O, in the plane OAB. We must prove that COP is also a right angle. This will be so only when $PC^2 = OP^2 + OC^2$ and this follows in two steps: First, $$PB^2 = OP^2 + OB^2 = OP^2 + OA^2 + AB^2 = AP^2 + AB^2,$$ and therefore PAB is also a right angle. Then, second, we have \[ PC^2 = PA^2 + AC^2 = OA^2 + OP^2 + AC^2 = OC^2 + OP^2. \] This proves the theorem. Two other simple results follow: - The perpendicular from a point to a plane is the shortest path from the point to any point in the plane. - If a straight line is perpendicular to two others, which meet it at some point, then the two others lie in a plane. These are ‘corollaries’ to the theorem, the second one being the converse of the theorem – saying it the other way round. Cartesian coordinates in 3-space We’re now ready to set up the (rectangular) Cartesian coordinates of any point P in 3-space. First we take a plane OXY and the given point P, outside the plane as in Fig.16. If Q is the foot of the perpendicular from P onto the plane, then PQ is the unique shortest path from the point to the plane; let’s call its length $ z $. And point Q, lying in the plane, is uniquely defined (see Section 2.2) by giving its 2-space coordinates ($ x $ and $ y $) relative to the axes OX and OY. The position of P is then completely defined by giving the three numbers $(x, y, z)$, as in Fig.16. In the case of $ z $, however, we must give the number a sign $(\pm)$ to show whether P is above the plane or below: we agree that $ z $ will be counted positive (it will be on the ‘positive side’ of the plane) when a rotation carrying OX into OY would move a ‘right-handed screw’ (with its sharp end underneath point O) upwards, towards P. Now the three axes OX, OY, and QP have not been freely chosen, for the third one must pass through the point P. We’d like to be able to talk about all points in space, not only those on one special line QP; we want one set of three perpendicular axes (OX, OY, OZ), all starting from a common origin (O), which can be used to describe all points. To do this, we need one more theorem. Theorem. Two straight lines, both perpendicular to a given plane, are parallel to each other. The proof follows from Fig.17, where the two lines BA and DC are taken perpendicular to the plane BDE; and E is chosen so that DE is perpendicular to DB (i.e. BDE is a right angle). We first show that EDA is also a right angle; and that CD, DA and DB must therefore lie in the same plane (by the previous theorem). This follows at once because $AE^2 = AB^2 + BE^2 = AB^2 + BD^2 + DE^2 = AD^2 + DE^2$, and so EDA is a right angle and the lines DB, DA, BA, and DC all lie in the same plane. Moreover, BA and DC, besides lying in the same plane, are perpendicular to the plane BDE; so they are perpendicular to the line BD which intersects them. Thus, by the Definition at the beginning of Section 2.1, BA and DC are parallel – proving the theorem. Again, the theorem has a converse: Converse. If two straight lines are parallel and one is perpendicular to a plane, then so is the other. A whole chain of results follows from the theorem and its converse. We’ll just say what they are when we need them (no proofs!), starting with a definition: Definition. If two planes are perpendicular to the same straight line, then they are parallel planes. It then follows that a perpendicular from any point on one plane, connecting it with a point on the other, will have the same length no matter what point we choose – this being the shortest distance between the two planes. If two pairs of points, A, B, and C, D, are connected in this way, then they lie at the corners of a rectangle, whose opposite sides have equal length. 5.2 Describing simple objects in 3-space We can now go ahead exactly as we did in 2-space. But now we take any point O as origin and draw rectangular axes OX, OY, and OZ, as in Fig.18, each being perpendicular to the others. Any point P, anywhere in 3-space, can then be given rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates, $x, y, z$, which measure the shortest distances to the planes OYZ, OZX, and OXY, respectively. These distances are also the lengths of the projections of the line OP, shown in the Figure, along the three axes, OX, OY, OZ: the projection shown, OA, is the line from the origin O to the foot (A) of the perpendicular from P to the x-axis and the lengths of OA and QB are equal – being opposite sides of OAQB, which is a rectangle (as follows from the Theorems above, both lines being perpendicular to the plane OYZ). The geometry of 2-space, in Section 2.2, was based on equation (2.1), which gave us the distance between any two points, P and P'; and on (2.2), which holds when they are close together. In 3-space, things look just the same, except that there are now three coordinates: the distance $(r, \text{say})$ from the origin O to any point P is given by \[ r^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 \tag{5.1} \] while for two infinitely close points the separation $(dr)$ follows from \[ dr^2 = dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2 \tag{5.2} \] – $dx, dy, dz$ being the differentials, such that a neighbouring point P' has coordinates $x' = x + dx, y' = y + dy, z' = z + dz$ Again (5.2) is the ‘fundamental metric form’ – but now in real three-dimensional space – and because it has sum-of-squares form at any point (and, according to (5.1), in any region, however large) the space is Euclidean, with all the properties first discovered by Euclid. Any plane is called a 2-dimensional subspace of 3-space and any straight line is a 1-dimensional subspace. Just as plane geometry, in the algebraic approach followed in Section 2.2, comes out of equations (2.1) and (2.2), the whole of solid geometry comes out of (5.1) and (5.2). Again, in 3-space, the simplest geometrical object is a straight line; but now every point on the line will have three coordinates. In 2-space the coordinates $x, y$ of a point on a straight line were related so the $y = mx + c$, where the numbers $m$ and $c$ fix the slope of the line and where it crosses the y-axis; we took $x$ as the ‘independent variable’, which then determines $y$ (the ‘dependent variable’). But in 3-space things are a bit more complicated as the line doesn’t have to lie in any one of the coordinate planes – it can point any way we please. The same is true for the next simplest object, the plane, which may have any orientation we please. We’ll look at these things again in the next Section, after we’ve found a simpler way of dealing with them – namely, ‘vector algebra’. But for the moment it’s enough to note that lines and planes are described by linear equations, involving only first powers of the variables $x, y, z$, while circles (for example) require equations involving higher powers or products. The simplest examples are the coordinate planes themselves: thus $z = 0$ (constant) describes the plane containing the axes OX and OY, and similarly $z = p$ (constant) defines a plane parallel to OXY and at a perpendicular distance $p$ from the origin. In both cases any point in the plane is determined by giving values, any we wish, of the other variables $x, y$. The simplest solid object (after the cube, which has six plane faces) is the sphere, corresponding to the circle in 2-space. It has a single curved surface and the coordinates of any point on the surface are related by an equation of the second degree. The distance of a point $P(x, y, z)$ from the origin is given by \[ r^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 \tag{5.3} \] and this distance ($r$) is the radius of the sphere, the same for all points on the surface. Thus (5.3) is the equation for the surface of a sphere centred on the origin. If you move the sphere (or the line or the plane) the equation will be more complicated. This is because our descriptions are based on choosing a set of axes that meet at the centre of the sphere and then using three distances (coordinates) to define every point; the set of axes is called a reference frame. If we decide to change the reference frame, so that the origin is no longer at the centre, then all the coordinates will have to be changed. On the other hand, the objects we meet in 3-space have certain measurable properties (like length and area) which ‘belong’ to the object and do not depend in any way on how we choose the reference frame: as already noted (Chapter 3) they are invariants. We’d like to keep our equations as simple and as close as possible to what we’re trying to describe: a line, for example, is a vector and could be denoted by a single symbol – instead of a set of numbers that will change whenever we change the reference frame. We’ll see how to do this in the next Section. ### 5.3 Using vectors in 3-space In ordinary algebraic number theory (Book 1, Chapter 4) we represented numbers by points on a straight line, or with the displacements which lead from an origin to these points. The displacements are in fact vectors in a 1-space, each being a numerical multiple of a unit ‘step’ which we called $e$; and any 1-vector $a$ is written as $a = ae$, where $a$ is just a number saying ‘how many’ steps we take in the direction of $e$. Of course, if $a$ is an integer, the displacement will lead to a point labelled by that integer; but we know from Book 1 that this picture can be extended to the case where $a$ is any real number and $a$ is the vector leading to its associated point in the pictorial representation. The rules for combining vectors in 1-space are known from Book 1: we get the sum of two displacements, $a$ and $b$, by making them one after the other (the end point of the first being the starting point for the second) and it doesn’t matter which way round we take them. Thus \[ a + b = b + a, \tag{5.4} \] and if there are three vectors it doesn’t matter how we combine them, \[ (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). \tag{5.5} \] We can also multiply a vector by any real number, as in writing $a$ as a number $a$ of units $e$: $a = ae$. Let’s try to do the same things in 3-space. There will now be three different kinds of unit step – along the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis – which we’ll call $ \mathbf{e}_1, \mathbf{e}_2, \mathbf{e}_3 $, respectively. They will be the basis vectors of our algebra and we take them to be of unit length (being ‘unit steps’) A vector pointing from the origin O to point P$(x, y, z)$ (i.e. with Cartesian coordinates $x, y, z$) will be denoted by $ \mathbf{r} $ and written \[ \mathbf{r} = x\mathbf{e}_1 + y\mathbf{e}_2 + z\mathbf{e}_3. \tag{5.6} \] This is really just a rule for getting from O to P: If the coordinates are integers e.g. $x=3$, $y=2$, $z=6$, this reads “take 3 steps of type $ \mathbf{e}_1 $, 2 of type $ \mathbf{e}_2 $ and 6 of type $ \mathbf{e}_3 $ – and you’ll be there!” And the remarkable fact is that, even although the terms in (5.6) are in different directions, the order in which we put them together doesn’t make any difference: you can take 2 steps parallel to the z-axis (type $ \mathbf{e}_3 $), then 2 steps parallel to the y-axis (type $ \mathbf{e}_2 $), 3 more steps of type $ \mathbf{e}_1 $, and finally 4 steps of type $ \mathbf{e}_3 $ – and you’ll get to the same point. This is easy to see from Fig.19, remembering that (because the axes are perpendicular) space is being ‘marked out’ in rectangles, whose opposite sides are equal. In fact, the rules (5.4) and (5.5) apply generally for vector addition. An important thing to note is that in combining the terms in (5.6) the vectors must be allowed to ‘float’, as long as they stay parallel to the axes: they are called ‘free vectors’ and are not tied to any special point in space. On the other hand, the position vector $ \mathbf{r} $ is defined as a vector leading from the origin O to a particular point P: it is a ‘bound vector’. The numbers $x, y, z$ in (5.6), besides being coordinates of the point P, are also components of its position vector. Any vector may be expressed in a similar form – \[ \begin{align} \mathbf{a} &= a_1\mathbf{e}_1 + a_2\mathbf{e}_2 + a_3\mathbf{e}_3 \\ \mathbf{b} &= b_1\mathbf{e}_1 + b_2\mathbf{e}_2 + b_3\mathbf{e}_3, \end{align} \] etc. and addition of vectors leads to addition of corresponding components. Thus, rearranging the terms in the sum, \[ \mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b} = (a_1 + b_1)\mathbf{e}_1 + (a_2 + b_2)\mathbf{e}_2 + (a_3 + b_3)\mathbf{e}_3. \tag{5.7} \] Similarly, multiplication of a vector by any real number $c$ is expressed in component form by $$c\mathbf{a} = ca_1\mathbf{e}_1 + ca_2\mathbf{e}_2 + ca_3\mathbf{e}_3.$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.8) Finally, note that the vector algebra of Euclidean 3-space is very similar to the ordinary algebra of real numbers (e.g. Book 1, Chapter 3). There is a ‘unit under addition’ which can be added to any vector without changing it, namely $\mathbf{0} = 0\mathbf{e}_1 + 0\mathbf{e}_2 + 0\mathbf{e}_3$; and every vector $\mathbf{a}$ has an ‘inverse under addition’, denoted by $-\mathbf{a} = -a_1\mathbf{e}_1 - a_2\mathbf{e}_2 - a_3\mathbf{e}_3$, such that $-\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{a} = \mathbf{0}$. ### 5.4 Scalar and vector products From two vectors, $\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b}$, it’s useful to define special kinds of ‘product’, depending on their lengths $(a, b)$ and the angle between them ($\theta$). (The length of a vector $\mathbf{a}$ is often written as $a = \|\mathbf{a}\|$ and called the modulus of $\mathbf{a}$.) Definition. The scalar product, written $\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b}$, is defined by $\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} = ab \cos \theta$. Definition. The vector product, written $\mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b}$, is defined by $\mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b} = ab \sin \theta \mathbf{c}$, where $\mathbf{c}$ is a new unit vector, normal (i.e. perpendicular) to the plane of $\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b}$ and pointing so that rotating $\mathbf{a}$ towards $\mathbf{b}$ would send a right-handed screw in the direction of $\mathbf{c}$. The ‘scalar’ product is just a number (in Physics a ‘scalar’ is a quantity not associated with any particular direction); but the vector product is connected with the area of the piece of surface defined by the two vectors – and $\mathbf{c}$ points ‘up’ from the surface, so as to show which is its ‘top’ side (as when we first set up the z-axis). Both products have the usual ‘distributive’ property, that is $$(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b}) \cdot \mathbf{c} = \mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{c} + \mathbf{b} \cdot \mathbf{c}, \quad (\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b}) \times \mathbf{c} = \mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{c} + \mathbf{b} \times \mathbf{c},$$ but, from its definition, the vector product changes sign if the order of the vectors is reversed ($\mathbf{b} \times \mathbf{a} = -\mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b}$) – so whatever we do we must keep them in the right order. The unit vectors $\mathbf{e}_1, \mathbf{e}_2, \mathbf{e}_3$ each have unit modulus, $\|\mathbf{e}_1\| = \|\mathbf{e}_2\| = \|\mathbf{e}_3\| = 1$; and each is perpendicular to the other two, $\mathbf{e}_1 \cdot \mathbf{e}_2 = \mathbf{e}_1 \cdot \mathbf{e}_3 = \mathbf{e}_2 \cdot \mathbf{e}_3 = 0$. It follows that the scalar product between any pair of vectors $\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b}$ is, in terms of their components, $$\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} = (a_1\mathbf{e}_1 + a_2\mathbf{e}_2 + a_3\mathbf{e}_3) \cdot (b_1\mathbf{e}_1 + b_2\mathbf{e}_2 + b_3\mathbf{e}_3)$$ $$= a_1b_1\mathbf{e}_1 \cdot \mathbf{e}_1 + \ldots + a_1b_2\mathbf{e}_1 \cdot \mathbf{e}_2 + \ldots,$$ where the dots mean ‘similar terms’; and from the properties of the unit vectors (above) this becomes $$\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} = a_1b_1 + a_2b_2 + a_3b_3.$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.9) When $ \mathbf{b} = \mathbf{a} $ we get $ \mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{a} = a^2 = a_1^2 + a_2^2 + a_3^2 $ (the original sum-of-squares form for a length); and for the position vector $ \mathbf{r} $ of any point P we find \[ OP = r = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2 + z^2}. \] (5.10) Similarly, for two vectors $ \mathbf{r}, \mathbf{r}' $, the scalar product is \[ \mathbf{r} \cdot \mathbf{r}' = rr' \cos \theta = xx' + yy' + zz' \] and this tells us how to find the angle between any two vectors. Remember that $ x, y, z $ are projections of $ \mathbf{r} $ on the three coordinate axes, so $ x/r = \cos \alpha $ ($ \alpha $ being the angle between $ \mathbf{r} $ and the x-axis); and similarly for the second vector, $ x'/r' = \cos \alpha' $. The cosines of the angles between a vector and the three axes are usually called the direction cosines of the vector and are denoted by $ l, m, n $. With this notation the equation above can be re-written as \[ \cos \theta = ll' + mm' + nn' \] (5.11) – a simple way of getting the angle $ \theta $, which applies for any two vectors in 3-space. ### 5.5 Some examples To end this chapter it’s useful to look at a few examples of how you can describe points, lines, planes, and simple 3-dimensional shapes in vector language. By using vectors you can often get the results you need much more easily than by drawing complicated diagrams and thinking of all the ‘special cases’ that can arise. - Angles in a triangle In Section 1.2 we took the theorem of Pythagoras, for a right-angled triangle as the ‘metric axiom’. There are many theorems concerned with triangles that we haven’t even mentioned; and many of them refer to a general triangle, with no special angles. Let’s take such a triangle, with vertices A,B,C, using the same letters to denote the corresponding angles $ A, B, C $, and the small letters $ a, b, c $ to denote the lengths of the sides opposite to angles $ A, B, C $. We can also use the special symbols $ \mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b}, \mathbf{c} $ to mean the vectors pointing along the sides, following one another in the positive (anti-clockwise) direction. (Before going on, you should make a careful drawing of the triangle ABC, labelling the sides and angles. Then you’ll have the picture in your head.) There are two basic ‘laws’ relating the sines and cosines of the angles. The first is very easy to get: if you drop a perpendicular from vertex C onto the line through A and B, calling its length $ h $, then $ \sin A = h/b, \sin B = h/a $; and so $ h = b \sin A = a \sin B $. On dividing by $ ab $ we get $ (\sin A/a) = (\sin B/b) $. Taking vertex A next, you find a similar result; and on putting them together you find \[ \frac{\sin A}{a} = \frac{\sin B}{b} = \frac{\sin C}{c}. \] (5.12) This is the ‘Law of Sines’ for any plane triangle. Now note that the sum of the vectors $ \mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b}, \mathbf{c} $ (displacements following each other round the triangle and bringing you back to the starting point) is zero: $ \mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b} + \mathbf{c} = 0 $. So $ \mathbf{a} = -(\mathbf{b} + \mathbf{c}) $ and the squared length of $ \mathbf{a} $ is \[ \begin{align} a^2 &= \mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{a} = (\mathbf{b} + \mathbf{c}) \cdot (\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{c}) \\ &= \mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b} \cdot \mathbf{b} + 2\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} = b^2 + c^2 + 2\mathbf{b} \cdot \mathbf{c}. \end{align} \] From the definition of the scalar product in Section 5.2, $ \mathbf{b} \cdot \mathbf{c} = bc \cos \theta $ when both vectors point away from the point of intersection: but that means turning $ \mathbf{c} $ round, making it $-\mathbf{c}$. The result you get, along with two others like it (obtained by taking vertex B in place of A, and then vertex C) give us the ‘Law of Cosines’: \[ \begin{align} a^2 &= b^2 + c^2 - 2bc \cos A \\ b^2 &= c^2 + a^2 - 2ca \cos B \\ c^2 &= a^2 + b^2 - 2ca \cos C. \end{align} \] (5.13) - Vector equation of a straight line Suppose we want the line to pass through a point A, with position vector $ \mathbf{a} $, and to be parallel to a given vector $ \mathbf{b} $ – which can be of unit length ($ b^2 = \mathbf{b} \cdot \mathbf{b} = 1 $). Then a general point on the line, P, with position vector $ \mathbf{r} $, will be given by \[ \mathbf{r} = \mathbf{a} + s\mathbf{b} \] (5.14) where $ s $ is any variable number – and that’s the equation we need! If instead we want the equation for a line passing through two points, A and B (position vectors $ \mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b} $), then we simply replace $ \mathbf{b} $ in the last equation by the vector $ \mathbf{b} - \mathbf{a} $, which points from A to B: the result is \[ \mathbf{r} = \mathbf{a} + s(\mathbf{b} - \mathbf{a}). \] - Vector equation of a plane Suppose ON is a normal to the plane, drawn from the origin O to the foot of the perpendicular, N; and let $ \mathbf{n} $ be a unit vector in the direction ON, so $ \mathbf{ON} = p\mathbf{n} $ where $ p $ is the perpendicular distance from O to the plane. If $ \mathbf{r} $ is the position vector of P, any other point in the plane, then its projection (Section 5.2) on the line ON must have the same value $ p $. In other words, \[ \mathbf{r} \cdot \mathbf{n} = p \] (5.15) will be the equation defining a plane, with unit normal $ \mathbf{n} $, at perpendicular distance $ p $ from the origin. - Distance of a point from a plane The perpendicular distance from the origin to a point P in the plane, given by (5.15), is $ p = \mathbf{r} \cdot \mathbf{n} $. That from the origin to any other point, $ \mathbf{P}' $ with position vector $ \mathbf{r}' $, will be $ p' = \mathbf{r}' \cdot \mathbf{n} $ – where we’re thinking of point $ \mathbf{P}' $ as being in some parallel plane (which will have the same normal $ \mathbf{n} $). The required distance is therefore \[ d = p' - p = \mathbf{r}' \cdot \mathbf{n} - p \] and this will be positive when $ \mathbf{P}' $ is above the given plane, going out from the origin in the direction $ \mathbf{n} $. • Intersection of two planes The angle $\theta$ between two planes means the angle between their normals; so it follows from $$\cos \theta = n \cdot n',$$ $n, n'$ being the two unit normals. If $\theta$ is zero the planes will be parallel; but otherwise they will intersect – somewhere, but where? A point $(r)$ which lies on both planes must satisfy both equations, $r \cdot n = p$, $r \cdot n' = p'$. It will then lie on the line of intersection; but if we multiply the two equations by any two numbers $c$ and $c'$ and add the results we’ll get $$r \cdot (cn - c'n') = cp - c'p'.$$ And this is the equation of a plane with its normal in the direction $cn - c'n'$: it describes a plane through the line of intersection of the two given planes – which one depending on the values we give to $c$ and $c'$. Now a vector $dn + d'n'$ (the numbers $d, d'$ to be chosen), starting from the origin, will contain the normals $(n, n')$ to both planes and will therefore cut the line of intersection: we take it as the vector $a$ in equation(5.14), choosing $d$ and $d'$ so that the point will lie on both planes. Then we need only the direction, the unit vector $b$ in (5.14), to fix the line. And since the line of intersection is perpendicular to both normals we can take $b$ as the vector product $n \times n'$ defined in Section 5.4. Putting things together, the equation of the line of intersection is $$r = dn + d'n' + sn \times n', \tag{5.16}$$ where the value of $s$ changes as you run along the line. • Equation of a sphere We’ve already met the equation for a sphere centred on the origin, in Section 5.2, in terms of Cartesian coordinates. Let’s now look at one centred on the point $C$ (position vector $c$), with radius $R$. The distance from $C$ to the surface is the length of the vector $r - c$ and the condition for point $r$ to lie on the surface is thus $\|r - c\|^2 = R^2$. Thus, expanding, $$r^2 - 2r \cdot c + (c^2 - R^2) = 0 \tag{5.17}$$ and this is the equation of the sphere centred on point $c$. • Intersection of a straight line and a sphere Suppose the line is given by (5.14) and the sphere by (5.17): the point $r$ must satisfy both these conditions. If we put the first in the second we get $$(a - sb) \cdot (a - sb) - 2(a - sb) \cdot c + (c^2 - R^2) = 0.$$ This contains the first and second powers of the variable number $s$ and will therefore be a quadratic equation (Book 1, Section 5.3), which can be written as $$As^2 + Bs + C = 0,$$ where \[ A = b^2 = 1, \quad B = 2b \cdot (a - c), \quad C = a^2 + c^2 - R^2 - 2a \cdot c. \] There will be two roots, both real numbers, when $ B^2 > 4AC $; and these values of $ s $ fix the two points where the straight line meets the surface. If it happens that $ B^2 $ and $ 4AC $ are exactly equal, then the two points become one and the line just touches the surface in a single point. The line is then a tangent to the sphere. Exercises 1) Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors $ v_1 = 2e_1 - e_2 + e_3 $ and $ v_2 = 3e_1 + 4e_2 - e_3 $. Calculate the angle between $ v_1 $ and $ v_2 $. 2) Find two vectors which make equal angles with $ e_1 $, are perpendicular to each other, and are perpendicular to $ e_1 + e_2 + e_3 $. 3) What is the vector equation of a straight line through the points $ e_1 - 2e_2 + e_3 $ and $ 3e_3 - 2e_2 $? And where does this line meet the plane which contains the origin and the points $ 4e_2 $ and $ 2e_1 + e_2 $? 4) Show that the line joining the mid points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and is of half its length. 5) Show that the three points whose position vectors are $ a, b, $ and $ 3a - 2b $ lie on the same straight line. 6) Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point with position vector $ d $ and making equal angles with the vectors $ a, b, c $. 7) Find the equation of the plane through the point $ 2e_1 + 3e_2 - e_3 $ which is perpendicular to the vector $ 3e_1 - 4e_2 + 7e_3 $. 8) Show that the points $ e_1 - e_2 + 3e_3 $ and $ 3(e_1 + e_2 + e_3) $ are each the same distance from the plane \[ r \cdot (5e_1 + 2e_2 - 7e_3) + 9 = 0, \] but are on opposite sides of it. Chapter 6 Area and volume: invariance 6.1 Invariance of lengths and angles At the end of Section 5.2 we noted that the objects we meet in 3-space have properties ‘of their own’ which don’t change if we move them around from one part of space to another – as long as we don’t bend them or twist them or change their ‘natural’ shapes. The objects may be, for example, rods or sticks (with a length of their own; or plates (with an area); or bricks or buckets (with a volume). All such properties are invariant under the transformations that simply move an object from one place to another. And in the last Section we laid the foundations for describing invariance mathematically, by using single symbols (vectors) to stand for elements of space: the separation of two points in an object, for example, is described by a vector $ \mathbf{d} = d_1 \mathbf{e}_1 + d_2 \mathbf{e}_2 + d_3 \mathbf{e}_3 $, say, whose length does not change when we move the object. In fact, such transformations have the fundamental property of leaving invariant all distances and angles – which define the shape of the object. This was the property used by the Greeks in their development of plane geometry – for example in comparing two triangles to see if they were exactly alike, meaning one could be placed on top of the other with all sides and angles matching. They used pictures, but here we’re using algebraic methods and working in three dimensions (solid geometry) rather than two; and it’s here that vectors are especially useful. Let the position vectors of points P and Q, relative to an origin O and a set of unit vectors $ \mathbf{e}_1, \mathbf{e}_2, \mathbf{e}_3 $, be \[ \mathbf{p} = p_1 \mathbf{e}_1 + p_2 \mathbf{e}_2 + p_3 \mathbf{e}_3 \quad \mathbf{q} = q_2 \mathbf{e}_1 + q_2 \mathbf{e}_2 + q_2 \mathbf{e}_3, \] where (so as not to be confused) we use $ p_1, p_2, p_3 $ for the components of $ \mathbf{p} $ instead of $ x, y, z $. The vector pointing from P to Q (often written $ \overrightarrow{PQ} $) is the difference \[ \overrightarrow{PQ} = \mathbf{d}_{PQ} = \mathbf{q} - \mathbf{p} = (q_1 - p_1) \mathbf{e}_1 + (q_2 - p_2) \mathbf{e}_2 + (q_3 - p_3) \mathbf{e}_3. \] The simplest transformation we can make is a translation, in which every point P is moved into its image, $ P' $, with position vector $ \mathbf{p}' = \mathbf{p} + \mathbf{t} $, where $ \mathbf{t} $ is a constant vector. It is clear from Fig.20 that the vector from $ P' $ to $ Q' $ is just the same as that from P to Q, before moving the object: this idea can be expressed in the equation \[ d_{P'Q'} = q' - p' = (q + t) - (p + t) = q - p = d_{PQ}. \] (6.1) The vector separation of two points is invariant under the translation. Let’s think next of rotating the object into some new position: this is more difficult because an image point $ P' $ now has a position vector $ p' $ related to $ p $ in a complicated way. But we can study a simple case – rotating the object around one axis, the z-axis with unit vector $ e_3 $. A rotation changes elements of space, not numbers, so we must ask what happens to the vectors $ e_1, e_2, e_3 $; and Fig. 21 shows that a rotation through angle $ \theta $ around $ e_3 $ (which points up out of the page) has the following effect – \[ \begin{align} e_1 &\rightarrow e'_1 &= \cos \theta e_1 + \sin \theta e_2, \\ e_2 &\rightarrow e'_2 &= -\sin \theta e_1 + \cos \theta e_2, \\ e_3 &\rightarrow e'_3 &= e_3, \end{align} \] (6.2) where each unit vector turns into its image under the rotation, only $ e_3 $ (along the z-axis) staying as it was. Now a point $ P $, with position vector $ p = p_1 e_1 + p_2 e_2 + p_3 e_3 $, is carried into $ P' $, related in exactly the same way to the new unit vectors resulting from the rotation – nothing else has changed – and these are given in (6.2). The position vector of the image $ P' $ is thus \[ p' = p_1 (\cos \theta e_1 + \sin \theta e_2) + p_2 (-\sin \theta e_1 + \cos \theta e_2) + p_3 e_3, \] when expressed in terms of the unit vectors before the rotation took place. This can be re-arranged to give \[ p' = p'_1 e_1 + p'_2 e_2 + p'_3 e_3, \] where \[ \begin{align} p'_1 &= \cos \theta p_1 - \sin \theta p_2, \\ p'_2 &= \sin \theta p_1 + \cos \theta p_2, \\ p'_3 &= p_3. \end{align} \] (6.3) The new vector $p'$ is clearly very different from $p$: but this is no surprise – what we are looking for is the invariance of lengths and angles. We’ll just show that the length of the line OP is preserved in the rotation; then you can do the same for the angle between OP and OQ. All we have to do is confirm that $p'_1^2 + p'_2^2 + p'_3^2$ (the square of the length OP’) is the same as before the rotation. The three terms are, from (6.3), \[ \begin{align} p'_1^2 &= (\cos \theta)^2 p_1^2 + (\sin \theta)^2 p_2^2 - 2(\cos \theta \sin \theta) p_1 p_2, \\ p'_2^2 &= (\sin \theta)^2 p_1^2 + (\cos \theta)^2 p_2^2 + 2(\cos \theta \sin \theta) p_1 p_2, \\ p'_3^2 &= p_3^2, \end{align} \] and on adding these together, remembering that $(\cos \theta)^2 + (\sin \theta)^2 = 1$ for any angle $\theta$, we get the expected result \[ p'_1^2 + p'_2^2 + p'_3^2 = p_1^2 + p_2^2 + p_3^2. \tag{6.4} \] The length of any vector is thus unchanged by rotation of the object. After showing that the angles between any two vectors are also invariant, it follows that a transformation of this particular form (rotation around the z-axis) leaves unchanged the shape of an object, its surface area and its volume. We must now think about area and volume in a bit more detail, but first let’s note that what we’ve said about rotation around one special axis is true for all kinds of rotation. This is easy because, as we’ve just seen, an object is defined with reference to three unit vectors and its image (after rotation) is defined the same way in terms of the images of the unit vectors: so it’s enough to know how $e_1, e_2, e_3$ are transformed. We also know that a rotated unit vector, pointing in any direction, can be found from the corresponding direction cosines (introduced just before (5.11)). If we use $l_1, m_1, n_1$ to fix the image $e'_1$ in terms of the original basis – and so on, we get as the most general transformation, \[ \begin{align} e_1 &\rightarrow e'_1 = l_1 e_1 + m_1 e_2 + n_1 e_3, \\ e_2 &\rightarrow e'_2 = l_2 e_1 + m_2 e_2 + n_2 e_3, \\ e_3 &\rightarrow e'_3 = l_3 e_1 + m_3 e_2 + n_3 e_3. \tag{6.5} \end{align} \] These vectors will keep their original unit lengths provided \[ e_1 \cdot e_1 = l_1^2 + m_1^2 + n_1^2 = 1, \quad \text{etc.} \tag{6.6} \] and will stay perpendicular to each other ($\cos \theta = 0$), provided \[ e_1 \cdot e_2 = l_1 l_2 + m_1 m_2 + n_1 n_2 = 0, \quad \text{etc.} \tag{6.7} \] according to (5.11). These are the general conditions that any rotation must satisfy in order that the image of an object will look exactly like the object before rotation. When all distances and angles are conserved in this way, the object and its image are said to be congruent. In fact, almost the whole of Euclid’s geometry was based on the idea of congruence. 6.2 Area and volume Starting from the idea of length, as the distance between the ends of a measuring rod, we have defined the surface area of a plane rectangular object (e.g. a plate) in Chapter 3: this quantity, a product of two lengths, was said to have ‘dimension L²’ and was measured by counting the number of ‘units of area’ (e.g. tiles) needed to cover it. In going from 2 to 3 dimensions similar ideas are used. The simplest definition of the volume of a box, whose sides are rectangles, is volume = product of the lengths of the 3 edges, a quantity with dimension L³. The volume is measured by counting the number of ‘units of volume’ (e.g. bricks) needed to fill it. (See Book 1, Chapter 2, where we used this idea in setting up the laws for multiplying numbers: the number of bricks in a wall (Fig.7) was a product of three numbers – the numbers in the three directions, for length, thickness and height.) To summarize the basic ideas, using vector language, - Length (defined by one vector $ \mathbf{a} $) = $ a = \|\mathbf{a}\| $ - Area (defined by two vectors, $ \mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b} $) = $ ab $ - Volume (defined by three vectors, $ \mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b}, \mathbf{c} $) = $ abc $ – the vectors being in the direction of the measurement and all being perpendicular to each other. Of course, we’ve taken for granted that the objects are rectangular (we’ve been working always with rectangular coordinates) and that a whole number of units will just fill the measured length, area, or volume. But when this is not so we know how to get round the difficulty by dividing the units into smaller and smaller ‘sub-units’; or else, in the case of area, by breaking them into pieces (e.g. triangles, of known area) so as to fit more and more closely the area we’re trying to measure. Finding the area of a circle (Section 3.1), by the method of Archimedes, is a beautiful example. In short, we can ‘pin down’ the quantity we’re trying to measure as lying between ‘this’ and ‘that’ – where the ‘this’ and ‘that’ are upper bounds and lower bounds, respectively. And that means, in principle, that it can be measured by a real number (generally irrational, see Book 1) as accurately as we please! So much for the simple definitions of length, area, and volume of simple shapes. More generally, we’ll have to use ideas from another branch of mathematics – calculus – dealt with in other Books of the Series. But already things look a bit strange; because any length, in the definitions above, is measured by the vector distance between two points, which is taken positive only because we don’t usually care whether it refers to ‘going’ or ‘coming back’ – and so decide to use the modulus of the vector. Similarly, the area may be defined in vector language as a vector product: the shape shown in Fig.22 (called a parallelogram), with two pairs of parallel sides, two of which are the vectors $ \mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b} $, has a vector area \[ \mathbf{A} = \mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b} = ab \sin \theta_{ab} \mathbf{n}, \] (6.8) where $ \mathbf{n} $ is a unit vector ‘normal’ (i.e. perpendicular) to the surface. (Notice that we’re no longer talking only about rectangles, the vectors $ \mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b} $ being at any angle $ \theta_{ab} $.) The normal is determined (as in the definition following equation (5.8)) so as to point in the ‘right-hand screw’ sense relative to $ \mathbf{a} $ and $ \mathbf{b} $. When we talk about the area of the surface we’re usually thinking of the magnitude of the vector area: $ A = \|A\| $. But if we need to know the difference between ‘top’ and ‘bottom’ we must always remember that the vector area $ \mathbf{A} $ can carry a sign ($ \pm $); and when we go on to look at volume we’ll find similar problems. So we must deal with both things in a bit more detail. Note: Skip the next Sections on first reading; but have a look at Chapter 7 (the last one!) ### 6.3 Area in vector form Vector area is important when we think of something crossing or passing through a surface. If the surface is the open end of a water pipe the normal $ \mathbf{n} $ can show the way the water flows (e.g. ‘out’, along $ \mathbf{n} $, when the vector in (6.8) is a positive number times $ \mathbf{n} $); and if we are thinking of the curved surface of an umbrella, then the resultant vector area will tell us how much cover it gives against the rain that falls on it. Any kind of surface can be made out of very small elements (e.g. rectangles, with sides of lengths $ a $ and $ b $), each with a vector area $ \mathbf{A} = An $ ($ \mathbf{n} $ chosen by the ‘right-hand rule’). So we look at just one small element, writing its vector area as $ \mathbf{A} = A_1 \mathbf{e}_1 + A_2 \mathbf{e}_2 + A_3 \mathbf{e}_3 $ where (taking a scalar product with $ \mathbf{e}_1 $) $ A_1 = \mathbf{A} \cdot \mathbf{e}_1 $ and so on. The component $ A_3 $ is the projection of $ \mathbf{A} $ in the direction $ \mathbf{e}_3 $ (the z-axis in Fig.23) i.e. the projection on the xy-plane. Every element of the surface makes its own projection: so if we add the projections together we get the projection of the vector area of the whole surface on the xy-plane. If the xy-plane is the ground and the surface is a piece of board you’re using to protect you against the rain, then \[ A_3 = \mathbf{A} \cdot \mathbf{e}_3 = An \cdot e_3 \] and this projection will be the whole area of the board when you hold it horizontally, so that $ n \cdot e_3 = 1 $. But if you hold it sideways, so that $ \mathbf{n} $ is parallel to the ground, then $ \mathbf{n} \cdot \mathbf{e}_3 = 0 $ and the projected area is zero – you get no cover at all! Vector area is a very useful idea, as we’ll find in other Books. For example, the vector area of any closed surface – like that of a rectangular box – is always zero: in this example opposite sides have the same area, but their normals (pointing out from the surface) are in opposite directions and the vector sum is zero. This is a general result: it means nothing can flow in or out through a surface that is closed – you’d have to make a hole in it. Before starting on volume, it’s useful to show how vector area can be written in terms of components. The vector area of a surface element defined in Fig.22 by the vectors $ \mathbf{a} $ and $ \mathbf{b} $, with $ \mathbf{a} = a_1 \mathbf{e}_1 + a_2 \mathbf{e}_2 + a_3 \mathbf{e}_3 $, $ \mathbf{b} = b_1 \mathbf{e}_1 + b_2 \mathbf{e}_2 + b_3 \mathbf{e}_3 $, is $ \mathbf{A} = \mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b} $; and this becomes, remembering that $ \mathbf{e}_1 \times \mathbf{e}_2 = \mathbf{e}_3 = -\mathbf{e}_2 \times \mathbf{e}_1 $, etc. and $ \mathbf{e}_1 \times \mathbf{e}_1 = 0 $, etc., \[ \mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b} = (a_1 \mathbf{e}_1 + a_2 \mathbf{e}_2 + a_3 \mathbf{e}_3) \times (b_1 \mathbf{e}_1 + b_2 \mathbf{e}_2 + b_3 \mathbf{e}_3) \] \[ = (a_1 b_2 - a_2 b_1) \mathbf{e}_3 - (a_1 b_3 - a_3 b_1) \mathbf{e}_2 \] \[ + (a_2 b_3 - a_3 b_2) \mathbf{e}_1. \] To remember things like this we first note that each component depends on two subscripts (e.g. the first on ‘1’ and ‘2’) and is multiplied by $-1$ if we change their order (e.g. ‘1,2’ → ‘2,1’) – it is antisymmetric under interchange of subscripts. There is a special notation for such quantities: we write \[ a_1 b_2 - a_2 b_1 = \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_2 \\ b_1 & b_2 \end{vmatrix}, \quad a_1 b_3 - a_3 b_1 = \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_3 \end{vmatrix}, \] \[ a_2 b_3 - a_3 b_2 = \begin{vmatrix} a_2 & a_3 \\ b_2 & b_3 \end{vmatrix}, \] so that, from each array on the right, the corresponding component on the left is obtained as a product of the numbers on the ‘leading diagonal’ (e.g. $ a_1, b_2 $) minus the product of those on the ‘second diagonal’ (i.e. $ b_1, a_2 $). With this notation, the vector product above can be put in the (re-arranged) form \[ \mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b} = \mathbf{e}_1 \begin{vmatrix} a_2 & a_3 \\ b_2 & b_3 \end{vmatrix} - \mathbf{e}_2 \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_3 \end{vmatrix} + \mathbf{e}_3 \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_2 \\ b_1 & b_2 \end{vmatrix}. \] (6.9) Each array, with the rule for ‘multiplying it out’ to get a single number, is called a determinant. We’ll meet determinants in other Books, but for the moment we’re just using the notation. Similar determinants can be set up, with any number of rows and columns, and any of them can be ‘expanded’ in terms of smaller determinants. To show how useful they can be in helping us to remember very complicated things, let’s look at an expression for the vector product (6.9) as a single determinant with three rows and columns: it turns out to be \[ \mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b} = \begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{e}_1 & \mathbf{e}_2 & \mathbf{e}_3 \\ a_1 & a_2 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_2 & b_3 \end{vmatrix}. \] (6.10) To expand this ‘3×3’ determinant in the form (6.9) you take the element in the first row and the first column (it is $ \mathbf{e}_1 $) and multiply it be the ‘2×2’ determinant that’s left when you strike out the first row and column; then you move to the next element in the first row (it is $ \mathbf{e}_2 $) and do the same, multiplying it by the determinant that’s left when you strike out the first row and second column; and then you move to the next element ($ \mathbf{e}_3 $) and multiply it by the determinant that’s left when you strike out the row and column that contain it. Finally, you add together the three contributions you have (one for $ e_1 $, one for $ e_2 $, and one for $ e_3 $) – but in working along the first row, in this way, you have to multiply alternate contributions by $-1$. If you use this simple recipe you will get (6.9). We’re now ready to find the volume of a ‘box’ (called a parallelopiped) defined by three vectors $ a, b, c $ as in Fig. 24. This will be the ‘volume element’ in 3-space. ![Figure 24](image) ### 6.4 Volume in vector form From Fig. 24 we see that the whole object could be built up from thin slabs, each in the form of a parallelogram with area $ ab \sin \theta_{ab} $ and thickness $ d $ i.e. with volume $ abd \sin \theta_{ab} $. By stacking a number of such slabs, one on top of another, we get an approximation to the volume of any object with three sets of parallel faces (i.e. a parallelopiped). The top face is then at a vertical height $ h = nd $ above the bottom face and the total volume (that of $ n $ slabs) is thus $ abh \sin \theta_{ab} $. Now $ h = c \cos \phi $, where $ c $ is the length of the vector $ c $ and $ \phi $ is the angle it makes with the vertical (the normal to the plane of $ a $ and $ b $). From this it follows that \[ V = abc \sin \theta_{ab} \cos \phi \] and the formula will be exact in the limit where we take an enormous number of thinner and thinner slabs. As in dealing with area, we can put this result in a convenient form even when all three vectors ($ a, b, c $) are expressed in terms of their components. The factor $ ab \sin \theta_{ab} $ is the modulus of the vector area of the parallelogram, $ A = An $ ($ n $ being the upward-pointing normal in Fig. 22), while $ c \cos \phi = n \cdot c $ ($ \phi $ being the Greek letter ‘phi’); and the volume formula thus follows as a triple product \[ V = (a \times b) \cdot c = c \cdot (a \times b). \] (6.11) Of course there’s nothing special about the vector $ c $: if we draw Fig. 24 with vectors $ b $ and $ c $ along the edges of the bottom plane, instead of $ a $ and $ b $, we’ll get a different formula for the same volume. In this way we find \[ V = a \times b \cdot c = b \times c \cdot a = c \times a \cdot b \\ = a \cdot b \times c = b \cdot c \times a = c \cdot a \times b \] are all expressions for the same volume. The relative positions of the ‘dot’ and the ‘cross’ don’t matter, so the triple product is often written as $[a \ b \ c]$ and the last results then become $$V = [a \ b \ c] = [b \ c \ a] = [c \ a \ b],$$ where the different forms arise from a cyclic interchange, abc→bca→cab. Note that when the three vectors form a right-handed system, as in Fig.24, the volume $V$ given in this way is always positive; but if you change this order the sign of the result is reversed. We needn’t worry about this (we usually only want the magnitude of the volume) but we keep it in mind. Finally, we express $V$ in terms of the rectangular components of the vectors $a, b, c$, as we did in the case of the vector area. Thus, writing $V = a \cdot b \times c$ and using the formula (6.9), but with $b, c$ in place of $a, b$, we see $V$ can be written as the scalar product of $$a = a_1 e_1 + a_2 e_2 + a_3 e_3$$ and the vector product $b \times c$ in the form $$e_1 \begin{vmatrix} b_2 & b_3 \\ c_2 & c_3 \end{vmatrix} - e_2 \begin{vmatrix} b_1 & b_3 \\ c_1 & c_3 \end{vmatrix} + e_3 \begin{vmatrix} b_1 & b_2 \\ c_1 & c_2 \end{vmatrix}.$$ From the properties of the Cartesian unit vectors ($e_1 \cdot e_1 = 1, \ e_1 \cdot e_2 = 0$, etc.) this product gives the volume $V$ in the form $$a_1 \begin{vmatrix} b_2 & b_3 \\ c_2 & c_3 \end{vmatrix} - a_2 \begin{vmatrix} b_1 & b_3 \\ c_1 & c_3 \end{vmatrix} + a_3 \begin{vmatrix} b_1 & b_2 \\ c_1 & c_2 \end{vmatrix}.$$ But this is the expanded form of a single ‘$3 \times 3$’ determinant, as in (6.10); so we can write $$V = \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_2 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_2 & b_3 \\ c_1 & c_2 & c_3 \end{vmatrix}. \quad (6.12)$$ This is a very general result: the vectors $a, b, c$ can point in any directions and have any lengths we please – we only need to know their 3-space components and we can say at once what volume element they define. Exercises 1) Use the transformation equation (6.3), which describes the rotation of all 3-space vectors around a common axis, to show that the angle between any two vectors, $p$ and $q$, is unchanged by this rotation. 2) Show that the magnitude of the vector area defined by the two vectors $a, b$, and the volume of the parallelopiped defined by three vectors $a, b, c$, are also invariant under the rotation (6.3). 3) Work out the volume of the parallelopiped in the last Exercise, and the vector areas of its six faces, when the vectors $a, b, c$ are $$a = 3e_1 + e_2, \quad b = e_1 + 2e_2, \quad c = e_1 + e_2 + 2e_3.$$ Make a drawing in which the vector areas are represented by arrows. 4) Besides the triple product in equation (6.11), which is a scalar quantity, there is also a vector triple product. For the three vectors $a, b, c$ this is defined as the vector product of $a$ with $b \times c$: $P_{abc} = a \times (b \times c)$. Since $P_{abc}$ is perpendicular to $a$ and $b \times c$, while the latter is perpendicular to the plane containing $b$ and $c$, the triple product must lie in the plane of $b, c$. Show that $$P_{abc} = (a \cdot c)b - (a \cdot b)c.$$ (This is quite hard! – and we don’t use it unless we want to prove (7.19), near the end of the book. To get the result just given, you should introduce perpendicular unit vectors $e_1, e_2, e_3$, with $e_2$ parallel to $b$ and $e_3$ in the plane of $b, c$. You can then put $b = be_2$ and $c = c_2e_2 + c_3e_3$ and also take $a = a_1e_1 + a_2e_2 + a_3e_3$. On expressing the vector products in $P_{abc} = a \times (b \times c)$ in terms of the components of $a, b, c$, you should find (noting that $b \times c = bc_3e_2 \times e_3 = bc_3e_1$) $P_{abc} = a_3bc_3e_2 - a_2bc_3e_3$. This can be re-written - adding and subtracting a term $a_2bc_2e_2$ - $$P_{abc} = (a_2c_2 + a_3c_3)be_2 - a_2b(c_2e_2 + c_3e_3).$$ The result we set out to prove is the same as this expression when we write the scalar products in terms of vector components.) Chapter 7 Some other kinds of space 7.1 Many-dimensional space So far we’ve been talking mainly about Euclidean spaces of 2 or 3 dimensions – 2-space and 3-space. They were vector spaces, containing all the vectors (v) that could be expressed in the form $ v = v_1 e_1 + v_2 e_2 $ (2-space) or $ v = v_1 e_1 + v_2 e_2 + v_3 e_3 $ (3-space), where $ e_1, e_2, e_3 $ are basis vectors and the coefficients $ v_1, v_2, v_3 $ are algebraic numbers called vector components. To include both cases we can write \[ v = v_1 e_1 + v_2 e_2 + \ldots v_n e_n, \] (7.1) where $ n = 2 $ for 2-space and $ n = 3 $ for 3-space. Remember that every vector had a length (or magnitude) and a direction; and was often represented as an arrow, of given length and pointing in the given direction. (Mathematicians call the arrow a “directed line segment”.) Remember, too, that the components, $ v_1, v_2, \ldots $, relate the vector to the basis and give us a way of labelling any point in space, P, as $ P(v_1, v_2, \ldots) $. The numbers $ v_1, v_2, \ldots $ are components of a position vector (often denoted by $ r $) corresponding to the line OP pointing from the origin O to the point P; and they are also called the coordinates of point P. So far, we have always chosen the basis vectors to be of unit length and perpendicular to one another. In the language of Chapter 6, any two basis vectors ($ e_i, e_j $) have scalar products \[ e_i \cdot e_j = 1 \text{ when } i = j; \] (7.2) \[ e_i \cdot e_j = 0 \text{ when } i \neq j; \] for all values of $ i, j $ in the range 1, 2, ..$ n $. This is the choice we started from in Chapter 1, taking it as the “metric axiom” for 2-space ($ n = 2 $). And the same choice, but with $ n = 3 $, leads to the 3-space considered in Chapter 6. In either case, the properties shown in (7.2) allow us to express the length of any vector in a ‘sum-of-squares’ form. In 3-space, for example, the square of a velocity vector, $ \|v\|^2 = v \cdot v $, is given by \[ \|v\|^2 = (v_1 e_1 + v_2 e_2 + v_3 e_3) \cdot (v_1 e_1 + v_2 e_2 + v_3 e_3) = v_1^2 + v_2^2 + v_3^2, \] (7.3) where there are no terms such as $v_1 v_2$ because $e_1 \cdot e_2 = 0$. The scalar products of the basis vectors are often set out in a square array, like this – $$\begin{pmatrix} e_1 \cdot e_1 & e_1 \cdot e_2 & e_1 \cdot e_3 \\ e_2 \cdot e_1 & e_2 \cdot e_2 & e_2 \cdot e_3 \\ e_3 \cdot e_1 & e_3 \cdot e_2 & e_3 \cdot e_3 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}. \quad (7.4)$$ An array of this kind is called the metric matrix of the space, and all such spaces – in which length can be defined as in (7.3) – are called “metric spaces”. Nothing we’ve said so far depends on $n$ having the value 2 or 3: the simplest generalization of our ideas about geometry is just to keep everything, but allow $n$ to become bigger than three. We then talk about ‘$n$-dimensional spaces’. The fact that we can’t imagine them, because we’re so used to living in 3-space, is not important. If we can find a use for them, then we use them! So let’s put $n = 5$ and take it as an example of a 5-space. In Book 1, Chapter 6, we talked about a ‘space’ (though we didn’t call it that) in which there were five categories of students in a class of 40. The categories were defined by putting the students into groups, according to the ranges into which their heights fall. Suppose we measure them \| Heights of students \| Numbers \| \|---------------------\|---------\| \| Range (a): 1m 5cm to 1m 10cm \| 4 students \| \| Range (b): 1m 10cm to 1m 15cm \| 8 students \| \| Range (c): 1m 15cm to 1m 20cm \| 13 students \| \| Range (d): 1m 20cm to 1m 25cm \| 12 students \| \| Range (e): 1m 25cm to 1m 30cm \| 3 students \| The numbers in these five categories show the ‘state’ of the class; and if we use $a$ to stand for a student — no matter which one — in category (a), $b$ for one in category (b), and so on, then we can describe the state of the class in symbols as $$s = 4a + 8b + 13c + 12d + 3e \quad (7.5)$$ – which looks surprisingly like a vector! so we’ll call it a state vector. The students in the five categories can be ‘sorted out’ or selected by introducing selection operators (as we did in Book 1). Let’s call them $A, B, \ldots E$ so that $A$ selects only students in group (a), and so on. These operators have (as we discovered) the algebraic properties $$AA = A, \quad BB = B, \ldots \quad EE = E \quad (7.6)$$ and, for pairs of different operators, $$AB = BA = 0, \quad AC = CA = 0, \ldots DE = ED = 0. \quad (7.7)$$ And they work on the state vector $s$ as follows: $$As = 4a, \quad Bs = 8b, \quad \ldots \quad Es = 3e,$$ This shows that each selects a part of the class and that putting the results together again we get the whole class: \[(A + B + C + D + E)s = 4a + 8b + \ldots + 3e = s.\] In other words, \[A + B + C + D + E = 1\] (7.8) – the ‘unit operator’ which leaves any state vector unchanged. Operators with these properties form what mathematicians call a “spectral set”: but here we’ve set them up using a very practical example, rather than snatching them out of the sky – as a real mathematician might do. But let’s get back to vector spaces. Algebra provides one way of dealing with selection, geometry provides another. When we use the vector (7.5) to stand for the ‘state’ of the school we’re really thinking of $a, b, \ldots e$ as ‘basis vectors’ or ‘unit steps’ along five different axes. And we can give them any properties we please – supposing, for example, that each of them is perpendicular to all the others, even though that would be impossible with 3-space thinking. The metric matrix will then no longer be (7.4): it will have five ‘1’s along the diagonal and zeros everywhere else. It may all look strange – but who cares? We’re only using a mathematical language and it’s up to us to decide how the symbols should behave. Now that we’ve decided, we can think of $s$ in (7.5) as the 5-dimensional vector formed by taking 4 steps of type $a$, 8 steps of type $b$, and so on, and combining them by addition (i.e. one after another, as in Fig.19). And the squared length of the vector, with this metric, will be the sum-of-squares of its components. The selection operators can now be looked at geometrically: $As = 4a$ is simply the projection of the vector $s$ on the axis defined by the unit vector $a$, while $Bs = 8b$ is its projection on the $b$ axis. The property $AA = A$ then simply means that projecting twice on a given axis can produce nothing more than doing it only once; while $BA = 0$ means that any projection on the $a$ axis will have zero projection on the $b$ axis – that’s why we chose the unit vectors perpendicular (zero scalar products). Sometimes it’s useful to change this geometrical picture slightly. For example, if we want to compare two different classes, of different sizes, we’d be more interested in the fractional numbers of students in the various groups. In that case we might use a vector \[s = (4/40)a + (8/40)b + (13/40)c + (12/40)d + (3/40)e\] to show the state of the class, so that the projections along the five axes will represent these fractions directly. But then the ‘pointer’ $s$, which shows how the students are divided among the five groups, would not have very nice properties: if all the students belonged to the same group (a) we’d have $s = (40/40)a = a$ and this would be a unit vector along the $a$ axis – but that’s a very special case. Is it possible to choose the vector components so that $s$ will always be a unit vector, but will point in different directions according to the division of students into the five groups? The components we’ve just tried, namely \[(4/40), (8/40), (13/40), (12/40), (3/40),\] won’t do – because the sum of their squares doesn’t give 1. But the sum of the numbers themselves does give 1. So why don’t we try $\sqrt{4/40}, \sqrt{8/40}, ... \sqrt{3/4}$? If we do this, the vector $s$ showing the state of the class will become $$\sqrt{4/40} \mathbf{a} + \sqrt{8/40} \mathbf{b} + \sqrt{13/40} \mathbf{c} + \sqrt{12/40} \mathbf{d} + \sqrt{3/40} \mathbf{e}$$ and the sum of the squares of the components will be exactly 1. So it is possible to represent the state of the class by a unit vector, pointing out from the origin in a 5-space, in a direction that will show the fractional number of students in each of the 5 categories. If we want to compare two classes, to see if the heights of the students follow the same pattern, we just ask if the vectors $s_1$ and $s_2$ point in roughly the same direction. If they do, their scalar product $s_1 \cdot s_2$ will have a value close to 1; if the classes are very different (e.g. one of 5-year olds and one of 16-year olds) the scalar product of the vectors will be much closer to zero. This example was about students, divided into groups according to height; but we might have been talking about potatoes of different sizes, or about objects produced in a factory and not all coming out quite right (some too big some too small), and we can use the same sort of vector description whenever we talk about categories. What’s more, we can choose the metric in any way that seems useful for what we have in mind — as we’ll see in the next two Sections. ### 7.2 Special Relativity: space-time The starting point for this Book was the idea of distance and how it could be measured using a ‘measuring-rod’, whose length (the distance between its ends) was taken as the unit of distance. We also mentioned time, and how it could be measured using a ‘clock’ whose pendulum, swinging back and forth, marked out units of time; and also the mass of an object, which could be measured using a weighing machine. But so far mass and time haven’t come into our picture of space: the idea of length alone has allowed us to build up the whole of Euclid’s geometry. Since about 1904, however, all that has changed. Space and time can’t always be separated: it’s no use giving my address (my ‘coordinates’ in space) if I don’t live there any more — so perhaps my coordinates should really become $x, y, z, t$, the last one being the time at which I am (or was, or will be) there. The four coordinates together define a space-time point or an event; and when we talk about how things happen, or change, we need all four of them. This is especially true when two people (usually called the “observers”) see the same event: one says it happens at the point $x, y, z, t$, the other says it happens at $x', y', z', t'$. But these numbers depend on the reference frame of the observer: from what origin in space (where $x = y = z = 0$) are the distances measured; and when was the clock started (by setting $t = 0$)? Einstein’s theory of relativity is about how the numbers describing the same event, seen by different observers, are related. We’ve already looked at changes of reference frame in Chapter 6. Figure 20a showed how the distance between two points, P and Q, was left unchanged (invariant) when the frame was moved by a ‘translation’ in which $x_P \rightarrow x'_P = x_P + D$ etc. and $x_Q \rightarrow x'_Q = x_Q + D$ etc. – so the differences $x_P - x_Q$ stayed the same. But now we’re going to move not the points but instead the reference frame, looking at the same points but seen by the different observers. And we’ll take the simplest translation you can imagine (Figure 25), in which the frame is simply shifted along the x-axis. The same point, with coordinates $x, y, z$ for the first observer, will then have coordinates $x', y', z'$ for an observer in the shifted frame; and the relationship between the two sets of coordinates will be $$x' = x - D, \quad y' = y, \quad z' = z.$$ If we want to include the time $t$, and suppose that the observers make their measurements at the same time, then the coordinates of the same event in 4-space will be related by $$x' = x - D, \quad y' = y, \quad z' = z, \quad t' = t,$$ which is a very simple linear transformation (i.e. involving only first powers of the variables $x, y, z, t$ and a ‘constant’ $D$). When time is included, however, we have to think about change and motion – which we haven’t done so far. If Frame 2 is moving relative to Frame 1, so that it goes a distance $v$ to the right in every second ($v$ not changing with time), then after $t$ seconds it will have moved a distance $D = vt$. The constant $v$ is called the speed of the motion. More generally, as in Fig.20a, $D$ and $v$ would become vectors, depending on direction and $v$ would be the ‘velocity vector’; so here $v$, the speed in the x-direction, is just the x-component of the velocity – and there’s no harm in using the word “velocity” when we really mean speed. After time $t$ then, (7.1) will become $$x' = x - vt, \quad y' = y, \quad z' = z, \quad t' = t,$$ and this is called the “standard Galilean transformation”. It goes back to the days of Galileo (1564–1642), who made some of the earliest experiments on motion. And it relates the coordinates of any given event, as measured by an observer in Frame 2, to those measured by one in Frame 1 — when Frame 2 moves with constant velocity $v$, relative to Frame 1, as in Fig.25. The science of kinematics (from the Greek word ‘kinesis’, meaning movement) deals with length, time, and movement; so now we’re starting to think about kinematics. In this field the only ‘tools’ we need, in making experiments, are a measuring-rod and a clock; and very often we don’t even need to actually do the experiments – it’s enough to think about them, making a thought-experiment. We’re going to make some amazing discoveries, just by thinking about things. First of all, we’ll suppose our clocks and measuring-rods are perfect. This means that if two lengths are found to be equal, then they will stay equal for all times (that’s why we put in the word “perfect”, because a real rod might get bent or broken); and similarly when two perfect clocks, both at the origin in some reference frame, show the same times, then they will do so even with a different choice of reference frame. As long as we’re talking about kinematics (not about real objects, which have mass and are affected by ‘gravity’ – which we meet in Book 4) that’s all we need. Suppose you’re in a train, waiting at a station for passengers to get on and off, and another train is passing. Each train is a reference frame, like the frames in Fig.25, and from your window you see people in the other train doing all the usual things – reading the newspaper, walking about, or even drinking tea: and perhaps you wonder for a moment which train is moving? Their train is moving with some velocity $v$ relative to your train, but everything goes on as if it were’n’t moving at all. In fact, all movement is relative: your train may not be moving relative to the station – but it is certainly moving (along with the whole station, the town, and the earth itself!) relative to the sun and the stars. You actually feel your relative motion only when it changes: if your train suddenly starts, you’ll feel it; if you’re standing you may even fall over. And the people in the other train will not notice they are moving with velocity $v$ relative to you, unless $v$ changes: if you see them falling over, or spilling their tea, you’ll guess that the driver has put the brakes on and the train is slowing down. So there’s something important about a relative velocity being constant: observers in two reference frames, moving with constant relative velocity, see things happening in exactly the same way. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was the first to see just how important this was – for the whole of Physics. He took it as an axiom, which can be put in the following way: The laws of physics are exactly the same in any two reference frames in uniform relative motion (which means moving relative to each other with constant velocity in a straight line). We’ll call this Einstein’s Principle of Special Relativity – “special” because objects with a mass, and subject to gravity (the force that makes things fall to the ground), are not yet included in the theory. The ideas of General Relativity, which takes account of mass and gravity, are much too difficult for this book, though we mention them briefly in the next Section. In Relativity Theory, frames “in uniform relative motion” are usually called inertial frames – but more about that in Book 4, where we begin to talk about mass. Let’s now go back to equation (7.10) which relates the coordinates of an event, as measured by observers in the reference frames of Fig.25. The observer in Frame 1, finds values $x, y, z, t$, while the observer in Frame 2 finds values $x', y', z', t'$ relative to his axes; both of them using the same standard unit of length and both having set their standard clocks to $t = t' = 0$ at the start of the experiment when, we suppose, the origin of Frame 2 is just on top of the origin of Frame 1. The distance in space to the event, call it $s$, is the same for both observers: $$s^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = x'^2 + y'^2 + z'^2$$ and both believe $t = t'$, as they set their clocks to agree at the start (when O' was passing O). The invariance of these quantities, in passing from one reference frame to the other is what leads to the ‘transformation equations’ (7.10), which now become \begin{align} x' &= x - vt, \\ y' &= y, \\ z' &= z, \\ t' &= t. \end{align} \tag{7.11} But this transformation is a bit too special: it keeps $s^2$ and $t$ the same for both observers, but keeps them separately invariant – $s^2$ in 3-space, $t$ in a 1-space. However, we agreed that time should be treated as just another coordinate. Is there a more general transformation, that will allow space and time coordinates to get mixed up? When this can happen, we’ll be talking about a 4-space! To see that such a transformation can be found, let’s think of another simple event. We fire a gun, at the origin, at time $t = t' = 0$ just as O' is passing O. The noise travels out from the gun, in all directions, with some constant speed which we can call $c$. After time $t$ it will have reached all the points at a distance $r = ct$ from the origin O. These will lie on a surface of radius $r = ct$ (a sphere) such that $$r^2 = c^2 t^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2.$$ If we could assume that an observer in Frame 2 (along with his friends – all with standard clocks – placed at points where the noise arrived) all observed the same sphere of noise arrivals, then we’d suppose that $$s^2 = c^2 t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2 = c^2 t'^2 - x'^2 - y'^2 - z'^2 \tag{7.12}$$ was another invariant. We call it the squared interval (not just ‘distance’) and it depends on all four coordinates. Notice that (7.12) defines a 4-space metric that’s a bit strange: it has a matrix like that in (7.4) but with three diagonal elements the same, the fourth having opposite sign (e.g. three $-1$s and one $+1$). But, after all, time (we’ve given it a ‘time coordinate’ $ct$) and space (with coordinates $x, y, z$) are different – and this shows up in the sign difference. Of course, a ‘thought experiment’ like this would be difficult to do; and we don’t know if it has any relationship to the real world. But it does suggest something we can try. Let’s suppose then, that in Einstein’s 4-space the space and time coordinates of events observed from frames in uniform relative motion (Fig.25) are related so that (7.12) is satisfied. The big question is now: What is this relationship? And to get the answer we can argue as follows. The new invariant contains a new constant $(c)$, also a velocity, like the $v$ in (7.11); and so $v/c$ must be a pure number, which will go to zero if the constant $c$ is big enough, or if $v$ is small enough. Let’s now define a number, usually called $\gamma_v$ (Greek ‘gamma’, with a subscript to show it depends on the relative velocity $v$): \[ \gamma_v = \frac{1}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}}. \tag{7.13} \] Notice that we’ve used the squares of the velocities in the denominator, because changing the direction of the x-axis will change the sign of a velocity – and we don’t expect it will matter whether the axis points to the right or the left. Also, when $v$ is small the denominator in (7.13) will go towards 1 – and so will $\gamma_v$. So if the new transformation equations depend on $\gamma_v$ they will fall back into the Galilean transformation when the two reference frames are hardly moving – just as we’d expect. Let’s now try, instead of the first three equations in (7.11), \[ x' = \gamma_v(x - vt), \quad y' = y, \quad z' = z. \] And instead of taking time to be universal, the same for both observers, let’s try something a bit like the first equation above. If we put \[ t' = \gamma_v(t - ? \times x), \] where ‘?’ stands for something we don’t yet know, then we can substitute the values of $x', y', z', t'$ (given in the last four equations) into the right-hand side of (7.12); and comparing the two sides will tell us what to choose for the ‘?’. The only terms that contain $t$ alone (not $t^2$) are $c^2\gamma_v^2 \times (-2xt \times ?)$ and $2\gamma_v^2xvt$. There’s nothing to balance these terms on the left-hand side of (7.12), so the equality tells us that their sum must be zero and this fixes the ‘?’ To get zero we must choose $?= v/c^2$ and so we must take \[ t' = \gamma_v \left( t - \frac{v}{c^2}x \right). \] What we have shown is that the supposed invariance of the ‘metric form’ $c^2t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2$ requires that the Galilean transformation equations be changed, becoming \[ \begin{align} x' &= \gamma_v(x - vt), \\ y' &= y, \\ z' &= z, \\ t' &= \gamma_v \left( t - \frac{v}{c^2}x \right). \tag{7.14} \end{align} \] These are the equations of the Lorentz transformation, named after the Dutch mathematician and physicist Lorentz (1857–1928), who first got them, but never guessed how they would change the world! That was left to Einstein, who found them again and made them a cornerstone of his relativity theory. Nowadays we’re always hearing about mass and energy (who hasn’t ever seen Einstein’s famous equation $E = mc^2$?), atomic power, atomic bombs, space travel, and the strange things that happen in the universe. But let’s stop for a minute! We haven’t even got as far as physics: that will have to wait for other Books (beginning in Book 4). This Section is just a start, in which we’re beginning to use some of the things we already know about number and space. Before this we didn’t even include time, and we still haven’t really thought about mass. So it’s amazing that we can get so far just by thinking about things. Before stopping we’ll connect briefly with what we call ‘reality’ – a few questions and a few conclusions. The first question is What is the meaning of the constant $c$? and the second is How big is it? – and does it correspond to anything we can measure? In fact, there is something that travels through empty space with the velocity $c$: it is light, which we all know goes extremely fast – if you switch a light on it seems to fill the whole room in no time at all! Physics tells us what light is and gives us ways of finding how fast it travels: if the switched-on light starts from the origin, then it reaches a point with (space) coordinates $x, y, z$ after a time $t$ given by $t = \frac{\text{distance}}{\text{velocity}} = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2 + z^2}/c$, where $c$ can be calculated in terms of quantities we can measure in the laboratory. And its value is almost exactly 300 million metres every second ($3 \times 10^8 \text{m s}^{-1}$), so in everyday life we needn’t worry about using the Galilean equations (7.10). The other big question is How did we get so far without knowing any physics? The answer is not at all easy, but roughly speaking it’s because we left out mass and gravity, and electric charges, and most of the things that go into physics – thinking only of kinematics (length, time, and motion) – except when we supposed that all the ‘physics’ was the same for “two observers in uniform relative motion”. We didn’t need all the details: the Lorentz transformation follows, as we saw, from kinematical principles. We’re just lucky to find that physics supplies a ‘natural’ method of getting the value of the constant $c$. What about conclusions? The first one is that there’s a natural limit to the speed with which anything can move – even an observer in a spacecraft – and this limit is $v = c$. For then $\gamma_v$ in (7.13) would become infinite; and for $v > c$ it would become imaginary. All the quantities we measure and relate must be real; and finite, so the only velocities we can consider must be less than $c$. There are many more amazing conclusions. We’ll just mention two: if an observer in Frame 1 looks at an object in Frame 2, he’ll be surprised to find that it has shrunk in the direction of motion; and that a clock in Frame 2 is going slow! The Lorentz contraction Suppose we have a measuring-rod of length $l_0$, lying along the x-axis and not moving relative to Frame 2; and call its ends A and B. It will be moving relative to us, in Frame 1, with velocity $v$. But to an observer in Frame 2 it will be at rest and will have a proper length, also called rest length, \[ l_0 = x'_B - x'_A, \] (7.15) not depending on what time his clock shows. Looking at the rod from our reference frame (Frame 1), the length of the rod at time $ t $ on our clock will be \[ l = x_B(t) - x_A(t). \] (7.16) But we know from (7.14) how the coordinates measured in the two frames must be related: \[ x'_A = \gamma_v(x_A - vt), \quad x'_B = \gamma_v(x_B - vt). \] It follows that, using (7.15), \[ l_0 = x'_B - x'_A = \gamma_v(x_B - x_A) = \gamma_v l, \] where $ l $, given in (7.16), is the length of the rod according to us. Thus, \[ l = l_0 / \gamma_v. \] (7.17) In other words, the measured length of the rod when it’s moving away from us with velocity $ v $, will be less than the rest length – as measured in a frame where it is not moving. This effect is called the Lorentz contraction. It is very small for speeds which are tiny compared with $ c $ ($ \approx 300 $ thousand kilometres/second): so we never notice it in everyday life. But it is important in physics – and accurate measurements are in perfect agreement with the predictions. Time dilation Another remarkable conclusion follows just as easily. A clock moving away from us will register intervals of time different from those shown by a clock at rest in our reference frame: times get longer – an effect called time dilation. Remember, we measured the times $ t, t' $ from the moment when the clock at the origin in Frame 2 passes that in Frame 1, setting $ t' = t = 0 $. The clock at the origin in Frame 2 will be at the point with $ x' = 0 $ but relative to Frame 2 its position at time $ t $ will be $ x = vt $. Now according to the last equation in (7.14) the times shown, for the same event (as noted by two different observers), must be related by \[ t' = \gamma_v \left( t - \frac{v}{c^2} x \right) = \gamma_v t \left( 1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2} \right) = \gamma_v t / \gamma_v^2 = t / \gamma_v, \] where we’ve put in the value $ x = vt $, for the moving clock, and used the definition of $ \gamma_v $ in (7.13). Thus, \[ t = \gamma_v t'. \] (7.18) In other words, all times measured in the moving system (Frame 2) must be multiplied by $ \gamma_v $ to get the times measured on our clock in Frame 1. Now the time taken for something to happen – the time between two events, A and B say, at a given position in space – will be $ T_0 = t'_B - t'_A $ for an observer moving with his clock (Frame 2): he will call it his “proper time”. And this leads to some very strange effects: for instance, if Frame 2 comes back to the origin O in Fig. 25, after travelling all the way round the world, the Frame 1 observer (who stayed at home with his clock) will note that the journey took time $T = \gamma_c T_0$ – which is longer than the time ($T_0$) noted by the traveller. Who is right? Both are: each has his own ‘proper time’ and we shouldn’t be surprised if they don’t agree. The differences are normally almost too small to measure: but, by using extremely accurate (‘atomic’) clocks and taking them round the world on ordinary commercial aircraft, they have been measured and are in rough agreement with the formula. More accurate experiments really do confirm (7.18). ### 7.3 Curved spaces: General Relativity In Section 1.1 we said that “space itself is very slightly ‘bent’, especially near very heavy things like the sun and the stars, so that Euclid’s ideas are never perfectly correct ...” One of Einstein’s most brilliant ideas, which he developed during the years 1905–1915, was that the mass of a heavy object produced a local ‘curvature’ in the space around it: this led him from the theory of Special Relativity to that of General Relativity, in which mass and its effects are included. As we haven’t yet done any Physics we can’t even begin to talk about General Relativity. But we are ready to think about ‘curved space’ and what it means. In Special Relativity the 4-space metric (three space coordinates and one more for time) was very similar to that for ordinary Euclidean 3-space (Section 5.2): the square of the interval (‘distance’) between two events (‘points’ in space-time) still had a ‘sum-of-squares’ form, apart from the $\pm$ signs attached to the 4 terms; and it had the same form however big the interval. A space like that is called ‘pseudo-Euclidean’. In General Relativity, the metric form is no longer so simple; and it’s no longer the same for all points in space – it can depend on where you are. To get an idea of what this means we’ll use the example from Section 1.1: the surface of the earth is a curved space, though it’s only a 2-space and it’s a bit special because the curvature is the same at all points – how much it’s bent depends only on the radius of the earth. Of course, the mathematics of curved surfaces is important for making maps. And it was important in the ancient world because the astronomers at that time believed the sun and the moon moved around the earth on spherical surfaces. The Hindus and Arabs invented many arithmetic rules for making calculations of their positions, but the rules were not turned into algebraic formulas until about the 13th century. The theory that followed tells us how to calculate lengths and angles for lines which are ‘as straight as you can make them’ on a spherical surface. Such a line follows the shortest path between two points, A and B, on the surface and is called a geodesic (from the Greek words for ‘earth’ and ‘measurement’). If a ship sails from point A on the earth’s surface, to point B, always keeping the same direction, and does the same in going from B to a third point C, then the three-sided path ABC is called a spherical triangle. The geometry of such paths was studied by mariners for hundreds of years and led to the branch of mathematics called spherical trigonometry. What we want to get now is the form of the metric that determines the distance between points in a curved 2-space – points on a spherical surface ‘embedded’ in the 3-space world we live in. If we can do it for this case, then we’ll get ideas about how to do it for a curved 3-space embedded in a 4-space – or for a curved 4-space embedded in a 5-space. Notice that if we want to ‘bend’ a space we always need (at least) one extra dimension to describe the bending: we can’t describe the surface of a sphere, which is two-dimensional, without a third dimension to describe the sphere itself! First of all we need to generalize the ‘Law of Sines’ and the ‘Law of Cosines’ (Section 5.5), which apply to a triangle with vertices, A,B,C, on a flat surface: we want corresponding results for the spherical surface shown in Fig.26. ![Figure 26](image) Suppose A,B,C are the position vectors of points A,B,C, relative to the centre of the sphere (the earth); and use $A, B, C$ for the angles (on the surface) at the corners of the triangle. We’ll also use a similar notation for the lengths of the sides, $a$ for the side opposite to angle $A$, and so on. The Law of Sines looks almost the same as for a flat surface, being $$\frac{\sin A}{\alpha} = \frac{\sin B}{\beta} = \frac{\sin C}{\gamma}, \quad (7.19)$$ but the denominators are angles – not side lengths. Remember, however, that the angles $\alpha, \beta, \gamma$ are at the centre of the sphere (Fig.26), not at the vertices of the triangle. At the same time, $\alpha = a/R$, where $a$ is an arc length; so we can replace the angles in (7.19) by side lengths – as long as we remember the sides are bent! And then the formula looks exactly like that for a flat surface. The Law of Cosines is the one we really need. It follows from what we know about the triple product (Section 6.4). The angle $A$ is that between the planes AOB and AOC, the same as the angle between the normals: and a vector normal to AOB is $A \times B$, while one normal to AOC is $A \times C$. The angle $A$ can thus be found from the scalar product of the two normals, which will give us $\cos A$. So let’s look at the scalar product $(A \times B) \cdot (A \times C)$, noting that choosing the radius $R = 1$ makes no difference to the angles. The scalar product can be reduced using the result (see the Exercises on Chapter 6) $$(A \times B) \cdot (A \times C) = (A \cdot A)(B \cdot C) - (A \cdot C)(A \cdot B).$$ For a sphere of unit radius, \[ B \cdot C = \cos \alpha, \quad C \cdot A = \cos \beta, \quad A \cdot B = \cos \gamma. \] Also $ A \cdot B $ is a vector of length $ \sin \gamma $, normal to the plane AOB and pointing inwards (i.e. on the C-side); while $ A \cdot C $ is of length $ \sin \beta $, normal to plane AOC but pointing outwards. On putting these values into the expression above, we find \[ (A \times B) \cdot (A \times C) = \sin \beta \sin \gamma \cos A = \cos \alpha - \cos \beta \cos \gamma. \] There are two other relations of similar form, obtained by starting from angle $ B $ and angle $ C $ (instead of $ A $). They are all collected in the Law of Cosines for a spherical triangle: \[ \begin{align} \cos \alpha &= \cos \beta \cos \gamma + \sin \beta \sin \gamma \cos A, \\ \cos \beta &= \cos \gamma \cos \alpha + \sin \gamma \sin \alpha \cos B, \\ \cos \gamma &= \cos \alpha \cos \beta + \sin \alpha \sin \beta \cos C, \end{align} \] for the cosines. The angles $ \alpha, \beta, \gamma $ (radian measure) are related to the arc lengths $ BC, CA, AB $ on the spherical surface: for example, putting $ BC = a $, the angle $ \alpha $ is given by $ \alpha = a/R $, where $ R $ is the radius of the sphere. Now think of A as an ‘origin of coordinates’ on the surface and take the outgoing arcs, AB and AC, as axes, choosing the angle between them as $ A = \pi/2 $. On putting $ \cos A = 0 $, the first line in (7.20) tells us that \[ \cos \alpha = \cos \beta \cos \gamma \] and this gives us all we need. For points near to A, it’s enough to use the first few terms of the cosine series (Chapter 4) and to write the last equation as \[ 1 - \frac{a^2}{2R^2} + \frac{a^4}{24R^4} \cdots = \left( 1 - \frac{b^2}{2R^2} + \frac{b^4}{24R^4} \cdots \right) \left( 1 - \frac{c^2}{2R^2} + \frac{c^4}{24R^4} \cdots \right). \] If we multiply everything by $ 2R^2 $ and compare the terms of second degree on the two sides of the $ = $ sign, the result is a first approximation: \[ a^2 \approx b^2 + c^2, \] The squared length of the arc BC has Euclidean form: it is a sum of squares of distances along the other two arcs – in accordance with the metric axiom in Section 1.2 – just as it would be for a flat surface. But the metric is only locally Euclidean: more accurately, there are ‘correction terms’ \[ -(1/12R^2)a^2, \quad \text{and} \quad -(1/12R^2)(b^4 + c^4) - b^2c^2/R^2, \] which must be added on the left and on the right, respectively, of equation (7.22). Of course, when the radius of curvature $R$, is infinitely large the 2-space becomes flat (zero curvature); but in General Relativity even a very small curvature of 4-dimensional space-time is enough to account for many properties of the universe. Without Physics, which we’ll start with in Book 4, it’s not possible to go any further: but without the genius of Einstein and others like him it would never have been possible to get this far. Exercises 1) When we use the vector (7.5) to stand for the ‘state’ of a class (how big are the students in it) we’re using $a, b, \ldots e$ as ‘basis vectors’. The components we used, namely $$\frac{4}{40}, \frac{8}{40}, \frac{13}{40}, \frac{12}{40}, \frac{3}{40}$$ (being the fractional numbers of students in the five height ranges) didn’t give a unit vector – because the sum of their squares doesn’t give 1. Show that by using the square roots of the numbers as components you will always get a unit vector. So it is possible to represent the state of the class by a unit vector, pointing out from the origin in a 5-space in a direction that will show the fractional number of students in each of the 5 categories. 2) Suppose you want to compare two classes, to see if the heights of the students follow the same pattern. Prepare vectors $s_1$ and $s_2$, like that in Exercise 1 but for two different classes (e.g. 20 15-year old girls and 18 14-year old boys). Is the pattern of heights similar or not? (You can either measure or just guess the heights. The patterns will be similar if the vectors point in roughly the same direction. If they do, their scalar product $s_1 \cdot s_2$ will have a value close to 1. For two very different classes (e.g. one of 5-year olds and one of 16-year olds) the scalar product of the vectors will be much closer to zero.) Looking back – You started this book knowing only about numbers and how to work with them, using the methods of algebra. Now you’ve learnt how to measure the quantities you meet in space (distances, area, volume), each one being a number of units. And you’ve seen that these ideas give you a new starting point for geometry, different from the one used by Euclid, and lead you directly to modern forms of geometry. Again, you’ve passed many milestones on the way: - Euclid started from a set of axioms, the most famous being that two parallel straight lines never meet, and used them to build up the whole of geometry: in Chapter 1 you started from different axioms – a distance axiom and a metric axiom – which both follow from experiment. - Two straight lines, with one point in common, define a plane; the metric axiom gave you a way of testing to see if the two lines are perpendicular; and then you were able to define two parallel straight lines – giving you a new way of looking at Euclid’s axiom. Using sets of perpendicular and parallel straight lines you could find numbers $(x, y)$, the coordinates, that define any point in the plane. Any straight line in the plane was then described by a simple equation; and so was a circle. - In Chapter 3 you learnt how to calculate the area of a triangle and of a circle and to evaluate $\pi$ (‘pi’) by the method of Archimedes. You studied angles and found some of the key results about the angles between straight lines that cross. - Chapter 4 reminded you of some of the things you’d learnt in Book 1, all needed in the study of rotations. You learnt about the exponential function, $e^x$, defined as a series, and its properties; and found its connection with angle and the ‘trigonometric’ functions. - In talking about 3-space, the first thing to do was to set up axes and decide how to label every point with three coordinates; after that everything looked much the same as in 2-space. But it’s not easy to picture things in 3-space and it’s better to use vector algebra. For any pair of vectors we found two new ‘products’ – a scalar product (just a number) and a vector product (a new vector), both depending on the lengths of the vectors and the angle between them. Examples and Exercises showed how useful they could be in 3-space geometry. - Chapter 6 was quite hard! But the ideas underneath can be understood easily: lengths, areas and volumes are all unchanged if you move something through space – making a ‘transformation’. This fact was often used by Euclid (usually in 2-space) in proving theorems about areas; but by the end of the Chapter you have all the ‘tools’ for doing things much more generally, as we do them today. - To end the book (Chapter 7) you took a look at the next big generalization – to spaces of $n$ dimensions, where $n$ is any integer. Of course, you couldn’t imagine them: but the algebra was the same, for any value of $n$. So you were able to invent new spaces, depending on what you wanted to use them for. One such space was invented by Einstein, just a hundred years ago, to bring time into the description of space – counting $t$ as a fourth coordinate, similar to $x$, $y$, $z$. And you got a glimpse of some of the amazing things that came out as a result, things that could be checked by experiment and were found to be true. Before closing this book, stop for a minute and think about what you’ve done. Perhaps you started studying science with Book 1 (two years ago? three or four years ago?) and now you’re at the end of Book 2. You started from almost nothing; and after working through about 150 pages you can understand things that took people thousands of years to discover, some of the great creations of the human mind – of the Scientific Mind. Antisymmetric, changing sign, 50 Angles, 18-20 alternant, 20-21 complementary, 20-21 Area 15-19, 47-50 Array 50 Axioms (first principles), 3 of geometry, 3-5 Axis, axes, 4 of coordinates, 4, 7 Basis vectors 36 Bounds (upper, lower) 48 Circle area of, 20 circumference of, 20 equation of, 13 Components 37, 54 Congruence, congruent 47 Converse (of theorem) 32 Coordinates 9, 34 Cosine (see Trigonometric functions) Cyclic interchange 52 Determinant 50-51 Differentials, 10, 34 Dimensions (physical) 16 Direction cosines 39 Distance, 1-4 Exponential function 26 Geodesic 66 Geometry (science of space) 2 analytical, 5 Euclidean, 2-4 non-Euclidean, 66 Identity operator 19, 23 Image 45 Intercept 11 Intersect (cross at a point) 4 Invariance, invariant 16, 44, 47 Inverse operator 19, 23 Kinematics 59 Law of combination 19, 23 Law of Sines 40, 67 Law of Cosines 40, 68 Metric axiom, 4 form, 10, 34 matrix, 55 curved space, 69 Modulus (of a vector) 38 Normal (to plane) 38, 40, 48 Origin (of coordinates) 4, 37 Parallel (definition), 8 lines, 8, 32 planes, 33 Parallelogram 48 Parallelopiped 51 Perimeter 16 Period, periodic, 29 Perpendicular (property of axes), 4 Perpendicular (from point to plane), 30-32 Plane, 4 Polygon 17 Position vector 37 Projection 34, 49 Radian 20 Relativity theory general 66-69 special 57-65 Rectangle 9 Rectangular box 6 Rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates, in 2-space, 9 in 3-space, 34 Reference frame 35, 58 Right-angle, right-angled 4 Rotation (of object) 45 Rotation (of vector) 24 Rotation operator 23-24 Scalar product 38 triple product, 52 Series 25-28 Simultaneous equations 12 Sine (see Trigonometric functions) Slope (of line) 11 Space-time 58 Sphere (equation of) 35, 42 Straight line, as shortest path, 1-3 Subspace, 34 Tangent (Trigonometric functions) 18 Tangent (as slope of line) 11 Tangent (to a sphere) 42 Theorem 5 Transformation 16, 44-47 Galilean, 59 Lorentz, 63 Translation 45 Trigonometric functions 18 series for, 28-29 Trigonometry 3 Vector 23-24, 54-57 Vectors in 3-space 36-39 Vector area 48 Vector product 38 Vertex 17 Volume 51-53	<urn:uuid:f279597d-241f-47c0-b3c4-a269d3c24952>	CC-MAIN-2019-04	http://www.learndev.org/dl/Science/WB2.pdf	2019-01-17T05:45:40Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583658702.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20190117041621-20190117063621-00089.warc.gz	344,953,943	44,682	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.965939	eng_Latn	0.997964	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 75, 572, 2342, 4556, 5781, 8213, 11434, 13279, 16147, 17625, 18835, 21382, 23732, 26364, 29165, 31995, 33552, 36446, 38324, 41847, 45178, 47014, 49257, 51613, 54043, 57610, 60345, 62582, 64756, 66654, 68275, 71604, 74664, 77037, 80300, 83164, 86443, 88936, 90685, 93209, 95021, 97827, 101228, 103850, 107317, 109651, 112208, 113610, 115743, 118316, 121452, 124545, 126784, 130380, 133003, 135501, 139037, 141537, 144815, 147362, 149883, 151709, 154588, 155486, 156854, 157693 ]	[ 3.75, 2.84375 ]	9	0
Early Works at Earl Boyles Key Findings From 2015-2016 What is Early Works at Earl Boyles? Early Works started at Earl Boyles in 2010 with the goal of preparing young children for kindergarten and setting them on the path to third grade readiness. When children read at grade level by the end of third grade, they are four times more likely to graduate from high school. To get kids ready for school, Early Works focuses on three key areas: high-quality early learning, health, and supporting family connections to their children’s education. What’s new at Early Works at Earl Boyles? Early Works has helped develop new opportunities at Earl Boyles. These opportunities include: - Public preschool - Neighborhood Center and Early Learning Wing - Lending library - Housing Advocate who helps families access housing resources. - Playgroups for parents with infants and toddlers - Parent-teacher home visits - Parent education and adult learning opportunities - Community Health Worker to connect children and families to health and community services How can I get involved with Early Works? - Join the Parents United Group (PUG) or apply to become a Community Ambassador. - Volunteer in the classroom, lending library, or with the SUN School program. - Attend a Neighborhood Center meeting or a parent and adult education opportunity. - Participate in a parent-teacher home visit. For more information about getting involved, contact Maya Crone: firstname.lastname@example.org Earl Boyles Elementary - School Profile - 49% of students meet third-grade math benchmarks. - 46% meet third-grade English language arts benchmarks. - 35% are English language learners. - 81% qualify for free or reduced-price lunch. - 10% of students are absent on a regular basis. - 9% of kindergarteners are absent on a regular basis. Early Works strengths - Kindergarteners who went to Earl Boyles Preschool knew the most letters compared to peers who did not attend preschool. - Kindergarteners improved their self-regulation skills (managing emotions, listening attentively) during the year. Early Works opportunities for growth - Daily reading. Earl Boyles encourages families to tell their children stories and to read to them every day to support learning at home. - Building early vocabulary. Expose children to more words through books, stories, songs, and talking. - Health and well-being in the community. Earl Boyles now has a community health worker and housing specialist on site. Help your child build reading skills Literacy and reading skills are important for kindergarten readiness and life-long success. Here are a few ways you can help your child develop a love for reading. - Read and talk to your child as much as you can starting at birth. - Visit the library. - Find 10 minutes each day to sit and look at books with your child. Mark it on your calendar. - Ask your child about the pictures and stories in the books you read together. - Make reading a family affair. Older siblings, aunts and uncles, and grandparents can read to your children, too. Many thanks to the families, teachers, school staff and community partners for their participation in this project! For more information contact: Maya Crone, Earl Boyles Early Works Site Liaison, email@example.com	<urn:uuid:c43c7f02-3c5d-4786-b765-c8a56d02d13f>	CC-MAIN-2019-04	https://childinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Eval_Key_Findings_EB_May_2017.pdf	2019-01-18T14:31:52Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583660139.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20190118131222-20190118153222-00021.warc.gz	457,834,612	688	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99739	eng_Latn	0.997964	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1474, 3300 ]	[ 3.25 ]	2	0
Food and Fun, Cardiff’s school holiday enrichment programme, was successfully delivered in schools in areas of social deprivation for 12 days to support families during the summer holidays in 2016. Food and Fun was awarded the NHS Wales Award 2016. The judging panel described the programme as “a brilliant example of the Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act in action”. Long term - Reducing health, social and educational inequalities at an early age by building capacity through schools and staff (existing public sector assets) to provide healthy food, physical activities, nutrition education and enrichment activities. Prevention - Ensuring children from disadvantaged backgrounds aren’t exposed to the stresses long school holidays can present (social isolation, hunger, inactivity, educational inequalities). Integration - Fits with City of Cardiff Councils “Liveable City” vision as well as priorities for Cardiff and Vale UHB Local Public Health Team and Public Health Wales’ priority to tackle health inequalities. Collaboration - Collaborating at a local and national level with multiple organisations to develop an all Wales approach together with the Welsh Local Government Association. Involvement - Food and Fun has been shaped by individuals that understand the needs of the children, their families and the wider community (school staff, parents/carers and children). A number of agencies in Cardiff, including Communities First teams, either supported or delivered key enrichment activities to supplement the Food and Fun programme. HEADTEACHER: “Spending quality time with the children during the school holidays has really helped the teachers to develop those personal relationships. They got to know the children a lot better, which will help everyone in the long-run.” firstname.lastname@example.org @foodandfunwales www.foodcardiff.com PARENT: “The confidence and fellowship that my daughter has developed during the 3 weeks she has been attending she will take with her and use with her everyday life skills. Due to financial difficulties we are unable to go away for holidays. With this Food and Fun club it takes the edge off the 6 weeks holidays. It feels like my daughter is on holidays 3 times every week. She is absolutely loving this and the staff here are so welcoming and warming. Hope it runs again next year as ‘my daughter will be first at the door’.” Delivered presentations and workshops to share experience on 6 platforms for Wales, UK and Internationally 14 members of staff delivering Food and Fun were trained in: - MECC (Making Every Contact Count) - Nutrition Skills for Life - Love Food Hate Waste 94% of the staff trained and responding found the training helpful or very helpful 3500 hours of additional employment generated KITCHEN MANAGER: “I love it. It doesn’t feel like coming to work and it’s such a big help to a lot of parents.” 2 Welsh Speaking schools delivered Food and Fun “My child is learning without realising it. He’s trying new foods and he’s really enjoyed the daily exercise. It’s been absolutely brilliant. I really hope this comes back next year.” A globally responsible Wales A Wales of vibrant culture including Welsh Language A Wales of cohesive communities A more equal Wales A healthier Wales A resilient Wales A prosperous Wales 25 external Agencies delivering Food and Fun activities 1 community Food club (Chomp) was supported 11 schools took part in Food and Fun in Cardiff 6168 Food and Fun meals were served to children and their families/carers 25 children with special needs attended a Food and Fun club On any one Food and Fun club day an average of 238 children attended 416 children attended a Food and Fun club Cardiff Council worked in partnership with Chomp to serve 512 meals to over 50 families Of respondents (127): - 93% children attending enjoyed the club - 81% reported eating more fruit and vegetables - 78% reported eating less sugary and fatty foods - 87% are more active - 62% have tried new foods whilst attending the club “Gardening was an activity my daughter enjoyed, and has made her want to do gardening with me at home which is fab.” “‘He has loved coming to school over the holidays. He’s learned all about the amount of sugar in some foods and enjoyed growing his own watercress. The sports have really helped him with his confidence.’” “My child is shy but made new friends.” “My child is learning without realising it. He’s trying new foods and he’s really enjoyed the daily exercise. It’s been absolutely brilliant. I really hope this comes back next year.” SHEP CO-ORDINATOR describes how one boy with autism had benefited from the programme: “During term-time, he always has lunch on his own in one of the classrooms. But during Food and Fun, his confidence grew and he felt comfortable enough to sit with his classmates and enjoy his lunch with them. His parents were thrilled.” Fareshare provided breakfast cereals for 2820 breakfasts 144 hours of sport delivered	<urn:uuid:5f262f77-dce2-4e3e-bf6f-eb372156af56>	CC-MAIN-2018-47	http://foodcardiff.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Food-and-Fun-Info-graphic-Eng-2.pdf	2018-11-21T09:33:32Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-47/segments/1542039747665.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20181121092625-20181121114625-00438.warc.gz	127,287,831	1,042	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998429	eng_Latn	0.998653	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2428, 5047 ]	[ 2.21875 ]	3	0
What is an Invasive Plant? - An “invasive” plant is a non-native plant that infests natural areas and causes environmental or economic harm, or harm to human health. Of the roughly 2,900 plant species growing outside of cultivation in Indiana, approximately 33% are non-native but only a small fraction of those non-native species are invasive. Invasive plants degrade and destroy thousands of acres of our natural plant communities in Indiana. Each year millions of dollars are spent to control them. - Many of these invasive species have been used in landscaping, but to reduce further infestations most are being considered for a rule that would make it illegal to buy, sell, or plant them in Indiana. We encourage you to look for alternatives (see back panel for more information). Why Should I Care? - Invasive plants cost money. A 2012 survey of 120 agencies and landowners in Indiana found we spent $5.7 million to manage these species and protect our natural areas. Nationally, agricultural and control costs due to invasive plants are estimated at $15 billion per year. Each year, we spend: - Invasive plants hurt wildlife by crowding out the plants our native animals need for food and cover. - Most invasive shrubs and trees are little used by native insects. This reduces habitat for beneficial pollinators and predatory insects, as well as reducing the amount of food available for birds to feed their nestlings. - Invasive plants destroy habitat for rare wildflowers and animals, threatening two-thirds of all endangered species. - Invasive plants can become weedy in a home garden, crowding out other landscaping. - Invasive plants can also decrease your ability to enjoy hunting, fishing, mushroom collecting, bird-watching, and many other recreational pursuits by crowding forest floors and choking waterways, making use of these areas difficult. Other Invasives in Indiana The official list of invasive plants found in Indiana is at http://www.entm.purdue.edu/list/invasiveplants.php. Many of these plants are illustrated in this brochure, but additional plants from the list that are threatening Indiana natural areas are listed below. Avoid planting these, and learn to recognize and eliminate them before they spread. The habitat where they most often occur is indicated. F: Forest O: Open Land W: Wetland Flowers: Canada Thistle, Cirsium arvense O Lesser Celandine, Ranunculus ficaria F Japanese Chaff Flower, Achyranthes japonica F, O Plumeless Thistle, Carduus acanthoides O Crown Vetch, Securigera varia O Dame’s Rocket, Hesperis matronalis F, O, W Grasses: Common Reed, Phragmites australis australis O, W Reed Canarygrass, Phalaris arundinacea F, O, W Vines and Groundcovers: Periwinkle, Vinca minor F, W English Ivy, Hedera helix and H. hibernica F Japanese Hops, Humulus japonicus F, O, W Kudzu, Pueraria montana F, O Porcelain Berry, Ampelopsis brevipedunculata F Sweet Autumn Clematis, Clematis terniflora O Wisteria, Wisteria sinensis and W. japonica F Shrubs: Bicolor Lespedeza, Lespedeza bicolor F, O European Black Alder, Alnus glutinosa F, O Privet, Ligustrum obtusifolium, L. vulgare F Highbush Cranberry, Viburnum opulus v. opulus F, W Jetbead, Rhodotypos scandens F Trees: European Black Alder, Alnus glutinosa F, O Princess Tree, Paulownia tomentosa F Sawtooth Oak, Quercus acutissima F, O Siberian Elm, Ulmus pumila O Tree of Heaven, Ailanthus altissima F, O White Mulberry, Morus alba F, O, W Garlic Mustard Alliaria petiolata Description: Biennial; first year rosettes of kidney-shaped leaves overwinter; second year plants grow up to 4-feet tall with triangular, toothed leaves and small, white 4-petaled flowers in a cluster at top of stem; fruits are upright, thin, cylindrical pod; plant has garlic odor. Problem: Displaces wildflowers; poisons the soil inhabiting fungi that are important to tree and plant growth; has leaf chemicals that kill native butterfly larvae that feed on the plant. Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria Description: Perennial with stout stems to 7-feet tall; stems are square or oval; leaves clasping, lance-shaped, opposite, rarely alternate or whorled; rose-purple flowers with 5-6 petals clustered in terminal spikes. Problem: Decreases wetland bird nesting and foraging, changes water chemistry, and crowds out native species. Callery (Bradford) Pear Pyrus calleryana Description: Deciduous tree to 30-feet tall; leaves alternate, ovate, smooth, finely toothed and wavy-edged, shiny green above and paler below; flowers white, 5 petals, in dense clusters, unpleasant odor; small, round, brown fruit. Problem: Produces large numbers of fruit which are spread by starlings; can establish densely in forest understory and outcompete native trees. Japanese Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica Description: Woody, semi-evergreen, climbing vine; leaves opposite and oval, smooth margin, sometimes lobed; flowers white, fragrant, in pairs, and turn yellow with age; fruits are black berries. Problem: Vine smother native plants and out-compete them for light; root system outcompetes native plants for water and nutrients. What Can We Do? - Avoid using invasive plants in your garden; ask your nursery for native, non-invasive alternatives, and do the research to ensure that the plants you are purchasing and installing are not considered invasive in your ecoregion. - Scout your property for invasive species, and remove them before they become a problem. Plant appropriate non-invasive native species as necessary to replace the invasive species you remove. - Alert people in your neighborhood and workplace about the problem of invasives and what species to watch for. - Volunteer to help remove invasives at local parks and natural areas. - Report invasive plants through Report IN (website below) For More Information Identification and Control: http://www.invasive.org/ Indiana Invasive Species Council: http://www.entm.purdue.edu/isc/ Report IN—Reporting Invasive Species in Indiana: http://www.eddmaps.org/indiana/ Landscaping with Non-Invasive Plants: http://www.inpaws.org/landscaping/ Credits Written by Ellen Jacquot and the Invasive Plant Advisory Committee of the Indiana Invasive Species Council. Printed with funds provided by the Indiana Native Plant and Wildflower Society. Designed by Jeffrey E. Belth. We thank the following photographers: Robert E. Bashir, Jeffrey E. Belth, Jessica Helmbold, Ellen Jacquot, Scott Namestnik, Mike Norris, Amy Perry, and Paul E. Rothrock. All images are copyrighted by the photographers and may not be reproduced without their permission. Multiflora Rose Rosa multiflora Description: Multi-stemmed, thorny shrub to 15-feet tall; leaves alternate, pinnately compound with 7-9 leaflets and feathery stipules at the base of the leaf stalk; large clusters of ½-1 inch wide white to pink flowers; many ¼ inch round red fruits. Problem: Forms dense thorny thickets that invade pastures and crowd out native species. --- Burning Bush Euonymus alatus Description: Deciduous shrub to 15-feet tall and wide; opposite leaves oval to obovate and finely toothed, 1-3 inches long and ½ to 1 ¼ inches wide, stalkless or nearly so; leaves turn bright red in fall, pink in shade; green to brownish bark often has 2-4 prominent corky wings; small green flowers with 4 petals. Problem: Creates dense thickets in forest understory, displacing native plants. --- Norway Maple Acer platanoides Description: Deciduous tree; leaves opposite and palmate with 5-7 lobes, can be purple-leaved; widely spreading winged fruit; milky sap in petioles which are 3-4 inches long; gray bark. Problem: Regenerates prolifically under forest canopy and displaces native trees, shrubs and herbs. --- Japanese Stiltgrass Miscrostegium vimineum Description: Annual, sprawling grass to 4-feet tall; leaves pale green, lance-shaped, 1-4 inches long, with a silvery stripe on midrib; small flower spikes appear in late summer. Problem: Grows densely, displacing native plants; increases heat and duration of forest flames, killing tree seedlings. --- Asian Bittersweet Celastrus orbiculatus Description: Woody, deciduous, climbing vine; leaves alternate, ovate to round, abruptly sharp-pointed and glossy; small greenish flowers occur in clusters in the leaf axils; yellow, papery coat surrounding capsule splits to reveal red-orange fruit in leaf axils in fall. American Bittersweet (C. scandens) is similar but fruit reddish, with orange hairy coats, and in terminal clusters, not in leaf axils. Problem: Climbs up and overtops trees, making them more vulnerable to windthrow; twining stems girdle young trees; hybridizes with native C. reticulatus, with the hybrids out-competing the native species. --- Chinese Maiden Grass Miscanthus sinensis Description: Perennial to 8-feet tall; long leaves have silver midrib; flower spikes 8-10 inches long, persist into winter as silvery plumes. Problem: This common landscaping plant can spread easily out of plantings, displacing native vegetation. --- Wintercreeper Euonymus fortunei Description: Evergreen, woody, clinging vine; dark green or variegated thick, egg-shaped opposite leaves with toothed margins; stems narrow, warty, with rootlets; flowers green-white on long stalks; fruits pinkish to red capsules that split open to expose orange fruits. Problem: Outcompetes native vegetation by depriving soil moisture and nutrients, blocking sunlight, and by forming a dense vegetative mat that impedes the growth of seedlings of native species. --- Japanese and Giant Knotweed R. japonica, R. sachalinensis, and R. x bohemica Description: Rhizomatous perennial to 10-feet tall; aggressively spreads by rhizomes; stems hollow with membranous sheaths around stem above swollen nodes; leaves alternate, oval, and pointed at tip; flowers are small greenish-white, in clusters in leaf axils. Problem: Forms dense thickets; causes serious damage to building foundations, decreases wildlife habitat, increases erosion and sedimentation. --- Common and Glossy Buckthorn Rhamnus cathartica and Frangula alnus Description: Shrub or small trees. Common buckthorn leaves (left) subprossite with toothed margin and distinctive parallel veins; flowers greenish, inconspicuous with 4 petals; fruit (lower left) black. Glossy buckthorn leaves (right) alternate with smooth margin, glossy and oval; leaves have distinctive parallel veins; stem has spiny appearance. Flowers greenish, inconspicuous with 5 petals; fruit (lower right) red to purplish black. Problem: Common buckthorn is the overwintering host for soybean aphid and alternate host for oat crown/leaf rust; changes nutrient cycling and reduces leaf litter layer. Glossy buckthorn reduces growth and survival of young trees. --- Autumn Olive Elaeagnus umbellata Description: Deciduous shrub to 20-feet tall; leaves alternate, oblong, dark green above, and silvery underneath; stems often have thorn-like shoots; flowers are fragrant, creamy white to yellow, and tube-shaped with four spreading lobes; fruit is rose-pink and speckled. Problem: Increases soil nitrogen, which increases invasion by other non-native species.	800fda6b-590f-4c4a-8f68-2c131ba15284	CC-MAIN-2025-05	https://ag.purdue.edu/department/entm/iisc/_docs/inpaws_pretty_awful.pdf	2025-01-24T16:12:51+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-05/segments/1736703696950.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20250124151550-20250124181550-00479.warc.gz	71,165,135	2,807	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.988669	eng_Latn	0.988798	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 6730, 11469 ]	[ 3.140625 ]	1	0
2.1 INTRODUCTION Almost all current R books start to teach R using one of the three following approaches: - How to use R as a calculator - How to use R to create graphs to visualize data - How to use R to create or import data While these approaches are useful in their own right, they are typically presented in a technical and detailed manner that beginners find challenging. This book, in contrast, starts with a task everyone is familiar with—writing an essay. This chapter will begin with a very gentle introduction to writing essays using R and RStudio. You will learn how to use a free add-on package called R Markdown, a document writing program, to write essay assignments. This package, and the skills that you will learn in this chapter, can also be applied to the writing of papers, technical reports, novels, and so much more. In this chapter, you will learn to create your very first R Markdown or .Rmd file, in which you can weave images, computer code, graphs, web links, and text all into a formatted report. With this new approach, you will find how accessible R can really be. You can use R to write essays that integrate text, graphs, and images, without needing to learn much programming at all. It is immediately empowering for first-time R learners to be able to deliver a report that integrates text and graphs, without having to climb a steep learning curve such as in other R books. Now, let’s continue your R learning journey! Through this chapter, you as first-time R users will accomplish the following objectives: 1. Understand why, when, and how to use R Markdown 2. Learn to create a .Rmd file using R Markdown and to write and format your text in R Markdown 3. Apply those skills to finish an essay assignment in R Markdown 4. Integrate graphs into the essay 2.2 THE PROS OF USING R MARKDOWN R Markdown is an add-on package that serves as a document writing program in R. In short, R Markdown is like a software update for your regular version of R that allows you to write papers and formatted documents. R Markdown files can contain text, web links, images, R code, statistical output, and more. Every R Markdown document contains something known as “Markdown formatting code.” This code deals with section headings, italics, boldings, and other document formatting features. The first part of formatting code that you see will be the YAML header. In simple terms, the YAML header contains the title, date, and author sections. Other than filling these out, you won’t need to mess with this code. The other Markdown code will be inserted by you as you write your document to bold words, create bullet points, and more. We can worry about this later. The rest of an R Markdown document is the text that you write and the programming code that you insert to create graphs and statistical output. Once you’re happy with your document, you will “knit” it—a fancy way of saying pressing the knit button in RStudio to print the formatted document to your screen. This effect is similar to what happens when you click on a link to download something. The main pro of R Markdown is that you no longer have to deal with the hassle of trying to combine graphs created in one software with another software—similar to what often happens in other document writing programs. Instead, you can create everything in one document at one time. Now let’s get started! 2.3 HOW TO CREATE AN R MARKDOWN FILE Unlike other add-on packages, R Markdown doesn’t need to be installed manually in RStudio because it is installed automatically when you install RStudio. To create a new .Rmd, or R Markdown, file in RStudio, select File, New File, R Markdown, as shown below. Once your new R Markdown document pops up, you will be prompted to type in the space for Title and Author. In the example below, you can see what an R Markdown document would look like with this information filled in. After doing so, you will then select a Default Output Format. As shown, you can choose among HTML, PDF, and Word formats. HTML format is the easiest and most recommended output version because it only needs a browser (e.g., Internet Explorer or Safari); but PDF and Word formats both require that additional software be installed (e.g., MiKTeX for PDF and MS Office for Word). After you have chosen the output file format, click OK, and voila! You have just created a new R Markdown document. Once you create your document, RStudio will automatically populate an R Markdown, or .Rmd, document template for you to work with. When the template shows up, you should immediately save the file. You can do so by selecting File, Save. You can also save the file by clicking the save icon at the top of the screen, or by pressing down two keys on your keyboard—Ctrl and S—together. Be sure to title the document with something that relates to the document’s content such as “English Homework.” Also be sure to save the file in a file folder that you can find later on. It is best that you create a file folder for a set of files that serve the same purpose; for example, create a file folder called “homework” in the RStudio project folder you created in Chapter 1. When saved, the file name at the top of the page will turn from red to black. It is important to note that R Markdown does not automatically save your work, so every now and then you should save your work just to be safe. In the document template, the top section is enclosed by two --- symbols. Between those two --- symbols is the metadata or YAML header section, which includes the title, author, date, file type, and other options. The content in this YAML header tells you and future readers what the document is about, who created it, when they created it, and what the output format will be, so it’s very important. For this section only, for simplicity, it is best that you delete the rest of the template and keep only the metadata or YAML header. This will give you a cleaner and simpler document template to begin with. In the next section, you will learn how to work with the rest of the template. A really important function in R Markdown is the Knit function. The Knit function compiles the .Rmd file and produces a formatted document in the prechosen output file type (HTML, PDF, Word). We’re going to use the HTML output format in the following example. To Knit your document, you can either select File, Knit Document, or click Knit on the taskbar. This will prompt the program to compile your .Rmd file into a HTML document, and a new window will open up with the compiled HTML document. While you don’t have to do this, it is best that you Knit your document together every once in a while. This way, you can make sure that the completed report or assignment looks clean and correct and that all the graphs and paragraphs look just how you want them to look and are where you want them to be. As noted, if you have the appropriate software installed, you can also choose to knit your document as a .PDF or Microsoft Word file. This is useful if you have a teacher, professor, or boss who prefers to see the report in a certain format. Your knitted html document will look like the following: 2.4 HOW TO WRITE AND FORMAT TEXT IN R MARKDOWN After you create, save, and knit an .Rmd file, you may now add text to your document. You may start with the most basic word processing—simply typing your text below the YAML header section. If you want to start a new paragraph, you can simply hit Enter twice on your keyboard, and begin writing again. This leaves a blank line between the two paragraphs, which is a nice feature to have when writing papers. You can add section headings by using the pound or hashtag sign #. There are six levels of section headings. A single pound or hashtag indicates a Level 1 section heading (i.e., largest in size), two pound signs indicate a Level 2 section heading, and so on. An example is shown below. # Level 1 section heading ## Level 2 section heading You can also bold and italicize the font of text by using asterisks as follows: Italicized Text produces Italicized Text Bold Text produces Bold Text *Italicized Bold Text* produces *Italicized Bold Text* To insert parentheses like () and quotation marks like “”, simply type one parenthesis or quotation mark, and RStudio will auto complete the other one so as to save you time and reduce errors from parentheses and quotation marks that are never closed. You can also check for spelling errors in your document. Similar to other word processing programs, R Markdown has a spell-check option. To spell-check your work, select Edit, Check Spelling. Or you could simply press F7 on your keyboard, or click the ABC icon on the task bar (which is to the left of the Knit button). 2.5 A SIMPLE EXAMPLE OF AN R MARKDOWN DOCUMENT Now that you have learned the basic bells and whistles, below you can find a simple .Rmd file followed by its knitted html document. You can use the following .Rmd file as your writing template and revise it to suit your needs. In the example below, you can see that there is very little actual programming being done in the .Rmd file. In fact, the knitted document does not look that much different from what you would have produced using Word. ``` --- title: "First R Markdown" author: "Douglas Wise" date: "February 10, 2018" output: html_document --- You can begin to type on line 7. If you would like to go to a new line or paragraph you can do so by hitting "enter" on your keyboard. This is a new paragraph. Let's say you would like to create a section. You will do so by adding a heading. # Section 1 For smaller heading titles, use up additional pound signs. ## Section 2 You can go all the way to three pound signs. This is the smallest heading size option. ### Section 3 Users are able to bold and italicize words. ``` 2.6 OTHER USEFUL FORMATTING TRICKS 2.6.1 Create Bullet Points and Numbered Lists At times, you may want to show bullet points and lists within your document. Don’t worry, this is actually pretty easy to achieve in R Markdown. To create a bullet point, place an asterisk (), followed by a blank space, in front of a phrase or sentence. For sub-bullet points, hit Enter* on your keyboard to go to the line below the main bullet point, hit Tab on your keyboard twice, and add a plus sign (+). You are able to add multiple sub-bullet points and even tertiary sub-bullet points. For a numbered list, simply begin an item with an integer number and a period. The illustration below first shows you an .Rmd file with the formatting code for these features, and then its knitted output document. First R Markdown Douglas Wise February 10, 2018 Tasks Completed - Downloaded Programs - R - R Studio - Created a R Markdown File Things You Can Do in R Markdown 1. Create a .Rmd file 2. Add Headings 3. Create a Paragraph 4. Save Your Work 5. Bold and Italicize text 6. Spell Check Work 7. Create Lists - Bullet Points - Numbered - Sub-lists 2.6.2 Insert Web Links and Pictures As you continue to polish your document, there may be times when you would like to add a web link or a picture to your document. You can add a web link by surrounding it with angle brackets like this: <copy and paste your link here> When inserting a web link, make sure to leave no space between your angle bracket and the web link. To insert an image, you can follow the procedure described below. First, inside the folder containing your .Rmd file, create a subfolder called Images to store all relevant images. Second, place the following code example in your .Rmd file at the position where you want the image to be. ![Caption of My Image](Images/image_file_name.file_type) As shown, the image insertion in R Markdown is defined by the expression: ![](). Here is a description of the code for inserting an image inside the .Rmd file. !: exclamation mark indicating the insertion of an image. []: a pair of brackets indicating the caption of your image is inside. In the code example, the image to be inserted is called Caption of My Image. () : a pair of parentheses indicating the path and the name for the image file are inside. In the code example, the path is `Images/`, meaning the file is in the subfolder `Images` within the folder that contains the .Rmd file; the file name is `image_file_name.file_type`. Of course, you may store the image elsewhere on your computer, so long as the full file path is correctly listed inside the parentheses. The illustration below shows an .Rmd file example and its knitted output document. Note how a longer path name is used to locate the image of Douglas Wise’s dog Brewster. --- First R Markdown Douglas Wise May 5, 2018 For this example, I will be using a picture of my dog Brewster. Now that we have an image, let’s put it in the proper format. ![My Dog Brewster](/users/wise/Desktop/Brewster.jpg) --- ### 2.7 HOW TO USE R MARKDOWN FOR A WRITING ASSIGNMENT: A BARE-BONES EXAMPLE Having learned all the bits and pieces that you need to know in order to format an R Markdown, or .Rmd, file, it is time for you to put that knowledge to use and to finish an assignment. Suppose that your teacher gives you the following prompt for a writing assignment: Write a short essay about Netflix to demonstrate how it has changed people’s TV watching habits. Focus on the idea of “binge-watching.” You probably already know how to write an essay in Word, but how do you write an essay in R Markdown? Here, you may begin with a bare-bones example for writing this essay assignment in R Markdown. To avoid any lingering confusion, there will be a lot of repetition of the materials discussed above so that you can refresh your memory. Writing your essay in R Markdown might seem difficult at first, but once you get started, you’ll find that it’s actually a lot easier than you think. Once you install R and RStudio, and generate a default R Markdown or .Rmd file, you can begin word processing. At first, the default R Markdown or .Rmd template file in RStudio will look like this: ``` --- title: "Untitled" author: "Elizabeth Gohmert" date: "7/31/2018" output: html_document --- ```{r setup, include=FALSE} knitr::opts_chunk$set(echo = TRUE) ``` ## R Markdown This is an R Markdown document. Markdown is a simple formatting syntax for authoring HTML, PDF, and MS Word documents. For more details on using R Markdown see <http://rmarkdown.rstudio.com>. When you click the Knit button a document will be generated that includes both content as well as the output of any embedded R code chunks within the document. You can embed an R code chunk like this: ```{r cars} summary(cars) ``` ## Including Plots You can also embed plots, for example: ```{r pressure, echo=FALSE} plot(pressure) ``` We’re going to take this .Rmd default template from RStudio and revise it along the lines discussed earlier: fill out the top YAML header section of the .Rmd file in terms of the title, author, date, and output file type. Just to be sure, if you did not fill out the correct title earlier, now you should do so. In this example, where you see the words title: “Untitled”, replace the word “Untitled” with your desired document title. Whatever you name the title is going to show up at the top of your final document, so choose wisely. Once you choose a title, fill inside the quotation marks next to author: with your own name if you have not done so already. The chosen output file type is currently html. Right below the YAML header section is the following three lines of code that are worth explaining: ``` ```{r setup, include=FALSE} knitr::opts_chunk$set(echo = TRUE) ``` ``` The three lines of code form what is called one R code chunk. This one R code chunk contains the following elements: ```: The three back ticks in the first line initiate this R code chunk, and the three back ticks in the third line ends this R code chunk. {r setup, include=FALSE}: Inside the pair of braces are first the name of the R code chunk, separated by a comma, and followed by relevant chunk options. In this default .Rmd template in RStudio, this one code chunk is called “r setup,” and you may change it to any other name so long as it is different from other code chunk names in the .Rmd file. The chunk option `include=FALSE` means that the code chunk will be evaluated, but neither its R code (the second line) nor its output will be displayed in the output document. Conversely, `include=TRUE` means that the code chunk will be evaluated and both the R code itself and its output will be displayed in the output document. knitr::opts_chunk$set(echo = TRUE): This is the main line of R code inside this R code chunk. Since the current code chunk is the first code chunk in the whole document, `opts_chunk$set()` is used here to set up the global options, meaning that the options chosen here will be applied throughout the document and you do not have to retype them again and again later on. In this default .Rmd template, the option `echo = TRUE` means that the R code will be shown in the output document. Conversely, if you change it to `echo = FALSE`, then the R code will not be shown in the output document. `knitr::` means that you will use the knitr package to set the global chunk option with `opts_chunk$set()`. It is useful to know that you may add many other global options inside `opts_chunk$set()`. For example, you may add `warning=FALSE` to exclude any R warnings from the output document, and the default is `warning=TRUE`; you may also add `message=FALSE` to exclude any R messages from the output document, and the default is `message=TRUE`. Just make sure that you separate the different options inside the parenthesis with commas. At this point, you may remove the rest of the .Rmd template before moving on, which will give you the following .Rmd file. As shown in the YAML header, the document is titled as “Chapter 1 HW”, the author is listed as one of the coauthors—“Elizabeth Gohmert”—the document is dated, and the output file type is listed as html. The first R code chunk for global options is kept from the default .Rmd template. Next, you may add your own text to the .Rmd file to complete the writing assignment. In the completed essay below, you will first see the .Rmd file and then the knitted output document. The .Rmd file can be used as a template for your own writing assignments. Chapter 1 HW Elizabeth Gohmert 2/3/2018 Netflix and Binge-watching Prompt: Write a short essay about Netflix and how it has changed people’s TV watching habits through the introduction of “binge-watching”. Gone are the days of Netflix being a place for people to watch movies; now it’s the place that most people watch their television shows too. Just like most Americans, I spend hours a day watching Netflix. I watch Netflix when I’m bored, when I’m doing my homework, and when I just want to relax after a long day. Everyone has their go-to shows that they watch on Netflix. For me, I typically watch and re-watch shows such as Gilmore Girls, House of Cards, Glee, and the Office. While every show on Netflix has a wide-following of dedicated fans, a few Netflix were viewed more than any others in 2017. The most binge-watched shows are as follows: 1. American Vandal, 2. 3%, 3. 13 Reasons Why, 4. Anne With an E, 5. Riverdale, 6. Ingobernable, 7. Travelers, 8. The Keepers, 9. The OA, and 10. The Confession Tapes. Statistics like these are interesting to me because they show just how wide and diverse people’s Netflix watching interests are. Of those “top shows” I have only ever seen 13 Reasons Why and Riverdale, and haven’t even heard of many of the other shows listed, yet their popularity is unquestionable. While lists of popular shows are great, the bigger question is—what exactly is binge-watching and just how prevalent is it in today’s society? “Binge-watching” is defined as watching multiple videos or episodes of a TV show in a short period of time. While the concept of “binge-watching” may have been invented in modern times, it is a phenomenon that affects all age groups. Statistics show that 72 percent of millennials, 73 percent of Generation X, 67 percent of Baby Boomers, and 56 percent of retirees have a Netflix subscription. Of the different age groups, 98 percent of millennials and 88 percent of Generation Z report regular binge-watching of a TV series. It just goes to show you that young or old, everybody loves a good Netflix binge. While everyone, young and old, watches Netflix, there is a wide disparity in binge-watching habits based on gender. On weekdays, men binge-watch an average of 4.61 hours while women binge-watched an average of 3.37 hours. On weekends, men binge-watched an average of 3.75 hours, while women binge-watched an average of only 2.89 hours. While statistics don’t explain this disparity, it’s possible that women don’t binge-watch as much as men do because they feel a greater responsibility to clean, run errands, and to take care of their children after work, while many men are less likely to have those same responsibilities. While age and gender are factors that cause differing trends in a person’s Netflix habits, every Netflix user can be united by their love of good TV, and good TV when they have time for it. Gone are the days of waiting to find out “what happens next”, and here are the days of finding out who exactly is “the mother” in How I Met Your Mother at 3 o’clock in the morning after you spent all night furiously trying to see who Ted Mosby would finally end up with. Works Cited Feldman, Dana. “The Most Binged Shows On Netflix In 2017.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 12 Dec. 2017, www.forbes.com/sites/danafeldman/2017/12/12/what-were-the-top-binged-shows-on-netflix-in-2017/#1bf1cfcc1bbe. Fuller, Steve. “Topic: Binge Watching in the U.S.” www.statista.com. www.statista.com/topics/2588/binge-watching-in-the-us/. Lynch, John. “Netflix Shared Its 10 Most Binge-Watched Shows of 2017.” Business Insider, Business Insider, 11 Dec. 2017, www.businessinsider.com/most-binge-watched-netflix-shows-of-2017-list-2017-12/. While lists of popular shows are great, the bigger question is—what exactly is binge-watching and just how prevalent is it in today’s society? “Binge-watching” is defined as watching multiple videos or episodes of a TV show in a short period of time. While the concept of “binge-watching” may have been invented in modern times, it is a phenomenon that affects all age groups. Statistics show that 72 percent of millennials, 73 percent of Generation X, 67 percent of Baby Boomers, and 56 percent of retirees have a Netflix subscription. Of the different age groups, 90 percent of millennials and 88 percent of Generation Z report regular binge-watching of a TV series. It just goes to show you that young or old, everybody loves a good Netflix binge. While everyone, young and old, watches Netflix, there is a wide disparity in binge-watching habits based on gender. On weekdays, men binge-watched an average of 2.61 hours while women binge-watched an average of 2.37 hours. On weekends, men binge-watched an average of 3.75 hours, while women binge-watched an average of only 2.89 hours. While statistics don’t explain this disparity, it’s possible that women don’t binge-watch as much as men do because they feel a greater responsibility to clean, run errands, and to take care of their children after work, while many men are less likely to have those same responsibilities. While age and gender are factors that cause differing trends in a person’s Netflix habits, every Netflix user can be united by their love of good TV, and good TV when they have time for it. Gone are the days of waiting to find out what happens next”, and here are the days of finding out who exactly is “the mother” in How I Met Your Mother at 3 o’clock in the morning after you spent all night furiously trying to see who Ted Mosby would finally end up with. Works Cited Feldman, Dana. “The Most Binged Shows On Netflix In 2017.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 12 Dec. 2017, www.forbes.com/sites/danafeldman/2017/12/11/what-were-the-top-binged-shows-on-netflix-in-2017/#1bf1cfcc1bbe. Fuller, Steve. “Topic: Binge Watching in the U.S.” Www.statista.com, www.statista.com/topics/2508/binge-watching-in-the-us/. Lynch, John. “Netflix Shared Its 10 Most Binge-Watched Shows of 2017.” Business Insider, Business Insider, 11 Dec. 2017, www.businessinsider.com/most-binge-watched-netflix-shows-of-2017-list-2017-12/. 2.8 HOW TO REVISE AND IMPROVE YOUR BARE-BONES ESSAY The bare-bones essay above is admittedly a little bit boring. Other than some boldings and italics here and there, it’s just a lot of text. In this next example, we want to jazz things up a little. We’re going to add some section headings and some charts to make things more visually appealing. The revised essay can be found below. ### What is “binge-watching”? While lists of popular shows are great, the bigger question is—what exactly is binge-watching and just how prevalent is it in today’s society? “Binge-watching” is defined as watching multiple videos or episodes of a TV show in a short period of time. While the concept of “binge-watching” may have been invented in modern times, it is a phenomenon that affects all age groups. #### Binge-watching Trends: Statistics show that 72 percent of millennials, 73 percent of Generation X, 67 percent of Baby Boomers, and 56 percent of retirees have a Netflix subscription. ```r per = c(72, 73, 67, 56) barplot(per, ylim=c(0,100), names.arg=c("Millennials", "Generation X", "Baby Boomers", "Retirees"), main="Netflix Subscriptions by Generation") ``` Of the different age groups, 90 percent of millennials and 88 percent of Generation Z report regular binge-watching of a TV series. It just goes to show you that young or old, everybody loves a good Netflix binge. While everyone, young and old, watches Netflix, there is a wide disparity in binge-watching habits based on gender. On weekdays, men binge-watched an average of 2.61 hours while women binge-watched on average of 2.37 hours. On weekends, men binge-watched an average of 3.75 hours, while women binge-watched an average of only 2.89 hours. ```r binge = c(2.61, 2.37, 3.75, 2.89) barplot(binge, ylim = c(0,4), names.arg=c("Male(Wkdy)", "Female(Wkdy)", "Male(Wknd)", "Female(Wknd)"), main="Binge-watching by Gender in Hours") ``` While statistics don’t explain this disparity, it’s possible that women don’t binge-watch as much as men do because they feel a greater responsibility to clean, run errands, and to take care of their children after work, while many men are less likely to have those same responsibilities. ### Conclusion: While age and gender are factors that cause differing trends in a person’s Netflix habits, every Netflix user can be united by their love of good TV, and good TV when they have time for it. Gone are the days of waiting to find out “what happens next”, and here are the days of finding out who exactly is “the mother” in How I Met Your Mother at 3 o’clock in the morning after you spent all night furiously trying to see who Ted Mosby would finally end up with. ### Works Cited Feldman, Dana. “The Most Binged Shows On Netflix In 2017.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 12 Dec. 2017, www.forbes.com/sites/danafeldman/2017/12/11/what-were-the-top-binged-shows-on-netflix-in-2017/#1b1cfccfcbbe. Fuller, Steve. “Topic: Binge Watching in the U.S.” Www.statista.com, www.statista.com/topics/2508/binge-watching-in-the-us/. Lynch, John. “Netflix Shared Its 10 Most Binge-Watched Shows of 2017.” Business Insider, Business Insider, 11 Dec. 2017, www.businessinsider.com/most-binge-watched-netflix-shows-of-2017-list-2017-12/. What is “binge-watching”? While lists of popular shows are great, the bigger question is—what exactly is binge-watching and just how prevalent is it in today’s society? “Binge-watching” is defined as watching multiple videos or episodes of a TV show in a short period of time. While the concept of “binge-watching” may have been invented in modern times, it is a phenomenon that affects all age groups. Binge-watching Trends: Statistics show that 72 percent of millennials, 73 percent of Generation X, 67 percent of Baby Boomers, and 56 percent of retirees have a Netflix subscription. Of the different age groups, 90 percent of millennials and 88 percent of Generation Z report regular binge-watching of a TV series. It just goes to show you that young or old, everybody loves a good Netflix binge. While everyone, young and old, watches Netflix, there is a wide disparity in binge-watching habits based on gender. On weekdays, men binge-watched an average of 2.61 hours while women binge-watched an average of 2.37 hours. On weekends, men binge-watched an average of 3.75 hours, while women binge-watched an average of only 2.89 hours. While statistics don’t explain this disparity, it’s possible that women don’t binge-watch as much as men do because they feel a greater responsibility to clean, run errands, and to take care of their children after work, while many men are less likely to have those same responsibilities. Conclusion: While age and gender are factors that cause differing trends in a person’s Netflix habits, every Netflix user can be united by their love of good TV, and good TV when they have time for it. Gone are the days of waiting to find out “what happens next”, and here are the days of finding out who exactly is “the mother” in How I Met Your Mother at 3 o’clock in the morning after you spent all night furiously trying to see who Ted Mosby would finally end up with. Works Cited Feldman, Dana. “The Most Binged Shows On Netflix In 2017.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 12 Dec. 2017, www.forbes.com/sites/danafeldman/2017/12/11/what-were-the-top-binged-shows-on-netflix-in-2017/#1bf1cfccf1bbe. Fuller, Steve. “Topic: Binge Watching in the U.S.” Www.statista.com, www.statista.com/topics/2508/binge-watching-in-the-us/. Lynch, John. “Netflix Shared Its 10 Most Binge-Watched Shows of 2017.” Business Insider, Business Insider, 11 Dec. 2017, www.businessinsider.com/most-binge-watched-netflix-shows-of-2017-list-2017-12/. All the formatting above references things that were talked about in previous sections. If you got a little lost in all the YAML and formatting discussion, don’t fret! You don’t need to know all the different formatting tips and tricks right away to make an R Markdown document. For now, just focus on making documents, and the aesthetics of it will improve with time and more learning. 2.9 FOR MORE AMBITIOUS READERS 2.9.1 How to Construct the Two Figures in the Improved Essay Example The more interesting essay example above contains two graphs to display the patterns present within data. While creating graphs in R Markdown may seem difficult, it’s actually pretty easy once you know what to do. 2.9.2 Graph 1 The first graph looks like this: ``` Netflix Subscriptions by Generation \| Generation \| Percentage \| \|------------\|------------\| \| Millennials \| 72 \| \| Generation X \| 73 \| \| Baby Boomers \| 67 \| \| Retirees \| 56 \| ``` The R code for the first graph, which you can use as a template for yourself, is as follows: ```r per = c(72, 73, 67, 56) barplot(per, ylim=c(0, 100), names.arg=c("Millennials", "Generation X", "Baby Boomers", "Retirees"), main="Netflix Subscriptions by Generation") ``` Here are the steps for producing the relevant R code. First, to insert an R code chunk in the .Rmd file, simply click Code and then Insert Chunk. Once you have done that, you will see inserted in your .Rmd file the following expression: ``` ```{r} ``` The three back ticks, a pair of braces with r inside, and another three back ticks, together specify that whatever is in between those ticks will be processed as R program code. Inside the braces, add `echo=FALSE` to exclude the R code from the output document; notice how this reverses the `echo=TRUE` option displayed in the global option in the first R code chunk of the .Rmd file. Naturally, R code will be included in the final document if `echo=TRUE` is used instead (or if nothing is specified because the default is `echo=TRUE`). The first line of R code above begins with `per`. This line of code creates a variable called `per`, whose values are defined by a `c()` function. The `c()` function says that 72, 73, 67, 56 are the four values or observations of the `per` variable. The output of the `c()` function is assigned to a variable named `per` via an assignment symbol =. One could also use `<-` to assign the output of the `c()` function to the variable `per`. So, `per` stores the data for the percentage values for the first graph. Variables can be named as whatever you want except for special characters, but you should choose wisely to help keep better track of what each part of your code is doing. The second line of R code begins with `barplot()`. It is a function or command for creating a bar graph. Inside the parentheses, provide various needed information for the plot. - Identify the variable `per`, whose values are used in the plot. - Set the increments on the vertical axis by setting `ylim` from 0 to 100, again via the `c()` function. Note how the values for the range of values along the vertical axis can be modified (e.g., 0–80 instead). - Use `names.arg` to tell R what to name each of the columns. In this case, based on the text, the different percentages are named as “Millennials,” “Generation X,” “Baby Boomers,” and “Retirees,” respectively. Please make sure that these names appear in the order that matches with that of the numeric values of the `per` variable. - Give the graph a title by setting `main` to equal “Netflix Subscriptions by Generation”. 2.9.3 Graph 2 The second graph in the improved essay looks like this: ``` Binge-watching by Gender in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 Male(Wkdy) Female(Wkdy) Male(Wknd) Female(Wknd) ``` The R code for Graph 2 is as follows: ```r binge = c(2.61, 2.37, 3.75, 2.89) barplot(binge, ylim=c(0, 4), names.arg=c("Male (Wkdy)", "Female (Wkdy)", "Male (Wknd)", "Female (Wknd)", main="Binge-watching by Gender in Hours") ``` The R code chunk for Graph 2 mirrors the code chunk for Graph 1. Like for the previous graph, it tells R not to include the R code in the final output. It also tells R to create a new variable called `binge` for data on the number of hours that men and women binge-watch programs on weekdays or weekends. The code then tells R to create a `barplot` for the variable `binge`. 2.10 EXERCISE: TURNING KNOWLEDGE INTO RESULTS We’ve covered a lot of different concepts in this chapter, so now let’s take a moment to practice what you have learned so far. In a new, blank, R Markdown document, practice what you have learned by completing the following tasks: 1. Fill in the title, the author name, and the date of the document. 2. Create three different sections. Title section 1 as “Food,” and then write three sentences about your favorite food. Title section 2 as “Movie,” and then write three sentences about your favorite movie. Title section 3 as “Holiday,” and then write three sentences about which holiday is your favorite, and why. 3. Format your text as you see fit. 4. Create a simple bar plot and insert it in the .Rmd file. Simply follow the following format: ```r VariableName = c(value for observation 1, value for observation 2, etc.) barplot(VariableName, ylim(0, desiredLimit), names.arg=c("FirstColumnName", "SecondColumnNameHere", "etc."), main="Desired Title For Graph") ``` 5. Knit your .Rmd file into an html document. Now that you have practiced completing a report, how well do you think you did? Could you remember all the bits and pieces, or were there a few things you struggled with? Feel free to review the sections above before moving on to the next chapter. ### 2.11 SUMMARY In this chapter, you learned how to use R Markdown to complete a written assignment that integrates text, graphs, R code, images, and web links in one document. More concretely, you learned - how to create an R Markdown or .Rmd file; - how to write and format text in the .Rmd file; - how to create bullet points and insert web links and images in the .Rmd file; - how to write and revise an essay in R Markdown; and - how to construct and integrate simple bar plots in the essay. The main point of the chapter is to let you learn R in the most unexpected and yet familiar way: by finishing an essay assignment in R with little programming involved No other R book teaches R by starting with a writing assignment, and yet writing and word processing are most familiar to even first-time R users. Being able to finish a writing assignment in R without any programming background should boost your confidence and interest in learning the materials in the rest of the book. 2.12 REFERENCES The materials in this chapter draw on several useful references. They also provide additional readings through which you can better understand R Markdown and further improve your own document. Grolemund, G. (2019). R Markdown: Dynamic documents for R. Retrieved from https://support.rstudio.com/hc/en-us/articles/205368677-R-Markdown-Dynamic-Documents-for-R RStudio. (2018). R Markdown from RStudio page. Retrieved from https://rmarkdown.rstudio.com/articles.html Wickham, H., & Grolemund, G. (2017). R for data science. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media. Retrieved from https://r4ds.had.co.nz/ Xie, Y., Allaire, J. J., & Grolemund, G. (2018). R Markdown: The definitive guide. 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What is so different about NGSS? – Chemistry PD Joe Krajcik CREATE for STEM Michigan State University Atlanta, GA What will we do today? • Learn a bit more about 3-Dimensional learning • Experience 3-Dimensional Learning • Build understanding of Coherence • Engage in doing a bit of science What’s new in the Framework and NGSS? 1. Focus on explaining phenomena or designing solutions to problems 2. 3-Dimensional Learning 1. Organized around disciplinary core explanatory ideas 2. Central role of scientific and engineering practices 3. Use of crosscutting concepts 3. Instruction builds towards performance expectations 4. Coherence: building and applying ideas across time What is three-dimensional learning? Three-dimensional learning shifts the focus of the science classroom to environments where students use disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts with scientific practices to explore, examine, and explain how and why phenomena occur and to design solutions to problems. ## Overview of EQuIP \| I. Alignment to the NGSS \| II. Instructional Supports \| III. Monitoring student progress \| \|--------------------------\|----------------------------\|---------------------------------\| \| 1. Three dimensional: Supports students in three dimensional learning to make sense of phenomena or design solutions \| Supports learning for all students through meaningful scenarios, supporting practices, supports phenomena and representations \| Assessments evaluate three-dimensional learning; include formative; are accessible and unbiased \| \| 2. Coherence: Lessons fit together coherently, develops connections \| Provides guidance for teachers to build coherence across the unit \| Pre, formative, and summative aligned to three-dimensional learning \| What should we look for in designing or deciding on materials? The lesson/unit aligns with the conceptual shifts of the NGSS: 1. Elements of the science and engineering practice(s), disciplinary core idea(s), and crosscutting concept(s), blend and work together to support students in three-dimensional learning to make sense of phenomena or design solutions. How do we move further? How do I support students in reaching a PE? Performance Expectation What performance expectation are we building towards? MS. Chemical Reactions Students who demonstrate understanding can: MS-PS1-2. Analyze and interpret data on the properties of substances before and after the substances interact to determine if a chemical reaction has occurred. [Clarification Statement: Examples of reactions could include burning sugar or steel wool, fat reacting with sodium hydroxide, and mixing zinc with HCl.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to analysis of the following properties: density, melting point, boiling point, solubility, flammability, and odor.] The performance expectations above were developed using the following elements from the NRC document A Framework for K–12 Science Education \| Scientific and Engineering Practices \| Disciplinary Core Idea \| Crosscutting Concepts \| \|-------------------------------------\|------------------------\|-----------------------\| \| Analyzing and Interpreting Data \| PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter \| Patterns \| \| Analyzing data in 6–8 builds on K–5 and progresses to extending quantitative analysis to investigations, distinguishing between correlation and causation, and basic statistical techniques of data and error analysis. \| • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it. \| • Macroscopic patterns are related to the nature of microscopic and atomic-level structure. \| \| • Analyze and interpret data to determine similarities and differences in findings. \| PS1.B: Chemical Reactions \| \| \| \| • Substances react chemically in characteristic ways. In a chemical process, the atoms that make up the original substances are regrouped into different molecules, and these new substances have different properties from those of the reactants. \| \| Storyline: Question and phenomena motivate each step in building a disciplinary core idea Goal: Making sense of phenomena or designing solutions Anchoring phenomena Phenomena driven Questions Investigate and build knowledge using practices to explore Incrementally Build Explanations, Models, or Designs Phenomena + Question Analyze data, explain [PE$_1$] Initial explanation, model or design Phenomena + Question Explain, argue, model [PE$_2$] Add to/revise Phenomena + Question Explain, argue, model [PE$_3$] Add to/revise Revisit Driving question Culminating PE Final consensus explanation, model or design Thanks to Brian Reiser and Michael Novak DQ: How can I make new stuff from old stuff? Copper Chloride and Aluminum reaction What we figured out Questions about changes in matter to guide future investigations Different substances have different properties An evidence-based explanation for how fat and soap are different substances Explanation: a chemical reaction occurs when substances interact and atoms combine in new ways Burning is a chemical reaction in which one reactant is oxygen and products include carbon dioxide Let’s look at phenomena • When you mix substances together, how would you know whether new substances are formed? What we have figured out so far • Matter is composed of atoms & molecules in constant motion. • Substances can exist in solid, liquid, and gaseous states. • Substances have characteristic properties that help identify substances and distinguish them from one another. • Solubility, density, and melting point are properties of substances. \| Substance \| Observations \| Solubility \| \|--------------------\|--------------\|------------\| \| Road Salt \| \| \| \| Baking Soda \| \| \| \| Water \| \| XXXXX \| \| Substances Combine \| \| \| Scientific Explanation: Write a scientific explanation that states whether new substances were formed after combining the baking soda, powdered sugar, road salt, and water. - Claim: (Write a statement that responds to the original question.) - Evidence: (Provide scientific data to support your claim. Use appropriate and sufficient data.) - Reasoning: (In your reasoning statement, connect your claim and evidence to show how your data link to your claim. Also, tell why your data count as evidence to support your claim by using scientific principles. Remember, reasoning is the process where you apply your science knowledge to answer the question.) - What New Questions do you have? • Share and critique explanations. What are Scientific and Engineering Practices? The multiple ways of knowing and doing that scientists and engineers use to study the natural world and design world. The practices work together – they are not separated! 1. Asking questions and defining problems 2. Developing and using models 3. Planning and carrying out investigations 4. Analyzing and interpreting data 5. Using mathematics and computational thinking 6. Developing explanations and designing solutions 7. Engaging in argument from evidence 8. Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information What performance expectation are we building towards? MS. Chemical Reactions Students who demonstrate understanding can: MS-PS1-2. Analyze and interpret data on the properties of substances before and after the substances interact to determine if a chemical reaction has occurred. [Clarification Statement: Examples of reactions could include burning sugar or steel wool, fat reacting with sodium hydroxide, and mixing zinc with HCl.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to analysis of the following properties: density, melting point, boiling point, solubility, flammability, and odor.] The performance expectations above were developed using the following elements from the NRC document A Framework for K-12 Science Education \| Scientific and Engineering Practices \| Disciplinary Core Idea \| Crosscutting Concepts \| \|-------------------------------------\|------------------------\|-----------------------\| \| Analyzing and Interpreting Data \| PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter \| Patterns \| \| Analyzing data in 6–8 builds on K–5 and progresses to extending quantitative analysis to investigations, distinguishing between correlation and causation, and basic statistical techniques of data and error analysis. \| • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it. \| • Macroscopic patterns are related to the nature of microscopic and atomic-level structure. \| \| • Analyze and interpret data to determine similarities and differences in findings. \| PS1.B: Chemical Reactions \| \| \| \| • Substances react chemically in characteristic ways. In a chemical process, the atoms that make up the original substances are regrouped into different molecules, and these new substances have different properties from those of the reactants. \| \| Why Use Crosscutting Concepts? Ideas that cut across and are important to all the science disciplines Provide different lenses to examine phenomena 1. Patterns 2. Cause and effect 3. Scale, proportion and quantity 4. Systems and system models 5. Energy and matter 6. Structure and function 7. Stability and change How would EQuIP evaluate this lesson on three dimensional learning? 1. Elements of the science and engineering practice(s), disciplinary core idea(s), and crosscutting concept(s), blend and work together to support students in three-dimensional learning to make sense of phenomena or design solutions. a. Provides opportunities to use specific elements of the scientific or engineering practices(s) to make sense of phenomena or design solutions. Do the materials clearly point out how students use elements of the practice to make sense of phenomena or design solutions? Poll • Yes • No How would EQuIP evaluate this lesson on three dimensional learning? 1. Elements of the science and engineering practice(s), disciplinary core idea(s), and crosscutting concept(s), blend and work together to support students in three-dimensional learning to make sense of phenomena or design solutions. b. Provides opportunities to construct and use specific elements of the disciplinary core idea(s) to make sense of phenomena or design solutions. Do the materials clearly point out how students use elements of the DCIs to make sense of phenomena or design solutions? Poll • Yes • No How would EQuIP evaluate this lesson on three dimensional learning? 1. Elements of the science and engineering practice(s), disciplinary core idea(s), and crosscutting concept(s), blend and work together to support students in three-dimensional learning to make sense of phenomena or design solutions. c. Provides opportunities to construct and use specific elements of the crosscutting concept(s) to make sense of phenomena or design solutions. Do the materials clearly point out how students use elements of the crosscutting concepts to make sense of phenomena or design solutions? Poll • Yes • No Summary: Evaluating the focus on 3-dimensional learning 1. Elements of the science and engineering practice(s), disciplinary core idea(s), and crosscutting concept(s), blend and work together to support students in three-dimensional learning to make sense of phenomena or design solutions. Poll • Yes • No A concluding message • By focusing on core ideas integrating with practices and crosscutting concepts, classrooms become learning environments where teachers and students have time to engage in science by designing and carrying-out investigations and making and debating claims supported by evidence and reasoning. • Business is not the same! • NGSS is different! • Revolution and not evolution Thanks to! 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PEER TUTORING: An Organizational Option when Time is Precious. June 1985 Peer teaching enables children to share their strengths, gives children more immediate feedback on their work, lets children learn from each other rather than being completely dependent on an adult, and gives a teacher an opportunity for more varied use of time. I hope this resource will give you some points to think about in regard to peer teaching as well as offer you a structured peer tutoring programme to implement. Some of the points you may like to consider in implementing a peer tutoring programme are as follows: * Can you see potential for beginning to implement this idea in your classroom? * How will you explain peer teaching so children will understand what is being expected of them and why? * Can you foresee any problems you will have to solve first? For example, how can you make sure that the children doing the coaching don't overemphasise the partner's mistakes through overpersistent coaching of an unpleasant area of difficulty for the partner? As usual I have used many and varied texts and articles, such as the work by J Stowitschek and A Hecimovic, in compiling this resource. If I can be of any further assistance please do not hesitate to contact me on 420 4876. JULIE GLANVILLE EDUCATION SUPPORT BRANCH May 16, 1985 \| CONTENTS \| PAGE NUMBERS \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------\| \| 1 How Does a Teacher Identify Tutors \| 1 \| \| 2 What Aspects of Your Programme Could Children Work Together in Pairs? \| 1 \| \| 3 What Organizational Materials Could be Included in a Peer Tutoring Programme? \| 2 - 4 \| \| 4 Implementing the Programme \| 5 - 9 \| \| 5 Recording \| 9 \| \| 6 Graphing \| 10 - 11 \| \| 7 Managing the Programmes \| 12 \| \| 8 Appendices \| \| \| Item Pool List \| Appendix A \| \| Training the Tutor (Familiarizing Tutor to Materials and teaching procedures) \| Appendix B \| \| Training the Tutor (First Rôle-Play Session) \| Appendix C \| \| Training the Tutor (Second Rôle-Play Session) \| Appendix D \| \| Training the Tutor (First Tutoring Session) \| Appendix E \| \| Tally Sheet \| Appendix F \| \| Colour Bar Graph \| Appendix G \| \| Graph for Cards in Envelope 5 \| Appendix H \| 1.0 HOW DOES A TEACHER IDENTIFY TUTORS? The type of tutors that can be used in a coaching situation can fall into the following categories and they are as follows: 1.1 Those children who are at a comparable skill level and task difficulty as the partner and have not mastered the task. Suitable tasks would include those tasks that do not require advance knowledge to determine correctness of the required responses, eg. basic number facts. With basic maths facts the answers to the problems can be supplied on the reverse side of flashcards. 1.2 Those children who have already mastered the task to be taught. This does not mean that the tutor has to be older or more proficient on all tasks. It simply means that the tutor must have enough knowledge regarding the learning tasks to provide an accurate assessment of the correctness of the answers the learner is giving. An example of a task requiring the tutor to have a higher level of proficiency in the task than the learner would be the reading of sight vocabulary. 1.3 Teacher Aides (if you are fortunate to be allocated one) 1.4 Parent Volunteers (an untapped resource) 2.0 WHAT ASPECTS OF YOUR PROGRAMME COULD CHILDREN WORK TOGETHER IN PAIRS? Perhaps the best starting point is the language and literacy area:- 2.1 Preteaching activities as in the Direct Instruction programmes. 2.2 Reading eg. decoding difficulties, sight vocabulary, reading of phrases, short sentences or take turns in sight-reading aloud a carefully chosen text to each other. 2.3 Language Awareness Activities, eg close activities use of pronouns etc. 2.4 Spelling eg. spelling words orally or in written form from a teacher's diary record of a child's spelling difficulties during conference writing sessions, etc. 2.5 Mathematics eg. number recognition, money skills, telling of the time, multiplication tables etc. 3.0 WHAT MATERIALS COULD BE INCLUDED IN A PEER TUTORING PROGRAMME? The following materials could be included in a peer tutoring programming: 3.1 A Three-sided Fold-up Desk-top Carrel - Everything the tutor and learner need is contained on the sides of the carrel. - When the tutorial session is over, the entire carrel is folded up and put away, with the flashcards, graphs, etc., left in place, thus reducing problems of "set up" and "take down" time as well as loss of materials. 3.2 A Graduated Set of Envelopes - The set of envelopes is labelled "start" and numbered from "1" to "5". These envelopes are used to distribute the cards to be learned, according to the correctness of the learner's responses and the number of consecutive correct responses. - It is suggested that twenty-five cards be used at a time. - All of the cards start in the envelope labelled "start" and are moved along the succession of envelopes as the learner responds correctly to them. Those cards that are missed are moved back to the "start" envelope. 3.3 Tally Sheet (see appendix F) - This is located on centre of the carrel. Tape, pin or place graph in plastic envelope on panel. - The tally sheet is used for recording of daily progress. - Computational aides for tallying can be used if necessary. 3.4 A Colour Bar Graph (Appendix G) - This can be located on the right hand panel of the carrel. Some children like to see a visual representation of their daily progress. 3.5 Card number "5" Graph (see appendix H) - This is located on the centre panel of the carrel as well. Tape, or pin or place graph in plastic envelope on panel. - The tutor and student record the number of points that correspond to the distribution of cards in envelope number "5" at the end of each session. - This graph signals to the teacher that it is time to review the cards in envelope number "5" in order to determine mastery and next instructional steps. 4.0 IMPLEMENTING THE PROGRAMME STEPS IN IMPLEMENTING A PEER TUTORING PROGRAMME STEP ONE Build a working list of unlearned items STEP TWO Select 25 teaching items STEP THREE Train the Tutor STEP FOUR Get the Tutor and Learner Started STEP FIVE Fade back to Manager Role 4.1 Step One Build a pool of items 4.1.1 A Working List ° A working list of unlearned items must be built-up so that the teacher can draw from them throughout the teaching programme. Whether it be spelling words missed on weekly tests, maths facts erred on a pretest or sight words missed on flashcard drills, a pool of 75-150 items should be developed before the tutor starts teaching the learner. ° This item pool will allow the teacher to keep ahead of the tutor in supplying new items. 4.1.2 An Item Pool List (Appendix A) ° An item pool list can be used to keep track of which words are not mastered and which have been mastered through the programme. ° The left side of the list can be used for writing the items found to be not yet learned. ° To begin with all items in the pool will be in this section, or column. You may also wish to record the date. As items are mastered they are crossed out from the left column and written in the mastered item column. \| Date \| Not Mastered \| Date \| Mastered \| \|------\|--------------\|------\|----------\| \| 2/4 \| here \| 6/4 \| here \| \| " \| that \| " \| that \| \| " \| with \| \| \| 4.2 Step Two Select 25 Teaching Items - From the total pool of items, pick 25 items for the beginning teaching set. These 25 items will be taught to mastery and replaced by another set of 25 from the next pool. - A mixture of "easy" and "difficult" is advisable. 4.3 Step Three Train the Tutor In training the tutor the teacher does the following: 4.3.1 Familiarizes the tutor with the materials and teaching procedures (Appendix B). 4.3.2 Role-plays the tutoring process with tutor - teacher role-plays the tutor's responsibilities (First Role-play Session - Appendix C). 4.3.3 Role-plays the tutoring process with the tutor role-playing the teaching process (Second Role-play Session - Appendix D). 4.3.4 Brings the tutor and learner together (First Tutoring Session - Appendix E). 4.4 Step Four Get the Tutor and Learner Started The main drawbacks to successfully carrying out a tutoring programme include the following: 4.4.1 schedule interruptions. 4.4.2 inappropriate tutor or learner behaviour 4.4.3 lack of follow-up on daily programmes. - Scheduling The most crucial factor of the programme is that it be carried out everyday and at a consistent time. The best tutor in the class will be of little assistance if tutoring does not occur frequently and regularly. Here are some scheduling suggestions to help you. * Pick a definite and regular time of day. * Pick a time of day where there are likely to be few interruptions. * Pick a time of day that is compatible with both tutor and learner. * Make sure that the tutor and learner do not spend more than the allotted time (5-10 minutes per day). * Schedule at least 4 days per week, but preferably 5 days per week. * Schedule an extra 10 minutes of back-up time per day to be used when a regularly scheduled session is skipped (due to illness, holidays, special events, excursions, parties, etc.). * Do not let the schedule deteriorate. There is a tendency for this to happen when the tutor is not strongly encouraged and reinforced by the teacher. Inappropriate Tutor or Learner Behaviour A prerequisite for this programme to run smoothly is that the teacher have disciplinary control over both tutor and learner. Inappropriate behaviour on the part of either can waste considerable time and effort. The following suggestions may be considered if inappropriate behaviour occurs: Tutor * Identify a desirable positive consequence (e.g., free time, a privilege, teacher's helper, reading, going to recess early, etc.) which the tutor may work for. * Tell the tutor that if s/he correctly uses the tutoring strategy for the entire session s/he will earn the agreed consequence. * After the session, check with the learner for a report on the tutor's behaviour. (Use indirect questions). * If there is a reported substantial decrease in inappropriate behaviour, award the consequence to the tutor. * Continue with this strategy but gradually increase the requirements. (No inappropriate behaviour over more sessions in order to earn the consequence). * Switch to a different consequence (selected by the student) or to a stronger consequence (e.g., more free time) if inappropriate behaviours do not decrease and maintain at a low level. * Be sure to express your approval of the desired tutoring behaviour along with the delivery of the specific consequence. Learner * Use the same strategy described above for the learner. Have the tutor report on the learner's behaviour after each session and have the tutor deliver the specified consequence along with the tutor's verbal approval. Follow-Up * Be sure to check on the tutor and learner after every session. Check for progress, (cards moved up to higher envelopes), accuracy of the tutor (counting, placement of cards in envelopes, etc.) and see that records are up-to-date. 4.5 Step Five Fading Back to Programme Manager 4.5.1 Recording and graphing will provide a visual display of daily results for the tutor, the learner and the teacher. 4.5.2 Recording and graphing is on-the-job training for the tutor. After each session the teacher should model the recording and graphing process until the tutor can independently complete the task. 4.5.3 The teacher stands to gain the most from recording and graphing for the following reasons: - A teacher can use the results diagnostically to decide whether the tutor needs more training. - The teacher can use the results to decide when to administer a review test and/or assign new teaching items. 4.5.4 The tutor may gain satisfaction from the increased responsibility of performing the recording and graphing process. 4.5.5 The learner may be encouraged by seeing the results of his or her efforts each day. 5.0 RECORDING (See Appendix F for copy of Tally Sheet) 5.1 Have the tutor and learner count the cards in each envelope starting with envelope number one. Make sure they replace the cards in the previous envelope before taking the cards from the next envelope. 5.2 As they call out the number of cards in each envelope, the teacher writes the number in the correct box on the Tally Sheet. This is repeated for all five envelopes each day. \| Monday \| Tuesday \| Wednesday \| Thursday \| Friday \| \|--------\|---------\|-----------\|----------\|--------\| \| $1 \times 4 = 4$ \| "Four cards in envelope number one". \| \| \| \| \| $2 \times 6 = 12$ \| "Six cards in envelope number two". \| \| \| \| \| $3 \times 9 = 27$ \| \| \| \| \| \| $4 \times 4 = 16$ \| \| \| \| \| \| $5 \times 2 = 10$ \| \| \| \| \| \| Total 69 \| Total___ \| Total___ \| Total___ \| Total___ \| 5.3 Use conversion tables for multiplication or a calculator if the tutor is not proficient in multiplication. 5.4 Next, add the product number for each envelope for that day. This total can be used to show progress for the learner even when no cards have reached the number 5 envelope. Again a conversion table or calculator may be used here. 5.5 A bar graph may be used for children who prefer to see visual representations of their daily progress, (see Appendix G). 5.6 Fading from Recording - It is important for the teacher to verbalize each step of the recording process during the first week of the programme. At the start of the second week, the teacher should begin to let the tutor write in the multiplication products for each envelope and the totals for all envelopes as s/he continues to verbalize the answers. For Example, Teacher: "There are six cards in envelope number two, so the multiplication table for two times six should be twelve. Write that in beside envelope number two". Student writes: $2 \times 6 = 12$ Teacher: "Good. Now add the totals for all envelopes. Let's see, 4 add 12 add 27 add 16 add 10 is 69. Student writes: ... Total 69 (this figure can be recorded on the colour bar graph if desired) (Note: Students who are not able to add as above, may require continual assistance on this portion of recording). - By the end of the second week the tutor should be doing all of the tutoring and recording without assistance. The teacher should make it a point to check the accuracy of the recording each week. 6.0 GRAPHING (Card Number "5" Graph - see Appendix H) - This graph is for the ultimate score of items correctly responded to five times in a row. So the graph on the centre panel of the carrel is the number of cards in envelope number five. Teacher: "Lets see, there are two cards in the number five envelope on Monday, 7th, so the x goes here". (Teacher points to correct position on graph). Tutor: Draws an x at the correct position. Teacher: "And we need to draw a line from Friday's x to Monday's x". Tutor: Draw a line connecting the x's By the end of the third week the tutor should be doing all of the tutoring, recording and graphing without assistance. The teacher should make it a point to check the accuracy of the graphing each week. Days of the week 7.0 MANAGING THE PROGRAMMES By the end of the third week the teacher should be able to check the student's work once per week and provide appropriate encouragement and feedback. From this point on the teacher's major responsibilities are: 7.1 to give review tests at the end of each week, 7.2 to introduce a new teaching set, 7.3 to solve problems that hinder progress. ° Review Tests At the end of each week, take the cards in envelope number five, and probe the learner on those items. Any items that are missed are returned to envelope labelled "start" and the x on the graph for that day is re-drawn at the correct level. If all cards are responded to correctly, simply circle the x on the graph. ° Assign a New Teaching Set When all 25 cards in the old teaching set have successfully passed the review test, select a new set of 25 cards from the Item Pool List. A teacher may wish to place new Tally Sheets and graphs on the carrel. As a final step, cross out the old set from the "unmastered side" of the Item Pool List and write them in on the "mastered side". ° Problem Solving The following is a list of some possible stumbling blocks and their possible remedies. \| Problem \| Possible Remedy \| \|----------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| The learner doesn't appear to be learning new material. \| - Check that the tutor is correctly following the tutoring procedure. \| \| - Check that the material selected is not too difficult for the learner in relation to his/her present level of ability. \| \| - Consider adding an additional reward for learning new items. \| \| The tutor isn't following the tutoring procedure as trained. \| - Retrain the tutor in the activity or activities presenting difficulty. \| \| - Reward the tutor for following the procedure as specified. \| \| - Reconsider your selection of the tutor \| The tutor isn't providing appropriate feedback and/or correct answers - Provide the answers on the back of the flashcards. - Coach the tutor in the correct answers. - Use a different tutor. Tutor isn't computing points accurately. - Check that points are being computed correctly. - Review graphing procedure with tutor. - Take responsibility for graphing from tutor. Items need to be changed too frequently. - Use items of increased difficulty. - Increase the number of items being tutored at any one time. Step Three Train the Tutor Familiarizes the Tutor with the Materials and Teaching Procedures - "These are the cards you will use when you teach." (Show the 25 card set.) - "Here is a cubicle or a cubby-hole which we call a carrel." (Show the left side of the carrel and put it on top of a table or desk.) - "All of the cards will be put here, (point to 'start' envelope to begin with and as the learner gets them right the cards are moved up to here." (Point to envelopes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.) - "If the learner gets it wrong, the card always goes back to start even if the card is in number 2, 3, or 4 envelope. - "To start with take all of the cards from the 'start' envelope. Later you can take cards from number 1, 2, 3, and 4 envelopes." - "Always mix or shuffle the cards, (demonstrate for the tutor), before starting. Be careful not to show the answers unless the learner has said the wrong answer." - "When your partner is correct put the card in a pile on the right side of the table." (Show the tutor) - "When your partner is incorrect put the card in a pile on the left side of the table." (Show the tutor) - "Now in your own words, tell me what you have just heard." (Prompt the tutor to repeat the following points:) The Tutor Says: 1. Take cards from carrel. 2. Cards start in envelope labelled "start" 3. Correct cards go in one pile; incorrect cards go in another pile. 4. Correct cards, move up to the next envelope. 5. Incorrect cards are placed in envelope labelled "start" 6. Always mix the cards. APPENDIX C Step Three Train the Tutor First Role Play Session o The teacher role-plays the tutoring process by saying- "Now you pretend to be your partner. I will pick up a card, ask what the answer is and you tell me the answer." APPENDIX D Step Three Train the Tutor Second Role-Play Session The tutor role-playsthe teaching process by: o Being the tutor while the teacher pretends to be the partner o Selecting cards and using the tutor process describing the first role play session. o Improving his/her use of the tutoring strategy when the teacher provides feedback. o Correctly using the tutoring strategy for 10 or more consecutive cards (the teacher makes errors on at least 5 of those cards). o "Enthusiastically praising" every correct answer. Step Three Train the Tutor First Tutoring Session After having selected the learner, testing the learner and selecting the first 25 cards, bring the partner and the tutor together at the selected tutoring location and explain the programme. - The tutor works through the card pile with the learner as the teacher provides corrective feedback and encouragement on the use of the tutor strategy. - Continue this session until the tutor uses the strategy correctly on 10 consecutive cards. After you are sure that the tutor can correctly select the cards, use the tutor strategy and replace the cards in the proper envelopes, you are ready to have the tutor conduct the sessions on his or her own. \| Monday \| Tuesday \| Wednesday \| Thursday \| Friday \| \|--------\|---------\|-----------\|----------\|--------\| \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ \| Monday \| Tuesday \| Wednesday \| Thursday \| Friday \| \|--------\|---------\|-----------\|----------\|--------\| \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ \| Monday \| Tuesday \| Wednesday \| Thursday \| Friday \| \|--------\|---------\|-----------\|----------\|--------\| \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| 1 x ___=___ \| \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| 2 x ___=___ \| \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| 3 x ___=___ \| \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| 4 x ___=___ \| \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| 5 x ___=___ \| Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ Total _______ Cards in Envelope 5 DAYS	<urn:uuid:3e9f259e-9fd5-46ef-8229-6e7fd90e5d11>	CC-MAIN-2018-05	http://donpugh.com/Education/peer%20support%20counselling%20tutoring/Peer%20Tutoring%20Programme.pdf	2018-01-23T17:43:24Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-05/segments/1516084892059.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20180123171440-20180123191440-00425.warc.gz	112,996,811	5,331	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.929682	eng_Latn	0.998504	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "tsn_Latn", "unknown" ]	false	rolmOCR	[ 73, 1331, 2972, 4834, 5877, 6306, 6775, 7051, 8235, 10220, 11948, 13815, 15805, 16136, 18407, 18921, 20455, 20692, 21226, 21928, 23542, 23569 ]	[ 4, 3.84375 ]	1	0
I. Calculator Features Click HERE for a video on using the calculator The calculator can be used in landscape mode as well, just turn your device to the side and view two calculators at once! Calculator Search Feature If you cannot find a calculator feature, do not remember what it is, or confused as to how to type it in – no worries! Just click on the magnifying glass in the upper right corner to pull up our search feature. Search Feature – simply click the magnifying glass on any calculator screen and type in the function your need! It will pull up the function you are searching for and automatically place it into the entry bar. combination Compute the number of ways of picking k unordered outcomes from n possibilities. eg: $ nCr(7, 5) = 21 $ cosine Calculate the cosine of a value eg: $ \cos(0) = 1 $ arccos Calculate the inverse cosine of a value eg: $ \text{acos}(0.5) = 1.0471975511965979 $ Other Calculator Features – Landscape Mode, Matrix, Statistics, and TVM Turn your device to the side to view the calculator in landscape mode. Click HERE to watch a tutorial on how to use the Matrix calculator. Store data sets in lists to use or directly type in the data values to compute. When you are ready to compute, and use the stat features, click the eval() button. Enter in the known values into the boxes on the screen and leave the one you are trying to find blank. To find the missing value, leave the box blank above and then click on the one you are trying to find. II. Graphing Calculator In settings, you can change the background between black and white and change the thickness of the equations graphed! Click the red plus symbol to add a new equation to graph. Click the Keyboard symbol to see the equations you have entered. There is no limit to the number of functions you graph and they are all color coded! Swipe down on the keyboard to view your graphs full screen. It can also be done in landscape mode! Simply check or uncheck the function to have the graph shown. You can also delete the graph by clicking the trashcan symbol to the right of it. Click the triangle symbol to show the additional graphing features including: trace, min/max, roots/zeros, intersection, derivatives, setting the window manually, and a table of values. First select the equation you would like to find information about below in the list by clicking on it. For example, $x^2$ is selected above. From there, choose which feature you would like to use from the menu above and touch your screen on the graph to find the values. \| Feature \| Description \| \|----------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Trace an equation to find corresponding X & Y values. \| Find the intersection between two equations. \| \| Find the maximum and minimum of an equation. \| Find the derivative of the function at corresponding X values. \| \| Find the roots/zeros of an equation. \| Table of Values \| \| \| Find corresponding values of X & Y \| \| \| Set the window manually \| \| \| X & Y Axis \| Graphing Calculator y(x) = x^2 Radian x^2 x+1 sin(x) e^x-3 First select the equation you would like to find information about below in the list. For example, $x^2$ is selected to trace here. Then drag your finger along the equation to find ordered pairs and trace the graph. Maximum/Minimum Feature Here the equation, $x^2$ is selected to find the maximum/minimum. Tap where you think the max/min are located. Here the equation, $x+1$ is selected to find the root/zero of the equation. Here the equation, $x^2$ is selected to find the intersections. Tap where you think the intersections are located. This is showing the intersection between $x^2$ and $x+1$. Derivative Feature You can also find the derivative with the tangent line shown for the designated equation. Set Window Feature Set the window manually by entering in the minimum and maximum values for the X and Y axis. Tap the value you would like to change and the keypad will appear for you to enter in the values. Once done, select “SET”. Select the Table from the menu to find the corresponding values of X and Y for the chosen equation. To find specific values of X and Y, tap the “X” in the upper left corner and the keypad will appear for you to type in the value of your choosing. Zoom Feature Simply slide down on the list of equations to see the full graph. Please note – you will need to close out the additional graphing features bar by clicking on the triangle at the top again before being able to zoom in and out and move around the graph. Close out of additional features by clicking on the triangle again. This will allow you to zoom in on the graph and move around the window. For additional help or any questions, please contact us at: firstname.lastname@example.org Thank you, Team GraphLock Mallory, Josh, and VJ	<urn:uuid:2e9bca16-a065-44c4-b865-e05ea3329776>	CC-MAIN-2017-26	http://graphlock.com/assets/docs/How-to-calculator.pdf	2017-06-23T10:08:55Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128320049.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20170623100455-20170623120455-00159.warc.gz	157,167,428	1,092	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99732	eng_Latn	0.998698	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 193, 921, 1135, 1300, 1508, 1652, 1777, 1963, 2108, 2568, 3656, 3873, 4010, 4087, 4261, 4372, 4609, 4858, 5127, 5268, 5398 ]	[ 2.765625 ]	2	0
Around 1 in 5 Australians have a disability and more than half of people aged 55 years and over have difficulties with mobility, sight, and hearing. Applying simple strategies to improve customer service for people with disability can help ensure everyone can access information, services and supports. Below are some general guidelines to use when supporting customers with disability: FOCUS ON THE PERSON Focus on the person and not their disability. Speak directly to the customer enquiring and not the person who may be accompanying them (carer or interpreter). If it is not necessary to discuss the person’s disability, then don’t. If it is relevant to their service, they will bring it up. Remember that many disabilities are not visible. CLEAR COMMUNICATION Always face the customer when you are speaking with them, use clear and concise language and check for understanding. Avoid covering your mouth or turning your back when speaking to ensure that customers who lip read have good visibility of your lips. Use your normal tone of voice and volume. If possible, move away from loud background noise. Never pretend to understand what a person is saying. If you don’t understand them, ask the person to repeat or rephrase it or offer them a pen and paper. Don’t attempt to speak for or finish a person’s sentence. BE RESPECTFUL Treat people with disability with the same respect as you would anyone else. Don’t speak down to people with disability or use patronising language. Many people with disability find it offensive when they are referred to as courageous or inspirational for living with their disability and going about their daily tasks. ALLOW TIME Be patient and acknowledge that some customers may require extra support or time. Give the opportunity for the customer to ask questions and reassure them that you are there to help. GUIDE AND ASSISTANCE DOGS Assistance animals are not pets, but rather are highly trained disability support services that enable a person with disability to safely participate in personal and public life activities. A person using a harnessed Guide Dog or Assistance Dog in NSW is allowed entry into all public places, transport, and food service businesses. It is an offence to deny or charge a fee for the entry of a Guide or Assistance Dog. Don’t pat, feed, or otherwise distract the Guide or Assistance Dog when it is working. EASIER ACCESS Consider how someone using a wheelchair or mobility aid can move easily around the customer area and keep walkways and open spaces as clear as possible. Portable ramps can be purchased if an entryway isn’t wheelchair accessible. A clear view of the entrance area can make it easier for customer service staff to identify if someone needs assistance. Perspex and glass shields at counter fronts can make it difficult for a person with a vision impairment to see where to exchange documents or make payments. A simple line of coloured tape at the end of the shield can make a huge difference. Printed and digital information can be made more accessible by using plain English and using high contrast colour schemes e.g., dark text against a light background. It is helpful to avoid using high gloss paper and bold and italicised text. Important documents should also be available in Easy Read and Braille wherever possible. Printed material can also be made available in large font versions. WANT TO LEARN MORE? HERE ARE SOME RESOURCES THAT WILL SUPPORT YOU WHEN WORKING WITH PEOPLE WITH DISABILITY. https://www.and.org.au/pages/tips-for-welcoming-customers-with-disability.html https://www.and.org.au/pages/etiquette.html https://www.and.org.au/pages/inclusive-language.html https://pwd.org.au/resources/disability-info/language-guide/ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This guide has been produced with information sourced from NSW Business Chamber (2017) Missed Business: How to attract more customers through better access. Australian Disability Network website https://www.and.org.au/articles.php/12/9-tips-for-assisting-customers-with-disability [accessed 08/02/21] NSW Guide Dogs website https://nsw.guidedogs.com.au/resources/community-resources/guide-dog-access-and-etiquette/ [accessed 08/02/21]	c256c63b-9739-4447-8ce4-b164fad20221	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://www.bathurst.nsw.gov.au/files/assets/public/v/1/services/living-with-disability/improving-customer-service-business.pdf	2024-04-18T07:12:45+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817200.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20240418061950-20240418091950-00390.warc.gz	611,736,411	847	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995462	eng_Latn	0.995715	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1336, 4213 ]	[ 2.21875 ]	1	0
Essentially these partner groups—associated with targeted-area schools, churches, or nonprofits—will be operating Rainwater Satellite Stations, where images can be offered, rain barrels can be distributed, and installations and maintenance can be done for interested area residents. Opportunities for workforce training as well as entrepreneurial activities are available for those involved. All funds raised will be reinvested in the program and shared with the satellite locations. I am currently hiring a trainer, a Reliance Mobile Unit, to be used in material delivery and, more importantly, as a pop-up educational display for school events and neighborhood festivals. A Tulane University graduate student working through the Archer and Tina Small Center for Collaborative Design and I will be designing the infrastructure and illustrate components. As I have come to believe, the humble-but-mighty rain barrel is not just a gateway into green infrastructure and stormwater management. It is much more, an rain barrel program provide a strong platform for social action and community engagement. The unit is all about is building stronger communities through shared experience with the tools and the power of collective action for positive social change on the household thing. You can read Hilarie’s 2015 manual, A Do-It-Yourself Guide to Simple Rainwater Harvesting New Orleans, at [bit.ly/NOUANOA](http://bit.ly/NOUANOA). You can also find more on social media via Facebook at RainwaterSatellite and Twitter @HilarieWater at firstname.lastname@example.org. You can read Hilarie’s 2015 manual, A Do-It-Yourself Guide to Simple Rainwater Harvesting New Orleans, at [bit.ly/NOUANOA](http://bit.ly/NOUANOA). You can also find more on social media via Facebook at RainwaterSatellite and Twitter @HilarieWater at email@example.com. In April, I joined with Water Wise NOLA, an umbrella organization comprised of Chabot Green, landscape architect Dana Brown, and myself. Specializing in green infrastructure, Water Wise is an education and outreach organization offering a variety of workshops and demonstration projects. I was asked to be a part of the team that would be working with kids in their rain barrel workshops. Water Wise is primarily based on the Third and Fifth Ward neighborhoods, with several area pan bars located there. We are also involved in other types of green infrastructure interventions, including rain gardens, bioswales, concrete median, tree plantings, and more. Enter Reliance NOLA, a community benefit LLC, social enterprise, named in part for the practice of returning rainwater to the ground to counter subsidence. Originally conceived in 2014 and ramping up in early 2016, Reliance would introduce provision of regreened-based, local water to wet urban areas, while simultaneously addressing the detrimental water footprints of many of our cities. Reliance would work with the intention of increasing their capacity to proliferate the program. Reliance NOLA, a community benefit LLC, social enterprise, named in part for the practice of returning rainwater to the ground to counter subsidence. Originally conceived in 2014 and ramping up in early 2016, Reliance would introduce provision of regreened-based, local water to wet urban areas, while simultaneously addressing the detrimental water footprints of many of our cities. Reliance would work with the intention of increasing their capacity to proliferate the program. The Gulf Coast has grown through the present day with the help of others from the communities we partner with; it is their hard work and dedication to urgent disasters like the spill that are the increasingly strong strains that arrive each year. It is a long history of environmental injustice, and a complex relationship with oil, coal, and gas. The region has been impacted by oil spills and even new construction across the region. While we look ahead with concern at the growing threat of climate change and the injustices it brings, the history of these places makes the impact of such moves and acts feel like an even more challenging. From the beginning, Public Lab has been committed to learning and amplifying local perspectives, and in this issue we hope to highlight the ongoing work, of a number of our partners across the region. The kinds of environmental threats faced in this part of the world mirror similar threats from around the world, and however unfortunate that is, it also stands as an opportunity to provide mutual support from region to region. All of the stories in this issue involve people stepping up to help out in their own communities. Many have lived their whole lives near sources of industrial pollution, and as we see so many places around the world, many have become experts-by-necessity in the environmental issues they face. With this comes a great deal of knowledge and experience, flowing from those in state or federal agencies whose job it is to respond to these types of threats—and a resonating with the legacy of industrial waste which affects much of the Gulf Coast. Stakeholder communities must be seen as the parties most able to shape and lead a response to environmental problems, rather than only the victims of a situation. Local communities are uniquely positioned to know what is happening, and how to respond to these types of threats—and a resonating with the legacy of industrial waste which affects much of the Gulf Coast. Our thanks go out to our partners, from the Pensacola NAACP to the Boys and Girls Club of Gulfport, Mississippi; the Lower 9th Ward Center for Sustainable Engagement and Development, MEAC, the Gulf Restoration Network, and many more. All bring a unique perspective to the effort, and we’ve been lucky to work with them daily. While they may not have been possible without the generous support of the National Academy of Sciences and the Gulf Hour Project, a program of the Schmidt Family Foundation, New Orleans’ Bayou Bienvenue Wetlands Triangle was once a vibrant, old-growth cypress swamp, used for everything from hunting, camping, and hunting to bird watching, fishing, and crabbing. It served a vital role in the lives of neighbors in the adjoining Lower Ninth Ward. But in the 1960s, the government wanted to create a faster route from the Gulf of Mexico to the Port of New Orleans so ships could avoid navigating the twists and turns of the Mississippi River to reach the city. The construction of a 25-mile long canal, the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MRGO), destroyed nearly 40,000 acres of wetlands and resulted in salinity intrusion from the Gulf of Mexico into estuaries, killing the cypress swamps and decimating wildlife habitats. Erosion led to the MRGO quadrupling in width in some areas, affecting more than a million acres of coastal habitat. Even worse, a lack of infrastructure at the ports meant few ships ended up using the channel. Plans to improve the port were quietly forgotten in the 1980s. With a lack of wetlands to serve as natural protection, the MRGO exacerbated the storm surge during Hurricane Katrina, leading to flooding and flood water rivers, devastating burst swaths of land in the Lower Ninth Ward and New Orleans East, and St. Bernard Parish further downstream. Its eventual closure in 2009 took place as a result of the recommendation put forth by NGOs and other key stakeholders. A Congressionally mandated plan was created by the Army Corps of Engineers to help restore the local wetlands and help protect the New Orleans area in future storms. But disagreements between the state and federal government led to lawsuits [still unsettled], with neither side acting to implement the proposed MRGO Ecosystem Restoration Plan. Widespread public support has enhanced restoration efforts, in spite of the legal stalemate, and the state is moving forward with pieces of the plan by using BP dollars in the master plan. “Our residents deserve to have the bayou restored; it’s about creating a healthy ecosystem that can protect some storm surges, benefitting and benefiting our neighborhoods and beachfronts,” says Happy Johnson, Chief Resilience Officer at the Lower 9th Ward Center for Sustainable Engagement and Development (CSED). “Now that the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet has been closed for a rock date for some time and the salinity issues are continually evolving and spreading, then the Bayou Bienvenue Wetlands Triangle can return to becoming a freshwater cypress swamp through the implementation of key restoration measures. But we have to stay vigilant in our application of engagement and advocacy. We’re working closely with National Wildlife Federation, the New Orleans Office of Resilience and Sustainability, as well as the state’s Coastal Protection & Restoration Authority, to push forward comprehensive plans for restoration of the Triangle.” The CSED was founded in 2006 in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina to help residents of the Lower Ninth Ward rebuild their homes with sustainable and energy-efficient materials, with the help of volunteer and skilled labor. “Our founders sought to support the immediate reconstruction of the Lower Nine in a way that enhanced the health of people and the natural environment; they were also diligent in terms of ensuring residents ‘right to return,’” says Happy. The neighborhood had a strong history of black home-ownership: the highest at one point, in the entire city. We have fought to sustain the history and culture of this place.” The organization is now focused on creating a sustainable, energy-efficient, and environmentally conscious culture in the ward, with major organizational milestones including the construction and maintenance of the Bayou Bienvenue Observation Deck, the coordination of 3,000 volunteers to rebuild homes and sweep streets, creation of a community garden, and serving as consultants for neighborhood and environmental restoration efforts in the area. Happy joined members of Public Lab and the Gulf Restoration Network for a recent balloon mapping event on Bayou Bienvenue. “Our staff wanted to balloon map because, while the boundaries of the Triangle have not changed, the ecosystem and wildlife habitat is constantly evolving as a result of climate change and recent hurricane safety measures that control the flow of water in and out of the ecosystem,” says Happy. “We want to learn how to track these changes so we can share that knowledge with members of the community and empower them to do something about it. That’s why we’re out here mapping, and doing soil and salinity testing.” “I’m proud to be a resident of the Lower Ninth Ward with a longtime home here,” he continues. “Our residents are committed to a future that involves the complete restoration of our waterways and streets. The key for us with restoration is equity, participation, and inclusion. Design, planning, engineering, construction, and maintenance have to involve residents who live next to the wetlands. That’s why we’re working with government officials on how to better engage the community. If we try to rebuild the bayou without involving the people around it, then it won’t be successful. We want to do this together, in an intentional way.” --- EDUCATING A NEW GENERATION OF ADVOCATES IN GULFPORT Go out into the wetlands. Find a quiet, secluded area. Be very quiet. Be still. After about a minute of silence, you’ll start to hear birds. You’ll hear the wind in the trees. You’ll hear the water trickling. You’ll see nature coming back to life. This is how Howard Page helped share nature with a group of youth from the Forest Heights Boys and Girls Club in North Gulfport, Mississippi. “The kids really were amazed. It was remarkable that I could be one of the first times that some of these kids took the time to be truly quiet—an observer in nature, and not just stumbling through it,” he says. The children met up after school at a center that backs up to the Turkey Creek Watershed, a popular waterway for canoeing and fishing, where Howard conducted a series of workshops with students ages 10–15. The idea was to teach them, of course, about what the kids, in a very hands-on fashion, learned about the wetlands, but also learned about ways to do science, how to do research, to document things, and most importantly, to share. “We wanted to take them into their backyard, the wetlands, and give them fun, interesting ways to embrace and own the wetlands.” A Gulfport native, Howard grew up hunting and fishing in the area, with a love of the local coastal wetlands. Now as a community organizer with the North Gulfport Community Land Trust and Senior Club, he’s working with partners like Public Lab and the Gulf Restoration Network to teach kids to explore the wetlands through activities like balloon mapping, water testing, trekking, and photography. “Everything was designed to be aspirational,” says Howard. “I wanted the kids to not just learn science, but how to fly balloons and teach the adults that they can become mentors too—and showing them the jobs they can get by learning biology and chemistry. And that when they read these books about nature, they don’t want to just read to take the test or the quiz. We didn’t want them to just meet professionals but wanted to make sure they knew they could become those professionals, and teach them what it would take to do that.” As a preservationist, taking science out of the classroom and into the field is important to Howard. “As a young person grows up in this community and gains an understanding of the wetlands, the goal is that in a few years, they’ll have voices for protecting them,” he says. And the area can only get the advantages it gets. Development in Gulfport has led to a loss of wetlands, meaning a loss of viral flood protection. Stormwater control often fails to work properly, resulting in sewer and septic system spills, untreated water running down streets. “If there’s untreated water rising up around your house, it may be out there where kids are walking and playing,” he adds. “And aside from the obvious health implications, there are psychological effects of constantly seeing rainwater running down my street and flooding my house.” Howard has been closely involved with recent success with community efforts to protect local wetlands. “Because of community engagement, we’ve been able to identify areas where sewer systems leak into the wetlands, leading to better management practices,” he shares. “One day, we hope to get these areas into conservation.” For now, Howard is helping to create a new generation of conservationists. “I asked the kids to go home and research what things live in the wetlands,” he retells. “They came back the next week with amazing. We talked about alligators and snakes and cypress trees. And even moose! But there’s one thing you’re forgetting, I told them. You are one of the creatures that live in the wetlands. They really got a kick out of that.” Images (Top to Bottom): Youth from the Forest Heights Boys and Girls Club working on research notes. Taking water samples on Turkey Creek. Community organizer Howard Page --- FIGHTING THE FLOOD: COMMUNITY ACTIVISM AND EDUCATION IN PENSACOLA by Stevie Lewis, Public Lab Outreach Director After several iterations of stormwater projects in the New Orleans area, exploring monitoring tools and strategies, and the challenges with sharing out about localized flooding events, I was surprised to find that the remarkable work that happened with students in Pensacola, Florida. Earlier this year, a mapping project in the Indian Bayou area highlighted the problems Pensacola Bay has with stormwater runoff from the Indian Bayou development. Students at the Pensacola NAACP started talking to me about the stormwater flooding and wastewater contamination issues in the communities. Dr. Gloria Hornung came to Pensacola more than eight years ago as an AmeriCorps volunteer following the BP oil disaster. She has worked with disaster response teams in CERT (Community Emergency Response Team) training and has come to know, firsthand, the impacts of development and subsequent flooding in her local community. “A quick glance at the economic problems of this area puts, in my mind, an influx of building and housing construction, and the lack of construction of infrastructure. We have constant flooding in several areas, especially in Indian Bayou,” says Gloria. “I live here, my house is impacted by it. We can have a ten minute rain event and my street will flood.” Early last summer, Gloria and a small group of community residents started down a new path to thinking about how a stormwater project in Pensacola could look like. Exploring the range of issues locally, researching past and ongoing projects, and making sure everyone wanted them to happen, the group identified a main goal: raising awareness about stormwater issues in Pensacola and what people can do about them. Runoff problems in Pensacola run the environmental gamut, especially in the historic Tanyard neighborhood, once home to the original port. It was also the location of the treatment plant that was recently moved, but which has not been fully completed. The existing stormwater infrastructure runs alongside the sewage pipes, often where there’s a problem, either right after a heavy rainfall or when raw sewage ending up in the stormwater, flooding the community, and spilling into the bay. A recent rain event sent 44,000 gallons of raw sewage into the community and out into the bay. Photos courtesy Dr. Gloria Hornung Even minor rainfall events are enough to flood neighborhoods in Pensacola, sending raw sewage into the community and out into the bay. Photos courtesy Dr. Gloria Hornung New development has further exacerbated the problem; the creeks running through the neighborhood and uptown have been filled in, paved over, and built on. Last year, after the city, eager to build more development, restricted the roads, putting pavement on top of pavement. Not only did they not level the new pavement down to the existing storm drains, they also failed to do a proper test on the road. The failed project caused the road to crack under the sewage pipe that ran underneath it, which had been put in by the Emerald Coast Utility Authority (ECUA) just one year before. From this event, a neighborhood pool of raw sewage flooded the neighborhood and a newly finished park, before draining into the bay. The oversight of Pensacola infrastructure is split between governing bodies. The ECUA manages the sewage system, the county oversees the stormwater system, and the city manages development. Gloria remarks that the distributed management leads to “a lot of finger pointing.” The failed project was the result of a lack of communication between the groups. The project that the NAACP and other partners began earlier this summer involves a campaign to show how clean storm drains prevent flooding events, and educate on the sources of stormwater pollution. “I believe it is up to the citizens to understand what’s going on, and to take action. We need to get more people involved—to go and attend the city council meetings to attend meetings, and to speak up,” says Gloria. Gloria is now running for the Emerald Coast Utility Authority board to represent her neighborhood in Pensacola. While her campaign goals include opening direct communication between ECUA and the public, and building partnerships with the community to implement best practices, she’s also working on the front lines of the stormwater issue with the people in her community. She believes that when people see the stormwater as part of a larger system and want to keep them clean flowing, they can work to clean them and advocate for their maintenance. “I’ve seen it in other communities, when people seem to get it. It’s small, but it’s consistent and continual effort.” She sees this issue is part of something bigger, saying, “You have to look at the science of climate change, and the impact it’s having. It’s a marathon to fight this problem. It’s important, it’s awareness, it’s education, and a willingness to change a little bit from what we’ve always been doing.” LEGACY AND REBIRTH THE AFRICATOWN CONNECTIONS BLUEWAY This year, many in the nation have turned an observant eye toward Africatown, a small community on the north side of Mobile, Alabama—first for excitement over the discovery of a sunken cargo ship that was thought to be the historic slave ship the Clotilda, and second for the publication of Zora Neale Hurston’s national bestseller, Barracoon, which portrays a story of the people on that ship. But there are many other reasons to follow the happenings in Africatown. Many of the modern residents of Africatown are descendants of those brought to America on the Clotilda. American businessmen tried to smuggle in enslaved Africans even though the Constitution’s slave trade had already been abolished for decades in the United States. The end of the Civil War effectively freed those who had just arrived on the Clotilda, and many of these people settled on the delta shores just north of Mobile, Alabama, developing a self-sufficient and self-governing community that continues today. The roots of community realization run deep, in spite of the many trials residents face, including institutionalized marginalization and exploitation. In 2006, the community developed a neighborhood plan with the City of Mobile to outline their vision for the community. Ramsey Sprague, president of the Mobile Environmental Justice Action Coalition, highlights this document as the driver for future development in the Africatown community. “When we started looking at this neighborhood plan, it was clear that access to the water and further industrialization of the land surrounding the community,” says Ramsey. “Many people wanted access to the water. There were already several places where people fish and launch boats. People were already using the water, but they don’t have the infrastructure there to support much of this type of access.” The Mobile County Training School Alumni Association took this as a cue, and applied for technical assistance from the National Park Service. Together, they developed a waterfront plan that not only highlighted some of the interest points along historic Africatown, but also connect the community to the isolated Africatown USA State Park in Prichard. “We wanted more green space, and fewer industrial real estate development activities happening along the waterfront,” says Ramsey. “We wanted some type of process that would establish that the residents and surrounding neighborhoods utilize the water, and that they want more access, not less. The Blueway seemed to be a positive way forward to show that the community that the community was serious about turning back on the dead industrial real estate along the water, and that they wanted to see more activities that generated healthier outcomes.” Once the group received technical assistance, they started reaching out to potential project partners. With two years of work on the Blueway, project partners span all sides: from local nonprofits such as the Mobile Environmental Justice Action Coalition (MEJAC) and Clean Healthy Educated Safe & Sustainable (CHESS), to the Alliance Institute, based out of New Orleans. There are foundation partners such as the Alabama Endowment Foundation, and large organizations, such as the Nature Conservancy’s GulfCoast program and the Mobile branch NAACP. They have also brought in local government partners, such as the City of Prichard and County of Mobile. From a resilience building standpoint, this project stands on three pillars through the work, garnered by people across many spectrums, Ramsey remarks. “It’s an exhaustive list because we recognize we have so few resources. We don’t want to neglect acknowledging any of the resources that have come to assist. More than anything, the individuals in this process have contributed no money, but they did contribute ideas, relationships, and networking, and those types of things go a long way.” Alongside the vision for a less industrialized waterway, the community is focused on other healthy outcomes highlighted in some of the fourteen interest points along the Blueway. “We’re interested in learning as much as we can about the water that’s surrounding us, and the soil, and the air,” Ramsey shares. Part of the reasoning for the Blueway “is to highlight the area, so future research can further establish if there is peril over use of the waterway.” Ramsey notes that community members use the water. It will be time begin that conversation in earnest. It’s not an abstract thing. The community uses the waterfront and the water resources. They deserve to know, and they have a right to know, of dangers that lie in the water. These concerns are well founded in Africatown. Not only has the community faced massive industrialization, but industry have been notoriously bad actors there, to the point of litigation over chemical spills and cleanup. Through all the trials and hard work, Ramsey shares, “I look forward to exploring more with people doing similar types of work, so we can learn best practices and get ideas.” But it’s easy to see that from community mappings and ceremonies celebrating the waterway, to the multitudes of partners engaged, and two years of organizing, there’s a lot to learn from the Africatown that has surfaced onto the national radar this year. This work signals the future the Africatown community wishes to see, and they’re building a Blueway for others to follow.	5431148e-6783-4d19-8626-0c26497bde6d	CC-MAIN-2021-49	https://storage.googleapis.com/publiclab-production/public/system/images/photos/000/038/859/original/CSF15.pdf	2021-12-03T04:22:20+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964362589.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20211203030522-20211203060522-00387.warc.gz	603,036,051	5,122	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998383	eng_Latn	0.998446	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 5949, 20222, 20278, 25682 ]	[ 1.375, 2.296875 ]	1	0
OUTLINE OF EXPECTED EVIDENCE OF AUNTY JILL GALLAGHER MARCH HEARINGS 2024 (LAND INJUSTICE) 28 MARCH 2024 I BACKGROUND 1. My name is Jill Gallagher. 2. I am a Gunditjmara woman and I was born in 1955. I grew up all over Kurnai/Gunnai Country and Fitzroy. My mum was a single mum, and later in my life I became a single mum too. 3. I am the Chief Executive Officer of the Victorian Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation (VACCHO). VACCHO has made a submission on land injustice to the Commission, as well as a submission on the criminal justice and child protection systems, and a submission on Health and Healthcare, Housing and Homelessness, and Education. 4. Before starting at VACCHO, I worked at the Museum of Victoria and in the heritage branch of the Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs (Victoria). I am also the former Treaty Advancement Commissioner. II PRE-CONTACT 5. Our ancestors walked this land when there was a land bridge to Tasmania, they hunted Megafauna, and they witnessed volcanoes erupting. 6. Aboriginal People cared for this land for 65,000 plus years and we had our own ways of Knowing Being and Doing. We had our own Lore people (lawyers), we had our own social structures, and we had our own Elders/Knowledge Keepers (Leaders). 7. We also spoke our many languages fluently. We farmed the lands with aquaculture, harvesting seeds and fire farming. 8. We had our own Healers (doctors), our medicines, and we cared for our communities. When I worked with the Museum of Victoria and the Victorian Archaeological Survey, I discovered so much about the forbidden stories our ancestors were not allowed to pass on. 9. There was an Aboriginal burial found on the coast of Warrnambool on private land. We got a report from the policy that human skeletal remains were being trodden on by cows. 10. We attended the property, but the farmer would not let us on his land and we had no rights to enter. The neighbouring landowner let us down his property, and we could see from the fence that the cows were destroying the burial. The first farmer then decided to let us on his property to investigate the burial when we assured him we were not after his land. 11. It was decided that we could not leave the burial at this site, so we conducted a salvage excavation to protect the burial. The local Aboriginal leadership at the time (before the Traditional Owners Settlement Act) supported this action. We also got as much information as we could for the community. 12. This burial was an Aboriginal man, and he was buried well before white people came to our lands. This man would have been in his 70’s or 80’s when he died. He also had grave goods buried with him, such as a kangaroo bone awl to keep his cloak on (the cloak did not survive), and a medicine bag that was placed on his tail bone/coccyx. 13. As it turns out, this man lived to a ripe old age in a traditional Aboriginal society with a severe case of spina bifida, which meant that he could not walk, hunt or look after himself. But his mob cared for him which enabled him to live a long life. 14. Another story I remember from my time at the Museum of Victoria is that once I saw a skull of an Aboriginal person and there was a hole on the top of the skull. I immediately thought it was a bullet hole but a scientist told me it was not. It was where an operation was performed on this person, I assume by his own Healers, as he apparently had pressure build up on his brain and they had to relieve it. They lifted his scalp and then with a stone tool they grinded a hole in his head to relieve the pressure. He lived after that. 15. It’s important to know about these stories so we know what life was like before colonisation. III COLONISATION 1788-2024 16. Then there was the tide of history that swept British colonialism on to Port Phillip’s sandy beaches. It was brutal and it was very quick. Those who survived bore the brunt of colonial expansion and the cultural arrogance and racism that accompanied it. 17. There was a wave of massacres, our lands were stolen, our culture was suppressed, our languages were forbidden, our women raped and our families were torn apart. 18. Our traditional Clan Structures were also impacted on in a big way, and that is why it was extremely difficult when I had to design a structure for the First Peoples’ Assembly of Victoria. But I am very excited to see another group have just been added to the structure after all these years. 19. By the late 1860s, the Aboriginal population had been decimated and there were only about 2000 Aboriginal people alive in Victoria. 20. We were not allowed to own Land as our people were not seen as human beings. Instead we were being slaughtered. IV MISSIONS 21. Then there was the Mission era where our people were rounded up and put on Missions/Reserves and it was during these times that our people were forbidden to practise our cultures and speak our language. 22. If you wanted to leave the Mission you needed a permission to do so, by way of a Permit system. Our people were totally controlled by Government. Every inch of their life was controlled. 23. The Board of Protection ruled everything, including whether we lived and if we could own a home or not, and if we could see our children or not. 24. I would like to share with you letters from the publication “Letters from Aboriginal Women of Victoria, 1867 – 1926”. In reading these letters you can hear the despair in their words, you can hear the lack of Hope in their voices. Extracts of these letters are at Attachment 1. V ABORIGINAL ORGANISATIONS 1935 TO CURRENT Black Political Movement 25. Then in Victoria and Nationally we had a movement of political activism for the advancement of our people. With Aboriginal Leaders from all over the country fighting for our rights. 26. I set out below a chronology of some key events: - 1938: Day of Mourning held by the Aborigines League (established in 1932) and the Aborigines Progressive Association (established in 1937). It is the first major protest by Indigenous people. The manifesto “Aborigines Claim Citizen Rights” and the newspaper “Abo Call” are published. - 1962: All Indigenous people are given the vote in Commonwealth elections. - 1967: Referendum held – 90.7% of Australians vote YES to count Indigenous Australians in the census. - 1971: Neville Bonner becomes the first Indigenous member of Parliament when he filled a casual Senate vacancy. - 1972: Tent Embassy established outside Parliament House. It adopts the Indigenous flag. - 1985: Uluru handed back to Traditional Owners. - 1992: Mabo decision by the High Court overturns terra nullius and rules that native title exists over unalienated Crown land, national parks and reserves. - 1993: Native Title Act 1993 (Cth). 27. The Aboriginal Advancement League (AAL) was the very first Aboriginal organisation in Victoria. In 1957, the AAL was established by Sir Pastor Doug Nicholls, Doris Blackburn, Stan Davey and Gordon Bryant in response to the plight of the Aboriginal people in the Warburton Ranges. This was about the Great Central Reserve and the Warburton Ranges Mission, so when Sir Pastor Doug Nicholls reactivated his protests about the plight of the WA Aboriginal people and lobbied against it. 28. The AAL’s initial objectives were to achieve citizenship rights for Aborigines throughout the Commonwealth. We accomplished this in 1967, so I was nearly 12 years old before I was counted as a human being in my own country. My Mum was over 40 years old. ACCOs 29. Then there was a movement to up Aboriginal Community Controlled Organisations to serve our Communities. In 1973, the Victorian Aboriginal Health Service was established so that our people could get access to basic health services. 30. Then, due to the overwhelming need of our Peoples, other Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations popped up throughout Victoria. 31. The Victorian Aboriginal Community was hit the hardest during colonisation and the level of brutality that was thrown at our mobs was extreme. Some of our clan structures were destroyed and a great deal of our People were disconnected from Culture and Language. The Co-ops became our connection to each other – they helped mobs find their way back to Country. The Co-ops made us visible in the landscape. They were more than just health services though, they provided places for us to come together. Camp Jungai 32. Camp Jungai was (and still is) a very important place to all Aboriginal people in Victoria, as it was a place where we gathered, it was a place where our children learnt about being Aboriginal, it was a place where Elders taught our youth about Culture, and it was a place where very important business was conducted. Camp Jungai was started at Lake Tyers, hence the boat shed that was relocated from Tyers to the new site in the Rubicon Valley. 33. We believe if we as a People are strong in Culture, we will have thriving communities. Our Aboriginality is intrinsic to our identity, essential to our communities and part of our world. Our Peoples’ identities are an important source of strength, and this forms our ways of working and our integrity. 34. Camp Jungai provided a safe place for Aboriginal people to gather and to practice our culture. 35. After colonization, we didn’t have any safe places. We weren’t allowed into towns. We weren’t welcome in the cities. We wouldn’t be served in shops. It wasn’t safe to be an Aboriginal person anywhere – Camp Jungai gave us that safe place. 36. Photos of a recent gathering at Camp Jungai are at Attachment 2. VI LEGISLATION Heritage Protection and Legislation 37. Victoria has a rich and diverse Aboriginal cultural heritage, providing an ongoing link for contemporary Aboriginal people with our culture and our past. Cultural places and objects are of great interest and significance to Aboriginal people, and form an important part of the piecing the story together and the continuation of our stories. 38. The Archaeological and Aboriginal Relics Preservation Act 1972 (Vic) was among the first legislation in Australia to provide protection for Aboriginal cultural heritage. Except for human remains buried after 1834, this Act provides ‘blanket’ or automatic protection for all Aboriginal ‘relics’ (including sites, artefacts and human remains) relating to the Aboriginal occupation of Victoria, both before and after European settlement. 39. In 1987, at the request of the Victorian Government, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984 (Cth) was amended to provide specific protection for Aboriginal cultural heritage in Victoria. These amendments formed Part IIA of the Commonwealth Act. 40. The Co-ops also had heritage responsibilities as out in Part IIA of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984 (Cth) but when the Traditional Owner Settlement Act 2010 (Vic), came into play the Traditional Owners then took on this responsibility. The Traditional Owner Settlement Act 41. This Act is very important because it recognises our Mobs as Traditional Owners of the land we have cared for and lived on for over 60,000 years. Its gives us certain rights over Crown land – land that shouldn’t have been taken from us in the first place. 42. It can give us the right to have freehold title and to manage land jointly with the state. 43. It’s not perfect, there are many problems, but it recognises our rights to land and to have a say in what happens on them. We must support our Traditional Owner groups, resourcing them properly to play their fullest part in managing this land. If they are to be partners of the State, they must be resourced to be an equal partner. VII MY STORY 44. My Mother and my grandmother could not own land, and the only source of employment they could get was in the flax mill or seasonal picking. Their education attainment was primary school level, so the struggles they faced as Aboriginal Women was enormous. My mother couldn’t tell me about her culture, because her mother was not able to pass on her culture to her. - She could not pass on how to dance and why. - She could not pass onto me our knowledge of bush medicines. - She could not pass onto me how to birth on Country. - She could not pass onto me their knowledge of our family connections to other clans. - She could not pass on Basket Weaving. 45. As stated earlier, it was forbidden to pass on our knowledge and our Language. I remember my Mum telling me how Aunty Connie Hart use to sneak around to teach the other women on the mission to traditionally basket weave and if she got caught, she would lose her rations. 46. Growing up with my Mum and my brothers and sister, it was a hard life for all, and my mum had 6 of her 10 children taken off her and raised in out of home care. The rest of us grew up all over Victoria travelling to follow the seasonal picking. This was mainly in Kurnai/Gunnai Country (Gippsland). As a result I attended 19 primary schools. 47. I’ve written a poem which I would like to read out at the moment. DOCUMENTS & MATERIAL ACCOMPANYING OUTLINE Attachment 1: Extract from the Publication 'Letters from Aboriginal Women of Victoria, 1867 – 1926'. Attachment 2: Photos from Camp Jungai. Eliza Saunders Eliza’s son Chris enlisted in the AIF in 1915. She received his military allotment during the time he was on service. Eliza Saunders, Lake Condah, to Secretary, BPA, 29 August, 1917 Sir I write to ask you to grant me the favor of continued rations as I am buying a nice new to roomed cottage and three quarter acre of land[,] fenced secure with paling[,] new large tank and lovely stove for £50 cash as my only son and only single child has been serving his countrys good since May 1915. and I have received £1-8-0 weekly and have saved it for my long looked for wish a home of our own if he is spared and if not I have secured the service of a grown girl to live with me and it is having to feed a second person that I will be very greatful to you if you continue allowing me one adult ration and I also wish much to thank you deeply for your great goodness to me for years. I feel a sadness leaving the station but a woman does love her own little home and gentlemen in Heywood says I have a great bargain and I have the money ready. I wait for your reply[;] can I leave the station[;] I also have one ration[;] please reply very soon as the deeds are waiting to be transferred[;] my next door neighbour is selling me the house[;] it is lovely land for vegetables growing[;] I have fowls also, I want to go end of September[;] the girl is with me now ready to go with me now[.] I must not for get Mr & Mrs Galbraith kindness to me during the last too years and half[.] She has been a great comfort to me she have shared my trouble & I shall miss her very much both her & Mr Galbraith[;] they are always ready to help those on the mission & those who are off if they call on them sick So I must close hoping to hear from you soon your most humble servant Eliza Saunders age 64 The BPA Secretary advised the manager at Lake Condah that Mrs Saunders should remain on the station until her son returned and then he could make arrangements for her accommodation outside if he so desired. In January 1918 the Board informed Mr Galbraith that Eliza's rations were to cease at the end of the month in view of the fact that she was receiving military pay. Mr Galbraith advised the Board to send Eliza to a Benevolent Institution because she was crippled and there was no one to attend to her properly on the station. The Board made enquiries and informed Mr Galbraith in February that the asylum at Cheltenham was willing to take Eliza. Galbraith reported that Eliza 'declined the offer & wishes to go back to her native land'. Rose Kennedy Rose Kennedy, Ebenezer, to Captain Page, Secretary, BPA, 4 August, 1884 Dear Sir Please would you kindly inform me how stands the affair about at house that was left to me by my Aunt & Uncle that are both dead.[.] I was told that it is not mine & the house was given over to me by a written will, Mr Spieseke wrote out the will, witnessed & signed by Miss Amelia Gregory & myself before my Aunt die. The house was built by my Uncle when the first missionaries were here[.] when the house was built & finished the missionaries made them understand that the house was their own & when they die it was to be for their children after them (the same as white people) & they had no children & Rebecca being my own Aunt she gave the house & now it is taken from me & give to another. When I got married I went away with my husband to where he was working for four years & left the house in my father’s care, & he got mad & was sent to Ararat Ayslum & when he came back he was very unsettled, but we always got someone to live in it while we where away & when I came back my stepmother was living in it, then she died & it was empty for a while. Then Albert Coombs got married & was given then to him & when I asked to look out for another place as I wanted the place for my old father to stay in but he told me it does not belong to me it belongs to the government. Please to tell me the particulars & when your answer this please to sent it back to me & not to Mr Kramer & I will show it to Mr Kramer. I do not complain of Mr Kramer. Please do not disappoint me by sending it to Mr Kramer. I am yours obedient servant Rose Kennedy On receipt of Rose’s letter Captain Page asked Rev. Kramer, the missionary at Ebenezer, to give him some details on the matter: Rev. Kramer, Ebenezer, to Captain Page, Secretary, BPA, 12 August, 1884 Dear Captain Page Re Rose Kennedy’s hut I beg to say that I have had no end of trouble and annoyance owing to the fact that some of these huts are claimed by the blacks as their property which they can do with what they like…In 1875, I think, I wrote to the Board about this matter when I was instructed to tell the Blacks that the huts, standing on station ground were station property. I wish you would help me to get this point settled once and for all by informing Rose to the same effect. No doubt, when the houses were built they were intended for particular blacks, but the following facts should not be forgotten. [he went on to say that the mission buildings had been built with materials, labour, and rations supplied by the Board]….So that you see, Rose’s claim, if she has any at all, is reduced to a minimum. It appears that Rose continued to live in a tent. Jemima Dunnolly Jemima Dunolly, Coranderrk, to Secretary, BPA, January, 1912 Sir I have the honour to apply through you for a block of land contained on the last side of the Coranderrk Reserve along the Boggy Creek Road. I have been a resident of Coranderrk for the last 40 years and as reports of former managers will show my character will bear the closest scrutiny. My late husband (Mr R. Wandin Senr) was until the time of his death one of the main stays of the late manager Mr J. Shaw and I am of the opinion now that I would like a home of my own with the help of the Board for Protection of Aborigines for which I think I am now justly entitled to. I have daughters rising into womanhood now & these I would like to be a little more under my control for when on the station when they go out to service it is the last control of mothers lost, for as you know that they are rarely allowed back again even for a holiday. For the sake of my girls I would like a home of my own & if the government would see their way clear to giving me a home I would feel greatly indebted for the favour & 3 years rations and clothing. Thanking you in anticipation I am I would like 50 acres yours respectfully to make a living Mrs T Dunolly as well Mr Robarts advocated that the Board grant the Dunollys the use of 20 acres of land, rations for one year, and a cow. Tom Dunolly would build his own house. The Board rejected this idea, suggesting that the Dunollys ascertain whether there was any other land available in the district. Mr & Mrs Dunolly, Coranderrk, to Secretary, BPA, 4 March, 1912 Sir We have made inquiries & a look around for some land but cannot find any so we have to give up all hopes and have to be contented where we are. 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\| First name \| \| \|------------\|---\| \| Middle name \| \| \| Last name \| \| \| Date of birth \| Day \| Month \| Year \| \| School name \| \| \| DfE number \| \| H00060A0120 [BLANK PAGE] Please do not write on this page. Instructions You must not use a calculator to answer any questions in this test. Questions and answers You have 30 minutes to complete this test. Work as quickly and as carefully as you can. Put your answer in the box for each question. All answers should be given as a single value. For questions expressed as common fractions or mixed numbers, you should give your answers as common fractions or mixed numbers. If you cannot do a question, go on to the next one. You can come back to it later, if you have time. If you finish before the end, go back and check your work. Marks The number under each box at the side of the page tells you the number of marks available for each question. In this test, long division and long multiplication questions are worth 2 marks each. You will be awarded 2 marks for a correct answer. You may get 1 mark for showing a formal method. All other questions are worth 1 mark each. 1. \[ \square = 4,000 + 70 \] 2. \[ \square = 6,345 + 62 \] 3. $ 734 = 700 + \square + 4 $ 4 \[ \_\_ + 5 = 281 \] 5 $ 9 \times 61 = $ 6 $ 4.67 + 4.153 = $ \| \| \| \|---\|---\| \| 7 \| $270 \div 3 =$ \| \| 8 \| $130 \div 13 =$ \| \| 9 \| $578 \times 0 =$ \| 10 $ \frac{104}{8} = $ 11 $ \quad = 98 - 76 $ 12 $ 502 - \quad = 496 $ \| \| \| \|---\|---\| \| 13 \| $1,320 \div 11 =$ \| \| 14 \| $85.52 \times 10 =$ \| \| 15 \| $72 \div (40-31) =$ \| 16 $4^3 =$ 17 $201 \times 1,000 =$ 18 $20\%$ of $5,000 =$ \| \| \| \|---\|---\| \| 19 \| $8 - 3.35 =$ \| \| 20 \| $0.3 \div 100 =$ \| \| 21 \| $8 - 1.6 =$ \| 22 \[ 1\frac{2}{6} - \frac{4}{6} = \] Show your method 23 \[ 726 \times 37 \] 24 \[ \frac{1}{6} + \frac{3}{5} = \] 25 \[ 35945 \] Show your method 26 $ \frac{1}{2} + 2\frac{1}{5} = $ 27 35% of 520 = 28 $ \frac{2}{9} - \frac{1}{5} = $ 29 51% of 200 = 30 \| \| 3 \| 4 \| 6 \| 8 \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| x \| 4 \| 2 \| Show your method 31 $\frac{1}{3} \div 7 =$ 32 $2\frac{2}{3} - \frac{4}{6} =$ 33 36% of 450 = 34 $1\frac{3}{15} \times 10 =$ 35 \[ \frac{5}{7} \times 490 = \] 1 mark 36 Show your method 827872 2 marks [END OF TEST] Please do not write on this page. [BLANK PAGE] Please do not write on this page. For more copies © Re-use of Crown copyright in test materials Exceptions – third-party copyright content in test materials Y Third-party content	29de0754-1856-4f99-bb87-27004aa0ddd4	CC-MAIN-2023-06	https://www.ivervillage-jun.bucks.sch.uk/uploads/1/8/4/7/18477760/y6_s2_w2_arithmetic.pdf	2023-01-30T10:58:45+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764499816.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20230130101912-20230130131912-00062.warc.gz	845,661,833	903	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.958049	eng_Latn	0.960479	[ "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 161, 210, 1139, 1235, 1309, 1402, 1485, 1591, 1655, 1745, 1828, 1902, 1999, 2097, 2161, 2212, 2295, 2345, 2394, 2544 ]	[ 2.546875 ]	1	1
Daylight To increase occupant comfort and well-being with reduced energy demand This fact sheet will help you understand the importance of internal daylight and how to make the right design decisions to optimise daylight performance. It will provide tangible examples of the most common design parameters and demonstrate how these can increase or decrease the daylight amenity of a space. Why is designing for good internal daylight levels so important? Good access to natural light is essential to your wellbeing at home and at work. Daylight is vital for body functions, gives us a sense of time and place assisting with the regulation of the body’s natural rhythm. Known as circadian rhythm, it is an internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours, connecting us to our environment. Studies have also shown that light exposure has an impact on mood and reduces symptoms of depression in individuals. Additionally, exposure to light has been directly linked with health and can affect how we recover and heal. There is no question that daylight has a positive impact on humans. But indirectly, it also impacts on our environment. Rooms that have little access to daylight depend on artificial lighting throughout the day. Unfortunately, artificial lighting not only uses energy, but also radiates heat into the room. During summer months this additional heat then has to be compensated by an increase in air-conditioning usage, which requires even more energy. It is clear that daylight is not only a matter of internal amenity, energy efficiency, health and wellbeing, but also of long-term energy and cost savings. As the density and scale of buildings and localities increase, access to daylight and winter sun typically decreases. Developments therefore must be sited and designed to optimise solar and daylight access for dwellings and open spaces, considering climatic conditions, both within the development and for adjoining properties and urban spaces. What is daylight? Designing for daylight considers subjective qualities, such as privacy and views to the outside, as well as objective and measurable qualities, such as energy use for artificial light and the intensity of natural daylight. When considering visual comfort, take into account factors such as illumination levels, daylight distribution, and protection against direct sunlight and glare. When designing for good daylight it is important to consider the different definitions of daylight and how they are utilised for good design outcomes. Solar access is the ability of a building to receive direct sunlight without obstruction from other buildings or impediments, not including trees. Sunlight is direct beam radiation from the sun. Daylight consists of sunlight and diffuse (indirect) light from the sky. Daylight changes with the time of day, season and weather conditions. How do we measure internal daylight levels? Internal natural daylight is measured as a daylight factor. The daylight factor represents the proportion of the external daylight that reaches an internal space. It is simply how much of the outside light reaches a spot inside a room, measured as a percentage. For instance, at a position with a 1% daylight factor, where the external overcast sky provides 10,000 lux, that position receives $1\% \times 10,000 \text{ lux} = 100 \text{ lux}$ of daylight illumination. A common assumption is that north facing rooms have a greater daylight factor than those facing south. While the internal illuminance in a north facing room will likely be greater for much of the year, the daylight factor is actually the same. This is because the daylight factor is simply how much of the outside light reaches inside. North facing rooms will usually have more light outside them, compared to a south facing room. Daylight factor is commonly calculated with a “worst-case” scenario assumption of a uniform overcast gloomy sky. In Victoria, a design value of 10,000 lux is used for the outside (external) illuminance. A daylight factor of 0.5% translates to an illuminance of 50 lux. Typical best practice lighting levels for an office workspace is 320 lux and can be made up of both natural and artificial lighting. Daylight autonomy is another measure used to determine the daylight amenity to a space, different to the daylight factor, daylight autonomy describes the percentage of floor area that receives a certain daylight illuminance across the nominated area. There are a number of free alternative methods for calculating the daylight amenity that is being achieved. The VELUX Daylight Visualizer is a professional lighting simulation tool for the analysis of daylight conditions in buildings and is available for free download. Alternatively, the Green Building Council of Australia Daylight and Views Hand Calculation guide methodology can be used to identify areas within a development with high levels of daylight access, or problematic areas with low daylight amenity. The guide is also free to access for all users. To find out more, refer to the Where Can I Find Out More Section at the end of this fact sheet. Other design issues When designing for daylight care should be taken to avoid too much glare, particularly for offices and other workplaces. Careful sizing and placement of windows can assist to manage glare, as can external shading devices such as louvers and fins that can control glare without reducing daylight levels. Protection of privacy is another important design consideration that can lead to poor internal daylight. If privacy screening is deemed necessary to protect privacy, consider the use of opaque glazing or carefully spaced external fixed louvers that do not block access to daylight. How early design decisions influence access to daylight? The daylight factor is influenced by many early design decisions. The following sections will help you visualise how the daylight factor increases or decreases through: - A window’s size and location - Orientation - Building separation - Glazing selection - The design of balconies - Battle axe rooms - Light wells. Daylight factor is not only impacted by a window’s size, but also by its location. The daylight factor increases dramatically with an increase in the window size from 30% of a wall’s size to 50% and 70% of the wall area. It is interesting to note, however, that no great improvement is achieved with a fully glazed facade. This is because light that enters on the lower levels of a room, does not reach far into a room’s depth. It is therefore recommended to locate windows as high as possible and to avoid fully glazed facades due to unnecessary heat gains during summer and heat losses during winter. Ideally an optimal window size balances access to daylight with these heat gains and losses. A good ‘rule of thumb’ is to design window area (m²) to be approximately 20% of the room’s floor area. Windows are complex and interesting elements in the fabric of a home or office. They let in daylight and fresh air and offer views that connect interior living spaces with the outdoors. However, windows can be a major source of unwanted heat gain in summer and significant heat loss in winter, particularly in Victoria’s often changing weather patterns. While a near fully glazed facade provides optimal daylight levels, it also attracts those unwanted heat gains during summer. Therefore, tinted glazing should not be the answer to this problem. Instead, a flexible external shading system should be applied. This way, heat gains can be managed differently throughout the year and the daylight factor is not compromised when needed. For office buildings, external operable or fixed shading can control both the glare and heat during summer. The three main principles of energy smart window design are listed below: - Maximise winter heat gain by orienting windows to the north and sizing windows to suit the necessary heat gain during winter while also considering the unwanted heat gain during summer - Minimise winter heat loss through appropriate window sizing, together with double glazing, high performing thermally broken frames and/or close-fitting internal coverings such as drapes with pelmets - Minimise summer heat gain by protecting windows with external shading devices, specifying glazing with appropriate solar heat gain coefficient and the sizing and positioning of windows. Refer to Fact Sheet 2.1 Sun Shading for further information. Design of balconies The design of balconies and other obstructions impact on daylight access. Windows without any obstructions, including balconies, winter gardens, fixed shading elements or design features achieve the best daylight factor. While good daylight is not the only design intention, it needs to be taken into consideration carefully. Any obstruction, such as enclosed balconies or adjacent buildings, can significantly decrease daylight entering a room or an entire dwelling. Daylight with and without balcony Window location comparison (low level vs high level) Best practice design for optimizing daylight Orientation Follow these design guidelines to achieve a good design outcome when considering daylight: - Orientate buildings to maximise north facing windows. - Provide adequate building separation within the development and from adjacent buildings, using dual aspect apartments when the long elevation of the building faces east and west. - Use dual aspect apartments when the long elevation of the building faces east and west. - Avoid single aspect apartments with a southern aspect. - Consider the glazing performance to ensure good daylight amenity is achieved in the space and ensuring good daylight amenity is achieved in the space while considering the thermal performance. Building Separation Provide adequate building separation within the development and from adjacent buildings, as per councils’ best practice requirements (BESS requirements). The Building Separation Chart shows you the separation required under different circumstances. Building Separation Chart \| Building Height \| Building Separation to Lane (from lane centre line) \| Minimum Building Separation (Measured from property boundary) \| Building Separation for Buildings Within Sites \| \|--------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Up to 4 storeys/12 m \| \| Main outlook: 6 m \| Main outlook to Main outlook: 12 m \| \| \| \| Bedroom outlook: 3 m \| Main outlook to bedroom outlook: 9 m \| \| \| \| \| Bedroom outlook to bedroom outlook: 6 m \| \| \| \| \| Main outlook to no outlook: 6 m \| \| \| \| \| Bedroom outlook to no outlook: 3 m \| \| 5-8 storeys/up to 25 m \| Main outlook: 6 m \| Main outlook to bedroom outlook: 9 m \| Main outlook to Main outlook: 18 m \| \| \| Bedroom outlook: 3 m \| Bedroom outlook: 4.5 m \| Main outlook to bedroom outlook: 13.5 m \| \| \| \| \| Bedroom outlook to bedroom outlook: 9 m \| \| \| \| \| Main outlook to no outlook: 9 m \| \| \| \| \| Bedroom outlook to no outlook: 4.5 m \| \| 9+ storeys/ over 25 m \| Main outlook: 9 m \| Main outlook: 12 m \| Main outlook to Main outlook: 24 m \| \| \| Bedroom outlook: 6 m \| Bedroom outlook: 6 m \| Main outlook to bedroom outlook: 18 m \| \| \| \| \| Bedroom outlook to bedroom outlook: 12 m \| \| \| \| \| Main outlook to no outlook: 12 m \| \| \| \| \| Bedroom outlook to no outlook: 6 m \| Main outlook includes living rooms and main balconies “It’s not easy getting the balance between daylight, ventilation, heat gains and losses right when designing facades and windows. It’s however absolutely worth it finding the sweet spot between all considerations when aiming for high levels of occupancy comfort and energy efficiency.” Building design details can help maximise the amount of daylight that enters a room. Glazing Selection* Many designers specify tinted glazing because of the need to reduce heat gains during summer in order to meet National Construction Code energy efficiency requirements. Unfortunately, tinted glazing reduces the amount of daylight that enters the room. Tinted glass can reduce heat in summer with a low solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) but will also commonly have a low visible light transmission (VLT) as well. Visible light transmission is the percentage of light travelling through the glass. As a rule of thumb, the lower the SHGC, the lower the VLT. Daylight levels significantly decrease with the use of glazing with a VLT of 40% (e.g. grey tinted glazing) over the use of clear glazing with a VLT of 80%. Therefore, the implementation of external and flexible shading elements as an alternative, can result in the specification of glazing with a higher SHGC and VLT while still managing the heat gain through the façade. Refer to fact sheet 2.2 Building Envelope Performance for further information. Battle axe rooms Battle axe rooms have greater access to daylight and natural ventilation than internal bedrooms. Nevertheless, the daylight factor can remain low. Especially in the areas without direct visual connection to the window, artificial lighting is often required throughout the day. Battle axe rooms should be avoided and only represent an exception in any development. If battle axe bedrooms are to be specified for a development, the maximum length of the battle axe bedroom handle should not exceed 1.5 times the width of the handle to achieve the minimum daylight standard to the bedroom as shown in the Battle axe room diagram. Light wells While reliance on light wells can increase a property’s usable floor space and financial yield, it can also decrease the internal amenity of rooms they serve. Common issues are ineffective natural ventilation, reduced privacy and significantly reduced daylight factors, especially when the light well is deep, reaching up to the sky through multiple levels of a building. The daylight factor is greatly impacted by the height and the width of a light well. For instance, lower level apartments have much lower levels of daylight than upper floor apartments. Building material reflectance values in light wells Another consideration to enhance the performance of light wells to enhance daylight amenity is the reflectance values of the walls and surfaces within the light well to ensure adequate daylight penetration to the lower levels. To enhance the daylight amenity into the rooms that rely on daylight penetration from the light wells the surfaces within the light well should have a reflectance value of greater than 0.6. An easy way to ensure this is being met is to paint the surfaces of the light wells white. The previous examples clearly show how sometimes even small and early design decision influence the quality of internal living spaces. Council therefore encourages applicants, designers and engineers to carefully think about daylight outcomes and meet our best practice standards. Mandatory Requirements and Council’s Best Practice Standards Council’s Best Practice Standards You should aim to achieve a minimum daylight factor of 1% for 90% of the floor area in each living area including kitchens, and a minimum daylight factor of 0.5% for 90% of the floor area for each bedroom. A daylight modelling report for large scale developments may be required. Please refer to Daylight modelling for planning permit applications for further information. For non-residential developments, you should aim to achieve a daylight factor of at least 2.0% for at least 30% of the floor area of regularly occupied primary spaces. Modelling requirements - Model adjacent buildings per their likely developed form based on current zoning (mirrored) - Show full extent of internal room modelled Use the following standard reflectance values: - Ground plane: 0.1 - External walls and obstructions: 0.4 - Floor: 0.3 - Wall: 0.7 - Ceiling: 0.8 Others can be used but must be outlined and in accordance the proposed design. Minimum light transmission values for proposed glazing must be outlined and in line with the proposed design. The grid contains evenly distributed grid points with a maximum distance of 0.5m. Sky model Assume a uniform design sky of 10,000 lux. External obstructions in the form of surrounding buildings, balconies, screening and large trees must be included. Where can I find out more? Green Building Council of Australia, Daylight and Views Hand Calculation Guide https://bit.ly/3ac0WfH Technical Manual Passive Design, Your Home www.yourhome.gov.au Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory windows and daylight windows lbl.gov/research Moreland Apartment Design Code https://bit.ly/3tr0fUJ BESS Tool Notes Daylight bess.net.au/tool-notes/ Better Apartment Design Standards www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/better-apartments/better-apartments-design-standards Sustainability VIC, Energy Smart Housing Manual https://bit.ly/3uYbxD3 Velux Daylight Visualiser: velux.com/article/2016/daylight-visualizer Green Building Council of Australia, Design and As-Built Submission Guidelines new.gbca.org.au/ Other existing CASBE Sustainable Design Fact Sheets https://www.casbe.org.au/what-we-do/sustainability-in-planning Environment Design Guide papers Lyons, P. 2004. Properties and rating systems for glazings, windows and skylights (including atria). Environment design guide, PRO 32. Australian Institute of Architects, Melbourne. acumen.architecture.com.au/environment Other Fact Sheets in this series are available to provide guidance on Indoor Environment Quality. Those Fact Sheets are entitled: - 1.0 Indoor Environment Quality - 1.2 Natural Ventilation - 2.2 Building Envelope Performance - 2.0 Energy Efficiency - 2.1 Sun Shading COPYRIGHT © 2022 Municipal Association of Victoria (MAV). MAV owns the valuable copyright in the Fact Sheet under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Except for any uses authorised by MAV no part of this Fact Sheet may be reproduced, used or distributed by whatever means without the express permission first obtained from MAV. DISCLAIMER: This Fact Sheet has been created for general information purposes only. While the Fact Sheet has been created with all due care, no warranty is given as to its suitability for any particular purpose and users should obtain their own advice relevant to their situation and specific needs. MAV or any party authorised by MAV to reproduce the Fact Sheet is not responsible for the accuracy, currency or reliability of the Fact Sheet and accepts no liability for any damage, losses whether direct or indirect, claims or expenses howsoever arising from any party who may rely on its contents. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The MAV acknowledges the five IMAP (Inner Melbourne Action Plan) councils – the Cities of Yarra, Port Phillip, Melbourne, Stonnington and Maribyrnong – for their leadership in producing this suite of Fact Sheets to enable a more liveable and sustainable built environment.	7b60f0db-3083-44d6-92d6-2d2615026067	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://www.bendigo.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-08/City-Greater-Bendigo-SDAPP-Daylight.pdf	2024-04-23T04:41:15+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296818464.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20240423033153-20240423063153-00383.warc.gz	594,719,487	3,873	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.994615	eng_Latn	0.997329	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2906, 5780, 9096, 14378, 17574, 21635 ]	[ 2.640625, 1.1953125 ]	4	0
Dear Parents and Carers, Christmas has definitely made its way into Rudgwick this week. The children have been practising for the Nativity and the Carol Service and I think you are all in for a real treat when you come to see your children perform. We also chose and put up our Christmas tree which we won (thank you Mrs Platt) in a local competition. Our Head Girl and Head Boy took on the job of decorating it and now it is definitely beginning to look a lot like Christmas. Well done Elodie and Eli for your efforts. Remember to keep an eye out for all the Christmas events and occasions that are coming up over the next couple of weeks, starting with Nativity, panto and mufti day next week. Continuing the Christmas theme, our children in Year 2 contributed to a stunning Advent display along with some other local schools. Our work can be seen on the bottom left of the picture on the right and is on display at Holy Trinity Church. We also enjoyed a very entertaining drumming concert this week as the children in Years 1, 2 and 3 showcased all they have been learning in music. It was great to see so many beaming faces on the children as they enjoyed performing and on the adults as you watched on with pride. The rounds in three parts were particularly impressive, as was the children’s concentration and dedication to improving their musical skills. It was a very enjoyable morning. The high quality music lessons led by Mrs Eames are such a benefit to the children and we appreciate all of you, through PTA fundraising, helping us to be able to provide this. Information about our spring term clubs offer will be coming to you soon. Do keep an eye out as there are some new clubs becoming available, including board games, KS2 ‘Tell me a Story’ drama and Little Creations. Lots of extra opportunities for our children! Our Breakfast club continue to be very popular in the mornings and it has been lovely to see the children enjoying their breakfast together before, themselves, taking time to play some games with each other. A very social, calm way to begin their day. Finally this week, it is with great sadness that I tell you that Mrs Thwaites will be leaving us at the end of this term. Mrs Thwaites has been a TA supporting classes and individuals, as well as a midday meals supervisor since 2019 and has been such a valued member of the team. She leaves us to work for the Local Authority within SEN, an area in which she is so very skilled. We will miss her but I am sure you would join with me in wishing her well for her new start in the new year. Happy Birthday Congratulations to Evie D and Isla S, who have their birthdays this week. Isla celebrated this week with a beautiful cake! Please do send a photo into the school office as we love to see how you celebrated at home. This term’s core value is INSPIRE and the wider values for the half term are Responsibility and Ambition. House points - Falcons - 347 - Kestrels - 341 - Eagles - 298 Book Awards - Leo Y2 - Archie Y3 Star Awards \| Africa (Year R) \| Liam \| For being a good role model during our singing rehearsals. \| \| \| Harvey \| For always being ready and engaged with his learning. \| \| Asia (Year 1) \| Reuben and Rebecca \| For their fantastic independent writing this week! \| \| Region \| Name \| Reason \| \|-----------------\|--------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Europe (Year 2) \| Ben \| For showing dedication to get better as a learner and writing the most wonderful prediction about our new core text this week. \| \| \| Daisy \| For showing more concentration and participation whilst doing her learning, keep it up! \| \| Australasia (Year 3) \| Etta S \| For amazing work in our drumming performance. \| \| \| Joshua T \| For blowing Miss Lee’s socks off with his pronoun work in poetry this week! \| \| Antarctica (Year 4) \| Sidney J \| For showing lots of enthusiasm and enjoyment in Woodland Learning \| \| \| Max F \| For becoming very mature and taking responsibility for his own learning \| \| North America (Year 5) \| Bea \| For working hard this week to produce a thorough plan for a narrative. \| \| \| Evie D \| For showing outstanding effort throughout this term in hockey. \| \| South America (Year 6) \| Alice \| For being a really engaged learner and always trying her best this week. \| \| \| Freddie \| For being really focussed in lessons and working really hard to achieve his best. \| We have been learning \| Region \| Description \| \|-----------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Africa (Year R) \| This week in Africa class there is a sprinkle of Christmas everywhere! We have a new Christmas role play area, complete with a sleigh and tree. We have been practising really hard for our Christmas show and we are excited that we get to show it to our grown-ups soon. We have been leading about the first Christmas and the birth of baby Jesus. We have been recreating this story using puppets. In Maths this week, we have been discovering one more and one less of a given number focusing on the numbers 4 and 5. During French this week we have been learning some more songs and can sing a song about a butterfly so beautifully! Well done Africa class on another fantastic week. \| \| Asia (Year 1) \| Such a lovely week in Asia class! We’ve got into the Christmas spirit and decorated our classroom with tinsel and paper chains and we have also put our Christmas tree up! We are also enjoying counting down the days to the big event using our advent calendar. In RE we have learnt all about the story of Christmas. In English we wrote our Christmas lists, in maths we continued our subtraction focus and looked at finding the difference between numbers and representing this information as a subtraction number sentence. We have spent time singing and practising our Christmas play and really enjoyed trying our costumes! We are really looking forward to performing for an audience next week in our amazing Angel costumes! \| \| Region \| Grade \| \|-----------------\|--------\| \| Europe \| Year 2 \| \| Australasia \| Year 3 \| \| Antarctica \| Year 4 \| \| North America \| Year 5 \| \| South America \| Year 6 \| Europe (Year 2) It’s Christmas!!!! Oh wait, not quite yet! But we have had a full on week of rehearsals ready for our performances and it is going well! In English, we have started a new book – The Rainbow Bear by Michael Morpurgo. We read part of it and then wrote predictions on what might happen next. We talked about the meaning of ‘inference’ too. In maths, we have learnt about money and counting coins to find totals. In science, we explored how polar animals are suited to their habitats and what adaptations they have to help them survive. Our music concert was just fabulous and I hope you all enjoyed seeing the efforts the children have put in over the last 10 weeks. Australasia (Year 3) Wow what a busy week! We have looked at personification in English, using some wintery and Christmassy poems. The children used the poem about the Christmas tree by Julia Donaldson, and then wrote their own verses in the same style. We have looked at Christian signs and symbols as part of our work in RE, and have even started to make hanging Christmas decorations to practise our running stitch for DT. Both our Christmas trees are up in class and we are well and truly in the Christmas spirit! Only 3 more weeks to go!! Antarctica (Year 4) This week we have been busy planning and writing the first drafts of our magic narratives. We have really dissected the plans so the finished stories should be amazing! In Maths, we have been doing a written method of multiplication and multiplying by one and zero. In R.E, we have learnt all about The Koran and the significance it has to the followers of Islam. We learnt what plagiarism and citations mean in Computing. We finished our collages and they look magnificent! In Woodland Learning, we had the opportunity to make fairy chairs. North America (Year 5) We have made it to December and some incredible decorations have gone up in North America class thanks to Mrs Kurashina. In English, we have started to plan our narratives that will be set on a different planet which have produced some fascinating ideas. We have continued to consider square and cube numbers, whilst also using our knowledge of factors to help solve calculations in maths. In science, the children explored life cycles of amphibians and insects and in history, our space race timeline has been added to, including events up to the first ever space walk. South America (Year 6) Another great week in Year 6! We have been learning all about fractions and being able to recognise equivalent fractions and use this knowledge to simplify fractions. In English we have been able to choose our own style of writing to create a piece in response to the text Rose Blanche. The children have been really creative and are demonstrating a lot of key skills independently. In music we have been listening and appraising some soul music and in science we have been learning about circuits and how to construct them. We have continued to develop our hockey skills in PE and started to think about our D&T project that we will be completing over the next couple of weeks. Upcoming Events 5th Dec – Closing date for ordering Year 6 leavers hoodie 6th Dec – Flu Vaccination Day in School 6th Dec – KS1 Nativity – A Midwife Crisis – Matinee Performance 2:00pm 7th Dec – KS1 Nativity – A Midwife Crisis – Evening Performance 5:30pm 8th Dec – Christmas Pantomime – Chaplins Gold presents Aladdin 9th Dec – Piano and Woodwind Concert 9th Dec – Mufti Day – Bring any unwanted gifts or items for the Secrets Room 10th Dec – The Lions, Christmas Carolling in Rudgwick from 5pm 14th Dec – KS2 – Carol Concert 14th Dec – Christmas Dinner 14th Dec – Christmas Jumper Day 16th Dec – Last day of term FREE Chelsea FC Foundation Taster Session Year 1 – Year 6 Students (boys and girls welcome) Wednesday 7th December At Horsham Football Club, Worthing Road, RH13 0AX - 17:15-18:30 for Year 1-4 boys and Year 3-6 girls - 18:45-20:00 for Year 5-7 boys and Year 7-9 girls 4G surface Players to wear any kit of their choice and to bring plenty of fluids and shin pads. Boys/Girls session – CLICK HERE TO BOOK Girls only session – CLICK HERE TO BOOK After the taster session, successful players will be invited to join the programme on a regular basis and become a part of our player development program. If you have any questions please contact firstname.lastname@example.org Handbell Christmas concert Mrs Kurashina and Mrs Wilford will be playing in a handbell concert, the conductor is very famous in the handbell world and played the bells in the film “The Madness of King George”. They will be playing a Christmas music selection. Children are very welcome and can also try to ring the bells if they want at the end of the concert. Please see the attached leaflet. Volunteers needed! Local family support charity Home-Start CHAMS are looking to recruit new home visiting volunteers to join their prep course starting on 4th January – spaces are limited. Would you like to gain a wealth of skills and experience within family support? Do you have parenting experience and some spare time? Would you like to help a local family with young children? For the full information, role description and application for please visit: https://homestartchams.org.uk/volunteers-needed-2 PTA News Dear Parents & Carers, Supporting the PTA and our events Thank you so much to those who came to our PTA intro evening on Wednesday, it was wonderful to see some new faces and the enthusiasm you’ve brought to the committee already is so much appreciated! We still have a few roles we need to fill in order to run the events for 2023 and onwards. If you would consider volunteering for the Secretary or Policy & Licensing roles, please let me know. Both only require an hour a week commitment. Additionally, if you could help planning our events – we urgently need your help! There are still positions in the Summer Festival, Christmas Events, Disco, Spring Scramble, Seasonal Events, Pizza & Donuts and Cake Raffle/Ice Pop Sales planning groups. Please email me for more info: email@example.com Mufti Day - Friday 9th December We will have a mufti day on Friday 9th December, in exchange for bringing in unwanted gifts for adults, your children can wear home clothes that day. Please do raid your cupboards and drawers. We’re happy with anything except no used items please 😊 …so socks, soaps, scarves, toiletries, puzzles, you name it…one year we had a glass duck! Secrets Room - Tuesday 13th December The “shop” will be held In the Community Room at School and the kids can pay £2 for any of the items, which a volunteer will help them wrap and name. The idea is you get a secret gift at Christmas - this is often the only opportunity the kids get to buy something for you themselves. School Lottery Congratulations to our latest lottery winner. 26/11/2022 Mrs. Williams £16.50 Play next week and you could be a lucky winner: [https://www.yourschoollottery.co.uk/lottery/school/rudgwick-primary-school](https://www.yourschoollottery.co.uk/lottery/school/rudgwick-primary-school) CO-OP Local Cause I’m pleased to confirm that Rudgwick Primary School PTA has been selected again by the Co-op local community fund as a cause. They will donate to us every time that you buy a Co-op branded product instore, when you are a member who has selected us as your cause. There are lots of additional benefits from joining the Co-op’s membership scheme, including weekly personalised offers and cashback on purchases for you too! Please click the link below to add the PTA as your supported cause and help us beat last year’s incredible £2,000 fundraising goal. Select your cause here: [https://membership.coop.co.uk/causes/73050](https://membership.coop.co.uk/causes/73050) Thank you for your continued support. Vix & Anna firstname.lastname@example.org Cake Raffle Thank you to everyone that purchased a raffle ticket this week. A huge thank you to Lucy Journeaux for donating the cake. The raffle winner this week was Zack W. Congratulations! We are a NUT AWARE school due to the allergies that some of our pupils have, with every effort being made to ensure that no nuts, or products containing nuts, are brought in to the school. Diary Dates Please use the new school website for all diary dates. There is a link to the school calendar with to all pupil events. https://www.rudgwick.w-sussex.sch.uk/ Have a lovely weekend. Mr Terry Ryan, Headteacher More photos of events are available on our website https://www.rudgwick.w-sussex.sch.uk/ Please note that attachments to the Newsletter about local clubs and events are not endorsed by the school. 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A MESSAGE FROM THE SCHOOL MANAGER The Nairobi Waldorf School Trust offers a developmentally appropriate, experiential, and academically rigorous approach to education. We integrate the arts in all academic disciplines for children in all levels to enhance and enrich learning. Our way of education aims to inspire life-long learning in all students and to enable them to fully develop their unique capacities. The principles of our way of education evolve from an understanding of human development that address the needs of the growing child. Music, writing, literature, legends and myths are not simply subjects to be read about and tested. They are experienced. Through these experiences, Nairobi Waldorf School Trust students cultivate their intellectual, emotional, physical and spiritual capacities to be individuals certain of their paths and to be of service to the world. Teachers in the Nairobi Waldorf School Trust are dedicated to generating an inner enthusiasm for learning within every child which allows motivation to arise from within. It helps engender the capacity for joyful life-long learning. Education at the Nairobi Waldorf School Trust is truly Inspired Learning. James Kioko School Manager "WALDORF EDUCATION IS NOT A PEDAGOGICAL SYSTEM BUT AN ART - THE ART OF AWAKENING WHAT IS ACTUALLY THERE WITHIN THE HUMAN BEING." -RUDOLF STEINER Class 5 Watercolor WALDORF 100 EVENT We celebrated 100 years of Waldorf education worldwide in September. The event was marked with a large crowd, great food, and lots of activities. Families, friends, and community members joined the celebration through art, movement, and music - a drumming circle of children and parents was surely the peak of the day! The campus welcomed over 20 local artisans and vendors that were specifically selected for their Waldorf-friendly items. We were happy to share Waldorf with so many new faces! Our children’s Waldorf 100 projects were proudly displayed alongside curriculum work. Teachers hosted watercolor, black and white drawing, and African movement workshops as well as kindergarten activities. We debuted new merchandise on sale and many of our children have been seen wearing t-shirts and bags with our refreshed logo and Waldorf 100 emblem. A huge thank you to our parents, children, community, teachers, and staff for their continued support and commitment to ensuring that Waldorf education thrives for another 100 years! WALDORF 100 BERLIN CELEBRATIONS I was happy to represent NWST at the Berlin Waldorf 100 celebrations on September 19, 2019. Many of my colleagues and our parents tuned in to the livestream that was available during the event. The main event was at the Tempodrom and registered an attendance of around 3,000 people from around the world. The day was punctuated with presentations from different schools, most notable a Japanese Waldorf school that had crossed the seas for the celebration. As a global movement, it was interesting to see how different schools had given themselves identity and how their location had influenced this. The presentations reflected the phases of childhood from willing, feeling, and thinking which was especially well expressed by the high school students. Innovations were aplenty, too; the crown of it being a gentle giant and a student’s rap to the Waldorf movement. Different speakers captured different impulses and challenges of the past century of Waldorf education. East Africa was represented on stage by Victor Mwai, a former NWST teacher and staff member, who is also a member of the International forum. In addition to attending the celebration, I was also able to spend a week observing classrooms at the Ravensburg Waldorf Schule in Germany. This was very informative - I was given firsthand comparison on how the rhythm of the high school changes slightly from the primary rhythm. The similarities of the primary were stark and so were the differences. I brought back with me many memories and experiences and have shared with the staff and children as possible. - Patrick Karanja Want to see more from Berlin? Check out the gallery of images from the event: www.waldorf-100.org/druckvorlagen/galerie/galerie-waldorf-100-jubilaeumsfestival-tiles.php HARVEST STORIES EVENT We invite you to join us for the second annual Harvest Stories event on Friday, November 1st, 2019 from 5:30 to 7:30 pm. This event will feature African stories, songs, and poems, trick-or-treating for children, fun harvest games, and a traditional story told around the bonfire. Snacks and tea will be served. Costumes are encouraged, but we remind you that this event is for all ages. Please no scary or gory costumes that may frighten very young children. Handmade is great! Family admission fee: Ksh 1,000 in advance Ksh 1,200 at the gate MPESA: 488700 Account: WST HARVESTNAME (eg: WST[space]HARVESTJENNY) This event is open to the community - please share with friends and family members! Bring a bag for treats (or buy an NWST one at the event), a torch, and a blanket for the evening. EDUCATION THROUGH THE 12 SENSES - ARTICLE 1 The Early Years - Nurturing the Bodily Senses In Waldorf education we speak of 12 senses. Much of what characterizes the education has been developed in an endeavor to educate and nurture the full spectrum of senses. What are the 12 Senses? The 4 Lower Senses: Touch, Life, Movement, Balance. These bodily senses allow “Physical Sensation” and give us a certain consciousness of our body. They provide the experience of being at home in our bodies, being grounded in one specific place and time – ‘here and now’. The focus of development is 0-7 years of age. The 4 Middle Senses: Smell, Taste, Vision (specifically colour), Warmth. These senses allow “Feeling” or aesthetic perception and give us an experience of the world around us. The focus of development is during 7-14 years of age. The 4 Higher Senses: Hearing, Language, Thought, Ego (capacity to sense another’s ego.) These cognitive senses allow “Concept” and give us access to communication with others regarding our thoughts and feelings. Also called the social senses. The focus of development is during 14-21 years of age. Bodily Senses in the Early Years Because the human mind is both embodied and relational, the pathway to reaching our cognitive potential leads through phases of education, where first physical and then social development objectives are the focus of teaching and learning. Initially, in the kindergarten and first few years of formal schooling, pedagogy focuses on physical health and wellbeing, and the building of practical skills. These capacities become the foundation for a child’s social and emotional growth: as the learner moves up through the classes, their education focuses on nurturing social sensibility and emotional intelligence. Not until the high school years is the emphasis on working with pure concepts. In the first few years of school, successful engagement in learning requires the ability to perceive, to take in, to be receptive and open. These qualities depend on the child being able to direct, focus and maintain their attention. In Waldorf education, we understand that this has to do with the development and mastery of the first four senses: Touch, Life, Movement, and Balance. Mastery includes: the expression and functioning of the senses as well as their integration, IE how the 4 are able to work together. In Praise of Housework as a Support for Learning Daily household tasks provide naturally occurring conditions for the development and integration of the 4 lower senses. All kind of physical and neurological competencies can be honed through simple household activities. This is good news for busy parents, because a home can double as a “Brain Gym”, with the coach overseeing daily doses of: - Bed making - Bread making - Sweeping and mopping - Writing a shopping list - Glass cleaning - Setting the table - Weeding the shamba It is important that all who are old enough, work together to take care of their living spaces, not simply because this encourages a sense of collaboration, but also, because it allows the child to become physically competent and experience self-reliance. The Secret to the Magic of Learning The hidden potential in household chores is linked to three factors: 1. The procedure for each task remains the same 2. Happens daily 3. Occurs at the same time of day In Waldorf, these factors are known as the three Rs: Routine, Repetition, and Rhythm. They are recognized as the secret ingredients to the magic of holistic education in the primary years. The younger the child, the more potent this magic is likely to be. These three elements work in a particularly powerful way, to build and strengthen the hidden faculties that underpin a student’s capacity for engagement in the process of learning. Some examples of these competencies are: body geography, building imagination, motor coordination, hand-eye coordination, and spacial orientation. Spreading the Magic Traditionally, mainstream education has looked to a different trio of Rs to inform principles of education: Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. For most adults this will have been the reality of our school days: when the culture and currency of the classroom was set by dedication to numeracy and literacy achievement. In these more progressive times, however, emphasis on the purely academic is increasingly recognized as limiting, ineffective even. Today, many governments (Kenya’s included) are choosing to invest in curriculums built upon a whole new paradigm, one where achievement is linked to learner agency, and where the phenomena of ‘learner agency’ is addressed through the intentional nurture of key competencies. This concept is known as ‘the competency approach to education’. It is trending worldwide, and very much a hot topic in this nation’s current discourse on education. From the founding of the first Waldorf school, a full century ago, ‘the competency approach’ modeled by the 12 Senses has been intrinsic to Waldorf pedagogy. Through this and future articles, we have an opportunity to deepen our understanding of the ‘competency approach to education’ and together become inspired to find effective ways to support our learners into their potential. - Tana Lyons KINDERGARTEN FLOWER FESTIVALS The annual Kindergarten Flower Festivals were held at both Karen and Lavington campuses just before half term. With the start of the short rains paving the way for new blooms and rich greens, the children celebrated the rhythm of nature and the beauty of the flowers around them. Jacaranda blooms dotted the grounds and fingers dug deep into the soil. In Karen, children potted flowers and plants into their chosen vessels. Pride from their handwork shone bright as they headed to the shamba to weed and plant vegetables and herbs. Lavington welcomed the changing weather on a field trip off campus. Children and teachers alike joyfully ran across the field, paper kite designs aloft. They, too, spent time digging into the earth and appreciating the vibrant flowers and plants. LIBRARY UPDATES The NWST Library is open Mondays and Thursdays 1:15 - 2 pm during Term 1. Our shelves are filled up with almost 3,000 exciting books for all reading levels and we have some enthusiastic readers coming to visit us regularly. We would like to ask you to help your children to return their book on time and keep them neat and tidy. Books can be returned during library days, or in one of our two baskets for book returns – in the front office and at Roses. We are also looking for volunteers who can help us to repair books, help with fundraisers, read at story time to Kindergarten classes, or assist during library time. We are preparing a main fundraiser for term 1 - a Read-a-thon, which will take place November 4 to December 2, 2019. Stay tuned for more information! For any questions, please contact the school office or one of the Library team members: Katie, Franziska, Jana or Becky FESTIVAL OF COURAGE The primary students channeled their inner strength during this year’s Festival of Courage. In the spirit of the story of St. Michael courageously defeating the dragon, the children were challenged to overcome their fears through conscious initiative. The students were divided into teams, with upper primary leading mixed age groups throughout the day. Upon receiving their team flags, they were presented with their first test - slaying off the dragon. What followed was a series of activities aimed at pushing their boundaries and overcoming possible fears - of which our children faced head on. Highlights included the trust fall, in which children and staff, blindfolded atop tables, fell safely backward into blankets and mattresses; the blindfolded maze, where teams guided through directions a single student on a mission to find their hidden sword; a water balloon toss; and bobbing for apples. For more height-based tasks, students crossed a rope bridge and raised tree limb, asking of them balance, strength, and bravery. The dark room was scary but the reward was sweet! The day ended with a wet and muddy trip for upper classes as they faced the labyrinth obstacle course, much to the delight of the rest of the school. WHAT TO PACK FOR SNACK? Primary students pack their daily break from home. We encourage healthy snacks; homemade goods ensure you know exactly what your child is eating. We’ll feature simple, nutritious bakes and recipes to pack for snack. Submissions welcome! One-Bowl Zucchini Muffins Makes 12 Muffins 2 cups shredded zucchini 1/4 cup plain yogurt 1/4 cup vegetable oil 2 eggs 3/4 cup sugar 1/2 tsp cinnamon 1/4 tsp ginger 1/2 tsp salt 1/2 tsp baking soda 1/2 tsp baking powder 1 cup all purpose flour 1/2 cup whole wheat flour 1. Mix wet ingredients until combined. 2. Add sugar and mix. 3. Add dry ingredients and stir to remove powder lumps - do not over work. 4. Line 1 muffin tin and fill each 3/4 full. 5. Bake for 30-35 minutes at 190 °C. 6. Test with a toothpick for doneness. Muffins should be golden brown and springy to the touch. 7. Remove from tin and cool on wire rack. 8. Serve within 3 days or freeze for later. PEACE RUN Peace Run reached out to NWST during their recent trip to Kenya. We welcome their group with open hearts and learned more about their program. The Peace Run is a global relay, wherein people promote peace, friendship, and harmony by passing a flaming torch from hand to hand. The relay crosses boarders of all kinds, connecting communities, schools, and people from around the world. The Peace Run has visited 150 countries and has involved more than 10 million people. NWST is proud to now be part of that group as our children held the torch, learned the official song, and committed to finding peace around them. www.peacerun.org “The true teachers and educators are not those who have learned pedagogy as the science of dealing with children, but those in whom pedagogy has awakened through understanding the human being.” - RUDOLF STEINER	1e8fbe79-d8e3-4c42-8cdc-7cdddd8cc016	CC-MAIN-2022-27	http://nairobiwaldorfschool.ac.ke/files/NWST.NEWSLETTER.OCTOBER.WEB.pdf	2022-07-01T20:41:32+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103945490.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20220701185955-20220701215955-00150.warc.gz	42,023,326	3,199	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997493	eng_Latn	0.998131	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1386, 2444, 5068, 10340, 12064, 13322, 15114 ]	[ 2.625 ]	2	0
Continue the adventure after each episode with our Everyday Magic Activity Guide! Thank you for being magical with us! Ep. 5: Born to be Wild # Table of Contents - 🐍 Jungle Scavenger Hunt - 🐍 Jungle Jam - 🐍 Crafting Corner: Rainstick - 🐍 Time for Talking - 🐍 Books to Read Jungle Scavenger Hunt Guide your little one to find these suggested outdoor treasures: - Long sticks - Rocks - Leaves - Uniquely shaped pebbles - Flowers - Long grass - Other jungle items that you come up with! Give them clues for where to look such as “Find something long and thin that grows on trees.” See how many different shapes, sizes, colors, and textures they can find! Let them describe how each of the items feels. Encourage them to tell a story using each of the items, turning their treasures into a creative play, magical sensory experience. Bonus: Use some of these jungle treasures to make a sensory bin - don’t be afraid to get messy! Jungle Jam We love to dance just like Michael! Let’s bring the dance party to your home! Pull out some fun music and have yourself a big dance party! Play with tempo; how do our bodies move to fast beats and slow beats? You can use different speeds of music and let your little one move the way the music makes them feel! Afterwards, take some time to relax by listening to the sounds of the jungle: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pPrO2ilay40&t=20s. Bonus: Cool down time is a great chance to talk to your little one about their feelings and how to express them! Crafting Corner: Rainstick Materials: paper towel roll, paint, markers, beans, construction paper, tape, rubber bands Step 1: Take a paper towel roll and decorate it. You can use whatever you have handy--paint, markers, crayons, stickers, construction paper, you name it! Step 2: Cover one end of your rainstick with construction paper or tape. You can use rubber bands or more tape to make sure it’s tight. Step 3: Add some beans to the rainstick. Don’t fill it up all the way--you want to give those beans room to dance and make noise in there! Step 4: Close the other end of the rainstick with construction paper and tape. Then move it left, right, up, down, fast, and slow to see what sounds it can make. Michael learned this week that feelings are our friends. Use the questions below to start a conversation with your little one about their feelings: 1. What are some of the feelings you had this week? What made you feel that way? 2. What are some things we can do when we are feeling sad? Feeling excited? 3. When you’re feeling sad or disappointed, what are some things that help cheer you up? Books to Read Giraffes Can’t Dance by Giles Andreae I Got the Rhythm by Connie Schofield-Morrison Mela and the Elephant by Dow Phumiruk My Friend is Sad by Mo Willems The Rabbit Listened by Cori Doerrfeld Support for Everyday Magic is provided by the Alexandria Commission for the Arts, the National Endowment for the Arts, and the Virginia Commission for the Arts. Thank you for being a part of the Arts On The Horizon Family! If you would like to make a donation to support continued programming during the pandemic, please check out our donation page: [https://www.mightycause.com/organization/Arts-On-The-Horizon](https://www.mightycause.com/organization/Arts-On-The-Horizon)	a5456bea-9647-4dbf-84a7-c3bb67292ad1	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://www.artsonthehorizon.org/uploads/2/1/9/2/21925244/ed_guide__ep.__5_born_to_be_wild__1.pdf	2023-09-22T11:51:38+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506399.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20230922102329-20230922132329-00732.warc.gz	739,248,802	786	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.973891	eng_Latn	0.995682	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 119, 143, 276, 934, 1503, 2218, 2614, 2825, 3304 ]	[ 3.3125 ]	1	0
Converting India’s Vehicles to Electric by 2030 Ashok Jhunjhunwala, IIT Madras, firstname.lastname@example.org India Recognises • India imports most of its oil impacting its economy badly – It has 14 of 20 most polluted cities in the world – EV is the future: four times higher energy efficiency and 50% less moving parts • India’s vehicles different from that in most of the world – 79% two-wheelers, 5% Autos and e-rickshaw, 3% Buses and large goods vehicle – 12% Economy Cars (< $13000) and 2% Premium Cars (> $13000) – 98% of public and affordable vehicles: not the focus of the rest of the world; India could attempt to get leadership here • India has low affordability and can afford minimal subsidy – EV must make business sense: How? – Battery contributes to 50% of costs • falling rapidly over last five years but still expensive \| Year \| Li battery costs per kWh \| \|------\|--------------------------\| \| 2012 \| USD 600 \| \| 2015 \| USD 450 \| \| 2017 \| USD 250 \| \| 2020 \| USD 150 \| \| 2024 \| < USD 100 \| Strategy for EVs for Public Transport • Higher efficiency Wh/km (kms/litre of petrol) reduces battery size, weight and costs • For e-autos in last one year: from 70 to 80 Wh/km to 45/50 Wh/km • E-buses: from 1600 Wh/km to 900 Wh/km • Split battery into smaller size (one third) and swap • No waiting time to charge battery: no public infrastructure required • Battery-life severely affected by Fast Charging at 45 deg C – Swapped battery can be charged in conditioned environment and in two hours to maximise its life • Separate vehicle business (without battery) & energy business (battery) • Capital cost similar to that for petrol / diesel vehicle • Operation cost today same as petrol / diesel vehicle – WITH no SUBSIDY; but lower GST for strictly three years • Drive volumes aided by Public procurement EV Strategy for Private Transport (2/4-wheelers) - Batteries dominate the cost of an EV (Tesla uses battery for 540 kms) - and also vehicle weight (reducing the energy efficiency or kms/kWh) - Smaller battery creates range anxiety - Use Public Fast Charger: waiting time + public charging infrastructure: takes an hour to charge battery - Fast Charge in 15 to 20 minutes: needs expensive batteries (life impacted as temperature crosses 40°C) - Suppose EVs have a small low-cost battery with limited range built-in: Affordable - Example: 100/50 km range for e-car/e-scooter: Enough within cities for 90% of days - Use only night-time Slow Charging: maximising battery life - When one needs to drive longer distances (10% of days) - use a RANGE EXTENDER battery to overcome range anxiety - Swap-in a second (swappable) battery doubling the range at a petrol pump (3 to 5 minutes) - Swap the swappable battery again for still longer range (300 kms or 400 kms) Strategy for EV Batteries - Battery pack development: thermal design, mechanical design and Battery Management System to get the best out of low-cost cell: largely ready - established and start-ups [30-35% value add] - Battery Cell Development - JV with external tie-ups [30% value add] - Battery Material Development: great progress with battery recycling (urban mining) [40% value add] - scaling on way Cell to Pack Manufacturing 2017 – some 15 companies Cell Manufacturing: 2019 -20 India has little Li, Mn, Co Battery Recycling to recover 95% of Li, Mn and Co, and 93% of Ni and Mn and 90% Graphite Summing up: India’s Tasks 1. Most Energy Efficient Vehicles: low Wh/km will reduce the size of the battery - Better motor and drive (power-train), better tyres, lower weight and better aerodynamics 2. Battery ecosystem: Pack manufacturing (30-35%), cell-making (30%), materials and chemicals (40%) 3. Charging and swapping Infrastructure for range-extension - Slow-charging, fast charging and battery swapping 4. Demand Generation and Policies Vehicles on Drive Pilot with Battery swapping at CBEEV, IITM Campus Test vehicle with school kids, residents and staff in IITM campus India needs innovative approaches - Or will be flooded by imports in 2030 Time is of essence - Several industries and start-ups have worked hard over the last few years - They need to be encouraged and see a continuous forward movement - More focus on Make in India and start-ups and R&D institutions - With attempts to preserve India’s GDP and grow jobs Can we do it by 2030: Certainly For deeper understanding, look at the blog “understanding the EV Elephant”: https://electric-vehicles-in-india.blogspot.in/2017/12/	<urn:uuid:b3881345-6793-4d6d-b965-847c473d2ea5>	CC-MAIN-2019-04	http://www.tenet.res.in/Publications/Presentations/pdfs/Accelearting_CleanTech_Ecosystem_-_Dec2018.pdf	2019-01-23T22:29:24Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547584415432.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20190123213748-20190123235748-00153.warc.gz	403,565,820	1,131	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.929496	eng_Latn	0.990107	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 99, 1102, 1932, 2919, 3535, 3990, 4126, 4653 ]	[ 2.15625 ]	1	0
Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District Woodard Elementary School 2023-2024 Mission Statement In partnership with families and the community, Woodard staff members establish high academic standards and behavioral expectations for all students. Woodard is committed to treating all students as individuals by building their self-esteem, enhancing their creativity, and encouraging them to make healthy lifestyle choices. We provide a safe, nurturing, motivating, and disciplined environment where students become lifelong learners impacting their families, communities, country, and world in a productive and positive way. Vision ALL ONE FAMILY - ALL IN FOR STUDENTS # Table of Contents Comprehensive Needs Assessment ................................................................................................................. 4 Needs Assessment Overview ......................................................................................................................... 4 Student Achievement .................................................................................................................................. 6 School Culture and Climate ......................................................................................................................... 8 Staff Quality, Recruitment, and Retention ............................................................................................... 10 Parent and Community Engagement ........................................................................................................ 11 School Context and Organization ............................................................................................................. 12 Technology ............................................................................................................................................... 13 Goals ............................................................................................................................................................ 14 Goal 1: Goal 1 Academic Achievement: The district will ensure academic performance and achievement levels that reflect excellence in learning and attainment of both high expectations and high standards for all students. ...................................................................................... 14 Goal 2: Goal 2 Safe and Healthy Learning Environment: The district will provide a safe, disciplined, and healthy environment conducive to student learning. ........................................................................... 21 Goal 3: Human Capital: The district will recruit, develop, and retain highly qualified and effective personnel reflective of our student demographics. .................................................................................. 24 Goal 4: Family and Community Engagement: Increase parent engagement on the campus and the methods of communication used to engage parents in school activities. ........................................ 26 2023-2024 CPOC ........................................................................................................................................ 27 Addendums .................................................................................................................................................. 28 Comprehensive Needs Assessment Needs Assessment Overview Needs Assessment Overview Summary SCHOOL PROFILE Woodard Elementary is a campus in Houston, Texas. Woodard opened its doors in 2015. Woodard is projected to serve 1,100 students in grades PK-5 during the 2023-2024 school year, which is an increase from the previous year of 1,090. COMPREHENSIVE NEEDS ASSESSMENT (CNA) PROCESS Woodard’s needs assessment process is described below. The school Campus Performance Objectives Council (CPOC) evaluated the following data from the 2022-23 school year: In summary, the comprehensive needs assessment denotes the following: Once completing the comprehensive needs assessment we determined that we needed to continue to focus on providing learning opportunities for our students that focus on building relationships, learning opportunities that require daily academic conversations and small group instruction, utilizing explicit word and phonics instruction for both reading/writing development, daily writing across the curriculum, purposeful planning for vocabulary instruction in all areas, and utilizing a variety of technology platforms to analyze data and provide specific targeted instruction for our students. Through partnership with our staff, families and community, our goal is to close the gaps for our students as we meet the individual needs of our Woodard students. Documentation of the process includes meeting minutes, agenda, and sign-in sheets. The CPOC met on MAY 16, 2023, and again on SEPTEMBER 12 to develop and finalize the CNA. The meetings were held in Woodard Elementary Library at 7:30 AM. At the first meeting on MAY 16, 2023, principal Susan Brenz used the following process to conduct the comprehensive needs assessment: Woodard Elementary Full Staff CPOC/Vertical Team met on May 16, 2023, to review preliminary data and set the preliminary Title I budget for 2023-2024. At the second meeting on August 23rd, 2023 during our campus PD week, we reviewed the previous year's CIP and assessment data to do a root cause analysis and identified our goals and strategies. We analyzed many forms of data and feedback. After reviewing our progress and challenges, we met again as a team on September 12th, 2023 to determine the most effective strategies we needed to implement in order to meet the needs of Woodard students. The problem statements and root causes are listed in each section of the needs assessment. SUMMARY OF IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS AND ROOT CAUSES Below is a summary of the prioritized problems and related root causes identified by the CPOC for the school to focus on during the 2023-24 school year: Our first identified priority problem is in the area of student achievement, specifically, our Reading performance by sup pops (African American, EB, White, Asian, Hispanic, and SpEd) students needs improvement in comparison to other subgroups. Through the root cause analysis process, we identified to purposefully plan systematic and explicit instruction, academic conversation, and practice purposeful small groups with our (African American, EB, White, Asian, Hispanic, and SpEd) students specifically in mind to grow our students’ at the Meets and Masters levels. Our second identified priority problem is in the area of student achievement, specifically, Our Math performance by sub pops (Asian, White, African American, EB, and SpEd) students needs improvement to other comparison subgroups. Through the root cause analysis process, we identified the need to prepare, plan, and think critically to be proactive in teaching small group instruction, interactive vocabulary skills, utilizing mathematical conversations, and critically based thinking strategies. These strategies will help our students in real-world problem-solving skills to increase our approaches, meets, and masters passing standards. Our third identified priority problem is in the area of Science: Our Science performance by sub pops (African American, White, Asian, EB, and SpEd) students needs improvement in comparison to other subgroups. Through the root cause analysis process, we identified the need to purposefully plan small groups tailored towards specific TEKS, interactive vocabulary activities, and real-world/relevant experiences in science, as well as incorporate writing into science to increase our Approaches, Meets, and Masters passing standards. Student Achievement Student Achievement Strengths The following strengths were identified based on a review of the 2022-23 data. Reading: In the school year of 2022-2023, our students were required to take the Reading STAAR Test online. In grades 3-5, 88.6% of our students passed reading, 63% were at meets grade-level passing standards, and 32% of our students mastered grade-level standards. In 3rd grade Reading our SPED student population had a 33% gain in the approaches grade level passing standards from the 2022 to 2023 school year. Our LEP students had a 23% gain in approaching grade-level passing standards from the 2022 to 2023 school year. In 4th grade, our Asian students had a 13% gain in approaching grade-level standards and African American students had an 11% gain in the approaches category. In 5th grade, our SPED students had a 31% gain in the approaching grade level and our African American students had a 9% gain in the approaches category. Our readers in K-5 grew in reading levels in the 2022-2023 school year. Math: In 3rd grade Math, LEP students had a 21% gain in Masters from 2022 to 2023. In 4th grade Math, our African American students had a 21% gain in approaches and Hispanic students had an 11% gain in the Meets category. In 5th grade Math, our SPED students had a 33% gain in approaches and our African American students had a 24% gain in approaches. Science: Our 5th-grade students in science had 81% passing, 23% of students meeting grade-level standards, and 21% mastering grade-level standards. Problem Statements Identifying Student Achievement Needs Problem Statement 1: RLA: Our Reading performance by sub pops (African American, EB, White, Asian, Hispanic, and SpEd) students needs improvement in comparison to other subgroups. Root Cause: RLA: We need to purposefully plan systematic and explicit instruction, academic conversation, and practice purposeful small groups with our (African American, EB, White, Asian, Hispanic, and SpEd) students specifically in mind to grow our students’ at the meets and masters level. Problem Statement 2: Math: Our Math performance by sub pops (Asian, White, African American, EB, and SpEd) students needs improvement compared to other comparison subgroups. Root Cause: Math: We need to prepare, plan, and think critically to be proactive in teaching small group instruction, interactive vocabulary skills, utilizing mathematical conversations, and critically based thinking strategies. These strategies will help our students in real-world problem-solving skills to increase our approaches, meets, and masters passing standards. Problem Statement 3: Science: Our Science performance by sub pops (African American, White, Asian, EB, and SpEd) students needs improvement in comparison to other subgroups. Root Cause: Science: We need to purposefully plan small groups tailored towards specific TEKS, interactive vocabulary activities, and real-world/relevant experiences in science, as well as incorporate writing into science to increase our approaches, meets, and masters passing standards. Problem Statement 4: Students are beginning the 2023-24 school year with learning gaps. Root Cause: The onset of COVID-19 in the spring of 2020 and the implications of modified instructional methods necessitated by the need for immediate remote learning. Problem Statement 5: Campuses serving the most economically disadvantaged/at-risk students experience larger achievement gaps. Root Cause: Need to deepen understanding and address specific academic needs of economically disadvantaged/at-risk students. School Culture and Climate School Culture and Climate Summary Woodard is an “ALL IN” Campus that shares these beliefs as follows: 1. Decisions should be based on our mission and goals, accurate and reliable data, anchored in sound theory and practice & focused on short-term as well as long-term benefit of all students. 2. Decisions should be made at the appropriate level (as close to the level of implementation as possible), and decided upon based on the competency and commitment levels of those involved to determine where decisions are made. 3. Our behavior should promote and encourage empowerment throughout the school and indicate the level of decision-making we are capable of doing. 4. We have an obligation to establish and maintain cohesive, interdependent teams that maintain a high commitment to the school’s mission and goals. 5. Our behavior should promote professional autonomy and growth from independence to interdependence for individuals and team throughout the school. 6. We have an obligation to build in quality control and quality assurance strategies throughout the school as well as building in feedback opportunities to assist leaders in aligning the mission, strategies, structures, and systems to ensure quality control exists throughout the school. As a result of adopting this philosophy, our campus is a collegial (genuine care, concern and respect for one another) and collaborative (proactive in student data analysis and using a team approach to solve problems) environment that supports one another on a personal as well as professional level to the overall benefit of the children that attend school here. We believe all staff members have the ability and obligation to lead from wherever they are in this organization to ensure the students get the best everyone has to offer. School Culture and Climate Strengths The following strengths were identified in regard to School Culture and Climate: 1. 100% believe opportunities exist for staff to think for themselves. 2. 99% believe opportunities for professional growth exist for all staff members. 3. 97% believe work they are asked to do relates directly to their job responsibility. 4. 97% believe information is available for staff to do an effective job. 5. 95% believe they have opportunities to provide input for decisions. 6. 100% believe procedures have been implemented to keep them safe at work. 7. 100% believe that quality work is expected of them. 8. 100% believe that collaboration is both encouraged and practiced. 9. 96% believe there are opportunities to discuss their concerns with administrators. 10. 95% believe various forms of feedback are provided to help them improve their performance. 11. 100% believe that information related to their job is accessible. 12. 97% believe that staff recognition is built into the school culture. 13. 100% believe they are clear about their job responsibilities. 14. 99% believe that quality work is expected of all students. 15. 99% believe that all decisions are data-driven. Problem Statements Identifying School Culture and Climate Needs Problem Statement 1: At Woodard, we can continue to improve on having the staff seek opportunities to provide input for decisions. Root Cause: School Culture and Climate: Clarification of providing input for decisions. Staff Quality, Recruitment, and Retention Staff Quality, Recruitment, and Retention Strengths The following are strengths of the campus in regard to staff quality, recruitment, and retention. 1. This is a Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) campus where expectations for student and staff interactions, support and collaboration are clearly defined, modeled and reinforced. As a result of the implementation of PBIS, we have a shared and common language regarding those expectations across the campus that are posted and referred to often, allowing us to continue with the PBIS Level II System for the eighth year in a row. 2. This campus is a desirable location to work because of the reputation of being "ALL IN" with teamwork and collaboration at all levels. Our staff believes there is a simple process to seek assistance, regardless of the area or type of support needed. The vast majority of staff had less than ten absences with the most common reason for absences being the birth of babies, death in immediate family, jury duty, and personal/family illness. 3. This campus is a desirable location for students because the overall "ALL IN" environment means that the staff has a "no excuses" approach to reaching children on a social, emotional, behavioral, and academic approach that translates to their individual success. Our student data shows 96.7% (2017-2018 during Hurricane Harvey), 96.9% (2018-2019), 97.7% (2019-2020), 97.1% (2020-2021 during the global pandemic), 95.19% (2021-2022 one of the highest in CFISD during the second year of the global pandemic), 95.2% (2022-2023) attendance respectively. It is stable overall as we continue to engage our students with numerous co-curricular and extra-curricular clubs and organizations to create well-rounded students. Problem Statements Identifying Staff Quality, Recruitment, and Retention Needs Problem Statement 1: Teacher/Paraprofessional Attendance: At Woodard, we can continue to improve on individual staff recognition. Root Cause: Teacher/Paraprofessional Attendance: At Woodard, some staff members need to be given feedback and/or recognized in various ways. Parent and Community Engagement Parent and Community Engagement Summary Woodard is a campus that has superior parent involvement. We provide a wide array of experiences for children and parents to attend to further develop the home and school partnership as an integral part of our campus mission. Parent and Community Engagement Strengths The following are strengths of the campus in regard to parent and community engagement. Instagram, Campus FB page, Grade Level Weekly Newsletters, and the PTO FB page. We consistently demonstrate what we mean by being an "ALL IN" culture for students. 2. Parent involvement is at the exemplary level at events and activities such as Wolfpack Dance Team 3rd-5th, Woodard Pup Squad for PK, Woodard Pom Squad Dance Team K-2nd, Woodard Honor Choir/Drumline 4th-5th, Destination Imagination 3rd-5th, Volleyball Team 4th-5th, Wolves on the Run Superintendent Fun Run 1st-5th, Girls Eliminating Modern Stereotype (G.E.M.S.) 4th-5th, Art Team 5th, Science Team 3rd-5th, Technology Team 3rd-5th, Yearbook Team 4th-5th, Young Men of Distinction 3rd-4th-5th, 5th Grade Student Leadership/Community Service, Name that Book, Spelling Bee, Parent Readers, Library and PE/Art/Music Volunteers, Watch D.O.G. Dads, Field Day, Grade Level Musicals, Family Night at the Book Fair, Fall/Spring Curriculum Nights, Family Reading Night, Math Family Game Night, McTeacher Night, Back-to-School Bash at Woodard, Willie's Spirit Nights, Texas Roadhouse Night, Fajita Pete's Night, and the support of our Woodard PTO. Problem Statements Identifying Parent and Community Engagement Needs Problem Statement 1: Parent and Community Engagement: At Woodard, we have a constant influx of families who need to be acclimated to the "ALL IN" climate and culture. Root Cause: Parent and Community Engagement: Woodard needs to continue to meet the needs of new students living in houses in our zone and students moving in from multiple other campuses within and outside of our district/state/country. School Context and Organization School Context and Organization Strengths Woodard is a campus that fully utilizes every staff member as a vital member of the CPOC Committee. During our CPOC meetings, we analyze data in vertical content teams PK-5, and we invite our community reps/business partners/parents/district reps to the table with us. By continuing the use of Zoom meetings, we were able to have people join meetings in a flexible format that supports their participation while being convenient for them as well. We utilize this PLC/CPOC/Vertical Team format to drive professional development learning and growth and create a culture of collaboration across teams that allows for teacher leaders to flourish when leading their peers. As a result of this approach, our whole staff understands the mission and goals of the organization and can articulate and support what we are doing to reach our students. This "ALL IN" approach fosters teamwork across the grade level and campus throughout the year to support all students in an environment of professional collaboration where we can harness the talents of everyone to support the children. Technology Technology Strengths All of our students have access to 1:1 devices provided by CFISD. This was implemented during the 2020-2021 school year and continues to be rolled out this year. As a result, we are able to use blended learning lessons and our students can access a variety of online programs that are utilized at school and at home. This helps build a common, shared language that strengthens the home-school partnership. Goal 1: Goal 1 Academic Achievement: The district will ensure academic performance and achievement levels that reflect excellence in learning and attainment of both high expectations and high standards for all students. Performance Objective 1: Curriculum and Instruction & Accountability: By the end of the current school year, students will meet or exceed the STAAR performance targets as noted on the attached CIP data table. - Evaluation Data Sources: STAAR RLA, Math, and Science - Summative Evaluation: Significant progress made toward meeting Objective - Next Year's Recommendation: We must continue to focus on our meets and masters level performance. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: RLA: We commit to supporting striving readers (African American, EB, White, Asian, Hispanic, and SpEd) in direct, systematic, and explicit instruction. Utilizing daily academic conversations and small group instruction in reading to increase student growth specifically in the approaches, meets and masters passing standards. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Meets or exceeds the targets on the attached CIP target tables. Student Data: The percentage of students reaching "growth" standard will increase. Planning: Each week, a portion of content planning will be devoted to academic conversation and small group discussion. Walkthroughs: P/APs will look for evidence of planned, dailing small group and academic conversation with students. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, ISs, Instructional Teaching Staff, Testing Coordinator and paraprofessionals \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 50% \| 80% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 2 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 2: Math: We commit to planning for purposeful: small group instruction, interactive vocabulary, and real-world problem-solving utilizing critically based thinking strategies for our (African American, White, Asian, EB, SpEd, Females & At-Risk) students. Utilizing these strategies we will target to increase student growth in our approaches, meets, and masters passing standards. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Meets or exceeds the targets on the attached CIP target tables. Student Data: The percentage of students reaching "approaches grade level standards" will increase. We will focus on our Asian group of students to meet the target. Planning: Each week, a portion of content planning will be used for vocabulary instruction discussions, incorporating sentence stems to enhance discourse and hands-on instruction. Walkthroughs: P/APs will look for evidence of planned, daily small group and academic conversations with students. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, ISs, Instructional Teaching Staff, Testing Coordinator and paraprofessionals \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 50% \| 80% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 3 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 3: Science: We commit to planning for purposeful: small groups tailored towards specific TEKS, interactive vocabulary activities, and real-world/relevant experiences in science, as well as incorporate writing into science to support our (African American, White, Asian, EB, female and SpEd) students to increase our approaches, meets, and masters passing standards. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Meet or exceed the targets on the attached CIP target tables. Student Data: The percentage of students reaching "approaches grade level standard" will increase. Planning: Each week, a portion of content planning will be used for vocabulary instruction discussion and hands-on labs. Walkthroughs: P/APs will look for evidence of purposeful vocabulary instructional techniques and hands-on labs in the classroom. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, ISs, Instructional Teaching Staff, Testing Coordinator and paraprofessionals \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 75% \| 90% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 4 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 4: Students will receive lessons covering nutrition and fitness and will participate in fitness related events at the campus and district levels. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Improved understanding of nutrition and fitness Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 50% \| 75% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 5 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 5: Eliminate the Learning Gap and Increase the Amount of Quality Learning Time: Students will be provided with pre-planned lessons at least 25 minutes (K-1) & 30 minutes (2nd-5th) of targeted instruction each day that includes: reading small groups, phonemic awareness, content vocabulary activities, fact fluency, number sense activities focusing on targeted TEKS and campus data utilizing available staff and technology applications (Achieve 3000, Boost, Amira, ST Math, DreamBox Math, etc). Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact Meet or exceed the targets on the attached CIP target tables. Student Data: The percentage of students reaching “approaches grade level standard” will increase. Planning: Each week, a portion of content planning will be used for determining activities to be used during Closing The Gap (CTG). Walkthroughs: P/APs will look for evidence of purposeful data-driven use of CTG time. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, ISs, Instructional Teaching Staff and paraprofessionals \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 100% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 6 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 6: Well-Rounded Education: Students will be provided the opportunity to participate in the following enrichment programs, courses, and/or activities in order to provide all students with a well-rounded education: Pup Squad Dance for PK, Pom Squad K-2nd grade, Woodard Dance Team for 3rd-5th grade, Art Team for 5th grade, Yearbook Team for 5th grade, Honor Choir & Drumline for 4th-5th grade, Wolves on the Run Team 1st-5th grade, Volleyball Team for 4th-5th, Science Team for 3rd, 4th & 5th grade, Young Men of Distinction for 3rd-5th grade, Girls Eliminating Modern Stereotypes (G.E.M.S.) for 4th & 5th grade, DaVinci Day, Cy-Woods Vertical Showcase for Gifted & Talented students in 1st-5th grade, District Choral Festival for 5th grade, Name that Book Contest for 3rd-5th grade, Spelling Bee for 3rd-5th grade and STEM Friday in grades 1-5 so all students can participate. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Meet or exceed the targets on the attached CIP target tables. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal/AP/IS \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 75% \| 100% \| 100% \| Strategy 7: At-Risk: Students with an identified area of need based on STAAR or district progress monitoring will be provided with additional academic support based on their specific academic needs. At-risk (African American, SPED, EB) students with an identified area of need based on STAAR or district progress monitoring will be provided with additional academic support based on their specific academic needs. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Close the achievement gap for African American, EB and SpEd student groups to meet or exceed the campus improvement targets: 1. Salaries: The ELAR interventionist will assist in ensuring the academic needs of our students are met. The class size reduction will allow for smaller class sizes in 5th grade. The two para educators will assist students in K-5th through small group interventions to assist in meeting or exceeding targets attached CIP target table. 2. Professional Development* - The leadership team, teaching staff, and para-professionals will attend various professional developments to develop a stronger understanding of how to strengthen the behavioral and instructional practices throughout the building and in all classrooms assisting in meeting the instructional and behavioral goals of the campus as specified in the CIP. 3. Instructional Supplies: Student instructional supplies will be used to assist in the delivery of instruction and identify additional targeted lessons. 4. Student, PAFE snacks and supplies* will be used to support before/after school events such as Curriculum Night for Reading and Math hands-on activities to model strategies for parents to use at home to support their children. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Meet or exceed the targets on the attached CIP target tables. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, Instructional Specialist, Instructional Teaching Staff, Paraprofessionals, Testing Coordinator \| Strategy 7 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Formative \| \| \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| 75% \| 90% \| 100% \| - No Progress - Accomplished - Continue/Modify - Discontinue Goal 1: Goal 1 Academic Achievement: The district will ensure academic performance and achievement levels that reflect excellence in learning and attainment of both high expectations and high standards for all students. Performance Objective 2: ESSER III: Throughout the current school year, use the supplemental ESSER III funds to respond to the pandemic and to address student learning loss as a result of COVID-19. Evaluation Data Sources: STAAR and Locally Developed Assessments Summative Evaluation: Met Objective Next Year's Recommendation: We spent the funds as designated to improve ELAR performance. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: Summer Learning/Summer Enrichment: Welcome Back Camp - We will hold an extended day Welcome Back Camp for students to get reacclimated to school, learn to work collaboratively with peers/classmates, problem-solving social situations & manage everyday demands of school. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Students attending the 2023-2024 Welcome Back Camp will have 98%+ attendance at the end of the 1st nine weeks grading period. In addition, students attending the 2023-2024 Welcome Back Camp will have no more than 1 discipline notice and 0 office referrals the 1st nine weeks. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 100% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 2 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 2: Professional Staffing: Core Content Area Interventionist in Reading will be hired to work with students to improve their academic performance. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: By the end of the 2023-2024 school year, students in the target group will make 1 year of growth (3rd-5th) in reading and 90%+ will reach the approaches level on passing equivalent on STAAR. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 75% \| 90% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 3 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 3: Professional Development: Campus-Wide Book Study on Well-managed Schools Text Book: Strategies to Create a Productive and Cooperative Social Climate in Your Learning Community Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: By the end of the 2023-2024 school year, office referrals will decrease by 5%. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 50% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 4 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 4: Professional Development: Dr. Jenny Severson- The leadership team, teaching staff, and para-professionals will attend various professional developments to develop a stronger understanding of how to strengthen the behavioral and instructional practices throughout the building and in all classrooms assisting in meeting the instructional and behavioral goals of the campus. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: By the end of the 2023-2024 school year, office referrals will decrease by 5%. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 100% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 5 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 5: Mental Health Supports: To respond to the pandemic and to address student learning loss as a result of COVID-19. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Meet or exceed the targets on the attached CIP target tables. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 50% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 6 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 6: Closing the Gaps: We will provide extended instructional time to close the gaps created by COVID-19 using after school or Saturday tutoring. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Meet or exceed STAAR targets on the attached data tables. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, ISs, Instructional Teaching Staff, Testing Coordinator and paraprofessionals \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| N/A \| 75% \| 100% \| No Progress 100% Accomplished Continue/Modify Discontinue Goal 1: Goal 1 Academic Achievement: The district will ensure academic performance and achievement levels that reflect excellence in learning and attainment of both high expectations and high standards for all students. Performance Objective 3: State Compensatory Education (SCE): Throughout the current school year, use the supplementary SCE funds to reduce the disparity in performance on STAAR between students at-risk of dropping out of school and other school district students as measured by educationally disadvantaged and at-risk students meeting or exceeding the STAAR performance targets noted on the attached CIP data table. Evaluation Data Sources: STAAR Data Summative Evaluation: Met Objective Next Year's Recommendation: We must continue to focus on our meets and masters level performance and identifying our at-risk students. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: State Compensatory Education: Provide supplementary support to students identified as at-risk. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Meet or exceed targets on the attached data table Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| 100% \| 100% \| 100% \| No Progress Accomplished Continue/Modify Discontinue Goal 2: Goal 2 Safe and Healthy Learning Environment: The district will provide a safe, disciplined, and healthy environment conducive to student learning. Performance Objective 1: Student Safety: By the end of the current school year, 100% of the district's safety policies will be implemented. Evaluation Data Sources: Record of safety drills and other required safety actions Summative Evaluation: Met Objective Next Year’s Recommendation: We implemented all the safety and security policies. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: The Safety Task Force Rep at each grade level will continue to monitor/revise the EOP by meeting regularly with the APs, ensure drills are executed with fidelity, and tabletop scenarios are practiced on a regular basis with a campus shared language of the Standard Safety Protocols. Health & Safety Procedures have been added across the campus. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Improved Standard Safety Protocol of Shared Language in Response to an Emergency or Crisis Staff Responsible for Monitoring: None \| Formative \| \| \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| \| 100% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 2 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 2: Conduct Emergency Safety Drills: Fire, Evacuate (non-fire), Lockdown, Secure, Shelter (Weather), and Shelter (Hazmat) throughout the year. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: 100% of Emergency Operating Procedure (EOP) safety drills will be conducted by scheduled deadlines. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: None \| Formative \| \| \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| \| 50% \| 85% \| 100% \| No Progress Accomplished Continue/Modify Discontinue Goal 2: Goal 2 Safe and Healthy Learning Environment: The district will provide a safe, disciplined, and healthy environment conducive to student learning. Performance Objective 2: Student Attendance: By the end of the current school year, student attendance will be at 95% or higher. - Evaluation Data Sources: Student attendance records - Summative Evaluation: Met Objective - Next Year's Recommendation: We offer numerous extracurricular activities and celebrations to engage our students, 95.19% was one of the highest in CFISD. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: Implement a campus attendance action plan that supports incremental growth toward a 95% overall attendance rate. \| Formative \| \| Student Attendance: Students will be acknowledged for perfect attendance and exemplary attendance each 9-weeks through certificates and WOW Rallies. A campus drawing will be done during the 2nd WOW Rally for 1st semester perfect attendance. \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| Strategy's Expected Result/Impact: 95% overall attendance rate \| 85% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, Campus Registrar \| \| \| Strategy 2 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 2: Implement a school-wide multi-tiered framework to address patterns of non-attendance (excused and unexcused absences) \| Formative \| \| Strategy's Expected Result/Impact: 95% overall attendance rate \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| 45% \| 90% \| 100% \| - No Progress - Accomplished - Continue/Modify - Discontinue Goal 2: Goal 2 Safe and Healthy Learning Environment: The district will provide a safe, disciplined, and healthy environment conducive to student learning. Performance Objective 3: Restorative Discipline: The campus will use restorative discipline practices. Evaluation Data Sources: Discipline reports Summative Evaluation: Met Objective Next Year's Recommendation: We will continue the restorative practices with support from the .5 BI to help coach teachers and work with students. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: Violence Prevention: Teachers and students will participate in programming and monthly lessons that emphasize positive character traits. They will also engage in proactive, preventative measures aimed to teach rules, procedures, and expectations that create a positive school climate. Violence Prevention will remain at 0% of violent incidents as staff members will co-regulate with students in crisis to support their resilience and coping strategies prior to writing a discipline referral using strategies learning via our STAAR COMMONWEALTH training, PBIS strategies and Student Services Training for BCs/APs. Strategy's Expected Result/Impact: Violent incidents will continue to be 0% Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, Assistant Principals, Behavior Coach and AP Secretary \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 100% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 2 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 2: Restorative Discipline: Staff will be trained on restorative practices and are encouraged to use those strategies to help students contribute to the positive classroom/school environment. Staff members will co-regulate with students in crisis to support their resilience and coping strategies prior to writing a discipline referral using strategies learning via our STAAR COMMONWEALTH training, PBIS strategies and Student Services Training for BCs/APs. Strategy's Expected Result/Impact: Students will be equipped with self-management strategies. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, Assistant Principals, and Behavior Coach \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| 100% \| 100% \| 100% \| - No Progress - Accomplished - Continue/Modify - Discontinue Goal 3: Human Capital: The district will recruit, develop, and retain highly qualified and effective personnel reflective of our student demographics. Performance Objective 1: Teacher/Paraprofessional Attendance: By the end of the current school year, teacher/paraprofessional attendance will increase by 1%. Evaluation Data Sources: Teacher/Paraprofessional Attendance Reports Summative Evaluation: Met Objective Next Year’s Recommendation: The 4th year after the pandemic continued to pose challenges on teacher attendance rates, so we need to continue to implement a safe and healthy work environment. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: Teacher/Paraprofessional Attendance: We will provide incentives each 9-weeks based on attendance to include things such as certificates, public acknowledgements and pre-packaged snacks for those that meet the target attendance each 9-weeks \| Formative \| \| Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Teacher/paraprofessional attendance will increase by 1%. \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal \| ![75%] \| ![85%] \| ![100%] \| No Progress Accomplished Continue/Modify Discontinue Goal 3: Human Capital: The district will recruit, develop, and retain highly qualified and effective personnel reflective of our student demographics. Performance Objective 2: Ensure that Teachers are Receiving High-Quality Professional Development: By the end of the 2023-24 school year, 100% of teachers will receive job targeted professional development based on identified needs of our student's academic, behavioral and social-emotional needs. Evaluation Data Sources: Classroom implementation of professional learning Walk-throughs Lesson Plans Summative Evaluation: Met Objective Next Year's Recommendation: Our EPS indicated our staff was engaged in PD that was relevant to their job role. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: High-Quality Professional Development: Our whole campus CTE was on TEA’s Science of Teaching Reading & Shifting the Balance Book Study Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: The result of this learning is to have a mental framework as to where our students are coming from and appropriately manage their literacy development as part of the foundation of reading and writing. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, & ELAR Vertical Team \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| 75% \| 100% \| 100% \| \| Strategy 2 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 2: High-Quality Professional Development: Our whole campus will complete the Teaching Kids to Thrive book study using the free online resources via ASCD to address the behavioral and social-emotional needs of our students. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: The result of this learning is to have a mental framework as to where our students are coming from emotionally as part of the social skills foundation needed to address academic growth. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal, APs, & Teaching Staff \| Formative \| Nov \| Feb \| May \| \| 100% \| 100% \| 100% \| No Progress 100% Accomplished Continue/Modify Discontinue Goal 4: Family and Community Engagement: Increase parent engagement on the campus and the methods of communication used to engage parents in school activities. Performance Objective 1: By the end of the 2023-24 school year, parent and family engagement will be maintained. Evaluation Data Sources: Parent participation at campus/off-campus events, parent communication with the campus staff, and parent support/participation for meetings in person and on Zoom. Summative Evaluation: Met Objective Next Year's Recommendation: Lifting COVID restrictions for visitors enabled us to return back to pre-COVID attendance by parents. \| Strategy 1 Details \| Formative Reviews \| \|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| Strategy 1: The staff will host a Fall & Spring Curriculum Night for parents with students in grades PK-5. This will be offered face-to-face and sent out afterwards via recorded Zoom sessions to support working parents. Strategy’s Expected Result/Impact: Parents will be active participants in their child’s education if they understand the curriculum, instruction and assessment needs at each grade level. Staff Responsible for Monitoring: Principal/APs/Is/Grade Level Teachers \| Formative Nov \| Feb \| May 50% \| 100% \| 100% \| No Progress Accomplished Continue/Modify Discontinue \| Committee Role \| Name \| Position \| \|----------------------------------------------------\|--------------------\|---------------------------------\| \| Paraprofessional #2 \| Esther Rodriguez \| Paraprofessional #2 \| \| Paraprofessional #1 \| Laurie Nichols \| Paraprofessional #1 \| \| Business Representative #2 \| Master Anh \| Business Representative #2 \| \| Business Representative #1 \| Alex Soler \| Business Representative #1 \| \| Community Member #2 \| Jennifer Al-Sulais \| Community Member #2 \| \| Community Member #1 \| Alane Avila \| Community Member #1 \| \| Parent #2 \| Alicia Castenada \| Parent #2 \| \| Parent #1 \| Emma Karko \| Parent #1 \| \| Administrator (LEA) #2 \| LaShawnda Harris \| Administrator (LEA) #2 \| \| Administrator (LEA) #1 \| Kathryn Grahmann \| Administrator (LEA) #1 \| \| Other School Leader (Nonteaching Professional) #4 \| Shelby Holloway \| Other School Leader (Nonteaching Professional) #4 \| \| Other School Leader (Nonteaching Professional) #3 \| Quynh Ngo \| Other School Leader (Nonteaching Professional) #3 \| \| Other School Leader (Nonteaching Professional) #2 \| Jessica McAllister\| Other School Leader (Nonteaching Professional) #2 \| \| Other School Leader (Nonteaching Professional) #1 \| Allie Hollowell \| Other School Leader (Nonteaching Professional) #1 \| \| Teacher #8 \| Torie Lowry \| Teacher #8 \| \| Teacher #7 \| Brittany Irvine \| Teacher #7 \| \| Teacher #6 \| Abigail Blaszak \| Teacher #6 \| \| Teacher #5 \| Hailey O'Neal \| Teacher #5 \| \| Teacher #4 \| Jayne Garcia \| Teacher #4 \| \| Teacher #3 \| Tracy Northington \| Teacher #3 \| \| Teacher #2 \| Ashley Lemke \| Teacher #2 \| \| Teacher #1 \| Jenny Lisk \| Teacher #1 \| \| Principal \| Susan Brenz \| Principal \| Addendums The targets listed below meet minimum expectations. Campuses are responsible for meeting the CIP targets as well as state and federal accountability targets. \| Content \| Gr. \| Campus \| 2023 Cluster \| Student Group \| Tested \| 2023 Approaches Grade Level \| 2024 Approaches Growth Target \| 2024 Approaches Grade Level \| 2023 Mean Grade Level \| 2024 Means Incremental Growth Target \| 2024: Meets Grade Level \| 2025: Meets Grade Level \| 2024 Means Incremental Growth Target \| 2024 Means Grade Level \| \|---------\|-----\|--------\|--------------\|---------------\|--------\|-----------------------------\|-------------------------------\|------------------------\|----------------------\|---------------------------------\|---------------------\|---------------------\|---------------------------------\|-----------------------\| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| All \| 163 \| 138 \| 85% \| 86% \| 82% \| 95 \| 58% \| 59% \| 58% \| 43 \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Hispanic \| 56 \| 44 \| 79% \| 80% \| 77% \| 33 \| 59% \| 60% \| 47% \| 11 \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Am. Indian \| 1 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Asian \| 29 \| 29 \| 100% \| 100% \| 90% \| 24 \| 83% \| 84% \| 74% \| 14 \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| African Am. \| 34 \| 28 \| 82% \| 83% \| 73% \| 12 \| 35% \| 36% \| 45% \| * \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Pac. Islander \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| White \| 40 \| 35 \| 88% \| 89% \| 90% \| 25 \| 63% \| 64% \| 67% \| 14 \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Two or More \| 3 \| * \| * \| 78% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Eco. Dis. \| 84 \| 68 \| 81% \| 82% \| 75% \| 43 \| 51% \| 52% \| 49% \| 19 \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Emergent Bilingual \| 17 \| 13 \| 76% \| 77% \| 67% \| 9 \| 53% \| 54% \| 33% \| 6 \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| At-Risk \| 68 \| 51 \| 75% \| 76% \| 69% \| 34 \| 50% \| 51% \| 43% \| 17 \| \| Math \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| SPED \| 15 \| 7 \| 47% \| 48% \| 55% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| All \| 174 \| 145 \| 83% \| 84% \| 72% \| 96 \| 55% \| 56% \| 45% \| 39 \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Hispanic \| 74 \| 59 \| 80% \| 81% \| 69% \| 36 \| 49% \| 50% \| 40% \| 14 \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Am. Indian \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Asian \| 30 \| 28 \| 93% \| 94% \| 93% \| 24 \| 80% \| 81% \| 90% \| 10 \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| African Am. \| 21 \| 18 \| 86% \| 87% \| 66% \| 10 \| 48% \| 49% \| 20% \| 5 \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Pac. Islander \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| White \| 43 \| 34 \| 79% \| 80% \| 70% \| 20 \| 47% \| 48% \| 43% \| 7 \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Tutor or More \| 6 \| 6 \| 100% \| 100% \| * \| 6 \| 100% \| 101% \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Eco. Dis. \| 97 \| 73 \| 75% \| 76% \| 68% \| 44 \| 45% \| 46% \| 39% \| 16 \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Emergent Bilingual \| 16 \| 12 \| 75% \| 76% \| 61% \| 8 \| 50% \| 51% \| 43% \| * \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| At-Risk \| 78 \| 55 \| 71% \| 72% \| 55% \| 34 \| 44% \| 45% \| 35% \| 12 \| \| Math \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| SPED \| 18 \| 10 \| 56% \| 57% \| 35% \| 5 \| 28% \| 29% \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| All \| 188 \| 165 \| 88% \| 89% \| 85% \| 108 \| 57% \| 58% \| 61% \| 42 \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Hispanic \| 69 \| 58 \| 84% \| 85% \| 84% \| 32 \| 46% \| 47% \| 56% \| 7 \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Am. Indian \| 1 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Asian \| 36 \| 34 \| 94% \| 95% \| 91% \| 28 \| 78% \| 79% \| 88% \| 15 \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| African Am. \| 39 \| 32 \| 82% \| 83% \| 76% \| 18 \| 46% \| 47% \| 44% \| 7 \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Pac. Islander \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| White \| 36 \| 34 \| 94% \| 95% \| 87% \| 26 \| 72% \| 73% \| 58% \| 11 \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Two or More \| 7 \| 6 \| 86% \| 87% \| 83% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Eco. Dis. \| 108 \| 92 \| 85% \| 86% \| 73% \| 52 \| 48% \| 49% \| 46% \| 16 \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Emergent Bilingual \| 24 \| 22 \| 92% \| 93% \| 55% \| 13 \| 54% \| 55% \| 35% \| * \| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| At-Risk \| 93 \| 75 \| 81% \| 82% \| 74% \| 37 \| 40% \| 41% \| 44% \| 12 \| The targets listed below meet minimum expectations. Campuses are responsible for meeting the CIP targets as well as state and federal accountability targets. \| Content \| Gr. \| Campus \| 2023 Cluster \| Student Group \| Tested \| 2023 Approaches Grade Level \| 2024 Approaches Growth Target \| 2024 Approaches Grade Level \| 2023 Mean Grade Level \| 2024 Means Incremental Growth Target \| 2024: Meets Grade Level \| 2025: Means Grade Level \| 2024 Means Incremental Growth Target \| 2024 Means Grade Level \| \|---------\|-----\|--------\|--------------\|---------------\|--------\|-----------------------------\|-------------------------------\|------------------------\|----------------------\|---------------------------------\|------------------------\|------------------------\|---------------------------------\|------------------------\| \| Math \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| SPED \| 22 \| 17 \| 77% \| 78% \| 52% \| 8 \| 36% \| 37% \| 22% \| * \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| All \| 163 \| 147 \| 90% \| 91% \| 89% \| 112 \| 69% \| 70% \| 58 \| 36% \| 37% \| 43% \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Hispanic \| 56 \| 52 \| 93% \| 94% \| 85% \| 38 \| 68% \| 69% \| 18 \| 32% \| 33% \| 38% \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Am. Indian \| 1 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Asian \| 29 \| 28 \| 97% \| 98% \| 95% \| 27 \| 93% \| 94% \| 17 \| 59% \| 60% \| 50% \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| African Am. \| 34 \| 27 \| 79% \| 80% \| 86% \| 17 \| 50% \| 51% \| 5 \| 15% \| 16% \| 32% \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Pac. Islander \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| White \| 40 \| 37 \| 93% \| 94% \| 93% \| 28 \| 70% \| 71% \| 16 \| 40% \| 41% \| 50% \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Two or More \| 3 \| * \| * \| 89% \| * \| * \| * \| 56% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Eco. Dis. \| 84 \| 74 \| 88% \| 89% \| 85% \| 52 \| 62% \| 63% \| 23 \| 27% \| 28% \| 36% \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Emergent Bilingual \| 17 \| 16 \| 94% \| 95% \| 67% \| 10 \| 59% \| 60% \| 44% \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| At-Risk \| 68 \| 58 \| 85% \| 86% \| 73% \| 39 \| 57% \| 58% \| 15 \| 22% \| 23% \| 22% \| \| Reading \| 3 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| SPED \| 15 \| 12 \| 80% \| 81% \| 55% \| * \| * \| 25% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| All \| 174 \| 149 \| 86% \| 87% \| 92% \| 93 \| 53% \| 54% \| 49 \| 28% \| 29% \| 36% \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Hispanic \| 74 \| 62 \| 84% \| 85% \| 95% \| 32 \| 43% \| 44% \| 18 \| 24% \| 25% \| 32% \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Am. Indian \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Asian \| 30 \| 29 \| 97% \| 98% \| 100% \| 21 \| 70% \| 71% \| 8 \| 27% \| 28% \| 60% \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| African Am. \| 21 \| 17 \| 81% \| 82% \| 86% \| 12 \| 57% \| 58% \| 9 \| 43% \| 44% \| 14% \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Pac. Islander \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| White \| 43 \| 35 \| 81% \| 82% \| 89% \| 23 \| 53% \| 54% \| 11 \| 26% \| 27% \| 43% \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Two or More \| 6 \| 6 \| 100% \| 100% \| * \| 5 \| 83% \| 84% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Eco. Dis. \| 97 \| 77 \| 79% \| 80% \| 91% \| 42 \| 43% \| 44% \| 23 \| 24% \| 25% \| 29% \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Emergent Bilingual \| 16 \| 13 \| 81% \| 82% \| 87% \| 5 \| 31% \| 32% \| 52% \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| At-Risk \| 78 \| 62 \| 79% \| 80% \| 87% \| 30 \| 38% \| 39% \| 13 \| 17% \| 18% \| 27% \| \| Reading \| 4 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| SPED \| 18 \| 9 \| 50% \| 51% \| 76% \| * \| * \| 29% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| All \| 189 \| 171 \| 90% \| 91% \| 87% \| 127 \| 67% \| 68% \| 65 \| 34% \| 35% \| 42% \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Hispanic \| 70 \| 64 \| 91% \| 92% \| 81% \| 42 \| 60% \| 61% \| 18 \| 26% \| 27% \| 32% \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Am. Indian \| 1 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Asian \| 36 \| 34 \| 94% \| 95% \| 91% \| 26 \| 72% \| 73% \| 16 \| 44% \| 45% \| 60% \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| African Am. \| 39 \| 32 \| 82% \| 83% \| 96% \| 25 \| 64% \| 65% \| 7 \| 18% \| 19% \| 36% \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Pac. Islander \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| White \| 36 \| 34 \| 94% \| 95% \| 89% \| 27 \| 75% \| 76% \| 19 \| 53% \| 54% \| 42% \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Two or More \| 7 \| 6 \| 86% \| 87% \| 83% \| 6 \| 86% \| 87% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Eco. Dis. \| 109 \| 95 \| 87% \| 88% \| 76% \| 66 \| 61% \| 62% \| 51% \| 32% \| 29% \| 30% \| 29% \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Emergent Bilingual \| 24 \| 20 \| 83% \| 84% \| 45% \| 13 \| 54% \| 55% \| 5 \| 21% \| 22% \| * \| The targets listed below meet minimum expectations. Campuses are responsible for meeting the CIP targets as well as state and federal accountability targets. \| Content \| Gr. \| Campus \| 2023 Cluster \| Student Group \| Tested \| 2023 Approaches Grade Level \| 2024 Approaches Growth Target \| 2024 Approaches Grade Level \| 2023 Meets Incremental Growth Target \| 2024 Meets Incremental Growth Target \| 2024 Meets Incremental Growth Target \| 2024 Meets Grade Level \| \|---------\|-----\|--------\|--------------\|---------------\|--------\|-----------------------------\|-------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|--------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------\|-----------------------\| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| At-Risk \| 94 \| 77 \| 82% \| 83% \| 75% \| 47 \| 50% \| 51% \| 47% \| 18 \| 19% \| 20% \| 28% \| \| Reading \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| SPED \| 22 \| 14 \| 64% \| 65% \| 57% \| * \| * \| * \| 26% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| All \| 187 \| 152 \| 81% \| 82% \| 76% \| 87 \| 47% \| 48% \| 43% \| 43 \| 23% \| 24% \| 21% \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Hispanic \| 69 \| 55 \| 80% \| 81% \| 68% \| 23 \| 33% \| 34% \| 32% \| 11 \| 16% \| 17% \| 16% \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Am. Indian \| 1 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Asian \| 36 \| 31 \| 86% \| 87% \| 84% \| 21 \| 58% \| 59% \| 63% \| 14 \| 39% \| 40% \| 38% \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| African Am. \| 38 \| 26 \| 68% \| 69% \| 76% \| 14 \| 37% \| 38% \| 40% \| 5 \| 13% \| 14% \| * \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Pac. Islander \| 0 \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| White \| 36 \| 34 \| 94% \| 95% \| 82% \| 25 \| 69% \| 70% \| 44% \| 12 \| 33% \| 34% \| 20% \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Two or More \| 7 \| 5 \| 71% \| 72% \| 83% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Eco. Dis. \| 107 \| 81 \| 76% \| 77% \| 63% \| 41 \| 38% \| 39% \| 31% \| 19 \| 18% \| 19% \| 17% \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| Emergent Bilingual \| 24 \| 18 \| 75% \| 76% \| 40% \| 7 \| 29% \| 30% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| At-Risk \| 92 \| 62 \| 67% \| 68% \| 61% \| 24 \| 26% \| 27% \| 23% \| 10 \| 11% \| 12% \| 11% \| \| Science \| 5 \| Woodard\| ES 3 \| SPED \| 22 \| 11 \| 50% \| 51% \| 52% \| 9 \| 41% \| 42% \| * \| * \| * \| * \| * \| The following activities will no longer appear in the District Improvement Plan or the Campus Improvement Plans, since they represent practices that are expected to happen in an ongoing manner to provide instructional “standard operating procedures.” Curriculum and Instruction - The District provides a common curriculum for all subjects at every grade level with appropriate learning experiences based on the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) and ensures that all students, no matter which campus they attend, receive the same curriculum. - The District curriculum staff updates and revises the curriculum regularly considering teacher input, state and district assessment data, and current research and best practices. The curriculum includes scope and sequence, pacing guides, instructional resources, model lessons, and assessment items that support the content area while addressing the needs of a diverse student population. - The District curriculum resides in Schoology, the learning management system. Schoology is used to its fullest capacity: lesson planning, resource selection, assessments, data digging, and data interpretations for instructional decisions. Teacher teams, campus administrators and district staff use Performance Matters to disaggregate assessment data using various reports that allow them to view data at a district, campus, teacher, classroom and individual level. - Teacher teams meet weekly (the appropriate number of times using Schoology) to plan collaboratively and develop effective, relevant lessons that focus on creating classroom experiences that meet students’ needs while maximizing first-time instruction and learning. These classroom experiences provide opportunities in which students - use technology (including but not limited to Chromebooks, online textbooks, animations/videos, simulations, reports, assessments, information graphics, probe ware, graphing calculators, programs, etc.) to support the learning of the TEKS; - generate and translate between multiple representations (graphs, diagrams, pictures, equations, tables, poems, advertisements, etc.); - develop academic language proficiency through speaking, reading, writing, and listening; - develop stamina to solve complex problems, read long passages and questions, and transfer knowledge to other situations and/or disciplines; and - have time to make sense of their learning (reflective journaling, student discourse, collaborative group work, Socratic seminars, etc.). - The District provides and campuses follow student placement guidelines and scheduling protocols (Blue Book, Elementary Administrative Handbook, Master’s Scheduler Handbook, etc.) ensuring that students are placed in the appropriate classrooms/programs and are ready and able to achieve at high levels. Monitoring - Campus leaders use various strategies, processes, and/or procedures to monitor the standard expectations to ensure fidelity. Examples include but are not limited to - review of lesson plans; - participation in team planning by administrators; - participation in data review/data dig sessions; and - monitor Schoology use. - Campus leaders gather data, and coach teams and individual teachers in order to improve the impact of first-time instruction and learning. Assessment and Data Analysis - The District develops and campuses administer assessments (District Progress Monitors, benchmark assessments, unit tests, check points, etc.) based on the established assessment calendars. - Teacher teams review student data from multiple sources (DPMs, benchmark assessments, unit tests, check points, etc.) and develop a response that supports and defines methods for re-teaching and re-evaluating to ensure all students learn the content. - Each teacher reviews data at the individual student level in an effort to adjust instruction and provide support so that every student has opportunity to master the content. Updated July 2021 / HB Elementary Content Area Standard Expectations Literacy (Reading and Writing) - Maximize instructional time by developing, posting, and consistently following a literacy schedule. - Teach/re-teach the reading and writing process throughout the school year and ensure that students read and write each day. - Foundational TEKS should be taught daily through explicit and systematic instruction. - Utilize reading and writing strategies to teach and reinforce critical TEKS (think aloud, modeling reading and writing processes in lessons, interactive read aloud with accountable talk, independent reading and writing, small group instruction, conferring, and whole group share time). - Use varied, authentic literature as mentor texts in reading and writing. - Allow student choice during independent reading time from classroom and digital libraries. - Post and use anchor charts, created with students, in literacy classrooms. - Maintain a monitoring notebook as documentation of individual student’s progress observed during small group instruction and/or reading/writing conferences. - Use varied, research-based strategies to teach revising and editing skills and apply language conventions within the context of writing. - Use District and campus data to differentiate literacy instruction using individual conferences, small group instruction, and/or strategy group instruction. - Integrate social studies and theater arts TEKS in literacy classes through read aloud and the reading and writing block. - 1:1 Technology in the Language Arts classroom should provide opportunities for students to: - Use Chromebook devices to engage in face-to-face and digital creation and collaboration - Locate and access information and resources stored in different platforms such as Google Drive and Schoology - Communicate and share conclusions using digital tools such as Google Suite, Flipgrid, WeVideo etc. - Incorporate the use of digital tools such as: - Google Suite - Scholastic Literacy Pro - Scholastic Storyworks (2nd-5th) - Boost Reading - Amira Suite - HMH Suite - Library Resources - Schoology - Incorporate the use of technology inside the Language Arts classroom when it is the most effective and developmentally appropriate tool for the task being asked of the student - Utilize only after explicit and systematic instruction of literacy processes has occurred and not in place of first instruction. Mathematics - Model and expect students to use a problem-solving process. - Post and use classroom-created anchor charts in math classrooms. - Facilitate fact fluency/numeracy for 10-15 minutes daily during math instruction to develop automaticity. This can be accomplished using ST Math Puzzle Talks, Number Talks, Math Talks, CFISD Fact Fluency Plan, ORIGO Box of Facts, and other content conversation routines. - “Procedural fluency refers to knowledge of procedures, knowledge or when and how to use them appropriately, and skill in performing them flexibly, accurately, and efficiently.” NRC (2001) - Automaticity is fast recall of facts which seemingly appear instant. - Use math manipulatives to help students develop concept understandings. - Include teaching strategies and questions designed to promote higher-level thinking in lesson plans to improve first-time learning, which includes time for productive struggle. - Use and encourage students to use precise mathematical vocabulary. - Use Interactive Math Notebooks in 2nd-5th grade. - Incorporate the use of small-group instruction to meet the needs of individual learners. - Encourage student discourse/discussion including “what do you notice/wonder” and justifications. - 1:1 Technology in the math classroom should provide opportunities for students to: - Use Chromebook devices to engage in digital creation and collaboration - Incorporate the use of digital tools such as ST Math, Gizmos, ClassFlow, Interactive Textbook, Schoology, Google Suite, etc. - Incorporate the use of technology inside the math classroom when it is the most effective tool for the task being asked of the student - Communicate and share products using digital tools such as Google Suites, WeVideo, FlipGrid, etc. - Use technology to discover relationships and/or make connections between representations of mathematics, beyond skills practice Science Teachers will develop science-literate students by creating learning opportunities using the 5E Instructional Model (grades 2-5) that engage students in scientific practices that require them to - Ask questions, identify problems, plan and conduct classroom and field investigations to answer questions according to grade-level TEKS expectations (K-1 = 80% of the time, 2nd-3rd = 60% of the time, 4th-5th = 50% of the time). - Use a science notebook (grades 2-5) to collect and organize data in simple graphs, tables, maps, and charts. - Analyze data using math to derive meaning, identify patterns, and discover relationships. - Engage in a common inquiry experience to make sense of and develop scientific concepts and vocabulary. - Develop evidence-based explanations and communicate findings, conclusions, and proposed solutions. - Engage respectfully in scientific discussion by listening, speaking, reading, and scientific writing. - Incorporate the use of technology when it is the most effective tool for the task. - 1:1 Technology in the science classroom should provide opportunities for students to: - Use Chromebook devices to engage in face-to-face and digital collaboration; - Locate and access information and resources stored in different platforms such as Google Drive and Schoology - Explore simulations (e.g. Explore Learning Gizmos, Interactive textbook, etc.); - Collect and represent data using digital tools such as digital microscopes, Google Suite, etc; - Communicate and share conclusions using digital tools such as; Google Suite, Flipgrid, WeVideo etc. Elementary Physical Education/Health (K-5) - Utilize best practices for providing skills-based instruction in elementary physical education and health - Utilize best practices to achieve moderate to vigorous physical activity - Differentiate teaching strategies to meet individual student needs including allowing for student choice when possible and appropriate - Provide engaging instruction with the goal of promoting the development of lifelong health and fitness - Utilize technology to encourage movement and physical activity as appropriate - Utilize district curriculum resources available to teachers to provide rigorous and relevant learning experiences - Provide the required fitness assessments for students in grades three, four, and five - Participate in activities and events that promote school and community involvement Elementary Music (K–5) - Develop the singing voice as the foundation of music learning through folk, patriotic, seasonal, and songs of diverse genres - Provide music experiences through activities that include listening, movement, improvisation, and playing a variety of classroom pitched and unpitched instruments - Create lessons and utilize activities that develop understanding of the elements of music such as rhythm, dynamics, melody, harmony, tone color (timbre), texture, and form - Utilize district curriculum resources available to teachers to provide rigorous and relevant learning experiences - Use 1:1 technology as a resource for self-exploration of topics and careers in music - Encourage students to connect learning in music with other areas of knowledge such as math, reading, and social studies - Participate in activities and events that promote school and community involvement Visual Arts (K–5) - Model and teach artistic thinking – which means prompting curiosity and asking questions to develop ideas. - Create open-ended lessons encouraging the voice and experiences of students through creative approaches and unique solutions. - Introduce a variety of processes/media to demonstrate skills and techniques (not solutions). - Explore careers associated with visual culture. - Encourage students to connect learning in art with other areas of knowledge such as math, reading, and social studies. - Reflect on teaching practices to enhance professional development. - Utilize the resources available to teachers including the CFISD adopted instructional materials, 1:1 technology, CFISD Benchmarks and CFISD Curriculum Standards. - Encourage excellence by providing multiple opportunities for the students to compete in various settings including the Houston Rodeo School Art Contest, and the Texas Elementary Art Meet (TEAM contest). - Participate in activities and events that promote school and community involvement, such as campus and districtwide art exhibits.	f0d4ba1d-8da4-4f34-9b61-dc77e6e5c01b	CC-MAIN-2024-42	https://resources.finalsite.net/images/v1727450462/cfisdnet/dga18q4cashj9gbkcxt3/WoodardFinal2023CIP.pdf	2024-10-07T21:41:27+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-42/segments/1727944253503.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20241007192741-20241007222741-00423.warc.gz	435,620,541	18,517	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.958797	eng_Latn	0.991375	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "por_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 81, 675, 3402, 5670, 7805, 10054, 11438, 13909, 14788, 16954, 18968, 20122, 20563, 22320, 25573, 28298, 30603, 33202, 35382, 36687, 39145, 40857, 43265, 44490, 46557, 47886, 50709, 50720, 62600, 76806, 84638, 88633, 92992, 97423 ]	[ 1.4375, 3.859375 ]	1	0
AL FURQAN ANNUAL QURAN COMPETITION 2024 Study Guide CATEGORY 10 What's the Big Idea? “About what are they asking one another? About the great news” Surat an-Naba’ is named after the word (an-Naba’) mentioned in its second ayah, which means (the news). Do you know, my dear kids, what does Allah want to tell us here? He wants to tell us something about the Day of Judgment. In the Shade of the Ayat “Indeed, the Day of Judgement is an appointed “time” يوم الفصل is one of the names of the Day of Judgment. It is the day when life on earth will come to an end and the life of the Hereafter will begin. On that Day, Allah will give every person what he deserves - He will enter the believers to Jannah and punish the disbelievers in the Hellfire. Believing in the Day of Judgment is one of the pillars of faith, which every Muslim should believe in. “Indeed, for the righteous is attainment” Allah gave good news to His servants who do good deeds that He loves them – He told them that they will be admitted to Jannah. So, every Muslim who likes to be from among the people of Jannah should do many good deeds in order to be with them. Quran Knowledge & Action I always choose to do good deeds – which Allah loves and commands – so that He is pleased with me and takes me to His Jannah. In the Shade of the Ayat "Or add to it, and recite the Quran with measured recitation". When a Muslim wants to recite few ayat of Al Quran, he should not rush but recite them slowly and calmly; practicing rules of Tajweed and making proper pronunciation of it's words. For if he is mindful when reciting the Quran, he will understand it and his Iman will be increased. " [He is] the lord of the East and the West; there is no deity except Him, so take Him as Disposer of [your] affairs." Muslims rely upon Allah SWT and seek His help when they face difficulties, because Allah SWT is the Caretaker of everything on this earth. Who deserves to be taken as a refugee other than Him SWT? Who does have the power to help us better than Allah SWT? No one. Quran Knowledge & Action When you are sad, just remember that Allah SWT IS with you and near you. Keep your tongue moist with Allah's remembrance. Get to know Him SWT more, for He SWT is with His servants in difficulty and ease. "And [there is a share for] those who came after them, saying 'our lord, forgive us and our brothers who preceded us in faith and put not in our heart [any] resentment towards those who have believed. Our lord, indeed, You are kind and Merciful'. This ayah teaches us a dua to seek Allah's forgiveness for ourselves and for those who came to faith before us. We learn also to ask Allah SWT to remove from our heart envy, hatred and grudges toward our believing brothers and sisters. Because we like for them what we like for ourselves. "O you who have believed, fear Allah. And let every soul look to what it has put forth for tomorrow and fear Allah. Indeed, Allah is Acquainted with what you do". A Muslim is constantly watching out for his actions and intentions. He calls himself to account when he falls short of acting good. For he knows that whatever he is doing of good or bad in this worldly life if recorded with Allah, the All-Aware. And that Allah swt will compensate his good act with goodness and his bad act with punishment and disgrace. So, he should adhere to Taqwa and fear of Allah, the Al mighty, in order to be enveloped with the mercy of Allah." Before I sleep, I take note of what I have done during my day- I call myself to account to seek forgiveness of Allah SWT for any shortcoming I committed. I renew my intention to do more acts of obedience and abstain from doing evil acts All along my life.	e6105f98-6e0d-4642-8f44-ad39b74e37c7	CC-MAIN-2024-51	https://schools.macnet.ca/alfurqanpt/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/2024/10/Study-Guide-CAT10.pdf	2024-12-12T16:48:54+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066110042.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20241212155226-20241212185226-00022.warc.gz	471,517,334	859	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998744	eng_Latn	0.998807	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 65, 1293, 2278, 3448, 3705 ]	[ 2.484375 ]	2	0
FOX MIDDLE SCHOOL COURSE DESCRIPTION GUIDE 2024-2025 FOX MIDDLE SCHOOL Fox Middle School 743 Jeffco Blvd. Arnold, MO 63010 Phone 636-296-5077 Fax 636-282-5171 http://foxms.fox.k12.mo.us/ Twitter: @FoxMiddleSchool Dear Students and Parents, I am excited to begin another successful school year with each of you. The purpose of this specific course description guide is to inform you of some basic information about the courses offered at Fox Middle School as you begin registration for the 22-23 school year. The main purpose of middle school is to prepare students for a successful entrance into high school while addressing their physical, emotional, and intellectual needs as adolescents. Long range planning is a critical step. You will note that all our academic classes are rigorous and are aligned for more opportunities in high school. In following the middle school philosophy, students will have opportunities to participate in many exploratory classes as his/her schedule will allow. All students are required to take Language Arts, Social Studies, Science, Math, and PE classes. We offer both grade level and advanced level courses. The exploratory classes include district level electives and building specific electives (and are subject to change). It is not too early to begin thinking about college and careers. College entrance requirements are becoming more restrictive each year and early planning is almost an absolute. Your counselor will help you through this process. We realize that each child is unique and this guide will help you with information on the various courses we offer. If you have any questions about this guide, please do not hesitate to contact us. We will work together to ensure a great school year! Sincerely, Marilyn Jackson Principal Middle School # Table of Contents \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| Letter from the Principal \| 1 \| \| Table of Contents \| 2 \| \| How to Use this Guide \| 3 \| \| INTRO \| 3 \| \| FMS MAIN OFFICE \| 3 \| \| COUNSELING CONTACTS \| 3 \| \| REGISTRATION INFORMATION \| 3 \| \| BELL SCHEDULE \| 3 \| \| Grade Level and Advanced Courses \| 4 \| \| Academic Support Programs \| 6 \| \| ICAP \| 7 \| \| English / Language Arts \| 8 \| \| Courses Offered: \| 8 \| \| Course Descriptions: \| 8-9 \| \| Social Studies \| 10 \| \| Courses Offered: \| 10 \| \| Course Descriptions: \| 10 \| \| Science \| 11 \| \| Courses Offered: \| 11 \| \| Course Descriptions: \| 11 \| \| Math \| 12 \| \| Courses Offered: \| 12 \| \| Course Descriptions: \| 12 \| \| Elective Courses \| 13-14\| \| District Elective Courses Offered: \| 13-14\| \| Building Elective Courses Offered: \| 14 \| \| District Elective Courses \| 15 \| \| Course Descriptions: \| 15-18\| \| Elective Courses \| 18 \| \| Course Descriptions: \| 18 \| How to Use this Guide Introduction This course description guide will help inform students and parents about the courses offered at Fox Middle School. Middle school is designed to prepare students for a successful entrance into high school while addressing their physical, emotional, and intellectual needs as adolescents. Please note all students are required to take English Language Arts, Social Studies, Science, Math, & PE classes. Students also have opportunities to participate in exploratory classes as his/her schedule will allow. FMS MAIN OFFICE Phone - 636-296-5077 Fax - 636-282-5171 Principal - Dr. Marilyn Jackson - firstname.lastname@example.org Asst. Principal - Mr. Craig Coleman email@example.com Main Office Secretary - Mrs. Cherish Rauch - firstname.lastname@example.org Nurse - Ms. Cindy Thornberry - email@example.com COUNSELING CONTACTS Mr. Bradley Fincher- firstname.lastname@example.org Mrs. Abbie Summers email@example.com REGISTRATION INFORMATION TBD BELL SCHEDULE TBD Middle school is the perfect time to start exploring your interests and see how far you can push yourself academically. Taking advanced classes in middle school allows you to learn new things and gain new experiences that will help you later in life. Please see the criteria listed below that is used when considering your student for advanced classes at the middle school level. \| Am I ready for advanced course work? \| In order to be placed in advanced courses your teacher will complete a Student Data Sheet documenting your reading, writing, and math achievement. \| \|-------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 6th Grade Advanced Criteria \| ELA (meet 3 of the following 5 criteria) - Winter NWEA RIT score of 222 or above - Score high in Reading/Evaluating Literary Text - Score high in Reading/Evaluating Informational Text - Score high in Vocabulary Development - Score a 3 or 4 on the District Unit 2 post-assessment MATH (meet 3 of the following 5 criteria) - Winter NWEA RIT score of 228 or above - Score high in Relationships/Algebraic Thinking - Score high in Number Sense/Operations - Score a 3 or 4 on the District Unit 3 post-assessment - Score a qualifying score on the math benchmark assessment \| \| 7th Grade Advanced \| ELA (meet 3 of the following 5 criteria) - Winter NWEA RIT score of 227 or above - Score high in Reading/Evaluating Literary Text - Score high in Reading/Evaluating Informational Text - Score high in Vocabulary Development - Score a 3 or 4 on the District Unit 2 post-assessment MATH - Currently passing their advanced math class in 6th grade Social Studies - if the student qualifies for ELA, they qualify for Social Studies. Science - if the student is in advance Math as a 6th grader, they qualify for Science. \| \| 8th Grade Advanced \| ELA/MATH - Currently passing their advanced Math/ELA class in 7th grade. \| Response to Intervention (RTI) Part of the Fox C6 Continuous Improvement Plan (CSIP) includes academic achievement for all students. To ensure that our students are graduating from our district as college and career ready, our teachers work in Professional Learning Communities (PLC). Their work is centered around 4 corollary questions: - What do we want all students to learn? - How will we know they have learned it? - What will we do if they don’t learn? - What will we do if they have learned it? RTI focuses on question 3 which is what do we do if our students don’t learn? When students face academic challenges we have a systematic approach to ensure they succeed. Many interventions are developed keeping each student’s unique strengths and needs at the forefront. Some of the interventions include, parent conferences, tutoring, homework recovery, additional school instruction through a course designed for specific targeted intervention etc. which may require a schedule change. A team consisting of administrators, teachers, and counselors will determine which intervention is appropriate. We assure you that proper academic interventions will be provided for our students to succeed at our middle school and look forward to partnering with the parents in this. Individualized Academic Support For a student with an Individualized Education Plan (IEP), the IEP team which includes educators and parents determines the educational placement for educational services for each student in the least restrictive environment. RSP - Reading Support Plans According to Senate Bill 681, students who have deficits in reading, will receive a reading support plan to address their needs. This reading support plan will be written for students who are one or more grade levels below in reading and/or students who have been identified as being at risk for dyslexia. Students will qualify for an RSP based on state approved assessments and additional district screeners. Interventionist Each middle school will have an interventionist on site a few days a week to provide support for students struggling in Math and/or ELA. English Language Arts Courses Offered: \| Course Title \| Grade Level \| \|---------------------------\|-------------\| \| \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| \| Grade Level Language Arts \| X \| X \| X \| \| Advanced Language Arts \| X \| X \| X \| \| Literacy \| X \| X \| X \| Course Descriptions: The Missouri Learning Standards for English Language Arts emphasize writing for three purposes: 1. writing informational texts 2. writing academic argument based on evidence and reasoning 3. writing narratives When addressing reading, the standards emphasize three modes of reading: 1. Approaching text as a reader to engage with ideas and understand people and the world, 2. Reading as a writer to study the craft of writing and learn how authors capture readers’ attention, influence opinions, and communicate important ideas, 3. Reading as a researcher to understand, evaluate, organize, and remember information about topics of study. Each English Language Arts course in middle school addresses these standards through thematic units. These units provide students rich opportunities to read and write for real purposes. Students read a balance of fiction and nonfiction. The readings provide opportunities for class discussion and study of the style and content choices writers make. Students learn to use advanced academic vocabulary, and to edit their writing for clarity and conventions. Literacy: An extension of the ELA curriculum; this course offers students the opportunity to engage with literature and participate in collaborative discussions, authentic learning opportunities, and writing projects to encourage growth in literacy. See Academic Support Programs for tiered Literacy support 6th-grade English Language Arts: This grade-level course will introduce students to the various ways people talk and write about literature. Reading skills will emphasize selecting evidence to support opinions about character, setting, conflict, and point of view. Writing skills will emphasize building organized paragraphs and including evidence from sources. 6th-grade Advanced English Language Arts: This advanced course will focus on internal and external connections to texts with a focus on evidence-based constructed-response. Critical thinking regarding the elements of text and supporting with textual evidence will be at the center of the work in this course. Students will write complex responses and writing pieces with a focus on audience, complex techniques, and varying genres. 7th-grade English Language Arts: This grade-level course emphasizes students combining multiple pieces of evidence to support their opinions. Students study the structure of texts and how structure influences what people remember and understand. Students will compare and contrast multiple versions of a story, drama, or a poem to consider how different media use different techniques to communicate. 7th-grade Advanced English Language Arts: This advanced course introduces students to the literary analysis of theme and literary elements. Students produce creative works with attention to style and word-choice. They also conduct research and write evidence-based opinions using appropriate sources. 8th-grade English Language Arts: This grade-level course emphasizes connecting works of literature to the cultural and historic events of specified time-periods. Students learn to notice the author's bias while studying the techniques authors use to support arguments with evidence. They will also analyze literary devices and compare texts from specified time-periods. 8th-grade Advanced English Language Arts: This advanced course has been designed to prepare students for advanced language arts courses at high school. Literary analysis of entire works of fiction, longer research based informational texts, and evidence based opinion writing will be the emphasis of this course. Students participating in this course are those who seek eventual AP level coursework in high school. Social Studies Courses Offered: \| Course Title \| Grade Level \| \|--------------------------------------\|-------------\| \| \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| \| Ancient World History and Geography \| X \| \| \| \| Geography and Modern World Cultures \| \| X \| \| \| Advanced Geography and Modern World Cultures \| \| X \| \| \| Early US History \| \| \| X \| \| Advanced Early US History \| \| \| X \| Course Descriptions: 6th Grade Social Studies: Ancient World History and Geography—In 6th grade the course will explore the geography, history (ancient through medieval), government, economics, religion and culture. The emphasis would be for students to gain an understanding and appreciation of the contributions of the ancient world. 7th Grade Social Studies: Geography and Modern World Cultures—This world cultures course is a combination of geography and cultural anthropology. It is designed to introduce the student to the concepts of culture in human experience and the concepts of geography. What culture is, how it develops, how it changes, and how it is transferred in time and space, and its power to influence our lives and events, are some of the main topics examined. Because of the substantial influence of religion on human cultures and history, understanding major world religions will also be a focus of this course. Of course, such topics as language, art, political ideologies, government types, gender roles, work, status and rank, war, and human rights are also examined. 7th Grade Advanced Social Studies: Geography and Modern World Cultures—Students with a passion for geography, travel, and world cultures will have the opportunity to extend their learning with advanced reading, and more independence as they read content-rich informational texts, and write using evidence to inform and persuade. 8th Grade Social Studies: Early US History—Students will conduct social science inquiries from Colonization through the Civil War. Emphasis will be placed on economics, government and politics, community and culture, and continuity and change. Students will compose informational and argumentative texts for authentic audiences and purposes. 8th Grade Advanced Social Studies: Early US History—Students with a passion of history and background knowledge in US geography will have the opportunity to extend their learning with advanced reading, and more independence as they read content-rich informational texts, and write using evidence to inform and persuade. Science Courses Offered: \| Course Title \| Grade Level \| \|-------------------------------\|-------------\| \| \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| \| Grade Level Science \| X \| X \| X \| \| Advanced Science \| \| X \| X \| Course Descriptions: 6th Grade Integrated Science: Structures of Life and the Earth – Sixth graders will study the scientific process, characteristics of living organisms, photosynthesis, ecosystems and populations, earth’s resources, technology, and human activity. 7th Grade Integrated Science: Interactions in Physics and Earth Science – Seventh grade science emphasis is on scientific inquiry and interrelationships between science and its practical applications. Some topics discussed are force and motion, water and weather, astronomy, magnetism, and gravity. 7th Grade Advanced Integrated Science: Interactions in Physics and Earth Science – Seventh graders with a passion for and some background knowledge in science will extend their study of unit topics by applying the ideas to additional topics and increasing their independence in reading and writing. Some topics discussed are force and motion, water and weather, astronomy, magnetism, and gravity. 8th Grade Integrated Science: Chemistry and Biology – Eighth grade science focuses on key scientific laws and theories in chemistry and life science. Some of the key topics will be atoms, elements, the periodic table, and chemical reaction in chemistry. Life science will cover cells, DNA, genetics, genetic disorders, and human body systems. 8th Grade Advanced Integrated Science: Chemistry and Biology – Eighth graders with a passion for and some background knowledge in science will extend their study of unit topics by applying the ideas to additional topics and increasing their independence in reading and writing. Math Courses Offered: \| Course Title \| Grade Level \| \|---------------------------\|-------------\| \| \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| \| Grade Level Math \| X \| X \| \| \| Advanced Math \| X \| \| \| \| Pre-Algebra \| \| X \| X \| \| College Prep Algebra \| \| \| X \| Course Descriptions: 6th Grade Math – Our sixth grade mathematics course covers applying and understanding whole numbers to millions, fractions and decimals to the thousandths. They must multiply and divide fractions and decimals; apply properties of operations, and solve problems using ratios. Students also begin to work with expressions and equations. Students study geometry, units of measurement, convert systems of measurement. 6th Grade Advanced Math – Sixth grade students who are interested in the challenge of above grade level math should consider taking this course. The course moves through the same units as the grade-level 7th grade math course with additional instruction with the few topics that are new in 6th grade. The course is challenging and students will be supported as they work in groups to model with math, solve problems, and reason mathematically. 7th Grade Math – Seventh grade math students work on representing math concepts in multiple ways. They work with positive and negative numbers, equivalent expressions and factoring, and solve geometric problems using scales. They are also introduced to the ideas of probability, statistics, and sampling. 7th Grade Advanced Math – Pre-Algebra – Seventh grade students who are interested in the challenge of above grade level math should consider taking this course. The course moves through the same units as the grade-level 8th grade pre-algebra course. The course is challenging and students will be supported as they work in groups to model with math, solve problems, and reason mathematically. 8th Grade Math – Pre-Algebra – Pre-algebra focuses heavily on equations, functions, and graphing. Students will learn how to analyze problems and apply a variety of strategies to solve them and communicate the solutions. In the geometry units, students study similar triangles, and learn to calculate the volume of a variety of cones, cylinders, and spheres. 8th Grade Advanced Math – College Prep Algebra: Eighth grade students who are interested in the challenge of above grade level math should consider taking this course. The course moves through the same units as the grade-level high school College Prep Algebra course. The course is challenging and students will be supported as they work in groups to model with math, solve problems, and reason mathematically. This course figures into the student’s high school GPA. Students who are successful in this course may earn high school credit in College Prep Algebra and move into advanced courses in 9th grade. The grade for this course is not weighed in the student’s high school GPA. Students in this course take the Algebra I End-of-Course exam. Once in high school these students will have to take the Algebra II End-of-Course exam to satisfy DESE requirements. ## Elective Courses ### District Elective Courses Offered: \| Course Title \| Grade Level \| \|-------------------------------------\|-------------\| \| \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| \| ART \| \| \| \| \| Art I \| X \| X \| X \| \| Art II, Prerequisite Art I \| \| X \| X \| \| Art III, Prerequisite Art II \| \| \| X \| \| BUSINESS \| \| \| \| \| Business Technology I \| X \| X \| X \| \| Business Technology II, Prerequisite Business I \| \| X \| X \| \| Business Technology III, Prerequisite Business II \| \| \| X \| \| FAMILY & CONSUMER SCIENCE (FACS)\| \| \| \| \| FACS I \| X \| X \| X \| \| FACS II, Prerequisite FACS I \| \| X \| X \| \| FACS III, Prerequisite FACS II \| \| \| X \| \| GIFTED \| \| \| \| \| Challenge \| X \| X \| X \| \| MUSIC \| \| \| \| \| Band and/or Choir \| X \| X \| X \| \| PHYSICAL EDUCATION \| \| \| \| \| Physical Education \| X \| X \| X \| \| PROJECT LEAD THE WAY (PLTW) \| \| \| \| \| Project Lead the Way: App Creators \| \| X \| X \| \| Course Title \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| Project Lead the Way: Computer Science for Designers and Innovators \| \| X \| X \| \| Project Lead the Way: Design and Modeling \| \| X \| X \| \| STEM \| \| \| \| \| Coding (STEM) \| X \| X \| X \| \| Exploring Technology \| X \| \| \| \| WORLD LANGUAGES \| \| \| \| \| Spanish A (Year-long) \| \| X \| \| \| Spanish B (Year-long) \| \| \| X \| Building Elective Courses Offered: \| Course Title \| Grade Level \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|-------------\| \| \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| \| Teen Leadership \| \| X \| X \| \| Music Appreciation \| X \| X \| X \| \| Contemporary Issues \| \| X \| X \| \| Exploratory Spanish (Sem) \| X \| X \| X \| \| Intro to Computer Engineering (by application) \| \| X \| X \| District Elective Courses Course Descriptions: ART Art I– In Art I, students will have the opportunity to create in two- and three-dimensional art formats using a variety of art materials and art techniques. Art vocabulary, art forms, aesthetic concepts, and aspects of art history will be presented. Art II– In this course, students will further explore ways to creatively express ideas and original designs with two and three-dimensional projects. Students will work on a variety of projects using many different types of media. They will experience projects in drawing, painting, sculpture, and design. They will be encouraged to communicate strong visual images, tell stories with artwork, and express unique and individual ideas. Prerequisite Art I Art III– This advanced art course is for students that have successfully completed Art I and Art II. Students will explore a variety of media while developing a portfolio that reflects critical thinking and their own personal style. Special emphasis will be placed on the critical art process and developing art skills. Prerequisite Art II BUSINESS Business Technology I - is designed to teach students basic Google Drive and Classroom skills, Digital Citizenship and Keyboarding. Students will also learn how to properly research and format a research paper/essay using Microsoft Word and Google Docs. Students will advance their presentation skills utilizing PowerPoint and Google Slides. All of these skills will be valuable to students for the rest of their academic careers. Business Technology II - is designed to further the student's knowledge once basic skills are learned. Students will learn advanced skills in Microsoft Word and Google Docs. Students will also be introduced to Microsoft Excel and will become proficient in laying out and analyzing basic spreadsheets, using formulas and making graphs. Students will explore publishing software to produce professional documents while also using film making software to enhance presentations. Prerequisite Business Tech I Business Technology III is a one-semester course designed for the advanced student to utilize skills learned in Business Technology 2 with a hands on business project using word processing features, spreadsheets, electronic presentations, publishing materials, and various computer programs. This course would benefit any student wanting to enrich their computer skills as well as prepare them for real life situations and future employment. Prerequisite Business Tech II FAMILY AND CONSUMERS SCIENCE (FACS) Family and Consumer Science I–This exploratory course introduces students to the subject of family and consumer science. Students study food and nutrition, leadership and character development, and clothing care. Students are introduced to food preparation/nutrition skills. The food and nutrition unit introduces nutrition and safety skills and basic measurement in relation to the preparation of recipes. Students will explore their personality and relationships with family and peers. Students will discover their values, goals and determine how they align with their personal needs and wants. Family and Consumer Science II–Students develop problem solving and cooperative skills during food lab experiences. Students will develop introductory culinary skills while preparing and serving a variety of foods. Construction of a creative textile project will emphasize design thinking and cost considerations. All the course activities will emphasize safety and teamwork in an interactive environment. Prerequisite FACS I Family and Consumer Science III–The third course in the FACS sequence emphasizes creativity and technical skills development. Students learn to balance cost, time, and quality considerations through problem solving, cooperation and hands-on skills learned during experiences. Prerequisite FACS II GIFTED EDUCATION Challenge – This class is the next level of REACH offered in elementary and is only open to 6th, 7th, and 8th graders who have been identified as gifted. Students will use critical thinking and problem solving to complete individual and group projects. Each year, students complete different units of study including creative writing, history’s great mysteries, local and national competitions, and have a lot of fun along the way! Our four main focuses are to become better creative thinkers, design thinkers, computational thinkers, and global thinkers. Students will be able to interact and work with like minded individuals while learning skills that will be the foundation of a rewarding and successful future. MUSIC Band - 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year band students develop in the areas of individual and ensemble tone, technique, intonation, balance and blend. Students will further develop their ability to sight read music and participate in assigned solos and small ensemble performances. Students are required to participate in concerts, parades and festivals throughout the school year. All 8th grade members will audition for placement in a high school ensemble at the beginning of 2nd semester. Prior experience is not required. Choir – 1st, 2nd, 3rd year students in Choir will develop skills reading musical notation and interpreting musical terminology. In this course, students will be able to sing their part independently and will perform in the ensemble before various types of audiences. Students will understand the role of music in the context of changing societies, past, present, and future. Students will appreciate the role of the performer in music and will learn the importance of working together with other musicians to achieve the desired level of performance. These students will experience the joy of striving for excellence through their musical performance. PHYSICAL EDUCATION PE/Health–Physical Education/Health (6-8 grade) will provide students the opportunity to learn and practice a variety of fundamental movement skills while participating in various games, team and individual/lifetime sports, as well as team building activities. Primary focus will be on skill development and application in games. Character education traits will be incorporated throughout the class. Physical fitness will be emphasized through the teaching of the principles of health and skill-related fitness. Health topics will be integrated throughout the course and will include nutrition, first aid, injury prevention and rehab, hygiene, drugs, disease, body systems, fitness, and mental health. PROJECT LEADE THE WAY (PLTW) PLTW: App Creators: Have you ever wondered how mobile apps are created? Students learn and apply computational thinking and technical knowledge and skills to create mobile apps. Students also acquire and apply skills pertaining to the design process, problem solving, persistence, collaboration, and communication. Go beyond being an app consumer and become an app creator! App Creators introduces students to the field of computer science and the concepts of computational thinking, through the creation of mobile apps. Students are challenged to be creative and innovative, as they collaboratively design and develop mobile solutions to engaging, authentic problems. Students experience the positive impact of the application of computer science to society as well as other disciplines, particularly biomedical science. PLTW: Computer Science for Designers and Innovators (7th & 8th)- Have you ever wondered how code can be used in wearable tech, art exhibits, or mechanical devices? Students learn about programming for the physical world by blending hardware design and software development. Using microcontrollers with inputs and outputs, they develop code that brings their physical designs to life. It’s time to become an innovator and maker using physical computing! Computer Science for Innovators and Makers teaches students that programming goes beyond the virtual world into the physical world. Students are challenged to creatively use sensors and actuators to develop systems that interact with their environment. Designing algorithms and using computational thinking practices, they code and upload programs to microcontrollers that perform a variety of authentic tasks. The unit broadens students’ understanding of computer science concepts through meaningful applications. Teams select and solve a personally relevant problem related to wearable technology, interactive art, or mechanical devices. PLTW: Design and Modeling (7th and 8th) - Have you ever wanted to create a toy or a device to help people? Students use tools such as the design process, a dynamic mathematics software, a computer-aided design program, computer simulations, an engineering notebook, and possibly a 3D printer to design, model, and build objects. Discover the design process and turn your ideas into realities! Design and Modeling (DM) provides students opportunities to apply the design process to creatively solve problems. Students are introduced to the unit problem in the first activity and are asked to make connections to the problem throughout the lessons in the unit. Students learn and utilize methods for communicating design ideas through sketches, solid models, and mathematical models. Students will understand how models can be simulated to represent an authentic situation and generate data for further analysis and observations. Students work in teams to identify design requirements, research the topic, and engage stakeholders. Teams design a toy or game for a child with cerebral palsy, fabricate and test it, and make necessary modifications to optimize the design solution. STEM ELECTIVES Coding (6th & 7th) - Using the Code.org curriculum students learn how to code. Computer Science Discoveries is an introductory computer science course. The course takes a wide lens on computer science by covering topics such as problem solving, programming, physical computing, user centered design, and data, while inspiring students as they build their own websites, apps, animations, games, and physical computing systems. The CS Discoveries curriculum supports students new to the topic. The curriculum includes daily lesson plans made up of inquiry-based activities, videos, assessments, and computing tools, allowing teachers to guide and learn alongside students as they discover core computing concepts throughout the following units: Problem Solving, Web Development, Animations and Games, Design Process, Data and Society, and Physical Computing. Exploring Technology - is an engineering technology semester course in which creates a foundational knowledge & skill base, using both technology, design, & construction activities. Students will be involved in designing & planning before making, working in groups with other students & collaborating on exciting activities that reinforce & teach content. This course emphasizes the use of exercising problem solving skills in order for students to program a solution to solve an existing problem. WORLD LANGUAGES Spanish A - This year-long course is designed to develop appreciation of another culture through its language. The goal is to establish a foundation for student ease with the language, whether speaking, listening, reading, or writing. Emphasis is placed on vocabulary building and pronunciation with an accompanying explanation of the fundamentals of the grammar. This course is a required prerequisite for Spanish B, which is a year-long course offered in 8th grade for High School Spanish I credit and figures into the students’ high school GPA. The grade at end of second semester Spanish A will be the 1st semester Spanish I grade. Which will be used for GPA. The grade at the end of Spanish B will be the 2nd semester Spanish I grade. Which will be used for GPA. Spanish B - This is the second year-long course in the Spanish A-B sequence, and is available for students who successfully completed Spanish A. Students who successfully complete the two-year sequence will earn a high school credit in Spanish and enroll in Spanish II in 9th grade. Class participation is required. Students are expected to spend 15-20 minutes per night learning vocabulary and reviewing new material. This class is available only to 8th grade students who successfully completed Spanish A. Building Elective Courses Course Descriptions: Contemporary Issues - Students in this semester course will examine, discuss, analyze, and debate a multitude of contemporary issues and social problems in the world today. The instructor will rotate between local, national, and global issues based on events and student interest. Class participation and argumentative analysis will be a major component of a student's grade. Exploratory Spanish - This semester course is designed to introduce students to the world of Spanish-speaking cultures. Students begin to speak, understand, read and write in Spanish. They study the similarities between English and Spanish and learn how people communicate when they don't share a common language. The course emphasizes pronunciation, basic conversation and expression. Music Appreciation - This semester course explores the history of contemporary music including rock and roll, rap, jazz, and blues. Students listen to samples of music from each decade beginning with the 1950's to the present. No prior experience is required. Intro to Computer Engineering (7th/8th Grade Class - Application Required) - This semester course is an introduction to the different aspects of computer engineering. Students will explore the different physical elements of computers as well as what it takes to diagnose and repair computer hardware. Students will also learn basic programming through different methods of coding and programming. This class is offered to 7th and 8th grade students only. Teen Leadership - Students in Teen Leadership work on various projects in the school and in the community. This course is based on building problem solving and decision making skills in today's society. 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1: Population The subject of this atlas is the population of Great Britain. Although this may appear a simple concept, saying precisely who is living in this country at any one time and where they are, let alone determining how that pattern is changing, is not necessarily easy. This chapter lays the foundation for the rest of the atlas by defining those who constitute British society, where they are and how their numbers have been changing. The boundary of Great Britain delimits the population studied for statistical and geographical convenience. Britain is used to refer to England, Scotland and Wales, and therefore excludes the populations of Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. It is difficult to collate comparable information for these areas. This is because data from the decennial censuses and other official statistics are used in the maps drawn here, and these data do not cover the United Kingdom in a uniform fashion. To compare the population of a place over time it is necessary that the boundaries of that place do not alter, and if these boundaries have been constrained not to alter they are termed frozen. For most of the maps which follow, Britain is divided geographically into 9289 frozen local government wards in England and Wales and 1155 part postcode sectors in Scotland. These were the areas used for the 1981 census. Wards is used as shorthand for these areas even though they have changed in some parts of the country and differ from local government wards in Scotland. Small area statistics from the 1971 and 1991 censuses have been recalculated for these boundaries so that reliable comparisons of population change can be made over time (Atkins et al. 1993). The 459 frozen local government districts are also used as a geographical base in some maps. The boundaries of both these sets of areas have their own geography which is shown in this chapter. These boundaries are again chosen for convenience rather than designed. The choice of boundaries and map projection can affect the patterns shown as much as the characteristics of the population being studied. However, where a number of contiguous areas show similar characteristics, that impression is unlikely to be an artefact of the boundaries. This is one reason why the detailed geography of wards is used so often in these maps, because such small places provide the greatest flexibility for producing robust patterns from contiguous areas showing similar characteristics. The populations of larger or smaller wards, both in terms of land and people, have followed particularly distinctive changes over time. Ward size also tends to correlate strongly with land use, which is shown here in conjunction with population density, the most basic statistic to be calculated from a census. This chapter begins with traditional equal area maps of Britain to show the distributions of people over the land and then progresses to equal population cartograms to show how that population is made up and how it is changing. The two types of projection are placed side by side in many of the prints so that the different impressions given can be compared and a feeling gained for how the use of cartograms alters the visual impression, even when the places depicted and their shading are identical. The censuses are by far the most important source of geographically disaggregated social information on Britain; but even censuses can miss people. It is possible only to estimate from where people were missed, but the distribution of where people are difficult to contact for enumeration can be shown. Censuses also classify people in different ways depending on whether they were enumerated in their home or elsewhere. The characteristics of the population on census night who were not residents at a private address which was their usual home — visitors or the residents of communal establishments — are also often omitted from local statistics, so their geographical distributions and social characteristics are also presented here as the experiences of these groups cannot be included in most of the maps which appear later in this atlas. The precise definition of the population being considered is important when changes in the size of population in different places are being compared over time. If the raw census figures are used the total resident population of Britain appears to have fallen in the 1980s by over half a million people. This was due to problems with data collection. In fact, the number of people living in Britain on census night is thought to have actually increased by one and a third million people between 1981 and 1991. The definition of the population employed in defining statistics makes as crucial a difference to the maps produced, as does the choice of boundaries and map projection. Three aspects of change and three population definitions are used by the end of the chapter. The population present on census night is presented, as is the geography of its changes over the course of this century in local authority districts (with their boundaries frozen). The change in the numbers of people usually resident in wards between the 1971, 1981 and 1991 censuses is then depicted. Finally, the annual changes from 1981 to 1990 in the official mid-year estimates of the population of each district are shown. All these definitions count the night-time (or more correctly the bedtime) population in every place — where people are sleeping. Daytime population can be very different from the night-time count so it is important to realise which areas people are allocated to. The most extreme example of this daily oscillation is found in central London. First, however, the geographical distribution of where people currently live in Britain is presented, both in its raw form and then using two more sophisticated mapping techniques. To understand the more subtle social characteristics of the population it is necessary first to know what that population is and where it is located. To comprehend changes in the social make-up of the population, changes in the geographical distribution of that population must be taken into account. 1.1: Equal Population Grid Squares Each black "square" contains 30 000 people, each red "square" contains up to 3 million people (100 black "squares"). Distribution The most basic distribution for any social atlas is of the population over the land. 55 889 000 people were identified as being present in the 151 700 enumeration districts and output areas of the 1991 census. Each of these areas is drawn as a dot on the map of population distribution shown opposite with county boundaries superimposed. Local features are apparent even at this scale, such as the unpopulated Lea Valley which splits north London in two. From this image, however, it is difficult to gain an overview of how concentrated the population is in different places and how concentrated it is overall. Most of the map is coloured white, showing where people do not live. The total area covered by black is less than the size of a one penny piece. To understand the implications of population distribution it is useful to calculate a statistic such as population potential (Clarke 1987: 38) and use that to shade a map. The population potential of a ward is the total of the populations of all the other wards in Britain each divided by their distance from the centre of that ward. This is expressed in the rather abstract units of “residents per metre” which is highest at 1152 in Bayswater ward in the City of Westminster and lowest at 67 in postcode sector ZE2 9 in the Shetland islands. In the map each ward is classified into one of five groups which each contain a fifth of the total resident population of Britain. Only Greater London and the centres of the West Midlands and Greater Manchester fall in the highest quintile. The next quintile covers the hinterlands of these three centres, much of Merseyside, West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, Chesterfield, Stoke-on-Trent, Derby, Nottingham and Leicester. The third quintile fills in the gaps between these places completing the belt from London to Liverpool within which over half the people of Britain live — the half who are closest to each other. Tyne & Wear, Cleveland and Glasgow are the only areas in the North of England and Scotland not shown in the bottom quintile. What both maps also highlight is how little land the majority of the population occupy. In the next few pages the relationship between the people and the land is explored. Here an alternative method is used to show another way of looking at the basic distribution of people across the land. In Figure 1.1 almost 2000 “squares” cover the land area of Britain in a grid. The lines of this grid are curved so that each “square” contains the same number of people (Dorling 1993). Large cities pull the net inwards. Smaller ones, such as Norwich, can also be seen to have an effect. When the lines of the grid are pulled straight the map of Britain is transformed to form an equal population cartogram. Curved, as they are here, they give a graphical impression of the relative influence of the populations of different areas over the surface of the land. Note that in Figure 1.1 the Shetland Islands are shown in their true position. On the far map opposite (and in all the other maps in this atlas) they have been moved southwards. Population Distribution 1991 by enumeration district all enumeration districts shown drawn with area in proportion to number of residents: - 10 million residents - 1 million residents - 100,000 residents Scale = 1000 km² Population Potential 1991 calculated for ward populations residents per metre from ward 67 to 352 352 to 442 442 to 538 538 to 638 638 to 1152 % of all residents in Britain Scale = 1000 km² Boundaries Maps are about boundaries. Many maps do not show the boundaries which are used in their creation but all maps present spatial boundaries of one form or another. In this atlas administrative boundaries are used to create the maps, and then the boundaries between areas with different levels of a variable are depicted. If the boundaries of too many areas are shown then parts of the map always appear black from the concentration of lines, as can be seen opposite. To avoid this only county boundaries are shown on subsequent ward equal area maps and population cartograms. These lines are included to provide a visual key to the areas. The pattern of the boundaries is in itself interesting. As wards are designed for electing local councillors, they vary little in population within the same district. Because of this they tend to vary greatly in area. On the equal land area map, cities and market towns can be identified in England and Wales just from the dense clustering of their wards. In Scotland the boundaries were designed simply for the convenience of the Post Office (being part postcode sectors) and so vary more in population. The variations in population size and land area across all these small parts of Britain are shown in Figures 1.2 and 1.3. On the ward cartogram “no man’s lands” are to be found in the least populated places where the algorithm which reprojected the map did not pull such sparsely settled wards together. The three Island Areas have been individually identified. Shetland on the cartogram is displaced similarly to the equal area map. Small islands which are parts of other administrative areas are not shown here. What is most evident (from the boundaries on the cartogram) is how much larger are urban wards, in terms of people, than rural wards. Rural wards tend to be much larger in physical area and, as Figure 1.4 shows, it is these wards which have been growing most in population over the last twenty years. The 64 counties and Scottish regions are labelled in the two insets to provide a key for the maps. Far more detailed keys are given at the start of this atlas to all the cartograms used. The detailed keys also describe how administrative and political boundaries changed in Britain over the last decade and how those changes are dealt with here. The only boundaries which have hardly been altered at all have been county boundaries. On the cartogram opposite the county boundaries allow the relative populations of these large areas to be crudely compared. The shape of Britain when drawn like this is also enlightening. London dominates the country surrounded by the Home Counties which are wrapped tightly around it. The large conurbations of the North West and Yorkshire, centred on Manchester, counter-balance London to an extent, while sandwiched between the two is Birmingham in the centre of the West Midlands. All other places are attached around this central belt. Wales is split north and south while Scotland is only held onto England by a thread of wards across the Borders. Administrative Boundaries for Wards, Counties and Scottish Regions Scale = 1000 km² Scale = 250,000 people 1.5: Ward Population by Area Shaded by Land Use Classification population resident 1991 ('000s) in Britain ward area (km²) urban land good arable land general farmland woodland & parkland moorland & upland 1.6: Population Change by Land Use Classification 1971–1991 residents in wards in 1991 ('000s) in Britain resident population change 1971–1991 (%) urban land good arable land general farmland woodland & parkland moorland & upland Land Use The most widely used classification by which the population of Britain is divided is “urban and rural”. It is also one of the worst defined. As these two terms are used repeatedly elsewhere in this atlas, an attempt is made here to define which areas are which. This divide is also used to describe the basic population distribution just outlined, and the distribution of population density covered next. All the one kilometre grid squares of Britain can be classified by land use using remote sensing (Carver 1990). Here each ward is assigned to one of six aggregations of these land use classes on the basis of the activity in its most central grid-square. Almost exactly half the land area of Britain is categorised as general farmland by this method. Only one in six people (17%) live on that land. As the cartogram makes abundantly clear, three quarters of all the residents of Britain live in wards which are classified as urban, although these only cover 14% of the land. Both the map and the cartogram show how county boundaries tend to follow farmland. Agricultural land varies in quality so one subgroup has been extracted here — good arable land. In many countries it was the initial distribution of the best farmland which influenced many later developments, and Britain is no exception. The best agricultural land is to be found predominantly around the lowlands of the rivers Humber, Severn and the Ouse, in Kent and amid the claylands of East Anglia. This land is also more densely populated than farmland in general. The land which contains the least people per hectare is moorland and upland. Together with the “other” category this constitutes one fifth of the land area of Britain but houses only 1% of the population. The “other” category includes wards with large lakes in their centres and other such oddities. The final category of land shown here is woodland and parkland. More than two dozen wards in London, as the cartogram shows, fall into this group when classified using remote sensing techniques. Land use and ward area are closely related as Figure 1.5 illustrates. Urban wards tend to be high in population and low in area; the converse is true for rural wards. However, the divide between the two is not sharp. Rural wards are also more likely to have seen population growth over the last twenty years. Figure 1.6 shows the twenty year trend. The modal point for urban wards is a fall of 8% to 10% of their population over twenty years (2.5 million people live in wards which have experienced this). For the two agricultural categories combined the modal point is a rise of 8% to 10% over twenty years in areas where over half a million people now live. The distribution for woodland and parkland is bimodal but the median change is a fall of 7%, while for moorland and upland areas the population change has, on average, been static. However, these statistics hide a great deal of variation as is illustrated in Figure 1.6 which depicts most clearly the width of the range of population changes which have occurred on each type of land. Land Use 1981 a classification of wards typical land use in ward moorland & upland \| 16 woodland & parkland \| 6 general farmland \| 50 good arable land \| 9 urban land \| 14 other land \| 4 % of the land area of Britain Scale □ = 1000 km² typical land use in ward moorland & upland \| 1 woodland & parkland \| 3 general farmland \| 17 good arable land \| 4 urban land \| 74 other land \| 0 % of all residents in Britain Scale □ = 250,000 people Density Ten percent of the people live on eighty percent of the land — true? It depends on the areas you use to count the people. This is the basic problem with population density (Craig 1985). The population density of a place is simply its population divided by its area. For all of Britain in 1991 this was 245 people per km$^2$. The median population density for all wards, however, is 1775 residents per km$^2$, while 15% of the population live at ward densities of more than 5000 residents per km$^2$ (on only 0.5% of the land). The map and cartogram opposite show the detailed distribution of population density. Although the density of individual wards depends as much on how the boundaries are drawn as on how many people live there, where a group of contiguous wards have similar densities the pattern is likely to be more robust. The largest cluster of wards of the highest density is in Inner London, the next largest is in Liverpool, both ends of the belt of high population potential. This map and cartogram can be compared to Colour Prints A and B respectively. Inside cities the areas of low density often coincide with the places where the most affluent people live. These can be identified from the cartogram. Elsewhere the rings of very low densities, which on the cartogram circle the conurbations and on the map dominate the image, are also interesting. The large clusters of low density wards (in terms of population and hence area on the cartogram) are to be found around Norwich in Norfolk, in Lincolnshire and in North Wales. Here are where the largest expanses of people living at low densities in Britain are to be found. So do just 10% of the people live on 80% of the land? The answer is yes, but only if wards are used to calculate this. Figure 1.7 contains three Gini curves (Lorenz 1905) which show how much land the groups of people living at the lowest densities live on. It illustrates that if the same statistics were calculated for the populations of counties, they would show that the 10% of the people who were least densely concentrated lived on just 50% of the land. For districts, that figure rises to 60%. For wards the figure rises again to 80%. If the curve were calculated using any areas taken from a cartogram a straight line would be the result. On the cartogram everybody is, in this sense, equal. What is required to produce an unequivocal answer to the question first posed is an unambiguous set of areas — the land areas which people actually own or lease. Unfortunately, the spatial boundaries of these areas are not generally available. What they might well have shown, if they were digitised, is the gradual redistribution of land indicated by Figure 1.8, as the most dense areas have declined in population and the least dense have risen (in absolute terms as shown here, and even more so relatively). However, this process of counterurbanisation (Champion 1989) is slowing down. Precisely where and when this occurred is of great interest, and is a subject dealt with later in this chapter. Population Density 1991 average for ward populations residents per square kilometre - up to 250: 86 - 250 to 1000: 8 - 1000 to 2500: 3 - 2500 to 5000: 2 - 5000 & above: 1 % of the land area of Britain Scale: □ = 1000 km² residents per square kilometre - up to 250: 16 - 250 to 1000: 16 - 1000 to 2500: 23 - 2500 to 5000: 30 - 5000 & above: 15 % of all residents in Britain Scale: □ = 250,000 people Imputation The 1991 census was the first British census in which some people were imputed. Where the census enumerator thought a household was absent, and a census form was left but not completed, values estimated by the enumerator were used to impute the residents of that household. Imputation was achieved for wholly absent households by duplicating the characteristics of the last household input which lived in similar accommodation (OPCS 1992: 5). Nationwide 450 000 households within which 870 000 people were thought to be living were imputed (1.6%). The fabricated characteristics of these people are contained in all the maps shown here which are based on the 1991 census small area statistics. Fortunately, the proportion of households which were imputed (2.1%) is low enough to have only a marginal effect on the bias of the census sample. However, it is useful to know the geographical distribution of places where people are unwilling to answer the door or to return forms, or where they tend not to be at home. The cartogram emphasises large concentrations of more than one in twenty residents imputed in some urban areas although, as Figure 1.9 shows, the rise with population density is not uniform. The map over-emphasises high rates of imputation in a few rural wards with very low populations. Unfortunately, the imputation procedure failed to compensate fully for all the people and households which were not enumerated. Nationally, 1 202 000 more people are thought to have been missed entirely by the 1991 census. This is a larger proportion of people (2.2%) than those imputed, but more importantly it is not a typical subgroup of people. Figure 1.10 gives the factors by which census users are advised to allow for under-enumeration in terms of age, sex and broad geographical area (OPCS 1994). This single diagram contains all the official information available at the time of writing on the characteristics of the “missing million” in England and Wales (see, however, page 217 for an as yet unofficial view of where they might have been living). We are told that, on average, a quarter of men aged between 25 and 29 who lived in the “main metropolitan areas” were not included in the census, but we do not know whether these young men were more likely to be out of work, to be in ethnic minorities, or were more likely to be the partners of “lone mothers”, than their enumerated counterparts. Inferences and assumptions can be made and it does appear likely that the people and households not represented in the remaining pages of this atlas tend to belong to particular social groups (Simpson et al. 1993). At a detailed geographical level they may follow the pattern of those who have been imputed (shown opposite). The census statistics are now a 96.4% sample of the population — fine for most purposes, although ward level mapping relies on particularly accurate data sources. In 1981, 99.6% of the people of Britain were found, although for operational reasons only 97.8% were included in the 1981 small area statistics (see Figure 1.13). Residents Imputed 1991 proportion of ward populations % of residents imputed - up to 0.5%: 21 - 0.5% to 1%: 38 - 1% to 2%: 32 - 2% to 5%: 8 - 5% & above: 1 % of the land area of Britain Scale □ = 1000 km² % of all residents in Britain Scale □ = 250,000 people ### 1.11: Some Characteristics of Residents Living in Communal Establishments in Britain 1991 \| Type of Establishment \| Total \| Male \| Female \| Children 16-44 \| 44 \| P.A. \| P.A.+ \| White Groups \| Black Asian & other \| \|------------------------------------------------------------\|---------\|------\|--------\|----------------\|----\|------\|-------\|--------------\|---------------------\| \| All Residents in Britain \| 5488880 \| 48% \| 52% \| 20% \| 42%\| 19% \| 19% \| 95% \| 2% \| 3% \| 1% \| \| communal residents (non-staff) \| 735700 \| 41% \| 59% \| 3% \| 28%\| 8% \| 61% \| 95% \| 2% \| 1% \| 2% \| \| residential home (private) \| 175700 \| 26% \| 74% \| 0% \| 7% \| 5% \| 87% \| 99% \| 0% \| 0% \| 0% \| \| nursing home (private) \| 134000 \| 24% \| 76% \| 0% \| 2% \| 3% \| 95% \| 99% \| 0% \| 0% \| 0% \| \| Local Authority home \| 113600 \| 31% \| 69% \| 1% \| 11%\| 6% \| 82% \| 99% \| 1% \| 0% \| 0% \| \| hospital (NHS — other) \| 58400 \| 39% \| 61% \| 1% \| 36%\| 14% \| 49% \| 96% \| 2% \| 1% \| 1% \| \| defence establishment \| 49600 \| 87% \| 13% \| 0% \| 98%\| 1% \| 2% \| 95% \| 2% \| 0% \| 3% \| \| hotels and boarding houses \| 48600 \| 64% \| 36% \| 12% \| 62%\| 17% \| 10% \| 84% \| 8% \| 4% \| 4% \| \| psychiatric hospital (NHS) \| 30500 \| 47% \| 53% \| 0% \| 19%\| 18% \| 63% \| 97% \| 2% \| 1% \| 1% \| \| schools and colleges \| 70400 \| 61% \| 39% \| 6% \| 4% \| 4% \| 92% \| 44% \| 10% \| 5% \| 22% \| \| other mixed establishments \| 22600 \| 52% \| 48% \| 1% \| 53%\| 12% \| 24% \| 90% \| 4% \| 3% \| 2% \| \| Housing Association home \| 21100 \| 46% \| 54% \| 1% \| 34%\| 13% \| 51% \| 93% \| 4% \| 1% \| 2% \| \| hostel and lodging house \| 19400 \| 70% \| 30% \| 9% \| 54%\| 24% \| 13% \| 86% \| 8% \| 3% \| 4% \| \| prison service establishment \| 15300 \| 96% \| 4% \| 0% \| 86%\| 13% \| 1% \| 82% \| 12% \| 4% \| 2% \| \| children's home \| 9400 \| 56% \| 44% \| 100% \| 0% \| 0% \| 0% \| 88% \| 8% \| 2% \| 3% \| \| hospital (private — other) \| 4500 \| 39% \| 61% \| 1% \| 28%\| 17% \| 54% \| 95% \| 3% \| 1% \| 2% \| \| psychiatric hospital (private) \| 2700 \| 51% \| 49% \| 1% \| 27%\| 19% \| 53% \| 95% \| 3% \| 1% \| 2% \| \| persons sleeping rough \| 1900 \| 84% \| 16% \| 0% \| 73%\| 25% \| 2% \| 98% \| 2% \| 0% \| 0% \| \| ships, boats and barges \| 1200 \| 85% \| 15% \| 2% \| 75%\| 22% \| 1% \| 89% \| 5% \| 1% \| 6% \| \| campers \| 300 \| 49% \| 51% \| 23% \| 41%\| 10% \| 26% \| 97% \| 0% \| 0% \| 3% \| Note: percentages between bars sum to 100%; P.A. stands for Pensionable Age; see page 40 for the definitions of ethnic group categories used here. ### Communal Establishments There is a second reason, besides under-enumeration, why some British people’s characteristics will not appear in the following pages of this atlas — they live in communal establishments, not households. Although these people were enumerated by the census, most of the census tables omit them as being “uncharacteristic of the general population”. In total, as can be ascertained from Figure 1.11, the non-staff residents of communal establishments constitute only 1.3% of the enumerated population; the majority of these people are elderly. Apart from tending to be old and hence to include more women, there are significant ethnic minority concentrations in particular establishments. For instance, as Figure 1.11 indicates, the census shows that young black men are seven times more likely to be in prison than their white counterparts. Prison populations are some of the most dispersed and smallest communities shown on the district based population cartograms opposite. Only in two small south coast districts do the residents of prisons number just over 1% of the total population. The residents of educational establishments reach this proportion only in the City of London, Cambridge and Oxford. The (non-staff) population in hotels exceeds the 1% level in the City, Westminster, Kensington and Chelsea. As well as highlighting these exceptional cases, the cartograms show overall geographical patterns. Nursing and residential homes are spread around the coast; psychiatric hospitals tend to be located in rural areas; other hospitals are more numerous (in terms of patients in beds) in central London and eastern Scotland (see Figure 5.12). It is defence establishments, however, that show the most concentration — among the populations of East Anglia and the South West. Successive census counts of people in communal establishments provide a good record of how their populations have changed over time, although prisoners were not distinguished in 1971 and (some) defence establishments were admitted to exist only in 1991. Figure 1.12 shows the changing absolute populations of different types of establishment subdivided by sex. The biggest rise is of women in old people’s homes, while the biggest fall is of men in unidentified establishments (due largely to the recent declassification of so many military bases). What is most probably a switch from falling boarding school numbers to rising university residence is demonstrated by this figure, as are the declines of the populations of hospitals, childrens’ homes and prisons. The counts used in this figure include all people present in communal establishments, so the rise of women in hotels is due to fewer men working there as well as more women guests. As well as people living in communal establishments the census also attempted to count travellers and campers, people sleeping rough and civilians on ships in dock. Only the last category was enumerated with any accuracy. Special “shipping” wards were created for each of the last three censuses. The total number of people present in these has fallen from 37 500 in 1971, to 11 900 in 1981 and then to 4700 in 1991. Residents of Communal Establishments 1991 proportion of population within 1991 local authority district boundaries % of district's residents living in communal establishments (non-staff) - none - up to 0.1% - 0.1% to 0.2% - 0.2% to 0.5% - 0.5% & above Scale = 1,000,000 people - prison establishments - educational establishments - hotels & boarding houses - defence establishments - psychiatric hospitals - all other hospitals - nursing homes (private) - residential homes (private) 1.13: Number of People in Britain on Census Night \| \| 1971 \| 1981 \| 1991 \| \|--------------------------------\|----------\|----------\|----------\| \| Residents \| \| \| \| \| Resident present in private households at enumeration \| 51,658 \| 52,077 \| 51,533 \| \| \| (‘000s) \| (‘000s) \| (‘000s) \| \| Absent residents (part of household present) \| — \| 684 \| 974 \| \| \| \| 1.2% \| 1.7% \| \| Absent residents (wholly absent households) \| — \| 1,005 \| 688 \| \| \| \| 1.8% \| 1.2% \| \| Imputed residents (wholly absent households) \| — \| — \| 869 \| \| \| \| \| 1.5% \| \| Present residents of communal establishments \| 909 \| 797 \| 833 \| \| \| 1.7% \| 1.4% \| 1.5% \| \| Residents (enumerated and imputed) \| 52,567 \| 54,562 \| 54,889 \| \| \| 97.4% \| 99.2% \| 97.4% \| \| Visitors \| \| \| \| \| Visitors resident in the United Kingdom \| 1,257 \| (1,222) \| (1,535) \| \| \| 2.3% \| (2.2%) \| (2.7%) \| \| Visitors resident outside the United Kingdom \| 155 \| 190 \| 255 \| \| \| 0.3% \| 0.3% \| 0.5% \| \| Total Population Present (enumerated and imputed) \| 53,979 \| 54,752 \| 55,144 \| \| \| 100.0% \| 99.6% \| 97.9% \| \| Under-enumeration \| \| \| \| \| Accounted for by validation survey \| — \| 215 \| 299 \| \| \| \| 0.4% \| 0.5% \| \| Not accounted for by validation survey \| — \| 26 \| 899 \| \| \| \| 0.0% \| 1.6% \| \| Total Population \| \| \| \| \| Estimated number of people in Britain on census night \| 53,979 \| 54,993 \| 56,342 \| \| \| 100.0% \| 100.0% \| 100.0% \| Source: Champion 1995, and the 1971 and 1981 Small Area Statistics files Note 1: 1005 000 residents from wholly absent households were not in the 1981 small area statistics Note 2: Imputed residents will include some households who were out of the country on census night Note 3: 249 000 visitors were not included in the 1991 enumeration district small area census statistics 1.14: Age and Sex Distribution of People not Resident in Households in Britain 1991 Visitors After those who were not enumerated and the residents of communal establishments the final group of people living in Britain who are often forgotten are visitors. Visitors are people who are not usually resident at the address at which they are enumerated. Only 14% of all visitors have a usual residence outside the United Kingdom. However, these people have a very marked geographical distribution, as is evident opposite. Visitors are seen as a great annoyance for census takers; some no doubt wish it were still possible to order the population to move back “home” for census night (The Bible, Luke 2:1-3). Figure 1.13 shows how visitors have been dealt with at successive censuses to try to estimate more accurately how many people usually live in each place. The figure also shows how many people were actually thought to be in Britain at the time of each census, which has increased between 1971 and 1991 even though the number of people enumerated at home each year has decreased. This is due partly to an increase in the rate of visiting, as mobility has risen overall. Visitors are not a uniform cross section of the population, they tend to be young; in 1991 half were aged between 18 and 30. Figure 1.14, derived from the Sample of Anonymised Records, shows that when the population of communal establishments, absent residents and visitors are combined a quite dramatic age–sex profile is established (although these categories may overlap somewhat). Over half of the very old live in communal establishments, while over a quarter of 21 year-olds in the sample were not recorded as being present at their usual residence on census night. An unusual category of visitors are those living in a household where everyone said they were a visitor. These visitor households were specifically identified because it was thought that they would “give an approximate measure of those in second homes...” (OPCS 1992: 24). A significant proportion of students (10%) was recorded as visitors on census night so it is perhaps not surprising that those wards with the highest proportions of people in visitor households should cluster around universities — see opposite. Indeed, one in three of these households contains only students. Some people with second homes may be classifying their “country residence” as their usual residence but this is unlikely to account for the remainder of the pattern. Combined, the distribution of wholly absent households and imputed residents may give an indication of where the missing million are most likely to be, because these are the areas where census taking is most difficult. Unofficial estimates (page 217) have also used the distribution of unemployment (page 89) as an indicator. The rise in the proportion of the population in Britain who are overseas visitors begs the question: how many young and old people who are now thought to be in Britain are actually overseas visitors elsewhere? As national and international mobility increases, the traditional methods of enumerating the population become increasingly inadequate. Visitors to the UK 1991 proportion of ward populations % of population visiting from abroad - up to 0.1%: 17 - 0.1% to 0.2%: 28 - 0.2% to 0.3%: 18 - 0.3% to 0.5%: 18 - 0.5% & above: 20 % of all residents in Britain Visitor Households 1991 proportion of ward populations % of population in "all visitor" households - up to 0.1%: 28 - 0.1% to 0.2%: 23 - 0.2% to 0.5%: 26 - 0.5% to 1.0%: 11 - 1.0% & above: 12 % of all residents in Britain Scale = 250,000 people ### 1.15: Average and Extreme Population Present Changes in Britain 1901–1991 \| Change Period \| National Average \| District and County Growing Most Quickly \| Total Growth \| District and County Declining Most Quickly \| Total Decline \| \|---------------\|------------------\|------------------------------------------\|--------------\|-------------------------------------------\|---------------\| \| 1901–1911 \| 10.4% \| Southend-on-Sea \| 102.8% \| City of London \| -27.0% \| \| \| \| Mid Glamorgan \| 37.2% \| Scottish Islands \| -3.0% \| \| 1911–1921 \| 4.7% \| Crawley \| 117.9% \| Eastwood \| -52.7% \| \| \| \| Gwent \| 13.6% \| Highland \| -8.3% \| \| 1921–1931 \| 4.7% \| Barking and Dagenham \| 209.2% \| Argyll and Bute \| -22.7% \| \| \| \| Hertfordshire \| 20.1% \| Scottish Islands \| -12.1% \| \| 1931–1951 \| 9.1% \| Corby \| 283.4% \| Tower Hamlets \| -52.8% \| \| \| \| Hertfordshire \| 50.4% \| Mid Glamorgan \| -10.3% \| \| 1951–1961 \| 5.0% \| Harlow \| 830.2% \| Richmondshire \| -20.7% \| \| \| \| Hertfordshire \| 40.3% \| Scottish Islands \| -9.2% \| \| 1961–1971 \| 5.2% \| Cumbernauld and Kilsyth \| 144.5% \| Islington \| -22.7% \| \| \| \| Buckinghamshire \| 26.0% \| Scottish Islands \| -7.0% \| \| 1971–1981 \| 0.6% \| Milton Keynes \| 86.1% \| Kensington and Chelsea \| -26.2% \| \| \| \| Scottish Islands \| 21.6% \| Merseyside \| -8.7% \| \| 1981–1991 \| -0.4% \| Milton Keynes \| 39.2% \| City of London \| -32.2% \| \| \| \| Cambridgeshire \| 11.8% \| Scottish Islands \| -9.8% \| ### Population Present 1901–1991 Few series of British social statistics extend back before the 1970s with any degree of geographical detail. The 1971 census was the first to be made available in digital form, which is why that marks the earliest date in many of the maps shown here. Total population figures have, however, been estimated for a single set of small places using census figures back to 1901 (Mounsey 1982). These places are local authority districts with their boundaries frozen in 1981. The only definition of the population which is consistent across this time period is of the population present and enumerated in each district on census night. There was no census held in 1941 due to the war. The spatial patterns of almost all that is known of ninety years of population change in Britain are shown opposite. A consistent set of shades is used so that different times can be compared. It should be remembered that the period from 1931 to 1951 is twice the length of the others so it is not surprising that shading categories then tend to be more extreme. The decline of the population of Inner London had begun even before the century started, in sharp contrast to the strong growth of other urban areas in the first decade. By the last decade the pattern shown for London is deceptive as so many of its people were not enumerated on census night in 1991 (see page 10). The capital is actually thought to have grown in size by 84 300 people over the decade to 1991, once under-enumeration has been taken into account. The only indication of this from the illustration is the rise in the population present in Tower Hamlets. Seventy years ago the buzz-word was suburbanisation, which the red rings of districts surrounding the centres of the major cities show. Over the twenty years around the Second World War the population decline of the capital accelerated along with ports like Liverpool, South Tyneside and Portsmouth, and the Welsh coalfield. The 1950s and 1960s saw a new phenomenon — counterurbanisation — which became even more distinct by the 1970s and 1980s as so many more cities began to lose large numbers of people when national population growth stabilised. Figure 1.15 lists those districts and counties which saw the most extreme changes in each period. The last period of change is covered in greater detail below. A useful way to summarise the detailed changes shown opposite is to use a categorisation of districts into types based largely on the urban–rural dichotomy following Craig (1987). Figure 1.16 shows how the change in the total population of Britain is built up from the changes in eleven types of districts. Local features, such as the reversal of the sizes of Inner and Outer London, are evident as well as the general trend towards growth in rural areas and decline of the cities. However, with smaller households who prefer cities (page 105) predicted (Figure 4.6), these trends, which can already be seen to be slowing down, could eventually move into reverse. Population Change 1901-1991 change in district populations % change in population present - up to -5% - -5% to 0% - 0% to 5% - 5% to 10% - 10% & above Scale = 1,000,000 people in 1981 Usual Residents 1971–1991 Figures for how many people are usually resident in wards have only been available since 1971. This is often seen as a better measure to use when looking at population change as it is not influenced by temporary moves. In theory, when the usual resident definition is used the timing of the census should not affect the population sizes of, for instance, university cities with very mobile populations. In 1971 only usual residents who were present on census night were counted, representing 97.4% of the population. However, this proportion is comparable with those enumerated in 1991 (see Figure 1.13). Both cartograms opposite use the same shading categories to highlight the greater diversity of changes in the 1970s compared with the 1980s. These are also the same categories as used previously to show the changes at district level. The variety of experiences within cities is highlighted here, particularly in the second period. Distinct clusters of wards in almost all large cities can be seen to have lost more than one in twenty of their population in the 1970s, while 30% of people now live in areas which then saw a net population growth of more than one in ten. The extremes of change were less marked by the 1980s but were often still in the same general direction. However, many wards across Inner London experienced rapid growth due to redevelopment and immigration. The other conurbations did not experience a similar turnabout. Figure 1.17 shows how less variable were the changes in 1981–91 compared to the previous decade. In 1971–81, three quarters of all people lived in wards with changes of more than 5% either way; that proportion fell to just over a half. Although side-by-side the two cartograms suggest that wards which saw a rise of population in one period were likely to see a rise in the next, this is not necessarily true. Figure 1.18 illustrates the relationship between the two changes, showing how variable it is. The figure also shows, for both decades, a strong relationship between high population increases and low population density. It may well be that, although individual wards were not especially likely to see a high increase in the 1970s followed by an increase a decade later, their neighbouring wards may (if they did not grow in the first period). This is because population growth often requires new dwellings to be constructed, and one development may well preclude another in the same very local area. It is important to remember that we are not comparing the same people or even the same number of people when rates of social characteristics are compared across areas over time. Places which have lost people are likely to have lost particular sub-groups of people, predominantly the mobile and the old, this will change their social make-up. Similarly, Inner London in the 1990s does not contain the same mix of people as it did in the 1980s, not because the people there have changed, but because different people have moved in and others have left. When we compare the populations of areas over time we are charting the evolution of communities which are themselves changing shape. Population Change 1971–1981 change in ward populations % change in the resident population - up to -5%: 36 - -5% to 0%: 14 - 0% to 5%: 12 - 5% to 10%: 8 - 10% & above: 1 % of all residents in Britain Scale = 250,000 people Population Change 1981–1991 change in ward populations % change in the resident population - up to -5%: 21 - -5% to 0%: 24 - 0% to 5%: 20 - 5% to 10%: 13 - 10% & above: 22 % of all residents in Britain Scale = 250,000 people Mid-Year Estimates 1981–1991 This chapter ends with a more detailed look at trends during the 1980s using a different source and a somewhat different definition of the population. Mid-year estimates are made by the Government Statistical Service for the number of people resident in each local authority on the 30th of June each year. Not only does the timing of these statistics differ from the census, but there are other significant differences. Students are taken to be at their term-time residence; estimates are made of the number of people missed by the censuses, and birth, death and migration statistics are all incorporated in updating these figures annually. Because the components of population change are included in these calculations they are also made available for study. Figure 1.19 shows the geographical distributions of the changes in situ (births and deaths) and those due to migration in each district over the last decade (GRO(S) 1993, OPCS 1993). The latter can be seen to be very much more important than the former. Deaths outweigh births in those areas with an older population, hence the coast is grey. Migration shows a more varied and extreme pattern. Only one central London borough has had an overall population rise through net migration. This is not because migration into the capital is low, just that out-migration is greater (although less in net effect than the number of births over deaths resulting from an influx of so many younger in-migrants). In terms of migration the coast is coloured red, as old people move there, while the major northern conurbations on the west of the country have been losing people through out-migration. The annual geographical anatomy of these changes is shown opposite for each of the nine pairs of years 1981–82 to 1989–90. The counterurbanisation of 1981–82 is hardly evident by 1989–90, with some Inner London boroughs having the largest rises by then. This may well be due to the recession, but there was also a recession in the early 1980s. In between these two periods the sustained growth of the districts of the South West and East Anglia is most evident, along with the relentless decline of Liverpool and Glasgow. Finally, the changes are shown in a single illustration — Figure 1.20. Here the same eleven types of district are used as for charting change over the century (see Figure 1.16). Until 1988 the four most rural types (shown by red lines) were always growing faster than the national average and the seven more urban types (in grey) growing slower. Suddenly the lines converged in the last two years and there may even be an indication that some are crossing over. The dramatic rise of Inner London is clear, but so too is the fall in population of the ports and retirement districts. These figures are to be updated following the findings of the 1991 census (hence they stop in 1990, see page 23) but they do illustrate how much diversity of change there was over the period which is being studied here. Will the 1990s see the reversal of the population deconcentration which has predominated since 1951 or a continuation of the post-war exodus to the countryside? Population Change 1981–1990 - change in mid-year district populations % change in estimated population - up to -0.5% - -0.5% to 0.0% - 0.0% to 0.5% - 0.5% to 1.0% - 1.0% & above Scale □ = 1,000,000 people Conclusion: People and Land Distribution The population of Britain is highly concentrated. A third of the population live in the seven metropolitan counties which occupy only 3% of the land. With the exception of Tyne & Wear these counties are in the central belt of Britain running from London to Liverpool. The majority of people in Britain live within the cities of this belt. Colour Print A shows the locations of these cities in detail, illustrating how the boundaries of metropolitan counties have been drawn around the most densely populated areas. The map also shows how the locations of physical features such as mountain tops and navigable harbours are reflected by the detailed distribution of the population. Colour Print B shows this same detailed distribution of population densities drawn upon the cartogram using identical colour shading. The majority of the population live in wards at densities of over two thousand people per square kilometre. On the cartogram the detailed patterns of density to be found within these peoples’ cities are revealed. For instance, the most dense wards in London form a ring around the centre of that city. The cartogram also shows how the boundaries of non-metropolitan counties often traverse the least densely populated parts of the country. Different levels of population density can be crudely associated with many social distributions, such as the chance of children living with their married parents (Figure 6.5), or the likelihood of people not filling in census forms (Figure 1.9). This is because population density acts as a useful surrogate for social divisions between urban and rural Britain. Mapping People: Colour Prints A and B The maps in Colour Prints A and B should be compared with the maps on page 9, which show the same dataset over the same areas using the same projections. The maps drawn in full colour show much greater detail, and convey more information by using fifteen categories of density ordered on an approximate logarithmic scale. Full colour maps can also be more confusing to read than two colour maps because of the more complex patterns they can show. To make these maps most legible, a rainbow shading scheme is used to colour them as that allows a greater number of categories to be differentiated on an intuitively ordered spectral scale. Maps inevitably simplify, and the cartographic choices of shading, categorisation and projection determine what can be revealed in them. Similarly the statistics on which maps are based can also simplify, and sometimes misrepresent, the situation. These maps are based on the density lived at by people who were successfully enumerated or imputed by the 1991 census, treating the missing million as if they were invisible. Inclusion of the best estimates of where the missing million residents live would make some of the densest areas much denser. Population Change Another misleading impression which may be read from some maps and cartograms is that the pattern they show is static. In 1901 the population of Britain consisted of just under 37 million people. Ninety years later it exceeded 56 million residents. The population grew most slowly in the depressions of the 1930s and 1980s. Although initially the most remote areas lost people, later the most accessible inner city districts were experiencing the greatest declines. Growth before the second world war was typically suburban, but since then it has been progressively more rural and orientated towards small market towns. A decentralisation of the population has been seen to have occurred. The components of this decentralisation can be illustrated by considering the post war changes in the sizes of three different geographical definitions of the same fraction of the population. In 1951 the least densely populated 314 districts contained 40% of the population, their share rose to 42% in 1961, 45% in 1971, 49% in 1981 and to 50% by 1991. The areas which are currently constituted as metropolitan counties contained 40% of the population of Britain in 1951, 38% in 1961, 36% in 1971, 33% in 1981 and 32% in 1991. There has also been a gradual southwards shift of the population. The counties which make up the three southernmost standard regions contained 40% of the population in 1951. This share rose to 41% in 1961, 42% in 1971, and to 43% by 1991. People in Britain are being spread more evenly over the available land, and most of this under-occupied but easily habitable land is in the south of England. They are also following the migration of employment in Britain which has moved southwards at a faster rate than people over the last two decades (page 69). Missing Million The figures given above for population change are based upon mid-year estimates of the population for 1991, rather than on census counts. This is because more than a million people avoided being enumerated by the last census, with just under a million more not being available to complete their census forms (which were completed for them by imputation, see page 10). These factors mean that the characteristics of young men are under-represented in metropolitan areas on many of the maps which follow. A further three quarters of a million communal establishment residents and one quarter of a million visitors from abroad are also often omitted from social statistics. This practice is also followed here as most of the maps in this atlas are about “usual residents in private households”. Because of this, the locations and some of the characteristics of visitors and of people who live in communal establishments have been presented in some detail in this chapter. Only the maps based on mid-year estimates of the population show all the population. A rough impression of whose social characteristics are most under-estimated by the 1991 census can be gained by knowing where people lived who were missing from the census. The precise location of the missing million is returned to in a section on electoral registration in the concluding chapter of the atlas (page 216). Recent Change Analysis of the most recent trends in population shows that, in general, population decentralisation is continuing, but with some interesting exceptions. Until 1988 the four most rural district types were growing most quickly (Figure 1.20), but this situation had changed by 1990 so that — after over fifty years of continuous decline (Figure 1.16) — the population of Inner London boroughs rose to become the fastest growing of the eleven district types. More recent mid-year estimates (which became available just before this book was printed) show that the revival of the Inner London population has continued through to 1993, but also that the three most rural district types have reinstated their position of having the strongest growth following the unusual circumstances of 1991. Large and small non-metropolitan cities have also experienced above average population growth. This is due to high inward migration rather than a large excess of births over deaths (as has occurred in London). All other types of district have grown less rapidly than the national average. In particular, principal metropolitan cities — Manchester, Liverpool, Sheffield, Newcastle upon Tyne, Birmingham, Leeds and Glasgow — have, as a group, continued to grow most slowly due to continually high rates of out-migration. Because of this, the national share of the population living in metropolitan counties has continued to decline since 1991, despite the growth of Inner London. Inner London's growth has, however, helped the southwards shift of population to continue unabated, but the overall shift to less dense areas has also continued. At the local authority district level it is affluent areas which have experienced the strongest population growth in the first two years following the last census, with seven districts experiencing rises of at least four people in every hundred (Cotswold, Cambridge, Forest Heath, Hertsmere, Three Rivers, Kincardine & Deeside, and Northavon). Population Projections Much more information is available on population numbers than on any other aspect of the social geography of Britain because these statistics are required in order to interpret most other information. This is also true in terms of future projections, which are made first for population and then for other social statistics. The population of Britain is projected to grow by 3.4% between 1991 and 2001, by 2.4% in the decade up to 2011, by 1.5% in the decade up to 2021 and to grow by less than 0.2% per decade by 2031, after which it is projected to fall (CSO 1995). These projections assume net immigration over the next four decades. They also show that the population of Scotland is due to start declining by the start of next century, while East Anglia and the South West are projected to grow most quickly. Population estimates and projections can thus provide a context for other social statistics which are available for much more limited periods. For instance, population mobility was very low at the time of the 1991 census, and statistics derived from that source used later in this atlas, such as migration rates, may not be typical of more usual times. By studying population changes around census dates it is possible to gain an impression of how unusual are the census years which we are often obliged to use to analyse social change. Similarly, by observing where the population missing or excluded from other sources resides, an estimate can be made of the direction and importance of the biases introduced by these factors. Studying simple population distribution and change is an essential prerequisite to understanding more complex patterns and developments in the social geography of a country. References Atkins, D., Charlton, M., Dorling, D. & Wymer, C., 1993, Connecting the 1981 and 1991 Censuses, North East Regional Research Laboratory Working Paper 93/9, Department of Geography, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Carver, S.J., 1990, Application of Geographic Information Systems to Siting Radioactive Waste Disposal Facilities, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Champion, A.G., 1989, Counterurbanisation: The Changing Pace and Nature of Population Deconcentration, London: Edward Arnold. Champion, A.G., 1995, Analysis of Change Through Time, in S. Openshaw (ed.) A Census Users' Handbook, London: Longman. Clarke, J., 1987, Population Geography, Oxford: Pergamon Press. Craig, J., 1985, Better Measures of Population Density, Population Trends, 42: 30–35. Craig, J., 1987, An Urban-Rural Categorization for Wards and Local Authorities, Population Trends, 47: 6–11. CSO, 1995, Social Trends 25, London: HMSO. Dorling, D., 1993, Map Design for Census Mapping, The Cartographic Journal, 30/2: 167–183. GRO(S), 1993, Mid 1991 Population Estimates, Scotland, London: HMSO. Lorenz, M.O., 1905, Methods of Measuring the Concentration of Wealth, Publications of the American Statistical Association, 9: 209–219. Mounsey, H.M. 1982, The Cartography of Time-Changing Phenomena: the Animated Map, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Durham. OPCS, 1992, 1991 Census Definitions, London: HMSO. OPCS, 1993, Mid-1991 Population Estimates, England and Wales, London: HMSO. OPCS, 1994, Undercoverage in Great Britain, 1991 Census User Guide 58, London: HMSO. Simpson, S., March, C. & Sandhu, A., 1993, Validation of Census Coverage by Other Means, Manchester Census Group Occasional Paper, University of Manchester.	<urn:uuid:e3fde1fe-c4f7-414d-9a4f-6ecf75e05570>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://www.dannydorling.org/books/newsocialatlasofbritain/chapter1.pdf	2018-10-18T11:29:21Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583511806.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20181018105742-20181018131242-00038.warc.gz	419,452,837	14,139	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.93506	eng_Latn	0.998806	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 6197, 9442, 9862, 12925, 13035, 16566, 17010, 20067, 20475, 23555, 23825, 31712, 32202, 38007, 38474, 44371, 44559, 47730, 48186, 51355, 51564, 57299, 63189 ]	[ 2.40625, 1.9296875 ]	1	0
Representative Karen Clark, Dist. 62A: 38 years! A job well done BY VERNON WETTERNACH ALLEY EDITOR 1979-1980 “There is still much work to be done.” She is known as a progressive fighter for equality, affordable housing, economic and social justice and as an unrelenting advocate for her low income constituents, communities of color, Native American and neighborhood concerns. Her advocacy, coalition building and ability to find innovative solutions are not only known in her district but also state-wide and nationally. Speaking of State Representative Karen Clark, District 62A, who announced this year that she is retiring from the state legislature at the end of 2018 after 38 years of service. Karen has consistently been re-elected over these years receiving 75 to 89% of the votes from her constituents. Karen was born in an Oklahoma army hospital and raised in Rock County in southwestern Minnesota from the age of nine months. She attended Edgerton Public High School for 12 years, graduating in 1967 as valedictorian. Edgerton is a small rural community with a population of approximately 2,000 residents today. Her parents, Joseph and Mildred, were tenant farmers. They eventually moved to the village of Kenneth, MN. They strongly encouraged education, hard work and community service for Karen and her three brothers and sister. Karen attended the College of St. Teresa in Winona, earning a B.S. degree in Nursing. She began her career as a public health nurse working in migrant worker camps in western MN and then on St. Paul’s West Side as a VISTA nurse-organizer who helped found what became “La Clinica.” Karen also became one of the first OB-GYN Nurse Practitioners at Hennepin County Hospital and then the Red Door Clinic. Later, during her legislative career, Karen was awarded a Hubert Fellowship and earned her Master’s in Public Administration from the JFK School of Government at Harvard University. Karen was first elected to the Minnesota House of Representatives in 1980, the same day ironically that Ronald Regan was elected president. Since her years in office Karen has been recognized with over 100 awards recognizing her hard work and success. To mention just a few they include awards such as: Minneapolis Human Rights Commission first ever recipient of the Spirit of United Tribes Community Advocacy Award; OUTFRONT MN’s Community Activist Award; Harvey Milk Award from President Obama; MN Coalition for the Homeless Advocacy Award; MN Nurse’s Association Legislator of the Year Award; Voices for Racial Justice= Report Card Ratings; Voice of East African Women’s Appreciation Award; Asian Women United Appreciation Award; Outstanding Achievement from Mesa Latina MN; MN AIDS Project’s Paul and Sheila Wellstone Karen Clark Continued on page 6 Franklin/Hiawatha Encampment Still here! Resilient, resourceful and committed despite trauma and genocide Safe, affordable housing sought by descendants on land ancestors honored for millennia BY PATINA PARK Published with permission from Pollen Midwest; originally published at pollenmidwest.org Minneapolis is on Dakota Land in MnSotaMakoce (Land where the water reflects the sky) and is now home to many Native people from across the state and across the country. The water, trees, and all living things growing out of the ground carry with them the spirit of the original Dakota inhabitants because the ground is quite literally saturated with the DNA of our Indigenous ancestors. These ancestors lived here for millennium before Minneapolis even became a city. This land continues to be sacred land for many of the Urban Native population. Despite hundreds of years of trauma and genocidal actions against us in this country, Native people are still here. We are resourceful, resilient, and committed to our community, families, and our cultures and traditions. However, we still face many challenges. Homelessness, chemical dependency, mental and physical health struggles, vulnerability to exploitation, and violence are all by products of the generations of trauma experienced by our relatives. Though we are less than 2% of the population, we experience disproportionate rates of all these effects. In recent weeks many of our relatives have come together and moved into tents on the area along a sidewalk on the east side of Highway 55. This community has become known as the Franklin Hiawatha Encampment, or for some, the “Wall of Forgotten Natives.” Our community faces significant challenges to housing and many have been “forgotten” and erased by those systems that were set up to assist them. Finding safe and affordable housing is a long-standing problem in 1977 UN Geneva Conference Dick Bancroft: champion with a camera First Declaration of International Indigenous Day BY LAURA WATERMAN WITTSOCK In the August issue of The Alley, I told readers the story of how Dick Bancroft loved cameras and picture taking since he was a young boy. Dick died at the age of 91 on July 16th. What I did not fully explain is that he spent years on his collection of photographs, much of it with Jaime Lazure, his editor and analyst. Jamie worked diligently on the photographic book that appeared in Dick’s book titled Still Here, published by the Minnesota Historical Society Press in 2013. Dick Bancroft Continued on page 8 BULLETIN Council approves Site4 Sept. 26th 16 MN tribal nations, Leader, Gov. Mark Dayton, and Mayor Frey met tribal leaders at 2109 Cedar St., 12:30 pm. City Council approved Site4 motion for a Navigation Center. All 11 tribal nations supported that motion. Frey said, “Thank you that this happens, particularly Red Lake Nation. Today’s Council vote reaffirms that site is culturally appropriate and equipped to provide for the safety and health of people at the Franklin Hiawatha Encampment. The City will prepare the site and work with the native community for a smooth transition while protecting everyone’s health and safety.” MN City nonprofits will continue to provide support and improve the services at the Franklin Caribou Campsite within the City. The Encampment will remain until September this fall. City and coalition partners introduced a new permanent housing program for Native Americans experiencing homelessness. What’s Up at the Franklin Community Library 1314 E. Franklin Avenue 612-543-6925 \| www.hclib.org M, F, Sat 9am–5pm & T, W, Th: 9am –8pm • Su: 12-5pm ALL AGES MNspin Live Spotlight: Larry McDonough Quartet Tues. Oct. 2, 10-11:11 am Last Dec. HN Library launched MnSpin, an online music platform featuring a curated selection of music by local Minnesota artists. Hear one of those artists, the Larry McDonough Quartet, as they share their unique brand of jazz. With: Friends of Library. Funded: MN Arts & Cultural Heritage Fund. Family Storytime Fridays, 10:30-11 am All ages & their caregivers. Talk, sing, read, write & play together. YOUTH PROGRAMS Colors of Fall Tues. Oct. 2, 4:30-6 pm at Cedar Riverside Opportunity Center (505 15th Ave S) Grades 1-6. How & why do the hues of leaves change with the seasons? Explore the science of these colorful questions while you create an artist book with hand-crafted pages & a built-in plant press. Your book cover will have you experimenting with composition as you decorate it with a collage of pressed fall leaves. Materials provided. With: Three Rivers Park District. Funded: MN Arts & Cultural Heritage Fund. Let your Imagination Soar Thurs. Oct. 18, 4:30-6 pm at Cedar Riverside Opportunity Center (505 15th Ave S) Registration Required. Grades 4-7. Do you like to write stories about magic, mythical beings? Invent your own creature & create a story about its mythology! With: The Loft Literary Center. Funded: MN Arts and Cultural Heritage Fund. TEEN PROGRAMS Afro-Moder Danse Thurs. Oct. 11, 6-7 pm Registration Required. Explore how the traditional & cultural dance of the African Diaspora influenced Afro-Moder dance through energetic rhythms, & leave feeling uplifted in body, mind & spirit! Collaborator: The Cowles Center. Funded by Minnesota’s Arts and Cultural Heritage Fund. Design a Skateboard Thurs. Oct. 18, 2-4 pm Registration Required. Using permanent markers & templates, create art on a skateboard deck. Materials provided, including a skateboard deck. With: Rivard Art. Funded: MN Arts & Cultural Heritage Fund. Urban 4-H Club Tues. 5-7 pm Urban gardening to digital photo/video to theater. Partner: U of M. Teen Tech Workshop Wednesdays, 5-6:30 pm Make music, videos, animation & other projects using both high- & low-tech tools, everything from iPads, 3D printers to synthesizers & sewing machines. Led by the library’s Teen Tech Squad. Franklin Teen Center: Young Achievers / Dhalinta Horumar sare rabta Thursdays, 4:30-6 pm U dabaldaag Dhakqaraa Soomalida, sameyso saxaaxbo cusub iyo in aad istaashoona hab nooleelo caafimaad leen. Lamaahe: WellShare International. Celebrate Somali culture, make new friends & practice healthy lifestyles. With: WellShare International. Teen Anime Club Saturdays, 3-4:30 pm Discuss manga & share artwork; different every time! ADULT PROGRAMS Fasal furan no ku Saabsan Barashada Teknolojiga Maktabadda / Library Technology Open Lab Wednesday, Oct. 3, 10 & 17, 10:30-12 pm Registration Required Kaalay no ku Teknolojiga maktabadda, Shagulaaha waxey ilabisi doonaan Open lab-kab-20-daqiyo oo horudicu ku saabsan teknolojiga maktabadda. Mowduucyada laga hadlu doono waxaa ka mid ah: sidada u isticmaali laheej kombyuutuaraad maktabadda, Internet-ka iyo Email-ada, austinarta, printer-adi raayo Scanera, iyo sidaad buugaagta uga raadku laheej bogga maktabadda. Kheerkaan ugu caawinayaa Markuu mordowduu hordacilina lasiyo, ka qeyb galawaasha waxay waqti u heli doonaan iney si dabaqan waxey barteen iadaqyo shaqaalaha diyaar u ahnaa doonaan iney uga jawaaban su’aahlaado mid-midna u caawiyan. Explore library technology. Each Open Lab starts with a 20-minute orientation. Topics covered will include accessing library computers, navigating the internet & email, privacy, scanners, printers, and using the library catalog & online databases. Following the orientation, participants will have time to explore on their own, while staff will be available for questions & one-to-one support. Short Fiction Discussion Group Sun. Oct. 28, 3-4:30 pm Join our group reading and discussion of interesting short stories. Books will be provided the day of the meeting. No pre-reading required. Oct. 28: Take Us to Your Chief by Drew Hayden Taylor. Dec. 9: Tenali of December by George Saunders Franklin Learning Center 612-543-6934 or firstname.lastname@example.org Free, one-to-one tutoring for adults learning English & math, preparing for the GED & citizenship exams, & gaining life skills. Community volunteers welcome! We provide training & materials. Community Partners for updates from Local City Government & Minneapolis Police. Meeting will take place at the Center for Changing Lives Building in Room 182 (2400 Park Avenue). Free parking is available in the rear of building off of Oakland Avenue. Free Jacekeno’s Pizza Dinner will be provided! If you would like more information or would like to get involved in the neighborhood please contact Crystal at 612-2379-5383 or email her at email@example.com Phillips West Neighborhood Events: www.phillipswest.info BY CRYSTAL WINDSCHITL Thursday, October 4th, 6-7 pm Phillips West Monthly Community Meeting! Join your neighbors and other It has the padded seats and the windows that actually opened so you could feel the freeze up your face, not just the vent up against your head. Of course it was a high-floor model, so you had to climb three steps to enter or exit. On the other hand, there were more seats than on modern buses, and there were actually seats close enough to the driver that you could actually have a conversation with him or her. As a transit fanatic, I loved the opportunity to talk to bus drivers about the industry. Unfortunately, that space on today’s low-floor buses is taken up by the wheel wells. This puts the kibosh on chit-chatting with drivers, but does provide a flat surface to place extra packages on. Change often both brings and takes away good things. Franklin Avenue Follies My roommate and I went to the last Alley transition meeting on the Route 2 bus. Because there was construction on the bridge over I-35W, we waited 25 minutes for a bus that was supposed to come every 13 minutes, and on the way back we had to endure parent-child dysfunction at the bus stop. As one who did my bit by continuing to ride the regular Go-To-Card route by the front door, as usual, I have reason to believe this was an unannounced test and these new fareboxes may be in our future. The second one was on Route 70, East Side of Saint Paul. It was one of the old buses from the 1980s, a type rarely seen anymore. Hennepin County elections Questions answered by candidates for County Commissioner & Sheriff BY JOHN CHARLES WILSON With the help of my friends Lee Leichtenritti and Peter Molenaar, and our editor Harvey Winje, I developed a questionnaire for candidates for Hennepin County Commissioner District 4 and Hennepin County Sheriff. Each candidate was asked to pick two topics from a menu of four or five, and explain how they intended to handle them if elected to office. Topics for Commissioner Candidates: 1. Housing for low income persons, senior citizens, and persons vulnerable due to mental illness. 2. Public transportation in the Twin Cities metro area. 3. Diversity in hiring Hennepin County employees. 4. Mentally ill people being held in the County jail. Angela Conley 1. Housing for low income persons, senior citizens, and persons vulnerable due to mental illness: We need to rethink housing as a basic human right and make strong investments in solutions to the housing crisis. Housing is expensive and in short supply, we should know that houses are multi-generational and rented. A growing proportion of the homeless population are seniors and those with mental illness. Phillips residents need more options when it comes to housing, especially seniors who can’t just go out and get another job. I will pursue creative solutions, like the cooperative housing program used in other parts of Minneapolis. We also, can have an apartment building where rent is based off tenant income. To ensure long-term investment in a more equitable community, I will require low-income units to be included in new developments in our district. 2. Mentally ill people being held in the County jail: Working with our partners at the county attorney’s office and the city, I will bring restorative justice practices to our community. Ending the practice of cash bail would help diminish disparities within our jails. We know that mental illness is an issue across races and income levels, but it’s easy for these conditions to go unnoticed when a person lacks wealth. By implementing a policy that penalizes the poor and decreasing the overall jail population (particularly for low-level offenses), we can alleviate the problem of people with mental illness being held in the county jail. Peter McLaughlin 1. Housing for low income persons, senior citizens, and persons vulnerable due to mental illness: Lack of decent affordable housing is eating up household budgets, forcing people into bad housing, fostering exploitation by landlords and moving children from school to school. We lack an adequate supply of housing with services for people with mental, chemical health problems, seniors or those returning from the criminal justice system. Many are homeless, as the census shows. As Commissioner, I will build on years as chair of RBC, a large, local affordable housing development corporation. I will lead the County by doubling the County Affordable Housing Incentive Fund, expanding investment in health-related housing, maximizing healthcare dollars, converting a county building to mental health housing and advocating for state legislation to re-balance the tenant-landlord relationship and create a large dedicated statewide affordable housing fund. 3. Diversity in hiring Hennepin County employees: People can wring their hands about disparities, but Hennepin County is doing something about it. Nothing is more important to eliminating disparities than linking people to good jobs and training. Three years ago we set a minimum wage of $15/hour, provided paid parental leave and raised tuition reimbursed to the maximum permitted (free tuition) for all County employees, well before other units of government. As Commissioner I will double the size of the highly successful Pathways program, which links the County to other public and private employers. We’ve created pathways into 23 separate jobs, advancing 1,269 individuals within Hennepin County alone, the vast majority of whom are people of color. PPL and HIRED provide support services. We will also expand internal training to promote leadership opportunities and careers, particularly for existing employees of color. Topics for Sheriff Candidates: 1. Mentally ill people being held in the County jail. 2. Deployment of Sheriff’s deputies outside the boundaries of Hennepin County and/or Minnesota. 3. Diversity in hiring Sheriff’s deputies. 4. Cooperation between the Sheriff’s Office and the County Board of Commissioners. 5. Additional resources needed by the Sheriff’s Department. Hutch Hutchinson 2. Deployment of Sheriff’s deputies outside the boundaries of Hennepin County and/or Minnesota: The duties of the Sheriff’s Office is to protect the people of Hennepin County. I would only deploy deputies outside of Hennepin County in extreme emergency circumstances, such as assisting with a natural disaster relief effort. On the other hand, the current sheriff has deployed deputies to break up protests on the Standing Rock reservation against the Dakota Access Pipeline. I will never send deputies to break up peaceful protests, especially those outside of the county. The Hennepin County Sheriff’s Office is here to protect people, not large companies. The right to peaceful assembly is guaranteed by our Constitution, and I will never work to constrain that right. 4. Cooperation between the Sheriff’s Office and the County Board of Commissioners: The Hennepin County Commissioners recently released a memo about the need to create a policy around ICE behaviors in Hennepin County properties. This policy would require ICE agents to identify themselves to County officials and inform them if arrests are being made on the property. I completely support this policy and it is a great opportunity for the Sheriff’s Department to work hand in hand with the County Commissioners. It is not the duty of the Sheriff’s Office to enforce immigration policies. It is the individual’s should’nt need to work about deportation for minor offenses. As Sheriff, this will become the department’s official policy. By working with the County Commissioners, we can strengthen Hennepin County’s protections of all people, regardless of how they came here. Rich Stanek 1. Mentally ill people being held in the County jail. 3. Diversity in hiring Sheriff’s deputies. (Note: Stanek issued a single answer meant to cover both topics.) As a young boy growing up in Northeast Minneapolis, I wanted to be a police officer. I wanted to help those in need, and that same desire has helped guide my career for the past 35 years. Now as Sheriff, I work with the community every day to create positive change and advocate for all who come in contact with law enforcement. The desire to help those in need while advancing public safety has led to two of my top priorities as Sheriff of Hennepin County: advocating for the mentally ill in the criminal justice system and increasing diversity hiring of Sheriff’s Office personnel. We are seeing crisis levels of mental illness among Hennepin County jail inmates. On any given day in our jail, we have approximately 200-300 inmates with mental illness. For this reason, we continue to implement new initiatives to better serve all inmates, such as Crisis Intervention Training for all jail personnel, round-the-clock inmate medical assessments during the booking process, and adding a mental health caseload advocate to our staff. As an agency, we are committed to increasing community participation, and one of the best ways to accomplish that is by increasing diversity hiring. We have more than doubled our diversity hiring rate by utilizing community engagement, social media, and our Community Advisory Board. I believe that having deputies who represent the communities they serve can lead to increased resident trust and decreased crime. The East Phillips Community 17th Ave. Gardeners Welcome you to the Annual FALL HARVEST PARTY WHEN: Saturday, October 20th TIME: 4:30 PM to ........... WHERE: 2428 17th Ave. S. BRING: Food or drink to share BRING: Musical instruments ENJOY; The Grilled and Pot Luck Feast, The Warmth of a Crackling Camp Fire, The annual Pumpkin Carving Contest, Hot Spiced Apple Cider S’mores and more by the Fire Music by your Neighbors. The comradery of this outdoor fall event AND Sign up for a Garden Plot for 2019 (Plots will be available for East Phillips Residents) For your Calendar: The EPIC Board of Directors meets on the FIRST Saturday of the month – Next Meetings: Saturday, 10/6/2018 and 11/3/2018 at 10:00 AM. Meetings are at 2433 Bloomington Ave. S. The EPIC General Membership meets on the SECOND Thursday – Next Meetings: Thursday, 10/11/18 and 11/8/2018 At 6:30 PM. Meetings are at the Community Center. Agenda includes Neighborhood Industrial Pollution, Crime Initiatives, and EPIC project updates. The East Phillips Community 17th Ave. Gardeners meet on the second Saturday of Each Month during the gardening season beginning from April through September. Next meetings are Next Year Saturday, 4/13/2019 & 5/11/2019 at 9:00 AM in the Community Center at 2307 17th Ave. S. Subsequent meetings will be held in the Garden. NOTE: The October Garden meeting is replaced with the Garden Fall Harvest Party on October 20th. See above. Meeting Locations: East Phillips Park Cultural & Community Center is located at 2307 17th Ave. S., Mpls., MN 2433 Bloomington Ave. S is directly across the street from Welna Ace Hardware. EPIC’s East Phillips Community 17th Ave. Garden is located at 2428 17th Ave. S., Mpls., MN SAVE THESE DATES: Phillips Community Clean Sweep: October 13th 2018 from 9:00 AM to 2:00 PM Garden Fall Harvest Party: October 20th 2018 from 4:30 PM until the fire goes out. * Watch this space for additional or changed meetings Designed and Paid for by East Phillips Improvement Coalition Board Meeting Tuesday, October 9 6:30-8:15pm @ Banyan Community, 2529 13th Ave S, Minneapolis AGENDA I. A Brush with Kindness Program announcement The A Brush with Kindness program focuses on exterior painting, health and safety repairs. The home repair program utilizes a combination of volunteers and contractors to help homeowners affordably maintain their homes. II. Outreach presentations by our partner organizations Our MPNAI partners—Banyan Community, New City Church, KALU Radio, and the Heart of the Beast/Lutheran Church, and New Americans Youth Soccer Club will report efforts made to do community outreach per their Memorandum of Understanding. Community Meeting Tuesday, October 23 6:30-8pm @ Stewart Park, 2700 12th Ave S, Minneapolis AGENDA I. Minneapolis Park Policing Chief Jason O’Hotto, Minneapolis Park Police Department, will present on Minneapolis Park Policing The Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board is an independent park district that owns, maintains, and programs activities in public parks in Minneapolis. TaDa at In the Heart of the Beast October 6 - December 15 In the Heart of the Beast 1500 E Lake St, Minneapolis, MN 55407 Join our partners at In the Heart of the Beast for TaDa, a Saturday Matinee series for families! Tickets are $2 for neighborhood residents (Phillips & Powelltown) and $7 for general public. We’re proud to sponsor this bilingual show series, which performances in Spanish on Oct 6th, Oct 27th, and Dec 1st! https://hobd.org/performances/2/ta-da/ PHILLIPS CLEAN SWEEP a Litter be GONE event SATURDAY, OCTOBER 13, 2018 9am-10am Enjoy a Free Breakfast and Pick-Up Free Supplies Plus, get a FREE 2018 Clean Sweep T-shirt CHECK IN AT EITHER OF THESE LOCATIONS: • Welna Ace Hardware Parking Lot – 2438 Bloomington Ave S • Lutheran Social Services – 2400 Park Ave S (letter on 24th St) 9am-12pm Phillips Clean Sweep! Meet your neighbors, help pick up litter, and clean up your neighborhood! Organize your neighbors! 12pm-2pm Free Lunch and Entertainment Plus Neighborhood Information & Fun at Stewart Park (2700 12th Ave S) Bring out your trash! The Phillips neighborhoods have raised funds to provide free trash bags for residents during Clean Sweep. They will pick up extra household trash, old furniture, carpet, household construction and tires. Materials should be out the night before and no later than 9am October 13th. (No hazardous wastes are picked up and any appliance or recyclables are picked up on the next city recycling pick up day.) Join Phillips Community CLEAN SWEEP SATURDAY OCTOBER 13, 2018 9am-10am Enjoy a Free Breakfast and Pick-Up Free Supplies CHECK IN AT EITHER OF THESE LOCATIONS: • Welna Ace Hardware Parking Lot – 2438 Bloomington Ave S • Lutheran Social Services – 2400 Park Ave S (enter on 24th St) 9am-12pm Phillips Clean Sweep! Meet your neighbors, help pick up litter, and clean up your neighborhood! Organize your neighbors! Enlist your block club or church youth group! Just bring yourself & help keep Phillips clean! 12pm-2pm Free Lunch and Entertainment Plus Neighborhood Information & Fun at Stewart Park (2700 12th Ave S) Bring out your trash! The Phillips neighborhoods have raised funds to provide free pick up for residents during Clean Sweep. We will pick up extra household trash, old furniture, carpet, household construction and tires. Materials should be out the night before and no later than 9am October 13th. (No hazardous wastes are picked up and any appliance or recyclables are picked up on the next city recycling pick-up day.) FFI: call 952-996-6490 MIDTOWN INDIGENOUS PEOPLES DAY CELEBRATION Monday, October 8th American Indian Corridor All My Relations Arts (AMRA), and Native American Community Development Institute - NACDI is hosting an Indigenous Peoples Day Celebration to raise awareness, and provide education of Native American Arts. The festival’s focus is to provide the people of the Twin Cities, greater Minnesota, and beyond consistently high-quality exposure to Native American Arts. The festival will provide the public with education about American Indian history, culture, and contemporary experiences through the arts. Workshops will encourage artists to interact with attendees to create a broader understanding of Native communities. The festival will take place on the American Indian Corridor on Franklin Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55404. For more information: https://www.nacdi.org/indigenous-peoples-day-festival MOTION FOR CONSIDERATION AT THE OCTOBER 10, 2018 VENTURA VILLAGE GENERAL MEMBERSHIP MEETING The following Motion will be on the agenda for the October 10, 2018 General Membership Meetings. This motion will clean up all the old Neighborhood Revitalization Plan (NRP) balances and bring the Ventura Village Neighborhood Priority Plan (NPP) up to date. Please attend the General Membership Meeting on October 10, 2018 at the Phillips Community Center Dining Room at 7:00 pm. MOVE to approve the reallocation of the following FROM Ventura Village NRP funds: 1. $3,289.90 from Multi-Cultural Arts Center (Phase I, Arts/Culture/Ethnicity 3.2.1.) 2. $0.04 from The Management Team (Phase I, Administrative Support 1.1.1.) 3. $9,313.41 from Homeowner Fix-up Grant Program (Phase II, Housing 1.2.1.) ($4,137.08 of this is Program income) 4. $4,500.00 from Educate Property Managers, Owners and Renters (Phase II, Housing 1.3.1.) and move the following from Ventura Village CPP funds 1. $82,896.65 from CPP ($18,370.37 is in the CPP Reserve; $64,526.28 is in CPP contract TO the Ventura Village NPP Plan 1. $17,103.35 to Peavey Park Improvements (Phase II, Parks and Open Spaces 1.1.2.) 2. $82,896.65 to Park Improvements NPP AND further, move to rescind all previous reallocation motions for these funds. UPCOMING VENTURA VILLAGE MONTHLY MEETINGS: WEDNESDAY, OCT 10TH: BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING: 6:00 PM WEDNESDAY, OCT 10TH: GENERAL MEMBERSHIP MEETING: 7:00 PM THURSDAY, OCT 25TH: HOUSING & LAND COMMITTEE: 5:30 PM THURSDAY, OCT 25TH: CRIME & SAFETY COMMITTEE: 6:30 PM TUESDAY, OCT 30TH: COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT COMMITTEE: 6:00 PM TUESDAY, OCT 30TH: WELLNESS, GARDENING & GREENING: 7:00 PM All Residents Are Welcome to Participate: Visitors Welcome to Attend! It's Up To Us To KEEP Phillips A Clean & Safe Community! Won't You Help Us Do This? Representative Karen Clark, Dist. 62A: 38 years! A job well done Award; Runaway and Homeless Advocate Award; MN YouthBuild’s Advocacy Award; Legislative Champion of Minority Economic Development Association; MN Interfaith Coalition on Affordable Housing’s Community Hero Award; and the Job’s Now Coalition Award. What can one say about Representative Karen Clark’s legislative record as she has passed over 150 significant legislative bills into law while in the legislature? It would be difficult to pin Karen down to chose a few of these as the most memorable, but she said the following would be included: MN’s Worker Right-to-Know Exposure to Toxic Substances; MN Dislocated Workers Act; Sexual Harassment protections; Cancer Registry; Early Childhood Care and Education; Sexual Orientation added to the MN Human Rights Act; Dakota and Ojibwe Language Preservation; Domestic Violence Shelters for Asian, Native American, Latina and East African Women; Housing for Homeless Youth, Families and Mentally Ill; Environmental Justice protections such as the Cumulative Health Impact Analysis for East Phillips Neighborhood; State Bonding to finance the Minneapolis American Indian Center Renovation, to save and expand the Phillips Swimming Pool and creating the East Phillips Park Community Cultural Center; outlawing BPA in baby bottles; stronger Renter’s Rights and Responsibilities; Childhood Lead Poisoning; and Racial Disparities in Home Ownership. And this is just the tip of the iceberg. One cannot forget also the strong battle Karen fought to help defeat the MN Same-Sex Marriage Constitutional Amendment in 2012 and then her success in 2013 to chief author and pass the Marriage Equality Act signed into law by Governor Dayton. Although Karen will be leaving the legislature at the end of 2018 there is still much work to be done. She will continue to advocate for progressive legislation and to help push forward some of her ideas and initiatives. Among the unfinished legislative issues she feels most passionate about include: State Reparations for African American and Native American Minnesotans; Renters and School Children’s Right to Know Toxic Lead Exposure; Free College Tuition; Single-Payer Health Care; MN Cancer Registry expanded to include Occupational, Residential, and Military History; Somali women and youth programming; expanded Chemical Dependency Wrap-Around Services (including opioid addiction) and Affordable Housing for all Minnesotans. Karen will not be fading into the sunset. Karen will continue her passion for equality, justice and disadvantaged communities. She has her passion for the Women’s Environmental Institute (WEI) non-profit to look forward to as its volunteer Executive Director and one of its founders, along with her spouse Jacquelyn Zita. WEI’s mission is to be “a place for women and allies to renew, learn and organize for environmental justice” using agricultural, racial and food justice strategies to promote social and economic change and opportunities. Another big priority for Karen will be spending more time with Jacquelyn and her family. Also, to continue her passion for hiking and growing vibrant flowers as well as organic apples, herbs and vegetables. I have known Karen for over 40 years and have been her campaign treasurer for 31 years. She has always kept the hearts, souls and minds of her constituents as part of her legislative agenda. I can attest to the tireless hours she has put into her work. In asking Karen about her legislative journey she said, “It has been an honor to represent this wonderful district of people who I’ve grown with over the years. They kept their promise to ‘stay with me’ that was made when I accepted their invitation to serve them in the legislature in 1980, and I’ve loved keeping my promise to build bridges to their real empowerment for economic and social justice. I am grateful.” If you happen to run into Karen on the street be sure to stop and thank her for her tireless work for all of us in this community. Karen has been a faithful and trusted servant who has served us well. Franklin/Hiawatha Encampment Still here! Minneapolis. Housing shortages, rigid landlords, policies that create lifetime bars based on survival behaviors; these are just some of the things that create overwhelming barriers for many of our relatives and have created the environment for the Encampment. In response, a broad coalition of government, nonprofit, community partners and stakeholder groups are coming together to address the short-term, mid-term and long-term barriers to housing for the residents of this camp, as well as those in other camps not so visible. Working together, we hope to find housing options for the camp’s population as soon as possible because we all acknowledge the current location is not sustainable, especially once the weather turns cold. The Metropolitan Urban Indian Directors (MUID) is helping to coordinate this effort. MUID is a collation of leadership of Minneapolis Native organizations and urban Tribal offices and embassies. Membership represent a wide range of nonprofits including direct services, education, housing, economic development, and more. Established over 40 years ago, MUID is a partner with the groundbreaking ‘Memo’ of Understanding with City of Minneapolis, which establishes a framework for the City’s engagement with the Native community and makes this partnership viable to address the current situation. MUID seeks to support and connect the tireless work of grassroots groups like Natives Against Heroin (NAH), the public and private sector organizations that have come forward to help meet the many individuals who seek to band together to create long term solutions to homelessness in the Native and broader communities. To do this we must build a sustainable, long-term, coordinated effort that acknowledges the indigenous history that frames this struggle and allows our relatives the opportunity for safe, suitable, and self-determined housing options. We invite all to join us in this work. Please visit www.franklinhiawathacamp.org to see how you can help and to stay informed. Patina Park is the executive director of the Minnesota Indian Women’s Resource Center and the current chairperson of the Metropolitan Urban Indian Directors group. Pollen Midwest invests in human connection to fuel empathy and momentum for social change by sharing stories of critical narratives, hosting events where essential conversations happen, and linking people to new professional and personal opportunities. This symbol, amidst tragic circumstances at the “Wall of Forgotten Natives,” calls for meaning from the viewer. Traditional tipis, modern tents, and some make-shift shelters are crowded in a long but confined space along the Hiawatha Av. sound wall where hundreds of people have gathered forming a community that has “become known as the Franklin/Hiawatha Encampment, or for some, the Wall of Forgotten Natives.” What’s next for The Alley? ...TIME begins for the next phase of Alley Communications. Look for the Who, What, How, and Where in the November issue. Where will the Alley cat land next? WANTED! Want to see the The Alley continue? Volunteer your time to help guide the future of your community’s local newspaper. The Alley is seeking 5 Interim Board Members willing to serve a 6-month term to steer the organization’s transition. Also seeking volunteers in: - Editing - Coordination - Ad Sales - Grantwriting - Mailing - Social media management - Website management - Archiving - Event planning - Bookkeeping For more information email Cathy at firstname.lastname@example.org TIME runs out on October 31, 2018 for Harvey Winje as the “Interim Editor” (since 2004), of The Alley Newspaper. The November issue, #164 for him, will be his last! Indigenous Peoples Day Events Indigenous Peoples Day Festival October 6 - 7 All My Relations Gallery (AMRA), and Native American Community Development Institute (NACDI) is hosting an Indigenous Peoples Day Festival to raise awareness, and provide education of Native American Arts. Augsburg University Native American Film Series 2018 The Eagle and the Condor — From Standing Rock with Love” October 8, 6:00 PM – 8:30 PM Free event. A film about how and why Indigenous people are standing up against a violent extraction-culture. Come to share your experiences at Standing Rock! Reception starts at 6pm and screening at 6:30 pm, Sateren Auditorium 715 22nd Ave So. http://www.augsburg.edu/filmseries/2018/07/18/the-eagle-and-the-condor-from-standing-rock-with-love Indigenous Food Tasting Hosted by Dream of Wild Health October 8, 4 – 6PM Free event at MAIC Our featured chefs are Brian Yazzie of Yazzie The Chef, Gatherings Cafe, Howasta Means, Christina White of Native Food Perspectives, The Sioux Chef team, and the DWH Youth Leaders! See: indigenouscities.com for further events First Declaration of Indigenous Peoples Day at the 1977 Geneva UN Conference The Native nations from the USA sent a delegation of thirteen members plus staff and observers. In addition, the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) Federation sent a separate delegation of twelve, plus several observers. Five of the US delegates were affiliated with IITC: Russell Means (Lakota), David Monongye (Hopi, Hotcville), Phillip Deere (Muscogee), Larry Red Shirt (Lakota), and Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz (Southern Cheyenne). AIM delegates were Pat Bellanger (Ojibwa) and Clyde Bellecourt (Anishinabe-Ojibwe). An additional fifteen Native people from the USA came as staff and observers, seven of whom were affiliated with IITC, including Peggy Phelps Means (Lakota), Bill Means (Lakota), and Winona LaDuke (Ojibwe). Others included: John Helmer, Lance Kaino, Joe Lefferts (Sioux), Marie Sanchez (Northern Cheyenne), and David Spotted Horse (Hunkpapa). The Iroquois delegation included Leon Shenandoah, Oren Lyons, and Audrey Shenandoah (Onondaga). Four of the seven Canadian delegates were affiliated with AIM Canada, including Ed Burnstink (Cree) and Art Sokolow (Ojibwe). One of the most important things to come out of the Geneva Conference did not get much attention at the time, even though it was the first item of the program of action in the final resolutions. It reads: “...to observe October 12, the day of so-called ‘discovery’ of America, as an international day of solidarity with the indigenous people of the Americas.” Why is that so important? ...It means that we have made a very large part of the world recognize who we are and even to stand with us in solidarity in our long fight. From now on, children all over the world will learn the true story of American Indians on Columbus Day instead of a pack of lies about these European ships.” Jimmy Durham, 1977. Attending 1977 Geneva UN Conference Ted Means: Born in SD 1946 died 2018, known as affectionately as the “Gros Ventre of Wounded Knee 1973, a member of the Run for Freedom Runners, American Indian Grassroots, Survival School Family, a Porcupine Singer, Wakaniny Singers and a long-time sundancer. Prior to his retirement, he served as director of the Porcupine Health Clinic, which he helped found. Greg Zephiiri: Artist, member of the American Indian Movement (AIM), member of a blue-rock band called the Vanishing Americans during the ’60s and ’70s. His records, particularly those of Jimi Hendrix, the three Kings (Albert, B.B., and Freddie), and Carlos Santana, were pivotal early influences on Indigenous musical aesthetics. Roxanne Means: Born 1942, active in international affairs of Indigenous peoples (including Central and South America, and United Nations for recognition of their rights), state and national level, and at his native Pine Ridge Indian Reservation; began acting career in 1992 on numerous television series and in several films, including The Last of the Mohicans, and released his own music CD; autobiography White Men Fear to Treat in 1995. Oren R. Lyons, Jr. was born 1930 in Seneca Wolf Clan but he was adopted into the Onondaga, Turtle Clan as an adult. He is a faithkeeper of Turtle Clan of the Seneca Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy. He has traveled extensively representing water, environment, world peace, and issues in the United Nations. Larry Red Shirt: from Pine Ridge Reservation, SD; a Lakota Representative to the 1977 Geneva Council. Pine Ridge is 2.1 million acres, with 1.7 million acres held in trust by the U.S. government. He released his own music CD; autobiography White Men Fear to Treat in 1995. Dick Bancroft: Champion with a Camera at First Declaration of International Indigenous Day Dick and I collaborated on the text and photos with pretty much him doing the photos and me doing the text. His photos are brilliant and clearly illustrative of the period 1970 to 1981 when the American Indian Movement was most active or influential. Here are just a few of the photographs and quotes from the book so you can hear what Dick and I heard from the participants as they reflected on the times and events. The focus here is on the Geneva Conference of 1977. Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, activist, writer, educator extraordinaire, at the 1977 UN Geneva Conference—see more on page 9 for overview of her life. when the treaty council was formed in Wakpala. I didn’t know about that. I missed it. Why, I don’t know. But in 1977, I was tipped off by the fact that they were going to go to Geneva. I said, “Who’s going to Geneva?” and they said, “The Treaty Council,” and so I said, “What’s the treaty council?” Pat [Bellanger] and others would tell me about it. I was going to be on that trip.” Dick had a lot of changes to make with his cameras to prepare for the trip. He told me “In those days, I didn’t use zoom lenses but I do now and so I had to change lenses from a 35mm to a 80mm and you had to click them off and on. It was a lot of work. I carried four lenses and two cameras: two telephoto lenses and a 50mm and a 35mm wide angle.” Dick said, “This was big times. By this time I was using two cameras. I lost my Leicaflex in the fire this house burned down and I had the Canon 35mm camera. I used those cameras in Geneva.” In the book Dick says, “After Wakpala, it was logical that I go to Geneva. I have to say, that one of the things that occurs when you’re working with a camera like this is feeling an adrenaline rush. To be able to walk into the United Nations building, the Palais des Nations, with a camera around my neck and these people coming in wearing full Indian regalia was stunning. This was frowoned on by the United Nations. They didn’t want people to be in traditional dress; they wanted people to be in suits and ties. Well, the American Indian Movement said, “No way, we’re coming in the way we want to dress.” The photographs with this article show the excitement Dick felt as he squeezed off shots. For him, it was a world of difference from suits and ties and the quiet determination he had witnessed in his father’s business conference rooms. Dick told me, “Personal needs are put in the background. As a result, it was exhausting. I met Winona LaDuke for the first time, and she gave a significant statement to the UN. I met Bill Wagstaff for the first time. And Oren Lyons. Philip Deere was prominent in Geneva—he had stayed at our house during the Wounded Knee trials. He was from Oklahoma, and he had a technique for selecting prospective jurors. He would tell Ken Tilson or the other lawyers—don’t take this one, use your objection and get rid of him on one. He would sit there in the courtroom during the jury selection and then he would spend the night with us.” Years later, I met Winona LaDuke in a noisy hotel room as she was taking her grandchildren for a holiday visit to a waterpark near Minneapolis. When asked about Jimmie Durham, who organized the conference, LaDuke said, “Francis Andrew He Crow “Kangi Bloka”; 1936-2018, from Pine Ridge Reservation and a Lakota Representative to the 1977 Geneva Council; Gordon Neb, passed away September 13, 2018. International Indigenous Day is celebrated on an official city and federal holiday in Canada (US localities celebrate on different year). At the UN and internationally it was August 9, 2018. Indigenous is a co-creation with their shared history in the Americas. The United States Congress recently voted on April 28, 2018 to recognize Indigenous Peoples Day on the same date as Columbus Day in the future. Estimated 1800 in the southwest corner of South Dakota on the Nebraska border, larger than Delaware and Rhode Island combined. Phillip Deere – Muscogee (Creek) 1929 - 1985. An inspiring traditional Muscogee (Creek) healer from Nuyuka Grounds, Okemah, Oklahoma. He was known as a spiritual leader, civil and human rights activist, oral historian and storyteller; a founder of the Traditional Youths and Elders Circle and a spiritual guide for the American Indian Movement (AIM). He was an elder and statesman for the International Indian Treaty Council (IITC), and participated in the United Nations International Decade of Indigenous Commission held in Geneva, Switzerland. He spoke about remembering traditional values, Muscogee prophecies, care for Mother Earth, and brought attention to injustices suffered by indigenous peoples of the Americas. He said, “No more are we going to stand around … This is not the end of The Longest Walk!” Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, activist, writer, educator extraordinaire Roxanne was born in San Antonio, Texas, in 1939 and grew up in Central Oklahoma, daughter of a sharecropper and a mother that Dunbar believes to have been partially Native American. Dunbar’s paternal grandfather, a settler of Scots-Irish ancestry, was a landed farmer, veteran of the Civil War, and a member in Socialist Party and Industrial Workers of the World, “Wobblies.” Her father was named after the leaders of the Industrial Workers of the World—Moyer Haywood Pettibone Scarberry Dunbar. Her father’s stories of her grandfather inspired her to lifelong social justice activism. Married at 18, she and her husband moved to San Francisco three years later, where she has lived most of the years since, although the marriage ended. Her account of life up to leaving Oklahoma is recorded in Red Dirt: Growing Up Okie. She has a daughter Michelle. She later married writer Simon J. Ortiz. Graduated from San Francisco State College 1963, B.A. History, History Doctorate degree from University of California, Los Angeles 1974; completed the Diplôme of the International Law of Human Rights at the International Institute of Human Rights, Strasbourg, France in 1983 and an MFA in Creative Writing at Mills College in 1993. Was a full-time activist 1967-1974 in various parts of the U.S., traveling to Europe, Mexico, and Cuba. She is also a veteran of the women’s liberation movement. Outlaw Woman: Memoir of the War Years outlines this time of her life, chronicling the years 1960-1975. She contributed to the book, Indians as the basis for social revolution to the 1970 anthology Sisterhood is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings From The Women’s Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan. In 1974, she accepted a position as Assistant Professor in the newly established Native American Studies program at California State University at Hayward, near San Francisco, and helped develop the Department of Ethnic Studies, as well as Women’s Studies. In the wake of the Wounded Knee Siege of 1973, she became active in the American Indian Movement (AIM) and the International Indian Treaty Council, becoming a leading commentator on indigenous peoples right to self-determination and to international human rights. Her first book, The Great Sioux Nation: An Oral History of the Sioux Nation and its Struggle for Sovereignty, was published in 1977 and presented as the fundamental document at the United Nations Conference on Indians of the Americas held at United Nations’ headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. The book was issued in a new edition by University of Nebraska Press in 2013. It was followed by two other books: Roots of Resistance: A History of Land Tenure in New Mexico (1980) and Indians of the Americas: Human Rights and Self-Determination (1984). She also edited two anthologies on Native American economic development, while heading the Institute for Native American Development at the University of New Mexico. In her work An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States, Dunbar-Ortiz examines the Discovery Doctrine and the colonialism that devastated Native American populations in the United States. She compares this form of religious bigotry to the modern-day conquests of al-Qaeda. She states that with much of the current land within the United States was taken through aggressive warfare against Indians of the Americas, yet “monetary amount can compensate for lands illegally seized, particularly those sacred lands necessary for Indigenous peoples to regain social coherence.” In 1981, Dunbar-Ortiz was asked to visit Sandinista Nicaragua to appraise the land tenure situation of the Miskito Indians in the northeastern region of the country. Her two trips there that year coincided with the beginning of United States government’s sponsorship of a proxy war to overthrow the Sandinistas with the northeastern region on the border with Honduras becoming a no zone and the basis for extensive propaganda carried out by the Reagan administration against the Sandinistas. In over a hundred trips to Nicaragua and Honduras from 1981 to 1989, she monitored what was called the Contra War. She tells of these years in Caught in the Crossfire: The Contras, the Sandinistas, and Reagan (1985) and Blood on the Border: A Memoir of the Contra War (2005). She is featured in the feminist history film She’s Beautiful When She’s Angry. She is Professor Emerita of Ethnic Studies at California State University, Hayward. Since retiring from university teaching she has been lecturing widely and writes. See photo on page 8. Movie Corner By HOWARD MCQUITTER II oldschoolmovies.wordpress.com email@example.com Burt Reynolds Feb. 11, 1936 - Sept. 6, 2018 The man with the rakish mustache, keen eyes and good looks started with acting on television such as playing in 50 episodes of “Gunsmoke” (1962-1964) and several roles in “The Twilight Zone”, “Perry Mason”, and many other shows in the 1960s. Then Reynolds got his big break on silver screen in John Boorman’s drama-adventure-thriller “Deliverance” (1972) joining the cast with Jon Voight, Ned Beatty, Ronny Cox and Bill McKinney. Reynolds takes a role in Woody Allen’s “Anthing You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (“But Were Afraid to Ask”) (1972). He played in “The Longest Yard”(1974) and at one time played high school college football before quitting because of an injury. Also known for acting in other comedies “Smokey and the Bandit” (1977) and the sequel in 1980. He plays the sheriff in “The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas” (1982). All together he starred in 186 movies and television shows. One of his most memorable roles is playing a producer of “soft” pornography in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Thomas Anderson’s “Boogie Nights”(1997). Here is one of the 186 movie and TV shows of Burt Reynolds’ Career. The End (1978 film) The End a 1978 black comedy directed by and starring Burt Reynolds, written by Jerry Belson, and with music composed by Paul Williams. Also stars Dom DeLuise along with Sally Field, Strother Martin, David Steinberg, Joanne Woodward, Norman Fell, Myrna Loy, Kristy McNichol, Pat O’Brien, Robby Benson and Carl Reiner. Reynolds later recalled he loved the film. “Nobody wanted to do it. They allowed me to do The End if I did Hooper, which made a fortune for Warner Brothers. The End eventually made $40-million.” Wendell “Sonny” Lawson (Reynolds), an unscrupulous real-estate promoter, learns that he has a fatal blood disease and decides to commit suicide rather than face a slow, painful death. He then takes the time to meet with several friends and family members for one last time, while hiding the fact that he plans to end his own life. After a failed suicide attempt, Sonny ends up in a mental institution, where he quickly befriends fellow patient, Marlon Borunki (DeLuise), a deranged schizophrenic murderer and enlists Borunki’s help with his suicide. Choosing safer cleaning products to improve air quality BY EMILY WORMAN This summer, 15 businesses and housing complexes in Phillips participated in a project to improve air quality and community health by switching to safer janitorial products. Eleven businesses have committed to switching to safer products, and they are improving local air quality by reducing the emissions of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). A total of 26 products were switched, which resulted in 2,730 pounds of cleaning product replaced with safer alternatives annually. Additionally, 105 pounds of HAPs, 155 pounds or VOCs, and 385 pounds of ground-level ozone will be removed each year. Thank you to the following businesses and housing complexes for participating in this project! Ebenezer Tower apartments, Center for Changing Lives, Greenway Building, Hiawatha Tower Apartments, Hope Community, the Latino Economic Development Center, Mayo River East and West Apartments, Midtown Global Market, Normandale House, Our Saviors Housing, St. Paul’s Apartments, Trujillo’s Tax Services, and Wells Fargo Mortgage Campus. Emily Worman was a summer Intern at MnTAP, sponsor of this project An important dialogue between members of LGBTQ community and Minneapolis Police BY KATHLEEN SULLIVAN Out In the Backyard (OIBY), All God’s Children Metropolitan Community Church and Minneapolis South Rotary recently hosted an event to help reduce the gap of understanding between the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer-plus communities and the Mpls. police force. A special community event was organized with the showing of a documentary called STONEWALL UPRISING as a catalyst to raise important questions and information about the many complex issues with the police and policing system. Jeff Hayes, the Minneapolis Police Department’s new LGBTQ community engagement liaison attended the event and dialogue. He is a civilian gay man recently hired by the police department for this position. Many questions were asked and discussed: Was it reasonable to use the June LGBTQ+ Pride march as a time to protest the killing of people of color by police? After all, the history of Pride beginning in 1969 IS protest and uprising—protest against violence by police and protest against a social structure that trampled all rights and dignity of LGBTQ+ individuals. How could the Pride organizers better communicate what was happening for those along the line-up route to the many hundreds in the parade who had no idea what the long wait was about? Should this protest have been expected by all, given that there was press leading up to the Pride parade about this?, Or been expected because last year groups protested the “whitewashing” of the LGBTQ+ community at Pride, and now as protesting the exclusion of police from Pride celebrations? Are frustrations about waiting in the heat for the Parade to get under way equal to frustrations of the murder of loved ones by the police? When groups lack equal access to power, how can they be heard, and what are the costs and benefits of various approaches? All these questions and more continue to be important. Out in the Backyard’s documentary and dialogue event on Friday Sept 14, an attempt to increase awareness of the history that led to the first Pride march in NYC in 1970, was well-received. Organizers noted that this film, while extremely valuable, over-emphasized the voices of white individuals. Event attendees were referred to documentaries centered on people of color who were important leaders in the Stonewall Uprising in 1969 that led to Pride Parade as a form of protest in 1970. Two important names are Sylvia Rivera and Marcia P. Johnson.** A documentary was made called, The Death and Life of Marsha P. Johnson. This recent dialog OIBY event was a step into new territory for OIBY and led to some experiential learning. Some questioned the event as moving to a “healing space” without a shared perspective on the “problem”. Some questioned having MPD staff at the table at this stage if the goal was emotional safety and openness, particularly by LGBTQ+ people of color and allies. Friday evening was a good start. Let’s continue the dialog, hopefully with representation by those with lived experience, and continued excellent facilitation by community leaders and educators who can guide an exploration and increased understanding of these important and complex issues. https://www.cnn.com/2017/06/25/us/no-justice-no-pride-protests/index.html * https://equityarchive.com/history/transgender-women-of-color-at-stonewall Raise Your Voice When patriots speak up BY PETER MOLENAR September 8, 2018, was a nationwide day of action around the theme: RISE FOR CLIMATE, JOBS, AND JUSTICE. The Minnesota summit was venued at the East Phillips Park Cultural and Community Center. The prevailing millennial voices were heard, still fresh from the financial crisis of 2008, and they were most hesitant to link the climate crisis to capitalism. To which I will add: The drive for infinite growth upon a finite planet suggests that this system is unsustainable and hostile to Earth’s ecology. Meanwhile… In our country, the top 10% own 80% of the wealth. These are the lazy stockholders who live high on the dividends of our collective labor. Actually, the planet’s richest eight people own wealth equal to the poorest half of the world’s population. Capitalism, which exists to maximize profits, is incapable of reversing this accelerating process. Call for a just transition… The environmental sustainability movement has issued the call for a just transition to a post-fossil fuel society. However, we have failed to convey the message to fossil fuel workers, the labor heroes whose redeployment must be fully supported by society. There is work to be done… • Vast expansion of renewable energy. • Modernization of the electric grid. • Protection of coastal areas from sea level rise and hurricanes. • Reforestation, including buffer strips to absorb agricultural runoff. • Replace old pipes for water supply and waste management. • Retrofitting buildings to conserve energy. • Mass transit. • Replacing old bridges and tunnels. We have offered a short wish list. Implementation will require a reversal of the Republican Party’s tax reform and the transfer of funds from the military. In addition, it might be wise to nationalize our banking system… and the pharmaceutical industry in conjunction with universal health care, free higher education… cancellation of student debt… a path to citizenship…. The list goes on, when patriots speak up! Dick Bancroft: Champion with a Camera at First Declaration of International Indigenous Day “I was a young woman at Harvard in 1976 and I remember hearing this man talk to our school. His name was Jimmie Durham and he represented the International Indian Treaty Council. It was the first NGO at the UN that represented Indigenous people. They had a presentation by him and I thought, ‘Well that is really right what he said.’ It changed my world view.” Between taking care of her tykes and answering phone calls, the busy organizer reflected on being 18 again, learning to research deeply. She had research experience but this was different. She had never been to the Dakotas. LaDuke talked about how impressed with the elders she was and how clear-spoken Lakotas and Dakotas were when they rose to lay out plans. She listened to LorieL Means and Madonna Thunderhawk. Dozens of others from all over the world had worked on the “Declaration of Principles for the Defense of the Indigenous Nations and Peoples of the Western Hemisphere,” which was drafted on September 23, 1977 and affirmed by ten resolutions. The final version, The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) was adopted by the General Assembly on Thursday, 13 September 2007 with many changes on “Thursday, 13 September 2007, by a majority of 144 states in favour.” Dick placed this quote by Tatanka Iotanka at the beginning of the book: “I am a red man. If the white man had known me to be a white man he would have made me so in the first place. He put in your heart certain wishes and plans, in my heart he put other and different desires. Each man is good in his sight. It is not necessary for Eagles to be Crows. We are poor… but we are free. No white man controls our footsteps. If we must die… we die defending our rights.” Coming Soon!!! Community Health Hub based on the significant learnings over 10 years of the Backyard Initiative and key definitions: CULTURE: Consists of practices that people create to give themselves continuity and cohesion across generations. Culture consists of a set of highly patterned, unspoken implicit rules, behaviors and thoughts which control everything that [we] do. A people, peoplehood is at the core of culture. – Cultural Wellness Center, 1996 COMMUNITY: We experience community as an emotion, as in sense of community; as a physical place such as a neighborhood or town; as a set of shared interests or pursuits; or as a common ethnic or cultural identity; We often think of community as something fixed—something that just is. In fact, from a leadership perspective, communities are made and maintained through human relationships. People create community. – Tom O’Connell, It’s Up To Us!: a brief guide to community leadership HEALTH: Health is a state of physical, mental, social, and spiritual well-being. It is not only the absence of infirmity and disease. Health is the state of balance, harmony, and connectedness within and between many systems—the body, the family, the community, the environment, and culture. It cannot be seen only in an individual context. * Health is an active state of being; people must be active participants to be healthy. It cannot be achieved by being passive.* – Backyard Initiative, 2009 WANTED: YOU! To engage with us as we take all that we learned about Community Health from the Backyard Initiative and grow the Community Health Hub into something even more magnificent. Backyard Resource Center 612-353-6211 Midtown Global Market (just West of the Lake Street entrance) Hours: 10AM to 6PM, Monday through Saturday We are healthy when— - We know who we are - We know the wisdom of our culture - We know the health practices of our people - We belong to a community	a020bcdb-ed4a-499a-9adf-7b33963bedc8	CC-MAIN-2024-46	https://alleynews.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Alley-News-October-2018.pdf	2024-11-09T13:30:22+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477028118.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20241109120425-20241109150425-00832.warc.gz	67,700,883	14,165	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.992528	eng_Latn	0.994826	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 6259, 12846, 20705, 25268, 29065, 36055, 36897, 46450, 51080, 58047, 61904, 63840 ]	[ 2.109375, 1.5703125 ]	1	0
Comprehension What it is: Comprehension is understanding what you have read. At the most basic level, it’s knowing the name of the characters or events in a story or learning basic facts from an informational book. At an advanced level, it’s being able to apply what you have read to a real situation. Comprehension allows the reader to think deeply about what they have read and that is the goal of all reading. What it’s not: Just sounding out words and saying them without thinking about what they mean in that sentence or paragraph. Why it’s important: We read to understand. Ways to help your child: Children may have comprehension problems for a variety of reasons. First of all, students with poor decoding skills misread many words, which makes it hard to understand what they are reading. If this is the case, students need help with phonics skills. Other students are able to decode the words, but read so slowly they cannot think about what they are reading. For these students, fluency work is helpful. Some students sound like they are reading just fine, but they don’t seem to remember what they have read and cannot answer questions about the text. For these students, the problem may be lack of general knowledge about the topic and/or lack of comprehension strategies for thinking about the text before, during, and after reading. Finally, some students are struggling with all areas. This packet will focus on comprehension strategies. Strategies: These strategies will help your child with comprehension. Choose the Right Book – Books for BEGINNING INDEPENDENT READERS are intended to build their ability to sound out words fluently. They are NOT great in terms of story line or factual content, and that’s okay because a really interesting book would be too hard for them to read at that point. The best practice on comprehension will be with fiction and non-fiction texts that have a great story or provide rich information. For BEGINNING readers, the best time to work on comprehension is when you are reading to them. Read aloud to your child and talk about the text EVERYDAY, even after they are able to read on their own. The other important point is to choose books based on your child’s interests. It will be much easier for your child to develop comprehension skills if they are interested in the topic. Ask the right questions – Aim for higher-order questions, especially those that ask students to make connections between the text and themselves, other texts, and the world around them. Ask a variety of question types, using the chart below. \| Remember \| Understand \| Apply \| \|----------\|------------\|-------\| \| • Who? \| • What does that mean? \| • Predict what would happen if…? \| \| • Where? \| • What are the facts? \| • What would change if…? \| \| • Which one? \| • Tell me in your own words. \| • Tell how that happened? \| \| • What? \| • Is this the same as…? \| • How would you explain…? \| \| • Why? \| • Give an example. \| • Who do you think? \| \| • How much? \| • Explain why… \| • What could he/she do differently? \| \| • When? \| • What expectations are there? \| • What else might have happened? \| \| • What does that mean? \| • What does the graph tell us? \| • What was the main idea? \| \| • What happened next? \| • What are they saying? \| • Tell me more about…. \| \| • Which is the best one? \| • What seems to be…? \| • Explain why ___ did that. \| \| • Can you name all of the…? \| • Which statements support…” \| • What would you ask the character ___? \| \| \| • What could have happened? \| • Explain why ___ acted the way they did. \| \| \| • Does everyone think like ___? \| • What do they have in common? \| • Analyze • Evaluate • Create \| Analyze \| Evaluate \| Create \| \|---------\|----------\|--------\| \| • What does ___ do for ___? \| • What doesn’t make sense? \| • Can you design a ___ to show ___? \| \| • What is fact? Opinion? \| • What did you learn that is the same as what you learned in ____? \| • What is another way the story could have ended? \| \| • What is ___ assuming? \| • Is there a better solution? \| • If you were ___ what would you have done instead and why? \| \| • What is the motive? \| • What do you think about___? \| • Think of three different ways we could use what we learned from this book. \| \| • What does the author believe? \| • Do you think ___ is good or bad and why? \| • If you were in charge of ___ what would you change so that ___? \| \| • What is ___’s point of view? \| • How would you have handled___? \| \| \| • What is the relationship between ___ and ___? \| • Do you believe___? \| \| \| • What is the theme? \| • How would you feel if___? \| \| \| • How is the author convincing you to believe that ____? \| • What are the consequences of ___? \| \| \| • What could not have happened if ___? \| • What influence does ___ have on your life? \| \| \| • How is ___ similar to ___? \| • What are the pros and cons of ___? \| \| \| • Why did ___ changes happen? \| • Who will gain and who will lose? \| \| Adapted from the following sources: Pohl, Michael. Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn: Models and Strategies to Develop a Classroom Culture of Thinking. Cheltenham, Vic.: Hawker Brownlow. 2000; Tarlington, Denise. “Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy.” Powerpoint; www.center.iupui.edu/cti/dd/docs/Bloom_revised021.doc. February 8, 2006; http://eprentice.sdsu.edu/J03OJ/miles/Bloomtaxonomy/revised11.htm. WCPS AG Program 2009 Toolbox for Planning Rigorous Instruction Talk About the Book! – The best strategy is to have meaningful conversations with your child about each book. Help them make connections to their own experiences, to other books they have read, and to the world around them. Talk About What Good Readers Do – Honor the ways your child demonstrates the traits of good readers. Use a Comprehension Monitor and Mend bookmark to remind your child and yourself of all the skills good readers use. It is important to pay attention to what you are reading about and use “fix up” strategies like re-reading if something doesn’t make sense. Write About It – Writing about what is being read is actually a great way to improve comprehension or understanding. Help your child take a few notes while they are reading. Even making a quick sketch of something from a story or information book can make a big difference. Share Chapter Books – Longer books help students to develop sustained attention, which leads to better comprehension. If your child cannot read chapter books independently, read them together and stop occasionally to discuss what you are reading. Sequencing – Help your child to sequence, or put in order, detailed events in real life using words like first, next, then, last, finally, in the beginning, at the end. Then, use those words to remember the order of events from something they have read. Think Aloud – When you are reading aloud to your child, talk about what you are thinking. For example, you might say, “I wonder if the boy will find the dog?” or “It’s interesting that the author said the boy was trembling but he didn’t say why he was frightened. She must want to keep us wondering.” When Reading FICTION Books (stories) Before reading: Point out the author and title. Ask, what do you think this book will be about? Tell your child that a story will have characters (who the story is about), a setting (where the story takes place), and a plot (what the story is about). It will have a beginning, middle, and end. While reading: Stop several times to talk about what is happening and to ask your child's opinion. Talk about the characters and the setting. Make predictions about what will happen next. After reading: Ask your child to retell the story from memory. Ask them to make connections between this story and other books they have read, situations that have occurred in their lives, or to the world around them. When Reading NON-FICTION Books (informational texts) Before reading: Point out the author and title but also the headings (big bold print) of each section. Talk about what you might learn from reading this book. Tell your child that informational books can be about anything. You can learn a lot about the world by reading non-fiction books. You can read the whole book from front to back, or you can read sections that are of special interest to you. Help your child notice the table of contents and the glossary if there is one. While reading: Pause to talk about the illustrations. In non-fiction books, the drawings, pictures, diagrams, and labeling really add to the content. Take time to study them and talk about how the illustrator used them to give the reader more information. After reading: Ask your child what was most interesting about the book. What do they want to learn more about? Teach Signal Words – Signal words are important words that improve comprehension of what we are reading. There are several categories of words. Help your child understand these common signal words. 1. Continuation Signals (Warning—there are more ideas to come.) and also another again and finally first of all a final reason too in addition last of all secondly more one reason next 2. Change-of-Direction Signals (Watch out—we’re doubling back or changing.) although but instead of yet despite different from even though on the other hand however in contrast while still in spite of though otherwise on the contrary 3. Sequence Signals (These words mean there is an order to these ideas.) first, second, third in the first place then last next after before for one thing 4. Time Signals (When is it happening?) when during now lately already little by little at the same time once after awhile 5. Illustration Signals (Here’s what that really means.) for example for instance to illustrate such as in the same way as similar to 6. Emphasis Signals (This is important.) most of all above all should be of course remember that by the way a key feature more than anything else a major event the basic concept especially important pay attention to 7. Cause, Condition, or Result Signals (Condition or modification is coming up.) because if so that of for from yet so while then unless but that until due to since as whether 8. Spatial Signals (This answers the “where” question.) between below about left above here outside around close to far right over away side near near in into beside toward middle next to beyond north west east on opposite over by south there inside in front of upon under these out behind across 9. Comparison-Contrast Signals (We will now compare idea A with idea B.) and or also but like too best most still while either less less than yet though more than same better however even then half although 10. Conclusion Signals (This ends the discussion and may have special importance.) as a result last of all finally consequently in summary therefore in conclusion from this we see Signal Words Adapted From: Fry, E. B., Kress, J. E., & Fountoukidis, D.L. (1993). The reading teacher’s book of lists, 3rd edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, pp.185-187. © 1993 by Prentice Hall References Auman, M. (2016) Step Up to Writing. Texas: Voyager Sopris Learning Duke, N. K., Halladay, J. L., & Roberts, K. L. (2013). Reading standards for informational text. In L. M. Morrow, T. Shanahan, & K. K. Wixson (Eds.), Teaching with the Common Core Standards for English language arts, PreK-2 (pp.. 46-66). New York Guilford Press. Duke, N.L., & Pearson, P.D., (2008). Title. Journal of Education. Boston University. In Farstrup, A.E., & Samuels, S.J. (Eds.). What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 205-242). Copyright 2002. National Early Literacy Panel. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Retrieved from https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/documents/NELPReport09.pdf Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 22–37. doi:10.1080/10888438.2013.827687 Pressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of? In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp. 545–561). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Sharon B. Kletzien. Paraphrasing: An Effective Comprehension Strategy The Reading Teacher, 63(1), pp. 73–77 © 2009 International Reading Association DOI:10.1598/RT.63.1.7 ISSN: 0034-0561 print / 1936-2714 online	9725e0be-521f-43d0-ab1a-13d9b03a641a	CC-MAIN-2021-21	https://content.schoolinsites.com/api/documents/50826089ab3448a3841fdfa90baf6fd0.pdf	2021-05-17T10:47:25+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243992159.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20210517084550-20210517114550-00612.warc.gz	192,335,600	3,034	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.90317	eng_Latn	0.996733	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2340, 5422, 6280, 8726, 9809, 11249, 12613 ]	[ 4.53125 ]	1	0
Hello Everyone! June is here and we hope your gardens (and you) are flourishing! It feels great to see our ponds come to life, our fish swim in the sunlight, and our waterlilies start to bloom. With COVID restrictions easing, we were able to have our first meeting of the year on June 18 at the Avellars’ lovely home. Everyone enjoyed a light dinner and social. We will announce plans for our July get-together soon. With the cutbacks to some of our summer plans (which would have been incredible – so hold on for 2021!) we will be able to stretch 2020 dues through 2021. So: if you have paid for 2020, you will not need to pay for 2021. If you have not paid this year don’t worry – it’s fine. Your dues will start again in spring of 2021. It is wonderful to associate with each of you and to be able to connect, even virtually. Please feel free to join us at our coming meetings – our next meeting will be on July 16 at 7:00 pm. at Utah Water Gardens, 5911 South 1300 East (just south of Cottonwood High School). Hope to see you there! And if you are not comfortable coming out under current conditions – we get it! Stay safe and enjoy your beautiful gardens. Enjoy reading the newsletters. We will see you again soon. Happy gardening! Best, Utah Water Garden & Koi Club officers In this issue 2020 Pond Tour .................. 2 We Held a Meeting ........... 2 Bogs ................................. 4 Aeration ............................. 8 Pond Fish ............................ 9 Our sponsors .................... 11 About us ............................. 13 The 2020 Pond Tour is going virtual! That’s right – we will have a 2020 Pond Tour, but it will just be a bit different. We’re going virtual! And we invite each of you to participate. Send us a couple of photos or short video of your pond, together with a description, by July 31st to email@example.com. We’ll put it together in a video and post it online for all to enjoy! We Held a Meeting! We held our first pond club meeting of the year on June 18th – a slightly-delayed opening social at the Avelar’s home. We enjoyed light hors d’oeuvres and great company! Despite social distancing and face masks, it was great to be together and enjoy each other’s company. HELPING TO GROW THE THINGS YOU LOVE. THE BEST FOOD FOR YOUR BEST FRIEND KEEP YOUR FOUR-LEGGED FRIEND HEALTHY & HAPPILY FED. VISIT www.IFACOUNTRYSTORES.com TO FIND A LOCATION NEAR YOU & YOUR FURBABY. Bogs are not evil! A bog is an area that consistently has a water level several inches below the “soil” surface. In nature, bog soils are usually very high in organic materials and low in pH. Traditionally, using semi-permeable liners, ornamental bog gardens have imitated these conditions in order to grow plants that have adapted to these areas, such as pitcher plants. For filtration purposes, bog filter gardens are constructed using waterproof pond liner and pea gravel. They may utilize a wide range of marginal pond plants, bog plants, and even many terrestrial garden plants. These bog filter gardens have two primary functions: beauty and filtration. The bog filter provides a perfect background for the pond, showcasing plants while allowing more pond surface area to remain open. It also provides a natural looking transition from land to pond, and enhances the landscaping around the pond. Bog gardens are the ultimate pond filter for water purity, clarity, and low maintenance. Unlike man-made filters, bogs can completely process organic waste, including solid waste, and even process some inorganic waste, such as minerals. Manmade filters merely mechanically trap debris and some biologically detoxify waste. Waste by-products still build up in the water and create various problems, including a build-up of nitrates and phosphates that promote algae growth. In a bog filter, gravel traps organic debris until it can be broken down by bacteria and used by plants. By-products are processed and used as food by microbes and plants. Ponds with bog filters usually experience no algae blooms, even when brand new, and those that do quickly balance themselves. Bog filters are also extremely economical to build and maintain, and are compatible with other filtration systems if you desire them. Once you’ve used a bog filter, you won’t ever want a pond without one. Typical Bog Filter Construction 1 – The size of bog filter required varies according to the organic load it is expected to process, often a function of how much fish food is used. For most purposes, a bog filter whose surface area is 10% of the surface area of the main pond will suffice, with up to 20% or more for heavy loads. Intense sunlight and high temperatures stimulate algae growth and so require higher performing bog filters, while lower temperatures and light levels reduce demand. Shape is more of an aesthetic function, dependent on each pond’s landscaping. Bog filters are often placed opposite from where people usually view the pond as they provide a beautiful background for the pond, and can wrap around several sides if desired. 2 – Excavate an area next to the main pond to a depth of 12-14”. Shallower bog filters provide less filtering area and heat up quickly, while deeper ones tend to create too many anaerobic low-flow zones (a certain amount of anaerobic activity is normal and even beneficial, but too much can produce toxic quantities of by-products). Build a retaining wall of concrete or concrete blocks to separate this area from the main pond. The top of the wall should be 1-2” below the pond surface when filled. Remember to make the wall for the bog filter level, and to allow extra liner for the sides of the retaining wall. Use felt protection mat or scrap liner to protect the liner from rough or sharp edges. Fill in any large cracks deeper than 2” below pond surface which would “leak out” gravel, using mortar or black expanding foam. An alternate filter placement is to build the bog as an extra-wide shelf, place the liner, and build the retaining wall on top of the liner, using rock if desired. Another style is to retrofit one end or corner of the pond into a bog filter. 3 – Place liner in pond and bog filter, following vendor’s liner installation instructions. Hide all liner after construction. 4 – Install the pump in the pond as far away from the bog filter as possible, using a pump which circulates pond volume at least once every two hours for ponds under 4,000 gallons, and at least once every four hours for ponds over 4,000 gallons (more is better). Use over-sized pipe or tubing to maximize flow to the bog — 2” diameter is standard. Screen or pre-filter the pump enough to prevent clogging, but do not over-filter; let the bog filter trap and eat the detritus. Some people split and valve the output from one pump to operate both a waterfall and a bog filter, while others use two pumps. The waterfall can even empty into one end of a wrap-around bog filter, with water falling into the pond at the other end of the bog. 5 – Use PVC pipe to build a distribution manifold the length of the bog. Drill 1/4” holes about 3” apart, in a line about halfway between the side and bottom of the pipe, or cut slots into the pipe (we prefer slots). Use an elbow at the end of all manifold lines, add a short piece of pipe to bring it to the bog surface, and glue a male adapter with a threaded cap on it for cleanout. Center the pipe along the bottom of the bog. Bogs wider than 3’ benefit from multiple lines set 12-18” apart. 6 – Place decorative (usually flat) rock across the top of the retaining wall, allowing small cracks between and under rocks for water flow. Water will be pumped from the main pond into the bog filter, through the gravel, and flow back into the pond over the retaining wall through cracks between rocks. 7 – Fill bog filter with 3/8” diameter rounded (pea) gravel, mounding the gravel so it is 2” to 3” above water level for most of the bog. Having gravel above the water surface is important because water will follow the path of least resistance; if allowed to go over the gravel, water will bypass most of the gravel, bacteria and plant roots doing the filtering. Using smaller or crushed gravel or sand restricts water flow and clogs too easily. Using larger diameter gravel or rock is less hospitable for plant roots, and provides insufficient surface area for colonizing bacteria. It’s all right to mix larger pieces of river rock into the top layer of gravel for a more natural look. Incorporate some of the rock that is around the pond and landscape in the bog filter as well, to visually tie the landscaping together. Feel free to use some large pieces of wood or other decoration in the bog. While all this decoration is likely to be covered by plant material soon, it looks more natural in the meantime, and the filter will be exposed from time to time after harvesting or during winter dormancy. 8 – Plant the bog filter, using any moisture loving plants. Your choices will be dictated by climate to a certain extent, unless you are willing to sacrifice or repot and bring in tender species. Different plants obviously thrive in different climates. We emphasize using two plant categories for greatest efficiency: - Tall plants with persistent (year-round) fibrous roots such as various rushes, Thalia, Iris pseudacorus, Iris versicolor, and cannas—their fibrous roots provide excellent colonization sites for beneficial microbes in both summer and winter. Gunnera and Thalia make great focal points. Other tall plants include cattails, pickerel, Louisiana iris, lizard’s tail, ribbon grass, horsetail, hostas, and daylilies. - Short “ground cover” plants around the bog edge and among the tall plants. Excellent fast-growing ground covers include parrot’s feather, creeping Jenny, variegated or green water celery (edible!), and aquatic mint (edible!). Shade loving plants such as aquatic forget-me-not and watercress can find homes in a bog filter. These fast growers provide the bulk of the nutrient absorption, and soften the transition between pond and land; in fact, they will probably grow out into the soil bordering the bog. Use only a few varieties to minimize an untidy look. Remember, bog filter plants have their roots in the water but their crowns above water, plus the water is fresh and highly oxygenated. This means you can use plants that are not usually considered aquatic, such as impatiens. Most ferns are also moisture-loving. Now may be the time to experiment with hydroponics tomatoes! When planting the bog filter, do not strip the soil away from the plant’s root ball. Instead, gently remove the plant from the pot, and plant the entire root ball in the gravel, soil and all (but definitely without the pot!). This small amount of soil will not harm the pond or filter, and will help the plant quickly adjust to its new home. To achieve a full effect, use up to one plant per square foot of bog filter surface; or use as few as one plant per three square feet and let time do the rest. Fewer plants means reduced filtration until they grow and fill in. 9 – For faster cycling of nutrients, inoculate the pond with a pond bacterial culture. This can help with a new pond, or if the pond accumulates organic debris quickly. While occasional bacterial inoculation may be useful with heavy organic loads (overcrowding and overfeeding fish ponds is the #1 culprit), it is not normally needed. 10 – Little maintenance is required, other than harvesting excess plant material and some trimming of dead foliage in the fall. Trim and divide plants as needed. When plants are overcrowded, they can’t do their job—their growth slows, and they are not pulling as many nutrients from the water. Groundcover plants grow especially quickly. Pulling plants out of gravel is quick and easy, as is trimming. Don’t feel bad about harvesting them, as they make great compost, and your garden is a better place for the nutrients than your pond. Watercress is enjoyed by people and koi. With the right balance, sediment will build up very slowly, if at all. Every 5-10 years or so, a partial cleaning of the gravel may be required in areas where large amounts of inorganic debris are deposited, such as dry, windy climates where wind blows a lot of dust in. There are many variations to this basic design. Existing ponds may be retrofitted with a bog filter by making the bog slightly higher than the main pond, and connecting bog and pond with a streambed or piping (they don’t even need to be close to one another!). Or make a bog in the corner of an existing pond, create a bog island, convert a waterfall filter, use oak barrels or ceramic pottery bog filters—you are limited only by your imagination. Bog filters work incredibly well in promoting crystal clear water, and they exert a high degree of control over algae. Use and enjoy their beauty and simplicity. Intermountain Stone & Marble We are a local family-owned company that was started up in 1954. We’ve been going strong for 66 years. With years of hard work and dedication focused on perfecting this dying art, very few people are able to fabricate what our skilled Stone Craftsman can. Kitchens, Bathrooms, Fireplaces, Wall Faces, you name it, we can create your stone masterpiece. Email us at firstname.lastname@example.org Why Aerate Your Water Garden? When the sun goes down, fish and plants both use dissolved oxygen in your pond water. Aeration systems ensure oxygen levels stay high day and night to keep your fish, plants, and pond ecosystem healthy. Subsurface aeration works from the bottom up, circulating the water and infusing oxygen into the pond. If you do not already have an aeration system, here are six great reasons why you should consider adding aeration into your pond. 1. Limitations of Water Features – Most water gardens rely solely on waterfalls, fountains, or spitters to circulate and aerate the water. These units can be effective; however, they are only adding oxygen to the top portions of the water. This leaves many areas of the pond, especially the bottom, untouched allowing for the accumulation of organic debris. Using a properly-sized aerator starts moving the water at the bottom of the pond, allowing for improved circulation and dissolved oxygen levels. 2. Beneficial Bacteria – Like your fish, beneficial bacteria are aerobic and need oxygen to survive. These bacteria consume the excess nutrients in your pond which act as fertilizer for algae growth. Aeration makes these bacteria work harder to clean up your pond leading to a cleaner pond with less build-up in the water column or at the bottom of the pond – which is something your fish will thank you for. 3. Winter Water Quality – Though your fish and filtration system goes dormant for the winter, the organic debris will continue to decompose and release gas into the water column. When ice is formed completely over the pond, the gasses become trapped, replacing the oxygen and leading to a fatal situation for your fish. Heaters and de-icers keep a hole open in the ice to allow for ventilation, but they are not able to circulate the pond to move those gasses out. In comes aeration, providing a continual supply of oxygen. Additionally, moving all that water also helps to discourage ice formation, which means that you can use a smaller wattage de-icer and reduce your energy costs. 4. Saves Money – Aeration systems are energy-efficient and can help you cut down on your energy bill. These systems are designed to run 24/7, yet only cost a few bucks per month. Rather than running a costly waterfall pump all the time, use it only when you are there to enjoy it and rely on a properly sized aeration system to keep the dissolved oxygen levels raised. This small change is not only better for your fish, but can save you hundreds of dollars each year. 5. Reduced Maintenance – In conjunction with proper filtration, adding aeration will keep your pond cleaner longer. This means you can spend more time relaxing around your pond rather than cleaning it. 6. Fish Love it – Your fish will gather around and enjoy the bubbles coming from the diffusers. With all the benefits that an aeration system can provide, you pond will become a balanced ecosystem that will make any fish happy. Pond Fish If your pond is new and the filters are not mature yet don’t buy a lot of fish, just buy a few cheaper ones and buy more (about 2 every 4 weeks) when your system has matured (in about 4 weeks). Make a point to buy one fish that is white. When water conditions deteriorate a white fish will have its fins turn pink or red and the whole fish could blush giving you a visual indicator that something is wrong. You cannot do that with fish whose fins and tails are colored. When to buy. The best selection of pond fish can be found in the spring although you can find some fish during the winter months it is suggested you do not put them in your outdoor pond as the temperature shock can kill them. If they are small enough keep them in a 20 gallon aquarium at room temperature until the outside ponds temperature more closely matches the aquariums. Where to buy. It is important to look at the state of the ponds and fish at the shop you are intending to buy from. Make sure the water is clean and doesn’t smell. If there is a strong fishy smell and the fish don’t look happy it could be worth avoiding that dealer. How many fish can I have in my pond? As a general rule of thumb, for koi, you should have 1 inch of fish for every 10 square foot of water and they should not be put in a pond smaller than 1,000 gallons. For goldfish, aim for 1 inch of fish for every 3 square feet of water. Plan on the size the fish will grow into since you will not want to give them away once they get too big for the pond. Koi can get up to 30 inches long and gold fish up to 10 inches. Over crowding will result in poor water quality and your fish population having many health problems and deaths. With proper filtration there is more room for fish. Choosing fish. When you have seen a fish you like spend a bit of time watching it. It should be swimming normally, it shouldn’t have jerky movements or have its fins clamped to its body. Make sure it doesn’t have gill problems, it shouldn’t appear to be breathing hard and its gill plates shouldn’t stick out from the head. Also avoid fish with holes or raised scales, or fungus. If you decide you want the fish you can have a closer look at it when the dealer catches it, examine it for any redness or marks, or large parasites such as fish lice or anchor worms. And remember never buy a fish because some dealer tells you what a great fish it is, choose a fish because it is beautiful to you. Transporting fish. When you have chosen your fish the dealer will bag it for you and fill the bag with oxygen. The oxygen is as important as the water, especially on a long journey, there should be enough water to cover the gills when the bag is on its side and the rest oxygen. Fish are usually double bagged to avoid leaks, and should be kept in the dark on the journey, either in a black bin liner or in the boot. It is a good idea to put the bag in a box to minimize movement on the journey, lay the bag on its side so the fish has more room and is less likely to be damaged. When you get home float the bag on the pond for 20 minutes so that the temperature will equalize and then release the fish. Ideally new fish should be kept in a quarantine pond for a few weeks so no disease is introduced to the existing fish, but this is not normally possible for most fish keepers, it might be good to use an anti-parasite treatment to reduce the risk of disease. Do not put fish in a newly completed pond. Wait a couple of weeks for the ecosystem to get going and the chlorine to dissipate. If you don’t you may end up with dead fish within a week or so. Want to Learn more? Check out the Club’s website! June Opening Social Thank you to our sponsors! Thank you to our sponsors! Who we are The Utah Water Garden Club is a non-profit organization serving the greater Wasatch Front. We strive to foster an appreciation for and interest in the use of water in the landscape, through monthly meetings, educational programs, an annual pond tour, and sharing our water gardening experiences. We are a group of volunteers dedicated to water gardening, pond keeping, and koi. Our members range from novices to commercial professionals. Our annual Water Garden Tour is a self-guided tour of outstanding local gardens. Due to the current pandemic, we are holding a “virtual” 2020 tour! 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The Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation is proud to sponsor the biography of Dr. Ignacio V. Ponseti, written by his wife Helena Percas-Ponseti. The association of the department with Dr. Ponseti had its genesis in 1941 when Dr. Ponseti joined the University of Iowa. Dr. Ponseti played a major role in contributing to making the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery among the best in the world. He continues to transform the lives of babies inflicted with clubfeet until this very day. In honor of Dr. Ponseti, proceeds from the sale of this book will be committed to supporting the treatment of children with clubfeet. Edited and typeset by UI Printing Department ©The University of Iowa, 2007 1. Background ................................................................. 1 2. The Spanish Civil War .................................................. 7 3. The French Experience .................................................. 11 4. The Mexican Years ....................................................... 13 5. Arrival in a New World: Iowa ........................................... 17 6. An Unexpected Encounter .............................................. 29 7. Guatemala and Yucatan .................................................. 37 8. A Sabbatical in Europe .................................................... 41 9. Visit to Ignacio’s Family .................................................. 47 10. Mandatory Retirement .................................................. 71 11. Return to the Orthopaedics Department ............................. 73 Ignacio’s Publications and Awards ........................................ 83 In Ciutadella de Menorca, Ignasi Ponseti Vives (thereafter Ignacio V. Ponseti) was born on June 3, 1914. Ciutadella, (the Citadel$^1$) was so named, I suspect, as the city-harbor of the most Eastern of the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean off the east coast of Spain. Today it is an important center of modern footwear, design and tourism. Ignacio’s father, Miquel Ponsetí Bibiloni, was a watchmaker who had a shop in the main street of the city. Miquel was from Palma de Mallorca, as well as his father, Ignasi Ponsetí i Picornell. Ignacio’s paternal grandmother, Catalina Bibiloni i Figueres, was from Pollença in the northeastern part of Mallorca. The family had moved to Ciutadella to retire. Ignacio’s mother, Margalida$^2$ Vives Fedelich, born in Ciutadella, was of land-owner ancestry. A genealogical search for the ancestry of Ignacio, who was named in 1985 bijo predilecto (favorite son) of Menorca for his achievements in medicine and biomedical research, revealed that Ignacio’s family tree on his mother’s side goes back to the middle of the 16$^{th}$ century, according to the Parish registry of the Church of San Nicolau in Ciutadella. In Margalida’s home, water was supplied by a well that was periodically infected with typhoid bacteria and that caused the death of both Margalida’s parents, her father before she was born and her mother when she was twelve. Margalida went to live with her cousin, Francisca Benejam, whose children she helped raise. The Benejam and the Fedelich families disapproved of Miquel Ponseti’s courtship of Margalida, and when she decided to marry Miquel both families disinherited her of a very large patrimony but leaving her three urban houses and her parents’ Elizabethan hand-crafted mahogany furniture. This was in 1910 when she was 22. Catalina was their first born in 1911. Ignacio’s father’s jewelry business failed owing to the competition from two other jewelry stores. So in 1917 when Ignaccío was three years old, his father decided to move the family to Felanitx in the southeast corner of Mallorca, where he would have no competition, to open a jewelry store. Ignacio’s first clear recollections, now four years old, were of the panic caused by the devastating flu epidemic of 1918-19. To sanitize the atmosphere, small fires were built in the streets, which was a source of entertainment for the children, the most daring of whom jumped over the flames. Miquel’s business was not thriving in Felanitx either so he forced Margalida to sell her houses in Ciutadella one after the other for the family to survive. Ignacio remembers quite vividly the birth of his brother Miquel in January 1920. Upon being brought back home with his sister by their grandfather after what turned out to be a very painful delivery, he found his mother in tears. The five and a half year old Ignacio could not understand why. “Why are you crying?” he asked. “You have such a beautiful baby.” When he was 6 years old he went to school. He was taught to read and write, not in the Mallorca-Catalan language spoken in the islands—but in Spanish, the official language of Spain that few people knew—a considerable obstacle in his education, for he was taught a language he could not speak and he spoke a language he could not write. Spanish as the official language of the Peninsula and the islands had been imposed in the 18th century when the Bourbon dynasty succeeded the dynasty started by the Catholic Kings Isabel la Católica and Fernando de Aragón. These kings loosely united the various states of the Iberian Peninsula into a nation. They moved the court from state to state responding to the demands of the people. They curtailed the power of the aristocracy, substituting them with “letrados,” educated and efficient civil servants. In Aragon, the aristocrats continued to be all-powerful. They possessed “fueros y privilegios” (laws and privileges). Tradition has it that when a new king succeeded to the throne the Aragonese aristocrats declared: “Cada uno de nos, vale tanto como vos, y todos juntos más que vos, y si prometeis respetar nuestros fueros y privilegios vos facemos rey y señor. Et si non, non” (“Each one of us is worth as much as you, and all together more than you, and so we declare you king and lord provided you respect our laws and privileges. And if not, not”). When in the 18th century after the War of Succession the Bourbon dynasty from France came to power in Spain, the Spanish language was imposed in Catalonia, Valencia and the Balearic Islands. The University of Barcelona was moved to Cervera, a small rural town in the northeast of Spain and run by the Jesuits. Catalan was forbidden in all official matters and in all publications, and, of course, in schools. An anecdotic detail exemplifies the degree of enforcement when dictator Franco took over. Ignacio’s mother’s telephone was taken away from her because she spoke in Catalan and refused to shift to Castilian. Ignacio’s linguistic confusion was overcome by the study of the universal language of mathematics and the folk art in the town of Felanitx. He would watch the performance of itinerant actors presenting their plays in the town square or he would go to the fair when it came to town to watch the wonderful puppet shows playing out the deeds of medieval knights. Those days he enjoyed going by train with his father to Palma, a great kingdom to him, and watch the almond trees in full bloom in late February. His aunt Maria Ignacia and her daughter Francisca lived in Palma and were not on speaking terms. They used Ignacio’s innocence to deliver each other insulting oral messages. In 1922 the family moved again, this time to Palma where Margalida’s Isabelline mahogany furniture had to be sold, as well as her jewels, to keep the family afloat. Half a year later, another move took the family to Barcelona. After several more moves within the city the family ended up in an apartment on Librería street (“Book Store Street”) lined with shops—some of them bookstores, hence its name. Here, Miquel got a job working as a watchmaker in the best jewelry store of the thriving city. The apartment house was two doors from San Jaume square, where there are two palaces—one for the Generalitat (the government of Catalunya) and the other for the City Hall. Ignacio’s home was 20 yards from the Rovell de l’Ou (The Egg Yoke) a reference to the center of the medieval city. School was near by. Ignacio’s teacher, Taure, was the father of Manuel Taure Gómez, who would become years later Ignacio’s anatomy professor in Medical School. The son of the Archivist of the Crown of Aragón, Victor Hellín, was Ignacio’s best friend. He lived in the palace where the Archives were housed, just behind the Cathedral. The two friends often played on the steps to the library and under its beautifully carved wooden ceiling. Through a secret door they would climb stairs leading to the monumental tower on Plaza del Rey (Kings Square), from which heights one could see the old city around and the terrace of the convent of the confined nuns who would vanish as soon as the children appeared. Their convent cells had been built inside the Tinell, camouflaging the Great Hall of the ruling Counts, vanished from sight for two centuries till a bomb exploded nearby during the civil war of 1936 demolishing the partitions of the nun cells and uncovering the majestic Hall of the King’s Palace. Here is where the Catholic Kings received Columbus upon his return from discovering America. Ignacio grew up, therefore, absorbing the medieval historic atmosphere of the Barrio Gótico (Gothic Quarters) where he lived. It left an indelible imprint in his makeup. When he turned 11 he entered Catalunya College and then moved to the Instituto Balmes. Here his teachers were first rate and the students were the brightest in the city. One of his close friends was Ernesto Corominas, who was to become a professor of mathematics of international renown at the University of Lyon in France. With Ernesto’s oldest brother, the later internationally known linguist Juan Corominas, he would hike in the Pyrenees and observe how Juan recorded the speech of people from various valleys. With these and other friends, he would classify rocks and fossils or collect and classify wildflowers with Lineus’ book a pharmacist friend of the family had given him as a present. On hikes with his high school teachers the young boy learned the varied geology of the hills, mountains and plains surrounding Barcelona. Ignacio’s father Miquel was editor of the journal of watchmakers and president of the Watchmaker Society. Later on he was secretary and treasurer of the Trade Union that provided insurance for the widows of the watchmakers. In the summers, while studying for his B.A., Ignacio worked part-time in his father’s workshop. His father was a very gifted watchmaker who could make most watch components from scratch with great precision, so Ignacio became an expert at repairing watches and handling the file and the lathe. As his brother Miquel was growing up, Ignacio became more and more his true father and teacher. He was entranced with the speed with which Miquel learned everything—math, reading, drawing. Ignacio took his brother to the sports club to play and swim. Miquel had a tremendous devotion for his older brother, and this relationship bore fruit. Miquel was first in school, grew up to win the championship in handball, and became a professor of architecture at the University of Barcelona. Because of his very high grades in his finals, Ignacio was admitted to the University of Barcelona without having to pay tuition. He had the good fortune to study biology in a small group of bright students under an outstanding professor who instructed the class on how to dissect animal and vegetable tissues, make histological cuts of frog brains, dye them and analyze them under the microscope. These studies were the basis for his biological focus in medicine and his many contributions to the pathology of skeletal growth disorders that included the key to unravel the biomechanics of the clubfoot deformity, the correction of which brings him today little patients from all over the world. At the end of his first year in the University, Ignacio received a scholarship from the city of Barcelona that came in quite handy to redress the precarious finances of the family. To get some spending money, he resorted to tutoring. In 1931, during his first year in medical school, elections were held in Spain. When the monarchy lost, the king left for Italy and the Republic was established. Ignacio, his father and brother Miquel watched in San Jaume Square the raising of the Catalan flag on the balcony of La Generalitat (State House). The Catalan leader Francesc Macià thereby proclaimed the Catalan State. Two days later, a delegation of the newly proclaimed Spanish Republic from Madrid, including Fernando de los Ríos and two Catalans, Marcelino Domingo, and Nicolau d’Olwer, arrived in Barcelona to talk an enraged Macià into accepting a lesser degree of autonomy for Catalonia. In exchange for the deal, a Catalan statute was decreed liberating the University from any control by the central government of Madrid to become a free Autonomous University of Barcelona. This freedom was basic for the University to develop into one of the best in Europe and for the School of Medicine to reach its apogee during the deanship of Joaquín Trias. In 1933 the very well-trained students who had been sent abroad for postgraduate training in the best European and American medical centers, joined the faculty. During the years of the Spanish Republic (1931-36) Barcelona was a city thriving with intellectual and artistic activities. Pablo Casals conducted the orchestra and played his violoncello in the Orfeo Catalán, the world-famous Barcelona concert hall. When Casals received the Gold Medal from the city in 1934, he played the Dvorak cello concert before a crowd overflowing the National Palace. At that time concerts were not for the elite; everybody attended from the aristocracy down to the working class. This cross section of the very nationalistic Catalan population was artistically and musically educated. In the Opera House (the Liceu), Chaliapine sang Boris Goudonof, and the great operas of Wagner were performed before an enthusiastic public. The Ballet of Montecarlo performed every spring in the Liceu. On Sunday mornings the Municipal Band, conducted by La Mott de Grinyo in the Palau de l’Art (the Palace of the Arts), played the great symphonies of Beethoven and the moving symphonic poems of Respigui. In several galleries Dalí, Miró, Picasso and other great painters exhibited their works. Picasso often went to Barcelona to visit his mother who lived in la Pedrera, the striking avant-garde building by Gaudí. The famous actress Margarita Xirgu performed dramas by Euripides in the Greek Theater. García Lorca opened his most acclaimed plays in the Teatro de Barcelona. Ignacio heard García Lorca recite his magnificent Romancero gitano in the Lecture Hall of the Escuela Industrial (Industrial College) that overflowed with students. In the Lecture Hall of the Casal del Medge (Doctors Fraternity Building) where Ignacio usually studied, García Lorca played on the grand piano accompanied by Pablo Casals with his violoncello, and students could hear the best music ever played. Late in the evening, Ignacio exercised in the gymnasium of the Ateneo Enciclopédico Popular (Popular Encyclopedic Athenaeum) before teaching biology and chemistry to workers and students preparing for the BA exams, the “bachillerato.” On weekends, he went with his friends to museums and concerts, and in the summers hiking in the Montserrat and Montseny mountains. In 1936 Ignacio took his final exams on July 17, one day before the Spanish civil war broke out. A few days later he was a doctor in the front of Aragón. Trains filled with volunteer militia left Barcelona for Zaragoza in an attempt to take the city. Failing to take Zaragoza, the front of Aragón retreated to a line a few kilometers east and west of Caspe to as far north as close to Huesca. Two base hospitals were established one in Lérida and the other in the Pedro Mata Hospital in Reus. Here Ignacio was assigned to work in the team of Jimeno Vidal—a most fortunate assignment since Dr. Jimeno Vidal had studied with Böhler in Vienna and had extensive experience in the emergency clinic at the University Hospital of Barcelona that was organized by Dean Joaquín Trías, a lifelong friend of Ignacio. The successful treatment of war wounds was based on the technique of Winnett Orr, a doctor from Nebraska who described it at the end of the First World War. It consisted of a thorough debridement of wounds rather than the use of antiseptics because they damaged the healthy tissues. It was greatly improved by Josep Trueta in Barcelona. Wounds were never sutured. Antibiotics had not yet been discovered, but in following Trueta’s protocol most wounds cured rapidly without gangrene or osteomyelitis. There were practically no deaths from infections. Fractures were treated according to Böhler’s teaching. Femur and tibia fractures were put in skeletal traction a few weeks before applying unpadded plaster bandages to better immobilize the fracture and facilitate walking with full weight bearing on the extremities for faster recovery. Open fractures were never treated with internal fixations. Ignacio’s team treated some 4,000 war wounds and fractures. Hardly any failures of non-union occurred. It was impressive the speed with which the war wounds and fractures healed. Following Böhler’s functional treatment of fractures, no physiotherapy was necessary to return to normalcy and functionality. Extensive life-threatening wounds were treated right on the hospital train brought close to the front line, under the direction of Dr. Jaume Anton Aguadé, another close friend for life of Ignacio’s. The other patients were treated at the base hospital in Reus and a year later at the larger Sabinosa hospital in Tarragona. A magnificent solution to avoid dangerous reactions and deaths in blood transfusions because of blood incompatibility was devised by Dr. Frederic Durán Jordá from the University Hospital of Barcelona. It consisted of mixing the blood of five or six donors in each of the four blood groups, pooled in a 300 cc. glass container, sealed under pressure with nitrogen and refrigerated. Why five or six donors? Because, although unidentified at that time, each blood group had subgroups and the mixture increased considerably the degree of tolerance to the point of preventing adverse reactions and side effects, thereby saving lives. The major advantage of keeping a good supply of number 1 blood mix was that it was universal and equally effective for the wounded in groups 2, 3 and 4. It was the first time in world history that patients with extensive wounds and severe bleeding could be saved. After the battle of the Ebro in the summer of 1938, Ignacio was made medical captain and moved to Barcelona to care for numerous casualties evacuated to the base hospitals in the city. He worked with González Aguilar, chief of the Navy Medical Corps, who was an expert surgeon well known for his research on osteoarticular tuberculosis, and with Adolfo Ley, an expert neurosurgeon who had studied in Boston under Cushing and at the University of Chicago under Bucy and Percival Baily. Upon his return to Barcelona in 1935, Ley had introduced modern neurosurgery. It was in the hospital established in the buildings of the Orfelinato Ribas, an orphanage complex, that Ignacio helped Ley perform brain surgery and innumerable nerve sutures as well as tendon transfers following the refined technique of American neurosurgeons. The technical precision learned in his father’s watch shop was indeed invaluable for this type of precise surgery. A few days before Barcelona fell to Franco’s troops, Ignacio was transporting by train along with other surgeons (Trueta among them), the wounded who had to be evacuated from the military hospitals of the city. At midnight they arrived in Gerona, some 30 kilometers south of the border with France. Dr. Puche, head of the Army Health Services Department, entrusted Ignacio with the evacuation to France by ambulance of the wounded in the small hospital of Olot, a few kilometers from the border. A large ambulance driven by a young soldier under the orders of a commander of the regular army and a young medical lieutenant doctor were provided. Shortly before dawn they reached Olot (see map on page 7). They decided to rest for an hour by the fireplace in the front hall of the hospital before seeing the patients to be evacuated. When Ignacio and the lieutenant doctor woke up, they found that the chauffeur and commander had fled with the ambulance. Left without transportation, they had recourse to a few cars to transport the patients over a secondary little-traveled road some ten miles north to a cottage of smugglers. Here they were provided mules to transport the more seriously wounded the next four miles to Prats de Molló in France while Ignacio put walking plaster casts on patients with tibial fractures so they could walk over the mountains. When they arrived, the French said that the mules were French. Ignacio talked them into letting him use the mules to bring the rest of the wounded. They complied. Such plaster cast applications and evacuations took three days and nights. A few days later Ignacio read with great delight that the commander who had vanished with the ambulance and crossed over to Franco’s side had been shot as a traitor. A traitor is a traitor is a traitor. In Prats de Molló, patients were all housed in a large area in the City Hall. A young doctor from Montpellier just out of school took over the treatment of the wounded with outdated techniques of the First World War. One of the wounded had a high fever due to an abscess in the thigh that needed draining. The French doctor injected some sort of ineffective disinfectant. That night with the help of the nun nurses from the convent, Ignacio drained the abscess and in the morning the fever was gone. When the French doctor found out about Ignacio’s intervention, he sent him to the concentration camp where armed Senegalese guarded thousands of refugees. Two days later a French lieutenant from the Army Health Service arrived, dismissed the French doctor and called Ignacio back to care for his wounded. After a few weeks, they were moved to a new structure by the train station of Arles sur Tec, built by the Spanish refugees by order of the city mayor with money from the SERE (Sociedad Española de Refugiados en el Extranjero [Spanish Society for Refugees Abroad]). It was supposed to be a hospital but the mayor intended it for storing apples. A month later the Spanish refugees were moved once more, this time to the Caserne (barracks) de Maraussant built near Beziers toward the end of the First World War. This building housed about three hundred beds most of them for the wounded, but in other halls for the sick with pneumonia and gastrointestinal problems acquired in the concentration camps. Ignacio would pick them up in an ambulance. In the hospital, there were several Spanish surgeons and internists. One of them, Dari Huguet, had extensive experience in private practice. At night he gave Ignacio and another doctor classes about exactly which medications were indicated to treat which diseases and infections. Such information completed professor Soler Vicens valuable classes on internal medicine at the University of Barcelona. Now Ignacio operated on acute appendicitis, drained abscesses and, on numerous occasions, performed circumcisions for presumed acute phimosis, on middle-aged or elderly refugees to keep them out of the inclement weather in the concentration camps. In southern France, Antonio Machado, one of the greatest poets of Spain, died poor and destitute. In a most touching poem he foresaw his end: “My time! –I cried– / Silence replied: Fear not. / You will not see your last drop / trembling in the clepsydra. / On a pure and bright morning you’ll find / your boat tied to another shore.” After crossing the Pyrenees, the language Ignacio heard from the lips of many older people was Catalan or French with a strong Catalan accent. The reason is that the Roussillon and La Cerdagne were Catalan provinces just north of the Pyrenees for many centuries. In 1659 the disastrous Castilian Conde Duque de Olivares, Philip IV’s prime minister, abandoned the Catalan provinces occupied by the French. The Catalan courts never accepted the deal. Years later, when in 1966 we went to Montpellier because Ignacio was invited by Professor Pous to participate in a doctoral exam, we still heard Catalan–French, from the lips of his parents. As a matter of fact, the very name of the inviting professor Pous, in Catalan, means “wells.” Anticipating the coming war with Germany, the Prefect of the province in- vited the Spanish doctors to enlist in the French army with the same rank they had in the Spanish army. When Ignacio asked him whether those who enlisted would be granted French citizenship after the war, the commissioner replied, “Oh no, la France…” President Cárdenas of Mexico, on the other hand, opened the doors of his country to the thousands of Spanish refugees without nationality in the French concentration camps. He welcomed the textile workers of Catalonia, the Basque iron makers of Bilbao, the agriculturists of the east and south of Spain, professors, doctors, writers, artists, and granted them all Mexican citizenship. His political clairvoyance implemented a program of social change and progress that lifted Mexico into the modern world. With the help of the SERE, thousands of Span- iards were transported to Mexico by boat. In July of 1939 Ignacio boarded the Mexique in Bordeaux bound for Veracruz. He arrived just before the start of the Second World War. The Spaniards were housed in a storage building in the harbor and slept in cots. About two weeks later they were taken to Mexico City where seven or eight of them rented an apartment. The women slept in the bedroom, the men outside on the floor. Their main concern was to find work since they had to survive on a small pension from the SERE. Days went by and they grew anxious. One day one of them returned to the apartment all dressed in black, as for a funeral, but he was jovial: he had found a job in a funeral parlor. Mexico City had, at that time, about one million inhabitants. It was one of the most beautiful, elegant cities in the Americas. In the capital Ignacio met Dr. Juan Faril, the respected head of the children’s orthopedic hospital. Faril was an educated, refined man, consulted by such people as the great painter Diego Rivera and his equally gifted wife Frida Kalo. Faril was born with clubfeet, several times operated, walked with a cane in pain and with increasing difficulty. His main interest was to improve orthopedics in Mexico. Again, unable to find work in the city, Ignacio moved to Juchitepec, a town of about 5,000 inhabitants south of the capital, near the Popocatépetl. He was informed a doctor was needed because the one they had was run out of town at gun point by the father of two sons lost to high fever. Providence was giving Ignacio a chance. The first thing he saw upon his arrival into the small town was a poor peasant carrying his dead son in a homemade wooden box toward the cemetery. Behind him walked his crying wife followed by five or six children. The valley was very fertile. It gave two crops a year: wheat in winter and corn in summer. In 1929, President Calles had distributed the land among the farmers but ten years later there was extreme poverty and the moneylenders and profiteers exploited the town. Ignacio arrived at the start of an epidemic of typhoid fever. He immediately ordered the water boiled. But the hygiene in the town was very primitive and the epidemic spread. He had more than sixty sick people with typhoid fever but was lucky to save them all by maintaining hydration and feeding with whipped bean grub for three weeks, the duration of typhoid fevers he knew. In the streets he met the priest of the town who congratulated him on the dramatic drop in funerals. This priest was quite original: he lived with two nieces, and on Sundays he called to mass not by ringing the bells but with fireworks. Ignacio also had to care for children with diarrhea whom he was not able to save despite Professor Soler Vicens’ classes, those of Martínez García, or even by following Huguet’s lessons, because the proper electrolyte balance in water for the treatment of diarrheas in children was unknown at that time. There was no pharmacy in the town, and Ignacio had no money to buy the most indispensable medicines. Wenceslao Dutrem, a doctor and pharmacist from Barcelona who had moved to Mexico City in 1937 and established the FARBAR laboratories, lent him the most indispensable supplies to make himself a small pharmacy in Juchitepec. On one of his trips to Mexico City to get more pharmaceutical provisions, Dutrem, who was Trotsky’s doctor, told him that Trotsky, exiled in Mexico, had been attacked with an ice pick and had a very serious injury in his head. Since Dutrem knew of Ignacio’s work on head injuries with Ley in Spain, he asked him to see Trotsky who was under the care of good Mexican neurosurgeons. However, by the time they arrived at the hospital Trotsky was dead. As the only doctor in Juchitepec and surroundings, Ignacio often traveled by motorcycle to see his patients, but was forced to discard it in favor of a horse because the volcanic sands caused him several falls. On such visits he took care of respiratory ailments, numerous infectious diseases, fractures, knifings and even more numerous deliveries which were usually very easy because most mothers were young. In one case of a difficult dystocia, the frightened family called the exorcists of the town to dispel the bad spirits with their monotonous dances at the tinkle of their ritual bells in the patio of the ranch. The baby was finally safely born after a whole night of trying and was greeted by a full moon. The town had its charms. Ignacio’s hair had grown very long and he needed a haircut. He went to a middle-aged barber, father of numerous children. The barber had very good manners and much need to talk. When Ignacio told him he was in a hurry, the barber suggested that he go to another barber who would cut his hair in a jiffy because he himself could not cut the hair of someone he did not know well. When Ignacio asked him what should he do to be better known, the barber handed him some poems he had written and told him to come back after reading them so they could talk. The poems were not bad. Ignacio liked them and told the barber so a few days later. After talking for a while, the barber handed Ignacio more poems because he still did not know him well enough. Upon returning to the barber for the third time with much longer hair and after talking for another while, Ignacio got the best haircut ever. Another charm of Juchitepec was the pulque pub called Los Sabios sin Estudio (The Wise Without Studies) that filled to capacity on weekends. Clients did not talk. Silence reigned. They drank pulque at the counter and pissed on the wall across. Some became quite intoxicated, vendettas fired up, knives appeared and the doctor had to make many sutures to repair the damage. On one occasion, a man of means was wounded in the heart. Ignacio saw him after a few hours, pale but standing. His pulse was weak. After lying down he recovered some. Ignacio thought he had bleeding in the pericardium and advised the family to keep the man in complete rest. The man kept improving during the following days, but the family insisted on getting a doctor from the capital. The doctor arrived and said he would take the wounded man to the clinic in Mexico City by car. Since the road to Tenango was very bad, Ignacio advised the family not to expose the wounded man to such a trip because with the bumps on dirt roads he could die. Sure enough, after half a kilometer he did die. Ignacio’s sadness increased and so did his prestige. In Juchitepec the “doctorcito” (an endearing diminutive) felt incomunicado for lack of newspapers or radio. On his monthly trips to the capital he followed, horrified, Hitler’s advance in his conquest of Europe, the London raids, the fall of France. On his visits to see Dr. Juan Faril, they talked about medical schools in the United States. Faril had studied orthopedic surgery in Iowa City with a Guggenheim fellowship. He admired Dr. Arthur Steindler, the head of the Orthopaedic Department at the University of Iowa. Steindler’s book, Mechanics of Normal and Pathological Locomotion in Man published in 1936, was considered fundamental. Faril wrote to Steindler recommending Ignacio. During his almost two years in Mexico he had saved $1000, the required amount to enter the U.S.A. as a guarantee of not becoming a burden to the States. His purpose was to be a postgraduate student for one year. In May of 1941 Ignacio left Juchitepec by bus leaving behind a much more sanitized town than he had found. But years later, when he returned to Mexico City from Iowa to give some lectures at a congress of orthopedic surgeons, a delegation of former patients came to fetch him as far as Tenango where he was driven by car, to take the “doctorcito” back to Juchitepec on horseback: the same rats, the same half-demolished houses, the same abandoned streets greeted him as if he had never been there. But the poetry of the barber still rang in his ears. After two days of traveling by a Mexican bus, keeping one eye open to watch his suitcase, and stopping frequently in small towns on the way for the driver to visit his extended family, he arrived at the Río Grande in Laredo. When crossing the border he was astounded to see well-nourished dogs with good manners. The immigration officers were courteous and well dressed. His Mexican passport was stamped after a few brief questions, one of them to be answered in writing, a most astounding one: Did he intend to kill the President of the United States? The bus driver of the Greyhound on the American side of the border wore an impeccably starched blue shirt. But when he picked up Ignacio's suitcase to place it in the luggage compartment under the bus, Ignacio feared he would never see it again. After San Antonio, in a full bus on the way to Dallas, Ignacio was astounded to see the driver make the black passengers in the back of the bus get out in the middle of nowhere so that a white family waiting on the roadside could get on. It was a clear, cool, spring day shortly before sunrise when the bus left Des Moines heading east on a two-way narrow Highway 6 with shoulders on both sides. Ignacio was impressed watching the recently plowed dark earth with its rows of young, green corn stocks. Tidy farmhouses with their small, black cattle grazing here and there defiled before his eyes. Every so often the bus entered the streets of small, nearly deserted towns to pick up passengers with northern European faces some with bandages obviously heading for the hospital. The houses were very similar in shape and form, separated by small green lawns. The bus rode along Newton, Grinnell, Brooklyn and Marengo before reaching the University Hospital where the patients got off. Finally, they arrived at the bus station, and there was his suitcase, unattended, waiting for him. It was June 1, two days before he turned 27. Dr. Arthur Steindler received Ignacio in his garden. He was reading El alcalde de Zalamea (The Mayor of Zalamea), one of Calderón de la Barca's most vibrant Spanish plays. Steindler was educated in Vienna. He had studied orthopedics under Adolfo Lorenz and Edward Albert before arriving in Chicago in 1910. to work with John Ridlon. Three years later he established the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery in the medical school of the University of Iowa. He played the piano well, spoke several languages, was well read, and a renowned teacher. The state of Iowa had a very advanced program of medical services. In the early twentieth century schools of medicine were established in the United States according to Abraham Flexner’s norms. They were built on the conjunction of German scientific investigation and Great Britain’s medical education norms. They were implemented by Johns Hopkins University with a view to reforming the United States medical education. The medical faculty at the University of Iowa was committed to teaching, research and patient care full-time. Faculty and residents were an integral part of the University. Steindler demanded one year of Postgraduate School before applying for a three-year residency in the Orthopaedics Department. When Ignacio arrived the course was to start a month later. His only document was a Certificate of Studies since the day after passing his final exams for his M.D. the Spanish civil war broke out and no diplomas were distributed. Steindler introduced Ignacio to Professor of Anatomy Ewen M. MacEwen, who was dean in his spare time. Fortunately, his secretary, Miss White, ran the Medical School impeccably. Dean MacEwen was at a loss about what to do with Ignacio’s credentials and sent him to see Dean Carl Seashore of the graduate school. They talked for about 15 or 20 minutes about Ignacio’s medical interventions during the three years of the Spanish civil war. Dean Seashore knew about Madame Curie and about Albert Einstein recruiting volunteers in Paris for the Spanish Republic to fight against Franco. He also told Ignacio that Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt was actively backing the Spanish Republic against the policies of Secretary of State Cordell Hull who sided with England and France for the cause of nonintervention. In the middle of the conversation Dean Seashore picked up the phone, called Dean MacEwen, and said, “Take him.” Thanks to Steindler an exception was made in Ignacio’s case; his Certificate of Studies was accepted instead of a diploma. In 1944 he was made provisional member of the faculty until 1946 when through the Spanish Consulate in Chicago he finally received his diploma and his position became legalized. Two years later, in 1948, he got his American citizenship. During the month after his arrival in Iowa City, before classes started, Ignacio’s work consisted in translating into Spanish twenty lectures Steindler was to deliver in Mexico City in the fall and teach him how to pronounce them correctly. He was Steindler’s chauffeur and constant companion from 6 A.M when he arrived at Dr. Steindler’s home, had breakfast with him, and worked all day on his lectures. Ignacio wanted to improve his English accent and went to see Wendell Johnson who was head of Speech Defects Clinic, nationally known for its excellence, and started a weekly session. Some weeks later Dean MacEwen called him to his office and requested he stop the lessons. Why? “Because when professors Arthur Steindler and Emil Witschi retire we need an accent to keep up our prestige.” Since the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany, American universities had been recruiting European doctors and scientists. What a reversal by the end of the century when because of the excellence of the American Medical Schools, universities and colleges had become the mecca for graduate students from Europe and other parts of the world. In postgraduate school, anatomy of the extremities and the vertebral column, pathology, biomechanics, biochemistry of cartilage, bone and connective tissue, endocrinology, and biology of growth were studied in addition to orthopedic surgery. Three graduate students were chosen for the residency. Residents lived in the hospital where their main job consisted of seeing and treating patients in addition to participating in basic science and clinical investigation. It was a well-rounded training. When in December 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and the United States entered the Second World War, numerous faculty members were mobilized. The number of residents was substantially reduced and the workload dramatically increased for the few who remained. Winnett Orr, a medical officer in the American army in the First World War, was head of Children’s Hospital in Lincoln, Nebraska. He was a good friend of Steindler. Orr invited Ignacio in 1942 to spend a couple of summer months with him. He had written extensively on the treatment of war wounds and of osteomyelitis. His knowledge of the biology of inflammation had led him to discard the use of disinfectants as well as frequent dressings so as not to interfere with the body’s natural defenses. War wounds and fractures were treated by debridement, covered with vaseline gauze and immobilized in long plaster casts. Orr was very interested in knowing in detail how his technique, refined by the Catalan doctors, had worked in Spain. He was impressed with the results described in a book by the Catalan Professor Trueta, Treatment of War Wounds and Fractures published in England in 1940 for which Orr himself had written the preface. Ignacio gave him a detailed report: debridement and drainage were extremely thorough and plaster casts were shorter than Orr’s prescribed protocol. Unpadded plaster casts were used to allow greater mobility of the wounded extremities. Orr had rejected Böhler’s functional treatment even in closed fractures, the very method Ignacio learned to use in Spain when he worked with Jimeno Vidal during the war. This treatment was superior to Orr’s because it shortened recovery time and the results were excellent, much better than those obtained in previous wars. Upon his return to Iowa City, Ignacio wrote two articles on his experiences during the Spanish Civil War: “General Principles in the Treatment of Wounds and Fractures in the Spanish Civil War” published in The Military Surgeon in 1942, and “Treatment of War Wounds and Fractures” published in Northwest Medicine in 1943. Dr. Puig Guri, who worked alongside Ignacio during the war in Spain and followed him to Iowa City, was a coauthor of these articles. During 1942-44, Ignacio was invited to Fort Leonard Wood, a military base in Missouri, to give courses on war surgery to young doctors enlisted in the army. He also gave lectures on the same subject in Chicago and New York. The great advances in the treatment of war wounds in Catalonia were of the greatest interest in the United States at that time. The Department of Orthopaedic Surgery at the University of Iowa occupied more than half of Children’s Hospital. The three most common diseases were poliomyelitis, osteomyelitis and osteoarticular tuberculosis. The last two disappeared almost completely with the discovery of penicillin and streptomycin in the forties. But during the great epidemics of poliomyelitis, hundreds of children fell victim to paralysis. The most severe cases were placed in iron lungs to facilitate breathing. Together with Dr. John MacQueen, an excellent pediatrician, Ignacio worked long days. In 1954 poliomyelitis decreased with the discovery of Salk and Albert Sabin vaccines. Rickets had decreased a few years before by adding vitamin D to milk. The work of the orthopedic surgeon changed radically. Congenital deformities, scoliosis, osteoarthritis and mostly trauma from accidents and sports filled clinics and hospitals. Dr. Steindler had been appointed in 1913 to organize the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery in the University of Iowa. In addition to patient treatment and teaching, he was interested in the study of the natural history of skeletal disorders and the long-term results of their treatment. This was possible in Iowa owing to the centralized health care since 1916, the stable and compliant population of the state, and the well-organized files Steindler kept. He had a full-time secretary to keep files and recall patients for these studies. Ignacio’s first project was to study the incidence of intervertebral disk protrusions in cadavers just dissected by the anatomy students. He performed extensive laminectomies on 32 cadavers and found disk hernias in 10 of them. Steindler, who was a conservative surgeon, believed that too many surgeries for disk herniations were performed. He was surprised at such a discovery but did not want Ignacio to publish it because there were no clinical histories of the cadavers to find out whether they had had symptoms. Today it is known through MRI’s that 30% of all adults have disk hernias often without symptoms, therefore without treatment. In 2006 the long-term results of spinal surgeries performed in 15 prominent medical centers, published by Dr. James Weinstein et al. in the Journal of the AMA, revealed that surgery did not benefit patients and proved Steindler right. A second project of Ignacio’s was to study the results of surgical interventions on clubfoot babies during the decade of the 20s. He recalled 24 of these patients over twenty years of age. Their feet were rigid, weak and painful. In most, the radiographs revealed misshapen bones and joints. Steindler discouraged Ignacio from proceeding with such a study alleging that surgery had improved since the twenties and that results in the future would be better. But Ignacio was not convinced that clubfoot surgery, severing ligaments and joint capsules to align the bones of the foot could show better results and not lead to stiffness, weakness and pain. Surgery, no matter what improvements, would always be very damaging to the foot. He was determined to find a noninvasive, safe alternative. To this end, he studied many histological sections of aborted fetuses with clubfeet and also dissected clubfeet in stillborns to understand the pathology and the biomechanics of the deformed feet. Then he proceeded to devise a way, to correct the deformity based on the functional anatomy of the tarsal joints and the gradual stretching of the contracted ligaments. In 1948 he started treating babies his way, and in 1963 he published a 10-year follow-up with his good results in the Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. Why was it possible to correct the deformity so easily? Because the anlagen forming the skeleton in the baby’s feet are mostly cartilaginous, soft and easily molded into their right shape by manipulations following the functional anatomy of the feet. The joint surfaces reshape congruently after each manipulation. To maintain the correction, a plaster cast extending from toe to upper thigh is applied and worn for 4 or 5 days. After 5 to 6 manipulations and castings, the clubfoot is corrected. To prevent a relapse, the child wears a foot abduction orthosis (abduction bar with shoes attached at each end) for three months and thereafter at night and napping hours for about three to four years. From then on, a relapse is extremely rare. Such treatment proved that the feet of these children develop as well as those of normal babies. The article was ignored by orthopaedists. They continued to devise more complex and extensive surgeries that further damaged feet. When participating in the instructional courses of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ignacio was told that his treatment might be accepted by Iowa farmers who wear large boots but not by city dwellers, a double insult to doctor and Iowans. The Department of Orthopedics had a bone pathology laboratory established by Ernest Freund. Freund had studied in Austria with Erdheim, a famous professor of pathology and in 1932 with Jaffe in New York. When Steindler invited Freund to come to the University of Iowa, Freund brought with him part of the collection of Erdheim’s pathological anatomy. Freund established the archives of all the histological preparations of tissues and specimens obtained in the operating room. He described the pathology thoroughly and bound the reports yearly. Vernon Luck, one of Steindler’s residents, took charge of the laboratory when in 1936 Freund left to work with Albee at the Recovery Center for his patients in Venice, Florida. When Ignacio arrived in Iowa City, he started working nights in this laboratory. His previous training in pathology with Roca de Vinyals in San Pablo hospital in Barcelona had prepared him well for this kind of work. In the summer of 1943, Ignacio went to the University of Chicago to further study bone pathology. Phemister, the head of surgery and Hatcher, the head of the division of orthopedic surgery, were outstanding teachers and collaborated in experimental and clinical pathology studies in their laboratory. It is in this laboratory that the nucleus of outstanding researchers trained to fill important university positions around the country. On rounds one Monday, a resident presented a Greek patient who had a large, round, mysterious lesion in his right lung. Ignacio, sitting next to Phemister, prompted that it was a hydatic cyst common in the Mediterranean. He had often seen such cysts in his medical school in Barcelona. Phemister commented on the importance of geography in medicine. Back in Iowa City, Ignacio was assigned to teach bone pathology to orthopedic residents and medical students. Throughout the war years and a number of years thereafter, there were few doctors and orthopedic surgeons left in Iowa. The University responded by enlarging the well-organized child health system throughout the state. At least once a month a pediatric doctor and Ignacio traveled throughout the state to clinics organized by very well-trained County nurses to follow up children’s disorders to determine which patients needed to come to Iowa City when care was not available locally. Ignacio became well acquainted with Iowans in all parts of the state. Following his experience, acquired in the countries where he had practiced medicine, that medical problems are very often related to the habits and origin of patients, he studied the makeup of the population in the towns he visited. After the Black Hawk defeat in 1832, new settlers began to come to Iowa at the time and after Iowa was admitted to the Union in 1846. About 50% were of German and Bohemian origin. Swedes and Dutch settled in the northwest, Norwegians in the northeast and a few Irish, Greeks, English and Belgians in the center of the state. Each of these groups brought their own genetic disorders. Health problems were more severe in the south where the land and the economy were not as good. In the county clinics doctors were most welcomed by the nurses. The Iowa population—congenial, and pleasant—remained unchanged until after the Second World War. The state took good care of needy families. Two towns several times visited by Ignacio and his companion the pediatrician were Decorah in the northeast corner of the state and Spillville a few miles south. Mostly Norwegians settled in Decorah. It was a beautifully clean city once visited by the King of Norway, hilly and with woods close to the Mississippi. As for Spillville, it will forever evoke Antonin Dvorák’s American Quartet in F Major that was inspired during the summer of 1893 spent at the Czech immigrant settlement of the town, exalting American folk music and the beauty and promise of Iowa, like his New World Symphony (1895), composed in New York City, exalted the promise of America. When at the end of the Second World War doctors who had experience in the treatment of war wounds and fractures in the armed forces came to Iowa City to finish their training in orthopedic surgery so as to pass the boards, Ignacio was very involved in their clinical and surgical training. In the evenings, he worked with those interested in research. The close friendship engendered through collaborative work resulted in interesting publications such as the “Osteoid Osteoma” and “Slipping of the Capital Femoral Epiphysis” with Chet Barta, and “Evolution of Metaphyseal Fibrous Defects” with Barry Friedman, demonstrating the spontaneous resolution of such bone lesions. Chet Barta had been a medical officer in the army at the landing in Omaha Beach. Barry Friedman had served as a medical officer in the navy in the Pacific. The incidence of bone and joint tuberculosis in Iowa had sharply decreased after the slaughter of the infected cattle in the thirties. However, still in the forties, thirty to forty patients with the disease were hospitalized in the Oakdale Sanatorium. Ignacio cared for them and saw them weekly with their doctors. Those who needed surgery were brought to the University of Iowa Hospitals for a short stay. Tuberculosis of the hip was particularly difficult to treat. After an extensive and long study of the pathology of tuberculosis of the hip and the degrees of severity of the disease, Ignacio determined which approach, timing, and manner of intervention would be best to get good results. By the time his article appeared in Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics in 1948, streptomycin and PAS, the antibiotic that prevented and cured the nightmarish tuberculosis disease that had caused the death of millions, had been found. His article as well as reams of papers and books on bone and joint infections written through the ages became obsolete. During the decade of the forties two very important monographs on congenital dislocation of the hip were published: one by Erik Severin from Sweden on the poor results of late treatment, and another by Ortolani from Italy who found the way to discover and treat dislocation of the hip soon after birth by applying the “scatto” sign and holding the hips in the proper position for two to three months. To find the results of congenital dislocations of the hip at the University of Iowa, Ignacio recalled 129 of those patients treated since the twenties. It was evident that good results could be obtained when a concentric nontraumatic reduction of the head of the femur was done soon after birth. He published two papers—one on the cause of failures of the treatment (1944) and another on the pathomechanics of the hip after the shelving operation, successful only if the head of the femur is well centered in the socket (1946). It was clear that hip dislocations had to be discovered and corrected in early infancy. In 1950, Ignacio published an article in the Journal of the Iowa Medical Society on the early diagnosis of hip dislocation in babies and gave lectures in county medical societies throughout Iowa to inform doctors and nurses how easy it was to discover hip dislocations in babies and successfully reduce them to obtain a well-developing hip. Thereafter, this crippling disorder in Iowa was greatly reduced. When years later he visited professor Chiari in Vienna, Chiari told him that he agreed with his findings on the pathomechanics of the dislocation of the hip and that it coincided with his own findings and treatment. That night, they went to the newly rebuilt opera house to hear a magnificent production of Wagner’s “The Flying Dutchman.” When Dr. Steindler retired in 1948, Dr. Robert Newman who had trained in Iowa City in the late 1930s and early 1940s, had joined the navy during WWII and was back in Iowa City, was made acting head. Dr. Newman and Ignacio were the only staff in Orthopaedics at that time. Ignacio suggested inviting Doctor Michael Bonfiglio from the University of Chicago to join the department. Dr. Bonfiglio came at the end of 1949. A search committee headed by Dr. Dabney Keer failed to recruit a new head of the department. Dr. Robert Tydrick, head of surgery and a member of the Dean’s Committee proposed Dr. Newman as head. Dr. Newman’s qualifications were inadequate for the job. Dr. Dabney Keer asked Ignacio to go to Boston to see whether Dr. Carroll Larson, who had a medical degree from the University of Iowa and had taught at Harvard for ten years, would be interested in the job. In 1950 UI was most fortunate to welcome Carroll Larson to Iowa as professor and head of the Orthopaedic Department. He was a dedicated and capable teacher who commanded the respect and affection of the whole staff who felt privileged to work with him. Under his leadership the department flourished to greater heights. In 1950 Dr. Michael Bonfiglio took charge of the bone pathology laboratory while Ignacio took over the biochemistry laboratory. Dr. Bonfiglio had a B.A. from Columbia University, an M.D. from the University of Chicago, and did his postgraduate training in Orthopedic Surgery under Drs. Pemhister and Hatcher. He was an outstanding bone pathologist, clinician, surgeon and teacher. His publications on bone pathology became classic. He was well qualified for the job. Ignacio moved to do research in the biochemistry laboratory. The biochemistry laboratory had been developed in the twenties by Professor Jeans, head of pediatrics. Dr. Genevieve Sterns, an outstanding biochemist from Michigan, was the director of the laboratory. It was mostly devoted to the study of nutrition in babies. When Dr. Jeans retired in 1949 his successor, Dr. Charlie May, turned the laboratory over to Ignacio who was delighted to have Dr. Sterns and her laboratory in the Department of Orthopaedics. Now, for the first time, the metabolism of calcium, phosphorus, and proteins was studied in patients with severe scoliosis. No abnormality was found in the mineral metabolism, but a disturbance in the catabolism of proteins, the nature of which is still unknown, was noted. Clinical and laboratory studies on scoliosis (curvature of the spine) have spanned most of Ignacio’s professional life. In the late forties he studied the deformity with his resident Barry Friedman in some 400 patients nonsurgically treated. The patterns and evolution of the different types of spinal curvatures as seen in X-rays were defined for the first time in 1950. This clinical study was continued 20 years later in greater depth with another resident, Denis Collis, and more recently (in 2003) by Stuart Weinstein and Lori Dolan who recalled patients for a 50-year follow-up. They found that all had lived normal lives with no greater impact on their work and activities than the controls, other than cosmetic concerns and slight increase of back pain for some. After the publication of each one of these studies, the authors received insulting comments from some spinal surgeons who favored spinal fusions. A year after Ignacio’s and Barry Friedman’s publications on the classification of curvatures of the spine, Dr. JIP James from London published a paper on the infantile or early onset of scoliosis much more common in England than in the United States. In the spring of 1953 Ignacio went to London to study the problem. For a month he lived with JIP James in a mew not far from the Royal Orthopedic Hospital. He worked with Dr. Herbert Sedon, the head of the hospital. The studies with health workers, nutritionists, and pediatric doctors did not clarify the cause of the deformity in infants who responded so poorly to bracing and spinal fusions. The close friendship with JIP James, however, lasted forever. Before returning to the states, Ignacio stopped at Barcelona for the first time after leaving in 1939, to see his family and deliver a lecture at the invitation of the Spanish Orthopedic Society. How touched he was to see his mother in the apartment where he grew up and lived until joining the army in 1936. Friends who had remained in Spain after the war were eager to study in the states and Ignacio was able to arrange visiting fellowships for some of them. One of them, Dr. Panadés, came to Iowa to study in the Department of General Surgery, and Dr. Fernando Aleu was appointed in the Department of Pathology where he was named best teacher three consecutive years. With the objective of going deeper into the pathogenesis of spinal deformities, Ignacio studied scoliosis produced in young rats and rabbits by feeding them a diet abundant in sweet pea seed (Lathyrus odoratus). Soon he observed that the rats died of dissecting aneurysm of the aorta for lack of cohesion in the elastic and connective tissue fibers in the wall of the aorta. His discovery was published in 1952 in the American Journal of Pathology. He concluded that skeletal lesions in the growth plates and weakening of the tendon insertions in the vertebrae were the cause of scoliosis in the experimental animals. Similar lesions in the growth plates of the long bones of lathyric animals were analogous to those observed in children with slipped epiphysis and other bone growth disorders. Such findings led to studies of the pathology of the dissecting aneurysm of the aorta in patients with Marfan’s and Ehler Danlos syndromes. Robert Shepard, a physiology student who worked with Ignacio on the effect of different aminotinols on muscle skeletal lesions and wrote his Ph.D. thesis on the muscle physiology of lathyric and vitamin E deficient animals, confirmed that in children with scoliosis no pathological anomalies were present in the tissues of their spines. The pathogenesis of idiopathic scoliosis keeps eluding researchers to the present day. The above studies funded by the National Institutes of Health induced the biochemists to study the cause of the weakening of collagen fibers. It was found that newly synthesized collagen was soluble in physiological saline and that beta-aminopropionitril (BAPN) extracted from the sweet pea seed was responsible for the weakening of the cross linking in the collagen fiber. BAPN became from then on indispensable in laboratory studies on collagen. Ignacio was invited to participate in congresses on the biochemistry of connective tissue and joined the yearly Gordon Research Conference on bone and tooth studies in Meriden, New Hampshire. Biologists, chemists, biochemists and crystallographers from universities around the world attended such meetings. In 1953, he presented his work at the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine in Atlantic City and in 1954 at the American Orthopedic Association in Breton Woods, New Hampshire. Professor Jerry Gross from Harvard acknowledged Ignacio's breakthrough in his Harvey Lecture of 1974 entitled “Collagen Biology: Structure, Degradation, and Disease.” When in 1954 the Orthopedic Research Society was founded it met in Chicago the day before each congress of the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons so as to make research an integral part of the specialty, a crucial and visionary move in orthopedics. Ignacio was in charge of organizing the programs of the society, and in 1960 he was made its president. It was difficult those days to find a dozen research papers to fill the program. Today, thousands of papers are submitted to the society and hundreds selected for presentation in three simultaneous sessions during two days preceding the academy meeting. In January 1955, a week after Ignacio published in Science an article on dissecting aneurysm of the aorta produced by aminonitrils contained in the sweet pea seed, a farmer from Kalona, south of Iowa City, called him on the phone to ask him whether he could help him find the cause for his young tom turkeys dying from bursting of the aorta. Ignacio told him to bring to Iowa City some of his very young turkeys and the feed he gave them. The following day the farmer arrived at Ignacio's office with his veterinarian and his turkeys which were small enough to be placed in rat cages. A few days later they had to be moved to the larger rabbit cages, and soon after to Dr. Larson's farm, because they grew so fast. Ignacio tested the components of the feed brought by the farmer and could not find any aminonitril in them. The turkeys were growing well and none of them died until sweet pea seed was added to their diet. Ignacio and the veterinarian advised the farmer to decrease the proportion of soybeans to corn in the diet for his turkeys and discard the diet supplement that contained, although minimal, amounts of aminonitril as shown in experimental tadpoles Ignacio used in Vitchis' laboratory. Thereafter the farmer reported they grew well. Shortly afterward, Ignacio lectured at the University of Montreal in Canada and was named Claude Bernard Visiting Professor. In 1957 he lectured at the Royal National Hospital in London and at a congress of the International Society of Orthopedic Surgeons in Barcelona. That very same year, he went on a lecture tour in Latin America at the invitation of societies of Orthopedic Surgery in Buenos Aires, Rosario, Córdoba, Montevideo, Santiago de Chile, San Pablo and Rio de Janeiro. The Surgical Societies in Argentina, Brazil and Chile made him an honorary member. In the decade of the fifties, the only laboratory devoted to the study of the chemistry of the skeletal growth plate was that of Professor Zambotti at the University of Pavia, Italy. Ignacio went to the University of Pavia on several occasions. Great scientists had worked there in the past—Volta, Scarpa, and Golgi, among others. On one of those occasions Zambotti took Ignacio to the Scala Opera House in Milan to listen to “la diva” Callas, a unique experience. In Pavia he also met Professor A. Castellani, whom he invited to work in his laboratory at the University of Iowa. Castellani arrived with his wife, Carla, an inorganic Pavia chemist. Ignacio asked Stan Wazoneck, the head of the Chemistry Department at the University of Iowa to find her a place in his laboratory, which he did—a table in a corner of the lab for graduate students. A couple of years later he called Ignacio on the phone: “Ponseti, who is this Carla Castellani who has written a first-prize paper she says she put together in my lab?” Those were different days. The Russians’ launch of the Sputnik in 1957 was a startling awakening of our need to surpass the Russians in their technological advances. Our universities were given large funds to increase education and research in physics and other sciences, including biology. Ignacio was chosen to join a committee of orthopedic basic scientists, among them Robert Robinson from Hopkins Medical School and Vern Inman from the University of California in San Francisco to establish research centers devoted to the study of muscular skeletal disorders in twelve medical schools. The object was to introduce a more scientific approach to orthopedic surgery. So Ignacio traveled often to Washington and to several university centers to evaluate research work in their laboratories. In 1960 when Ignacio was invited to Bologna to lecture at the Instituto Rizzoli, he met Ortolani, the famous Italian pediatrician who introduced the early diagnosis of hip dislocation in babies by his “scatto” sign, as mentioned earlier. Ortolani took Ignacio to his laboratory in Ferrara where he kept a most interesting collection of specimens of stillborn infant hips in different degrees of dislocation. His impressive, careful and precise study of the hip in babies led his visitor to a new understanding of the nature of the deformity. From Bologna Ortolani took him to Ravenna to visit the splendid basilicas and the mausoleum of Galla Placidia, a unique treat for the visiting surgeon whose interest in the arts rivaled his interest in science. On all his trips he took time to visit museums, see paintings and sculptures, and study the architecture of monuments since antiquity. One sculpture kept fascinating him, David by Michelangelo: the precision of the contours of bones, muscles and veins, rendered with exquisite accuracy, revealed the artist’s knowledge of anatomy acquired from his dissections. One year while vacationing in Mallorca, Ignacio dreamed he had made a beautiful sculpture that rivaled Michelangelo’s. That same year of 1960 Ignacio received the prestigious Keton Gold Medal award from the American Medical Association for his studies on the pathology of skeletal growth disorders. In July he attended, with four of his colleagues, a convention of Eastern European Orthopedic Surgeons in Prague followed by a meeting in Brno with Russian surgeons. Prague was at that time under oppressive communist rule but vibrant with its great architecture and tradition in the arts. It was here that Mozart’s “Don Giovanni” was first performed and Dvorak folk operas and great symphonies were heard at the turn of the twentieth century. And fortunately, while in Prague, Ignacio was taken to hear Dvorak’s folk opera “Margaret and the Devil.” In Brno Ignacio made an escapade to the Augustinian monastery, now a car repair shop, where Mendel discovered while working with sweet peas in the garden his earthshaking laws of heredity he presented at the Natural Science Society in 1865, published a year later but not recognized until long after his death. It was about the same time that Darwin published his Origin of Species. However, the integration of Darwinian selection and Mendelian genetics as well as the proof that variation in organisms are not directed but fortuitous was not generally accepted as the explanation of evolution until the early part of the twentieth century. The American Embassy in Prague advised the American doctors not to proceed to Moscow as had been planned because the Soviet Union had shot down an American high altitude spy plane, the U2, above the Ural mountains and Khrushchev had refused to meet President Eisenhower at a summit meeting in Paris. So, the American doctors went south to Austria crossing the Iron Curtain. Vienna appeared prosperous and the Opera House had been rebuilt to its former splendor. Back in the states, Ignacio went on a lecture tour in Minnesota, Arkansas, Alabama, Atlanta, Chicago and New York before attending an orthopedic congress in Mexico City. All these lectures were illustrated with the beautiful slides made with great skill and artistry by Fred W. Kent, the University photographer whose hobby was to surprise with his camera the life and habitats of owls, hawks, woodpeckers, finches and other birds. With his son Tom he wrote a revealing book on migrations of birds in Iowa. A biochemist from Pavia, Vitorio Pedrini, was invited to join the biochemistry laboratory of Ignacio’s Department. He settled in the outskirts of the city with his wife Angela Pedrini-Mille, also a biochemist, and his children. Ignacio and Pedrini studied the histology and biochemistry of the cartilage in the iliac crest in normal children and in those with scoliosis. The iliac crest is both the main growth plate of the pelvis and a traction epiphysis where the tendons of the abdominal and back muscles insert in the pelvis. The iliac crest is similar in structure to the growth plates in the vertebrae. Both grow very fast in infancy and in adolescence. No changes were found in children or in adolescents with scoliosis. Biopsies of the iliac crest were very basic in the study of skeletal growth disorders in the spine such as dwarfism as seen in achondroplasia, Morquio, and other deformities. Drs. Reginald Cooper, Ernesto Ippolito and Jerry Maynard at the University joined Ignacio in the study of the histochemistry and the ultra structure of the iliac crest cartilage while Dr. V. Pedrini and his wife Angela studied the biochemistry. These studies revealed cellular and intercellular changes that were better understood later with genetic breakthroughs. An Unexpected Encounter It was shortly before Christmas of 1960 that Ignacio and I met by the art, intuition, and will of Matilde Macagno, a professor of mathematics at the University of Iowa married to Professor Enzo Macagno, a hydraulics engineer at the University. At the time, I was a professor of Spanish language and literature at Grinnell College and chairperson of the Spanish-Russian Department. That day I had traveled to Iowa City to meet Professor Enzo Macagno, originally from Argentina, to induce him to participate in a panel I was organizing at the request of the State Department to conduct a citizen consultation on the subject of my expertise, Latin American Literature. Such citizen consultations in the 1950s were established to impart knowledge to the general public about areas outside their realm of occupation. Being a gentleman and not knowing how to refuse a lady’s request, Enzo invited me to lunch to meet his wife Matilde who would know how to get me off his hands. No sooner did Matilde see me than she invited me, and my mother who had come for the ride, to dinner that night. She wouldn’t take no for an answer and reserved a room at the Jefferson Hotel for us so we would not have to drive back home in the dark. That evening Ignacio had two invitations to dinner, was working in the lab, forgot them both and ate at the hospital. The other party, Marilyn and Earl Berglund located him and told him they had prepared pheasant for him. He ate a second dinner at their home. Matilde called all over town, located him at the Berglunds and told him to come for dessert. Ignacio arrived half an hour or so before mother and I got up to leave. At the door he asked me where I was from. “Valencia,” I replied. I asked him where he was from. “Barcelona” he said. “Oh, I know ‘el cant dels ucells’ (‘the song of the birds’) Pablo Casals played at the end of every concert,” and I sang it to him in Catalan. Then, I rushed to the car where mother was already waiting. We saw each other just a few times between January and June. He came to Grinnell on commencement day, the year I was named James Morton Roberts Honor Professor, the third and last time that honor was bestowed. It had been created the year before to recognize a most distinguished history professor, Joseph Frazier Wall, who ten years later further proved meritorious by publishing the best-documented biography of Andrew Carnegie, the enterprising Scottishborn millionaire philanthropist, a foremost example of American idealism. Shortly after commencement, Ignacio asked me to go with him to a justice of the peace to get married. I accepted. How come so fast? Perhaps a few words about my background are appropriate. My father, Nicolás Percas Kioli, was born in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1889 from a Greek father who had business in that city and an Italian mother. By that very fact, he spoke Greek, Italian, Arabic, and—because Alexandria was a gateway to Africa and Asia—Russian, French and Spanish. My mother, Ana Babenco was born in the Ukraine but went to Egypt in her early teens where her father, his second wife and their six children lived. After Nicolás and Ana were married, they went to Paris to study and when the First World War broke out in 1914 they moved south to Valencia where I was born. My father was a very cultured man, trained by the Jesuits in Alexandria with whom he parted ways when they tried to indoctrinate him. Because of his very solid preparation, he found a job right away at the University of Valencia and founded a school of languages right in our home. One of his students was Vicente Gaos, later to become the author of an excellent annotated edition of Cervantes’ Don Quijote de la Mancha, one of the reliable sources in my research. I met Gaos at a conference on Cervantes in Fordham University in the 1950s. Nicolás Percas Kioli, Helena's father, at age 62 Before I learned to walk I learned to swim as my father kept me afloat by my bathing suit straps. Shortly after learning to walk I started running and ran everywhere—to the playground, to school, on errands, to the colleges and universities where I studied until I was 40. Before I learned to read, I memorized and recited the poems my father read to me. In high school Cossío in Valencia when, on parents day, I recited Ruben Dario’s “The Wolf’s Motives” for escaping back to the wild, I did so with such theatrical emotion I did not know that I brought tears to some grown-ups. I memorized and sang folk songs in Spanish, French, Italian, English, and even in languages I did not know (German, Czech, and Russian). As a child, my only toys were a doll and a mecano, steel strips with which to erect all kinds of constructions. I played Tarzan, went up quarries, and invented dangerous adventures in which I was always the heroine. I made myself docks and boats with matchboxes, or airplanes with my father’s writing paper that I launched from our terrace. One day, I went with all my new fleet to the terrace and launched it unawares that the parade of King Alphonse XIII was passing by right below. All eyes followed my fleet across the river Turia all the way to Los viveros, a large garden and zoo on the other side of the river. Horrified, I ran to hide under the bed. Alphonse XIII exiled himself to Italy when he lost the elections in 1931 and the Republic was proclaimed. I liked him for sparing the country from bloodshed. I will spare the reader all my childhood mischief borne out of my unbridled imagination. All the schools I went to in Spain were coed. Boys and girls went through exactly the same educational programs. At the Instituto Escuela of Valencia, the third of such schools in the country (the first being in Madrid and the second in Barcelona), boys and girls learned to repair clothing, polish wood on the lathe, work on leather, jump over the high bar, play soccer, compete in speed and endurance races, learn defense strategies if attacked, and how to fall without breaking your bones. This training proved to be the most useful education throughout my life. Also throughout my life it was my good fortune to have the very best teachers, starting with my father and then Aranegui, the biology professor at the Instituto Escuela under whose guidance we dissected frogs, studied plants, classified rocks and went on field trips (1932). Unlike Ignacio, I never knew my grandparents on either side, and unlike him I could not trace my ancestry further back than half a century and, on my mother’s side, not without nebulosity. In Valencia, in our dining room, there was a majestic painting of my paternal grandmother. I never saw any pictures or photographs of any of my maternal grandparents. When the Spanish civil war broke out in 1936, my parents sent me to London because the Instituto Escuela of Valencia was not opening that fall on account of being turned into militia quarters. I was 15 at the time and had no say about my wishes. I felt guilty to be spared when my schoolmates stayed behind in Valencia. So, I reluctantly went to high school in London and then to Paris where my father had been named Attaché Commercial by the Spanish Republic. I got my French B.A. (baccalauréat, bacbo for short) in 1938. When the Republic lost the war (1939), there was no thought of going back to Spain so we crossed the Atlantic to Venezuela, where my father had been asked to create the Literature and Philosophy Studies at the Universidad Nacional of Caracas. Only sciences were taught then. My father soon established himself and was extremely successful. I taught failing students in high school all the subjects of the bacho: physics, chemistry, math, history, French. I also got a job teaching English at the Underwood Gregg Commercial College. Those days you could get paid in paper or gold in the Caracas banks. I chose paper, for I could not see myself going about town with a little pouch of gold coins. My instinct for money has never been very high. Unable to continue my liberal arts education in Caracas and after earning $1,000 (the amount necessary to enter the United States) I decided to go to Barnard College in New York City. I filled out the application with the help of a visiting youth from New York City and arrived by boat in full view of the Statue of Liberty in 1940. At the immigration office, I was stunned to be asked to answer two questions in writing: whether I intended to kill the President of the United States and whether I was a prostitute. For many years, I was puzzled about such naïve questions until I concluded that it had to do with Protestant ethics: lying is the most serious and punishable offense because the deed is preconceived. At Barnard I was accepted as a junior on the strength of my French bacho. Dean Virginia Gildersleeve gave me a scholarship to finish my senior year. She was amused at my concerns that “I was a poor risk,” I warned her in my wobbly English. Without such scholarship I would have had to go back to Caracas to earn another $1,000 to return and finish college. Dean Gildersleeve was the first to write vignettes about life in China and the only scholar appointed by Franklin Roosevelt in 1945 to the United States delegation to the San Francisco Conference charged with writing the Charter of the United Nations. While presiding at Barnard, she brought writers to teach literature at the College. One of them was Gabriela Mistral, a Chilean poetess, the first woman and the first Latin American to receive a Nobel Prize (1945). I missed meeting her by a few months in 1940. After I got my B.A., I refused to go back to Caracas and decided to continue my studies in New York City. My parents then decided to come to the United States. Federico de Onís, the founder of the Hispanic Studies at Columbia University in New York City and my professor in graduate school, found a teaching job for my father at St. Laurence University in Canton, New York. From Canton he moved to Rockford College in Illinois, and from Rockford College to Grinnell College in Iowa to teach Greek, Latin, and comparative literature. He was recognized with the Trustees Honor Professorship in 1950-51. I continued my studies in New York taking an MA at Columbia in 1943, taught at Russell Sage College, and finished my Ph.D. in 1950 at Columbia University. So, while Ignacio’s first job, fresh out of the University was at the front caring for the war wounded in the Spanish civil war, I was going through school and working in four countries. At Columbia University I pursued my doctoral studies under Federico de Onís. He was a visionary teacher whose lectures were revelations. He also taught us folk songs. At Christmas time he gathered us many an evening at the Hispanic Institute to rehearse the charming Spanish Christmas carols called villancicos. In these carols, the Virgin washes diapers and spreads them out to dry on the rosemary bush, while the little birds sing, and the streams laugh passing by. On holidays, we performed plays by Spanish classics—Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón and the famous poet and playwright Federico García Lorca, the author of Poeta en Nueva York written after visiting the city in 1929 (translated in 1940 and 1955, Poet in New York). Lorca was murdered in Granada at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War for his liberal ideas reflected in his poetry and plays. His brother, a professor at the Hispanic Institute of Columbia University with whom I performed in one of Lope de Vega’s plays—Fuenteovejuna, a magnificent drama about popular justice against a tyrant ruler—was later, in 1945, a colleague of mine at Queens College. It is at the Hispanic Institute where I met a number of outstanding writers from Latin America and Spain, among them Ciro Alegría, the Peruvian author of La serpiente de oro (tr. in 1935 The Golden Serpent) and El mundo es ancho y ageno (tr. 1942 Broad and Alien is the World), a novel that portrays the neglect and hopelessness of the destitute. Has anything changed in the world of today? It was in New York City where I discovered a studio owned by a Spanish gypsy who taught the traditional folk dances of Spain, among them “la jota aragonesa” and “la jota valenciana,” the second one a dance I watched Valencians dance in my native town. She also taught me to play the castanets. So, it was in New York City where I learned Spanish culture and Spanish folk songs and dances I later taught to my students at Russell Sage College, Queens College and Grinnell College. In 1948 I accepted a job at Grinnell College where my father was teaching Greek, Latin and comparative literature. He was earning $5,000 a year. I was offered $3,000. Between us the family could survive. At Grinnell College, in addition to teaching Spanish language and literature, I directed Spanish plays, the legacy of Federico de Onís. They were performed by our fired-up students, all excellent actors and actresses, but with occasional charming American accents that sparked a smile on Spanish visitors in the audience. And the “villancicos” learned from Federico de Onís, toured at Christmas time with the Grinnell College choir. Grinnell College was and continues to be today a very special place. I feel proud to have been associated with it and to have contributed to its high standing. President Howard Bowen of Grinnell College gave Beth Noble and me, the two senior full professors of the Spanish-Russian Department the latitude to build from strength. Beth Noble had learned Russian at President Bowen’s request during her sabbatical by going to California and Indiana, then to Russia with a tour of students. The Modern Foreign Language Department was broken up into language departments, and we became the Spanish-Russian Department. In 1959 we were the only women in our department and we thought we needed a man. A brilliant graduate from Yale University, Andrew P. Debicki, was being interviewed by a number of universities across the country. On his way to the west coast, he decided to stop at Grinnell. He was enchanted by our department, and declared he would join us provided he could teach his field. His field happened to be mine—Spanish and Latin American poetry—which I had taught since joining the college in 1948, and the subject of my lectures in the United States, in Mexico City and in Buenos Aires. My book on women poets of Argentina, La poesía femenina argentina (1958), was sold out. I was half way through preparing a book on women writers of Latin America at the request of my Latin American friends and colleagues. I was close to 40. Beth and I felt so strongly that we needed Andrew that I gave him my field without hesitation. Beth said she could not do justice to the Spanish Golden Age in her survey course of Spanish Literature, and gave me the Golden Age. My life was changed in less than one minute at the President’s office of the College. The literary discussions with both Beth Noble and Andrew P. Debicki were invaluable to all three of us to sharpen our wits and widen our horizons. To further widen them, we established once a month faculty discussion groups of outstanding novels, plays and essays with colleagues from other fields. In 1960 I was invited to Buenos Aires by La Nación, the historical literary newspaper-journal of the capital, of the greatest prestige in Latin America, to lecture on the most revered woman poet of Italian origin, Alfonsina Storni. At the end of my lecture, a young man with tears in his eyes grasped my hand and said that it was the first time he had heard a lecture about his mother without being mentioned as her illegitimate son. What moved him most was that I read her poetry just the way she recited it. To prove it he invited me to dinner at his home and played me a record. I was stunned, for I thought I heard my own voice and inflexion. Alfonsina committed suicide in 1938 when at the age of 46 she discovered she had an incurable cancer. Just before, she had announced her decision to La Nación in a sonnet entitled “Voy a dormir” (“I am going to sleep”). It was on that occasion that I met Jorge Luis Borges, the great Argentine poet, novelist and critic, a professor of English literature and the director of the Buenos Aires prestigious Public Library. He was among the public when I lectured on Alfonsina. By virtue of being almost blind, Borges had developed a tremendous memory that retained everything his mother, who was his eyes, read to him. In a short story I termed onomatopoeic, called “Funes el memorioso” (“Funes, the Memory Man”), Borges reveals the anguishing experience of being unable to forget anything. The very name Funes suggests it phonetically: funeral, funereal, gloomy. Because Borges could not read an article I had written about his prose style, he invited me to read it before a small circle of friends gathered at the coffee house where they usually met. Needless to say, I was overwhelmed by such distinction and even more so when he invited me to the home of Bioy Casares and his wife Silvina Ocampo, one of the women poets in my book on Argentine poetry. Her sister, Victoria Ocampo, was the prestigious founder of the journal Sur, of international circulation for its revealing and enlightening cultural aspects of Argentina. Borges, Bioy Casares and Silvina were writing a collection of short stories and engaged me in their discussion. Although I first met Ignacio at the Macagnos, it was not the first time we had seen each other. Our first encounter happened one summer, in the 1930s in Cala Molins, a tiny sandy beach in the north of the island of Mallorca, lined with a natural rock wall at the mouth of a dry torrent. I was nine at the time and the sole ‘proprietor’ of the beach. Six teenagers arrived on their bicycles for a swim. I was annoyed. They swam in my sea and dried themselves on my sand. The boys were equally annoyed that the girl was always there, and they could not swim in the raw before drying themselves on the warm sand. We found out about our silent encounter in our first conversation at the Macagnos. What brought us together was sharing the same beliefs, having analogous emotional experiences when talking about past and present wars, about strengths, weaknesses and flaws of human nature. But, above all, what brought us together was our boundless admiration for the United States and our gratitude to the country that had given us the opportunity and the freedom to pursue our goals. We recalled our analogous experience at the border when we entered the country. Marrying Ignacio was my liberation. I finally could do the things I wanted to do all my life, to hike for miles in the mountains and visit new lands. Ignacio was a seasoned hiker. He often had hiked in the mountains north of Barcelona, Montserrat, Montseny, Matagalls and Agudes; in the Pyrenees, Montperdut and Maladeta; in Mexico, the Popocatepel (1788 feet high); in the states, the Tetons, the Grand Canyon of Colorado down the Angel Trail and up to Flagstaff in one day. In Iowa City he had joined the Mountaineers on several occasions when his work allowed. Our first trip together was to Guatemala one month after our wedding. Ignacio was invited to deliver lectures on children’s orthopedic surgery as visiting professor of the University while I was asked, sur place to speak on Argentine women poets. The Guatemala capital was at that time a beautiful city of about half a million inhabitants. The University was modern and had a good faculty. The president of the Surgical Society took us to visit the highlands, a volcanic region with a spectacular lake densely populated by Maya descendents. When we arrived in Chichicastenango, a prosperous city on a hill, it was market day. The market exhibited a colorful display of hand knitted clothes, fruits and vegetables neatly arranged on stands. Adjacent to the market was the church of Santo Tomás. To the right of its doorway there was a quemador, a basin where copal incense was burning in honor of Maya gods. While Maya Indians are nominally Roman Catholic, they retain elements of their native religion such as deities and ceremonies associated with soil fertility. We saw a family of worshipers walking up to the quemador to pay their respects to their gods before entering Santo Tomás, now on their knees, accompanied by an intermediary who walked beside them with his right hand on the head of the family man while addressing Jesus on the cross on the main altar with his left hand. We asked the Roman Catholic priest the meaning of the strange way of worshipping. He told us that the important thing was to get them inside the church whatever rituals they followed. Suddenly, I thought of how the Spanish conquest of Latin America was a conquest of spirit by building churches over the native temples, and also how the Mezquita de Córdoba (a Moorish mosque in Southern Spain) was architecturally conquered by encircling it with Christian chapels and walls. Conquests take many forms. Before leaving Guatemala we went to visit Antigua, the old capital of the Spanish Empire in Central America with its many stately, elegant, baroque buildings badly damaged by an earthquake in the eighteenth century. Bernal Díaz del Castillo one of Cortés’ soldiers had retired in Antigua to write his famous Verdadera historia de la conquista de la Nueva España (The True History of the Conquest of New Spain) as a protest against the academic chronicles of sedentary historians who had not witnessed the events while he was an actor and eyewitness, better prepared than they to record the truth of expeditions in their topographic and military details. Still today his work, a basic source to follow that epic, is written in an unassuming, colloquial style, enlivened by popular expressions. It is a unique historical legacy. On our way back home we stopped for a week in Yucatan to see Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and Mayapán with their brilliant and elaborate architecture, temples and sculptures of the Maya classic period of the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. Back home in the states, I taught Don Quijote and lectured on Cervantes. It is on Cervantes that I have done most of my research since I was forty: numerous articles and two books, the first in Spanish on his concept of art: Cervantes y su concepto del arte (1975), the second in English, Cervantes, the Writer and the Painter of Don Quijote (1988). Since then, I have continued to write articles requested by Cervantes scholars to the present day as well as to give lectures on Cervantes and the Spanish Golden Age, also, on Latin American women poets, the subject of my preceding research. Because President Howard Bowen and my colleagues at Grinnell College did not want me to leave when I married Ignacio and because I needed to take care of my mother, now widowed and living in Grinnell, I became the first commuter in Iowa, about 120 miles round trip. For the first 6 years I traveled the two-way Highway 6 used by the interstate traffic, the local traffic and the tractors! And, to make things worse, I taught 6 days a week! When the interstate was finished, I could prepare classes, exams and meetings while driving, thanks to my good memory and recall facility in those days. My acquaintances and friendships doubled, adding Ignacio’s to mine. Until my retirement twenty years later, uninterrupted concentration made the three-hour round trip seem shorter. Howard Bowen was an admirable president who wanted to know firsthand how everything was going at Grinnell College. He dropped in on classes unannounced and appeared at functions of departments, at lectures of guest speakers and at plays and recitals. When we had Spanish or Latin American guest speakers, we were proud to show off our students interacting in Spanish with the guests. The Argentine poet María de Villarino arrived with a translator on the tour of the United States I arranged for her. We had the translator sit by a marveled Howard Bowen. Bowen also sat in the audience when Jorge Luis Borges, whose tour I helped arrange, came to Grinnell, via the University of Iowa where he gave a terrific lecture dismissing the notion of plagiarism if a work opens a new window to a known intellectual landscape. Classes at Grinnell College were dismissed that day. Dean James Stauss seized the occasion to extend to all students the unique experience of listening to a world-acclaimed writer. The session was a great success. Borges spoke impeccable English. He declared at the start, after a brief introduction on poetry and metaphor, that he did not like to lecture. He much preferred to answer questions about any author, poem, novel, life, ideals, or historical milieu of writers. By virtue of his tremendous memory he spoke ex abundancia and in conversational form that charmed the audience. Despite the burden of remembering everything, as he implied in his above-mentioned short-story “Funes, the Memory man,” he enjoyed the question-answer session no end with the bright and stimulating Grinnell students. Helena Percas-Ponseti (left), at the Quadrangle Stage of Grinnell College, listens to a lecture given by Jorge Luis Borges in the spring of 1968. In the spring of 1966 Ignacio was given a scholarship by the Commonwealth Fund to visit important clinical and biological research centers in Europe. I asked for a sabbatical. We traveled through Europe for nearly five months. In Paris Ignacio visited the Clinique de Génétique Médicale directed by professors Lamy and Maroteau, leaders in the study of growth disorders, to discuss with them new findings in the anomalies of growth cartilage. Dr. Petit, professor and head of Children’s Hospital and a very influential teacher was discouraged with the results of their treatment of clubfeet. He had seen no improvement in their results for thirty years. Ignacio observed that the one in charge of applying plaster casts to the deformed feet was a nun who had no idea about how to correct the deformity and kept repeating the same mistakes during all thirty years she was in charge. With Dr. Queneau, who had been a visiting fellow studying with Ignacio at the University of Iowa, we went to the service of Dr. Grobind in the Hospital Ramond Poincaré on the outskirts of Paris for the treatment of polio. Vaccination against polio did not become compulsory in France until after 1965, so children with acute polio were still seen. In the United States on the other hand, thanks to the vaccines for polio developed by Drs. Salk and Sabin, the disease had been controlled ten years earlier. Duval Beaupère observed that spinal curvatures in paralytic children resembled the curvatures seen in children without polio and that scoliosis in polio was induced by a contracture of the back muscles during the adolescent growth spurt. Scoliosis did not develop in adults with polio; very interesting and useful information that scoliosis, regardless of cause, develops during periods of spinal growth in infancy and in adolescence. Bercé Plage, in northern France, had been a large construction with 10,000 beds as the center for the treatment of bone tuberculosis during the first half of the twentieth century. Since the successful treatment of this disease in the 1950s, a number of its available facilities were then used to treat orthopedic disorders in children. Dr. Yves Cotrel, who had visited Iowa City to consult Ignacio on his recent work on scoliosis, was in charge of about 400 beds for children with scoliosis. Cotrel used body plaster casts to correct vertebral rotation and improve spinal and thoracic deformities. Later on, he developed the best instrumentation to derotate and stabilize the spine. In England we visited first the Strangeways Laboratories in Cambridge directed by Dame Honor B. Fell, one of the most outstanding biologists of the century. She was very interested in Ignacio’s work on the effects of aminonitrils in cartilage growth and connective tissue. Then we traveled to Oxford where Dr. Duthy, just back from the United States, was in charge of the Professorship of Orthopedics. He showed Ignacio the new research areas in the Nuffield Orthopedic Center, established by Professor Trueta, the Catalan professor who left Barcelona on the same train with Ignacio as they evacuated patients toward France in 1939 at the end of the civil war. In his 25 years at Oxford, Trueta had done excellent research on blood circulation in bone and in kidney. In London Ignacio participated in several clinics and conferences at the Royal National Hospital with Dr. Sissons working on osteoporosis and Dr. Manning on scoliosis, both leaders in their fields. In Stanmore Hospital for Children, Dr. Sedon and Dr. Trevor worked on untreated or neglected older children with residuals of polio or brachial plexus palsy, congenital dislocation of the hip and severe spinal deformities. While Ignacio was working with Sir Herbert Sedon and Trevor, I spent my days in the British Museum Library. Grinnell College had given me the sabbatical to continue working on my history of Latin American women writers requested by the Hispanic profession after my book on women poets of Argentina was published. I had several files of bibliography and notes as well as many pages of my manuscript that I could not take with me to Europe. Since by this time I was teaching Don Quixote by Cervantes, I took along the chapter of the descent of Don Quijote into the cave of Montesinos, a fantastic adventure widely differently interpreted by every critic of the book. I discovered that over the character’s vision of medieval life Cervantes built several levels of meaning ranging from human and ideological conflicts, to contemporary Spanish history, to philosophy of life, to his autobiography. Such study led to my first article on Cervantes two years later and to my book Cervantes y su concepto del arte (Cervantes and His Concept of Art) in 1975. From London we went to Edinburgh where Ignacio gave several lectures to residents and medical students and was awarded the Lawrence Pool Prize for his leading research. Dr. JIP James, a close friend of Ignacio and his host years earlier, was the professor who had built a first-rate department for research and clinical work on genetic studies, scoliosis, spina bifida, osteoporosis and osteomalacia in old women related to poor diet and little sun. South to Belgium we were the guests of Joseph Mulier, professor of orthopedic surgery in the Flemish Medical School of Louvain. Dr. Mulier had trained in Iowa City under Ignacio and had developed one of the most important orthopedic departments in Europe for undergraduate and graduate students. In the Catholic University of Louvain, professor Lacroix was working on the growth plate and showed Ignacio his histological studies of the perichondrial ring that surrounds it to facilitate normal bone growth. Dr. Mulier took us then to Bruges and to Ghent to see the great Flemish paintings of the fourteenth century, among them Jan van Eyck’s panel “Madonna of Canon George van der Paele” and Hans Memling’s St. Christopher Altarpiece in Bruges; and the “Adoration of the Lamb” by the brothers van Eyck in Ghent, indelible in our recollection through the years. In Antwerp we saw Rubens’ masterpieces in the cathedral and his striking atelier in his home. From Louvain we went to Leiden in Holland for Ignacio to visit the Department of Anatomy, headed by Professor Landsmeer whose studies of the joints in hands and fingers based on sections of fetal hands became the basis for a new understanding of joint motion. We also met Dr. Huson, a professor in the same department who wrote his thesis on the functional anatomy of the tarsal joints of the foot that Ignacio had read with great delight because it proved that his manipulative approach to the correction of clubfoot was sound. On this occasion, I thought it was by mere coincidence that we arrived in Holland, just during the spectacular tulip festival when, in fact, it had been planned by Ignacio with enviable precision. The numerous, colorful displays, competed for the few prizes to be given. For the viewer it was like walking in a paradise. With few exceptions all of our work/travel together—lectures, research, meetings, conferences, symposia, convocations—were combined with visits to museums, monuments, and archeological sights. Because Ignacio was passionate about sculpture, painting, history, geography, music, architecture and historical sites he always managed to include them in our travels. For me it was a constant instruction in discovery. A startling contrast came as we arrived in Germany. We were appalled to learn of the tragedy caused by thalidomide used by pregnant women. Several thousand babies were born without arms or legs. In Munich, Professor Heff headed the center to help these children and their families. The United States was spared such disaster thanks to a knowledgeable biologist from the University of Chicago, Frances Oldham Kelsey, who had joined the FDA early in 1961. At the time, the prevailing U.S. law was the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act requiring that proof of safety be sent to the FDA before a medication could be approved for sale in the USA. The law also allowed “investigational” or “experimental” use of a drug while approval for its sale was being sought. The FDA had 60 days to review a drug application. If the FDA reviewer found incomplete or unsatisfactory a particular medication, it had to be resubmitted for another 60 days. Because Frances Oldham Kelsey kept having concerns about the possible effects of thalidomide on human embryos, and because in successive applications no new information was given on the metabolism, chemistry and pharmacology of the drug, she refused six times to grant the approval. In Basel, Switzerland, we were the guests of Dr. Fredenhagen who had also studied with Ignacio at the University of Iowa. He introduced us to professors Chapchall and Muller who had devised small, effective surgical appliances for better reductions of joint fractures. In Pavia, Italy, Dr. Bolognani was continuing the investigation started in Ignacio’s laboratory on cartilage and collagen changes caused by aminonitrils. Professor Goidanich, invited Ignacio, whom he had met a few years earlier in Bologna, to lecture on his latest research on experimental scoliosis in rats showing that the defect was in the structure of the newly synthesized collagen. Our next stop was Florence, where Professor Scaglietti whom Ignacio had met a few years earlier at the American Academy meeting in Chicago, showed us his enormous newly built orthopedic hospital with 550 beds and 56 doctors on the staff. The ingenious arrangement of wards and operating rooms saved doctors' time and made possible speedy and appropriate care of patients. His interest in Ignacio's visit was to discuss the treatment of congenital dislocation of the hip. In all universities in the Scandinavian countries, orthopedic surgery was considered a separate specialty for the treatment of musculoskeletal diseases and disorders, including fractures. Dr. Karl Hirsh, the professor in charge in Goteborg, directed theses of postgraduate doctors from Sweden and the United States in biomechanic studies of the spine and hip joint. His colleague, Dr. Nachemsson, had studied the changes of intervertebral disk pressure in different body positions and Drs. Rilander and Jorge Galante were completing a study of the forces acting on the discs following spinal fusions. During a week at the Karl Hirsh country home, he discussed with Ignacio the ongoing research in Iowa City on the pathology of scoliosis. Dr. Moberg showed Ignacio his excellent techniques in the treatment of hand trauma, and then treated us to sailing on the Skagerrak waters for three sunny, warm days. In Malmo, Drs. Andren and von Rosen had established the early diagnosis of congenital dislocation of the hip using Ortolani's "scato" sign. Because they discovered that the deformity had been missed in five babies during the previous 15 years, two of which had complete dislocations, they decided to take X-rays of all babies at 6 months of age to be certain that no hip dislocation would be missed again. As stated earlier, in the late forties and early fifties, Ignacio taught doctors and nurses in Iowa how to apply the Ortolani "scato" sign correctly to eliminate undiagnosed hip dislocations in babies. When doctors missed cases, they thought that the dislocation had occurred some time after birth. So they changed the name of congenital dislocation to developmental dislocation advising hip testing every three months to detect late cases! In Lund, Professor Gunnar Wiberg, universally known for his studies of congenital dislocation of the hip, was our host. His colleagues, Drs. Hansson and Sundén, were studying with tetracycline staining how skeletal growth in rabbits was affected by temperature changes following sectioning of nerves. In Stockholm, Professor Sten Friberg, head of the Orthopedic Department, Director of the Karolinska Institute, and Chairman of the Nobel Peace Prize Committee, knowing that we were from Spain, told us how difficult it was to give the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez the Nobel Peace Prize because he was exiled to Puerto Rico, unable to travel, and wouldn't have Franco's Spanish ambassador receive the Nobel Prize for him. So, it was the president of the University of Puerto Rico who did. In Helsinki, Finland, Ignacio was invited by Professor Langenskiold to lecture on scoliosis. He was intrigued by Dr. Langenskiold's experiment (conducted together with his staff headed by Dr. Michelsson) to produce scoliosis in dogs, pigs and rabbits by destroying intervertebral ligaments or by resecting the proximal ends of several ribs. He was equally intrigued by Dr. Ritsila's experiments to produce clubfeet in newborn rabbits by sectioning the peronei tendons and the extensors of the toes and making the deformity permanent by applying a plaster cast. Such experiments were interesting, Ignacio thought, because they showed how the balance of the spine could be altered, but he wondered what significance they could have for idiopathic scoliosis in humans. Dr. Ingulf Medbo, who had studied in Iowa City for three years, was in charge of Children’s Orthopedic Clinic in Oslo, Norway. He was doing good clinical research, but the department had no laboratory for basic science research. Ignacio was asked to hold several clinics and give two lectures on the subject. Dr. Medbo took us to a lodge south of Trotheim. From there we walked for two weeks in the beautiful Norwegian mountains and crossed two fiords before reaching Bergen. The Commonwealth Foundation grant was extremely valuable to Ignacio for the knowledge he gained by visiting the many laboratories and clinics in Europe and exchanging views and information with the leaders in musculoskeletal research. Before returning to the United States we went to Spain. Traveling to Barcelona over the Pyrenees I was moved to recall what Ignacio had told me about his crossing to France 27 years earlier at the end of the Spanish Civil War. His brother Miquel had been taken prisoner at the end of the war but was saved by their Uncle Ignacio, a commander in Franco’s army in Mallorca. Now, he was a professor on the faculty of architecture at the University of Barcelona and a prominent architect in the city. In Barcelona, he had erected by that time more than one hundred buildings including office buildings, laboratories, condominiums, a theatre, hotels. His work extended to the provinces and to Mallorca. In addition, Miquel was an accomplished painter. He painted squares and streets of the old Barcelona and excellent portraits of family members. Miquel had also been named municipal architect of the city. In the mornings he worked in the Ayuntamiento (Court House) a few yards from the house where he and Ignacio grew up. Whatever Miquel did, he did fast and well. The six years of the Bachillerato (B.A.) he had finished with honors in four at the age of 15. After his Ph.D. in mathematics and his degree in architecture, he received the Premio Nacional Español (First Spanish National Prize) at age 25. When he was elected councilman of the city after Franco’s death, he took it upon himself to change back into Catalan the names of streets and avenues that had been changed by the Franco regime. For instance, La Diagonal, the main avenue crossing the city diagonally, hence its name, had been changed to Avenida del General Francisco Franco. Shortly after the dictator died, Miquel chose the names of the many new streets in the fast-growing metropolis. Today, those streets are known by the names he gave them. On several occasions when we went to Barcelona, we paid visits to Ignacio’s teachers, friends and classmates: Joaquin Trias, the outstanding dean of the Medical School in Barcelona, back in Spain after years of exile in France and Andorra; Adolfo Ley, head of neurosurgery service in the Hospital Clínico, and Jimeno Vidal, head of a private trauma clinic, both of international reputation; classmates Felipe Bastos and his wife Katerina, Antoni Taverna and his wife Angels, Antoni Viladot and his wife Carmen, Moises Broggi, a superior surgeon treating the extensive wounds of the International Brigades around Madrid, and his wife Angelina with whom Ignacio went to German School. The younger son of Dean Trias, Antoni Trias, trained in Chicago and often came to Iowa City to see Ignacio. He taught at the University of Halifax in Canada and at Sherbrooke University in Quebec. After returning to Barcelona he was editor of International Orthopaedics (SICOT). We were his guests on several occasions. He died suddenly of a heart attack just the day before we were to meet for lunch after arriving in Barcelona. On one occasion, we met Totó Medrano through the Beltrans. She was the owner of an art gallery in Palma de Mallorca that we visited several times before meeting her. We became instant friends. She lived in Barcelona. When we told her we had to go north to Montpeier (France) she offered to drive us there for she had friends who lived nearby. Ignacio told her that he knew General Medrano, commander of the coast during the Spanish Civil War. He had treated him for a leg wound at the base hospital of la Sabinosa. Totó exclaimed, “He was my father.” And told us that after the war he was murdered for having been on the Republican side even though he did not fight in the war and protected a number of nuns and priests. Ignacio recalled that on one occasion, when a train full of wounded soldiers arrived at La Sabinosa in the middle of the night, he turned on the lights of the operating rooms facing the sea. General Medrano picked up the phone and roared, “Ponseti, do you think you are in Montecarlo?” The following day a number of black curtains for the windows were received. The last time we went to Spain was in 2005—Ignacio to the Orthopedic Congress in Palma, and I to the Congress celebrating the four-hundredth anniversary of the publication of Don Quixote, Part I in Barcelona. On this occasion, I stayed at Toto’s home. One day on our way to the Barrio Gótico (Gothic Quarters) where Ignacio grew up, just before getting there, we decided to stop at a bookstore of unique reputation in La Plaza del Angel (Angel Square). José Porter, the owner, received us at the door. We were full of questions. He wanted to know where we were from, and when we told him that we were Americans born, Ignacio in Barcelona and I in Valencia, he exclaimed, “Follow me” and took us up one long flight of stairs to an enormous hall where he proceeded to show us the magnificent art books, history books, ancient maps, first editions of rare books, and, low and behold, canvasses and paintings of the best known artists of Spain, and incredibly, a number of large oils by American painters of portraits of American Indians. His daughter was in charge of the bookstore downstairs. More than a bookstore owner, José Porter sounded like a professor, a historian or an art collector. On several other trips to Barcelona we went to visit him. On our last visit Porter greeted me with “we now carry your book”—he was referring to my first book on Cervantes of 1975. I was touched. On two previous occasions we bought the first time the fifth edition of the Desastres de la guerra (The Disasters of War) 80 etchings by Goya; the second time the sixth edition which we donated to the Art Museum of Grinnell College where I was teaching. For nearly a third of a century, Goya had been the official painter of the Spanish Court even after the Napoleonic invasion of 1808. At first Goya favored the invasion because he expected it would abolish the Inquisition he detested, and had kept combating in his paintings and etchings, with barely veiled allusions. At first he hoped NaNapoleon would bring order and progress to Spain, put an end to the abuses and fetters of the Holy Office and to the degradation and violation of women, but he soon witnessed in horror the devastation of fields, the heartless killing by invaders as well as by defenders whose fierce resistance was unparalleled. Some of the worst atrocities Goya depicts can only be watched for the aesthetic beauty of the bodies while blocking out the horror of the acts. Goya’s accusation of the Holy Office is ironically alluded to in an etching showing a priest balancing himself on a tightrope while addressing the crowds below. The caption reads “Que se rompe la cuerda” (Watch out, the rope is breaking). An etching depicting women’s heroism is that of a woman in a long dress and flowing black hair about to shoot a cannon while two men’s corpses lie at her feet: “Qué valor” (What courage) reads the caption. This is one of the few prints one can look at without the need of blocking any part of it. According to F. Soldevila, Goya’s etching depicts a real person, the Catalan Agustina Saragossa, thereafter called Agustina de Aragón to refer to her province. Goya’s ironic captions intensify his ulterior pessimism and hopelessness about mankind. On one etching he portrays people on their knees begging for peace before a wild animal (a wolf, says one of my sources) writing its verdict on a parchment: “Miserable humanidad la culpa es tuya” (Wretched humanity, the fault is yours). The caption reads “Esto es lo peor” (This is the worst). It acquires its full meaning after reading the beast’s verdict: Humanity’s blindness to know the cause of its mental and physical torture. Goya did his etchings from drawings sketched in Madrid during the tragic events while self-exiled to Bordeaux for fear of the renascent Inquisition under the restored monarchy of Ferdinand VII, one of the most stupid and cruel tyrants Spain ever endured. They were engraved some ten to fifteen years after the events. On some of the drawings one can read on the margin, Yo lo vi (I saw it). The contrast between the black and the white of the etchings exposing the brutal, nightmarish images have shaken and influenced artists ever since. As for the despicable personality of the King Fernando VII, Goya visually described him with his brush better than words could. Looking at the portrait of the royal family in the Prado museum of Madrid, one wonders how the Crown was so pleased with its image. Ignacio gave me a tour of the famous monuments in Barcelona, starting with Roman and mostly Gothic churches built in the Middle Ages at the height of Cataluña and Aragon’s cultural and commercial apogee. It ranked with Genoa and Venice as one of the leading commercial cities of the Mediterranean. In the Reales Atarazanas (the old royal shipyards) we saw the flagship commanded by Don Juan de Austria that destroyed the Turkish navy in the battle of Lepanto in 1571 where Cervantes had been injured. After the decline of Barcelona (as a result of its exclusion from trade with the New World), and the loss of autonomy after the war of Spanish Succession, the city began to prosper again in the course of the nineteenth century. It culminated with the architecture of Antoni Gaudí, Domenech Muntaner and others whose buildings gave Barcelona originality and stature. Gaudí’s La Pedrera (appropriately named The Stone Quarry for its irregular façades, rounded balconies and irregular halls and roofs) is an outstanding example of his style. Park Güell (top pictures). Closeup of mosaics in Park Güell (bottom pictures). One of Gaudí’s achievements was Park Güell, a fantasy park with buildings covered with wrought iron and mosaics fashioned from trencats (broken pieces of colored tiles) he collected wherever he found them. He also lined benches with trencats in gardens with fountains that seemed to belong to a world of myth, reminiscent of Swift. Gaudí also built in Colonia Güell a chapel with an arched roof held by leaning columns where today weddings take place. We attended the wedding of a cousin of Ignacio in the chapel. Gaudí’s vision was to create an architectural world that mirrored nature. He was very admired by the Catalans. When Gaudí died in 1926 as a result of a tram accident, hundreds of citizens turned up at his funeral procession to pay their respects. Ignacio, then 12 years old, went with his father. The Picasso Museum was one of our greatest attractions. It occupied the twin aristocracy palaces of yesteryear on Moncada Street in the neighborhood where the artist grew up and started drawing and painting. His lawyer-friend Sabartés had donated many of his early works to the city of Barcelona. We kept looking at Picasso’s imaginative and suggestive distortions of Velazquez’s “Menninas,” as if reflecting their unsettling inside rather than their stately outside. On the other hand, the portrait of his mother was fascinating to us: unlike most of his paintings, it is a realistic, sober, sad face that tells a lot about her feelings and personality. Ignacio took me to the once fortified hill of Montjuich, now a park with a museum holding the best Romanesque frescoes rescued for posterity from small churches in the Pyrenees where they were deteriorating. A robbery? Perhaps. You could say the same of the Elgin marbles—the Greek Parthenon frieze in the British Museum of London with its breathtaking sculptures of chariots and horsemen acquired by Lord Elgin, hence its name, on the authority of a grant and subsequently sold in 1816 to the British Museum where we saw them. They were, indeed, saved from destruction by weather and neglect. You could also say as much of the breathtaking Cloisters in New York City, a medieval art museum built stone by stone from European monasteries, mostly from France and Catalonia, whose broken roofs and grassy floors forecasted disappearance. Walking in the Cloisters over stairs worn down by thousands of feet, we felt as if we were walking in the Middle Ages. We visited the magnificent Hall of the Kings (El Tinell) in the palace behind the Cathedral of Barcelona where Ignacio and the son of the Archivist of the Crown of Aragón climbed as children. The secret stairs to the Tower of Kings Square was particularly moving to me. From there he took me to the magnificent Cathedral of Barcelona, mostly built in the thirteenth century, displaying its stunning colored stained glass, majestic gothic arches, the chapel of the Christ of Lepanto (again a moving reminder of the battle in Greece [1571] where Cervantes lost the use of his left hand “to the greater glory of the right one,” as most Spanish biographies keep reminding us referring to his Don Quixote). Such battle stopped the invasion of Europe by the Turks. Next, we went to the church of Santa María del Mar, a magnificent simple-lined Catalan Gothic, and to La Sagrada Familia (Temple of the Holy Family), another magnificent work of the revered Antonio Gaudí. The visitors of Barcelona enjoy such displays to this day. Ignacio spoke Catalan with Miquel and his family. In order to participate in the conversation, I had recourse to my self-taught, foolproof, almost instant language acquisition—to pick up a novel in Catalan and read it out loud. The only sine-qua-non was to pronounce correctly. That’s how I learned English—in the two weeks on my journey to England by boat when I was 15. So, I chose La Plaça del Diamant (Diamond square) by the renowned Mercé Rodareda. Two days later I participated in the conversation—Catalan being quite close to Valencian in vocabulary, and pronunciation presented no great challenge to me as a Valencia born. After two weeks in Barcelona we proceeded south to my hometown. Spanish had been imposed in Valencia in the early eighteenth century, as it had in Aragon and Catalonia, by the Bourbon dynasty. In schools and in the University of Valencia with rare exceptions, classes were conducted in Spanish. However, I heard Valencian in grocery stores run by farmers, in pharmacies, mechanic’s shops, and in the market place when I was growing up. Mallorquin, Valencian, and Catalan are in fact variations of the same language with differences in pronunciation. Now, I was the guide. I took Ignacio to the two medieval gates to the city, the Towers of Serranos, built between 1392 and 1398, in perfect condition today: and the Towers of Quarte built in 1494, showing the gaps caused by the French shelling during the War of Independence, pictorially condemned by Goya (see pp. 49-50 of this book). Towers of Serranos (left) and Towers of Quarte (right). By permission of All Valencia, (pp. 33 and 35). It is along the avenue running between the Serranos tower and the river Turia that I ran to school when I turned 11 until I was 15 because the trolley was too slow. Some of the orange trees of the many growing around the city where the Roman ramparts built in 1356 by Peter IV once stood, were still there, although the city had grown way beyond its original walled circle. We went to the Mercat central de Valencia (the Central Market of Valencia). It is a beautiful, wide building with external walls decorated with azulejos (colored tiles) above the glass and iron windows, and doors above majestic stairs as of a cathedral. Its architecture is of such grandeur, with its 1,000 stalls, that it is declared in the Encyclopaedia Britannica under Valencia as one of the largest and most spectacular in Europe. Mercat central de Valencia. By permission of All Valencia (p. 42). Right across the street we entered La Lonja de la Seda (Market of the Silk Exchange) erected in 1498 on the site of a Moorish alcazar. La Lonja, similar to the one in Perpignan, France, and in Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands) is considered “one of the best Gothic buildings in Europe,” a living monument open to the city, for which reason UNESCO declared it a “Heritage of Humanity.” In its basement were kept the folk art humorous figures or miniature buildings erected in street corners and squares during the Fallas festival. The winners of the first prize were spared from burning on the nineteenth of March, the night of St. Joseph. The figures, called ninots (Valencian for “puppets”) were preserved in the basement of La Lonja. It was very moving to recognize the three I saw on three consecutive years when I was growing up. Today the ninots have a home of their own, the Fallero Museum, open to the public. La Lonja de la Seda. By permission of All Valencia (p. 37). One Thursday we happened to stop in front of the Puerta de los Apóstoles (Door of the Apostles) of the Cathedral where a quaint and charming ritual from the eighth century—before the reconquest from the Muslims, called Moors in Spain—has been conducted since the early fourteenth century on Thursdays at 11:30 after mass by El Tribunal de las Aguas (The Tribunal of the Waters). Why on Thursdays? Among the Moslems, Friday was their day of rest and this tradition has been kept alive. Because the countryside of Valencia was and still is fertile and grows all kinds of vegetables and fruits irrigated by a single waterway (the Turia), farmers had to take turns opening the gate to their farmland for a specified number of hours. Many disputes arose. Standing among the public, we watched a reenactment of how the Tribunal of the Waters had settled a dispute: seven judges, called acequias (irrigation ditches) dressed in black robes—not as Ferrándiz painted them—sat outside the front door of the cathedral on a sofa they brought from inside, facing a low grating behind which the public and the litigants stood. The acequias wore the typical farmer espardeñes (hemp sandals) tied up their legs. The central judge pointed to one of the litigants with his hemp sandal giving the order in the Valencia language: “parle voste” (you speak), then shutting him up with a “calle voste” (you keep silent) before turning to the other litigant with his order, “parle voste.” Why address the complainers with the hemp sandal? Brought from Islam (following the laws of the Koran), it was the custom of the grandees to address those of lesser position in this way. The other acequias exchanged views, leaning toward the central judge. The latter would utter the unappealable verdict: “You are right. You are wrong.” It was accepted without a protest. As we watched this performance we felt transported to medieval times. Tribunal of the Waters with the typical footwear of the period. Oil on canvas by Bernardo Ferrándiz¹ The origin of this quaint court dates back to the early twelfth century when two educated Christian kings with Arabic names—Mubarak ("The Blessed") and Muzafar ("The Winner")—took refuge in peaceful, orderly Valencia from the persecutions of the Berbers in Cordoba. Significantly, the two first kings of Valencia had been in charge of administering the waterways since the Romans and created its court. Also significantly, the first settlers in the VIII century were Christian laborers from Syria, Lebanon and Egypt sent from Seville to Valencia by the military commander Tarik to control Christian lands. Nowadays, the Tribunal de las Aguas continues to operate but in a different manner. The judges, dressed in modern clothes and shoes, sit in chairs surrounded by a low iron fence while the litigants and the public stand in a circle a short distance away.$^5$ ![Today's Tribunal de las Aguas. By permission of All Valencia (p. 9).](image) Now that we were in Valencia, I thought I would take Ignacio to a parcel of land my parents owned on the outskirts of the city. Since the 1930s, a farmer of Moorish descent by the name of Alepuz was cultivating it for free. On occasion, he brought us eggs and vegetables. When we got to Valencia, Alepuz was making a pretty good living out of the land he considered his own. He offered to buy it and I suggested a very low price. He asked me to lower it further. I did. Then, again, to lower it further. I did. Once again he found the price too high. This time, I went back to the original price with a “take it or leave it.” He took it immediately. This was my introduction to the bargaining style of Spain inherited from the Moors. But it was not just the style of Spain. I experienced a similar way of bargaining in 1982 when we went to Egypt. Our bus stopped in front of a tourist store attraction. A vendor kept trying to get my attention and sell me a trinket. “I really don’t want it,” I told him. He kept lowering the price, once, twice, three times. I felt sorry for him, and when I said “OK,” he started upping the price until finally I said, “Thank you, no.” Again, we had similar experiences in Greece and Italy. Our next stop was Granada where we stayed at the spectacular Parador of the gardens of the Alhambra built in the eighth century by the Moors. We listened to the waters running through a net of small tile streams with their fountains and waterfalls and smelled the perfume of the exotic flowers of the gardens. The great Spanish composer Manuel de Falla lived close to these gardens, a source of inspiration, while the equally great Spanish poet Federico García Lorca lived in downtown Granada, also a source of inspiration for his greatest poems. The mountains of Sierra Nevada rising on the horizon are the source of irrigation for the large valleys of Andalucia in southern Spain. The name Andalucia derives from Alándalus designating the Islamic domain in the south of the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Alándalus, is a probable corruption of the Greek Atlántidos (Isle of Atlantis), a legacy of the Platonic myths divulged with the Greek philosophy and culture through the Mediterranean.$^6$ Granada is where the Reyes Católicos (the Catholic Kings) Isabel and Fernando are buried. Isabel was considered to be more important than her husband, so her stone pillow dips under her heavier head. Isabel was an art collector. On the walls of an adjacent room are exhibited admirable Flemish primitive paintings. We were given a copy of the decree of the eviction of the Jews in 1492 that changed the history of Spain. A number of them converted to Catholicism to remain in the country. In Córdoba we visited La Mezquita, the magnificent mosque built in the eighth century on columns and without walls so that the blue sky was visible from any direction. The mosque was built by Abd-al-Rahman I at the site of a Roman temple and a Visigothic church. In the sixteenth century numerous chapels along the sides of the vast quadrangle of the Mezquita were built encircling it, and in the interior a large Crucifer was erected in place of the old minaret. The character of the mosque was thereby altered. As mentioned earlier, there are all forms of conquests. To our surprise, our guide gave us a masterful history lesson and answered in detail all our questions. “Who are you?” we asked. “A professor of history who needs to work to make ends meet”—a result of the misery into which Spain dipped after the Spanish Civil War. On our way North to Madrid where Ignacio was invited by the Fundación Jiménez Díaz to speak about the results of his latest research on spinal curvatures in experimental animals as well as in infants and adolescents, we crossed Sierra Morena heading for La Mancha to see the cave of Montesinos where Don Quijote (Cervantes’ hero) had descended. Inside, the story goes, Don Quixote saw a crystal palace where the legendary character Durandarte was lying dead but alive on his marble tomb as his lady Belerma approached him followed by her ladies in waiting all dressed as men with Turkish turbans on their heads. Whom he really saw was not Durandarte but his maker Cervantes, a prisoner of the gay Moorish king of Algiers, his master in the 1570s, followed by a sequel of lovers, as I unraveled years later in my book on Don Quixote (1975).⁷ Our greatest interest was the Prado Museum, containing perhaps the most select collections of Renaissance painters of Spain in addition to exquisite samples of European painting. Such selectivity is due to the fact that the Spanish Crown relied on the court painters to do most of the selection. The Prado thus contains chosen paintings not only by Spanish masters—Velázquez, El Greco, Murillo, Rivera, Goya, Zurbarán—but also by the very best Italian and northern European painters—Brueghel, Bosch, Dürer, Tiepolo, Botticelli, Titian, Tintoretto, Rubens, Rembrandt and more. North of Madrid we went to El Escorial (the Dump). It is thus named because it was built on a barren granite site in the Guadarrama Mountains. Juan Bautista of Toledo (the architect) had worked in Italy. He began this Royal Pantheon in 1563. It was completely reworked in 1584 by the great Spanish architect Juan de Herrera who turned it into one of the wonders of the world. Philip II engaged numerous Italian and Spanish artists to embellish this burial site for the kings of Spain and for himself. We were entranced with the sculptures, paintings and tapestries by Goya and artists of the French and Flemish schools. Its paintings, which art books tell us rank among the finest in the world, contain masterpieces by Bosch, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, Velazquez, and Ribera among others. It also contains a unique collection of illuminated manuscripts, many in Arabic, and a collection of the only Mozarabic codices in existence. Once again, I admired Ignacio’s knowledge of what we were witnessing, because before going anywhere, he spent a day in the library learning about what we were going to see or refreshing his memory on what he knew so that he could instruct and guide me. On our way north we stopped at the caves of Altamira near Santander. At that time it was possible to enter them alone or in small groups by just purchasing an inexpensive ticket at the entrance. On the walls and ceilings, artfully illuminated with indirect lighting, one could see engravings and paintings of bison, deer, elk and boars in all kinds of postures—standing, lying, running, mooing. They belong to the climax of the realistic style at its fullest development in the middle of the Magdalenian period. Why paint underground in such inaccessible places? Could it be for religious reasons, to attract game through magic, to preserve them, simply for artistic purposes as a peaceful mare with its colt suggests, or even for all of these reasons together?⁸ We spent the night nearby in the Parador de Santillana del Mar before driving east along the northern coast to the small town of Guernica, the center of Basque nationalism, which was flattened at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War on market day by German planes to test the destructive power of their bombs when backing Franco, who chose Guernica to demonstrate what was in store for the Basques and their nationalistic stance if they did not surrender. Picasso’s canvas Guernica records the stirring emotions of horror and indignation at such a satanic deed. I was in Paris in June of 1937 when Guernica (shortly after it was painted) was first exhibited in the Spanish Pavilion of the World’s Fair. I was instantly struck by its symbolic realism: evil, pain, despair, struggle, all illuminated by an uncanny lamp above the destruction. Later, I read that the horse symbolizes innocent suffering and mortal anguish, the fallen warrior with the broken sword the cause of justice. To me the flower in his hand speaks of trying to hold on to life. The woman holding the lamp portrays her compassion as she illuminates the horror; the bull stands as a symbol of hope (but for me, the bull also stands as a symbol of strength and endurance of peninsular Spaniards). To art critics the lamp on the ceiling is another symbol of hope. After looking again and again through the years at Picasso’s Guernica, I feel the lamp seems to tell of false hope. An image of analogous import is the Goya etching mentioned earlier (“Esto es lo peor,” p. 50) about men on their knees praying for peace to the beast they actually have within. But the multidimensional meaning of Guernica is the reflection and reflexion of viewers’ experiences during the historical upheavals of their times. I was so overwhelmed by Guernica that I did not notice right away El Segador (The Reaper) nor the large Joan Miró mural in the vast hall, nor Alexander Calder’s striking mercury fountain to recall the mercury mines of Almadén in central-south Spain, the first of the mobiles he would pioneer, using liquid metal instead of water. The World’s Fair in Paris seemed to be an intellectual, architectural, artistic exhibit among the forty-four nations of Europe, and a confrontation between Germany and Russia. Their enormous pavilions, the Germans with a pair of triumphant sculptured figures and a swastika in the claws of eagles, looked down at the Russian oversized sculptures declaring its grandeur. By contrast, the Spanish pavilion, the work of the Barcelona architect Josep Lluis Sert, was largely prefabricated from basic materials to reduce as much as possible the scant resources of the Spanish republic: a flat roofed, three-story structure with walls of plywood and corrugated asbestos. But the greatness of the paintings of two Spaniards, Picasso and Miró, and the imaginative artwork of an American, Calder, continued to grow with time. Guernica had been by and large reconstructed when we were there, but its holocaust had left an indelible mark in the hearts and minds of its inhabitants. The symbol of Basque independence, an aged tree that escaped the devastation was still standing in the main square, another contradictory symbol of life and death. Ignacio and Helena on their patio Guernica illustrates a new type of warfare: destruction without confrontation, annihilation of entire cities by bombs dropped from airplanes killing thousands of citizens, as in Barcelona, the last stronghold of the Republic, as happened through the Second World War, and was repeated in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the last dramatic examples of man’s barbarism. Back in Iowa, Ignacio whole-heartedly started his clinical work, teaching, and research and I my teaching at Grinnell and research on Cervantes. Our only hiking was reduced to our steep backyard down to the Iowa River along the paths we had built and lined with bushes, flowers and trees we had planted. It was a period of avid participation in the exemplary, rich, artistic and literary life of Iowa City. Here, the first creative writing degree program in the United States was started. In 1922, Carl Seashore, the dean of the Graduate College (the one responsible for accepting Ignacio’s study credentials in place of his diploma) conceived creative writing as a thesis. But it was Wilbur Schramm who founded the program and Paul Engle, a native Iowan and brilliant professor of English at the University of Iowa, who was appointed acting director in 1941 and then director for the next twenty-four years. With his second wife, the Chinese poet Hualing Nieh, he cofounded the International Writing Program where distinguished writers (among the first were Robert Frost and Robert Penn Warren) came to lecture and discuss students’ work. One such teacher was an accomplished Chilean writer, José Donoso, who remained in the city from 1965 to 1967. That’s when we met him. Because my first field of research was Latin American writers, we became close friends and discussed literature, at times with Ignacio’s participation. Donoso asked me to read and comment on the manuscript he was then writing, El obsceno pájaro de la noche (The Obscene Bird of Night, 1970). It was a valuable analytic exercise for me as well as a suggestive, critical exercise for him. It was the manuscript of his future masterpiece. When the term was ended, since he and his wife wanted to settle in Mallorca, Ignacio directed them to find a house on the side of the stairs leading to the Calvary of Pollensa. They adopted an infant and lived there for several years before going back to Chile. Sometime later Donoso returned to Iowa City for medical checkups, and that was the last time we saw him. Another great writer teaching in the Writers’ Workshop at the same time was the American Kurt Vonnegut who was to become one of the greatest of the twentieth century. We were guests for dinner at a friend’s home where the future author of Slaughter House-Five was also a guest. He had just finished the manuscript for this well-documented historical novel (with the title “Slaughter House, Number Five”) since he was an eyewitness to the horrifying, relentless bombing of Dresden at the end of World War II. Vonnegut was taken to another room by each of two publishers trying to have him sign a contract with them and get the rights to the manuscript by upping the price. The greatest surprise recently has been to discover that the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize winner Orhan Pamuk, the admirable Turkish author of six acclaimed novels (three of which we have both read at the recommendation of our erudite friend Michael McGaha—The Black Book, My Name Is Red, and Snow) was teaching in the Iowa City Writers’ Workshop two decades ago. Professor McGaha went to Turkey to meet and write about Orhan Pamuk. He went so far as to study Turkish to truly grasp the underlying, contextual meaning behind the writer’s words. Professor McGaha is today one of the most prominent, incisive, revealing critics on a range of subjects from Cervantes, Fray Luis de Leon, and the Cabala to the symbolic meaning of the Tapestry of Creation in the Cathedral of Gerona, Spain. The Tapestry of Creation is written in Catalan, a language he also learned. Language as the way to understand and penetrate the culture, meaning and turn of mind of another race was conceived in the fifteenth century by a Spanish humanist and grammarian, Antonio de Nebrija, a professor at the Universities of Salamanca and Alcalá de Henares. He wrote the first Castilian grammar dedicated to Queen Isabel la Católica because, he said, to truly conquer the lands in the New World, its inhabitants must be conquered through language. If, linguistically, the United States has conquered the world where communication is in English, you could also say that, in turn, the world has conquered the English-speaking countries by thinking in their language. But let’s go back to Ignacio. The interdisciplinary setup at the University of Iowa in the 60s and 70s was conducive to advancing the knowledge of the pathology of skeletal growth disorders. Studies of the fracture callus on rats fed the aminonitril from sweet pea revealed a great increase in their size but not in their strength. Their collagen and bone were weak; therefore, Ignacio concluded that aminonitrils were not to be used clinically in fracture treatment or after tendon grafting in hand surgery (as was being done). Further in-depth studies of the growth and development of the hip joint in normal children and in children with congenital hip dislocation showed a process of changes occurring in the socket and in the head of the femur causing the dislocation. The long-term follow-up of reduced hips done in collaboration with doctors John Lindstrom, Denny Wenger and Yoshiaki Ischii also revealed the various speeds and degrees of recovery. In his effort to improve the results obtained with close reductions of hip dislocations, an open reduction through a medial approach was later developed with his now colleague, Dr. Stuart Weinstein. Histochemical studies in fetuses and children done by Dr. Ernesto Ippolito, who came to the University of Iowa from Rome, opened the way to advancing the knowledge of the structure of tendons, ligaments and cartilage in congenital clubfoot and other skeletal growth disorders. It was found that the abnormality in the vertebral growth plate and epiphyssial bone in juvenile kyphosis was similar to that observed in Legg-Perthes disease. Today, Professor Ippolito is a leading pediatric orthopedist in Europe. However, laboratory studies with the Pedrinis on the biochemistry of the intervertebral disk, ligaments and cartilage in the spine of patients with scoliosis did not yield any clear explanation for the development of the deformity. A new field of research was necessary, based on possible defects of the sarcomere in the vertebral muscles. No physiologists at the University were prepared to engage in such research. So, Ignacio turned to another major orthopedic disorder, the congenital clubfoot deformity, whose treatment he believed he had solved in the 1950s. During the seventies I accompanied Ignacio on a lecture tour in the States and abroad to present his latest research on the pathology and results of treatment of skeletal growth disorders. We went to Chicago; Madison, Wisconsin; San Juan de Puerto Rico; Mexico City; Munich; Madrid and Barcelona; Rome and Naples; Paris, Toulouse and Montpellier; Quebec and Sherbrooke; and in 1979 he was guest lecturer of the British Orthopedic Association in Exeter, England. When in 1981 Ignacio was asked to lecture in San José de Costarrica, I met the director of the Instituto Costarricense de Cultura Hispánica, a man who happened to have trained, like myself, at the Instituto Escuela in Spain. He asked me, sur place to give a lecture on anything I chose. I spoke extemporaneously on the distressful life of the Argentine poet Alfonsina Storni, reflected in poems I could recall thanks to my good memory those days. When in 1973 Dr. Carroll Larson retired, Dr. Reginald Cooper was made head of the Orthopaedic Department. He had come to Iowa in 1955 from West Virginia for his rotating internship and his residency in orthopedics from 1956 to 1960. After two years in the Navy, he joined the department, went for one year to Hopkins University to study the new techniques to visualize bone using transmission electron microscopy under Robert Robinson. After returning to Iowa City in 1965 he developed the electron microscope laboratory and wrote three papers now classic: (1) “Immobilization Atrophy–Regeneration of Skeletal Muscle”; (2) “Electron Microscopy, Morphology of Osteone; (3) “Electron Microscopy of Tendon and Ligament Insertions.” Dr. Cooper was made chairman without a search committee. Dean Jack Eckstein accepted the advice of the senior staff of the department that Dr. Cooper’s qualifications could not be matched. His tenure until 1999 has been a period of major departmental and institutional growth and distinction. His successor, Dr. Joey Buckwalter, an excellent researcher on the ultra structure of the proteoglycans, has taken over the chairmanship of the department. We took our vacations twice a year, in the summer to hike in the mountains of the U.S.A. and Canada, Lake Louise and Lake O’Hara, or in the Rocky Mountain National Park, the Indian Peaks in Colorado, the Cascade Mountains in Washington and Oregon. In West Virginia we followed the trails of Stonewall Jackson. Our son William and his family often joined us. On many occasions we hiked in the Rocky Mountains with Ignacio’s young, esteemed colleague Stuart Weinstein and his wife Lynn. When in Europe we hiked in the Swiss Alps, Riederalp, Mürren, and Lautenbrunen with our daughter Marta and her family. When in England we visited the Lake District, recalling Wordsworth poems, particularly the touching one about Lucy’s death, “Rolled round in earth’s diurnal course, / with rocks and stones, and trees,” concluding in another poem, “But oh the difference to me.” In the winter of 1982, after a short stay in Rome with Ernesto Ippolito to go over his current work, we went to Greece and Egypt for one month to see the wonders of two great civilizations. We spent two days in Athens visiting the museum, the Theatre of Dionysus and the great marvels in the Acropolis. We traveled through the Peloponnesus through Olympia and north to Killini, not far from where the battle of Lepanto took place in 1571 and Cervantes was wounded. Crossing the Gulf of Corinth we arrived at Itea to see Delphi and Mount Parnassus. Back in Athens, we sailed to Crete to see Knossos, the prehellenic palace of the legendary Minotaur who devoured anyone who ventured in it. Kazantzakis, the author of Zorba the Greek, who lost to Camus by one vote the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957, was from Crete. Kazantzakis is also remembered by the Greeks for his statement “I expect nothing, I fear nothing, I am free.” It is in Chania, Crete, where one of Spain’s world-known painters, Domenikos Theotokopoulos was born. Finding his Greek name difficult to remember, they referred to him by El Greco, The Greek. After studying in Italy under Titian, and absorbing the work of Tintoretto, Veronese, and Bassano, he went to Toledo, Spain, where he painted almost all his extraordinary and original works in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century. From Greece we went to Egypt to join the Lindblad tour. In Cairo the Egyptian Museum overwhelmed us as we looked at the antiquities of the Pharaonic and Greco-Roman periods, the colossal statues of Ramesses with the Asiatic Goddess Anta, the statue of King Zoser, and the sarcophagus and statues of many dynasties, gods and goddesses in the Egyptian Pantheon, a collection of scarabs of all periods, a magnificent collection of jewelry from the First dynasty to the Byzantine period, and the most spectacular treasure of Tutankhamun. From the bus along the highway we saw the long cemetery inhabited by homeless families with their children and dogs under the roofs of the tombstones built for the dead. We flew to Luxor and marveled at the supreme elegance of the Temple, mainly the work under two famous pharaohs, Amenophis III and Rameses II. Six colossal sculptures of the second pharaoh can be seen at the entrance. The superb colonnade of Amenophis III is still supporting a massive carved architrave. The large obelisk in the Place de la Concorde in Paris had been removed from the façade of the temple in 1836. About a mile and a half north we arrived at Karnack where its many beautiful temples are spectacularly illuminated in the evening. Across the Nile, the whole Valley of the Kings with its statuaries, wall paintings, and limestone relief carvings and stelas in the monumental tombs erected for their pharaohs by many generations is a magnificent sight that cannot be forgotten. The most spectacular, perhaps, is the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut at Deir El Bahri. She was the acknowledged ruler of Egypt, who assumed full regal power as visually proclaimed on her monuments by her masculine garb and aspect of a king. What impressed us the most were the striking paintings and sculptures in the temple. From Luxor we proceeded to Aswan, another striking city. A half finished laying obelisk of beautiful granite and the recently built enormous dam with a large lake that submerged the villages in the valley for many miles is a sight that cannot be forgotten. Thanks to UNESCO, the rock temples of Abu Simbel were sawed into sections and re-erected on top of the rock face from which they were originally hewn thereby saving them for posterity. Another impressive sight is that of the four colossal figures of Ramesses II carved in stone by way of a façade. Back in Luxor we took a boat down the Nile on which shores many spectacular temples and sculptures rise along the small towns on the way north to Cairo. Our last visit was to the pyramids in Giza and Saqqara before returning home via Rome and Barcelona. It was in the late seventies when we started taking our winter vacations in Mallorca to take care of my parents’ properties acquired in 1934, now in my mother’s name after my father’s death. These properties were in Cala Molins, the little beach where Ignacio and I had first seen each other from a distance so many years before. It was through Banca Catalana in Palma that we were then paying our taxes, so we went to this bank to see its president, Joan Beltrán. It was that very morning that Joan Beltrán took charge of all legal matters, invited us to his home for dinner and to go hiking on Sunday with his friends (our friends thereafter to this day). We became their guests in their summer homes, and they were instrumental in helping us sell a few years later my mother’s properties almost lost to crafty operators. One year the Beltrans took us to meet the revered Joan Miró when we told them we had a color lithograph by him in our home in Iowa City. Joan Miró was quite old then and looked it. But when I told him the title of my book, Cervantes the Writer and Painter of “Don Quijote” (1988) his eyes brightened, his face became young, and he talked at length about communicating through colors and forms more significantly than through words. It was a memorable visit. It suddenly reinforced my reading of Cervantes’ meanings behind his characters’ words and actions through their apparel, its color, and their stance. On a February day early in the 1980s, the Beltrans took us to the Círculo de Bellas Artes (Arts Circle) of Palma to listen to a lawyer who dabbled in literature. His name was José María Casasayas. His lecture was on the episode in Don Quixote I when the knight meets some goat herders, one of whom tells the story of disdainful Marcela and the death of her spiteful suitor Grisóstomo (chapters 11-14). The audience was very small. At the end of his presentation, Casasayas asked whether there were any questions. There followed an uncomfortable silence. I broke it with a question. He answered it and another silence followed. I asked a second question. He answered. Silence. A third question. This time I kept silent. As we were leaving he rushed after me and asked: “Who are you?” When I told him my name he exclaimed, “I have your book.” He referred to my first book of 1975 on Cervantes mentioned earlier. In parting he asked us to come to his pastry shop. We did so the next day. He greeted us at the door, took us up a flight of stairs and opened the entrance to a spectacular two-floor library (card catalog and all) filled with sixteenth and seventeenth century books, many of them first editions which he immediately put at my disposal. Then, he took us to his home where he had another large library and treated us to a superb dinner prepared by his wife, while he played classical music for us on his excellent auditive system. Every time we returned to Mallorca, Ignacio and Casasayas talked nonstop about music and classic art, and Casasayas and I engaged in discussions about the Spanish Golden Age and Cervantes. Meeting Casasayas was a stroke of good fortune. He was a genial and resourceful organizer, and when I told him in 1987 that it was a disgrace not to have a Cervantes society in Spain when there were several around the world, on our next journey to Palma he greeted me with a “I have got it but I need your signature.” So, I became a founding member of the Asociación de Cervantistas. Casasayas then organized conferences and lectures not only at the University of Alcalá de Henares, where Cervantes was born, but also in Italy, Greece, and as far away as Seoul in Korea just this past 2004, the year this visionary man died. Islands sometimes are unique milieus for professionals and artists to be creative. In Mallorca lived a world-renowned linguist, Fransec Moll, who wrote the best reference dictionary of the Catalan, Mallorquin and Valencian languages, variations of the same language derived from Itallianate Latin, as mentioned earlier. With some of the hikers (like Miquel Massot, a well-read lawyer), we could talk about Cervantes and other writers as about law, botany and linguistics. Miquel Sastre, a resourceful businessman, was an excellent landscape and sea grotto painter, like the husband of Ignacio’s cousin Maria, Juan Alemany, a waiter in Pollensa in the north of the island who painted spectacular landscapes and submarine life scenes when off duty. With his palette Ignacio painted rural landscapes, two of which I refused to leave behind. In another town, a first-class painter, Coll Bardolet, captured with his impressionistic palette a live Mallorquin folk dance, now hanging on our dining room wall. The Beltrans took us to Coll Bardolet’s country house adjacent to the monastery where Chopin and George Sand lived and where Chopin composed, among other studies, his famous “Prelude in D-flat major.” On some occasions, Helena’s colleague Beth Noble or her former student Bonnie Brown hiked with us in Mallorca. On other occasions Ignacio’s colleagues, Dick Caplan and his wife Ellen, George Bedel and his wife Miriel, joined us. When in Barcelona we hiked in the nearby mountains of Montserrat and Monseny, close to Barcelona, and in Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada in southern Spain. And wherever we went, Ignacio refreshed my memory on the characteristics of plants, animals and rocks I had studied in the thirties with my teacher Aranegui at the Instituto Escuela of Valencia. On every vacation in Mallorca, our friends asked Ignacio to see children or grown-ups with orthopedic or other disorders, so he became a consultant, a diagnostician and, on occasion, the doctor who treated friends and relatives or corrected their children’s clubfeet. The publication of my first book on Cervantes in 1975 was also the beginning of lasting friendships with the first three scholars who reviewed it—John Jay Allen, Michael D. McGaha from the U.S.A. and E. C. Riley from Scotland. To Allen, the first president of the Cervantes Society, and to McGaha, the first editor of Cervantes, I owe a debt of gratitude for involving me in the organization of the society and for inviting me to participate in lectures and symposia in the Modern Language Association. One September day in the fall of 1976, my Grinnell colleagues from the English Department greeted me with clippings from the Sunday London Times Literary Supplement. They were about Professor Edward C. Riley’s encomiastic review of my book. Riley called it a “long, rich and penetrating study [...] elucidating the nature of Cervantes’ art in the Quixote.” He was startled by my perception that Don Diego de Miranda, considered by Cervantine scholars the epitome of nobility, was nothing other than a fake and a rake. On the other hand, Zoraida, considered a charming Moorish girl, I convincingly revealed to be a “little schemer.” Riley concluded that I “worked it all out from textual basis” and it was “difficult to quarrel with the general tenor of [my] conclusions.” I was overwhelmed. We exchanged few letters during the quarter century we were friends and met only four times, the last one a few months before he died in 2001 at his home in Scotland. Ignacio had engagements north and south of where Professor Riley lived. So the scholar thought it would be simpler if we were his guests. Both Ignacio and I retain indelible memories of those few days. It was before going to San Francisco in 1976 for a meeting of the Modern Language Association, where we first met Michael McGaha, that Ignacio received a letter from Joan Berger, a Steindler patient from the forties who remembered his resident and requested an appointment for a checkup of her orthopedic condition. Ignacio replied that he was accompanying me to San Francisco for a meeting and could see her there for she lived nearby in Carmel Valley. It was the beginning of a close and long lasting friendship with Joan and her husband Phill to this day. Joan has supported Ignacio’s lab, and more recently she has donated substantial amounts for the treatment of needy families with clubfoot babies. On several occasions we have been her guests in Carmel Valley. The coastline is reminiscent of Mallorca. As a matter of fact a street leading to San Carlos Mission in Carmel, founded by the Franciscan Junipero Serra, born in Mallorca, is called Mallorca Street. But the importance of his work is that the missions up the California coast from San Diego (1769) to Sonoma (north of San Francisco) provide the first information about its native inhabitants. Not until the Gold Rush of 1849 did Americans go to California. In the Carmel mission we saw the wooden cot on which Junípero Serra died in 1784. I had no intention of writing any more after 1975. It seemed to me I had said everything I knew with the publication of my first book on Cervantes, but after every participation and discussion with colleagues, I kept finding one more thing that needed to be said and wrote “one last paper.” Ignacio kept calling these papers “the next to the last,” and he has been right to this day. One Cervantes scholar I am deeply indebted to, John Jay Allen, has kept being my friend despite the fact I did not always perceive in time to discuss them the basic revelations he made in superb works he kept sending me all along. Such is the mark of a great man. I grasped too late their relevance to what I was writing. The same is true of Professor Elias Rivers, one of the giants of Cervantine scholarship. And recently it is also true of José Montero Reguera, a Spaniard whose work I often acknowledged after the fact. As a true gentleman he has not held this against me. Today, he is one of my closest friends whom I finally met in Barcelona in April of 2005. Professor Montero is the outstanding Cervantes scholar who has continued the work of José María Casasayas as president of the “Asociación de Cervantistas” of Spain. Looking back upon my life I feel I was extremely fortunate to have known and learned from the best minds Providence placed in my way, starting with my father and, thereafter, my professors, colleagues and scholars met at various congresses and symposia. One of them, not mentioned earlier, was Luis Monguíó, an outstanding Latin-Americanist professor at Berkley, whom I met several times at congresses of the Modern Language Association, and then with Ignacio with whom he had a lot in common, for both of them grew up in Cataluña a few miles apart on the same coast. Professor Monguíó had a gift for presenting orally and in writing a range of subjects from Spanish America’s twentieth-century poets to Spanish literature from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries, in a style combining thorough documentation with critical judgment. Equally outstanding is his wife, Alicia de Colombí, perhaps the foremost scholar of our times in the field of Golden Age Poetry and Colonial Poetry of Latin America. Above all, I feel fortunate to have met Ignacio, whose knowledge and interests range far beyond his professional scientific work: he keeps on reaching when most begin to let go. There is a great omission in the recount of my blessings: my mother. My great debt to her is of a strange nature. Her secretive, duplicitous personality dotted with evasive but suggestive half-truths and confidences of real or invented events, the sequence of which was baffling to me since childhood. Trying incessantly to penetrate her mysteries sharpened my wits and analytical perception. I first became aware of this gift in graduate school as I sensed the hidden emotions and significance of the words prompting them. And then, throughout my life, I keep discovering that my first impression of people just met is a window into their nature and personality gleaned from their words and manner, as time keeps proving. A student of mine at Grinnell College and today one of our closest friends, Bonnie Brown, corroborated the impact of the revelatory nature the study of poetry had in her life. Her brilliant published thesis in graduate school under my former colleague Andrew Debicki, to whom we recommended her, was on José Hierro, a poet she went to Spain to meet and was to receive the prize “Cervantes” in Cervantes’ birthplace of Alcalá de Henares from King Juan Carlos. After a 10-year long career as a professor of Spanish literature at the university level, Bonnie started and developed an extremely successful business she called “Transition Dynamics” to advise lawyers and bankers dealing with matters of inheritance on how to help their clients in moments of dire distress. She told Ignacio and me she developed the ability to sense her clients’ wishes behind their words from her analysis of poetry in our poetry classes at Grinnell, thereby finding the appropriate language to express her client’s wishes without conflict or offense. Today she is constantly in demand for lectures and advice from the U.S.A. to Latin America, Asia and Europe, including Spain where chauvinism still existed a few years back when she was there: a conquest. In 1983, an International Symposium in the University of Iowa to honor Ignacio before his mandatory retirement at age 70 (1984) brought to the campus more than a hundred friends and alumnae. Professor JIP James from Edinburgh, Anthony Catteral from London, Ruth Wynne-Davis from Oxford, Henry Mankin from Boston, and Alf Nachemson from Göteborg lectured on this occasion. The Ignacio V. Ponseti Professorship was established to recognize an outstanding researcher of the Orthopaedic Department. Also in 1984 the University of Barcelona named him Doctor Honoris Causa, a moving ceremony because it came from the University where Ignacio was formed. He turned to drawing and to studying art history and took classes on European Renaissance, classic art, and modern American expressionism. While learning more about the great art through the centuries, he continued to work in his biochemistry laboratory and went back to further study of elastin in the spinal ligaments with a new technique described in 1985 aimed at finding possible anomalies in idiopathic scoliosis. He had the good fortune to work in conjunction with Michael Solursh, an outstanding scientist in the Biochemistry, Department at the University. A resident, Nancy Hadley, knowledgeable in biochemistry started her studies of elastin in intervertebral ligaments of patients with scoliosis. No significant differences were found in the elastin of scoliotics compared to normals. As mentioned earlier, severe clubfoot patients initially treated by Ignacio from 1948 to 1956 were recalled for a clinical and radiographic examination with the assistance of a graduate student, Eugene Smoley. The results were published in the Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery in 1963. A complete correction of the deformity had been obtained on these patients, but relapses occurred mostly when the foot abduction orthosis was discarded prematurely. Permanent correction was obtained in these cases by a simple transfer of the anterior tibial tendon from the inner side of the foot to the middle of the foot. This first recall proved the soundness of the mechanical and biological principles guiding his treatment. The medical profession ignored the good results. Ignacio did not push his method at this point because he thought he needed a long term followup to be certain of the positive results. Sometime later, Ignacio happened upon a doctoral thesis written in Dutch in 1961 by a bioengineer from Leiden (Anthony Huson) entitled “An Anatomical and Functional Study of the Tarsus.” In the English summary at the end, Ignacio was thrilled to discover that Husson’s description of the motions of the foot joints coincided with his own. Still years later, Ignacio found that in 1872 Dr. Farabeuf had described the foot motions in the same way. Now, he was certain his clubfoot treatment was the correct one since his treatment was based on the functional anatomy of the foot not on the erroneous anatomical description that had been perpetuated in textbooks and scientific journals. Studies conducted with Ernesto Ippolito, who came a second time from Italy with an excellent collection of histological sections of clubfeet in the human fetus, showed extensive fibrosis between the tendons and the very thick ligaments on the posterior and medial aspects of the foot causing the foot to turn in and up. The muscles were atrophic and the bones, made mostly of cartilage, were misshapen. These findings were published in the Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery in 1980. That same year, Dr. Sterling Laaveg’s follow-up review of the patients Ignacio had treated in the fifties and sixties showed continued good results. Ultrasound showed that the deformity develops in the second trimester of pregnancy when the fetus begins to kick. They also observed that the ligaments of the clubfeet of stillborn babies were stretchable, facilitating the correction of the deformity. In the early nineties Dr. Stuart Weinstein asked Ignacio, now in his late seventies, to return to the department to show how to correct clubfeet properly. In 1995, a thirty-year followup by Drs. Douglas Cooper and Frederick Dietz of the patients treated by Ignacio in the fifties and sixties revealed that the corrected clubfeet showed no significant differences in their functional performance compared to a population of similar age born with normal feet. Ignacio was now totally convinced that he had found the right and only way to correct the deformity. While walking toward his office in the hospital one day, he expressed to me his frustration. It was proven that clubfeet could be corrected without operating; he had written and given lectures on the subject for years, and nobody was interested in learning how to do it or even consulting him about it. I told him that there is a tendency to consider the last article on any subject to be the last word regardless of whether it is good, mediocre, or plain bad, that he needed to write a book to explain why it was crucial to understand the biomechanics and the biology of the clubfoot deformity to properly correct it without cutting ligaments and opening joints, which lead to stiffness and pain after the growth spurt if not before—a prescription for a miserable life forever. He finally agreed that a book had to be written. I learned to use the computer to type it under Ignacio’s dictation. I was past 70 at the time. To be able to type what he dictated to me I had to understand the precise meaning. Ignacio had to explain everything in crystal-clear terms for me so I could find the precise language to produce a crystal-clear manuscript. It was completed in 1995. No publishing house was interested. Editing houses were putting out too many books on clubfoot surgery with the variety of operations and variations orthopedic surgeons were performing in a never-ending attempt to improve surgical intervention or find the right one. No more manuscripts on the subject were welcome. Drs. Stuart Weinstein and Jody Buckwalter intervened. Both had trained under Ignacio, were now his colleagues, and enjoyed great prestige worldwide as leaders in the field. Jody Buckwalter was just back from a sabbatical in Oxford. Both decided to recommend Ignacio’s manuscript to Oxford University Press. It was instantly accepted for publication and Congenital Clubfoot: Fundamentals of Treatment came to light in 1996. It was reprinted in 2000 and a third printing, an exact reproduction of the book by permission of Oxford University Press came to light from the University of Iowa Printing Department in 2004. A year after Ignacio’s book came out in 1996, some prominent orthopedic surgeons from the States were the first to follow and promote his long-time found solution to the correction of the deformity. John Herzenberg, from Baltimore, read Ignacio’s book three times and sent a long letter to his mentors and leading experts on clubfoot treatment explaining that he had used Ignacio’s technique in about a dozen patients with excellent results. Dr. Wally Lehman, a professor of orthopedic surgery at New York University, and a few other surgeons came to Iowa City to see how Ignacio corrected clubfeet in order to follow his method. Dr. Herzenberg even reprimanded Ignacio for not pushing his effective, inexpensive corrective technique from the very beginning. The reason he didn’t, Ignacio explained, was that before promoting it, he had to be certain that the corrected clubfeet would be functional and painless for life. A colleague of Ignacio, Dr. Charles Saltzman, a clairvoyant and resourceful foot and ankle surgeon, urged him to describe his treatment on the internet, which he did. At this point an interesting development took place. Mr. Martin Egbert, a developer from Las Vegas, had a sixth child with clubfeet. He read the abundant literature on the numerous operations devised to redress clubfeet and was horrified. Mr. Egbert contacted Dr. John Herzenberg in Baltimore who told him to contact Ignacio, who was the one who devised the method he used, and was so much closer to him. Mr. Egbert decided to contact Ignacio. His son was now 3 months old. He asked many questions, and called three times. Finally, Ignacio said to him, “Stop shopping around and let me redress your baby’s feet.” After five manipulations followed by plaster cast applications, the clubfeet were corrected. On their way home, Martin Egbert and his wife Alison together with other parents created the support group that turned around the treatment of clubfeet in the States. And what could not be established for half a century of successful corrective treatment was established in four to five years by Ignacio’s little patients’ parents through a support group on the internet. Martin Egbert has gone out of his way to map the number of clubfoot incidence around the world, has attended pediatric orthopedic meetings in the States and abroad and has been asked to share his statistical knowledge at such meetings. The most active parents in the States alerted other parents not to let their babies be operated on and even advised them about which doctors followed Ignacio’s safe way to achieve correction and normal development for life. The first ones were Jennifer Trevillian, Teresa McLaughlin, Dessi Pickett, and Teresa Audilet. The same thing happened abroad: Matteo Procacci in Italy, Karen Moss in South Africa, Jolanta Kavaliauskiene in Lithuania, Julia Gafsi in Germany, Paula Viegas in Portugal, and so many more who were instrumental in stopping operations on clubfeet in their countries. It was difficult for doctors to understand the biomechanics of the tarsal joints basic for the correction of the deformity. The tarsal bones are in the extreme position of equinus, varus and adduction, that is they are turned down, over and in. Such extreme positions are reversible because the tight ligaments are stretchable. To illustrate how to bring the bones back to their normal positions a model was necessary. Ignacio had recourse to a gifted craftsman, John Mitchell, who made plastic skeletons for teaching instructors. We went several weeks to his shop in Nichols, 25 miles southeast of Iowa City. I took my work with me while Ignacio and John devised a clubfoot model. After several alterations in the shape of the plastic bones and elastic strings by way of ligaments, a clubfoot model was built to clearly show the proper corrective manipulations. The clubfoot model became a most useful tool to teach doctors and doctor assistants how to redress clubfeet. In addition, Ignacio asked John Mitchell to make several small, soft, plastic feet in the several stages of correction also for teaching purposes. The commercial shoes used in foot abduction braces to prevent relapses after correction, made of poorly molded hard leather, caused blisters and sores on babies’ feet. John further devised soft plastic sole shoes with leather straps that were very comfortable to babies. Thanks to the guidance of John Spitzer, a professor of finance for entrepreneurs at the University of Iowa School of Business, who happened to have been Ignacio’s patient for knee surgery in 1960, John Mitchell today owns a small factory that distributes shoes, abduction braces, and clubfoot models all over the world. But let’s go back to the 1990s. When in 1997 Ignacio was asked to lecture in San Joan de Deu, the main children’s hospital in Barcelona, a newly appointed assistant, Anna Ey, brought him a clubfoot infant who had been abandoned at the hospital door. Ignacio showed her how to correct the deformity. She understood it immediately and became the first expert in Spain to correct clubfeet and teach other women doctors how to do it. When Ignacio gave a course at the University of California in San Francisco, Dr. Michael Colburn, a podiatrist, learned the technique and introduced it throughout California. After a visit to Lyon a few years later, Professor Jacques Bérard and his staff learned it and introduced it in France. A few years later, in 2001, Dr. Lehman asked Ignacio to come to the Hospital for Joint Diseases in New York City to demonstrate his technique and receive the honor of having the clubfoot clinic named after him. Shortly afterwards, the clubfoot clinic in the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics was also named after him. Today, Ignacio has patients from five continents and visits from international doctors who wish to learn the technique and become teachers of other doctors in their countries and adjacent ones. Scores of orthopedic surgeons from the States and abroad come to Iowa City almost every week for that purpose. Among the first to arrive in this order were Naomi Davies from England, Rachel Short from Scotland, Sari Salminen from Finland, Cristina Alves from Portugal, Katrin Scheling and Oliver Eberhart from Germany, Christof Radler from Austria, Rafael Velasco and Erika Lamprecht from Switzerland, Bertil Romanus from Sweden, Monica Nogueira and Laura Alves Ferreira from Brazil, Dalia Sepulveda from Chile, Amidar Cagurla and Mario Shimchake from Uruguay, Minud Chandhary from India, David Davidson from Philadelphia, Morrisy from Atlanta, Kevin Walker from Minneapolis, Enrico Stazone from New Mexico and many more. In turn, they instructed others on how to do it. Dr. Haemish Crawford, now in New Zealand, was one of Ignacio’s first students to learn his technique and instruct others. It is impressive to witness how quickly mothers sense from the very first manipulation and plaster cast application to their baby’s feet that the deformity is on its way to correction. They are further overwhelmed by the gentleness and delicate touch that relaxes their babies during manipulation so most don’t cry and others barely unless they are ill tempered. To further soothe the babies they are played Mozart’s music, very effective during manipulation; some even fall asleep. A very kind, very bright, knowledgeable, and effective secretary, Joyce Roller, who came back after retirement just like Ignacio did, is the first to be in touch with parents and answer their questions; and a superb, knowledgeable and dedicated nurse, Maria Paulson, who puts babies and parents at ease, have been Ignacio’s invaluable team for his success. The little patients come with their families and stay at the recently enlarged Ronald McDonald House to accommodate ever more families with children suffering from a number of difficult disorders and diseases that require expert treatment. Invaluable to both Ignacio and me has been Nancy Love, Dr. Stuart Weinstein’s secretary who, more accurately, is de facto everybody’s who needs her. Last but not least Paul Etre, a sensitive and clairvoyant administrator of the Department of Orthopaedics, finds solutions to all problems and runs it like a clock. Personally, I am thankful to Jennifer Whitmore and Kyle Askling who have come to my rescue whenever I came to an impasse with my sophisticated computer. Equally invaluable to Ignacio is the assistance of Dr. José Morcuende in the clinic. He came from Madrid, Spain, a few years ago to study and do research on cartilage chemistry and genetics. He spent two years in Florida and returned to join the orthopedic faculty at the University of Iowa in Iowa City. His unending energy to work and travel to many countries in the world to show hands on Ignacio’s clubfoot correction technique is admirable. In the last five years he has traveled to Europe—Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, Russia, Finland, Switzerland; to Latin America—Nicaragua, Columbia, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Uruguay, Argentina, Mexico, Chile, Paraguay; to Asia—Japan, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Turkey, China, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia; and to some of these countries more than once. Dr. Frederick Dietz has taught courses in Manchester, England in Dr. Naomi Davies clinic, and has also traveled to Southeast Asia to teach the method. The first country to adopt Ignacio’s protocol was Uganda, in Africa. Here clubfeet are very common. Untreated children are so crippled that they walk on the sides of their feet or on their knees, are outcasts and reduced to beg for survival. Two generous and self-giving doctors who have read Ignacio’s book, Norgrove Penny and Shaphique Pirani spent time in Uganda (Penny, 6 years; Pirani, a month every year) to turn around life for children born with such a devastating deformity. Since there were only two surgeons in the country, Drs. Penny and Pirani organized the early treatment of the deformity by most successfully training some fifty medical assistants around the country to do the manipulation and correction of clubfeet according to Ignacio’s protocol. Today, with the backing of the health authorities, Uganda experts are teaching doctors in neighboring African countries to treat their infant patients. A Dutch physical therapist, Michel Steembeek, living in Uganda, was a pioneer in making inexpensive soft leather shoes attached to an effective orthosis to maintain the clubfoot correction full time for the first months and thereafter whenever the baby sleeps so as to prevent relapses. He organized 20 clubfoot clinics in the most populated areas of Uganda and supervised the orthopedic officers treating babies. His orthosis is being used now all over East Africa. Dr. Lynn Staheli, the editor and publisher of Global HELP, has organized and published a 30-page pamphlet illustrating the Ponseti method, and several doctors, experts on the method, have contributed chapters to show how effective it can be all around the world. The pamphlet keeps being translated into more and more languages and is distributed at little or no cost. Follow-up studies in orthopedic centers in the United States and abroad keep proving that Ignacio’s management of the clubfoot deformity is best for all countries and cultures. Even so, many orthopedic surgeons continue to do unnecessary and damaging surgery on infants. Since they do no long-term follow-ups beyond adolescence, they are unaware of the irreparable damage they cause, as shown by Dr. Matt Dobbs’ recent 30-year review of operated cases. Many surgeons conditioned by the prolonged indoctrination of traditional classroom, clinic and textbook knowledge continue to perform invasive surgery and to damage feet irreversibly. In 2006 under the leadership of the visionary John Buchanan, professor emeritus of the Tippie College of Business at the University of Iowa, the Ponseti International Association for the Advancement of Clubfoot Treatment has been established. Its mission is to promote worldwide broad-based training programs in the use of the clubfoot method of corrective treatment. This foundation will be sponsoring seminars and tutorials in Iowa City and other centers in the United States, Europe, Latin America, Africa, India, China, Japan, and the Pacific islands. It will provide trained specialists in the main hospitals throughout the world and in areas adjacent to Ronald McDonald Houses to eradicate congenital clubfoot, the most common musculoskeletal birth defect in the world. Recently, major business leaders Bridget and Roger Berman, whose six-year-old son Reese’s clubfeet were successfully corrected following Ignacio’s method by Dr. Joshua Hyman in Children’s Hospital in New York City, have come to Iowa City to meet Ignacio’s team and have pledged to help bring funding to provide awareness, training and tools to support his method around the world. In August 2006 the American Academy of Pediatrics endorsed the Ponseti Method as the “most successful non-invasive, and cost-effective” clubfoot treatment and urged its use worldwide. The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons has also endorsed the method. Since, when properly learned, it can be administered by health care providers such as nurses, midwives, and physical therapists at very little cost, it is a most effective treatment for underdeveloped areas where there are few or no doctors. In his so-called retirement, Ignacio is most fortunate to be surrounded by his internationally known former students—today his close colleagues and friends—Drs. Reginald Cooper, Stuart Weinstein, Jody Buckwalter, John Callahan, all of whom left in the past for extended periods of time to work and do research at other universities and came back to be leaders in the Orthopaedics Department of the University of Iowa, preside over the American Orthopedic Association, the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons, or the American Orthopedic Research Society. Dr. Richard Johnston, a former gifted colleague and a brilliant total joint replacement surgeon—back in Iowa City after retirement—has developed a computerized system to study the long-term results of the many orthopedic treatments thereby widening the scope of teaching and research in this and other university departments. Dr. Reginald Cooper, the former visionary and effective department chair, is actively collaborating with Professor John Buchanan, the mastermind of the establishment of the Ponseti International Association for the Advancement of Clubfoot Treatment that is presided over by Dr. José Morcuende. Following the Iowa tradition of providing health care to all, the chief executive officer of the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Donna Katen-Bahensky, is supporting the Clubfoot Clinic of the Department of Orthopaedics to treat clubfoot babies from all over the world. The departure from Iowa City of our good friends and former colleagues of Ignacio—Dick Brand, now editor of Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research in Philadelphia, Stan James, a leader in the treatment of sport’s injuries to the knee with whom we have hiked on several occasions; Dave Murray, now a retired professor of orthopedics from Syracuse; Dennis Collis, a prominent hip and knee surgeon; and Sinesio Misol, a first-rate anatomist retired in Des Moines, who made an excellent dissection of a stillborn clubfoot—are always present in our minds. Today, Ignacio’s constant focus is on the clubfoot deformity, its origin and cause. Why does it develop in the middle of pregnancy when the fetus begins to kick? Recently, it has been found that a mutation in the fetal myosin chain genes causes severe congenital contractures (distal arthrogryposis) in hands and feet. Ignacio suspects that a defect in the fetal myosin in the leg and foot muscles could be the cause of muscle contractures and fibrosis, thereby producing clubfoot. It has been found recently that the defective fetal myosin decreases after birth and is replaced by normal adult myosin. This explains why the clubfoot, when properly corrected and held corrected three to four years until adult myosin takes over, develops normally through life. As for the spine Ignacio suspects that scoliosis may be caused by a localized defect in the complex spinal musculature activated by the hormone surge in puberty, occurring simultaneously with the increased rate of trunk growth. Muscle physiologists and geneticists are the ones who can find whether he is right. Ignacio’s success as a surgeon throughout his career, and as a magician redressing clubfeet to perfection, is due to his immense respect for nature, and his great love of art. Invoking the great Roman poet Horace’s (8-65 B.C) marriage of art and nature, by bringing up his name, Cervantes put it this way in 1615: “Art does not surpass nature but perfects it.”\textsuperscript{10} The higher reason for Ignacio’s success is his thorough knowledge of anatomy, of the biology of muscles, ligaments, cartilage and bones, of the complex motions of bones in the normal as well as in the clubfoot, and his exemplary discernment that enables him to guide back, gently but firmly, the displaced bones to their proper positions. 1. Ciutadella is the Minorca pronunciation of the sixteenth-century English “citadella,” citadel. This island founded by the Carthaginians, conquered in turn by the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantines in the sixth century, the Turks in the thirteenth century, the Catalans in the sixteenth century, then again the Turks, was ceded to England during the War of Succession in the eighteenth century, then to France, then back to England, and in the nineteenth century it was returned to Spain. While I was in England, I learned a song about the departure of the English sailors from the island. It goes this way: Farewell and adieu To you Spanish ladies Farewell and adieu To you ladies of Spain For we’ve received orders To sail for old England But we promise, fair ladies, We’ll be back again. 2. Margalida is the Catalan-Balearic Island pronunciation of Margarita in Spanish and Margaret in English. 3. A fascinating recount of the linguistic turns and legends in the shaping and reshaping of the languages in Spain is offered by Ralph A. Gieseay in his book If Not, Not. The Oath of the Aragonese and the Legendary Laws of Sobrarbe (Princeton, Princeton University Press, New Jersey), 1968. 4. Illustration from Carmen Gracia, El Tribunal de las Aguas, Ferrandiz ante la Modernidad. Institucio Alfons el Magnanim. InstitutioValenciana d’estudis I investigacio, Valencia, 1986, p. 54. I am indebted to Juan Gil Guardiola, a dear high school friend of mine from the Instituto Escuela de Valencia (1932-36) for this revealing, historical account of the origin of the tribunal. A heartrending story of the vendetta arising between two farmers is found in the Valencia writer Vicente Blasco Ibanez’s powerful novel La barraca (The Barrack) (1898). He is a passionate, crude realist with a gift to arouse emotion in his readers. A good edition with introduction, notes and vocabulary is that of Paul T. Manchester of Vanderbilt University (New York, Macmillan Co., 1933). La barraca is by far the author’s best work although he is known and celebrated abroad for his novel The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypses (translated in 1920) about the First World War, followed by the Fifth Horse of the Apocalypse (1928) exalting the lasting peace that would follow the accord of The League of Nations, that, as we now know too well, remains an unfulfilled dream. 5. By permission of All Valencia, Editorial Fisa Escudo de Oro S.A., Serranos and Cuarte towers, pp. 33 and 34; Interior of the Central Market, p. 42; Today’s Tribunal of the Waters, in front of the Gothic-style Door of the Apostles dating back to the fourteenth century, p. 9. Again, I owe All Valencia to Juan Gil Guardiola. 6. Diccionario de arabismos y voces afines en iberorromance by Federico Corriente, Editorial Gredos, Madrid, 1999, pp. 214-15. 7. My Cervantes y su concepto del arte. Estudio crítico de algunos aspectos y episodios del ‘Quijote’ (Madrid, Editorial Gredos, 1975), chapter 8, pp. 448-583. 8. Historia de España, Archivo de la Corona de Aragón, Editions Ariel, Barcelona, vol. 6, p. 323. 9. Animals in the cave, postcard given to us at the time of our visit to Altamira. 10. Any edition of Don Quixote, Part II (1615) toward the end of chapter 16. Cervantes’ reference is to Horace’s Satires, most frequently called his Ars Poetica. Could Cervantes have in mind these verses, vv.408ff? ‘Tis long disputed, whether poets claim From art or nature their best right to fame; But art, if not enriched by nature’s vain, And a rude genius, of uncultured strain, Are useless both, but when in friendship joined A mutual succor in each other find. (Horace trans. By Francis) Reference: My private encyclopedia, a foremost golden-age scholar, my friend Alicia de Colombi-Monguió. Ignacio’s Publications and Awards Papers Published 1. General Principles in the Treatment of Wounds and Fractures in the Spanish War. The Military Surgeon, Vol. 91:39, July 1942, (with Dr. J. Puig Gurí). 2. Treatment of War Wounds and Fractures. Northwest Medicine, 42:73, March, 1943 (with Dr. J. Puig Gurí). 3. Causes of Failure in the Treatment of Congenital Dislocation of the Hip. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 26:775, October, 1944. 4. Pathomechanics of the Hip After the Shelf Operation. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 28:229, April, 1946. 5. Osteoid Osteoma. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 29:767, July, 1947 (with Dr. Chester K. Barta). 6. Evolution and Treatment of Giant Cell Tumors. Boletines de la Sociedad Argentina de Cirugia Ortopedica, 22:169, August, 1947. 7. Evaluation of Treatment of Slipping of the Capital Femoral Epiphysis. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 86:87, January, 1948 (with Dr. Chester K. Barta). 8. Evolution and Treatment of Tuberculosis of the Hip. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 87:257, September 1948. 9. Bone Lesions in Eosinophilic Granuloma, Hand-Schuller-Christian Disease and Letterer-Siwe Disease. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 30A:811-833, October, 1948. 10. Treatment of Congenital Dislocation of the Hip in the Young Child. Anales de Cirugia, Argentina, XIII, December, 1948. 11. Evolution of Metaphyseal Fibrous Defects. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 31A:582-585, July, 1949 (with Barry Friedman, M.D.). 12. Prognosis in Idiopathic Scoliosis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 32A, No. 2:381-395, April, 1950 (with Barry Friedman, M.D.). 13. Changes in the Scoliotic Spine After Fusion. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 32A:751-766, October, 1950 (with Barry Friedman, M.D.). 14. Early Diagnosis of Congenital Dislocation of the Hip. Journal of Iowa State Medical Society, November, 1950. 15. Diagnostico Precoz de la Dislocacion Congenita de Cadera. El Medico, 1952. 16. Scoliosis and Dissecting Aneurysm of the Aorta in Rats Fed with Lathyrus Odoratus Seeds. American Journal of Pathology, XXVIII, No. 6:1059-1077, 1952. 17. Congenital Dislocation of the Hip in the Infant. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Instructional Course Lectures, Vol. X, 1953. 18. Estudios Sobre La Escoliosis Idiopatica. Acta Ortopedica-Traumatologica Iberica, Vol. II-FASC 1, Madrid, January, 1954. 19. Lesions of the Mesodermal Tissues in Rats Fed Lathyrus Odoratus Seeds. Federation Proceedings, 13:473, March, 1954 (with R. Shepard, M.S.). 20. Lesions of the Skeleton and Other Mesodermal Tissues in Rats Fed Sweet Pea (Lathyrus Odoratus Seeds). Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 36A:1031-1058, October, 1954 (with R. Shepard, M.S.). 21. Epiphyseal Plate Lesions, Degenerative Arthritis and Dissecting Aneurysms of the Aorta Produced by Aminonitriles. Science, 121, 3133:63-65, January, 1955 (with S. Wawzonek, R. Shepard and L. G. Wiedenmann). 22. Teratological Development in Xenopus Larva Caused by Sweet Pea (Lathyrus Odoratus) Seeds and Their Extracts. Anatomical Record, December 1954, (with C. Y. Chang and E. Witschi). 23. Dissecting Aneurysm Produced by Diet. Circulation, 12:2, August, 1955 (with W. Bean, M.D.). 24. Metabolic Studies of Children with Idiopathic Scoliosis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 37A, 5:1028-1034, October, 1955 (with C. Stearns, J. Yun Tung Chen, J. McKinley). 25. Teratogenic Effects of Lathyrus Odoratus Seeds on Development and Regeneration of Vertebrate Limbs. Proceedings of Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 1955 (with C. Y. Chang and E. Witschi). 26. Pathology of Slipping of Upper Femoral Epiphysis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, January, 1956 (with R. McClintock). 27. Further Studies in Lathyrism in the Rat. The Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 92:366-369, June, 1956 (with S. Wawzonek, R.S. Shepart, T.C. Evans and G. Stearns). 28. Legg Perthes Disease. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 38A, 4:739-750, July 1956. 29. Distribution of C14-Labeled Aminocetonitrile in Tissues of Rat, Metabolism and Mode of Elimination. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 93:515-519, 1957 (with R.E. Winnick, T. Winnick, and S. Wawzonek). 30. Skeletal Lesions Produced by Aminonitriles. Clinical Orthopaedics, No. 9, 1957. 31. Prevention of Aminonitrile Lesions in Rats with L-Triiodothyronine. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 96:14-17, 1957. 32. Suppression of Aminonitrile Lesions in Rats with Triiodothyronine. Septieme Congres de la Societe Internationale de Chirurgie Ortho-pedique et de Traumatologie - Barcelona, pp. 599-604, Sept., 1957. 33. Fracture Healing in Rats Treated with Aminocetonitrile. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 40A, October, 1958 (with F. Aleu, M.D.). 34. Studies on the Nature of Skeletal Lesions Produced by Aminonitriles. Bulletin of Hospital for Joint Diseases, XX #1, April, 1959. 35. Studies of the Suppression of Aminonitrile Lesions in Rats by Thyroxine Analogues. Endocrinology, 64:795-806, May, 1959. 36. Results of Treatment of Congenital Dislocation of the Hip. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 41A:823-846, July, 1959 (with E. Frigerio). 37. Decrease in Hexosamine Content of Epiphyseal Plates in Experimental Lathyrism. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 1958 (with C. Castellani and C. Castellani-Bibi). 38. Experimental Scoliosis. Bulletin of the Hospital for Joint Disease, Vol. XIX, No. 2, October, 1958. 39. Studies on the Nature of Skeletal Lesions Produced by Aminonitriles. Bulletin of the Hospital for Joint Diseases, April, 1959. 40. Lesiones Esqueléticas Producidas Por Aminonitrilos. Ortopedia y Traumatología Latino-Americana, Vol. IV, November, 1959. 41. Ocular Findings in Morquio-Ullrich’s Disease. Archives of Ophthalmology, 64:585-591, October, 1960 (with G.K. VonNoorden, H. Zellweger) 42. Chamber Angle Anomalies in Systemic Connective Tissue Disorders. Archives of Ophthalmology, 64:671-680, November, 1960 (with H. Burian, G.K. VonNoorden). 43. Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease: Pathogenesis and Evolution. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 45A:261-274, March, 1961 (with Ralph Cotton, M.D.). 44. Diagnosis and Treatment of Congenital Dislocation of the Hip in the Infant. Lancet, 81, No. 7, July, 1961. 45. Morquio-Ullrich's Disease. Journal of Pediatrics, 59:549-561, October 1961 (with H. Zellweger, V. Pedrini, F. Stamler, G. VonNoorden). 46. Patogeneze A. Etiologie Idiopaticke Skoliosy. Acta Chirurgiae Orthopaedicae et Traumatologicae Cechoslovaca, XXXIX:1-95, January, 1962. 47. Extractable Collagen in the Fracture Callus of Normal and Aminoace-tonitrile Treated Rats. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 109:509-510, 1962 (with Lorenzo Bolognani). 48. Ca45 Uptake in Fracture Callus of Normal and Aminoacetonitrile Treated Rats. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 109:933-935, 1962 (with Lorenzo Bolognani). 49. Congenital Clubfoot: The Results of Treatment. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 45A, No. 2:261-275, March, 1963 (with Eugene N. Smoley, M.D.). 50. Vitamin-D Resistant Rickets. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 46A No. 5, July 1964 (with Jorge Tapia, Genevieve Stearns). 51. Fascia Lata Transfer to the Erector Spinae for the Treatment of Flexion-Abduction Contractures of the Hip in Patients with Polio-myelitis and Meningomyelocele - Evaluation of Results. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 46A, No. 7:1389-1405, October, 1964 (with Howard Hogshead, M.D.). 52. Acid Mucopolysaccharides in the Skin of Lathyritic Rats. (Supported by NIH Grant - Introduced by I.V. Ponseti), Proc. Soc. for Exp. Biology and Medicine, V118, 270-273, 1965. 53. Mucopolysaccharide Defect in Experimental Lathyrism. (Supported by NIH Grant - Introduced by I.V. Ponseti), Proc. Soc. for Experimental Biology and Medicine, V119, 322-325, 1965. 54. Congenital Metatarsus Adductus: The Results of Treatment. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 48A, No. 4, 702-711, June, 1966 (with J.R. Becker, M.D.). 55. Non-Surgical Treatment of Congenital Dislocation of the Hip, Instructional Course Lecture, Amer. Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 48A, No. 7, 1392-1403, Oct. 1966. 56. Multiple Epiphyseal Dysplasia in Two Siblings. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 49A:1661, 1967 (with D.D. Hunt, A. Pedrinin-Mille, and V. Pedrini). 57. Chemical Studies on the Ground Substance of Human Epiphyseal Plate Cartilage. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 49A:1628, 1967 (with A. Pedrinin-Mille, V. Pedrini, and D.D. Hunt). 58. Histological and Chemical Analysis of Human Iliac Crest Cartilage. Calcified Tissue Research, 2:197-213, 1968 (with A. Pedrinin-Mille, and V. Pedrini). 59. The Pathogenesis of Adolescent Scoliosis. Proceedings of a Second Symposium on Scoliosis. E & S Livingstone, Edinburgh & London, 1968. 60. The Pathogenesis of Adolescent Scoliosis. ACS Meeting Munich, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1969. 61. Long-Term Follow-Up of Patients with Idiopathic Scoliosis Not Treated Surgically. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 51A, 3:425-455, April, 1969 (with Dennis K. Colllis, M.D.). 62. Treatment of Congenital Hip Subluxation. Societe Internationale de Chirurgie Orthopedique ed de Traumatologie XI Congress, Mexico, October, 1969. 63. Skeletal Growth in Achondroplasia. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 52A, 4:701-716, June, 1970. 64. Skeletal Growth in Morquio’s Disease. Proceedings of a Third Symposium on Scoliosis. Brompton Hospital, London, November, 1970; Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh and London, 1971. 65. Growth Hormone in Delayed Union. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 74, January, 1971 (with S. Misol, M.D., N. Samann, M.D., Ph.D.). 66. Growth Hormone Blood Levels in Patients with Idiopathic Scoliosis. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 81, Nov.-Dec., 1971 (with S. Misol, M.D., N. Samann, M.D., Ph.D., and J.T. Bradbury). 67. Pathogenesis and Treatment of Congenital Clubfoot. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 81, Nov.-Dec., 1972 (with Jeronimo Campos, M.D.). 68. A Unique Rough Surfaced Endoplasmic Reticulum Inclusion in Pseudoachondroplasia. Laboratory Investigation, 26, 1:40-44, 1972 (with Jerry A. Maynard, Ph.D. and Reginald R. Cooper, M.D.). 69. Morquio’s Disease (Mucopolysaccharidosis Type IV) Ultrastructure of Epiphyseal Plates. Laboratory Investigation, Vol. 28, 2:194, 1973 (with Jerry A. Maynard, Ph.D., and Reginald R. Cooper, M.D.). 70. Metaphyseal Dysostosis: A Rough Surfaced Endoplasmic Reticulum Storage Defect. Laboratory Investigation, Vol. 28, 1:119, 1973 (with R. R. Cooper, M.D. and A. Pedrini-Mille, Ph.D.). 71. Pseudoachondroplastic Dwarfism: A Rough-Surfaced Endoplasmic Reticulum Storage Disorder. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 55A, 3:474-484, April, 1973 (with R.R. Cooper, M.D. and J.A. Maynard, Ph.D.). 72. Metaphyseal Dysostosis: Description of an Ultrastructural Defect in the Epiphyseal Plate Chondrocytes. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 55A, 3:485-495, April, 1973 (with R.R. Cooper, M.D.). 73. Glycosaminoglycans of Intervertebral Disc in Idiopathic Scoliosis. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, Vol. 82, 6:938-950, December, 1973 (with V.A. Pedrini and S. Cox Dohrman). 74. Non-surgical Treatment of Congenital Dislocation of the Hip. AAOS Instructional Course Lectures, 21:163-171, 1973. 75. The Role of Collagen in the Pathogenesis of Idiopathic Clubfoot: Biochemical and Electron Microscopic Correlations. Helv. Paediat. Acta 29, 305-314, 1974 (with V. Ionasescu, J.A. Maynard and H. Zellweger). 76. Glycosaminoglycans of Iliac Crest Cartilage in Normal Children and in Morquio’s Disease. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, Vol. 84, 4:465-473, October, 1974 (with A. Pedrini-Mille and V. Pedrini). 77. Idiopathic Chondrolysis of the Hip - Report of Two Cases. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 57A, 2:268-271, March, 1975 (with D.R. Wenger, M.D. and M.R. Mickelson, M.D.). 78. Ultrastructure of the Sternocleidomastoid Muscle in Muscular Torticollis. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, No. 110, July-Aug., 1975 (with M.R. Mickelson, M.D., and R.R. Cooper, M.D.). 79. Pathogenesis of Scoliosis. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 120, Oct. 1976 (with the collaboration of V. Pedrini, Ph.D., R. Wynne-Davies, Ph.D., and G. Duval-Beaupere, M.D.). 80. Congenital Pseudarthrosis of Long Bones: A Clinical, Radiographic, Histologic and Ultrastructural Study. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, No. 128, Oct., 1977 (with G.A. Brown, M.D. and W.R. Osebold, M.D.). 81. The Ultrastructure of the Growth Plate in Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 59A, 8:1076-1081, Dec. 1977 (with M.R. Mickelson, M.D., R.R. Cooper, M.D. and J.A. Maynard Ph.D.). 82. Growth and Development of the Acetabulum in the Normal Child: Anatomical, Histological and Roentgenographic Studies. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 60A, 5:575-585, July, 1978. 83. Morphology of the Acetabulum in Congenital Dislocation of the Hip: Gross, Histological and Roentgenographic Studies. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 60A, 5:586-599, July, 1978. 84. Long-term Results of Closed Reduction of Complete Congenital Dislocation of the Hip in Children Under One Year of Age. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 137:167-174, Nov.-Dec., 1978 (with Yoshiaki Ischii, M.D.). 85. Acetabular Development after Reduction in Congenital Dislocation of the Hip. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 61A, 1:112-118, Jan., 1979 (with J.R. Lindstrom, M.D. and D.R. Wenger, M.D.). 86. Congenital Dislocation of the Hip: Open Reduction Through a Medial Approach. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 61A, 1:119-124, Jan., 1979 (with S.L. Weinstein, M.D.). 87. Successful Management of Popliteal Arterial Disruptionin Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome. Surgery, Vol. 85, 6:708-712, June, 1979 (with C.B. Wright, M.D. and W.C. Lamberth, M.D.). 88. Congenital Clubfoot in the Human Fetus: A Histological Study. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 62A, 1:8-22, Jan., 1980 (with Ernesto Ippolito, M.D.). 89. Long-Term Results of Treatment of Congenital Clubfoot. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 62A, 1:23-31, Jan., 1980 (with S.Laaveg M.D.). 90. Histologic, Histochemical, and Ultrastructural Studies of the Hip Joint Capsule and Ligamentum Teres in Congenital Dislocation of the Hip. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 146:246-258, Jan.-Feb., 1980 (with E. Ippolito, M.D. and Y. Ishii, M.D.). 91. Correlations Between Arthrograms and Operative Findings in Congenital Dislocation of the Hip. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 153:138-145, Nov.-Dec., 1980 (with Y. Ishii, M.D. and S.L. Weinstein, M.D.). 92. Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis: Long-term Follow-up Study of 121 Patients. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 63A, 1:85-95, Jan., 1981 (with D.W. Boyer, M.D. and M.R. Mickelson, M.D.). 93. Juvenile Kyphosis: Histological and Histochemical Studies. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, Vol. 63A, 2:175-182, February 1981, (with Ernesto Ippolito, M.D.) 94. Idiopathic Scoliosis: Lont-term Follow-up and Prognosis in Untreated Patients. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 63A, 5:702-712, May, 1981 (with S.L. Weinstein, M.D. and D.C. Zavala, M.D.). 95. Histochemistry and Ultrastructure of the Growth Plate in Achondroplasia. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 63A, 6:969-980, July, 1981 (with J.A. Maynard, Ph.D., E.G. Ippolito, M.D. and M.R. Mickelson, M.D.). 96. A Radiographic Study of Skeletal Deformities in Treated Clubfeet. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 160:30-42, Oct., 1981 (with G.Y. El-Khoury, M.D., E. Ippolito, M.D. and S.L. Weinstein, MD). 97. Histochemistry and Ultrastructure of the Growth Plate in Metaphyseal Dysostosis: Further Observations on the Structure of the Cartilage Matrix. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 1:10-16, January, 1981. 98. A Histochemical Study of Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 63A, 7:1109-1113, Sept., 1981 (with E. Ippolito, M.D. and M.R. Mickelson, M.D.). 99. The Center of Pressure Path in Treated Clubfeet. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 160:43-47, October, 1981 (with Richard A. Brand, M.D., Sterling J. Laaveg, M.D. and Roy D. Crowninshield, Ph.D.) 100. Tibial Agenesis. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics. Vol. 1, 4:395-399, 1981 (with Marwan A. Webhe, M.D. and Stuart L. Weinstein, M.D.). 101. Early Diagnosis and Pathology of Congenital Dislocation of the Hip. Pediatric Annals 11(6):512-517, 1982. 102. A Review of the Morphology of Perthes' Disease. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, Vol. 64B, 3:269-275, 1982. (with A. Catterall, J. Pringle, P.D. Byers, G.E. Fulford, H.B.S. Kemp, C.L. Dolman, H.M. Bell, B. McKinnin, Z. Ralis, O.M. Jensen, J. Lauaritzten and J. Ogden) 103. Curve Progression in Idiopathic Scoliosis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 65A, 4:447-455, April 1983 (with S.L. Weinstein, MD) 104. Proteoglycans of Human Scoliotic Intervertebral Disc. J. of Bone and Joint Surg., 65-A, 6:815-823, July 1983 (with Angiola Pedrini-Mille, Ph.D., Vittorio A. Pedrini, Ph.D., Cosimo Tudisco, M.D., Stuart L. Weinstein, M.D. and Jerry A. Maynard, Ph.D.) 105. Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease: Histochemical and Ultrastructural Observations of the Epiphyseal Cartilage and Physis. J. Bone and Joint Surg. 65A, 6:797-807, July 1983 (with Jerry A. Maynard, Ph.D., Stuart L. Weinstein, MD, Ernesto G. Ippolito, MD & J.G. Pouse, MD) 106. Morphometric Study of Clubfoot Tendon Sheaths. Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 3:311-318, 1983 (with Frederick R. Dietz, MD and Joseph A. Buckwalter, MD) 107. Juvenile Kyphosis: An Ultrastructural Study. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 5:315-322, 1985 (with E. Ippolito, MD, M. Bellocchi, Ph.D., A. Montanaro, M.D. and E. Ascani, M.D.) 108. Bone Formation in Achondroplasia: In Human Achondroplasia, Edited by B. Nicoletti, S.E. Kopits, E. Ascani, and V.A. McKusick, Plenum Press, New York and London, 1988. 109. Fifty Years of Orthopaedics. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 9:79-85, 1989. 110. Function-Related Differences in Elastin and Collagen Content of Animal Ligamenta Flava. (with Vittorio A. Pedrini, Ph.D., I.V. Ponseti, M.D., M. Pyevich, M.D., Angiola Pedrini-Mille, Ph.D.) Transactions of the Thirty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, Vol. 15, 527. 1990. 111. Treatment of Congenital Club Foot: Current Concepts Review. J. Bone Joint Surg., 74-A:448-454, March 1992. 112. Ligamentous Elastic Fiber Pathology in Adolescent Scoliosis. (with N.A. Hadley, M.D., D.M. Milewicz, M.D., I.V. Ponseti, M.D.) Transactions of the Thirty-Ninth Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, Vol. 18, Section 2, 1993. 113. The Long-Term Functional and Radiographic Outcomes of Untreated and Non-Operatively Treated Metatarsus Adductus. J. Bone and Joint Surg., 76-A:February, 1994 (with Drs. P. Farseti and Stuart L. Weinstein). 114. Guest Editor: The Treatment of Congenital Clubfoot. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy. Aug., 1994. 115. Proliferation Response of Chondrocytes to Dynamic Mechanical Stimulation In Vitro. (with JA Morcuende, M.D., RJ Midura, M.D., IV Ponseti, M.D.) Proc Orthop Research Society, 1995. 116. Differences in Ligamenta Flava Among Some Mammals. Iowa Orthopaedic Journal, 15:141-146, 1995. 117. Congenital Metatarsus Adductus in Early Human Fetal Development. A Histologic Study (with J.A.Morcuende). Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 1996. 118. Common Errors in the treatment of congenital clubfoot. Current Concepts article. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 21:137, 1997. 119. Editorial: Clubfoot Management. J. of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 20:699, 2000. 120. Health and Function of Patients With Untreated Idiopathic Scoliosis. A 50-year Natural History Study (with Stuart L. Weinstein, Lori A. Dolan, Kevin F. Spratt, Kirk K. Peterson, Mark J. Spoonamore), JAMA 289:559-567, 2003. 121. The Effect of the Internet in the Treatment of Congenital Idiopathic Clubfoot (with Jose A. Morcuende and Martin Egbert) Iowa Orthopaedic Journal 23:83-86, 2003. 122. Radical Reduction in the Rate of Extensive Corrective Surgery for Clubfoot Using the Ponseti Method. Pediatrics 113(2):376-380, Feb. 2004 (with J. A. Morcuende, L. A. Dolan, and F. R. Dietz). 123. Treatment of the Complex Idiopathic Clubfoot (with Miroslav Zhivkov, Naomi Davis, Marc Sinclair, Matthew B. Dobbs, and Jose A. Morcuende) Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research No. 451:171-176, October 2006. Book Congenital Clubfoot: Fundamentals of Treatment. Published by Oxford University Press “in the UK and in certain other countries,” 1996. Congenital Clubfoot: Fundamentals of Treatment was reprinted, exactly like the 1996 printing with the same covers by permission of Oxford University Press, in Iowa City by the University of Iowa Printing Department in 2000 and in 2004. Honors and Awards 1955 Kappa Delta Award for outstanding orthopaedic research 1960 Ketoen Gold Medal, American Medical Association 1966 Commonwealth Fellowship 1966 Lawrence Pool Price, University of Edinburg, Scotland 1975 Shands Award Lecture, Orthopaedic Research Society 1983 Ignacio V. Ponseti International Symposium 1984 Doctor Honoris Causa, Univ. of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain 1984 Honorary Member, Spanish Society of Orthopaedics and Trauma 1985 Gold Medal, City of Ciutadella, Menorca, Spain 1988 Honorary member, Pediatric Orthopedic Society 1989 Honorary member, Colegio Oficial De Médicos de Baleares 1989 Honorary member, Asociación Balear de Cirugía Ortopédica y Traumatología 2002 American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons—award-winning video Tape program on Treatment of Congenital Clubfoot 2003 AOA-Zimmer Award for Distinguished Contribution to Orthopaedics 2006 Pediatric Orthopaedic Society of North American Award for Distinguished Service 2006 Iowa Orthopaedic Society James J. Puhl, M.D., Humanitarian Award 2006 European Pediatric Orthopaedic Society Maximum Meritus Medal 2007 Children’s Miracle Network award, Orlando, FL Helena Percas-Ponseti (Valencia, Spain, 1921). Studied in Spain and England (high school), France (baccalaureate, 1939), and the United States: Barnard College (B.A. 1942); Colombia University (M.A. 1943 and Ph.D. 1951). She has been Assistant in the Spanish Department of Barnard College (1942-43), and at Columbia University in General Studies (1945-46); Instructor at Russell Sage College (1946-47); Lecturer at Queens College (1947-48); and Assistant Professor to Full Professor at Grinnell College (1948-84) where she was named James Morton Roberts Honor Professor for 1961-62 and Seth Richards Professor of Modern Languages in 1963. Establishment of Research Scholars International Grant in her honor for faculty in the Humanities and Social Science Divisions, 1981. Elected to the Board of Trustees as Honorary Associate of the Hispanic Society of America in New York City, 2001. She is the author of 44 articles and review articles in the field of Latin American Literature, and a book La poesía femenina argentina (1958). In the field of Spanish literature, she has authored 17 articles and review articles and two books on Cervantes—Cervantes y su concepto del arte (1975) and Cervantes the Writer and Painter of “Don Quixote” (1988).	976080b4-2e5c-4ffe-9335-adfd7969a434	CC-MAIN-2021-31	https://nebula.wsimg.com/feb6023475381a2baca6a22f1449d408?AccessKeyId=B17C75687FBF776E8655&disposition=0&alloworigin=1	2021-08-02T04:02:12+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046154302.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20210802012641-20210802042641-00041.warc.gz	427,849,655	49,357	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.928561	eng_Latn	0.998665	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "por_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 633, 709, 1661, 2826, 3626, 7097, 10355, 13796, 15485, 16677, 19972, 21457, 23876, 25647, 28156, 31508, 33550, 35791, 37258, 40617, 43904, 47323, 50790, 54200, 57404, 60907, 64350, 67806, 71271, 73726, 75170, 78523, 81950, 85265, 88608, 90462, 92996, 96419, 96566, 99078, 102472, 105881, 109290, 110372, 112887, 116378, 118052, 118594, 119978, 122805, 125075, 125955, 127864, 128988, 130409, 133738, 137115, 138276, 140161, 143593, 147049, 150485, 153899, 157301, 160720, 164186, 167096, 169601, 171020, 173302, 176682, 180063, 183361, 186761, 190045, 190921, 193538, 194721, 197703, 200893, 204224, 207550, 210906, 214116, 215999, 217169, 218422 ]	[ 2.34375, 0.78515625 ]	2	0
Practice Test #1 PSAT™ 10 With Answer Explanations © 2015 The College Board. College Board and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board. PSAT is a trademark owned by the College Board. Table of Contents: Reading Test Answer Explanations ................................................................. 1 Writing and Language Test Answer Explanations ........................................... 29 Math Test – No Calculator Answer Explanations ............................................. 52 Math Test – Calculator Answer Explanations .................................................. 66 Answer Key ...................................................................................................... 93 User Notes: Please have a copy of the PSAT/NMSQT Practice Test #1 to reference for the passages and other information that form the basis for the questions in the Evidence-Based Reading and Writing and the Math sections of the Practice Test. You can also refer to the test to see the information given to students about math formulas and how to record the student-produced responses. In this document, we have provided the following for each question: - difficulty level - content description - best or correct answer - answer explanation Question 1 The main purpose of the passage is to (A) describe a main character and a significant change in her life. (B) provide an overview of a family and a nearby neighbor. (C) discuss some regrettable personality flaws in a main character. (D) explain the relationship between a main character and her father. Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing purpose Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. Emma Woodhouse’s life and family are discussed, including the marriage of her governess Miss Taylor who then moves out of Emma’s home. In line 74, Emma wonders how she is to “bear the change” of Miss Taylor’s departure, which indicates its significance. Choices B and D are incorrect because the passage focuses more on Emma than on her family and neighbors, and Emma’s relationship with her father is a relatively minor consideration. Choice C is also incorrect because Emma is characterized as handsome and clever with a happy disposition, and her arrogance is only briefly mentioned. Question 2 Which choice best summarizes the first two paragraphs of the passage (lines 1-14)? (A) Even though a character loses a parent at an early age, she is happily raised in a loving home. (B) An affectionate governess helps a character to overcome the loss of her mother, despite the indifference of her father. (C) Largely as a result of her father’s wealth and affection, a character leads a contented life. (D) A character has a generally comfortable and fulfilling life, but then she must recover from losing her mother. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Information and Ideas / Summarizing Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. The passage indicates that Emma’s mother died long ago and that Emma barely remembers her. Emma is raised by an affectionate father and governess and is described as a person with a happy disposition. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect: Emma’s father is not described as indifferent, Emma is not described as contented because of her father’s wealth, and Emma does not appear to suffer from the loss of her mother. Question 3 The narrator indicates that the particular nature of Emma’s upbringing resulted in her being (A) despondent. (B) self-satisfied. (C) friendless. (D) inconsiderate. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. According to the passage, Emma had “a disposition to think a little too well of herself” (line 30). Thinking a “little too well of herself” means that Emma had an elevated opinion of herself, or that she was self-satisfied. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because Emma’s relationship with her father and Miss Taylor, the two characters who raised her, did not result in her being despondent, friendless, or inconsiderate. Question 4 Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? (A) Lines 1-5 (“Emma . . . her”) (B) Lines 9-14 (“Her . . . affection”) (C) Lines 28-32 (“The real . . . enjoyments”) (D) Lines 32-34 (“The danger . . . her”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. Lines 28-32 state that “The real evils indeed of Emma’s situation were the power of having rather too much her own way, and a disposition to think a little too well of herself; these were the disadvantages which threatened alloy to her many enjoyments.” Thinking a “little too well of herself” means that Emma had an elevated opinion of herself, or that she was self-satisfied. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because they do not provide the best evidence for Emma being self-satisfied. Choice A describes Emma’s positive traits, choice B describes Emma’s affectionate relationship with Miss Taylor, and choice D discusses only that Emma’s problems were negligible. Question 5 As used in line 26, “directed” most nearly means (A) trained. (B) aimed. (C) guided. (D) addressed. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Interpreting words and phrases in context Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. In lines 25-27, Emma’s situation is described as “doing just what she liked; highly esteeming Miss Taylor’s judgment, but directed chiefly by her own.” In other words, Emma respects Miss Taylor’s opinion but makes decisions directed, or guided, primarily by her own opinion. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because lines 25-27 emphasize that in “doing what she liked” Emma was directed, or guided, by her own opinion. Emma’s opinion is not trained by, aimed at, or addressed by anyone else. Question 6 As used in line 54, “want” most nearly means (A) desire. (B) lack. (C) requirement. (D) request. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Information and Ideas / Interpreting words and phrases in context Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. Lines 53-55 describe how Emma felt a loss after Miss Taylor married and moved out of Emma’s home: “but it was a black morning’s work for her. The want of Miss Taylor would be felt every hour of every day.” In this context, “want” means “lack.” Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because in this context “want” does not mean desire, requirement, or request. Question 7 It can most reasonably be inferred that after Miss Taylor married, she had (A) less patience with Mr. Woodhouse. (B) fewer interactions with Emma. (C) more close friends than Emma. (D) an increased appreciation for Emma. Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. According to lines 75-79, following Miss Taylor’s marriage, “Emma was aware that great must be the difference between a Mrs. Weston only half a mile from them, and a Miss Taylor in the house; and with all her advantages, natural and domestic, she was now in great danger of suffering from intellectual solitude.” This implies that since Miss Taylor’s marriage, the two characters see each other less often. Choice A is incorrect because the passage does not mention Miss Taylor’s relationship with Mr. Woodhouse. Choices C and D are incorrect because the passage describes how Miss Taylor’s marriage might affect Emma but not how the marriage might affect Miss Taylor. Question 8 Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? (A) Line 37 (“Miss . . . married”) (B) Lines 47-48 (“The event . . . friend”) (C) Lines 60-65 (“A large . . . recollection”) (D) Lines 73-79 (“How . . . solitude”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because lines 73-79 refer to Emma’s new reality of “intellectual solitude” after Miss Taylor moved out of the house. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because none of these choices support the idea that Miss Taylor and Emma had fewer interactions following Miss Taylor’s marriage. Choice A mentions Emma’s “sorrow” towards losing Miss Taylor, choice B introduces how Miss Taylor may benefit from the marriage, and choice C describes Emma’s and Miss Taylor’s close friendship. Question 9 Which situation is most similar to the one described in lines 83-91 (“The evil . . . time”)? (A) A mother and her adult son have distinct tastes in art and music that result in repeated family arguments. (B) The differences between an older and a younger friend are magnified because the younger one is more active and athletic. (C) An older and a younger scientist remain close friends despite the fact that the older one’s work is published more frequently. (D) The age difference between a high school student and a college student becomes a problem even though they enjoy the same diversions. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. Lines 83-91 describe the fact that though Emma and her father have a loving relationship, Mr. Woodhouse is much older than Emma and in poor health. For these reasons, he did not make a good companion for the spirited, young Emma. Their relationship is most similar to a friendship between an older and younger person that is negatively affected by the fact one is more lively and active than the other. Choice A is incorrect because Emma and her father did not have regular arguments. Choice C is incorrect because the relationship between Emma and Mr. Woodhouse was affected by the difference in their age and activity, not any relative successes one or the other might have had. Choice D is incorrect because there is no indication that Emma and her father enjoyed the same activities. As used in line 10, “plot” most nearly means (A) mark. (B) form. (C) plan. (D) claim. Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Information and Ideas / Interpreting words and phrases in context Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. The first paragraph discusses the “vast informal economy driven by human relationships” (lines 6-7) that existed in the Soviet Union as a result of the gaps in the official economy. Lines 9-10 state that “The Soviet people didn’t plot how they would build these [social] networks.” In this context, the word “plot” means “plan”; the paragraph is implying that the informal economy grew up spontaneously, without premeditation or planning. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because in this context “plot” does not mean mark, form, or claim. Question 11 The references to the shoemaker, the programmer, and the apple farmer in lines 37-40 (“We can easily . . . community”) primarily serve to (A) illustrate the quality of products and services in countries around the world. (B) emphasize the broad reach of technologies used to connect people. (C) demonstrate that recommendations made online are trustworthy. (D) call attention to the limits of the expansion of the global economy. Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing text structure Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. The third paragraph of the passage (lines 27-46) describes how new technologies are affecting new economies, as people are using social media to vet people and businesses through eBay, Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube. The author uses broad examples (a business in South America, a person in Asia, and a farmer in the reader’s local community) to imply that these technologies have a global reach. Choice A is incorrect because the passage provides no comment about the quality of products or services. Choice C is incorrect because the passage never alludes to the trustworthiness of online recommendations. Choice D is incorrect because the idea that the new global economy will have only a limited expansion is oppositional to the passage’s main points. Question 12 The passage’s discussion of life in the Soviet Union in the 1960s and 1970s primarily serves to (A) introduce the concept of social networking. (B) demonstrate that technology has improved social connections. (C) list differences between the Soviet Union and other countries. (D) emphasize the importance of examining historical trends. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing text structure Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. The Soviet Union of the 1960s and 1970s was most notable for the disparity between its official economy and a second, unofficial one. The author explains how unwanted items sold at state stores were not the “nice furnishings” found in people’s homes. These “nice furnishings” were a result of the Soviet Union’s unofficial economy driven by social networking, or “relationship-driven economics” (lines 16-17). Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because the author does not use the discussion of life in the Soviet Union in the 1960s and 1970s to show how technology has changed social conditions, how the Soviet Union was different from other countries, or how important it is to consider historical trends. Question 13 As used in line 45, “post” most nearly means (A) publish. (B) transfer. (C) assign. (D) denounce. Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Information and Ideas / Interpreting words and phrases in context Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. The third paragraph of the passage (lines 27-46) describes how new technology has impacted the economy. The author states that people can use websites to post descriptions of projects, which means that people can write these descriptions and publish them online. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because in this context “post” does not mean transfer, assign, or denounce. Question 14 The author indicates that, in comparison to individuals, traditional organizations have tended to be (A) more innovative and less influential. (B) larger in size and less subject to regulations. (C) less reliable and less interconnected. (D) less efficient and more expensive. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Understanding relationships Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. The passage explains that socially driven economies create new societies where “amplified individuals—individuals empowered with technologies and the collective intelligence of others in their social network—can take on many functions that previously only large organizations could perform, often more efficiently, at lower cost or no cost at all, and with much greater ease” (lines 66-72). It is clear from these lines that the author views some large organizations as less efficient and more expensive than individuals. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because the passage offers no evidence that the author believes traditional organizations are more innovative, less regulated, or less reliable than individuals. Question 15 Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? (A) Lines 22-26 (“Empowered . . . connectedness”) (B) Lines 40-42 (“We no longer . . . ideas”) (C) Lines 47-50 (“We are moving . . . socialstructing”) (D) Lines 66-72 (“amplified . . . ease”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. Lines 66-72 explain how socially driven economies are creating societies where individuals no longer rely on traditional organizations to perform specific tasks. Instead, individuals can use technology and social relationships to more efficiently perform these tasks at a lower cost. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because they do not directly compare individuals to traditional organizations. Question 16 The author recognizes counterarguments to the position she takes in the passage by (A) acknowledging the risks and drawbacks associated with new technologies and social networks. (B) admitting that some people spend too much time unproductively on the Internet. (C) drawing an analogy between conditions today and conditions in the Soviet Union of the 1960s and 1970s. (D) conceding that the drawbacks of social structuring may prove over time to outweigh the benefits. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing arguments Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. While the author argues throughout the passage that new technologies benefit modern economies, she also recognizes that some people believe this new technology “distances us from the benefits of face-to-face communication and quality social time” (lines 86-87). Choice B is incorrect because the author provides no evidence of Internet overuse. Choice C is incorrect because the author provides an example of the Soviet Union of the 1960s and 1970s to explain an economic process called “social structuring.” Choice D is incorrect because the author concludes that social structuring may ultimately be “opening up new opportunities to create, learn, and share” (lines 91-92). Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? (A) Lines 35-37 (“We can look . . . videos”) (B) Lines 74-76 (“a world . . . hackers”) (C) Lines 79-84 (“They . . . science”) (D) Lines 85-87(“Much . . . time”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer as it acknowledges that people have identified some risks and drawbacks to using new technology to form social connections. Some people believe that new technology distances users from the advantages of “face-to-face communication and quality social time” (lines 86-87). Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because they do not show that the author recognized counterarguments to her argument. Choices A and B provide examples of the impact and use of the new technologies, and choice C summarizes the benefits of social structuring. Question 18 Which statement best summarizes the information presented in the graph? (A) Far more people around the world own computers and cell phones today than in 2005. (B) The number of people sharing digital information has more than tripled since 2005. (C) The volume of digital information created and shared has increased tremendously in recent years. (D) The amount of digital information created and shared is likely to be almost 8 zettabytes in 2015. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Synthesis / Analyzing quantitative information Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. The graph shows a steady increase in digital information created and shared in recent years, beginning with less than one zettabyte in 2005 and rising to nearly 8 zettabytes projected for 2015. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because they do not summarize the information presented in the graph. Choices A and B provide details that, while likely true, cannot be directly inferred from the information in the graph, and choice D provides a detail from the graph but not a summary of it. Question 19 According to the graph, which statement is true about the amount of digital information projected to be created and shared globally in 2012? (A) Growth in digital information creation and sharing was projected to be wildly out of proportion to growth in 2011 and 2013E. (B) The amount of digital information created and shared was projected to begin a new upward trend. (C) The amount of digital information created and shared was projected to peak. (D) The amount of digital information created and shared was projected to pass 2 zettabytes for the first time. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Synthesis / Analyzing quantitative information Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. The graph shows that the amount of digital information projected to be created and shared in 2012 is about 2.5 zettabytes. Since the graph shows a steady increase in the creation and sharing of digital information, and the digital information created and shared in 2011 was approximately 1.75 zettabytes, the graph shows that the 2012 projection passes the 2 zettabyte barrier for the first time. Choice A is incorrect because the graph shows the projected 2012 numbers to be part of a steady increase consistent with the 2011 and 2013E numbers. Choice B is incorrect because the graph projects the 2012 number to continue the increase started in 2005. Choice C is incorrect because the 2012 numbers are projected to continue increasing through at least 2015. The passage is written from the perspective of someone who is A) actively involved in conducting hibernator research. B) a participant in a recent debate in the field of cardiology. C) knowledgeable about advances in hibernator research. D) an advocate for wildlife preservation. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing point of view Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. The author is someone who knows about advances in hibernator research but isn’t necessarily an active participant in that research. Choice A is incorrect because the passage mentions that “Fröbert and his colleagues” (line 32) are conducting hibernator research. Choice B is incorrect because the passage discusses the heart health of bears but never provides evidence that this research is contested. Choice D is incorrect because the passage focuses on hibernating animals and their health more than wildlife preservation. Question 21 It is reasonable to conclude that the main goal of the scientists conducting the research described in the passage is to A) learn how the hibernation patterns of bears and squirrels differ. B) determine the role that fat plays in hibernation. C) illustrate the important health benefits of exercise for humans. D) explore possible ways to prevent human diseases. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. The author begins the passage by suggesting that the bear hibernation research may be beneficial to human health: “Understanding how hibernators, including ground squirrels, marmots and bears, survive their long winter’s naps may one day offer solutions for problems such as heart disease, osteoporosis and muscular dystrophy” (lines 1-5). In the last paragraph of the passage, the author suggests that Fröbert hopes to use his research findings to “stave off hardened arteries in humans as well” (lines 75-76). Choice A is incorrect because the passage briefly mentions ground squirrels and does not specifically compare them to bears. Choice B is incorrect because the passage clearly states that during hibernation fat acts as fuel for a resting animal. Choice C is incorrect because the passage discusses exercise only within the context of bears. Question 22 Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? A) Lines 1-5 (“Understanding . . . dystrophy”) B) Lines 10-13 (“Fat . . . squirrels”) C) Lines 31-35 (“To . . . bears”) D) Lines 42-46 (“Once . . . tissues”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. This sentence supports the idea that one of the goals of the hibernation research discussed in the passage is to try to improve human health: “Understanding how hibernators, including ground squirrels, marmots and bears, survive their long winter’s naps may one day offer solutions for problems such as heart disease, osteoporosis and muscular dystrophy” (lines 1-5). Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because they do not address the main goal of the hibernator research. Choice B is incorrect because lines 10-13 describe only one aspect of hibernation: fat as fuel. Choices C and D are incorrect because lines 31-35 and 42-46 describe the field research, not the goal of this research. Question 23 What main effect do the quotations by Andrews in lines 10-18 have on the tone of the passage? A) They create a bleak tone, focusing on the difficulties hibernators face during the winter. B) They create a conversational tone, relating scientific information in everyday language. C) They create an ominous tone, foreshadowing the dire results of Andrews’s research. D) They create an absurd tone, using images of animals acting as if they were human. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing word choice Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. In lines 10-18 the molecular biologist Matthew Andrews explains how fat is important to hibernating animals, stating “Fat is where it’s at” and “You bring your own lunch with you.” The use of this nonscientific language creates a conversational tone that allows readers to understand what might otherwise be a complex topic. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because Andrews’s phrases, such as “Fat is where it’s at,” are relaxed rather than bleak, ominous, or absurd. Question 24 As used in line 19, “stores” most nearly means A) preservatives. B) reserves. C) stacks. D) shelters. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Interpreting words and phrases in context Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. Lines 19-20 describe how fat is important to hibernating animals, as “[b]igger fat stores mean a greater chance of surviving until spring.” In this context, hibernating animals have “stores,” or reserves, of fat that they put away for later use. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because in this context “stores” does not mean preservatives, stacks, or shelters. Question 25 Based on the passage, what is Fröbert’s hypothesis regarding why bears’ arteries do not harden during hibernation? A) The bears’ increased plasma cholesterol causes the arteries to be more flexible. B) Sluggish circulation pinches off the blood vessels rather than hardening the arteries. C) Bears exercise in short, infrequent bursts during hibernation, which staves off hardened arteries. D) Bears possess a molecule that protects against hardened arteries. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. The passage concludes by noting that “Fröbert hopes to find some protective molecule that could stave off hardened arteries in humans as well” (lines 74-76). This makes clear the scientist’s belief that even though bears begin hibernation while “very, very fat” (line 62) and do not exercise for many months, these animals have some molecule that protects them from hardened arteries. Choices A and B are incorrect because lines 58-69 explain that the bears’ elevated plasma cholesterol levels combined with the sluggish circulation that results from their lack of exercise during hibernation are “a recipe for hardened arteries” (line 67). Choice C is incorrect because lines 63-64 state that hibernating bears “get zero exercise during hibernation.” Question 26 Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? A) Lines 19-20 (“Bigger . . . spring”) B) Lines 24-27 (“The brown . . . day”) C) Lines 69-72 (“Even . . . streaks”) D) Lines 73-76 (“It’s . . . well”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. The passage concludes by noting that “Fröbert hopes to find some protective molecule that could stave off hardened arteries in humans as well” (lines 74-76). This sentence explains Fröbert’s hypothesis that the reason bears do not “build up such artery-hardening streaks” (lines 71-72) is because they have some molecule that protects them from hardened arteries. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because they do not address Fröbert’s hypothesis. Choice A is incorrect because lines 19-20 highlight the importance of fat to hibernators. Choice B is incorrect because lines 24-27 describe the diet of one group of hibernating bears. Choice C is incorrect because lines 69-72 describe the hardening of arteries in inactive humans. What information discussed in paragraph 10 (lines 58-68) is represented by the graph? A) The information in lines 58-62 (“Recent . . . reported”) B) The information in lines 62-64 (“These . . . hibernation”) C) The information in lines 64-65 (“Lolling . . . circulation”) D) The information in lines 67-68 (“It’s . . . strokes”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Synthesis / Analyzing quantitative information Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. The graph compares the total plasma cholesterol found in seven bears during periods of their hibernation and nonhibernation, exemplifying how that cholesterol is generally higher during the hibernating stage. Meanwhile, lines 58-62 describe the very phenomena that the graph depicts: “Recent analyses revealed that Scandinavian brown bears spend the summer with plasma cholesterol levels considered high for humans; those values then increase substantially for hibernation, Fröbert and his colleagues reported.” Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because none of the other lines in paragraph 10 discuss the comparative levels of plasma cholesterol found in bears during their hibernating and nonhibernating phases. Lines 62-64 describe how bears spend their hibernating phase. Lines 64-65 describe the poor circulation those bears experience during hibernation. Lines 67-68 explain the heart risks that may occur in humans who are overweight and inactive. Question 28 Which statement about the effect of hibernation on the seven bears is best supported by the graph? A) Only one of the bears did not experience an appreciable change in its total plasma cholesterol level. B) Only one of the bears experienced a significant increase in its total plasma cholesterol level. C) All of the bears achieved the desirable plasma cholesterol level for humans. D) The bear with the lowest total plasma cholesterol level in its active state had the highest total plasma cholesterol level during hibernation. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Synthesis / Analyzing quantitative information Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer because the graph shows that six of the seven bears experienced increased plasma cholesterol during hibernation; the seventh bear experienced neither an increase nor a decrease in plasma cholesterol. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because they are not supported by the graph. Question 29 Which choice best describes the structure of the first paragraph? (A) A personal history is narrated, historical examples are given, and a method is recommended. (B) A position is stated, historical context is given, and earnest advice is given. (C) Certain principles are stated, opposing principles are stated, and a consensus is reached. (D) A historical period is described, and its attributes are reviewed. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing text structure Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. In the first paragraph, Andrew Carnegie states his position that the changes in society that are occurring are “not to be deplored, but welcomed as highly beneficial” (lines 12-13). After providing historical context on the interactions between rich and poor, Carnegie concludes the first paragraph by giving earnest advice: “It is a waste of time to criticize the inevitable” (lines 27-28). Choice A is incorrect because the first paragraph emphasizes the current realities of humanity as a whole—the very “conditions of human life” (lines 4-5)—but not any one personal history. Choice C is incorrect because the first paragraph describes the author’s personal opinion and his conclusion, not a conclusion reached by a consensus. Choice D is incorrect because the first paragraph focuses more on “our age” (line 1) than on the past. The author most strongly implies which of the following about “the ties of brotherhood” (line 2)? (A) They were always largely fictitious and are more so at present. (B) They are stronger at present than they ever were before. (C) They are more seriously strained in the present than in the past. (D) They will no longer be able to bring together the rich and the poor. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. Carnegie states in lines 1-4 that a serious problem of his time was how to distribute wealth so that “the ties of brotherhood may still bind together the rich and poor in harmonious relationship.” In other words, he was concerned that the “ties of brotherhood” between rich and poor were not as strong as they used to be. Choice A is incorrect because Carnegie implies that changes in modern society have negatively impacted the relationship between the rich and poor, but he does not suggest that such a relationship never existed. Choice B is incorrect because the passage implies that “the ties of brotherhood” are weaker than they were previously. Choice D is incorrect because Carnegie states that these ties continue and “may still bind together the rich and poor in harmonious relationship.” Question 31 The author uses “dwelling, dress, food, and environment” (lines 7-8) as examples of (A) things more valued in the present than in the past. (B) bare necessities of life. (C) things to which all people are entitled. (D) possible indications of differences in status. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing text structure Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. Carnegie explains that the contrast between the rich and poor is greater than in the past: “In former days there was little difference between the dwelling, dress, food, and environment of the chief and those of his retainers…” (lines 6-9). Carnegie uses the examples of “dwelling, dress, food, and environment” to show the difference in status between the rich and the poor. Choice A is incorrect because Carnegie does not suggest that basic necessities, like food and housing, are more valued in the present than they were in the past. Choice B is incorrect because, while these aspects of life are basic necessities, they are used here as examples of areas in which differences in status might be evident. Choice C is incorrect because Carnegie is not using these examples to suggest that “dwelling, dress, food, and environment” are things to which all people are entitled. Question 32 The author describes the people who live in the “houses of some” (line 15) as interested in the (A) materials from which their houses are constructed. (B) size of their homes. (C) advantages of culture. (D) pedigree of their guests. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. In lines 14-18 Carnegie states that it is “essential, for the progress of the race that the houses of some should be homes for all that is highest and best in literature and the arts, and for all the refinements of civilization, rather than that none should be so.” Carnegie is suggesting that “houses of some” should be filled with people who care a great deal about culture, or the “highest and best in literature and the arts.” Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because lines 14-18 explicitly state that the people who live in the “houses of some” care a great deal about culture, not that they care about what materials their homes are made of, the size of those homes, or the pedigree of their guests. Question 33 Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? (A) Lines 9-10 (“the palace . . . laborer”) (B) Lines 15-16 (“all . . . arts”) (C) Lines 18-19 (“Much . . . squalor”) (D) Lines 19-20 (“Without . . . Maecenas”) Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. In lines 15-16 Carnegie advocates that the “houses of some” should be filled with people who care a great deal about culture, such as “all that is highest and best in literature and the arts.” Choices A and C are incorrect because lines 9-10 and 18-19 highlight a disparity in wealth between the rich and poor but do not specifically mention people who live in the “houses of some.” Choice D is incorrect because in lines 19-20 Carnegie is suggesting that patrons of the arts exist because of wealth. Question 34 The author uses the phrase “good old times” (line 20) as an example of (A) a cliché that still has life and usefulness left in it. (B) a bit of folk wisdom from his childhood. (C) something said by those who have acquired great riches. (D) something said by people who do not share his viewpoint. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing word choice Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. Carnegie uses quotation marks around the phrase the “good old times” to suggest that others refer to the past as the “good old times.” However, Carnegie states that these “‘good old times’ were not good old times. Neither master nor servant was as well situated then as to-day” (lines 20-22), which suggests that Carnegie does not believe that things were better in the past. Choice A is incorrect because Carnegie immediately refutes the usefulness of the cliché by saying that the “‘good old times’ were not good old times.” Choice B is incorrect because the passage provides no evidence that the saying comes from Carnegie’s childhood. Choice C is incorrect because there is no evidence that the phrase the “good old times” is a cliché used by the wealthy. Question 35 What is the author’s main point about the disadvantages of the modern economic system? (A) It provides only a few people with the advantages of culture. (B) It replicates many of the problems experienced in the past. (C) It creates divisions between different categories of people. (D) It gives certain people great material advantages over others. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Determining central ideas and themes Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. Lines 47-60 explain that by Carnegie’s time standards of living had risen significantly, and that the cost of this increase is that “All intercourse between [rich and poor] is at an end. Rigid castes are formed . . .” (lines 65-66). A disadvantage of the modern economic system, in other words, is that divisions exist between classes and types of people. Choice A is incorrect because Carnegie says it is “essential” that some people have access to high culture (line 14). Choice B is incorrect because Carnegie argues that the “conditions of human life have not only been changed, but revolutionized, within the past few hundred years” (lines 4-6) and does not suggest that the modern economic system replicates past problems. Choice D is incorrect because Carnegie writes, “Much better this great irregularity than universal squalor” (lines 18-19). Question 36 Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? (A) Lines 37-39 (“The master . . . conditions”) (B) Lines 43-45 (“There was . . . State”) (C) Lines 46-47 (“The inevitable . . . prices”) (D) Lines 65-66 (“All intercourse . . . end”) Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. Lines 47-60 explain that by Carnegie’s time standards of living had risen significantly, with lines 61-62 then explaining that those increases came at a cost: “The price we pay for this salutary change is, no doubt, great.” Lines 65-66 explains what that cost, or disadvantage, is: “All intercourse between [rich and poor] is at an end.” A disadvantage of the modern economic system, in other words, is that it creates divisions between classes and types of people. Choice A, B, and C are incorrect because they do not provide evidence that Carnegie believes there are disadvantages to the modern economic system. Choices A and B are incorrect because lines 37-39 and 43-45 explain what life was like “Formerly,” in the time of master and apprentice, before the modern economic system came to exist. Choice C is incorrect because lines 46-47 also describe a condition of a time before the modern economic system. As used in line 82, “in its train” is closest in meaning to (A) before it. (B) with it. (C) anticipating it. (D) advancing it. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Interpreting words and phrases in context Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. In the final paragraph of the passage, Carnegie writes of the “law of competition” (lines 76-77), explaining that the law has some costs but also provides improved living conditions for everyone “in its train.” Saying these conditions come “in the train” of the law means they accompany the law or come with it. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because in this context “in its train” does not mean precede the law, predict the arrival of the law, or help advance the law. Question 38 The author of Passage 1 suggests that the usefulness of de-extinction technology may be limited by the (A) amount of time scientists are able to devote to genetic research. (B) relationship of an extinct species to contemporary ecosystems. (C) complexity of the DNA of an extinct species. (D) length of time that a species has been extinct. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. Lines 9-11 explain that, although some extinct species can be brought back to life, “Only species whose DNA is too old to be recovered, such as dinosaurs, are the ones to consider totally extinct, bodily and genetically.” The determining factor is the length of time that species has been extinct. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because lines 9-11 explicitly state that only DNA that is “too old to be recovered” determines whether a species can be brought back to life, not the amount of time scientists devote to genetic research, the relationship between an extinct species and contemporary ecosystems, or how complex a species’ DNA might be. Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? (A) Lines 7-9 (“Thanks . . . life”) (B) Lines 9-11 (“Only . . . genetically”) (C) Line 13 (“It will be . . . difficult”) (D) Lines 13-14 (“It will take . . . succeed”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. Lines 9-11 state that species that have DNA that is “too old to be recovered” cannot be brought back to life. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because they do not indicate any limits to de-extinction technology. Choice A is incorrect because lines 7-9 explain only that the use of DNA can lead to certain species being brought back to life. Choices C and D are incorrect because line 13 and lines 13-14 explain some challenges to bringing back certain species but do not explain the limits to de-extinction technology. Question 40 As used in line 27, “deepest” most nearly means (A) most engrossing. (B) most challenging. (C) most extensive. (D) most fundamental. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Information and Ideas / Interpreting words and phrases in context Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer. Lines 24-27 explain that “Just the thought of mammoths and passenger pigeons alive again invokes the awe and wonder that drives all conservation at its deepest level.” The author of Passage 1 is suggesting that the “prospect of de-extinction” (line 21) evokes the same emotions of “awe and wonder” that propel conservation efforts at its deepest, or most fundamental, level. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because in this context the “deepest” level of conservation does not mean the most engrossing level, most challenging level, or most extensive level. The authors of Passage 2 indicate that the matter of shrinking biodiversity should primarily be considered a (A) historical anomaly. (B) global catastrophe. (C) scientific curiosity. (D) political problem. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Reading closely Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. “Shrinking biodiversity” means the loss of species, and the authors of Passage 2 clearly state that shrinking biodiversity is a global issue: “Species today are vanishing in such great numbers—many from hunting and habitat destruction—that the trend has been called a sixth mass extinction, an event on par with such die-offs as the one that befell the dinosaurs 65 million years ago” (lines 37-41). Labeling this loss of diversity a “mass extinction” shows that the authors believe this situation is serious and widespread. Choice A is incorrect because the passage states the current loss of biodiversity would be a “sixth” mass extinction, indicating that the occurrence is far from an anomaly (or abnormality). Choices C and D are incorrect because the authors of Passage 2 do not primarily present the shrinking biodiversity as a scientific curiosity or a political problem. Question 42 Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question? (A) Lines 37-41 (“Species . . . ago”) (B) Lines 42-45 (“A program . . . woes”) (C) Lines 53-56 (“Against . . . irresponsible”) (D) Lines 65-67 (“Such . . . grave”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Information and Ideas / Citing textual evidence Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. Lines 37-41 label the shrinking biodiversity as a global catastrophe, as it is “a sixth mass extinction, an event on par with such die-offs as the one that befell the dinosaurs 65 million years ago.” Labeling this loss of diversity a “mass extinction” implies the authors’ belief that this shrinking biodiversity is serious and widespread. Choices B, C, and D do not explain the authors’ opinions on shrinking biodiversity. Choices B and C are incorrect because lines 42-45 and 53-56 describe what the authors view as possible problems with de-extinction. Choice D is incorrect because lines 65-67 provide one reason to continue with de-extinction programs. Question 43 As used in line 37, “great” most nearly means (A) lofty. (B) wonderful. (C) large. (D) intense. Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Information and Ideas / Interpreting words and phrases in context Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. Lines 37-40 state that “species today are vanishing at such great numbers” that the loss of these species is considered a “sixth mass extinction.” In this context, there is a “great,” or large, number of species at risk of extinction. Choice A, B, and D are incorrect because in this context, “great,” does not mean lofty, wonderful, or intense. Question 44 The reference to the “black-footed ferret and the northern white rhino” (line 64) serves mainly to (A) emphasize a key distinction between extinct and living species. (B) account for types of animals whose numbers are dwindling. (C) provide examples of species whose gene pools are compromised. (D) highlight instances of animals that have failed to adapt to new habitats. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Rhetoric / Analyzing text structure Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. The authors of Passage 2 suggest that de-extinction may “help save endangered species.” (line 60). Lines 61-64 provide an example of how de-extinction could be beneficial: “For example, extinct versions of genes could be reintroduced into species and subspecies that have lost a dangerous amount of genetic diversity, such as the black-footed ferret and the northern white rhino.” In this context, the black-footed ferret and northern white rhino are used as examples of species that have lost genetic diversity; in other words, they are species whose gene pools have been compromised. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because lines 61-64 clearly identify the black-footed ferret and the northern white rhino as species whose gene pools have been compromised. They are not highlighted to emphasize any difference between extinct and living species, to explain why the numbers of some animals are dwindling, or to describe species that failed to adapt to new environments. Question 45 Which choice best states the relationship between the two passages? (A) Passage 2 attacks a political decision that Passage 1 strongly advocates. (B) Passage 2 urges caution regarding a technology that Passage 1 describes in favorable terms. (C) Passage 2 expands on the results of a research study mentioned in Passage 1. (D) Passage 2 considers practical applications that could arise from a theory discussed in Passage 1. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Synthesis / Analyzing multiple texts Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer. Passage 1 enthusiastically supports the idea of de-extinction, saying it is “profound news. That something as irreversible and final as extinction might be reversed is a stunning realization” (lines 22-24). Passage 2, on the other hand, recognizes the “gee-whiz appeal” (line 29) of de-extinction but is less certain about its implementation: “Yet with limited intellectual bandwidth and financial resources to go around, de-extinction threatens to divert attention from the modern biodiversity crisis” (lines 30-33). Therefore, Passage 2 urges restraint for an idea that Passage 1 enthusiastically supports. Choice A is incorrect because neither passage focuses on a political decision. Choice C is incorrect because Passage 1 does not mention a research study. Choice D is incorrect because Passage 2 does not consider practical uses (or “applications”) of de-extinction as much as the practical problems that result from its use. How would the authors of Passage 2 most likely respond to the “prospect” referred to in line 21, Passage 1? (A) With approval, because it illustrates how useful de-extinction could be in addressing widespread environmental concerns. (B) With resignation, because the gradual extinction of many living species is inevitable. (C) With concern, because it implies an easy solution to a difficult problem. (D) With disdain, because it shows that people have little understanding of the importance of genetic diversity. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Synthesis / Analyzing multiple texts Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. The author of passage is amazed by the idea of de-extinction, while the authors of Passage 2 warn that a “program to restore extinct species poses a risk of selling the public on a false promise that technology alone can solve our ongoing environmental woes” (lines 42-45). This statement shows that the authors of Passage 2 view de-extinction as a “false promise” that may make the problem of shrinking biodiversity appear easier to solve than it actually will be. Choice A is incorrect because the authors of Passage 2 are less enthusiastic about the “prospect” of de-extinction than the author of Passage 1, as they state that de-extinction “threatens to divert attention from the modern biodiversity crisis” (lines 32-33). Choice B is incorrect because, while the authors of Passage 2 acknowledge that some extinctions may be inevitable, they are not resigned to de-extinction. Choice D is incorrect because the authors of Passage 2 do not suggest that people have little understanding of the biodiversity crisis. Which choice would best support the claim that the authors of Passage 2 recognize that the “imagination soars” (line 24, Passage 1) in response to de-extinction technology? (A) Lines 28-30 (“The . . . news”) (B) Lines 30-33 (“Yet . . . crisis”) (C) Lines 58-59 (“That . . . altogether”) (D) Lines 61-63 (“For . . . diversity”) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Synthesis / Analyzing multiple texts Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. In lines 22-24, the author of Passage 1 writes: “That something as irreversible and final as extinction might be reversed is a stunning realization. The imagination soars.” This enthusiasm for such an exciting possibility is also recognized in Passage 2, which states in lines 28-30 that “The idea of bringing back extinct species holds obvious gee-whiz appeal and a respite from a steady stream of grim news.” By conceding that there is “gee-whiz appeal” to de-extinction, the authors of Passage 2 recognize that it is an idea that makes the “imagination [soar].” Choice B is incorrect because lines 30-33 explain why de-extinction is a threat. Choice C is incorrect because lines 58-59 concede only that the idea of de-extinction is not entirely without merit, a characterization that is far less enthusiastic than the statement “the imagination soars.” Choice D is incorrect because lines 61-63 provide a single example of when de-extinction might be appropriate. Question 1 (A) NO CHANGE (B) see an annual loss of $63.2 billion each year (C) lose $63.2 billion annually (D) have a yearly loss of $63.2 billion annually Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Effective Language Use / Concision Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because it states the situation succinctly and is free of redundancies. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because all three contain a redundancy in which a reference to the annual nature of the loss is stated twice; for example, Choice A states “yearly” and “annually.” Question 2 (A) NO CHANGE (B) main things leading up to (C) huge things about (D) primary causes of Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Effective Language Use / Style and tone Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because the use of language is correct for standard written English and matches the formal tone of the passage. Choices A and C are incorrect because both rely on colloquial language, specifically “big” and “huge,” which strays from the formal tone of the article. Additionally, “things” in Choice C is vague and informal. Choice B is incorrect for the same reason. Question 3 (A) NO CHANGE (B) have spent (C) spends (D) are spent Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Conventions of Usage / Agreement / Subject-verb agreement Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because the verb “spends” grammatically corresponds with the singular noun “American.” Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because, in each instance, the noun and verb do not grammatically correspond. The verbs “spend,” “have spent,” and “are spent” would correspond with a plural noun, but not with the singular noun “American.” Question 4 (A) NO CHANGE (B) workers; managers (C) workers, managers, (D) workers, managers Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Conventions of Punctuation / Within-sentence punctuation Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it provides punctuation that creates a complete sentence with clauses whose relationship to one another is clear. Choice A is incorrect because it results in a sentence fragment. Choice B is incorrect because the first clause is dependent, signaled by the conditional phrase “As long as,” so a semicolon cannot be used. Choice C is incorrect because the comma following “managers” inappropriately separates the noun from the verb “should champion.” Question 5 To make this paragraph most logical, sentence 3 should be placed (A) where it is now. (B) before sentence 1. (C) after sentence 1. (D) after sentence 4. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Organization / Logical sequence Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. Sentence 3 logically follows the statement in sentence 1 where readers learn that part of the problem is the work itself. Sentence 3 then tells readers what about the work has caused the decrease in sleep: “The hours the average American spend[s] working have increased dramatically....” Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because they do not order the information in the paragraph logically. Question 6 At this point, the writer is considering adding the following sentence. “Even fifteen-minute power naps improve alertness, creativity, and concentration.” Should the writer make this addition here? (A) Yes, because it demonstrates that the benefits of napping can be gained without sacrificing large amounts of work time. (B) Yes, because it explains the methodology of the studies mentioned in the previous sentence. (C) No, because a discussion of the type of nap workers take is not important to the writer’s main point in the paragraph. (D) No, because it contradicts the writer’s discussion of napping in the previous sentences. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Development / Focus Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer because it adds relevant information in support of the claim that companies should allow their employees to take naps. Choice B is incorrect because the prospective sentence does not explain methodology. Choice C is incorrect because the example in the sentence provides additional information in support of napping. Choice D is incorrect because there is no contradiction. Question 7 Which choice provides a supporting example that reinforces the main point of the sentence? (A) NO CHANGE (B) including a lower risk of cardiovascular problems such as heart attack and stroke. (C) which are essential in an era of rising health care costs. (D) in addition to making employees more efficient. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Development / Support Best answer: B Choice B is the best answer because it offers a specific example of a long-term health benefit that could lead to “reduced health care costs.” Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because they offer no supporting examples of long-term health benefits that could reduce health care costs. Question 8 (A) NO CHANGE (B) gently wake (C) gently to wake (D) gentle waking of Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Sentence Structure / Sentence formation / Parallel structure Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because the verb “wake” is consistent with the preceding verbs in the series, “block” and “play.” Furthermore, choice B provides a verb that creates a grammatically complete and standard sentence. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because, in each instance, the verb is not consistent with the preceding verbs in the series, “block” and “play.” Question 9 (A) NO CHANGE (B) among (C) between (D) into Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Conventions of Usage / Conventional expression Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because, in this context, the preposition “among” is the only idiomatic choice: napping can be promoted “among” people but not “throughout,” “between,” or “into” them. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because the prepositions “throughout,” “between,” and “into” are unidiomatic in this context. Question 10 (A) NO CHANGE (B) but it benefits (C) as also to (D) but also to Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Sentence Structure / Sentence formation / Subordination and coordination Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it completes a parallel construction in which two elements are compared. In this construction “but also to” is parallel to “not only to” and thus is the only choice that creates a grammatically complete and standard sentence. The “not only…but also” construction is also known as a correlative conjunction, meaning that these two phrases should always travel in pairs. Choices A and C are incorrect because they fail to complete the comparison that the preposition “not only to” signals. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a run-on and incomplete sentence. The writer wants a concluding sentence that restates the main argument of the passage. Which choice best accomplishes this goal? (A) NO CHANGE (B) Clearly, employers should consider reducing employees’ hours when they are overworked. (C) Companies should consider employee schedules carefully when implementing a napping policy. (D) More businesses should follow their lead and embrace napping on the job. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Organization / Introductions, conclusions, and transitions Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it logically concludes the essay, the main argument of which is that napping during the workday boosts employee productivity and morale and reduces costs associated with poor health and absences. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because none of these choices restates the main argument of the passage. Question 12 (A) NO CHANGE (B) pollination: this is (C) pollination, (D) pollination; Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Conventions of Punctuation / Nonrestrictive and parenthetical elements Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because it provides the appropriate punctuation for the nonrestrictive modifying clause “including honeybee pollination.” Because the clause is not essential to the sentence, it should be offset with commas (or other matching punctuation). Since a comma is used before the clause, a comma must be used after it as well. Choices A and D are incorrect because the punctuation does not match the comma that sets off the nonrestrictive modifying clause “including honeybee pollination.” Choice B is incorrect because “this is” is unnecessarily wordy. Question 13 (A) NO CHANGE (B) highlights the potentially disastrous effects (C) highlight the potentially disastrous effects (D) highlight the potentially disastrous affects Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Conventions of Usage / Frequently confused words Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because the verb “highlights” grammatically corresponds with the singular noun phrase “the importance of bees.” Additionally, “effects” is the correct noun to describe outcomes. Choices A and D are incorrect because “affects” is the incorrect word in this context. Choice C is incorrect because there is no subject-verb agreement between the singular noun phrase “the importance of bees” and the verb “highlight.” Question 14 (A) NO CHANGE (B) Known as colony (C) It is known as colony (D) Colony Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Sentence Structure / Sentence formation / Modifier placement Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because it provides a dependent clause that adequately introduces the main subject, colony collapse disorder, which corresponds directly to the subject in the second clause: “this phenomenon.” Choice A is incorrect because “They” has no clear antecedent and creates a comma splice. Choice C is incorrect because it also results in a comma splice. Choice D is incorrect because it creates redundancy with the following noun phrase “this phenomenon.” Which choice offers the most accurate interpretation of the data in the chart? (A) NO CHANGE (B) been above the acceptable range. (C) not changed noticeably from year to year. (D) greatly increased every year. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Development / Quantitative information Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because it accurately represents the information in the chart. Choice A is incorrect because in the 2011-2012 winter season, bee mortality rates fell below 25% of the bee colony. Choice C is incorrect because, according to the chart, bee mortality rates have varied noticeably year to year. Choice D is incorrect for a similar reason. The chart shows that, year to year, bee mortality rates have both increased and decreased. Question 16 Which choice offers an accurate interpretation of the data in the chart? (A) NO CHANGE (B) portion of bees lost was double what it had been the previous year, (rising to (C) number of losses, which had fallen within the acceptable range the previous year, rose to (D) portion of total colonies lost rose almost 10 percentage points, with a loss of Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Development / Quantitative information Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it accurately represents the comparison in bee population loss between the 2010–2012 and 2012–2013 periods. Compared to the 2011–2012 winter season, bee loss was almost 10 percentage points higher the following year. Choice A is incorrect because it states that compared to the preceding years, bee losses fell in 2012–2013 when, according to the data, the opposite was true. Choice B is incorrect because the bee loss in 2012–2013 did not double from 2011–2012. Given that bee loss in 2011–2012 hovered around 22%, double would be around 44%, while the chart says bee loss in 2012–2013 was just over 30%. Choice C is incorrect because it makes a false statement: the number of losses had not “fallen within the acceptable range the previous year.” Question 17 Which choice most smoothly and effectively introduces the writer’s discussion of studies of CCD in this paragraph? (A) NO CHANGE (B) Bees are vanishing, and according to studies there are several possible reasons for this trend. (C) Several possible reasons, offered by studies, may explain why bees are vanishing. (D) DELETE the underlined sentence. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Effective Language Use / Syntax Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. It adequately introduces the paragraph’s main topic in a grammatically complete and standard manner. Choices B and C are incorrect because each is redundant. In B, there is no need to refer to bees vanishing and “this trend” in the same sentence. In choice C, there is no need to specify that “reasons . . . may explain.” Choice D is incorrect because if the paragraph were to begin with the sentence “One reason that is often cited...,” the writer’s discussion of studies of CCD would not be introduced smoothly and effectively. At this point, the writer is considering adding the following sentence. “Prolonged exposure to neonicotinoids has been shown to increase bees’ vulnerability to disease and parasitic mites.” Should the writer make this addition here? (A) Yes, because it provides support for the claim made in the previous sentence. (B) Yes, because it introduces a new idea that will become important later in the passage. (C) No, because it would be better placed elsewhere in the passage. (D) No, because it contradicts the main idea of the passage. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Development / Focus Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer because the information supports the preceding claim by showing how lingering neonicotinoids impact bees in particular. The previous sentence notes “one reason” why bees are vanishing (the use of neonicotinoids), and this proposed sentence usefully elaborates on how neonicotinoids harm bees. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because the information doesn’t introduce a new idea that will become important later in the passage, belong elsewhere in the passage, or contradict the main idea. Question 19 (A) NO CHANGE (B) is a pretty big deal. (C) can’t be put on the back burner. (D) cannot be ignored. Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Effective Language Use / Style and tone Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because the diction is consistent with the article’s tone and style. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because the casual tone and style of the phrases “is not to be scoffed at,” “is a pretty big deal,” and “can’t be put on the back burner” deviate from the more formal tone and style established in the rest of the article. (A) NO CHANGE (B) crops, this is an expensive proposition when there is a shortage of bees. (C) crops, an expensive proposition when there is a shortage of bees. (D) crops; an expensive proposition when there is a shortage of bees. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Sentence Structure / Sentence formation / Sentence boundaries Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because it creates a grammatically correct relationship between an independent clause and a dependent one. Choices A and D are incorrect because a semicolon should link two independent clauses in order to be grammatically correct; in each instance the second clause is dependent. Choice B is incorrect because it creates a comma splice. Question 21 (A) NO CHANGE (B) there (C) their (D) its Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Conventions of Usage / Possessive determiners Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because it provides the correct possessive form of a plural noun, the farmers who are the main subject of the sentence. Choices A and B are incorrect because neither is the correct possessive form of “they.” Choice A is a contraction of the subject “they” and the verb “are,” while Choice B is an adverb that refers to a place or a particular point in time. Choice D is incorrect because it is the possessive form of a singular, not a plural, noun. The writer wants a conclusion that addresses the future of efforts to combat CCD. Which choice results in the passage having the most appropriate concluding sentence? (A) NO CHANGE (B) Still, bee colonies have experienced such devastating losses that the consequences of the issue have been felt worldwide. (C) Although CCD is a relatively new phenomenon, scientists have been studying other aspects of honeybees for over a century. (D) Genetic variation in bee colonies generally improves bees’ productivity, disease resistance, and ability to regulate body temperature. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Organization / Introductions, conclusions, and transitions Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer because the passage already has an appropriate concluding sentence that addresses “the future of efforts to combat CCD.” This sentence supports the last paragraph’s focus on “commonsense measures” by outlining potential CCD-prevention efforts such as “[a] decrease in the use of certain pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides” and stating that these efforts “could begin a shift in a favorable direction.” Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because they don’t address “the future of efforts to combat CCD” that the question demands. Choice B describes the current impact of diminishing bee populations instead of discussing the future. Choice C introduces a new topic that departs from the paragraph’s main topic. Choice D introduces a related topic that needs further elaboration. Question 23 (A) NO CHANGE (B) stood; (C) stood— (D) stood Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Conventions of Punctuation / Unnecessary punctuation Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it creates a grammatically complete and standard sentence. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because each inserts unnecessary punctuation that disrupts the meaning of the sentence, which is to state where Giuseppe Ferrua stood. Question 24 (A) NO CHANGE (B) inside (C) for (D) on Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Conventions of Usage / Conventional expression Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer because the preposition “with” correctly reflects the relationship between the subject, verb, and object: “landscape,” “dotted,” and “vineyards,” respectively. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because each provides a preposition that does not appropriately represent the relationship between the subject, verb, and object. A landscape can be dotted “with” vineyards; it cannot be dotted “inside,” “for,” or “on” vineyards. Question 25 (A) NO CHANGE (B) however, (C) by contrast, (D) thereafter, Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Organization / Introductions, conclusions, and transitions Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer because the information in the sentence elaborates on and supports the claim in the previous sentence: that lunar farming “is driven by the belief that the Moon influences levels of moisture in the soil.” Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because they do not appropriately signal the information in the sentence, which elaborates on and supports the claim in the previous sentence. Rather, Choices B and C suggest that the writer is drawing a contrast, and Choice D introduces a time sequence that is not present in the paragraph. (A) NO CHANGE (B) Given that (C) So (D) DELETE the underlined portion and begin the sentence with a capital letter. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Sentence Structure / Sentence formation / Subordination and coordination Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because it creates a grammatically complete and standard sentence. It also correctly reflects the relationship specified in the passage between moisture and the lunar calendar. Choice A is incorrect because “Although” suggests that the second clause will say something contrary to the first. Choices C and D are incorrect because each results in a grammatically incomplete sentence. Question 27 Which choice most effectively sets up the paragraph? (A) NO CHANGE (B) People all over the world farm by the Moon. (C) Farming by the Moon is not new. (D) Talk of the Moon’s influence is far-reaching. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Development / Proposition Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because it acts effectively as a transition between the previous paragraph and this one. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because none of the three introduces the paragraph’s main topic, the long history of lunar farming. Which choice provides the most specific information on the type of advice a lunar calendar offers? (A) NO CHANGE (B) actions relevant to farming. (C) points in time at which to undertake certain tasks. (D) optimal times to plant, weed, prune, and harvest. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Effective Language Use / Precision Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it provides “the most specific information on the type of advice a lunar calendar offers.” Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because each is vague; specifically, “farm chores,” “actions,” and “certain tasks” are all nebulous terms, and the question asks for the “most specific information.” Question 29 (A) NO CHANGE (B) almanacs’s (C) almanac’s (D) almanacs’ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Conventions of Punctuation / Possessive nouns and pronouns Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because it provides the grammatically correct option for a possessive singular noun. The editor belongs to, or is affiliated with, the almanac. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because each fails to provide a grammatically correct possessive noun. There is only one almanac, the “Old Farmer’s Almanac,” to which the editor belongs. (A) NO CHANGE (B) skeptics, who have yet to be convinced. (C) skeptics—those who doubt the method. (D) skeptics. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Effective Language Use / Concision Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it introduces the paragraph’s topic succinctly without repeating information. By definition, skeptics are people who are unsure, have yet to be convinced, doubt the method, etc. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because all three include redundant information about skeptics. Question 31 (A) NO CHANGE (B) those (C) it’s (D) its Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Conventions of Usage / Possessive determiners Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it provides the possessive pronoun that grammatically corresponds to a singular noun, “agriculture.” Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because each fails to provide a grammatically correct or appropriate possessive pronoun. Choice A presents a possessive pronoun for a plural antecedent rather than a singular one. Choice B’s “those” is vague, leaving the reader unsure of the relationship between the practices and agriculture. Choice C presents a grammatically incorrect construction of the possessive pronoun for it. The writer wants to conclude the paragraph effectively while also reinforcing the point that skepticism toward lunar farming still exists. Which choice best accomplishes this goal? (A) NO CHANGE (B) and therefore no sound scientific data on the subject exist to date. (C) yet many continue to practice lunar farming. (D) leading many to conclude that the practice is based in folklore, not fact. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Organization / Introductions, conclusions, and transitions Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it satisfies the directions of the question by “reinforcing the point that skepticism toward lunar farming still exists.” Only Choice D refers back to the skeptics mentioned at the beginning of the paragraph, acknowledging that “many...conclude that the practice” of lunar farming is “based in folklore, not fact.” Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because, while each makes a logical connection with the preceding part of the sentence, none of the three refers back to the skeptics mentioned at the beginning of the paragraph. Question 33 Which choice gives an additional supporting example that emphasizes the importance of the senses in judging the success of the lunar farming method? (A) NO CHANGE (B) She has taken photographs of the grapevines and landscape. (C) She takes careful notes about Ferrua’s farming methods, asking Ferrua to clarify how he prepares the soil. (D) She dips bread into Ferrua’s olive oil as he explains a soil preparation he does in the fall. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Development / Support Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer because it corresponds with the question’s instructions to choose “an additional supporting example that emphasizes the importance of the senses.” Professor Coffman’s statement about the fragrant rosemary logically follows the English farmer’s statement about his potatoes, as both use sensory impressions to attest to the success of lunar farming. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because each fails to provide an additional supporting example that demonstrates that Professor Coffman “has a similar response” to that of the English farmer. Choices B and D both involve the senses, but neither uses sensory impressions to judge the success of lunar farming. Choice C doesn’t involve a sensory experience; it recounts an experience of information gathering. Question 34 The writer is considering deleting the underlined portion (ending the sentence with a period). Should the writer make this deletion? A) Yes, because the underlined portion detracts from the paragraph’s focus on the Szathmary collection. B) Yes, because the information in the underlined portion is provided in the previous sentence. C) No, because the underlined portion defines a term that is important to the passage. D) No, because the underlined portion gives an example of a particular culinary artifact. Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Development / Focus Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because the term “manuscript recipe books” is unclear without the underlined portion to define it. Choice A is incorrect because the underlined portion is consistent with the paragraph’s focus; it does not detract from it. Choice B is incorrect because the underlined information does not appear in the previous sentence. Choice D is incorrect because, while it asserts correctly that the underlined portion should not be deleted, it does not offer a persuasive reason for keeping the definition of “manuscript recipe books.” A) NO CHANGE B) Regardless of C) In contrast to D) In addition to Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Organization / Introductions, conclusions, and transitions Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer. “Because of” supports the cause-effect relationship between the two clauses in the sentence, which state that as a result of the 20,000-item donation’s size and range, figuring out how to make the information available to the public was “a challenge.” Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because they do not support the cause-effect relationship between the two clauses. Question 36 A) NO CHANGE B) donation of so many culinary artifacts, C) massive donation of cookbooks, D) donation, Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Effective Language Use / Concision Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it does not contain information that has already been established in the preceding sentences of the passage. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because they repeat information already established in the preceding sentences of the passage. A) NO CHANGE B) for C) and D) but Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Sentence Structure / Sentence formation / Subordination and coordination Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because it provides a conjunction, “but,” that accurately reflects the relationship between the two clauses. This relationship contrasts the librarians’ desire to share all the objects in the collection with the problem of presenting the delicate manuscripts. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because each provides a conjunction that does not reflect the relationship between the two clauses. Question 38 A) NO CHANGE B) his or her C) their D) one’s Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Conventions of Usage / Agreement / Pronoun-antecedent agreement Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer because the possessive pronoun “their” grammatically corresponds to the plural “volunteers.” Choice A is incorrect because it provides a possessive pronoun that would correspond with “we,” which would only be valid if the writer were part of the group of volunteers. Choices B and D are incorrect because each provides a possessive pronoun for a singular noun, yet the subject of the clause is the plural noun “volunteers.” A) NO CHANGE B) simple directions C) bare-bones how-tos D) facile protocols Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Effective Language Use / Style and tone Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because it offers wording that is clear and consistent with the style of the passage. Choices A and D are incorrect because both use jargon, or unnecessarily esoteric language, which is inconsistent with the passage’s formal yet accessible style. Choice C is incorrect because the wording is clunky and too colloquial for the passage’s style. Question 40 A) NO CHANGE B) therefore, C) however, D) in short, Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Organization / Introductions, conclusions, and transitions Best Answer: C Choice C is the best answer. It provides a conjunction, “however,” which captures the contrast between transcribing the recipes, described as “easy,” and recognizing some of the ingredients and measurements in the recipes, described as “puzzling.” Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because each fails to capture the relationship between the sentence in which the conjunction appears and the sentence preceding it. Choice A is incorrect because it proposes a conjunction that suggests the sentence is building upon information in the previous sentence. Choice B is incorrect because “therefore” suggests a cause-effect relationship between the two sentences. Choice D is incorrect because it suggests that the second sentence is providing a shortened version of information introduced in the first sentence. Instead, the difference between “easy” in the first sentence of the sequence and “puzzling” in the second denotes a contrast. A) NO CHANGE B) access to C) excess of D) excess to Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Conventions of Usage / Frequently confused words Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because it provides the correct noun, “access,” to indicate the ability to utilize something, and the correct preposition, “to,” to link the noun to the prepositional phrase that follows it. Choice A is incorrect because it provides a noun and preposition combination that does not correspond to standard English. Choices C and D are incorrect because both present the noun “excess,” which is a close homonym of “access,” but means a surfeit or overabundance. Question 42 A) NO CHANGE B) work C) worked D) could have worked Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Sentence Structure / Inappropriate shifts in construction / Verb tense, mood, and voice Best Answer: B Choice B is the best answer because it provides a verb in the present tense (“work”), which is consistent with the present tense verb “don’t fare” that opens the sentence. Choices A and C are incorrect because both use verbs in the past tense. Choice D is incorrect because the compound verb “could have worked” presents a possibility that is not consistent with the tone or purpose of the sentence, in which the writer is making a comparison between archival recipes that don’t hold up well in the present day and those that do. A) NO CHANGE B) almond, cheesecake summer, mince, C) almond cheesecake summer, mince D) almond, cheesecake, summer, mince, Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Conventions of Punctuation / Items in a series Best Answer: A Choice A is the best answer because it provides items in a series that are whole discrete items, each one an example of a dessert from the Szathmary collection. Each item in the series is presented in standard English with the adjective preceding the main noun, for example, “summer mince pie.” Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because each one scrambles the names of the dessert items by separating the parts of their names by commas. Question 44 The writer plans to add the following sentence to this paragraph. “The judges reported that the entries were delicious.” To make this paragraph most logical, the sentence should be placed A) after sentence 1. B) after sentence 2. C) after sentence 3. D) after sentence 4. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Organization / Logical sequence Best Answer: D Choice D is the best answer because the proposed sentence logically follows information about a contest at the Iowa State Fair. At no other point in the paragraph does the writer mention a contest. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because the writer has yet to state that there was a contest or other situation that involved an official judge, so placement of the proposed sentence after any of the first three sentences would be illogical. Question 1 A babysitter earns $8 an hour for babysitting 2 children and an additional $3 tip when both children are put to bed on time. If the babysitter gets the children to bed on time, what expression could be used to determine how much the babysitter earned? A) $8x + 3$, where $x$ is the number of hours B) $3x + 8$, where $x$ is the number of hours C) $x(8 + 2) + 3$, where $x$ is the number of children D) $3x + (8 + 2)$, where $x$ is the number of children Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. Let $x$ be the number of hours that the babysitter worked. Since the babysitter earns money at a rate of $8 per hour, she earned $8x$ dollars for the $x$ hours worked. If the babysitter gets both children to bed on time, the babysitter earns an additional $3 tip. Therefore, the babysitter earned a total amount of $8x + 3$ dollars. Choice B is incorrect since the tip and the rate per hour have been interchanged in the expression. Choices C and D are incorrect since the number of children is not part of how the babysitter’s earnings are calculated. Question 2 \[3(x + y) = y\] If $(x, y)$ is a solution to the equation above and $y \neq 0$, what is the ratio $\frac{x}{y}$? A) $-\frac{4}{3}$ B) $-\frac{2}{3}$ C) $\frac{1}{3}$ D) $\frac{2}{3}$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. We can find the ratio $\frac{x}{y}$ by rearranging the equation. Multiplying out the expression on the left side of the equation yields $3x + 3y = y$. Then, subtracting $3y$ from both sides of the equation gives $3x = -2y$. Finally, dividing both sides of this equation by $3y$ (note that $y \neq 0$) gives $\frac{x}{y} = -\frac{2}{3}$. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect; they could result from errors during algebraic transformations of the equation $3(x + y) = y$. Question 3 \[ \frac{1}{2}x - \frac{1}{4}y = 10 \\ \frac{1}{8}x - \frac{1}{8}y = 19 \] Which ordered pair $(x, y)$ satisfies the system of equations above? A) $(-112, -264)$ B) $(64, 88)$ C) $\left(\frac{232}{3}, \frac{224}{3}\right)$ D) $(288, 536)$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. First, we clear the fractions from the two given equations by multiplying both sides of the first equation by 4 and then both sides of the second equation by 8 (note that the new equations are equivalent to the original ones). Thus the system becomes \[ \begin{cases} 2x - y = 40 \\ x - y = 152 \end{cases} \] Subtracting side by side the second equation from the first eliminates the variable $y$, \[(2x - y) - (x - y) = 40 - 152,\] leaving an equation with just one variable, $x$. Solving this equation gives $x = -112$. Substituting $-112$ for $x$ into the equation $x - y = 152$ gives $y = -264$. Therefore, $(-112, -264)$ is the ordered pair that satisfies the system of equations given. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect since the ordered pair in each choice does not satisfy both equations in the system. For example, the ordered pair of choice B, $(64, 88)$, does not satisfy equation $\frac{1}{8}x - \frac{1}{8}y = 19$ because $\frac{1}{8}(64) - \frac{1}{8}(88) \neq 19$. Triangle $ABC$ above is isosceles with $AB = AC$ and $BC = 48$. The ratio of $DE$ to $DF$ is $5:7$. What is the length of $\overline{DC}$? A) 12 B) 20 C) 24 D) 28 Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Additional Topics in Math Correct Answer: D Choice D is the correct answer. The base angles, $\angle B$ and $\angle C$, of isosceles triangle $ABC$ are congruent. Additionally, $\angle BED$ and $\angle CFD$ are both right angles and therefore are congruent. Because $\Delta BED$ and $\Delta CFD$ have two corresponding pairs of angles that are congruent, they are similar. Consequently, the corresponding sides of the similar triangles are proportional. So $\frac{BD}{DC} = \frac{DE}{DF}$, and since $\frac{DE}{DF} = \frac{5}{7}$, it follows that $\frac{BD}{DC} = \frac{5}{7}$. If we let $BD = 5x$, then $DC = 7x$. Since $BD + DC = BC$ and $BC = 48$, it follows that $5x + 7x = 48$. Solving this equation for $x$ gives $x = 4$, and so $DC$ is $7(4) = 28$. Alternatively: Due to the similarity of $\Delta BED$ and $\Delta CFD$, one can conclude that $\frac{BD}{DC} = \frac{5}{7}$, and so $DC$ must be greater than half of $BC$, which is 24. Of the choices given, only one satisfies this condition, namely 28. If $DC = 28$, then $BD = 48 - 28 = 20$, confirming that $\frac{BD}{DC} = \frac{20}{28} = \frac{5}{7}$. Therefore, the length of $\overline{DC}$ must be 28. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because each of the values for $DC$ would result in $BC$ being less than 48 units long. Question 5 In a certain game, a player can solve easy or hard puzzles. A player earns 30 points for solving an easy puzzle and 60 points for solving a hard puzzle. Tina solved a total of 50 puzzles playing this game, earning 1,950 points in all. How many hard puzzles did Tina solve? A) 10 B) 15 C) 25 D) 35 Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. Let $x$ and $y$ be the number of easy and hard puzzles, respectively, that Tina solved. Since she solved a total of 50 puzzles, it follows that $x + y = 50$. She earned a total of 1,950 points, so it must also be true that $30x + 60y = 1,950$. Dividing both sides of this equation by 30 gives $x + 2y = 65$. Subtracting the first equation, $x + y = 50$, from the second equation, $x + 2y = 65$, gives $y = 15$. Therefore, Tina solved 15 hard puzzles. Alternatively: Let $x$ be the number of easy puzzles Tina solved. Then, $50 - x$ is the number of hard puzzles she solved. And since she earned a total of 1,950 points, it must be true that $30x + 60(50 - x) = 1,950$. Solving this equation for $x$ gives $x = 35$, and so $50 - x = 15$. Therefore, Tina solved 15 hard puzzles. Choices A and C are incorrect because if the number of hard puzzles Tina solved were as they indicate, the total number of points she would earn will not be 1,950. The incorrect answer in choice D could be the result of interchanging the number of hard puzzles and easy puzzles. Question 6 \[2x^2 + 7x - 15 = 0\] If $r$ and $s$ are two solutions of the equation above and $r > s$, which of the following is the value of $r - s$? A) $\frac{15}{2}$ B) $\frac{13}{2}$ C) $\frac{11}{2}$ D) $\frac{3}{2}$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: B Choice B is correct. This equation can be solved using the quadratic formula or factoring. The quadratic formula approach is left as an exercise for students. We will show first how to solve this equation using simple factoring and then will show how to solve it using both the structure of the equation and factoring. Since $7x = 10x - 3x$, the given equation can be rewritten as $2x^2 + (10x - 3x) - 15 = 0$. Regrouping the terms so that the left side of the equation is in the factored form gives $(2x - 3)(x + 5) = 0$, from which it follows that $2x - 3 = 0$ or $x + 5 = 0$. Thus, the quadratic equation has solutions $\frac{3}{2}$ and $-5$. Since $r$ and $s$ are solutions to the quadratic equation and $r > s$, we can conclude that $r = \frac{3}{2}$ and $s = -5$; therefore, \[r - s = \frac{3}{2} - (-5) = \frac{13}{2}.\] Alternatively: Multiplying the original equation by 2, we can rewrite it in terms of $2x$ as follows: $(2x)^2 + 7(2x) - 30 = 0$. Since the two numbers whose sum is $-7$ and whose product is $-30$ are $-10$ and $3$, the equation will be factored as \[(2x - 3)(2x + 10) = 0,\] generating $\frac{3}{2}$ and $-5$ as solutions. Since $r$ and $s$ are solutions to the quadratic equation and $r > s$, we can conclude that $r = \frac{3}{2}$ and $s = -5$; therefore, \[r - s = \frac{3}{2} - (-5) = \frac{13}{2}.\] Choices A, C, and D are incorrect and could result from calculating the value of expressions given in terms of the solutions $r$ and $s$, but are not equivalent to the difference $r - s$ of these solutions. For example, $\frac{15}{2}$ is the value of $-rs$, not the value of $r - s$. Question 7 To cut a lawn, Allan charges a fee of $15 for his equipment and $8.50 per hour spent cutting a lawn. Taylor charges a fee of $12 for his equipment and $9.25 per hour spent cutting a lawn. If $x$ represents the number of hours spent cutting a lawn, what are all the values of $x$ for which Taylor’s total charge is greater than Allan’s total charge? A) $x > 4$ B) $3 \leq x \leq 4$ C) $4 \leq x \leq 5$ D) $x < 3$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. If $x$ represents the number of hours spent cutting the lawn, the total fee that Allan charges is $8.5x + 15$ dollars and the total fee that Taylor charges is $9.25x + 12$ dollars. To find all of the values of $x$ for which Taylor’s total fee is greater than Allan’s total fee, we solve the inequality $9.25x + 12 > 8.5x + 15$, which simplifies to $0.75x > 3$, and so $x > 4$. Alternatively: Since Taylor’s hourly rate charge is higher than Allan’s, it can be concluded that after a certain amount of hours, Taylor’s total charge will always be greater than Allan’s total charge. Thus the inequality that represents all possible values of $x$ for which this occurs will be of the form $x > a$ for some value $a$. Of the choices given, only $x > 4$ is in this form. Lastly, one can confirm that Taylor and Allan charge the same amount when $x = 4$. Therefore, choice A is correct. Choice B is incorrect because Allan’s total charge is greater than Taylor’s total charge when $x < 4$. Choice C is incorrect because Allan’s total charge and Taylor’s total charge at $x = 4$ are exactly the same, and Taylor’s total charge is greater than Allan’s total charge also for values of $x$ greater than 5. Choice D is incorrect because Allan’s total charge is greater than Taylor’s charge when $x$ is less than 3. Question 8 \[ n = 456 - 3T \] The equation above is used to model the relationship between the number of cups, $ n $, of hot chocolate sold per day in a coffee shop and the average daily temperature, $ T $, in degrees Fahrenheit. According to the model, what is the meaning of the 3 in the equation? A) For every increase of 3°F, one more cup of hot chocolate will be sold. B) For every decrease of 3°F, one more cup of hot chocolate will be sold. C) For every increase of 1°F, three more cups of hot chocolate will be sold. D) For every decrease of 1°F, three more cups of hot chocolate will be sold. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: D Choice D is the correct answer. According to the model, if the average daily temperature is $ T $ degrees Fahrenheit, then the number of cups of hot chocolate sold per day in the coffee shop would be $ 456 - 3T $. If the temperature decreases by 1°F, then the number of cups of hot chocolate sold per day in the coffee shop would be $ 456 - 3(T - 1) $, which can be rewritten as $ (456 - 3T) + 3 $. Therefore, for every 1°F drop in the average daily temperature, the coffee shop sells three more cups of hot chocolate. Choices A and B are incorrect because the change in the average daily temperature and the change in the number of cups of hot chocolate have been interchanged. Choice C is incorrect because, according to the model, the higher value of daily temperature corresponds to a lower, not higher, number of cups of hot chocolate sold. Question 9 A truck enters a stretch of road that drops 4 meters in elevation for every 100 meters along the length of the road. The road is at 1,300 meters elevation where the truck entered, and the truck is traveling at 16 meters per second along the road. What is the elevation of the road, in meters, at the point where the truck passes $t$ seconds after entering the road? A) $1,300 - 0.04t$ B) $1,300 - 0.64t$ C) $1,300 - 4t$ D) $1,300 - 16t$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. Since the truck is traveling at 16 meters per second along the road, the distance it has traveled $t$ seconds after entering the road is $16t$ meters. Since the elevation of the road drops 4 meters for every 100 meters along the length of the road, it follows that for $16t$ meters along the road, the elevation drops $\frac{4}{100} \times 16t$ or $0.64t$. Therefore, the elevation of the road at the point where the truck passes $t$ seconds after entering the road is $1,300 - 0.64t$ meters. Choice A is incorrect because $\frac{4}{100}t$ would be the number of meters that the elevation drops $t$ seconds after the truck enters the road if its speed were 1 meter per second. Choice C is incorrect because $4t$ meters does not give the number of meters the elevation of the road drops. Choice D is incorrect because the drop rate of 4 meters for every 100 meters along the road is not used. If $ f(x - 1) = 2x + 3 $ for all values of $ x $, what is the value of $ f(-3) $? A) $-7$ B) $-5$ C) $-3$ D) $-1$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: D Choice D is correct. Since $ f(x - 1) = 2x + 3 $ for all values of $ x $, \[ f(-3) = f(-2 - 1) = 2(-2) + 3, \] and so the value of $ f(-3) $ is $-1$. Alternatively: $ 2x + 3 $ can be rewritten as $ 2(x - 1) + 5 $, and since $ f(x - 1) = 2(x - 1) + 5 $ for all values of $ x $, it follows that $ f(x) = 2x + 5 $ for all values of $ x $. Substituting $-3$ for $ x $ in this equation gives $ f(-3) = 2(-3) + 5 = -1 $. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect because $ f $ is a function, and there is one and only one value for $ f(-3) $, which as shown above is $-1$. Therefore, neither of the choices, $-7$, $-5$, or $-3$ can be the value of $ f(-3) $. Question 11 Which of the following is equivalent to $ (s - t)\left(\frac{s}{t}\right) $? A) $ \frac{s}{t} - s $ B) $ \frac{s}{t} - st $ C) $ \frac{s^2}{t} - s $ D) $ \frac{s^2}{t} - \frac{s}{t^2} $ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. Using the distributive property to expand the given expression gives $ s\left(\frac{s}{t}\right) - t\left(\frac{s}{t}\right) = \frac{s^2}{t} - s $. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect. In each of these choices, at least one of the products in the expansion is not correct. For example $ s\left(\frac{s}{t}\right) = \frac{s^2}{t} $, not $ \frac{s}{t} $, and $ t\left(\frac{s}{t}\right) = s $, not $ st $ or $ \frac{s}{t} $. Question 12 \[ p(x) = 3(x^2 + 10x + 5) - 5(x - k) \] In the polynomial $ p(x) $ defined above, $ k $ is a constant. If $ p(x) $ is divisible by $ x $, what is the value of $ k $? A) $-3$ B) $-2$ C) 0 D) 3 Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. If polynomial $ p(x) $ is divisible by $ x $, then $ x $ must be a factor of the polynomial, or equivalently, the constant term of the polynomial must be zero. Multiplying out on the right side of the equation gives \[ p(x) = 3x^2 + 30x + 15 - 5x + 5k, \] which can be rewritten as \[ p(x) = 3x^2 + 25x + (5k + 15). \] Hence, $ 5k + 15 = 0 $, and so $ k = -3 $. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because if the value of $ k $ were as indicated in those choices, then $ x $ would not be a factor of the polynomial $ p(x) $, and so $ p(x) $ would not be divisible by $ x $. In the $xy$-plane, if the parabola with equation $y = ax^2 + bx + c$, where $a$, $b$, and $c$ are constants, passes through the point $(-1, 1)$, which of the following must be true? A) $a - b = 1$ B) $-b + c = 1$ C) $a + b + c = 1$ D) $a - b + c = 1$ Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: D Choice D is the correct answer. If the graph of a parabola passes through the point $(-1, 1)$, then the ordered pair $(-1, 1)$ must satisfy the equation of the parabola. Thus, $1 = a(-1)^2 + b(-1) + c$, which is equivalent to $a - b + c = 1$. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect and could result from misinterpreting what it means for the point $(-1, 1)$ to be on the parabola or from common calculation errors while expressing this fact algebraically. Question 14 For what value of $h$ is $24 = \frac{h}{10} - 6$? Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: 300 The correct answer is 300. To solve the given equation for $h$, first add 6 to both sides of the equation to get $30 = \frac{h}{10}$. Then multiply both sides of this equation by 10 to yield $h = 300$. What is the value of $a$ if $(2a + 3) - (4a - 8) = 7$? Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: 2 The correct answer is 2. The equation given can be rewritten as $2a + 3 - 4a + 8 = 7$, which is equivalent to $-2a + 11 = 7$, and so $a = 2$. Question 16 If $x$ is not equal to zero, what is the value of $\frac{4(3x)^2}{(2x)^2}$? Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: 9 The correct answer is 9. Multiplying out the given expression gives $\frac{4(9x^2)}{4x^2}$. Since $x \neq 0$, dividing both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction by $4x^2$ simplifies the expression to 9. Question 17 If $x - 2$ is a factor of $x^2 - bx + b$, where $b$ is a constant, what is the value of $b$? Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: 4 The correct answer is 4. If $x - 2$ is a factor of $x^2 - bx + b$, where $b$ is a constant, then $x^2 - bx + b$ can be written as the product $(x - 2)(x - a)$ for some real number $a$. Expanding $(x - 2)(x - a)$ gives $x^2 - 2x - ax + 2a$, which can be rewritten as $x^2 - (2 + a)x + 2a$. Hence, $x^2 - (2 + a)x + 2a = x^2 - bx + b$ is true for all values of $x$. Consequently, the coefficients of like terms on each side of the equation must be the same: $2 + a = b$ and $2a = b$. Solving this system gives $b = 4$. Alternatively: Since $x - 2$ is a factor of $x^2 - bx + b$ and $(x - 2)^2 = x^2 - 4x + 4$, one can correctly conclude that the value of $b$ is 4. Question 1 Tyra subscribes to an online gaming service that charges a monthly fee of $5.00 and $0.25 per hour for time spent playing premium games. Which of the following functions gives Tyra’s cost, in dollars, for a month in which she spends $ x $ hours playing premium games? A) $ C(x) = 5.25x $ B) $ C(x) = 5x + 0.25 $ C) $ C(x) = 5 + 0.25x $ D) $ C(x) = 5 + 25x $ Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. Tyra pays $0.25 per hour for time spent playing premium games, so for the month in which she spends $ x $ hours playing premium games, she pays $ 0.25x $ dollars for playing the premium games. She also pays an additional $5 monthly fee. Therefore, Tyra’s cost, in dollars, for the month in which she spends $ x $ hours playing premium games is given by the function $ C(x) = 5 + 0.25x $. Choice A is incorrect because Tyra is not charged $5.25 per hour for time playing premium games. Choice B is incorrect because the charge per hour has been interchanged with the monthly fee. Choice D is incorrect because $ 25x $ is the charge for playing premium games in cents, not in dollars. Question 2 A grocery store sells a brand of juice in individual bottles and in packs of 6 bottles. On a certain day, the store sold a total of 281 bottles of the brand of juice, of which 29 were sold as individual bottles. Which equation shows the number of packs of bottles, $p$, sold that day? A) $p = \frac{281 - 29}{6}$ B) $p = \frac{281 + 29}{6}$ C) $p = \frac{281}{6} - 29$ D) $p = \frac{281}{6} + 29$ Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. Since the store sold a total of 281 bottles, 29 of which were sold individually, it follows that $281 - 29$ bottles were sold in packs of 6 bottles. Therefore, the number of packs of bottles, $p$, sold that day in the store is $p = \frac{281 - 29}{6}$. Choice B is incorrect. Adding the number of bottles sold individually, 29, to the total number of bottles sold, 281, does not give the number of bottles that were sold in packs of 6. Choices C and D are incorrect and could result from dividing all of the bottles into groups of 6 (incorrectly assuming that all 281 bottles of juice were sold in packs of 6), and either subtracting the 29 bottles sold individually from that result, as in choice C, or adding the 29 bottles to that result, as in choice D. The line graph above shows the monthly rainfall from March to October last year in Chestnut City. According to the graph, what was the greatest change (in absolute value) in the monthly rainfall between two consecutive months? A) 1.5 inches B) 2.0 inches C) 2.5 inches D) 3.5 inches Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. The greatest change (in absolute value) in monthly rainfall could be an increase or a decrease in monthly rainfall. The table below shows the approximate changes in monthly rainfall in Chestnut City last year between each of the two consecutive months. \| Consecutive months \| Change in monthly rainfall (inches) \| \|--------------------\|------------------------------------\| \| March to April \| 0.5 \| \| April to May \| 1 \| \| May to June \| 0.5 \| \| June to July \| 1.5 \| \| July to August \| 0.5 \| \| August to September\| 1 \| \| September to October\| 2.5 \| Of the values on the right column, the greatest is from September to October, which is a change of 2.5 inches. Choices A, B, and D are incorrect because they contain values that either do not represent any of the changes in monthly rainfall between two consecutive months or that are not the greatest change. Question 4 A rectangle has perimeter $P$, length $\ell$ and width $w$. Which of the following represents $\ell$ in terms of $P$ and $w$? A) $\ell = P - w$ B) $\ell = \frac{2P - w}{2}$ C) $\ell = \frac{P - 2w}{2}$ D) $\ell = 2P - 2w$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. The perimeter of a rectangle is the sum of the four sides and can be calculated using the formula $P = 2\ell + 2w$, where $\ell$ is the length and $w$ is the width of the rectangle. Subtracting $2w$ from both sides of the equation gives $$P - 2w = 2\ell,$$ and then dividing by 2 yields $\ell = \frac{P - 2w}{2}$. Choice A is incorrect. This choice does not use the fact that the perimeter of a rectangle is the sum of two length and two widths. Choice B and D are incorrect. In each of these choices, the equation incorrectly doubles the perimeter. Question 5 Which ordered pair $(x, y)$ satisfies the system of equations shown below? \[ 2x - y = 6 \\ x + 2y = -2 \] A) $(-6, 2)$ B) $(-2, 2)$ C) $(2, -2)$ D) $(4, 2)$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. To eliminate $y$, the first equation in the system can be multiplied by 2 and then the equations can be added as shown below. \[ 4x - 2y = 12 \\ x + 2y = -2 \\ 5x + 0 = 10 \] Since the result is $5x = 10$, it follows that $x = 2$. Substituting 2 for $x$ into the equation $x + 2y = -2$ gives $2 + 2y = -2$ and so $y = -2$. Therefore, $(2, -2)$ is the solution to the system given. Alternatively: Use the substitution method to solve the system. For example, the first equation can be rewritten as $y = 2x - 6$. Substituting $2x - 6$ for $y$ in the second equation gives $x + 2(2x - 6) = -2$, and so $x = 2$. Finally, substituting 2 for $x$ in $y = 2x - 6$ gives $y = -2$, leading to the same solution of the system, namely $(2, -2)$. Choice B is incorrect. The value for $x$ and the value for $y$ have been reversed in the ordered pair. Choices A and D are incorrect. The ordered pair in each of these choices does not satisfy at least one of the equations in the system. For example, the ordered pair $(4, 2)$ does not satisfy the equation $x + 2 = -2$, since $4 + 2(2) \neq -2$. Question 6 A soda company is filling bottles of soda from a tank that contains 500 gallons of soda. At most, how many 20-ounce bottles can be filled from the tank? (1 gallon = 128 ounces) A) 25 B) 78 C) 2,560 D) 3,200 Item Difficulty: Easy Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: D Choice D is the correct answer. Since 1 gallon equals 128 ounces, 500 gallons equal $(500)(128) = 64,000$ ounces. Therefore, the maximum number of 20-ounce bottles that can be filled with the soda from the tank is $\frac{64,000}{20} = 3,200$. Choice A is incorrect and could result from dividing 500 (the number of gallons contained in the tank) by 20 (the capacity of one bottle, in ounces). The gallons need to be converted into ounces first, and then the result can be divided by 20. Choices B and C are incorrect because they do not give the maximum number of 20-ounce bottles that can be filled from the soda in the tank. Question 7 A car traveled at an average speed of 80 miles per hour for 3 hours and consumed fuel at a rate of 34 miles per gallon. Approximately how many gallons of fuel did the car use for the entire 3-hour trip? A) 2 B) 3 C) 6 D) 7 Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: D Choice D is the correct answer. Since the car traveled at an average speed of 80 miles per hour, the distance the car traveled during 3 hours is $(80)(3) = 240$ miles. The car consumed fuel at a rate of 34 miles per gallon, so the car used $\frac{240}{34}$ gallons of fuel, which is approximately 7 gallons of fuel. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect. For each of these choices, the amount of fuel is not enough to travel the entire 240 miles. Question 8 What is the slope of the line in the $xy$-plane that passes through the points $\left(-\frac{5}{2}, 1\right)$ and $\left(-\frac{1}{2}, 4\right)$? A) $-1$ B) $-\frac{2}{3}$ C) 1 D) $\frac{3}{2}$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: D Choice D is the correct answer. In the $xy$-plane, the slope $m$ of a line that passes through the points $(x_1, y_1)$ and $(x_2, y_2)$ is the change in $y$ over the change in $x$ (rise over run), which is expressed by the formula $m = \frac{y_2 - y_1}{x_2 - x_1}$. Thus, the slope of the line through the points $\left(-\frac{5}{2}, 1\right)$ and $\left(-\frac{1}{2}, 4\right)$ is $\frac{4 - 1}{-\frac{1}{2} - \left(-\frac{5}{2}\right)}$, which simplifies to $\frac{3}{2}$. Choices A and C are incorrect because the change in $y$ and the change in $x$ do not have the same magnitude. Choice B is incorrect; the fraction $-\frac{2}{3}$ is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the line through the points $\left(-\frac{5}{2}, 1\right)$ and $\left(-\frac{1}{2}, 4\right)$. Question 9 The scatterplot above shows the widths and the heights of 12 types of rectangular envelopes. What is the width, in inches, of the envelope represented by the data point that is farthest from the line of best fit (not shown)? A) 2 B) 5 C) 7 D) 12 Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. The data point that is farthest from the line of best fit is located at $(7, 4)$, which means that this point represents a type of envelope that is 7 inches wide and 4 inches high. Choices A and B are incorrect because none of the data points with width 2 or width 5 is the farthest from the line of best fit. Choice D is incorrect because the scatterplot does not contain any points with width 12 inches. A high school basketball team won exactly 65 percent of the games it played during last season. Which of the following could be the total number of games the team played last season? A) 22 B) 20 C) 18 D) 14 Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. The number of games won by the basketball team must be a whole number. Since 65% is equivalent to $\frac{13}{20}$, it follows that, of the choices given, the total number of games the team played last season can only be 20. Multiplying $\frac{13}{20}$ by each of the other answer choices does not result in a whole number. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because 65% of each of the numbers in the choices results in non-whole numbers. Question 11 \[110x + y = 1,210\] A coffee shop is running a promotion where a number of free coffee samples are given away each day. The equation above can be used to model the number of free coffee samples, $y$, that remain to be given away $x$ days after the promotion began. What does it mean that $(11, 0)$ is a solution to this equation? A) During the promotion, 11 samples are given away each day. B) It takes 11 days during the promotion to see 1,210 customers. C) It takes 11 days during the promotion until none of the samples are remaining. D) There are 11 samples available at the start of the promotion. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. Since $x$ represents the number of days after the promotion began and $y$ represents the remaining number of coffee samples, the fact that the ordered pair $(11, 0)$ is a solution to the given equation means that it takes 11 days during the promotion until none of the samples are remaining. Choice A is incorrect; if 11 samples were given away each day, then the coefficient of $x$ in the equation would be 11. Therefore, this is not the correct interpretation of $(11, 0)$ as a solution to the equation. Choice B is incorrect; the total number of free coffee samples given away during 11 days of the promotion was 1,210. But the number of customers who were in the store during those days need not be 1,210. Choice D is incorrect; according to the given equation, there were 1,210, not 11, samples available at the start of the promotion. Question 12 Which scatterplot shows a negative association that is not linear? (Note: A negative association between two variables is one in which higher values of one variable correspond to lower values of the other variable, and vice versa.) A) B) C) D) Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. Of the choices given, only the scatterplots in A and B show a negative association between variables $x$ and $y$, and of these two associations, the one depicted in choice B is not linear. Choice A is incorrect. The association depicted in this scatterplot is negative, but it can also be linear. Choice C is incorrect. The association depicted in this scatterplot is not linear. However, for $x$ greater than 10, the association between $x$ and $y$ is positive. Choice D is incorrect. There is no clear association between $x$ and $y$ in this scatterplot. Question 13 The histogram above shows the distribution of the heights, in meters, of 26 pyramids in Egypt. Which of the following could be the median height of the 26 pyramids represented in the histogram? A) 44 meters B) 48 meters C) 63 meters D) 77 meters Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. The median of a data set is the middle value when the data points are sorted in either ascending or descending order. When the number of the data points is even, then the median is the mean of the two middle values of the sorted data. Hence, the median height of the 26 pyramids is the mean of the 13th and 14th tallest pyramids. Since the number of pyramids that are less than 30 meters high is 5 and the number of pyramids that are less than 60 meters high is 17, the median height of the 26 pyramids must be between 45 and 60 meters. Therefore, of the choices given, only 48 meters could be the median height of the 26 pyramids. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because the median height of the 26 pyramids cannot be less than 45 meters or greater than 60 meters. Questions 14-16 refer to the following information. A survey of 170 randomly selected teenagers aged 14 through 17 in the United States was conducted to gather data on summer employment of teenagers. The data are shown in the table below. \| \| Have a summer job \| Do not have a summer job \| Total \| \|------------------\|-------------------\|--------------------------\|-------\| \| Ages 14–15 \| 20 \| 69 \| 89 \| \| Ages 16–17 \| 39 \| 42 \| 81 \| \| Total \| 59 \| 111 \| 170 \| Question 14 Which of the following is closest to the percent of those surveyed who had a summer job? A) 22% B) 35% C) 47% D) 53% Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. The number of teenagers surveyed in the data is 170. Of those surveyed, a total of 59 teenagers had a summer job; thus, the percent of those teenagers surveyed who had a summer job is $\frac{59}{170} = 0.347$, which rounds to 35%. Choice A is incorrect. This choice, 22%, is the approximate percent $\left(\frac{20}{89} \approx 0.22\right)$ of teenagers aged 14 to 15 who had summer jobs. But that is not precisely what is asked in this question. Choices C and D are incorrect and may be the result of calculating relative frequencies that are different from what the problem asks. Question 15 In 2012 the total population of individuals in the United States who were between 14 and 17 years old (inclusive) was about 17 million. If the survey results are used to estimate information about summer employment of teenagers across the country, which of the following is the best estimate of the total number of individuals between 16 and 17 years old in the United States who had a summer job in 2012? A) 8,200,000 B) 3,900,000 C) 2,000,000 D) 390,000 Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. In 2012, the total population of individuals in the United States who were between 14 and 17 years old (inclusive) was about 17 million, which is $10^5$ times the size of the survey sample, 170. Since of those surveyed, 39 teenagers aged 16 to 17 had a summer job, it follows that the best estimate of the total number of individuals aged 16 to 17 in the United States who had a summer job in 2012 was $39 \times 10^5 = 3,900,000$. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect and are likely the result of either conceptual or calculation errors made. Question 16 Based on the data, how many times more likely is it for a 14 year old or a 15 year old to NOT have a summer job than it is for a 16 year old or a 17 year old to NOT have a summer job? (Round the answer to the nearest hundredth.) A) 0.52 times as likely B) 0.65 times as likely C) 1.50 times as likely D) 1.64 times as likely Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. According to the data shown in the table, 69 out of 89 teenagers aged 14 to 15 did not have summer jobs. So for a 14- or 15-year-old, the likelihood of not having a summer job is $\frac{69}{89}$. And since 42 out of 81 teenagers aged 16 to 17 did not have a summer job, the likelihood that a 15- or 16-year-old not having a summer job is $\frac{42}{81}$. Therefore, a 14- or 15-year-old is $$\frac{69}{89} \div \frac{42}{81} = \frac{1,863}{1,246} = 1.49518,$$ or about 1.50, times more likely to not have a summer job. Choice A is incorrect. This choice could result from calculating the likelihood that a teenager aged 16 to 17 will not have a summer job $\left(\frac{42}{81}\right)$. Choice B is incorrect. This choice could result from calculating the likelihood that a teenager aged 14 through 17 will not have a summer job is $\left(\frac{111}{170}\right)$. Choice D is incorrect. This choice could result from calculating the ratio of the number of teenagers aged 14 to 15 who do not have a summer job (69) to the number of teenagers aged 16 to 17 who do not have a summer job (42). If the total number of those surveyed in the two different groups were the same, this result would be correct. But the sizes of the two groups are different; therefore, the result obtained is incorrect. The graph above shows the amount of protein supplied by five different food products, $A$, $B$, $C$, $D$, and $E$, as a percentage of their total weights. The costs of 10 grams of products $A$, $B$, $C$, $D$, and $E$ are $2.00$, $2.20$, $2.50$, $4.00$, and $5.00$, respectively. Which of the five food products supplies the most protein per dollar? A) $A$ B) $B$ C) $C$ D) $E$ Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. The table below organizes the information in the graph and the additional data needed to answer the question. \| Food product \| Cost of 10 grams of product \| Amount of product (in grams) \| Percent protein \| Amount of protein (in grams) \| Protein per dollar (in grams/dollar) \| \|--------------\|-----------------------------\|------------------------------\|-----------------\|-------------------------------\|-------------------------------------\| \| $A$ \| $2.00$ \| 10 \| 10% \| $0.1(10) = 1$ \| $\frac{10(0.1)}{2} = 0.5$ \| \| $B$ \| $2.20$ \| 10 \| 15% \| $0.15(10) = 1.5$ \| $\frac{10(0.15)}{2.2} = 0.68$ \| \| $C$ \| $2.50$ \| 10 \| 20% \| $0.2(10) = 2$ \| $\frac{10(0.2)}{2.5} = 0.8$ \| \| $D$ \| $4.00$ \| 10 \| 25% \| $0.25(10) = 2.5$ \| $\frac{10(0.25)}{4} = 0.625$ \| \| $E$ \| $5.00$ \| 10 \| 30% \| $0.3(10) = 3$ \| $\frac{10(0.3)}{5} = 0.6$ \| According to the table, food product C provides the most protein per dollar (0.8). Choices A, B, and D are incorrect. For each choice, the protein per dollar for each of the food products is less than 0.8 grams of protein per dollar. Question 18 In quadrilateral $ABCD$ above, $\overline{BC}$ is parallel to $\overline{AD}$, and $AB = CD$. If $BC$ and $AD$ were each doubled and $BE$ was reduced by 50 percent, how would the area of $ABCD$ change? A) The area of $ABCD$ would be decreased by 50 percent. B) The area of $ABCD$ would be increased by 50 percent. C) The area of $ABCD$ would not change. D) The area of $ABCD$ would be multiplied by 2. Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. Quadrilateral $ABCD$ is a trapezoid, and the formula for the area of a trapezoid is $A = \frac{1}{2}h(b_1 + b_2)$, where $b_1$ and $b_2$ are the bases of the trapezoid ($BC$ and $AD$) and $h$ is the height ($BE$). If the bases ($BC$ and $AD$) are each doubled and the height ($BE$) is reduced by 50%, then the area of the new trapezoid $ABCD$ would be $\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{h}{2}\right)(2b_1 + 2b_2)$, which after multiplying out becomes $\frac{1}{2}h(b_1 + b_2)$, the same as the area of the original trapezoid. Therefore, the area of the trapezoid would not change. Choice A is incorrect. This choice does not take into account the changes to the bases, $BC$ and $AD$. Choice B is incorrect. This choice could result from incorrectly interpreting the impact of doubling the bases on the area of $ABCD$ as a 100% increase and the impact of reducing the height by 50% as a 50% decrease, resulting in a combined 100% – 50% = 50% increase of the area. Choice D is incorrect. This choice does not take into account the change to height, $BE$. Question 19 Boyd grows only tomatoes and raspberries in his garden. Last year, he grew 140 pounds of tomatoes and 60 pounds of raspberries. This year, the production, by weight, of tomatoes declined by 20 percent, and the production, by weight, of raspberries declined by 50 percent. By what percentage did the total yield, by weight, of Boyd’s garden decline? A) 29 percent B) 30 percent C) 35 percent D) 70 percent Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. Since Boyd’s production of tomatoes declined by 20% and the production of raspberries declined by 50% from the previous year, this year, his tomato production was $140 - 0.2(140) = 112$ pounds and his raspberry production was $60 - 0.5(60) = 30$ pounds. The percent decline in the total yield is the decline in the number of pounds of tomatoes and raspberries divided by the original number of pounds of tomatoes and raspberries, which is $$\frac{28 + 30}{140 + 60} = 0.29 = 29\%.$$ Choice B is incorrect. This choice is close to the answer, but rounding may have erroneously led to this answer. Choice C is incorrect. This choice, 35%, may be a result of calculating the mean of 20% and 50%. Choice D is incorrect. This choice is the approximate percent weight of the tomatoes and raspberries produced this year compared to the last year, but that’s not what the problem asks for. The graph above shows the frequency distribution of a list of randomly generated integers between 0 and 10. What is the mean of the list of numbers? A) 3.0 B) 3.5 C) 4.25 D) 12.0 Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. There are 12 integers in the list, and some of them are repeated at the frequencies shown in the graph. So the mean of the list of numbers is the sum of the numbers (repeats included) divided by 12. That is \[ \frac{0 + 1 + 2 + 3(3) + 2(4) + 6 + 7 + 8 + 10}{12} = 4.25. \] Choice A is incorrect; 3 is the mode, not the mean, of the list of numbers. Choice B is incorrect; 3.5 is the median, not the mean, of the list of numbers. Choice D is incorrect; 12 is the total number of the integers in the list. What is the minimum value of the function graphed on the $xy$-plane above, for $-4 \leq x \leq 6$? A) $-\infty$ B) $-4$ C) $-2$ D) 1 Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: C Choice C is the correct answer. The minimum value of a graphed function is the minimum $y$-value of all the points on the graph. For the graph shown, the minimum is at the left endpoint of the graph, the $y$-value of which is $-2$. Choice A is incorrect. If the graph would continue indefinitely downward, then the minimum value of the function would be negative infinity. However, the domain of the function is restricted ($-4 \leq x \leq 6$), and the minimum value of the graph occurs at point $(-4, -2)$. Choice B is incorrect; $-4$ is the $x$-value of the point on the graph where the minimum value of the function occurs. Choice D is incorrect because there are points on the graph below the $x$-axis; therefore, the minimum value of the function cannot be positive. Questions 22-24 refer to the following information. In 1929, the astronomer Edwin Hubble published the data shown. The graph plots the velocity of galaxies relative to Earth against the distances of galaxies from Earth. Hubble’s data can be modeled by the equation $ v = 500d $, where $ v $ is the velocity, in kilometers per second, at which the galaxy is moving away from Earth and $ d $ is the distance, in megaparsecs, of the galaxy from Earth. Assume that the relationship is valid for larger distances than are shown in the graph. (A megaparsec (Mpc) is $ 3.1 \times 10^{19} $ kilometers.) Question 22 According to Hubble’s data, how fast, in meters per second, is Galaxy Q moving away from Earth? A) $ 2 \times 10^6 $ m/s B) $ 5 \times 10^5 $ m/s C) $ 5 \times 10^2 $ m/s D) $ 2.5 \times 10^2 $ m/s Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: B Choice B is the correct answer. The coordinates of the data point that represent Galaxy Q on the scatterplot are (2.0, 500), which means that Galaxy Q is at a distance of about 2.0 Mpc from Earth and moves away from Earth at a velocity of approximately 500 km/s. The question asks for the velocity in meters per second; therefore, kilometers (km) need to be converted into meters (m). Since 1 km is... equal to 1,000 m, it follows that Galaxy Q is moving away from Earth at a velocity of $500 \times 1,000 \text{ m/s}$, or $5 \times 10^5 \text{ m/s}$. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect and may result from an incorrect interpretation of the coordinates of the point that represents Galaxy Q on the scatterplot or an incorrect conversion of the units. Question 23 There are four galaxies shown in the graph at approximately 0.9 Mpc from Earth. Which of the following is closest to the range of velocities of these four galaxies, in kilometers per second? A) 100 B) 200 C) 450 D) 700 Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Probability and Data Analysis Correct Answer: D Choice D is the correct answer. The velocities, in km/s, of the four galaxies shown in the graph at approximately 0.9 Mpc from Earth are about $-50$, $+200$, $+500$, and $+650$. Thus, the range of the four velocities is approximately $650 - (-50) = 700 \text{ km/s}$. Choices A, B, and C are incorrect. The range of velocities is the difference between the largest and smallest velocity. Each of these answer choices is too small compared to the real value of the range. Question 24 Based on the model, what is the velocity, in kilometers per second, of a galaxy that is 15 Mpc from Earth? A) 7,500 km/s B) 5,000 km/s C) 1,100 km/s D) 750 km/s Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. The model indicates that the relationship between the velocities of the galaxies, in km/s, and their distance from Earth, in Mpc, is $v = 500d$. Therefore, the velocity of a galaxy that is 15 Mpc from Earth is $v = 500(15)$ km/s, or 7,500 km/s. Based on the model, the other choices are incorrect: Choice B is the speed of a galaxy that is 10 Mpc from Earth. Choice C is the speed of a galaxy that is 2.2 Mpc from Earth. Choice D is the speed of a galaxy that is 1.5 Mpc from Earth. Question 25 Janice puts a fence around her rectangular garden. The garden has a length that is 9 feet less than 3 times its width. What is the perimeter of Janice’s fence if the area of her garden is 5,670 square feet? A) 342 feet B) 318 feet C) 300 feet D) 270 feet Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Passport to Advanced Math Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. Let $ w $ represent the width of Janice’s garden and $ 3w - 9 $ represent the length of Janice’s garden. Since the area of Janice’s garden is 5,670 square feet, it follows that $ w(3w - 9) = 5,670 $, which after dividing by 3 on both sides simplifies to $ w(w - 3) = 1,890 $. From this point on, different ways could be used to solve this equation. One could rewrite this quadratic equation in the standard form and use the quadratic formula to solve it. Another approach would be to look among integer factors of 1,890 and try to find two that differ from each other by 3 and whose product is 1,890. The prime factorization of 1,890 (2·3³·5·7) can help with this. Two factors that satisfy the conditions above are 42 and 45 (note that 42 = 2·3·7 and 45 = 3²·5). The numbers –45 and –42 also satisfy the above conditions ($ w = -42 $), but since $ w $ represents the width of Janice’s garden, the negative values of $ w $ can be rejected. Thus $ w = 45 $ feet, and so the length of the garden must be $ 3(45) - 9 = 126 $ feet. Therefore, the perimeter of Janice’s garden is $ 2(45 + 126) = 2(171) = 342 $ feet. Choice B is incorrect. This answer choice could result from incorrectly identifying the width of the garden as 42 feet instead of 45 feet. Choices C and D are incorrect; both answers would result in an area of the garden that is significantly smaller than 5,670 square feet. For example, if the perimeter of the garden were 270 feet, as in choice D, then $ w + l = 135 $ feet, where $ w $ represents the width and $ l $ represents the length of the garden. So $ l = 135 - w $. It is also given that $ l = 3w - 9 $, which implies that $135 - w = 3w - 9$. Solving this for $w$ gives $w = 36$, and so $l = 99$. The area of the garden would then be $36 \times 99$ square feet, which is clearly less than 5,670 square feet. Question 26 Given the right triangle $ABC$ above, which of the following is equal to $\frac{b}{a}$? A) $\sin A$ B) $\sin B$ C) $\tan A$ D) $\tan B$ Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Additional Topics in Math Correct Answer: D Choice D is the correct answer. Since the ratio $\frac{b}{a}$ involves only the legs of the right triangle, it follows that, of the given choices, the ratio can be equal to the tangent of one of the angles. In a right triangle, the tangent of an acute angle is defined as the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side of the angle. Side $b$ is opposite to angle $B$ and side $a$ is adjacent to angle $B$. Therefore, $\tan B = \frac{b}{a}$. Choices A and B cannot be correct; the sine of an acute angle in a right triangle is defined as the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse, and the ratio shown involves only the legs of the triangle. Choice C is incorrect. In the triangle $ABC$ shown, $\tan A = \frac{a}{b}$, not $\frac{b}{a}$. \[ \begin{cases} y \leq -x \\ 2y > 3x + 2 \end{cases} \] A system of inequalities and a graph are shown above. Which section or sections of the graph could represent all of the solutions to the system? A) Section R B) Sections Q and S C) Sections Q and P D) Sections Q, R, and S Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Heart of Algebra Correct Answer: A Choice A is the correct answer. The solution set of the inequality $ y \leq -x $ is the union of sections R and S of the graph. The solution set of the inequality $ 2y > 3x + 2 $ is the union of sections R and Q of the graph. The solutions of the system consist of the coordinates of all the points that satisfy both inequalities, and therefore, section R represents all the solutions to the system since it is common to the solutions of both inequalities. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because they contain ordered pairs that do not satisfy both of the inequalities. The $xy$-plane above shows one of the two points of intersection of the graphs of a linear function and a quadratic function. The shown point of intersection has coordinates $(v, w)$. If the vertex of the graph of the quadratic function is at $(4, 19)$, what is the value of $v$? Item Difficulty: Medium Content: Passport to Advanced Math The correct answer is 6. Since the vertex of the graph of the quadratic function is at $(4, 19)$, the equation of the parabola is of the form $y = a(x - 4)^2 + 19$. It is also given that the parabola passes through point $(0, 3)$. This means that \[3 = a(0 - 4)^2 + 19,\] and so $a = -1$. So the graph of the parabola is $y = -(x - 4)^2 + 19$. Since the line passes through the points $(0, -9)$ and $(2, -1)$, one can calculate the slope of the line $\left(\frac{-1 - (-9)}{2 - 0} = 4\right)$ that passes through these points and write the equation of the line in the slope-intercept form as $y = 4x - 9$. The coordinates of the intersection points of the line and the parabola satisfy both the equation of the parabola and the equation of the line. Therefore, these coordinates are the solutions to the system of equations below: \[ \begin{align} y &= 4x - 9 \\ y &= -(x - 4)^2 + 19 \end{align} \] Substituting $4x - 9$ for $y$ into the second equation gives $4x - 9 = -(x - 4)^2 + 19$, which is equivalent to $x^2 - 4x - 12 = 0$. After factoring, this equation can be rewritten as... \[(x - 6)(x + 2) = 0,\] and so $x = 6$ or $x = -2$. Since point $(v, w)$ is on the right side of the $y$-axis, it follows that $v$ cannot be $-2$. Therefore, $v = 6$. Question 29 In a college archaeology class, 78 students are going to a dig site to find and study artifacts. The dig site has been divided into 24 sections, and each section will be studied by a group of either 2 or 4 students. How many of the sections will be studied by a group of 2 students? Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Heart of Algebra The correct answer is 9. Let $x$ be the number of sections that will be studied by 2 students and $y$ be the number of sections that will be studied by 4 students. Since there are 24 sections that will be studied by 78 students, it follows that $x + y = 24$ and $2x + 4y = 78$. Solving this system gives $x = 9$ and $y = 15$. Therefore, 9 of the sections will be studied by a group of 2 students. Alternatively, if all 24 sections were studied by a group of 4 students, then the total number of students required would be $24 \times 4 = 96$. Since the actual number of students is 78, the difference $96 - 78 = 18$ represents the number of “missing” students, and each pair of these “missing” students represents one of the sections that will be studied by 2 students. Hence, the number of sections that will be studied by 2 students is equal to the number of pairs that 18 students can form, which is $\frac{18}{2} = 9$. --- Questions 30 and 31 refer to the following information. \[v = v_0 - gt \quad \text{(speed-time)}\] \[h = v_0 t - \frac{1}{2} g t^2 \quad \text{(position-time)}\] \[v^2 = v_0^2 - 2gh \quad \text{(position-speed)}\] An arrow is launched upward with an initial speed of 100 meters per second (m/s). The equations above describe the constant-acceleration motion of the arrow, where $v_0$ is the initial speed of the arrow, $v$ is the speed of the arrow as it is moving up in the air, $h$ is the height of the arrow above the ground, $t$ is the time elapsed since the arrow was projected upward, and $g$ is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s$^2$). What is the maximum height from the ground the arrow will rise to the nearest meter? Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Passport to Advanced Math The correct answer is 510. As the arrow moves upward, its speed decreases continuously and it becomes 0 when the arrow reaches its maximum height. Using the position-speed equation and the fact that $ v = 0 $ when $ h $ is maximum gives $ 0 = 100^2 - 2gh $. Solving for $ h $ gives $ h = \frac{100^2}{2(9.8)} $ meters, which to the nearest meter is 510. Alternatively, the maximum height can be found using the position-time equation. Substituting 100 for $ v_0 $ and 9.8 for $ g $ into this equation gives $ h = 100t - \frac{1}{2}(9.8)t^2 $. Completing the square gives the equivalent equation \[ h = -4.9\left(t - \frac{100}{9.8}\right)^2 + 4.9\left(\frac{100}{9.8}\right)^2. \] Therefore, the maximum height from the ground the arrow will rise is $ 4.9\left(\frac{100}{9.8}\right)^2 $ meters, which to the nearest meter is 510. Question 31 How long will it take for the arrow to reach its maximum height to the nearest tenth of a second? Item Difficulty: Hard Content: Passport to Advanced Math The correct answer is 10.2 seconds (or 51/5 seconds). As the arrow moves upward, its speed decreases continuously, and it becomes 0 when the arrow reaches its maximum height. Using the speed-time equation and the fact that $ v = 0 $ when $ h $ is maximum, we get $ 0 = 100 - 9.8t $. Solving this equation for $ t $ gives $ t = \frac{100}{9.8} = 10.2041 $ seconds, which to the nearest tenth of a second is 10.2. \| Reading \| Writing & Language \| Math – No Calculator \| Math – Calculator \| \|---------\|-------------------\|----------------------\|------------------\| \| Q 1 \| A \| C \| A \| \| Q 2 \| A \| D \| B \| \| Q 3 \| B \| C \| A \| \| Q 4 \| C \| D \| D \| \| Q 5 \| C \| C \| B \| \| Q 6 \| B \| A \| B \| \| Q 7 \| B \| B \| A \| \| Q 8 \| D \| B \| D \| \| Q 9 \| B \| B \| B \| \| Q 10 \| C \| D \| D \| \| Q 11 \| B \| D \| C \| \| Q 12 \| A \| C \| A \| \| Q 13 \| A \| B \| D \| \| Q 14 \| D \| B \| 300 \| \| Q 15 \| D \| B \| 2 \| \| Q 16 \| A \| D \| 9 \| \| Q 17 \| D \| A \| 4 \| \| Q 18 \| C \| A \| C \| \| Q 19 \| D \| D \| A \| \| Q 20 \| C \| C \| C \| \| Q 21 \| D \| C \| C \| \| Q 22 \| A \| A \| B \| \| Q 23 \| B \| D \| D \| \| Q 24 \| B \| A \| A \| \| Q 25 \| D \| A \| A \| \| Q 26 \| D \| B \| D \| \| Q 27 \| A \| C \| A \| \| Q 28 \| A \| D \| 6 \| \| Q 29 \| B \| C \| 9 \| \| Q 30 \| C \| D \| 510 \| \| Q 31 \| D \| D \| 10.2, 51/5 \| \| Q 32 \| C \| D \| \| \| Q 33 \| B \| A \| \| \| Q 34 \| D \| C \| \| \| Q 35 \| C \| A \| \| \| Q 36 \| D \| D \| \| \| Q 37 \| B \| D \| \| \| Q 38 \| D \| C \| \| \| Q 39 \| B \| B \| \| \| Q 40 \| D \| C \| \| \| Q 41 \| B \| B \| \| \| Q 42 \| A \| B \| \| \| Q 43 \| C \| A \| \| \| Q 44 \| C \| D \| \| \| Q 45 \| B \| \| \| \| Q 46 \| C \| \| \| \| Q 47 \| A \| \| \|	3f339266-2f9e-45a0-9af3-3d94898b4396	CC-MAIN-2023-06	https://www.ccsoh.us/cms/lib/OH01913306/Centricity/Domain/207/psat-10-practice-test-1-answer-explanations.pdf	2023-02-04T12:40:11+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500126.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20230204110651-20230204140651-00358.warc.gz	719,019,247	35,063	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.983642	eng_Latn	0.996113	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 206, 1272, 2898, 4570, 6107, 7892, 9916, 11807, 13581, 15372, 17072, 18756, 20515, 22690, 24444, 26132, 28020, 30073, 31758, 33825, 35755, 37942, 40144, 42017, 43767, 45582, 47376, 49628, 51281, 52694, 53820, 55039, 56425, 57977, 59409, 60986, 62463, 63924, 65493, 67181, 68518, 70265, 71780, 72975, 74187, 75405, 76996, 78933, 79981, 81188, 82836, 84208, 85679, 86800, 87615, 88991, 90366, 91986, 93874, 95848, 97390, 98835, 100020, 101418, 102540, 103894, 104041, 105217, 106490, 107807, 108909, 110322, 111766, 113165, 113959, 115430, 116566, 117920, 119693, 121403, 122730, 124489, 126153, 127741, 128553, 129538, 130859, 132550, 134830, 136005, 136942, 138423, 140576, 142166, 145795 ]	[ 2.515625, 3.375 ]	6	1
From the director Parents Night Out December 9th 5:00-9:00 p.m. Bring your children to the center while you enjoy some shopping or “us” time as adults. $25.00 per child, $10.00 add’l for siblings. Pizza dinner, Christmas activities, and a movie are in store. Sign up at the communication table at the entrance and in the nursery! We will enjoy.... Pajama Day on Friday, December 8th! (Please make sure your child wears shoes!) Be sure your child is dressed for the weather every day. Licensing rules require that we go outside for play at least for a short time daily! Christmas Party Full Time Students: 9:30 a.m. Friday, 12/22 Half Day Students 11:30 a.m. Thursday or Friday, 12/18 or 12/19, whichever day your child attends. Annual Christmas Program The Potter’s House will close early at 5:00 p.m. on Thursday, December 7th, so that our staff can prepare for the Christmas program. (All staff participate.) This includes nursery, infants and toddler families as well. We apologize for the inconvenience, sincerely. We know it is a lot to ask and takes additional effort on your part. But our program is enormous and it requires our entire staff to pull it off! The extra hour allows our staff to make arrangements for their own children, grab a bite to eat, freshen up and prepare to greet our ‘performers’ by 6:30. Thank you for making arrangements in advance. And remember that our infant and toddler friends are growing rapidly and will soon be participants themselves! Thursday, December 7th at 7:00 p.m., all preschoolers (see class list below) will participate to usher in the spirit of Christmas in that special way that only children can. Plan on an evening of fun and memory making! Invite friends and families, as our sanctuary is large and can easily handle a large crowd. This will be a great evening to stop for a few moments in our hectic holiday schedules and simply enjoy the moment. Special note to all families, including nursery and toddlers: The Potter’s House will close early, at 5:00 p.m. that day so that our staff can prepare for the program. We apologize for any inconvenience this may cause. Please keep in mind that soon, your child will be old enough to participate in the program, too! Invite your family and friends! Thursday, December 7, 2017 7:00 p.m. The Potter’s House Child Development Center 24th Annual Christmas Program Children will meet in the following designated areas at 6:30 for preparation: Ms. Rebekah’s and Ms. Tricia’s class (room 209/210) Ms. Beth, Ms. Lexi’s, and Ms. Pam’s. classes (children’s chapel) Ms. Kailyn’s class (room 203) Ms. Jenna (room 204) Ms. Cassie’s class (room 205) Ms. Mary’s class (room 206) Please enter the Potter’s House entrance door (Entry 3) or the South carport entrance (same side but nearer the front of the building, Entry 2) for this event. Then, escort your child – after a quick bathroom break – to his/her designated meeting place at 6:30 p.m., so that the teachers can prepare the children for the program. All parents, family, and friends can go to the sanctuary between 6:30 and 7:00 to get a great seat! The program will be videotaped, and DVDs will be available for $15.00. These make great gifts for family members who cannot attend, and they are also terrific as keepsakes to watch years from now when your child has grown. Bible Theme* This month’s theme: Jesus Arrives! Luke 2 - 12/4 An Angel Visits Mary - 12/11 God Gives Baby Jesus a Family - 12/17 Jesus is Born - 12/25 Shepherds Visit Jesus - 1/1 Wise Men Worship Jesus Monthly Memory Verse: “God sent His one and only Son” 1 John 4:9 Home Extension There are many children, even in America, who live on a daily basis with unmet needs. There are also many American children so blessed with clothing, toys, and ample food that it is difficult for parents to teach them to be grateful and generous. Consider talking to your child about one of these ideas at Christmas time: 1. choosing 3 (or however many) current toys to give away 2. giving one new Christmas present away This will require a lot of thought and decision making for your child and will give him/her an opportunity to empathize with other less fortunate children and to use their critical thinking skills to make difficult choices. It will also allow them to experience the joy of real giving…real giving usually “hurts” a little! Empathy is the ability to put yourself into another person's shoes and to experience something as that other person would. The capacity to truly understand what is going on in somebody else's heart and mind doesn't develop until a child is six or seven, but youngsters do have the emotional -- rather than cognitive -- ability to pick up on another child's feelings and match them with their own. If you watch a group of two- or three-year-olds play together, you may notice that if one child acts out by hitting a playmate, for example, another child may begin to act out, too. It is almost as if the second child were saying, "I know you are feeling angry, and I've decided that I'll feel the same way you do." Our natural capacity for empathy needs active encouragement from parents and caregivers so that it continues to develop. Of course, no well-meaning parent would discourage his child from expressing empathy. But parents have the difficult job of inculcating in their children the seemingly contradictory notions of safety and empathy. Children need to learn both the importance of being wary of other people and of being aware of other people's feelings. Sometimes parents tend to pay less attention to empathy than to other types of behavior. A child's empathetic behavior can be negatively affected when a parent expresses displeasure over bad behavior (like hitting a younger sibling) rather than praising him for good behavior (like sharing a favorite toy). The Empathy Gap Keep in mind that by age two or three, children can usually empathize with feelings of happiness, sadness, and anger because they experience these emotions intensely themselves. Preschoolers know just how it feels to be happy, sad, and angry, and more importantly, they know the names for these emotions. So it isn't uncommon to see children act kindly toward each other in some familiar situations. Let's say two three-year-olds are drawing. One child's red crayon breaks and she bursts into tears of anger. The other sees what has happened, empathizes with the anger, and offers her his crayon. The first child quickly accepts and both children resume their coloring. What's a good strategy for a parent observing this interaction? You can reinforce a child's helpful behavior by saying something like this: "I noticed how you offered your crayon to your friend. It must have made you feel good to help her. It made me feel good to watch you." When children have to confront complicated feelings that they can't label, such as frustration or embarrassment, their empathy falters. This is true for four- and five-year-olds as well as two- and three-year-olds. Perhaps a four-year-old wets himself at preschool, and the other children laugh instead of showing concern for their playmate's distress. What accounts for the empathy gap? The children can't understand what their friend is feeling—not because they have never felt the emotion but because they have not yet identified and labeled it. An Emotional Repertoire Parents can help a child develop his emotional repertoire by naming emotions for him. In doing so, they help his cognitive development by providing words for experiences he will encounter again. At the same time, they are helping him increase his range of understanding of human feelings. Parents can also encourage their child to be empathetic by being straightforward about their own feelings. A preschool child who sees her mother or father experiencing a powerful emotion will wonder what is going on and why. By age four or five, she will be asking questions or expressing concern. When she does, respond honestly. You might say something like, "I'm crying because your grandmother is sick. Even though I am unhappy, it makes me feel better to know that you are concerned." What you are telling your child is that empathy has meaning and value. When a loved one is in distress, empathy is sometimes the only thing we can offer. And whenever we do so, we express one of our most noble human qualities. Consultant Dr. Charles Flatter is a professor of human development at the University of Maryland at College Park Institute for Child Study. Katherine Ross is a freelance book and magazine editor based in New York City. Happenings in the House You are cordially invited to join Princeton Pike Church of God for all the many worship and outreach opportunities made available! Sunday Morning Worship 10:30 am (children’s programs available) Wednesday Nights 7:00 pm (children’s programs available) Wednesdays at 7:00 AA meeting, “Finding Liberty” 12/6 Family dinner available for $5.00 adults, $3.00 children at 6:00 before 7:00 service 12/5 Lakota holiday concert 7:00 p.m. 12/7 Potter’s House Program 7:00 p.m. 12/17 Princeton Pike Mass Christmas Program 10:30 (Includes talents of children, youth, and adults) December Events 12/7 Christmas Program for all PH preschoolers 12/8 PJ Day! 12/18&19 Christmas parties! Full time, 22nd at 9:30 a.m. Half day, whichever day your child attends, at 11:30 12/20-1/3 Half day program closed 12/25&26 Full day program closed 1/1&2 Full day program closed *If you plan to take a vacation week over the holidays, be sure to fill out a vacation request form, located in the file by the same name, at the communication table.	<urn:uuid:d91ac08d-0ada-48b7-b004-d18fa708471b>	CC-MAIN-2018-13	http://pottershousecdc.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/December-2017.pdf	2018-03-20T03:33:27Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257647280.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20180320033158-20180320053158-00042.warc.gz	232,446,851	2,176	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997256	eng_Latn	0.998336	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1485, 4391, 8648, 9707 ]	[ 2.15625 ]	2	0
EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION CAN MAKE COVID-19 WORSE New research suggests that people exposed to air pollution are more likely to die from COVID-19 than people living in areas with cleaner air. These findings are an ominous sign for developing countries, where air pollution levels often far exceed World Health Organization guidelines. Worse, the air inside people’s homes can be magnitudes more polluted than the air they breathe outside. This is due in large part to how people cook. - Globally, almost three billion people rely on open fires or inefficient stoves to cook their food, filling their homes with dangerous levels of smoke. Exposure is particularly high among women and children, who are more often near the cooking fire or stove. - Household air pollution from cooking increases susceptibility to respiratory infections such as pneumonia and aggravates respiratory illnesses like asthma – which can lead to higher mortality rates after a COVID-19 infection. - Effective social distancing can be a significant challenge in countries with informal job markets or overcrowded urban areas. Families may have to choose between risking increased exposure to the virus – including to collect fuel – and foregoing critical income. - The current economic slowdown could cause a return to firewood or other polluting cooking methods for households that use cleaner cooking fuels, due to loss of income or disruptions in fuel supply chains. There are proven methods to boost access to clean cooking, which can be incorporated into broader containment and response efforts. Governments must make clean cooking part of their pandemic emergency response plans. - India is giving away millions of cooking gas cylinders to those in need. Ghana is subsidizing electricity costs for three months for the poor. Other governments should follow their lead, while ensuring clean cooking fuel providers are supported with the resources needed to minimize supply chain disruptions. Governments must not allow short-term responses to undermine long-term health goals. - Clean cooking solutions are critical to reducing household air pollution and building people’s longstanding resilience to respiratory illnesses. Donors, developed-country governments, and multilateral organizations must provide critical support. - Developing countries are going to need strong support. Many organizations and governments are already stepping up, including the Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom, the WHO, and the World Bank. This must continue, and where possible be expanded. New donors must join their efforts to address the household air pollution crisis. This issue is now more critical than ever. Public and private capital providers can help increase long-term access to clean cooking. - Many clean cooking businesses are pioneering scalable business models and high impact technologies but are at a pivotal stage of development. Impact investors must urgently offer the financial resources to ensure businesses’ sustainability and ability to provide a growing market with modern cooking solutions. For more information, please visit CCA’s COVID-19 Resource Page at www.CleanCookingAlliance.org/covid19.html 1 Xiao Wu and Rachel C. Nethery. “COVID-19 PM2.5: A national study on long-term exposure to air pollution and COVID-19 mortality in the United States.” Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health (5 April 2020) 2 Moses Odhiambo. “Gas and bread to go up in Covid-19 tax proposal.” The Star Kenya (3 April 2020) 3 “Ujwala beneficiaries to get 3 free cylinders till June.” The Economic Times (26 March 2020) 4 Ellen Dapaah. “ COVID-19: Government to absorb electricity bills for the poor, others to enjoy 50% slash.” Citi Newsroom (9 April 2020) About the Clean Cooking Alliance CCA works with a global network of partners to build an inclusive industry that makes clean cooking accessible to the three billion people who live each day without it. Established in 2010, CCA is driving consumer demand, mobilizing investment to build a pipeline of scalable businesses, and fostering an enabling environment that allows the sector to thrive. Clean cooking transforms lives by improving health, protecting the climate and the environment, empowering women, and helping consumers save time and money. www.cleancookingalliance.org \| +1.202.887.9040 \| firstname.lastname@example.org	accab0e5-42b3-40a4-9948-c10b4fb1eefa	CC-MAIN-2023-06	https://cleancooking.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/589-1.pdf	2023-01-27T20:42:26+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764495012.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20230127195946-20230127225946-00105.warc.gz	197,686,008	843	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99736	eng_Latn	0.997501	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1450, 4385 ]	[ 2.1875 ]	2	0
SURVEYORS WALK GUIDE A walk through history tracing the beginning of Bathurst BATHURST REGIONAL COUNCIL The Surveyors Walk will take you along the Wambool/Macquarie River to historic William Street and then on to King’s Parade. Along the way, you will be told the story of government surveyors, who in the early 19th century explored and surveyed the inland, opening the way for today’s roads, farms and towns. You will be retracing the footsteps of these pioneering surveyors on this walk. You will also be in the footsteps of the Wiradjuri people, who for countless generations have known the same country through a traditional familiarity. Our walk begins at the Commemorative Pillar for George Evans’ campsite, which will be found on the riverbank between George Street and The Pillars of Bathurst (a cultural heritage garden commemorating the lives of past Bathurstians). From there follow the route shown on the map to find the numbered stops on the walk. 1. "Footsteps in Time" Commemorative Pillar 2. The Flag Staff 3. A Delightful Spot Display 4. 1815 Town Corner Post 5. Explorers Memorial 6. Macquarie’s Meridian 7. Two Trees - Two Understandings 8. Evans Monument In November 1813, Surveyor George Evans was sent by Governor Macquarie to report on the country beyond the Blue Mountains. His journey brought him to a grassy plain of “excellent land”, which he named the Bathurst Plains. Following the river running through the plains, on 9 December Evans and his party camped on Jordan Creek, about 300 metres from the Commemorative Pillar. The Pillar is in the form of a Trig. Survey Pillar, and is the final pillar in a series of “Footsteps in Time” pillars placed near Evans’ campsites across the Blue Mountains. On 22 December, on the return leg of his journey, Evans again camped in this area. As you walk to the next stop, the Flag Staff, and then through the park to lower William Street, you will be following closely the traverse of Surveyor Evans in 1813. Nearby, you will find the introductory panel for A Delightful Spot, an interpretation trail through the settlement established in 1815. Look for more of these distinctive panels on your walk. The Pillars of Bathurst has a plaque for James Byrn Richards, the government surveyor who in the late 1820s undertook the first land surveys on the western side of the Macquarie River and went on in 1833 to survey the proposed town of Bathurst. Free brochures about “A Delightful Spot Settlement Walk” and the “Pillars of Bathurst” are available from the Bathurst Visitor Information Centre and at stop 3. The Bicentennial Flag Staff is located on the site of the one erected by Governor Macquarie in 1815. It was there, on 7 May 1815, he announced the establishment of a town to be called Bathurst. Macquarie’s Flag Staff became the inland’s first gazetted location and reference point that proved essential in the work of surveyors exploring, surveying and mapping the inland and setting out the town of Bathurst. The sign panel Placing Bathurst on the map, nearby on the Stanley Street side, will tell you more about the importance of the 1815 Flag Staff in surveying history. Also look for the Permanent NSW Survey Mark, which is on the concourse near the Flag Staff. When you leave the park at the Proclamation Cairn and enter lower William Street, you will be walking along Bathurst’s first street, originally a short rough track between the early settlement’s first buildings. The end of Cox’s Road, the first road into the inland, ran along this track before terminating at Macquarie’s Flag Staff. The road followed a line marked out by George Evans in 1813 for much of its route of 101½ miles (163km) from the Nepean River. Surveying in the early 19th century required the practical skills of a bushman combined with the talents of a mathematician. The principal instrument used was the circumferentor, basically a compass mounted on a straight post with two moveable sighting arms. With its aid, the surveyor could record from the one place the relative compass bearings of natural landmarks and survey markers, such as the Flag Staff. Measuring distances was done with a Gunter’s chain, a metal chain of 100 short wire links connected together by loops. Its full length of 66 feet (20.1m) was an official measurement known as a “chain”. (An acre is ten square chains.) These were the two basic tools in the early surveyor’s kit, perhaps along with some convict helpers. The better-equipped surveyor might employ a theodolite, a more accurate and versatile replacement for the circumferentor, and, more rarely, a sextant and chronometer, with which latitude and longitude could be calculated. The first surveys began with a traverse, literally a succession of walks in straight lines, recording compass bearings and distance measurements in a field book, along with observations on the country being travelled. In 1813, George Evans made the first surveying traverses in inland Australia. 3 A DELIGHTFUL SPOT DISPLAY If the Bathurst City Community Club is open, drop in to see their extensive display of maps, plans and drawings, many of which were produced by government surveyors. (Free Admission) 4 1815 TOWN CORNER POST The post is located near a corner of the town site chosen for Bathurst by Governor Macquarie in 1815, as shown on the town plan prepared by Deputy Surveyor-General James Meehan. 5 EXPLORERS MEMORIAL Located at the corner of the bowling green, the Memorial lists explorers who between 1815 and 1835 used the Bathurst settlement as their base for their journeys into the inland. The list includes three government surveyors: Surveyor George Evans (1815), Surveyor-General John Oxley (1817), and Surveyor-General Thomas Mitchell (1835). Durham Street, which you will now cross, follows the boundary line of the Government Domain, surveyed in the first days of the settlement’s establishment. 6 MACQUARIE’S MERIDIAN The Meridian Flag Staff on Howick Street is exactly midway between William and George streets. As the sign alongside explains, it is located on a meridian that runs from Macquarie’s Flag Staff exactly through the centre of Bathurst. King’s Parade is part of the Bathurst Town Square. The “Square” is a key feature on the Bathurst Town Plan approved in 1833 by Surveyor-General Thomas Mitchell. The streets you have walked date from this plan, laid out by Surveyor Richards. 7 TWO TREES – TWO UNDERSTANDINGS In May-June 1815, George Evans undertook the first expedition beyond Bathurst. On this journey, Evans explored as far as where Mandagery Creek enters the Lachlan River. A section of the tree on which he marked his reaching this point is now in the Bathurst District Historical Museum (East Wing, Bathurst Court House, Russell Street). If you look carefully, you may be able to make out some details of what he carved into the tree. Alongside Evans’ tree is a traditional Wiradjuri carved tree, once used to mark a place of cultural importance. The two trees, standing side by side, offer different understandings of the landscape. (Admission Fee) This impressive memorial, the work of Gilbert Doble, was commissioned in 1913 to commemorate the centenary of the crossing of the Blue Mountains and the subsequent explorations by George Evans. War delayed its completion until 1920. The prominent presence of an Aboriginal man is a feature rarely found on public memorials of that time. Crouching with eyes shaded in the way of a hunter, he shares the topmost plinth with Surveyor Evans, who is standing behind him in a more conventional statue pose. Both men are gazing westward, sharing the view of the land beyond. As Evans had no Aborigines in his exploration party, the figure is not present as a guide, but as a Wiradjuri inhabitant of these lands. The Wiradjuri and the Evans party were aware of each other, but direct contact only happened once, accidentally and peacefully. Occupying lower positions, two allegorical figures representing agriculture and geographical knowledge tell of the benefits brought by the explorations of Surveyor George Evans. An information panel nearby provides a detailed account of the life and accomplishments of George Evans. Camp at the River Derwent, 1803 This painting depicts a campsite on the banks of the Derwent River in 1803. The scene includes several tents and huts, with people engaged in various activities such as cooking and carrying supplies. The landscape is characterized by rolling hills and sparse vegetation, typical of the early colonial settlements in Australia. NSW Mapping Services in Bathurst Bathurst’s association with surveying and mapping was reinforced further by the decentralisation of NSW map production services to Bathurst in January 1976. The [then] Central Mapping Authority was relocated from varied buildings in Sydney to a purpose-built building in Panorama Avenue, Bathurst. Today, with state-of-the-art equipment, it is the centre of excellence for mapping and spatial location services in NSW. Acknowledgements The Institution of Surveyors, NSW Inc. Office of the Surveyor General of NSW Land and Property Information Photos of circumferentor and Gunter’s chain courtesy of DFSI Spatial Services (2016), Damien Bennett Portrait of Governor Macquarie courtesy of Mitchell Library, State Library of NSW Lewins Image Courtesy of State Library of NSW Special thanks to John Read, Emeritus Surveyor Dr Robin McLachlan, Historian Collingridge aerial engraving 1891 (front and back cover), courtesy of Dr Ken Neale Copyright Surveyors Walk Guide Copyright © 2017 Bathurst Regional Council All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of Council. Disclaimer Bathurst Regional Council expressly disclaims all liability for errors or omissions of any kind whatsoever, or any loss, damage or other consequence which may arise from any person relying on information comprised in this document. The image depicts a detailed, historical view of a cityscape, likely from the 19th century, with a focus on a central street lined with buildings and a church. The architecture is characterized by steeply pitched roofs and a mix of residential and commercial structures. The scene includes numerous people walking along the streets, indicating a bustling urban environment. 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From Bundeena, this walk heads south to the coast and then loops around Marley Head. The environment changes from heath to open, rocky platforms along the cliffs. There are great views from Marley Head, and the section between Marley and Bundeena Lookout is just astounding. Look out for lizards in the heath sections, as it abounds with wildlife. Let us begin by acknowledging the Dharawal people, Traditional Custodians of the land on which we travel today, and pay our respects to their Elders past and present. \| Class \| Formed track, with some branches and other obstacles \| \|-------\|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| Quality of track \| Formed track, with some branches and other obstacles (3/6) \| \| Gradient \| Short steep hills (3/6) \| \| Signage \| Directional signs along the way (3/6) \| \| Infrastructure \| Limited facilities, not all cliffs are fenced (3/6) \| \| Experience Required \| Some bushwalking experience recommended (3/6) \| \| Weather \| Weather generally has little impact on safety (1/6) \| Getting to the start: From Sir Bertram Stevens Drive - Turn on to Bundeena Drive then drive for 10 km - Turn slight left onto Brighton Street and drive for another 155 m - Turn left onto Brighton Street and drive for another 120 m Before you start any journey ensure you: - Tell someone you trust where you are going and what to do if you are late returning - Have adequate equipment, supplies, skills & knowledge to undertake this journey safely - Consider weather forecasts, park/track closures & fire dangers - Can respond to emergencies & call for help at any point - Are healthy and fit enough for this journey If not, change plans and stay safe. It is okay to delay and ask people for help. Share Bushwalk.com //65GE4F Figure 1. Location of the study area in the central part of the Carpathian Mountains (red triangle). Start Down steps Car park Shelter Shape must have at least 2 pairs of points - 1.6 km to The Coast Track - 110 m to The Coast Track - 590 m to Gibbon Trail - 920 m to Bernie Street - 135 m to Scarborough Street - 255 m to Bournemouth Street - 1 Avenue to Loftus Street Viewpoint and Lookout are accessible from the main path. Getting started: From Bundeena Ferry, on Brighton St, this walk turns left into Loftus St, goes past Mary St and turns right into Bournemouth St. The walk turns left into Scarbourough St and takes the first right into Beachcomber Av. Beachcomber Av is followed south and gradually to the east until reaching the entry into the Royal National Park. This is marked by several large information signs. After another 60 m head down the steps (about 20 m long) After another 15 m pass the car park (10 m on your left). After another 15 m find the "Bundeena" (15 m on your right). Bundeena is a small township at the northern end of Royal National Park and the southern side of the entrance to Port Hacking. The town can be accessed by car or ferry. There are a few B&B's and other accommodation options and a number of cafes to choose from. Bundeena has a mixed atmosphere, partly a beach holiday community but also home to some permanent residents. There are two main beaches - Hordens Beach to the west and Jibbon Beach to the east. Both are nice beaches inside Port Hacking. Then pass the "Ferry Shelter" (6 m on your left). After another 1.1 km (from the Big Marley Fire Trail) turn left, to head along Big Marley Fire Trail (a vehicle track). After another 1.9 km (from the Big Marley Fire Trail) continue straight, to head along Big Marley Fire Trail. Start of an optional side trip: An optional side trip to East Marley Beach. To start this optional side trip continue straight here, from the Big Marley Fire Trail Start heading along Big Marley Fire Trail (a vehicle track). After another 350 m head up the steps (about 30 m long) After another 40 m come to a ford. The end. Turn around and retrace your steps back the 420 m to the main route. Back at the main route turn around and follow on from the 5.4 km waypoint. After another 360 m (from the Big Marley Fire Trail) turn sharp left (a footpath). After another 120 m come to the viewpoint (on your right). After another 310 m veer right. After another 860 m continue straight. After another 105 m come to the viewpoint (55 m on your right). After another 30 m continue straight. After another 380 m head down the steps (about 150 m long) After another 45 m pass the waterfall (35 m on your right). After another 520 m cross the bridge (about 10 m long) After another 420 m turn right. After another 70 m (from the Jibbon Track) continue straight. After another 85 m continue straight. After another 30 m (from the Beachcomber Avenue) continue straight, to head along Beachcomber Avenue. After another 10 m to find the car park. After another 80 m (at the intersection of Beachcomber Avenue & Eric Street) continue straight, to head along Beachcomber Avenue. After another 330 m (at the intersection of Beachcomber Avenue & Claire Hargreaves Walk) continue straight, to head along Beachcomber Avenue. After another 215 m (at the intersection of Malibu Street & Beachcomber Avenue) continue straight, to head along Beachcomber Avenue. After another 30 m find the "Bundeena Lookout" (115 m on your right). This unfenced, informal lookout is perched high on the cliffs, looking east over the South Pacific Ocean. The lookout is not signposted nor officially named, but provides great view south along the escarpment. Cliff edge may be unstable and fragile - keep a safe distance. After another 100 m (at the intersection of Scarborough Street & Beachcomber Avenue) turn left, to head along Scarborough Street. After another 30 m (at the intersection of Bernie Street & Scarborough Street) continue straight, to head along Scarborough Street. After another 110 m (at the intersection of Bournemouth Street & Scarborough Street) turn right, to head along Bournemouth Street. After another 120 m (at the intersection of Baker Street & Bournemouth Street) continue straight, to head along Bournemouth Street. After another 135 m (at the intersection of Loftus Street & Bournemouth Street) turn left, to head along Loftus Street.	45eb6814-51ef-48b9-b0ce-5f6b15a5ce50	CC-MAIN-2022-27	https://maps.bushwalk.com/j/65ge4f/pdf	2022-06-27T17:35:26+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103337962.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20220627164834-20220627194834-00411.warc.gz	446,117,115	1,476	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.985437	eng_Latn	0.997421	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1769, 1871, 1909, 1953, 2204, 3333, 5634, 6304 ]	[ 2.203125 ]	2	0
A COMPARISON OF MUSICAL APTITUDE WITH READING ABILITY AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AMONG 1ST AND 2ND GRADE STUDENTS A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF MUSIC IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE TEXAS WOMAN’S UNIVERSITY DIVISION OF MUSIC COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES BY MARY FOUGEROUSSE AUMEN, B.A. DENTON, TEXAS MAY 2023 Copyright © 2023 by Mary Fougerousse Aumen DEDICATION To my husband, Matthew, for supporting me from start to finish and for the constant encouragement in the pursuit of my passions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the many people who have helped and encouraged me throughout these years of study. Thank you to my mentor, Dr. Baker, for her unwavering support over the years and for her constant guidance and inspiration to challenge myself. Thank you to my committee members; to Dr. Lozada, for his guidance, encouragement, and for his patience in helping me make sense of the statistical side of this project, and thank you to Dr. Thomas for his time and expertise. Thank you to the parents who so graciously allowed me to include their children in this study, and who have greatly contributed towards the field of research in this area. Thank you to the reading support specialist for providing me with valuable information prior to testing, and thank you to my headmaster and assistant headmaster for allowing me to conduct this testing at school. Finally, I am grateful to my friends and family for their constant support in the achievement of my goals, especially to my parents for instilling in me a love for music. Most importantly, I would like to thank my husband, who has been with me every step of the way. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of music aptitude with literacy skills for English Language Learner (ELL) and native English speaker students in the first and second grade. This quantitative study follows a correlational design with a comparative component. This study was limited by a small sample ($N = 28$) of first and second grade students from one elementary school. Testing instruments for this study included rhythm and tonal music aptitude tests from the Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA) and literacy measures from the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS), including phonemic segmentation fluency (PSF), nonsense word fluency (NWF), word reading fluency (WRF), and oral reading fluency (ORF). Results indicated that positive relationships existed between Tonal Audiation, Rhythmic Audiation, and the IMMA composite. The IMMA Composite, the Rhythmic Audiation Test, and the PSF from the DIBELS were statistically significant, favoring native English speakers over ELLs. DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... ix I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 2 Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 3 Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 3 Study Variables ........................................................................................................... 4 Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................... 4 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 8 Extra-Musical Benefits of Music Training ................................................................. 8 Impact of Music Instruction on Reading Ability ....................................................... 9 Phonemic Awareness and Music Aptitude ............................................................... 11 Phonological Awareness and Music Aptitude ......................................................... 13 Auditory Impact of Music on Language ................................................................. 15 Music and Multilingualism ....................................................................................... 17 Neural Impact of Music and Reading ..................................................................... 19 Neural Impact of Music and Language .................................................................. 20 Brain Plasticity .......................................................................................................... 22 Neural Pathways of Learning .................................................................................... 23 Music and Linguistic Development ................................................................. 24 Impact of Home Music Environment ............................................................ 25 Music and Movement .................................................................................. 27 Implications for Music Teachers ................................................................... 27 Music Education Advocacy ........................................................................... 30 III. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 32 Participants .................................................................................................. 33 Collection of Data ....................................................................................... 34 Instrumentation ........................................................................................... 34 Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills ...................................... 35 Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation .............................................. 35 Design of Study ............................................................................................ 37 Procedure .................................................................................................... 38 Data Analysis Method .................................................................................. 41 Scoring ........................................................................................................ 43 IV. RESULTS .................................................................................................. 44 Demographic Sample Characteristics .......................................................... 46 Research Question One ............................................................................... 46 Research Question Two ............................................................................... 49 Research Question Three ............................................................................ 50 V. DISCUSSION .............................................................................................. 54 Limitations and Recommendations for Future Study .................................... 56 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 57 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 59 APPENDICES A. Recruitment Email to Parents .................................................................................... 72 B. Consent Form on Behalf of Parent Participation .......................................................... 75 C. Consent Form on Behalf of Student Participation ....................................................... 81 D. Home Language and Musical Background Survey ..................................................... 86 E. Assent Form for Child Participation in Research ....................................................... 90 LIST OF TABLES 1. Language Status of Participants by Grade Level ................................................................. 44 2. Percentage of Students who Scored at Benchmark Level for DIBELS or Criterion Level for IMMA .................................................................................................................. 52 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Correlation Coefficients of Music Aptitude and Reading Ability Variables ..........................42 2. Variability in Scores on Tonal Subtest ..................................................................................43 3. Subtests Within the IMMA Assessment ....................................................................................47 4. Subtests Within the DIBELS Assessment ..............................................................................48 5. Variability in Scores on Rhythmic Subtest .............................................................................50 6. Correlation of Mean IMMA and DIBELS Scores Between ELL and Native English Speakers .................................................................51 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Language acquisition and reading ability are at the heart of educational programs in the United States. Evidence of the priority of the study of literacy is demonstrated by the number of states who have adopted policies that ensure teachers are trained in proven methods of reading instruction, and the reading curriculum is based on the latest findings, which prioritize and support student literacy (Schwartz, 2022). While music does not rank at the same level of curricular importance as reading, research has shown that the study of music parallels language acquisition because they use the same part of the brain (Gromko, 2005), share auditory impact (Kraus & Banaí, 2007), and teach phonological awareness (Hallam, 2010). Hallam (2010) explained that music lessons are particularly impactful on the language and literacy development of children due to the active state of their brains’ development. Research indicates that phonological awareness, understanding of the alphabetic principle, and the ability to name letters without hesitation—three signs of reading success—are strongly associated with music aptitude (National Early Literacy Panel, 2008). Phonological awareness, the ability to distinguish the sounds of language through words as well as through phonemes (Degé & Schwarzer, 2011), is a vital skill towards reading development. Music lessons reinforce phonological awareness in that they frequently use literary elements of rhyme and alliteration, as well as ask students to segment words into parts, to blend, and to recognize individual phonemes (Darrow, 2008). Music aptitude consists of two components, tonal and rhythmic (Gordon, 2002). Research indicates that both tonal and rhythmic aptitude share a connection with literacy development and reading ability (David et al., 2007; Gordon et al., 2015). A child’s music aptitude is developed until the age of 9 and is greatly affected by outside influences and musical encounters (Gordon, 2007). The critical years for the development of children’s reading proficiency are kindergarten through third grade (Spear-Swerling & Sternberg, 2000), culminating at the same age as the development of music aptitude. The relationship between music and language acquisition opens the door to potential partnerships between the reading teacher and music specialists. The impetus for this study was to determine what my role, as an elementary music educator, could be in supporting the language and reading development of my students. Statement of the Problem It has been established that a relationship exists between music aptitude and the components of reading ability, namely, phonemic awareness (Gordon et al., 2015; Rubinson, 2010). While much research has focused on the connection shared between music aptitude and phonological awareness overall, not many have aimed to understand the relationships between tonal and rhythmic aptitude and the subtests within the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) to determine which specific connections exist among first and second grade students (Rubinson, 2010). Further, an examination of the research shows that previous studies have focused on infants, pre-school, and kindergarten-aged students (Degé & Schwarzer, 2011; Gromko, 2005; Hansen & Milligan, 2012; Patscheke et al., 2019; Rubinson, 2010; Standley, 1998). A few studies have addressed the musical impact of phonological awareness among first and second grade students separately, but not collectively (Balkin et al., 2005; Culp, 2017; Lozada, 2022). Further, studies comparing the relationships between overall music aptitude, rhythmic aptitude, and tonal aptitude with reading ability in first and second grade English Language Learner (ELL) and native English speaker students only exist for specific language groups such as Spanish-English (Lozada, 2022) and do not address a broad range of languages. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between music aptitude and literacy skills for ELL and native English speaker students in the first and second grade. The scores of native English speakers and ELL students on subtests within the DIBELS assessment and subtests within the Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA) assessment were compared to ascertain if there was a difference in their phonemic awareness, word reading skills, and letter recognition, as related to their rhythmic and/or tonal recognition skills. This study determined what the relationship between tonal and rhythmic aptitude was for students with varying reading ability. This investigation will enable music educators to better understand the influence that pitch and rhythmic perception have on literacy and language acquisition, thus equipping them to design lessons to specifically support language and reading development. Research Questions The following research questions guided this study: 1. What is the content validity for the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and the Intermediate Measures for Music Audiation (IMMA)? 2. What relationships exist among music aptitude and reading measures from the DIBELS, including Phonemic Segmentation Fluency, Nonsense Word Fluency, Word Reading Fluency, and Oral Reading Fluency? 3. How do native English speakers compare to English Language Learner students on their musical aptitude and reading measures? Study Variables The dependent variables used for this study were the scores on the IMMA, Rhythmic and Tonal Subtests, which assessed levels of music aptitude and reading level as demonstrated by the individualized subtests within the DIBELS which assessed phonemic awareness as well as alphabetic understanding through phonemic segmentation fluency (PSF), nonsense word fluency (NWF), word reading fluency (WRF), and oral reading fluency (ORF). Independent variables included grade levels (first and second) and primary language (native English speakers vs. ELL). Definition of Terms The following list of terms is based on the testing instruments used in this study—DIBELS and IMMA Rhythmic and Tonal Subtests. Developmental music aptitude: Developmental music aptitude is defined as a child’s potential for musical ability, as affected by the conditions of the environment, and ends at 9 years of age (Gordon, 2007). Music aptitude: Music aptitude is the capacity for accomplishment in music (Gordon, 2012). “Music aptitude is a product of both innate potential and early environmental experiences” (Gordon, 1999, p. 44). Audiation: “Audiation is to music what thought is to language” (Gordon, 1999, p. 42). “Audiation takes place when we hear and understand in our minds music what we have just heard performed or have heard performed sometime in the past” (Gordon, 1999, p. 42). Audiation involves interpreting the sound after initially hearing it (Gordon, 1999). “Sound becomes music only through audiation, when, as with language, you translate the sounds in your mind to give them context” (Gordon, 1999, p. 42). “Audiation is the basis of music aptitude” (Gordon, 1999, p. 43). Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA): The IMMA consists of a set of musical phrases which test rhythmic and melodic (tonal) perception in identifying which rhythms or tonal patterns are the same and which are different. While everyone has the ability to learn music, some have more musical aptitude than others. This assessment helps music educators identify their students’ level of aptitude and adjust their curriculum accordingly (Gordon, 1986). The student listens to two musical examples and must make an immediate decision as to whether or not the two choices heard are the same or different. Due to the speed required of the response, the child must use their ability to audiate. The rhythm and tonal samples are played on a Moog Sonic 6 synthesizer and a Moog Rhythm programmer. The tonal tests are without rhythm and the rhythmic tests are unpitched (Gordon, 2007). Rhythmic aptitude: Rhythmic aptitude is the ability to learn rhythm (Gordon, 1971). Tonal aptitude: Tonal aptitude is the ability to learn melody (Gordon, 1971). Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS): According to the DIBELS Eighth Edition Handbook (Biancarosa et al., 2021), DIBELS is a measurement of early literacy development that assesses phonemic awareness, the alphabetic principle, fluency, and reading comprehension. In order to track progress, DIBELS assessments are given three times a year; at the beginning, middle, and end of the school year. The tests feature different questions each time. The tests used for the purposes of this study were administered at the end of the school year. Originally, the DIBELS assessments were used to assess literacy levels amongst only kindergarten and first grade students; however, DIBELS have since been expanded to include additional subtests and grade levels. The individual subtests of which two of them have two components for first and second grade are valid methods of assessing student achievement in the areas of literacy development as well as identifying students who may be needing more attention in this area (Biancarosa et al., 2021). These subtests may aid in understanding the progress of students and provide an evaluation for understanding whether objectives are being met as well as detect signs of dyslexia (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Phoneme: A phoneme is the smallest unit of spoken language; it can be made up of more than one letter (Armbruster et al., 2003). Phonemic awareness: Phonemic awareness is the ability to recognize and manipulate individual phonemes (Armbruster et al., 2003). Phonemic Segmentation Fluency (PSF): PSF is the ability to separate the smallest units of speech (phonemes). The test administrator reads a list of words and students are given one minute to sound out the individual sounds within each word (Biancarosa et al., 2021). For example, if given the word “car,” the student would say “/c/ /a/ /r/” and earn three points. This test is only given to children in kindergarten and first grade (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF): asks that students either read the nonsense word as a whole or break the word down to their individual letter sounds. Students are presented with a list of nonsense words and are given one minute in which to sound out each individual letter sound or read the word as a whole (Biancarosa et al., 2021). If the word is read as a whole, the student gets credit for one whole word read correctly (WRC) and is given points for each letter sound. If the word is read by sounding out each individual letter sound, the student is given points towards the correct letter sounds (CLS). The scores are calculated separately as NWF-WRC (Words Re-coded Correctly) and NWF-CLS (Correct Letter Sounds). NWF gives an evaluation as to whether or not students understand the alphabetic principle, which is the capacity to identify letters and match them to their individual sounds (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Word Reading Fluency (WRF): WRF assesses the students ability to accurately read from a list of words with both regular pronunciations (decodable words like “run” and “yes”) and irregular pronunciations (non-decodable words like “are” and “one”). Students must be able to blend the phonemes to read the words (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Oral Reading Fluency (ORF): ORF assesses the capacity for reading words in connected text. The student is given one minute to read a passage from a story as accurately as possible. If there is a 3 second or more pause, then the words are not counted as correct. However, students who change their answer to the correct one in under 3 seconds may be counted towards their total score. The total number of words re-coded and read correctly or self-corrected make up the final scores. Students are scored in two areas: total words read and words re-coded or read correctly in 60 seconds (Biancarosa et al., 2021). This is because ORF assesses both reading accuracy and reading fluency. Reading fluency is measured by the number of words read correctly in 60 seconds. For the purposes of this study, only the number of words read correctly in one minute, which was a measure of reading fluency, were assessed. Music education can have a profound influence on many aspects of students’ lives, including their ability to hear and read words they encounter in all disciplines. Several studies have been conducted on the impact music lessons have on the brain and auditory systems, which, in turn, can promote language and phonemic development (Gromko et al., 2009; Hansen & Milligan, 2012; Kraus & Banai, 2007; Patscheke et al., 2019; Shahin, 2011). Research shows that a connection exists between the study of music and reading achievement (Lamb & Gregory, 1993, McMahon et al., 2003; Standley & Hughes, 1997). The National Association for Music Education (NAfME, 2014) lists 19 benefits of having music in schools, including the development of language and reasoning, a mastery of memorization, increased coordination, emotional development, pattern recognition, auditory skills, teamwork promotion, and creative thinking skills. Interestingly, the first item listed is: “Musical training helps develop language and reasoning: Students who have early musical training will develop the areas of the brain related to language and reasoning” (NAfME, 2014, para. 2). Extra-Musical Benefits of Music Training While the objective of music training is building musical skills, there are a number of extra-musical benefits, such as increased literacy, effects on linguistic capabilities such as vocabulary, brain plasticity, and second language acquisition skills. Gardner’s (1993) theory of multiple intelligences indicated that music education addresses a variety of intelligences, including bodily-kinesthetic, musical, mathematical, linguistic, interpersonal, spatial, and intrapersonal. He goes on to say that the subject matter of songs that students sing in the classroom may connect to other aspects of the curriculum, and students may connect what they are learning in music to other subject areas. In addition, Gardner explained that the literary elements of songs, such as rhyming words and alliteration have a direct impact on reading ability. Gordon (2007) maintained that the early elementary grades were vital for growth in all areas of academics, especially prior to the age of 9. A study of first graders conducted by Balkin et al. (2005) revealed that music aptitude and academic performance are related. They found that first graders who underwent 30 extra minutes per week of Kodály instruction for 1 year, in addition to their regularly scheduled music classes, had higher reading scores on the Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT) than those who did not undergo the extra music training. The first grade teachers worked together to enhance learning, with the reading and math teachers infusing their lessons with musical skills and music teachers strengthening and supporting academic concepts within their music lessons. In addition, Balkin et al. (2005) noted that teachers helped students relate punctuation in written work to pitch in musical works. Impact of Music Instruction on Reading Ability Music instruction can impact a student's reading ability, especially through the inclusion of singing (Hansen & Milligan, 2012). Singing can positively impact phonemic awareness and pitch awareness (Hallam, 2010; Yopp & Yopp, 1996). Additionally, if a student is familiar with the lyrics of a song, it is more likely to improve their reading ability (Towell, 1999). Singing has been known to have a positive impact on reading ability by creating more ways for the student to connect with the written text of what they are singing (Cochran, 2008). Gambill (1999) discovered that singing games had a positive impact on language and literacy achievement in students and suggested that it could be due to the student’s focus on reading the lyrics while they sang. Reading books inspired by song lyrics, making up rhymes, and substituting words in place of others increases phonemic awareness and teaches sound isolation (Towell, 1999). Additionally, books may be used to teach rhythmic concepts through chant and speech patterns (Gauthier, 2005). Syllabic division can be learned in music classes by attaching the sounds heard to the symbols seen, much like letters and language (Hansen & Bernstorf, 2002). The ability to perceive rhythm is also related to language skills and children who have deficits in rhythmic perception will most likely have trouble with fluent reading (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). Students demonstrate reading fluency when they read with expression, and this can be taught by teachers who model proper pausing and inflections (Armbruster et al., 2003). Suggestions for teaching oral reading fluency include reading aloud regularly and receiving instructional feedback, as well as reading in groups chorally, reading with a partner, reading along with a tape recorder, or even readers theater (Armbruster et al., 2003). Cole (2011) reported that the amount of music training that a student has impacts his/her reading ability because the cognitive skills which are being developed are shared in both reading music and in reading books. Brain imaging technology has shown us that the corpus callosum is responsible for reading ability and connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain (Cole, 2011). Fallin (1995) explained that “children's literature can complement lessons from other disciplines, but within the music curriculum it can encourage creativity, reinforce music skills and knowledge, enhance listening, and expand multicultural awareness” (p. 24). The knowledge that the study of music impacts cognitive ability and helps students learn to read is extremely valuable to music educators (Cole, 2011). Just as with reading ability, the type of music a child is exposed to and the level of participation in music making the child experiences will influence their future involvement in music (Gordon, 1986). Gordon (1986) posited that children should listen to instrumental music regularly, both live and recorded, and that tone quality was of the utmost importance, along with a variety in dynamics and timbre. Standley (1998) agreed that instrumental music has a substantial impact on language development because students who can hear pitch and feel rhythm are better equipped to understand language. Rubinson (2010) stated, “As with the development of language, children learn to comprehend tonal and rhythmic aspects of music by giving sounds context and meaning” (p. 9). Language and music share a similar learning process and both utilize four distinct sequential vocabularies: listening, speaking or performing, reading, and writing (Gordon, 2007). Phonemic Awareness and Music Aptitude Phonemic awareness, one aspect of phonological awareness, is the ability to recognize and manipulate individual phonemes, the smallest unit of speech (Armbruster et al., 2003). Musical study strengthens phonemic awareness, due to the connections between musical patterns and phrases in spoken language, as well as pitches and notes to phonemes (Overy, 2003; Sloboda, 1985). Creating rhymes is the beginning of phonemic awareness and making a connection between poetry and music by pointing out the rhyming words within music classes can have a positive impact on the auditory discrimination abilities required for reading (Bryant, 1990). Studies indicate that there is a strong relationship between skills needed to perform rhythm and rhyme (Cheong-Clinch, 1999; Goswami, 1994). Alphabetic understanding comes after phonemic awareness is developed, then phoneme segmentation is developed (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). Singing allows for natural blending and segmenting of phonemes through breaths (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). Rubinson (2010) added that music makes an impact on the literacy skills of children and advocated that “chanting, clapping, tapping, dancing, and playing rhythm instruments and body percussion can teach students to feel and understand the segmentation of language necessary for phonemic and phonological awareness” (p. 52). Phonological awareness involves the ability to identify beginning and ending sounds, distinguish individual words within a sentence and individual sounds within a word, along with an understanding of syllabic division (Ehri et al., 2001; Snow et al., 1998). Degé and Schwarzer (2011) defined phonological awareness as “the ability to analyze and manipulate language on both the word level, namely, phonological units, and on the phoneme level, namely, the individual sound units within a word” (p. 1). Reading fluency depends on the ability to decode phonemes, which is the act of matching letters to their proper sounds to sound out words (Phillips & Torgensen, 2006; Rubinson, 2010). It is from building this ability to speak that children learn to read and write, as well as understand the structure of language (Gordon, 1999). PSF is the only true measure of phonological awareness within DIBELS, whereas the other subtests measure different aspects of reading ability, such as alphabetic understanding, reading fluency, and reading comprehension (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Phonological awareness testing may also contribute towards early recognition of reading disabilities (Good et al., 2002). Overy’s (2003) study of dyslexic children revealed that lessons which emphasize rhythmic practice could increase their phonological awareness leading to a higher level of reading achievement. Music aptitude is related to phonological awareness (Rubinson, 2010). In a study conducted by Culp (2017), second graders were given a phonological test and a music test and the resulting scores were closely related. Rubinson’s study (2010) revealed connections between PMMA (Primary Measures of Music Audiation), Rhythm Raw Scores, and DIBELS PSF. Further, Rubinson found both strong and moderate-sized positive correlations between tonal aptitude and phonemic awareness, but no significant connection was found between DIBELS NWF and music aptitude. She also found that pitch discrimination skills positively impact reading lessons and phonemic understanding. The correlation between phonological awareness and tonal discrimination was significantly higher than between phonological awareness and rhythmic ability (Rubinson, 2010). In Lozada’s (2022) study of the relationships shared between phonological awareness and music aptitude in first grade bilingual Spanish and English-speaking students, he found a statistically significant correlation between music aptitude and phonological awareness in Spanish-speaking children. However, although there was a correlation between phonological awareness and music aptitude in English-speaking children as well, it was not statistically significant. Pitch and rhythm discrimination skills are related to reading ability (Lamb & Gregory, 1993). A study conducted by Lamb and Gregory (1993) showed that the ability to make distinctions between pitches strongly impacts reading ability. Patchsecke et al. (2019) completed a study in which they looked into the separate effects that lessons in rhythm and lessons in pitch would have on phonological awareness. They found that, in preschoolers between the ages of 4 and 6, lessons in pitch had a positive impact on their phonological awareness skills. Hansen and Milligan (2012) agreed that phonological awareness was developed by understanding sound; this is why ear training is so important. David et al.’s study (2007) showed a correlation between first grade students’ rhythm and phonological awareness, and when they tested the same students 4 years later, a connection was still found between rhythm and reading achievement. When the musical phrase is broken down to its smallest units, a pitch or rhythmic note, it is analogous to a phoneme within a word (Sloboda, 1985). Douglas and Williatts (1994) administered spelling, vocabulary, and reading tests to groups of 7 and 8 year olds, then compared those scores to their rhythmic discrimination ability and found a connection between the students’ ability to identify differing rhythms and the ability to read and spell. Familiar songs are a useful way to encourage and engage a child by asking them to recognize the rhythm and pitch of certain songs (Gordon, 1986). Gordon (1986) maintained that the best way for students to develop audiation skills and aptitude is to allow them to work independently and experiment with pitches and rhythms. He added that it is far more enriching for students to improvise and analyze than to be accurate. Hansen and Milligan (2012) explained that musical training helps students understand pitch and rhythm and that these skills can easily translate to understanding phonemes. Research indicates that both singing and playing musical instruments can positively impact a student’s phonological awareness (Culp, 2017; Degé & Schwarzer, 2011). Research indicates that the development of musical aptitude ends by the age of 9, thus increasing the urgency for beginning music training early (Culp, 2017). Degé and Schwarzer (2011) completed a study on the impact a music program had on preschooler’s phonological awareness and found a direct correlation between children who were exposed to the music program and their phonological awareness. They claimed that this was due to a direct correlation between phonemes and music notes. The preschoolers who were part of the music program did see an increase in their phonological awareness. In a study of kindergarten students, Gromko (2005) found that skills learned in music transferred to children's performance on phonemic awareness tasks. Hansen and Milligan (2012) conducted research on presenting the sound to kindergarteners before showing them the related symbol. They found that kindergarten students who received the sound before symbol instruction had higher phonemic fluency than those that did not. Lucas and Gromko (2007) agreed that music instruction helps students hear the individual sounds in words. They also supported the sound-to-symbol Kodály approach to teaching music. Auditory Impact of Music on Language Babies are exposed to the sound of their mother’s voice prenatally, but Gordon (1986) explained that when they are born, they are surrounded by language, which they hear unconsciously and absorb, even if they are not responsive to it. He goes on to say this unconscious absorption of the language prepares children to develop their language capabilities. Gordon stated that reading aloud to children daily can give them quality exposure to language as well as develop speech abilities. He added that, as with unconscious absorption through reading, children should hear many different musical styles, so that they may absorb as much as they can even without understanding it. Gordon further recommended that children should move and sing along to the music. In her study of music benefits for premature infants, Standley (1998) found that when parents sing lullabies to their children, it helps them develop language skills. She also discovered that the fetus could perceive both pitch and rhythm while in the womb. Valerio et al. (2006) discovered that toddlers can learn to think in music and found that this mental vocabulary is different than other types of vocabulary. Valerio et al. also noted that toddlers are able to hear differences in tone and rhythm patterns when the melody is being repeated or improvised. According to research, infants have a very high level of musicality (Brand, 1985). Brand (1985) posited that pre-school-aged children benefit primarily from music education because it is similar to language acquisition. He argued that “infants need to be exposed to music so that they can unconsciously absorb it” (p. 29). Based on the child’s vocal development, he emphasized that the early years of a child’s life are the most impactful, because they are beginning to form language and listening skills. This is why music classes are so important at a young age. Phonemes, like pitch, are processed auditorily, which all affect expressive and fluent reading (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). Cheong-Clinch (1999) also discovered a connection between pitch discrimination and phonemic awareness. Music and language are both perceived auditorily, therefore, the way in which music is perceived shares a relationship with reading ability (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). A study done by McMahon et al. (2003) found that auditory discrimination skills, as well as expressive language skills, were more strongly linked to students who had studied music. Sound recognition begins in infancy (Kuhl, 2007). As babies become older they gain the ability to mimic the sounds they hear, without necessarily understanding what it is they are mimicking (Kuhl, 2007). Degé and Schwarzer (2011) noted that the parts of the brain that process sound and music also impacted the children’s language skills. They found that these “auditory processing mechanisms were shared” (p. 2), thus verifying that the learning systems for language and music are similar. In their study of how phonemic awareness skills relate to pitch perception in children, Loui et al. (2011) tested children between the ages of 7 and 9 and found a positive relationship between pitch perception and phonemic awareness in both their production and in their neural mechanisms. They chose this age range because it is the “earliest time when measurable deficits in literacy development can be identified” (Loui et al., 2011, p. 2). In their research on auditory processing, Kraus and Banai (2007) found that students’ speech disabilities could be related to their ability to process sound. Fallin (1995) agreed that sounds from books can “come alive” in music class, as students feel the rhythm of the words they are reading (p. 27). Music and Multilingualism Research indicates that there is a relationship between music and learning a second language. Trollinger’s study (2010) of second-language acquisition revealed that musicians learn new language more proficiently and expressively than non-musicians and suggested that it may be connected to tone detection in various languages. Research in bilingualism indicates that the brain maps all languages in both Broca’s and Wernicke’s area (Trollinger, 2010). In the same way, language processing and music perception share a relationship between Broca’s area, which is connected to the grammatical side of the brain, and Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain process vocabulary (Trollinger, 2010). When concentrating on reading the words of the song, the temporal region in the left side of the brain, where Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are located, is more engaged, but when learning the melody, the right side is more engaged (Trollinger, 2010). The brain connects what is known to what is new; it processes the new language by connecting it with languages already mastered (Curtis & Fallin, 2014). Curtis and Fallin (2014) explained that the areas of the brain used to learn a new language are more highly developed through playing a musical instrument or singing, thus musicians are poised to learn another language more easily. The ability to learn languages might be directly impacted by one’s musical ability (Schön & François, 2011). Much like language, music asks the perceiver to “segment the stream of tones into relevant units and be able to recognize these units when played with different timbres, tempos, keys, and styles” (Schön & François, 2011, p. 3). Through various experiments and tests, the researchers successfully confirmed that musicians have a “more efficient brain network involving both auditory and more integrative processing” (p. 6). Music and language share neural connections (Levitin & Menon, 2003); thus, studies have shown that musical individuals are able to discern the sound structure of foreign languages more easily (Sleve & Miyake, 2006). Both music and language contain discrete abilities within a hierarchical structure (Patel, 2003). Young children’s music learning processes are similar to those in language acquisition; therefore, it is important for teachers and parents to combine music and books to ensure music literacy as well as reading literacy (Piro & Ortiz, 2009). Children begin with acculturation, a process of being immersed in sounds of language or of music (Scott, 2004). The next step is assimilation, whereby children sing with correct breath-control while moving their bodies to the beat (Scott, 2004). Music and language share a universal bond (Patel, 2003) and the language of a culture has an impact on the music of that culture (Patel & Daniele, 2003). Patel and Daniele (2003) found that the rhythm of a language often translates to the type of rhythms present within the music of that culture. Musicians perceive the sounds of languages differently than non-musicians because they are more receptive towards the melodic contour of the language (Patel, 2009). Patel (2011) explained how music lessons can impact learning another language through the OPERA hypothesis: - Overlap: Music and language perception overlap in the brain. - Precision: The precision required in music is processed neurologically in the same way language is processed. - Emotion: Music brings about emotional responses which can aid in learning and memory recall. - Repetition: Music lessons require students to repeat and reinforce concepts they have already learned. - Attention: Attention must be given towards learning music. When all of these factors are engaged, neural plasticity takes effect and changes are made within the brain (Patel, 2014). Neural Impact of Music and Reading The areas of the brain that process music and reading tend to overlap and work together (Trollinger, 2010). Trollinger (2010) stated that melody and rhythm perception within both speech and music are processed in similar neural pathways. She explained that language processing and music perception share a relationship between Broca’s area, which is connected to the grammatical side of the brain, and Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain process vocabulary. Trollinger maintained that singing activates the whole brain, but certain parts of it are more engaged when learning specific aspects of a song. She provided the example when the singer concentrates on learning the words of a song, the temporal region in the left side of the brain, where Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are located, is more engaged, but when learning the melody, the right side is more engaged. Neural Impact of Music and Language Music has an unequivocal power over human emotion and cognition. With a better understanding of how music is perceived cognitively and the effects that music has on the brain, music educators may better equip themselves with teaching methods which would reinforce brain strengthening musical activities. Music plays an important role in our humanity. Music is inherent in our DNA (Scott, 2004). The auditory and visual regions of our brain work together to communicate through music. Over the years, scientists have made great progress towards understanding the human brain and we now have more methods than ever before of understanding the development and structures of the brain (Glascott Burris & Strickland, 2001). The brain has shared neural passageways which understand and absorb music and language abilities (Koelsch et al., 2005). Ultimately, the way that music affects the brain proves the amount of influence and importance that music education has in our lives. Standley (1998) agreed that the left side of the brain takes longer to develop and that it is this side in which language is developed. Research has shown that music training increased the size of the part of the brain that understands sound. This is another reason why music training should start very young, because this is when children’s brains are still developing (Hansen & Milligan, 2012). Hallam (2010) agreed with Ho et al. (2003), who found that verbal memory was related to music experience because they are both positioned in the left part of the brain. Gromko et al. (2009) stated that working memory allows children to learn nonsense words and tones. This helps us understand how children perceive music and how it relates to their phonemic awareness (Lucas & Gromko, 2007). Jentschke (2005) discovered that the ERAN (early right anterior negativity) was linked to musical activities, and the ELAN (early left anterior negativity) was linked to language processing in the brain. Jentschke also discovered that these two processors are located in a similar part of the brain. Music training has been proven to positively impact the child’s brain, which directly impacts their musical and linguistic abilities (Shahin, 2011). Regarding the neurophysiological connection between speech and musical training, Shahin (2011) found that music and speech are similar from a psycho-acoustical and neuro-physiological standpoint, because they are processed in the same part of the brain and pass through the same auditory passage. This is why music practice and speech practice can impact brain stem processing (Shahin, 2011). Working memory is shared in both areas of the brain, so language and music can both be processed in the same way (Reifinger, 2018). Music lessons impact neural processing abilities (Hallam, 2010; Munte et al., 2003). Further, Hallam (2010) found that these neural changes depended on the type of musical activity being done. For instance, violinists perceive pitch from the front of their brain, whereas drummers are able to memorize the structure of a song more easily, and conductors demonstrated that they have the strongest auditory capabilities (Munte et al., 2003). Shahin’s (2011) study revealed evidence that music and speech exercises have the same impact on the same parts of the brain, namely the brain stem and the auditory cortex. Shahin also proved that the way that rhythm is understood in the brain is similar to the way that speech is understood. Therefore, musical practice helps promote the child’s brain development (Hallam, 2010; Munte et al., 2003). Due to advances in technology and science, researchers have found that music plays a tremendous role in impacting the brain’s functions. Studies have discovered that those who study music before they are seven, have a larger auditory cortex (Cochran, 2008). Electroencephalographic brain mapping revealed differences between people who were musically educated and those who were not (Petsche et al., 1993). Through the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Schlaug et al. (1995) found that musicians’ corpus callosum was 15% larger than non-musicians, and musicians’ cerebellum, the rhythmic center of the brain, was 5% larger in musicians than non-musicians. Musacchia et al. (2007) added that individuals who have studied music have more powerful auditory and audiovisual processing abilities within the brain than those who did not study music. Brain Plasticity Brain plasticity is the idea that the brain can change as it experiences new things (Wan & Schlaug, 2010). New musical experiences cause the brain to adjust and grow and thus have a tremendous impact upon the way the brain is formed (Wan & Schlaug, 2010). A study done with both monkeys and humans showed mirror neurons within the brain that are activated by what we see and hear (Trollinger, 2010). The brain is most adaptable earlier in life (Flohr, 2010). This is why learning to play an instrument from a young age changes the structure of the brain and results in a larger corpus callosum (Wan & Schlaug, 2010). A larger corpus callosum allows the frontal lobes to work together, which in turn affects motor activities (Glascott Burris & Strickland, 2001). In a study comparing musicians with non-musicians, keyboard players proved to have more gray matter throughout their brain (Flohr, 2010). Additionally, musicians have organizational differences in the white matter part of their brains (Trollinger, 2010). The environment that the musician was exposed to throughout life and the level of training they have completed all have an influence on brain development (Trollinger, 2010). With each new experience the brain changes. Dendrites are created as the brain's neural network grows through exposure to new things (Curtis & Fallin, 2014). Curtis and Fallin (2014) explained that dendrites help to process neurotransmitters by spreading information to various regions in the brain. They explained that when students review something, or experience it repeatedly, a fatty coating called myelin is built on the cell’s axon. This process is called myelination and it helps the brain to understand new things. According to recent studies, both sides of the brain process language and music (Curtis & Fallin, 2014). Neural Pathways of Learning There are many neural pathways by which information is gathered and learned. The semantic pathway of the brain focuses on words and terminology and the episodic pathway triggers memory recall (Walter & Walter, 2015). Repetition strengthens both the automatic memory pathway and the emotional pathway (Walter & Walter, 2015). In Curtis and Fallin’s (2014) study, musician groups performed better on motor-sequencing and rhythmic tasks, leading them to conclude that instrumental music training significantly changes the brain in the temporal and frontal lobe as well as in the cerebellum. Walter and Walter (2015) found that when the brain learns something, a synapse occurs, meaning electrical nerve impulses occur between the neurons. They also discovered that as the brain engages in repetitive motions, or review of material, synaptic relationships are created. Then myelination occurs, meaning the glial cells coat the myelin around the axons. Walter and Walter went on to explain that, as the axons are covered with myelin, the brain can control the speed of neuron transmission so that the messages from around the brain are carried to the right synapse. The synapse then passes the message on. They explained that if the timing is off, the synapse may lose the message and myelination may fail to occur. Music and Linguistic Development Music is deeply ingrained in us and is a means of expressing ourselves. Music was used as a means of expression when the vocabulary to express oneself did not exist yet (Trimble & Hesdorffer, 2017). Plato also reflected on the emotions associated with each of the musical modes (Trimble & Hesdorffer, 2017). Langer (1951) believed that music is symbolic of emotional experience and reveals what words cannot. Both active and passive participation in a music lesson invariably affect the brain. Naturally, active participation has a larger impact on the brain than passive participation does; however, even passive participation can affect the memory (Weinberger, 2000). Scott (2004) underscored Pestalozzi’s stance on the school music curriculum when she stated that children must be fully engulfed in the subject through a curriculum built on discovering music for oneself through independent play. Scott explained that during independent play the child is actively participating in the lesson through self-discovery. She added that children crave order and, when given the chance to improvise with instruments, children naturally brought structure to the notes. Scott maintained that improvisation is one of the best ways to bring about independent learning. Language and music are both developed by listening and doing (Scott, 2004). Scott (2004) explained that to learn to speak, children must first form a strong foundation of vocabulary; likewise, to become musically literate, children must first have a true understanding of how to read and write music. Scott maintained that students ought to mirror what they hear from the music teacher to gain true understanding. Scott compared the way a baby beginning to babble does not understand what is being said, but simply mimics the sounds around her, to the way children ought to mimic the sounds of music. Scott stated the music mimicking process, or acculturation, leads to students assimilating what they hear, thus beginning the development of musical understanding. Gordon (1999) established a music learning theory that likened the learning of music to the learning of language. Initially, infants cannot speak and must therefore spend time listening to the language around them, then as they grow, words become meaningful and they begin to mimic what they hear as well as gain the ability think in words. After this stage, enough vocabulary has been introduced to them in order for them to begin to read and write and eventually they learn the grammatical aspects of language; A similar process takes place when children learn music (Gordon, 1999). According to Piaget’s theory, children go through four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years onward; Driscoll, 2005). Driscoll (2005) pointed out that during the preoperational stage, between the ages of 2 and 7, children’s language skills increasingly develop and children become more self-expressive, thus making this time period critical for reading acquisition. Impact of Home Music Environment Music aptitude can be affected by the quality of children’s musical activities, both at home and in an educational setting (Gordon, 2007). Gordon (2007) posited that music aptitude can be found in all children to a certain degree, but it is the child’s home environment which affects the development of their musical abilities. Family plays an important part in a child’s sense of self (Creech, 2009). Research shows that many families share in a joint musical identity and the support from parents and the importance placed upon musicianship by the parents influences the students’ musical identity (Borthwick & Davidson, 2002). Ultimately, parental involvement affects the level of student’s musical achievement (Isbell, 2008). Mehr (2014) investigated the relationship between those who had received musical experiences in their youth and the impact this had on the frequency of their music-making in adulthood and found an intergenerational connection between the two. He found that the amount of musical experiences his participants had acquired in their youth impacted the quality and frequency of the musical experiences they provided to their own children. Mehr’s study revealed that there was no significant correlation between those who had early childhood experiences in music classes and adult music making, but those who had musical experiences in a home environment as a child were significantly more likely to continue their musical participation into adulthood as well as provide musical experiences to their own children. Harding (1989) investigated third grade students and their musical backgrounds and discovered that there was a significant relationship between students who had many musical experiences in their youth and their language skills past second grade. Harding analyzed the effects that early exposure to music had on the language skills of third grade students, in the areas of mechanical and expressive language capabilities as well as reading and spelling abilities. Harding found that a relationship does exist between those who had early music exposure and their language and reading abilities, specifically in the areas of expressive language, reading, and spelling. Gordon (1986) recommended that a child be encouraged to succeed musically and be exposed to music regularly in their home environment, including hearing, composing, and practicing music regularly. Music and Movement Nadon-Gambrion (1984) found that music and movement relate to language learning; rhythmic elements of playing an instrument and moving to music help the student to understand and feel a phrase. She explained that clapping and becoming kinesthetically aware can help with understanding the phonemic relationship of the words. In her research on the effects of rhythmic movement, Hallam (2018) found that movements such as stamping and clapping while singing or chanting strengthens literacy development. The child should not only listen to music regularly to allow for absorption, the child should also sing and move to music rhythmically (Gordon, 1986). Students are most engaged in lessons when teachers use call-response, walking fast to the music, and repetitive gross movement (Cooper, 2010). Implications for Music Teachers According to Gordon (2007) a student’s musical aptitude is in the developmental stage until the age of 9 years old. Therefore, formal and informal music lessons are most important in the younger grade levels as they bear the most influence on musical aptitude prior to the age of nine (Gordon, 2007). In the same way pitch and tone are the basis for auditory sound symbol relationships, so, pitch and solfege, which are like the musical alphabet, are the key musical elements used to promote phonological awareness (Patscheke et al., 2019). Patscheke et al. (2019) suggested that music training focused on rhythm could be beneficial for children with dyslexia or for children considered to be at risk due to their deficiencies in phonological awareness. Furthermore, Patscheke et al. agreed with Verney (2013), who found that training in rhythmic activities led to increased phonological awareness, especially rhymes and syllabic awareness. The music teacher ought to model singing of songs in the proper vocal range, recite chants and rhymes, and demonstrate rhythmic control (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). Music educators may use songs in their curriculum that initially enforce simple rhythmic and melodic elements but grow in difficulty throughout the year (Cochran, 2008). In order to affect a student’s music aptitude, spontaneous singing is recommended because they are asked to respond in the moment (Gordon, 1986). Gordon (1986) suggested that students and teachers sing instructions throughout the lesson and encourage students to respond in song. It is the teacher’s duty to model correct pitch, and rhythm so that the student, in turn, imitates the correct pitch and rhythm (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). Gordon (1986) understood that all children have the capacity to speak; therefore, they ought to have the ability to learn to sing. However, Gordon purporting that just as children must be taught to speak by exposing them to language, so must they be taught to sing by exposing them to proper technique. He maintained that proper singing position, both while seated and standing, as well as breath control, are skills which students must be taught. The recommendations for proper breath control and posture can be found within the IMMA handbook (Gordon, 1986). The National Standards for Music Education (Music Educators National Conference [MENC], 1994) propose that singing is a valid way in which to enrich musical development. Independent singing develops tonality (Gordon, 1986). Gordon (1986) stated that the teacher ought always to give the correct starting pitch and tempo prior to inviting the class to join in singing. He proposed that tonal phrases be taught independently from rhythm and rhythmic phrases should be taught using a single pitch. Further, Gordon believed that rhythmic and tonal patterns should be practiced separately, as well as within songs. Overy (2003) found that rhythm practice influences auditory, visual, and motor skills, which aid the brain in processing information more quickly, thus helping to develop phonological awareness. Overy (2003) also determined that singing and rhythmic practice affect phonological awareness levels in both neuro-typical students as well as those who struggle with dyslexia. Findings from a study done by Rubinson (2010) supported the notion that music classes which emphasize rhythm skills have a positive impact on both spelling and phonological awareness. Additionally, Goswami (1994) found that good rhythmic sense is related to recognition of rhyme and alliteration. Teachers should be open to collaborating amongst grade levels, especially in the areas of language arts, reading, and music. It would be fruitful for language arts teachers as well as music teachers to undergo training with one another in which aspects from each discipline are presented so that each are prepared to reinforce skills in the classroom, such as appropriate music-modeling as well as emphasis on steady beat, poetic fluency using chant, and articulation and tone quality for young students (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). All teachers in the school must have the desire to work together in order to make a significant difference on the student’s level of achievement (O’Herron & Siebenhaler, 2007). Small group work during music class is good practice for students in working together to build musical and literacy skills (Gardner, 1993). In a study conducted by Cheong-Clinch (1999) it was concluded that lessons which distinguish between pitch and rhythm ought to be included in language lessons to foster phonemic awareness. Adams and Bruck (1995) recommended the inclusion of songs, chants, and word games to train the students’ ear toward the structure of language. Teachers may help their students grow in phonemic awareness by organizing their lessons from most easily grasped to most difficult. For example, teachers might begin with something familiar such as rhyming words, and then move on to syllabic division, and lessons which teach onset and rime, and eventually activities that emphasize individual phonemes (Yopp & Yopp, 2000). Yopp and Yopp (2000) recommended that “activities should be organized by the size of linguistic units emphasized such as rhyme, syllables, onset rime units, or phonemes” (p.135). Yopp and Yopp (2000) encouraged activities such as asking students to match, isolate, or blend sounds. They added that auditory cues (e.g., when students are invited to clap the number of syllables in a word and relate that to musical note rhythm) are also excellent ways in which to help students grow in their literacy and musical development. Yopp and Yopp (2000) also recommended having phonemic awareness activities in both the music and literature classrooms. These activities could include a classroom scavenger hunt in which students are given a bag with a letter on it and a picture of something that begins with that letter, then students are tasked with finding things in the classroom that begin with that same letter sound. Music Education Advocacy Research on music and the brain has come to the forefront over the past few decades and the positive impact of music on the brain has been used as an advocacy tool by music educators (NAfME, 2014). Music instruction strengthens the brain in geometrical and spatial reasoning (Cole, 2011). Modern brain imaging allows researchers and teachers to prove that music activates the whole brain (Cooper, 2010). Additionally, it has long been established that the brain undergoes changes while practicing music (Cole, 2011). Children who are immersed in music and language are more prepared to listen and are more receptive (Cooper, 2010). Cooper noted that music teachers are encouraged to model good singing habits and enunciate the words of songs. He added that by emphasizing vocal tone colors, children can understand the importance in understanding the tone of a piece and its effects on the music. Cooper (2010) pointed out that improvisation, which is an important part of any elementary music classroom, causes the brain to be more active than when reproducing music. Through repetitive practice the brain’s neural circuits work together to internalize the music (Scott-Kassner, 1999). Scott-Kassner (1999) explained that singing in a group can reinforce this as well as using movement to reinforce the rhythm and beat. Research indicates that music aptitude is correlated to reading achievement in young children (Cheong-Clinch, 1999; Lamb & Gregory, 1993). Quality music instruction has been proven to have an effect in other academic areas which helps promote the use of music in the classroom for the benefit of all academia (Gordon, 2007). Singing has been proven to increase the vocabulary of English language learners (Cochran, 2008). This finding promotes the use of singing games in the classroom as it allows the English language learner to connect with the words they are singing (Cochran, 2008). Hock et al. (2009) found that “more than eight million adolescents have not mastered the reading skills necessary for them to successfully respond to the demanding secondary school requirements or compete for meaningful jobs in the workplace” (p. 22). In order to mitigate this, teacher training ought to take an integrative approach and incorporate music training for reading teachers and literacy training for music teachers to incorporate them both into lessons (Barry, 2008). Barton (1997) agreed that music teachers must be versed in “content area reading strategies” in addition to their own field (p. 23). CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The purpose of this study was to understand the relationship between music aptitude and literacy skills for ELL and native English speaker students in the first and second grade. The scores of native English speakers and ELL students on subtests within the DIBELS assessment and subtests within the IMMA assessment were compared to ascertain if there was a difference in their phonemic awareness, word reading skills, and letter recognition, as related to their rhythmic and/or tonal recognition skills. This study determined whether those with high tonal and rhythmic aptitude performed better on reading assessments than those with low tonal and rhythmic aptitude. Reading ability was assessed using a collection of standardized subtests, DIBELS (Biancarosa et al., 2021). The tests measure phonemic awareness, alphabetic recognition, and fluency, which all impact reading ability (Hintze et al., 2003). These subtests may aid in understanding the progress of students as well as provide an evaluation for understanding whether objectives are being met (Biancarosa et al., 2021). The IMMA (Gordon, 1986) is an instrument that measures both tonal and rhythmic aptitude. The student listens to two musical examples and must make an immediate decision as to whether or not the two choices heard are the same or different. Due to the speed required of the response, the child must use their ability to audiate. The tonal tests are without rhythm and the rhythmic tests are unpitched (Gordon, 2007). Data were used to understand the relationships between music aptitude and reading proficiency of first and second grade students. Upon receiving approval from the Texas Woman’s University Institutional Review Board (IRB), permission slips and the link to the home language and musical background survey were emailed to parents of students who were randomly selected to participate. The population for this study was a public, charter elementary school in Texas. Students who returned a signed informed consent form indicating parental permission to participate were included in the research study. Twenty-eight first and second grade students were chosen for this study because studies have shown that this is a period in which substantial musical growth takes place (Gordon, 1986). Additionally, research among this age group regarding developmental music aptitude and reading ability is lacking. Participants Participants ($N = 28$) included first grade students ($n = 13$) and second grade students ($n = 15$), ages 6 to 8 years old, enrolled in a public charter school in Texas. Both ELL and native English speakers from each grade level were randomly selected. Random selection occurred by inputting all students' names into a random name generator. A recruitment email was sent to the parent or guardian of the students whose names were selected (Appendix A). To indicate their willingness for their child to participate, the parent/guardian emailed back the researcher to give their consent. Then the parents reviewed and signed the consent forms and returned them to the researcher (Appendices B and C). Students’ participation was contingent upon receipt of consent from the students’ parents or guardians. One consent form was signed by the parent on behalf of the student and the other was signed by the parent on behalf of himself or herself. Students also signed an assent form, which was read to them. Collection of Data This research was approved by the Texas Woman’s University IRB prior to recruitment. As soon as IRB approval was granted, the researcher asked permission from the school headmaster and assistant headmaster to use students enrolled in the school for the study. Once permission was granted, an email was sent to randomly selected parents of first and second grade students (Appendix A). Once parents indicated they were interested in joining the study, informed consent letters on behalf of the parent participant and the child participant were sent home to be signed (Appendices B and C). The sample for this study consisted of randomly selected first and second grade students in the Spring semester of the 2021-2022 school year. Parents or guardians of each student had to return a signed consent form on behalf of themselves and a separate consent form on behalf of their child prior to testing. These forms gave information regarding the rights of the students as well as of the parents involved in the study. All students who were given permission to participate in the research study were read an assent form to which they could verbally agree to take part in the study (Appendix E). Students were then evaluated using IMMA and DIBELS subtests. Identification as an ELL or native English speaker was determined by the students’ permanent records as well as information from the parent survey. Instrumentation Music aptitude was assessed using the IMMA (Gordon, 1986) to identify tonal, rhythmic, and overall developmental music aptitude, and the DIBELS (Biancarosa et al., 2021) was used to assess participants’ reading ability. Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Verified by research from the National Reading Panel (NRP, 2000), and the National Reading Council (NRC; Snow et al., 1998), DIBELS is a set of measured subtests which assess the development of early literacy skills. These subtests assess phonological awareness, the alphabetic principle, fluency, and reading comprehension (Biancarosa, et al., 2021). Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation IMMA is used to assess developmental music aptitude for students in 1st through 4th grade (Gordon, 1984). IMMA is made up of two subtests: Tonal and Rhythm. Each subtest consists of 40 pairs of short tape-recorded tonal or rhythm patterns, lasting about 12 minutes each. The tonal patterns are played without rhythm. The durations of the pitches are of equal length so that test subjects can focus only on the tonal aspects of the patterns. The rhythmic patterns are void of melody with all patterns played on only one pitch. This enables test subjects to focus on only the rhythmic aspects of the patterns. Children deciphered between the same and different tonal and rhythmic patterns and gave their answer by circling two happy faces if the rhythms or tones were the same, or one happy and one sad face if the pairs were different (Gordon, 1986). Each student's IMMA scores were compared to their DIBELS scores to determine if there was a correlation between musical ability and phonological awareness. Further, ELL scores were compared to the scores of native English speakers in their same grade level. A home language assessment and musical background survey was emailed to parents/guardians (Appendix D). A set of IMMA subtests was used to test individual student’s rhythm and tonal aptitude. Three scores were recorded within the IMMA: tonal, rhythm, and composite. The composite consists of the combination of tonal and rhythm scores and measures the complete music aptitude. A set of DIBELS subtests was used to assess reading ability and phonemic awareness. DIBELS eighth edition is updated with the latest educational standards by which knowledge is measured. The tests are developed based on the latest educational standards to “promote the validity of interpretations of test scores” (Biancarosa et al., 2021, p. 22). The sequence of questions in the subtests within the DIBELS become more challenging with each subtest (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Unlike the NWF subtest and the ORF subtest, studies have shown that the WRF subtest is a good way to discover whether students may be considered to be struggling readers (Biancarosa et al., 2021). “The subtests offered in specific grades are aligned to curriculum and instruction typical for each grade” (Biancarosa et al., 2021, p. 8). The alphabetic principle is the ability to recognize, write, and sound out letters in the alphabet (Baker et al., 2018). This skill may be taught by sequential instruction, where the student first learns the sounds of individual letters then practices blending them to make words (Baker et al., 2018). The alphabetic principle is integral for reading success because students must have the ability to understand letters and their sounds in order to understand and produce the words they are reading (Baker et al., 2018). One of the goals of DIBELS was to catch early signs of dyslexia, this was done by frequent testing, as well as to gain an understanding of the way that students were developing their reading skills, and to give teachers a starting point in determining how to track their skills by using “benchmark goals and timelines” (Biancarosa et al., 2021, p. 12). Data were calculated using Statistics for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Design of Study In this descriptive, quantitative study, IMMA subtests were administered by grade level, and the results were compared to DIBELS subtests scores by grade level and analyzed by inputting data into a chart or a graph. The dependent variables were the scores on both exams. The results were reported in terms of their scores on both DIBELS and IMMA testing and were displayed in a chart. Parents of the student participants took a home language and musical background survey (see Appendix D). Participants, first and second graders, $(N = 28)$ enrolled in a public charter school in Texas each took various DIBELS subtests. First graders were assessed on their Phonemic Segmentation Fluency (PSF), NWF - Correct Letter Sounds (NWF-CLS), NWF – Words Recoded Correctly (NWF-WRC), WRF and ORF. Second graders were assessed on their: NWF-CLS, NWF-WRC, WRF, and ORF. Students were then given a music audiation test (IMMA). When compared to the DIBELS, the two IMMA subtests on tonal aptitude and rhythmic aptitude demonstrated the relationship between musical aptitude and phonological awareness. The subtests pertained to rhythm and tonal perception of similar and different patterns. Students listened to two recordings, one which pertained to rhythm and one which pertained to tone. Each recording was 12 minutes long. The students were asked to decide whether pairs of tonal or rhythmic patterns they heard sounded the same or sounded different. They indicated their choice by simply drawing a circle around two happy faces if the pair was the same, or one happy and one sad face, if the pair was different. The tests were scored and the results were put into a chart or a graph for comparison. Each student's IMMA scores were compared to their DIBELS scores to determine if there was a correlation between musical aptitude and reading ability. Further, ELL scores were compared to the scores of native English speakers in their same grade level to determine if there was a difference in their musical aptitude and reading ability. The IMMA subtests lasted about 22 minutes and the DIBELS subtests took about 10 minutes, a total of 32 minutes for completion. Procedure Once parental and student consent forms were signed (Appendices B and C), the researcher read the student assent form individually to students prior to testing them (Appendix E). Once assent was confirmed, participants, first and second graders, $(N = 28)$ enrolled in a charter elementary school in Texas took a series of DIBELS subtests. First graders were assessed on their PSF, NWF-CLS, NWF-WRC, WRF, and ORF. Second graders were assessed on their: NWF-CLS, NWF-WRC, WRF, and ORF. In order to track progress, DIBELS assessments are given three times a year; at the beginning, middle, and end of the school year. The tests feature different words each time. The tests used for the purposes of this study were administered at the end of the school year. After instructions were given, students heard a practice question for each subtest in order to become acquainted with the tests. For both the DIBELS and IMMA, there are scripted instructions for the test administrator to adhere to. Practice questions are provided prior to the beginning of the test in order to ensure the student understands the questions. For the DIBELS, the timer runs for 60 seconds per subtest (Biancarosa et al., 2021). PSF is the ability to separate the smallest units of speech (phonemes). The test administrator reads a list of words aloud and students are given one minute to sound out the individual sounds within the word (Biancarosa et al., 2021). For example, if given the word “car,” the student would say “/c/ /a/ /r/” and earn three points. This test is only given to children in kindergarten and first grade (ages 5-7; Biancarosa et al., 2021). NWF asks that students either read the nonsense word as a whole or break the word down to their individual letter sounds. Students are presented with a list of nonsense words and are given 1 minute in which to sound out each individual sound or read the word as a whole (Biancarosa et al., 2021). If the word is read as a whole, the student gets credit for one whole WRC and is given points for each letter sound. If the word is read by sounding out each individual letter sound, the student is given points towards the correct letter sounds CLS. The scores are calculated separately as NWF-WRC and NWF-CLS. NWF gives an evaluation as to whether or not students understand the alphabetic principle, which is the capacity to identify letters and match them to their individual sounds (Biancarosa et al., 2021). WRF assesses the students ability to accurately read from a list of words with both regular pronunciations (decodable words like “run” and “yes”) and irregular pronunciations (non-decodable words like “are” and “one”). Students must be able to blend the phonemes to read the words (Biancarosa et al., 2021). ORF assesses the capacity for reading words in connected text. The student is given 1 minute to read a passage from a story as accurately as possible. If there is a 3 second or more pause, then the words are not counted as correct. However, students who change their answer to the correct one in under three seconds may be counted towards their total score. The total amount of words re-coded correctly or self-corrected make up the final score (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Students are scored in two areas: total words read and words re-coded or read correctly in 60 seconds (Biancarosa et al., 2021). This is because ORF assesses both reading accuracy and reading fluency. Reading fluency is measured by the number of words read correctly in 60 seconds. For the purposes of this study, only the number of words read correctly in 1 minute (reading fluency) was assessed. Students were then given a music aptitude test, IMMA (Gordon, 1986). This test contained two subtests pertaining to rhythm and tone perception and is designed to measure musical aptitude. Students listened to each recording for 12 minutes, one pertaining to rhythm and the other to tone. Before the tone or rhythm example was played, students were given the name of an object that is associated with the question. The student listens to two musical examples and must make an immediate decision as to whether or not the two choices heard are the same or different. Due to the speed required of the response, the student must use their ability to audiate. Images are used for student responses, rather than words, so students are not required to read in order to take the Tonal and Rhythm Audiation Subtests (Gordon, 1986). Students hear examples in the key of C major played twice, with a 5-second interval between for audiation (Gordon, 1986). Students circle two smiley faces if the tones or rhythms are the same and circle one happy and one sad face if they sound different (Gordon, 1986). The composite score is made up of the total points scored among both subtests. The raw scores are made up of the amount that the child got correct in 1 minute. Both the Rhythm and Tonal Audiation Subtests were administered either before or after school to avoid missing any instructional time. The tests were scored and the results were compared. Parents took a home language and musical background survey (see Appendix D). The IMMA testing lasted about 22 minutes and the DIBELS testing lasted about 10 minutes, totaling 32 minutes. Data Analysis Method The assessments from the IMMA (Gordon, 1986) and DIBELS (Biancarosa et al., 2021), were used to measure music aptitude as it relates to reading achievement in first and second grade ELL and native English speaker students. To answer research question one, which was to determine the content validity for the DIBELS and the IMMA, a Pearson correlation was conducted. This was done on all tests because it met all the assumptions, with the exception of PSF, in which the Spearman rho correlation was used because it did not meet the assumptions of the Pearson correlation. To answer research question two, which was to identify the relationships among music aptitude and the reading measures from the DIBELS, including PSF, NWF, WRF, and ORF, a correlation coefficient was used. A Pearson correlation for parametric data and Spearman’s rho for nonparametric data was used to determine how music aptitude related to literacy skills (see Figure 1). Figure 1 Correlation Coefficients of Music Aptitude and Reading Ability Variables \| \| Rhythm \| Melody \| DIBELS Composite \| PSF \| NWF-CLS \| NWF-WRC \| WRF \| ORF \| \|------------------\|----------\|----------\|------------------\|---------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| IMMA Composite \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Rhythm \| $r = .685^{}$ $ p < .001$ \| $r = .846^{}$ $ p < .001$ \| $r = .033$ $ p = .866$ \| $p = -.184$ $ p = .548$ \| $r = .162$ $ p = .410$ \| $r = .156$ $ p = .428$ \| $r = .346$ $ p = .077$ \| $r = .170$ $ p = .386$ \| \| Melody \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| DIBELS Composite \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| PSF \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| NWF-CLS \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| NWF-WRC \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| WRF \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Music Aptitude: Composite, Rhythm, and Melody relationships Literacy Skills: Composite, relationships between subtests within DIBELS Relationships between/among the IMMA and the DIBELS A $p$-value less than 0.05 is statistically significant. Note. Numbers with an asterisk meant that their $p$-value was lower, thus increasing the probability of a positive correlation. To answer research question three, which was a comparison between how native English speakers compare to ELL students on their music aptitude and reading measures a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted for each of the variables with the exception of the PSF (see Figure 2). Since the PSF had a lower sample size, the Spearman Rho was used. Scoring The alpha-level was set at (.05), which is aligned with previous research in this area (Cohen, 1992). Data were calculated using SPSS software. Participants ($N = 28$) included first graders ($n = 13; 46\%$) and second graders ($n = 15; 54\%$). A survey was administered to the parents to identify the language(s) spoken in their home. Parents indicated that a total of 16 participants only spoke one language, while 11 participants spoke more than one language. One parent did not respond to the survey. According to the ESL data provided by the school, eight of the participants were enrolled in the ESL program, including five first grade students and three second grade students (see Table 1). Table 1 Language Status of Participants by Grade Level \| Grade level \| Language status \| No. of participants \| % of all participants \| \|-------------\|-------------------------------\|---------------------\|-----------------------\| \| 1 \| Native English Speakers \| 8 \| 28% \| \| 1 \| English Language Learners \| 5 \| 18% \| \| 2 \| Native English Speakers \| 12 \| 43% \| \| 2 \| English Language Learners \| 3 \| 11% \| In addition to English ($n = 5$), 41% of parents reported a total of nine languages spoken in the homes of the participants, including German ($n = 1$), Hindi ($n = 2$), Malayalam ($n = 1$), Nepali ($n = 1$), Russian ($n = 1$), Spanish ($n = 1$), Tamil ($n = 2$), Telugu ($n = 2$), and Urdu ($n = 1$). When asked the predominant language spoken in the home, responses included English ($n = 16$), German ($n = 1$), Hindi ($n = 1$), Malayalam ($n = 1$), Nepali ($n = 1$), Russian ($n = 1$), Spanish ($n = 1$), Tamil ($n = 2$), Telugu ($n = 2$), and Urdu ($n = 1$). One answer from the survey indicated that they did not speak more than one language at home; however, when asked which language was predominant in their home, they said it was their native language. This would indicate that they spoke more than one language, English at school, and another language at home. This response could have been due to a misinterpretation of the way the questions on the survey were worded or brought on by a language barrier. Additionally, the survey asked questions regarding the participants’ musical background. When asked whether their child took music lessons outside of school, 11 said yes and reported piano ($n = 7$) and singing ($n = 4$) to be their focus of after-school study. Fifty-five percent of the participants’ parents said that members of their family either sang or played musical instruments. Family members’ involvement in music included: singing ($n = 8$), guitar ($n = 4$), clarinet ($n = 1$), trumpet ($n = 1$), flute ($n = 1$), piano ($n = 7$), carnatic music ($n = 1$), tin whistle ($n = 1$), violin ($n = 1$), and drums ($n = 1$), with many reporting that they play more than one instrument at home. This descriptive, quantitative study was administered to understand the correlation between music aptitude and literacy skills among first and second grade ELL and non-ELL students. The variables of tonal aptitude and rhythmic aptitude were compared to the reading scores from the DIBELS subtests of first and second grade students, including PSF, NWF, WRF, and ORF. Developmental music aptitude was determined from the composite scores which were a combination of both tonal and rhythm aptitude scores of IMMA (Gordon, 1986). Reading ability was measured by using individually-administered subtests of DIBELS (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Participants ($N = 28$) in the study were first grade ($n = 13$) and second grade ($n = 15$) boys and girls who attended a public charter school in Texas in the 2021-2022 school year and were given parental approval to participate in the study. English was the primary language spoken by 59% of participants, while 41% primarily spoke a language other than English at home (see Table 1). Research Question One Research question one – “What is the content validity for the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and the Intermediate Measures for Music Audiation (IMMA)?” A Pearson correlation was conducted on all the IMMA and DIBELS tests with the exception of the PSF. This was done on all tests because it met all the assumptions, except for PSF, which was calculated using the Spearman rho. Both subtests for the IMMA correlated with the total score (see Figure 3). The Rhythm Subtest had a large positive relationship with the total score ($r = .685, p < .001$) while the Tonal Subtest had a substantial positive relationship ($r = .846, p < .001$; Cohen, 1992). This test was highly correlated, thus meaning that the test validity of the IMMA can be inferred. The tonal (melody) and the rhythm contribute to the total composite score as they are both aspects of it; however, they are not related to one another. Therefore, a student who earns a high score on the Rhythm Subtest is not guaranteed to also have a high score on the Tonal Subtest. Each test stands alone as a discrete ability. The subtests for the DIBELS correlated with the total score except for the PSF, for which a Spearman’s rho correlation was used ($\rho = .420$, $p = .135$). The NWF-CLS ($r = .655$, $p < .001$), NWF-WRC ($r = .678$, $p < .001$), and ORF ($r = .692$, $p < .001$) had large positive relationships with the total score. All the subtests within the DIBELS were calculated to build the composite score (see Figure 4). Data indicated the DIBELS subtests were strongly correlated, with a $p$-value < .05, except for the PSF. Only first graders took the PSF, resulting in a smaller participant pool and an insufficient number of data points. Thus, the Spearman rho was used to calculate correlation. Figure 4 is labeled by the construct that was tested, therefore, Reading Ability means composite score, Nonsense Word Reading by Nonsense Word is NWF-WRC, and Nonsense Word Reading by Phoneme is NWF-CLS, Continuous Text Reading is ORF, which is the ability to read sentences fluently in the context of a story. Each subtest that was tested contributes to the overall composite, which is Reading Ability. Figure 4 Subtests Within the DIBELS Assessment Research Question Two Research question two – “What relationships exist among music aptitude and reading measures from the DIBELS, including Phonemic Segmentation Fluency, Nonsense Word Fluency, Word Reading Fluency, and Oral Reading Fluency?” To identify the relationships among music aptitude and the reading measures from the DIBELS, including PSF, NWF, WRF, and ORF, a correlation coefficient was used. A Pearson correlation for parametric data and Spearman’s rho for nonparametric data was used to determine how music aptitude related to literacy skills (see Figure 1). No statistically significant relationships were found between music aptitude and literacy measures. This could have been due to the small sample size or the nature of the DIBELS assessment. None of the relationships shared between the IMMA and the DIBELS were statistically significant. The DIBELS was not a robust measurement for reading ability because each of the subtests were not discrete but correlated with each other. In other words, the variables each had a strong relationship with one another. Seventy-one percent of the variability in the scores could be accounted for by their Tonal Subtest as shown on the scatterplot. There were more students who were on the line of best fit for the Tonal Subtest (see Figure 2). Forty-seven percent of the variability of the scores was explained by the Rhythm Subtest; therefore, it was more dispersed (see Figure 5). Those on the line of best fit were within the trend. There was a positive relationship between the Tonal Subtest and IMMA composite and the Rhythm Subtest and IMMA composite. Research Question Three Research question three – “How do native English speakers compare to English Language Learner students on their musical aptitude and reading measures?” A one-way ANOVA was conducted for each of the variables to compare how native English speakers compare to ELL students on their music aptitude and reading measures (see Figure 6). The Spearman Rho was used for the PSF, due to a lower sample size since only the first graders took this subtest, and there was no statistical significance. The tonal score for the IMMA did not show statistically significant differences between ELL and native English speaker students. This may have been due to the fact that in identifying whether the tones were the same or different, the instructions were not as clearly understood or the students may have been... distracted. The DIBELS composite, NWF-CLS, NWF-WRC, and ORF did not show statistically significant differences between ELL and native English speaker students. One participant was missing data due to not taking one portion of the DIBELS. However, the participant’s composite score was not affected because it was taken into account by the testing instrument that the student did not need to take that portion of the assessment. For the IMMA composite, there was a statistically significant difference, $F(1,27) = 5.570, p = .026$, favoring native English speakers ($M = 63.5$) over ELL ($M = 57$) students. This may have been due in part to the fact that the Rhythm Subtest on the IMMA favored native English speakers, so those scores contributed to the overall composite score and made it greater for native English speakers. For the Rhythm Subtest there was a statistically significant difference, $F(1,27) = 4.257, p = .049$, favoring native English speakers ($M = 30.4$) over ELL ($M = 27.25$) students (see Figure 6). Figure 6 Correlation of Mean IMMA and DIBELS Scores Between ELL and Native English Speakers \| Language Status \| IMMA \| Rhythm \| Tonal \| DIBELS Composite \| PSF \| NWF-CLS \| NWF-WRC \| WRF \| ORF \| \|--------------------------\|--------\|--------\|-------\|------------------\|--------\|---------\|---------\|------\|------\| \| ELL \| 57* \| 27.25* \| 29.75 \| 478.13 \| 43.60* \| 116.00 \| 35.25 \| 57.00\| 91.63\| \| Native English Speakers \| 63.5* \| 30.40* \| 33.10 \| 487.55 \| 61.75* \| 121.25 \| 38.10 \| 66.65\| 115.95\| p < .05 The composite raw score is a good predictor of music aptitude and may be used to determine which students have high music aptitude (Gordon, 1986). If the composite raw score is the same or higher than the criterion composite raw score for IMMA, then the student is thought to have high overall music aptitude (Gordon, 1986). Additionally, if a student achieves the criterion score for the Rhythm or Tonal Subtest and the composite, he or she is considered to have high overall music aptitude (Gordon, 1986). Comparison between the students’ raw composite score and the criterion composite raw score determines the level of music aptitude the student possesses (see Table 2; Gordon, 1986). Only three second grade students scored at benchmark or above on both the DIBELS composite and criterion level of IMMA composite. Students who scored at the benchmark goal or above for DIBELS composite were considered to be low risk for reading complications (Biancarosa et al., 2021). Table 2 Percentage of Students who Scored at Benchmark level for DIBELS or Criterion level for IMMA \| Measurement \| 1st Graders out of 13 \| % of 1st Graders \| 2nd Graders out of 15 \| % of 2nd Graders \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------\|------------------\|-----------------------\|------------------\| \| Scored at Benchmark or above on DIBELS Composite \| 10 \| 76% \| 10 \| 66% \| \| Scored at or above Criterion Level of IMMA Composite \| 0 \| 0% \| 3 \| 20% \| \| Scored at benchmark or above on both DIBELS Composite and Criterion Level of IMMA Composite \| 0 \| 0% \| 3 \| 20% \| \| Scored at Criterion Level for Tonal \| 3 \| 23% \| 6 \| 40% \| \| Scored at Criterion Level for Rhythmic \| 1 \| 7% \| 1 \| 7% \| Interestingly, 66% of second grade students who scored at benchmark or above on DIBELS composite reported having either taken music lessons outside of school or came from a musical family. Additionally, all three second graders who tested at the criterion level for music aptitude demonstrating that they had exceptionally high music aptitude either came from a musical family or took music lessons outside of school as reported by the Home Language and Musical Background Survey. All others who tested above average benchmark on DIBELS came from a musical family. While no first graders scored highly on both IMMA composite criterion and DIBELS benchmark, 76% of first grade students who scored at benchmark or above on the DIBELS composite also reported having musical family members, or reported taking music lessons outside of school. Only three first grade students reported not coming from a musical family and not taking music lessons outside of school, but they did report speaking a second language. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to understand the relationships between music aptitude and literacy skills for first and second grade ELL and native English speaker students. Several studies have pointed to the relationship between music aptitude and reading achievement (Douglas & Williatts, 1994; Gromko, 2005; Lamb & Gregory, 1993), but this study added the component of ELL and focused on first and second grade, critical years in a child’s acquisition of reading skills and development of musical talent. Based on the results from the Home Language and Musical Background Survey, it was discovered that home music environment and additional music lessons outside of school do have an impact upon reading ability and music aptitude as many of those students scored above criterion level on their IMMA music aptitude tests and above benchmark on their DIBELS reading tests. This idea that music in the home environment is predictive of greater musical achievement is supported by previous research (Gordon, 2007; Isbell, 2008). This study indicated that students who live in a musical environment and take music lessons also excel in their reading ability. These data provided mixed results about content validity. The IMMA testing revealed positive relationships between tonal audiation and rhythmic audiation and the IMMA composite. Each subtest relationship was not statistically significant, which suggests they are discrete abilities. For the DIBELS subtests, there were large positive relationships observed except with the PSF; however, each subtest had a substantial or large positive relationship with another subtest, which suggests these are not discrete abilities, but are highly correlated. These results should be viewed with caution, due to the small sample size and the way in which the DIBELS is constructed, as well as the small portion of subtests used in this study. There were statistically significant differences between ELL and native English speaker students, favoring native English speakers for the composite and rhythmic IMMA scores. The PSF subtest for the DIBELS was also statistically significant, favoring native English speakers. This may suggest that ELL and native English speaker students perform at the same levels in regard to literacy measures. However, these data suggest that ELL students may need direct music instruction for prolonged periods, especially in rhythm practice, to reap the benefits of music training on their literacy. Music educators can enhance students’ reading skills by infusing their lessons with brain-strengthening activities and using movement, singing, improvisation, and active-music-making to boost their students’ cognitive skills. The knowledge that music affects brain development and language acquisition because they use the same part of the brain (Cole, 2011; Gromko, 2005), share auditory impact (Kraus & Banai, 2007), and teach phonological awareness (Hallam, 2010) gives teachers a deeper understanding of the impact of music lessons. Research shows that both tonal and rhythmic aptitude share a connection with literacy development and reading ability (David et al., 2007; Gordon et al., 2015). Music lessons in the lower grade levels have the greatest impact upon music aptitude and literacy development, because studies have shown that music aptitude becomes fixed at the age of 9 (Culp, 2017; Gordon, 2007). Music teachers may use syllabic division to connect the sounds heard to the symbols seen, similar to letters and language. (Hansen & Bernstorf, 2002). The cognitive skills developed in music lessons have an impact on both note reading ability and word reading ability, therefore, the amount of music training received has a direct impact upon the students’ level of achievement (Cole, 2011). The neural connection between music and language (Levitin & Menon, 2003), has been shown to enable musicians to readily decipher the sound structure of foreign languages (Sleve & Miyake, 2006). The numerous extra-musical benefits that come from being exposed to a musical environment, whether inside the classroom or at home, are undeniable (Gardner, 1993). Limitations and Recommendations for Future Study* This study was limited by the small sample $(N = 28)$ of first and second grade students from only one elementary school. Due to the small sample size, statistical significance was also affected. Additional research is needed, using a larger sample size from multiple schools. Further, additional testing could be conducted on ELLs from a variety of cultures and compare their music aptitude and literacy skills with both native English speakers and non-native English speakers. Future studies may aim to further understand the link between music aptitude and reading achievement by tracking students’ progress between grade levels over the years. Research could be done in this same area, but substituting the DIBELS assessments for the PAST (Phonological Awareness Screening Test) in order to truly gain an understanding of the child’s phonological awareness as compared to their rhythm and tonal aptitude, since the DIBELS only provided information regarding the student’s phonemic awareness, which is a part of phonological awareness. Per Texas Education Code (TEC) §38.003, the Texas Education Agency (1995) requires DIBELS testing because it provides screening for dyslexia and gives teachers a method for monitoring their students’ progress. Additionally, Gordon (1984) established that IMMA ought to be administered to students who have already taken the PMMA and who may have scored above the 80th percentile on the rhythm and tonal of PMMA. So, further studies might compare PMMA rhythm and tonal scores to the PAST or the Phonological Awareness Test (PAT-2). Conclusion Music classes taught by knowledgeable and committed educators can have a positive impact on students’ learning. Whether it is through their auditory cortices or their brain, music lessons impact phonological awareness, which impacts literacy and language acquisition. A positive relationship exists between music aptitude and phonological awareness (Gordon et al., 2015). Music teachers, reading specialists, and core subject teachers may use this information to inform their lessons and work together in helping students progress in these abilities and in detecting any deficits. Special care should be taken towards developing both tonal and rhythmic audiation skills for ELL students, as well as phonemic segmentation skills, in order to build fluency in that area. Culp (2017) noted that few studies have existed which used standardized measures to understand the relationship between music aptitude and phonological awareness among students between the ages of 6-8 years old. This study could make a major contribution in the field of music education. Results from this study aimed to establish what relationships existed among music aptitude (IMMA; Gordon, 1986) and DIBELS reading measures; PSF, NWF, WRF, and ORF (Biancarosa et al., 2021). The DIBELS test proved to not be a true measure of phonological awareness, as it only tested phonemic awareness through the PSF, which is only one aspect of phonological awareness. 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Yopp, H. K., & Yopp, R. H. (1996). Oo-pples and boo-noo-noos: Songs and activities for phonemic awareness. Harcourt Brace School Publishers. Yopp, H. K., & Yopp, R. H. (2000). Supporting phonemic awareness in the classroom. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), 130–143. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20204888 Greetings, My name is Mary Fougrousse and I am your child’s Kindergarten thru Second Grade music teacher. I am also currently a graduate music education student at Texas Woman’s University. Under the supervision of my professor, Dr. Vicki Baker, I am in the process of conducting research for my study entitled “A Comparison of Musical Aptitude with Reading Ability and Language Development Among 1st and 2nd Grade Students.” The purpose of this study is to understand the impact that music education in a school environment has on phonological awareness and other language acquisition skills in 1st and 2nd grade students between the ages of 6-8 years old. The aim of the study is to establish which musical experiences most strongly impact their language development. The musical experiences emphasize rhythm and pitch exploration. Participation in this study is voluntary. There is a potential risk of loss of confidentiality in all email, downloading, electronic meetings, and internet transactions. Please read on to find out more information about this study and let me know if you are willing to participate. If you are interested in participating in this study, please email me at firstname.lastname@example.org as soon as possible and I will send you the informed consent forms to fill out and return to me either electronically or in person at school. Should you wish to participate in this study below you will find what will be included: 1. Parents will complete a Google Form providing information regarding their child’s home language and musical background. Completion of the form will take approximately 5 minutes. 2. A set of rhythmic and tonal Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA) subtests will be used to test individual student’s rhythm and tonal aptitude. - Children take the test by simply listening to a tonal recording and a rhythm recording. Each recording is 12 minutes long. Questions on the CD are identified on the answer sheet by pictures, not numbers or words. The children must decide whether pairs of tonal or rhythm patterns they hear sound the same or different. They indicate their choice by simply drawing a circle around the picture on the answer sheet. These tests require no reading skills. The answer sheets can be corrected quickly by using scoring masks. Raw scores are directly converted to percentile ranks in the manual. A profile card is used for each child for individual documentation and the interpretation of scores. The tonal and rhythm results are graphically compared for each child. 3. A set of Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) subtests will be used to assess reading ability and phonemic awareness. This standardized test will determine children’s literacy development. The first subtest for 2nd grade students will assess students’ Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF). NWF is a standardized, individually administered measure of the alphabetic principle. NWF is seen as a “pure” measure of the alphabetic principle because vocabulary and sight word knowledge cannot play a role in recognizing nonsense words: NWF assesses students’ ability to decode words based on the alphabetic principle. For NWF, students are presented with an 8.5-inch x 11-inch sheet of paper with nonsense words (e.g., sig, ral) and asked to verbally produce (a) the whole nonsense word or (b) individual letter sounds. For example, if the stimulus word is “hap”, a student could say the nonsense word as a whole or “/h/ /a/ /p/” to receive three letter sounds correct. On DIBELS 6th Edition, if the nonsense word was read as a whole (either initially or after sounding out), the student received credit for one whole word read correctly. On DIBELS Next, the student only received credit for reading the nonsense word correctly if it was read as a whole in the initial attempt. DIBELS 8th Edition reverts to the DIBELS 6th Edition practice because it more accurately captures students’ knowledge of sound-spelling patterns and the ability to blend sounds into words, which is the primary intent of NWF. Students are given one minute to read or sound out as many nonsense words as they can. The second subtest for 2nd grade students will assess Word Reading Fluency (WRF). WRF is a standardized, individually administered measure of accuracy and fluency with lists of words. The new WRF subtest involves reading real words out of context. It is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency in reading “sight” words. Sight words include words with irregular pronunciations (non-decodable words like “the” and “was” and “of”) as well as common words with regular pronunciations (decodable words like “in” and “we” and “no”). In WRF, students are presented with an 8.5-inch x 11-inch sheet of paper with real words and asked to verbally produce the whole word. Students must blend words to receive credit. In contrast to NWF, no credit is given for individual letter sounds. Students are given one minute to read as many words as they can, and the final score is the number of words read correctly within one minute. Tests will be administered by Ms. Fougerousse either before school as they arrive during morning carline, or after school during afternoon carline in the K-2 music classroom, so students will not miss any instructional or play time. Students will be dismissed once their name has been called for earline. This research study has been reviewed and approved by Texas Woman’s University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects. The researchers will try to prevent any problem that could happen because of this research. You should let the researchers know at once if there is a problem and they will help you. However, TWU does not provide medical services or financial assistance for injuries that might happen because you are taking part in this research. If you are interested in participating in this study, please email me at email@example.com as soon as possible and I will send you the informed consent forms to fill out and return to me either electronically or in person at school. Thank you for your time and for your consideration to participate in my research. Title: A Comparison of Musical Aptitude with Reading Ability and Language Development Among 1st and 2nd Grade Students Principal Investigator: Mary Fougerousse firstname.lastname@example.org 214/404-8406 Faculty Advisor: Dr. Vicki Baker email@example.com Summary and Key Information about the Study You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Ms. Mary Fougerousse, a student at Texas Woman’s University. Under the supervision of my professor, Dr. Vicki Baker, I am in the process of conducting research for my study entitled “A Comparison of Musical Aptitude with Reading Ability and Language Development Among 1st and 2nd Grade Students.” The purpose of this study is to compare musical aptitude of 1st and 2nd grade students with their phonological awareness and language acquisition skills. Further, the study will compare the scores of native English speakers and students identified as English as a second language learners to determine if there is a difference in their phonemic awareness as it relates to their rhythmic and/or tonal recognition skills. This study will enable music educators to better understand the influence that pitch and rhythmic acuity have on language acquisition, thus equipping them to design lessons to specifically support language development. You have been invited to participate in this study because you are the parent of a 1st or 2nd grade student. As a participant, you will be asked to spend 5 minutes completing an online survey. You will complete the online Google Form after you have submitted your signed consent form. The greatest risk of this study includes potential loss of confidentiality. We will discuss this risk and the rest of the study procedures in greater detail below. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. If you are interested in learning more about this study, please review this consent form carefully and take your time deciding whether or not you want to participate. Please feel free to contact Ms. Fougerousse if you have any questions about the study at any time. Description of Procedures As a participant in this study you will be asked to spend 5 minutes completing an online survey on Google Forms. The Google Form survey will be taken after consent has been obtained. The survey will ask you to mark your responses to statements about your child’s home language and musical background. You will be asked to mark yes or no for some statements and to answer a few other questions regarding the languages spoken at home and the musical experiences of your child. Some questions will be open-ended for you to provide responses. The questions in the Google Form will ask: you to provide your name and relationship to the child as well as the child’s name. The Google Form will also ask whether or not your child speaks more than one language at home and if so, to list the languages spoken at home. The Google Form will also ask you to provide which language is predominant in your home. It will ask you to answer whether or not your child takes music lessons outside of school and if so, to tell what instrument your child plays. Another question you will be asked is whether any other members of your family sing, or play instruments and if so, to please explain. The information from this Google Form will provide further information regarding the likelihood of the child having a higher musical aptitude and/or language acquisition ability prior to testing. Student Participants will be asked to take the following tests: - Two Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation subtests (IMMA) to determine their individual rhythm and tonal aptitude (approximately 24 minutes) - Children take the test by simply listening to a tonal recording and a rhythm recording. Each recording is 12 minutes long. - Questions on the CD are identified on the answer sheet by pictures, not numbers or words. The children must decide whether pairs of tonal or rhythm patterns they hear sound the same or different. They indicate their choice by simply drawing a circle around the picture on the answer sheet. These tests require no reading skills. - The answer sheets can be corrected quickly by using scoring masks. Raw scores are directly converted to percentile ranks in the manual. - A profile card is used for each child for individual documentation and the interpretation of scores. The tonal and rhythm results are graphically compared for each child. - Two Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) subtests to assess reading ability and phonemic awareness (approximately 10 minutes) The 1st grade DIBELS subtests include: - Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF) PSF is a standardized, individually-administered measure of phonological awareness. PSF is a good predictor of reading achievement and is administered to students in the beginning of kindergarten through the end of first grade. PSF assesses students’ ability to fluently segment two- to six-phoneme words into their individual phonemes. In PSF, the examiner orally presents a series of words and asks a student to verbally produce the individual phonemes for each word. For example, if the examiner said “cat,” and the student said “/s/ /a/ /t/”, the student would receive three points for the word. After each response, the examiner presents the next word. Students are given one minute to segment the words into phonemes. The PSF measure has three benchmark forms and 20 alternate progress-monitoring forms for each grade in which it is available. Word Reading Fluency (WRF) WRF is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency with lists of words. WRF is administered to students in the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. The new WRF subtest involves reading real words out of context. Inspired by other CBMs that incorporate WRF, most especially easyCBM (Alonzo & Tindal, 2007), it is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency in reading “sight” words. Sight words include words with irregular pronunciations (non-decodable words like “the” and “was” and “of”) as well as common words with regular pronunciations (decodable words like “in” and “we” and “no”). WRF is administered to students from the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. In WRF, students are presented with an 8.5-inch x 11-inch sheet of paper with real words and asked to verbally produce the whole word. Students must blend words to receive credit. In contrast to NWF, no credit is given for individual letter-sounds. Students are given one minute to read as many words as they can, and the final score is the number of words read correctly within one minute. The WRF measure has three benchmark forms and 20 alternate progress-monitoring forms for each grade in which it is available. The 2nd grade DIBELS subtests include: - Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) NWF is a standardized, individually-administered measure of the alphabetic principle. NWF is seen as a “pure” measure of the alphabetic principle, because vocabulary and sight word knowledge cannot play a role in recognizing nonsense words. NWF is administered to students in the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. NWF assesses students’ ability to decode words based on the alphabetic principle. For NWF, students are presented with an 8.5-inch x 11-inch sheet of paper with nonsense words (e.g., sig, rai) and asked to verbally produce (a) the whole nonsense word or (b) individual letter sounds; For example, if the stimulus word is “hap”, a student could say the nonsense word as a whole or “/h/ /a/ /p/” to receive three letter sounds correct. On DIBELS 6th Edition, if the nonsense word was read as a whole (either initially or after sounding out), the student received credit for one whole word read correctly. On DIBELS Next, the student only received credit for reading the nonsense word correctly if it was read as a whole in the initial attempt. DIBELS 8th Edition reverts to the DIBELS 6th Edition practice because it more accurately captures students’ knowledge of sound-spelling patterns and the ability to blend sounds into words, which is the primary intent of NWF. Students are given one minute to read or sound out as many nonsense words as they can. The NWF measure has three benchmark forms and 20 alternate progress-monitoring forms for each grade in which it is available. Word Reading Fluency (WRF) WRF is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency with lists of words. WRF is administered to students in the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. The new WRF subtest involves reading real words out of context. Inspired by other CBMs that incorporate WRF, most especially easy CBM (Alonzo & Tindal, 2007), it is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency in reading “sight” words. Sight words include words with irregular pronunciations (non-decodable words like “the” and “was” and “of”) as well as common words with regular pronunciations (decodable words like “in” and “we” and “no”). WRF is administered to students from the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. In WRF, students are presented with an 8.5-inch x 11-inch sheet of paper with real words and asked to verbally produce the whole word. Students must blend words to receive credit. In contrast to NWF, no credit is given for individual letter sounds. Students are given one minute to read as many words as they can, and the final score is the number of words read correctly within one minute. The WRF measure has three benchmark forms and 20 alternate progress-monitoring forms for each grade in which it is available. Tests will be administered by Ms. Fougerousse either before or after school in the K-2 music classroom, so students will not miss any instructional time. Potential Risks The researcher will ask you questions about the languages spoken at home and your child’s musical background. A possible risk in this study is discomfort with these questions you are asked. You may skip any question you do not feel comfortable answering or you may take breaks. Participation in this study is voluntary and you may withdraw at any time. Another risk in this study is loss of confidentiality. Confidentiality will be protected to the extent that is allowed by law. There is a potential risk of loss of confidentiality in all email, downloading, electronic meetings and internet transactions. There is an increased risk of loss of confidentiality because the researcher will be using a personally-owned device to collect and store data. The following are ways this risk will be mitigated: All Google Forms will be stored on the researcher’s password protected computer which will be kept in a secure desk. All data collected will be viewed exclusively by the researchers listed at the bottom of this consent form. None of the students will be identified by name in the test results and the name of the school will remain confidential. Test results will be placed in a locked filing cabinet in a locked classroom in a secured building. All data will be stored on the researcher’s password protected computer which will be kept in a secure desk in her home office. All data collected will be viewed exclusively by the researchers listed on this consent form. An additional risk is the loss of time. Since the Google Form is online, you can complete it whenever it is convenient. To minimize this risk, you may stop at any time, take breaks, and come back to the Google Form. Students will be tested either before school or after school to avoid missing any instructional or play time. Participants’ DIBELS scores will be assessed individually outside of class instruction and play time. To minimize this risk, students may stop at any time, take breaks, and may continue another day, if they choose. An additional risk of this study is coercion since you may know and have worked with the researcher. Your decision on whether or not to participate in this study will have no effect on your relationship with the researcher, nor will it affect your relationship with or the services provided by Great Hearts Academy Irving. An additional risk of this study is potential emotional discomfort while answering the Google Form questions. Participants can take breaks when needed or stop the study at any time without penalty. The researchers will try to prevent any problem that could happen because of this research. You should let the researchers know at once if there is a problem and they will try to help you. However, Texas Woman’s University does not provide medical services or financial assistance for injuries that might happen because you are taking part in this research. After all identifiable information has been removed, any personal information collected for this study will not be used for future research. Participation and Benefits Your involvement in this study is completely voluntary and you may withdraw from the study at any time. The direct benefits to you for participating in this research are that you may determine if there is a correlation between musical aptitude and phonological awareness or language acquisition skills in your child. Your participation could also enable music educators to better understand the influence that pitch and rhythmic acuity have on language acquisition, thus equipping them to design lessons to specifically support language development. If you are willing to participate in this study, please sign and return this form electronically to firstname.lastname@example.org or send it with your student to school. After you have submitted your signed consent form, you will be sent the Google Form containing the Home Language Assessment and Musical Background Survey to complete. Completion of this form takes about 5 minutes. Questions Regarding the Study You may print a copy of this consent page to keep. If you have any questions about the research study, you should ask the researcher; their contact information is at the top of this form. If you have questions about your rights as a participant in this research or the way this study has been conducted, you may contact them. _________________________________________________________ _______________________ Signature of Parent Participant Date If you would like to know the results of this study tell us where you want them to be sent: Email: ____________________________________or Address: ___________________________________ This study has been approved by the TWU Institutional Review Board. Title: A Comparison of Musical Aptitude with Reading Ability and Language Development Among 1st and 2nd Grade Students Principal Investigator: Mary Fougerousse - email@example.com 214/404-8406 Faculty Advisor: Dr. Vicki Baker - firstname.lastname@example.org Summary and Key Information about the Study Your child is being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Ms. Mary Fougerousse, a student at Texas Woman’s University. Under the supervision of my professor, Dr. Vicki Baker, I am in the process of conducting research for my study entitled “A Comparison of Musical Aptitude with Reading Ability and Language Development Among 1st and 2nd Grade Students.” The purpose of this study is to compare musical aptitude of 1st and 2nd grade students with their phonological awareness and language acquisition skills. Further, the study will compare the scores of native English speakers and students identified as English as a second language learners to determine if there is a difference in their phonemic awareness as it relates to their rhythmic and/or tonal recognition skills. This study will enable music educators to better understand the influence that pitch and rhythmic acuity have on language acquisition, thus equipping them to design lessons to specifically support language development. Your child has been invited to participate in this study because he/she is a 1st or 2nd grade student. The greatest risk of this study includes potential loss of confidentiality. We will discuss this risk and the rest of the study procedures in greater detail below. Your child’s participation in this study is completely voluntary. If you are interested in learning more about this study, please review this consent form carefully and take your time deciding whether or not you want to participate. Please feel free to contact Ms. Fougerousse if you have any questions about the study at any time. Description of Procedures Your child will be asked to take the following tests: Two Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation subtests (IMMA) to determine their individual rhythm and tonal aptitude (approximately 24 minutes) Children take the test by simply listening to a tonal recording and a rhythm recording. Each recording is 12 minutes long. Questions on the CD are identified on the answer sheet by pictures, not numbers. or words. The children must decide whether pairs of tonal or rhythm patterns they hear sound the same or different. They indicate their choice by simply drawing a circle around the picture on the answer sheet. These tests require no reading skills. - The answer sheets can be corrected quickly by using scoring masks. Raw scores are directly converted to percentile ranks in the manual. - A profile card is used for each child for individual documentation and the interpretation of scores. The tonal and rhythm results are graphically compared for each child. Two Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) subtests to assess reading ability and phonemic awareness (approximately 10 minutes). The 1st grade DIBELS subtests include: Phonemic Segmentation Fluency (PSF) PSF is a standardized, individually-administered measure of phonological awareness. PSF is a good predictor of reading achievement and is administered to students in the beginning of kindergarten through the end of first grade. PSF assesses students’ ability to fluently segment two- to six-phoneme words into their individual phonemes. In PSF, the examiner orally presents a series of words and asks a student to verbally produce the individual phonemes for each word. For example, if the examiner said “sat,” and the student said “/s/ /a/ /t/”, the student would receive three points for the word. After each response, the examiner presents the next word. Students are given one minute to segment the words into phonemes. The PSF measure has three benchmark forms and 20 alternate progress-monitoring forms for each grade in which it is available. Word Reading Fluency (WRF) WRF is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency with lists of words. WRF is administered to students in the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. The new WRF subtest involves reading real words out of context. Inspired by other CBMs that incorporate WRF, most especially easyCBM (Alonzo & Tindal, 2007), it is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency in reading “sight” words. Sight words include words with irregular pronunciations (non-decodable words like “the” and “was” and “of”) as well as common words with regular pronunciations (decodable words like “in” and “we” and “no”). WRF is administered to students from the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. In WRF, students are presented with an 8.5-inch x 11-inch sheet of paper with real words and asked to verbally produce the whole word. Students must blend words to receive credit. In contrast to NWF, no credit is given for individual letter sounds. Students are given one minute to read as many words as they can, and the final score is the number of words read correctly within one minute. The WRF measure has three benchmark forms and 20 alternate progress-monitoring forms for each grade in which it is available. The 2nd grade DIBELS subtests include: - Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) NWF is a standardized, individually-administered measure of the alphabetic principle. NWF is seen as a “pure” measure of the alphabetic principle, because vocabulary and sight word knowledge cannot play a role in recognizing nonsense words. NWF is administered to students in the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. NWF assesses students’ ability to decode words based on the alphabetic principle. For NWF, students are presented with an 8.5-inch x 11-inch sheet of paper with nonsense words (e.g., sig, ral) and asked to verbally produce (a) the whole nonsense word or (b) individual letter sounds. For example, if the stimulus word is “hap”, a student could say the nonsense word as a whole or “h/ /a/ /p/” to receive three letter sounds correct. On DIBELS 6th Edition, if the nonsense word was read as a whole (either initially or after sounding out), the student received credit for one whole word read correctly. On DIBELS Next, the student only received credit for reading the nonsense word correctly if it was read as a whole in the initial attempt. DIBELS 8th Edition reverts to the DIBELS 6th Edition practice because it more accurately captures students’ knowledge of sound-spelling patterns and the ability to blend sounds into words, which is the primary intent of NWF. Students are given one minute to read or sound out as many nonsense words as they can. The NWF measure has three benchmark forms and 20 alternate progress-monitoring forms for each grade in which it is available. - Word Reading Fluency (WRF) WRF is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency with lists of words. WRF is administered to students in the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. The new WRF subtest involves reading real words out of context. Inspired by other CBMs that incorporate WRF, most especially easy CBM (Alonzo & Tindal, 2007), it is a standardized, individually-administered measure of accuracy and fluency in reading “sight” words. Sight words include words with irregular pronunciations (non-decodable words like “the” and “was” and “of”) as well as common words with regular pronunciations (decodable words like “in” and “we” and “no”). WRF is administered to students from the beginning of kindergarten through the end of third grade. In WRF, students are presented with an 8.5-inch x 11-inch sheet of paper with real words and asked to verbally produce the whole word. Students must blend words to receive credit. In contrast to NWF, no credit is given for individual letter sounds. Students are given one minute to read as many words as they can, and the final score is the number of words read correctly within one minute. The WRF measure has three benchmark forms and 20 alternate progress-monitoring forms for each grade in which it is available. Tests will be administered by Ms. Fougerousse either before or after school in the K-2 music classroom, so students will not miss any instructional or play time. Potential Risks* Your child may skip any question they do not feel comfortable answering or may take breaks. Participation in this study is voluntary and your child may withdraw at any time. Another risk in this study is loss of confidentiality. Confidentiality will be protected to the extent that is allowed by law. There is a potential risk of loss of confidentiality in all email, downloading, electronic meetings and internet transactions. There is an increased risk of loss of confidentiality because the researcher will be using a personally-owned device to collect and store data. The following are ways this risk will be mitigated: All Google Forms will be stored on the researcher’s password protected computer which will be kept in a secure desk. All data collected will be viewed exclusively by the researchers listed at the bottom of this consent form. None of the students will be identified by name in the test results and the name of the school will remain confidential. Test results will be placed in a locked filing cabinet in a locked classroom in a secured building. All data will be stored on the researcher’s password protected computer which will be kept in a secure desk in her home office. All data collected will be viewed exclusively by the researchers listed on this consent form. An additional risk is the loss of time. Students will be tested either before school or after school to avoid missing any instructional or play time. Participants’ DIBELS scores will be assessed individually outside of class instruction and play time. To minimize this risk, students may stop at any time, take breaks, and may continue another day, if they choose. An additional risk of this study is coercion since you may know and have worked with the researcher. Your decision on whether or not to participate in this study will have no effect on your relationship with the researcher, nor will it affect your relationship with or the services provided by Great Hearts Academy Irving. An additional risk of this study is potential emotional discomfort while answering test questions. Participants can take breaks when needed or stop the study at any time without penalty. The researchers will try to prevent any problem that could happen because of this research. You should let the researchers know at once if there is a problem and they will try to help you. However, Texas Woman’s University does not provide medical services or financial assistance for injuries that might happen because your child is taking part in this research. After all identifiable information has been removed, any personal information collected for this study will not be used for future research. Participation and Benefits Your child’s involvement in this study is completely voluntary, and your child may withdraw from the study at any time. The direct benefits to your child for participating in this research are that your child may determine if there is a correlation between their musical aptitude and phonological awareness or language acquisition skills. Your child’s participation could also enable music educators to better understand the influence that pitch and rhythmic acuity have on language acquisition, thus equipping them to design lessons to specifically support language development. If you are willing to allow your child to participate in this study, please sign and return this form electronically to email@example.com or deliver it to school. Questions Regarding the Study You may print a copy of this consent page to keep. If you have any questions about the research study you should ask the researcher; their contact information is at the top of this form. If you have questions about your rights as a participant in this research or the way this study has been conducted, you may contact them. _________________________________________ _________________________ Signature of Parent on behalf of Student Participant Date This study has been approved by the TWU Institutional Review Board. APPENDIX D HOME LANGUAGE AND MUSICAL BACKGROUND SURVEY Home Language and Musical Background Survey My name is Mary Fougerousse and I am currently a graduate music education student at Texas Woman’s University. Under the supervision of my professor, Vicki Baker, Ph.D., I am in the process of collecting data for my study entitled “A Comparison of Musical Aptitude with Reading Ability and Language Development Among 1st and 2nd Grade Students.” The purpose of this study is to compare musical aptitude of 1st and 2nd grade students with their phonological awareness and language acquisition skills. Further, the study will compare the scores of native English speakers and students identified as English as a second language learners to determine if there is a difference in their phonemic awareness and rhythmic skills. This study will enable music educators better understand the influence that pitch and rhythmic acuity have on language acquisition, thus equipping them to design lessons to specifically support language development. Participants will take two tests: Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA) to determine their individual rhythm and tonal aptitude (approximately 20 minutes) Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) to assess reading ability and phonemic awareness (approximately 10 minutes) Tests will be administered by a school faculty member either before or after school, so students will not miss any instructional time. If you are willing for your child to participate in this study, complete this Google Form which contains a Home Language Assessment and Musical Background Survey and submit to indicate your consent. Completion of this form takes about 5 minutes. While there is a potential risk of loss of confidentiality in all email, downloading, and internet transactions, confidentiality will be protected to the extent that is allowed by law. The following are ways this risk will be mitigated: All Google Forms will be stored on the researchers password protected computer which will be kept in a secure desk. All data collected will be viewed exclusively by the researchers listed at the bottom of this consent form. An additional risk is the loss of time. Since the Google Form is online, you can complete it whenever it is convenient. To minimize this risk, you may stop at any time, take breaks, and return later to finish. Additionally, there is a risk of emotional distress or discomfort while taking this survey. Due to the personal nature of the questions, it is recommended that you take this survey in a private location of your choosing. This risk will be minimized by allowing you the option to stop at any time, take breaks, and come back to the survey. Participation in this study is voluntary and you may withdraw at any time. While there is a potential risk of loss of confidentiality, all measures will be taken to mitigate this risk regarding the participants’ test scores. None of the students will be identified by name in the final results and the name of the school will remain confidential. Test results will be placed in a locked filing cabinet in a locked classroom in a secured building. All data will be stored on the researchers password protected computer which will be kept in a secure desk in her home office. All data collected will be viewed exclusively by the researchers listed on this consent form. An additional risk is the loss of time. Students will be tested either before school or after school to avoid missing any instructional time. Participants’ DIBELS scores will be assessed individually outside of class instruction. To minimize this risk, students may stop at any time, take breaks, and may continue another day, if they choose. This research study has been reviewed and approved by Texas Woman’s University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects. The researchers will try to prevent any problem that could happen because of this research. You should let the researchers know at once if there is a problem and they will help you. However, TWU does not provide medical services or financial assistance for injuries that might happen because you are taking part in this research. If you have any questions about the study at any point in the process, or if you would like to be sent the results of this study, feel free to contact me at firstname.lastname@example.org or Vicki Baker, Ph.D. at email@example.com. Thank you for your participation in my research. You may print a copy of this consent page to keep. If you have any questions about the research study you should ask the researcher. If you have questions about your rights as a participant in this research or the way this study has been conducted, you may contact the TWU Office of Research and Sponsored Programs at 940-898-3378 or via e-mail at firstname.lastname@example.org. Required Home Language and Musical Background Survey https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1G2m574JxwBtLwS0VAlHfNGnUoJOns6jgzwEeAhl 1. What is your name and relationship to the child? ________________________________________________________ Home Language and Musical Background Survey 2. What is your child’s name? ________________________________________________________ 3. Does your child speak more than one language at home? Mark only one oval. If “Yes,” list the languages spoken in your home. Mark only one oval. ☐ Yes ☐ No 4. Which language is predominant in your home? ________________________________________________________ 5. Does your child take music lessons outside of music class? Mark only one oval. Mark only one oval. ☐ No Skip to question 7 ☐ Yes Home Language and Musical Background Survey 6. If “Yes,” what instrument does your child play? ________________________________________________________ 7. Do any other members of your family sing or play instruments? Mark only one oval. Mark only one oval: - Yes - No 8. If yes, please explain. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ What is a research study? Research studies help us learn new things. We can test new ideas. First, we ask a question. Then we try to find the answer. This paper talks about our research and the choice that you have to take part in it. We want you to ask us any questions that you have. You can ask questions any time. Important things to know... • You get to decide if you want to take part. • You can say ‘No’ or you can say ‘Yes’. • No one will be upset if you say ‘No’. • If you say ‘Yes’, you can always say ‘No’ later. • You can say ‘No’ at any time. • We would still take good care of you no matter what you decide. Why are we doing this research? We are doing this research to find out more about whether or not your ability to read is related to your musical abilities or your ability to speak more than one language. What would happen if I join this research? If you decide to be in the research, we would ask you to do the following: • Testing: I would say a word. After I say it, you would tell me all the sounds in the word. When I say “Begin,” you would point to each word and read it the best you can. If you get stuck, I will tell you the word, so you can keep reading. In 2nd Grade: I will read you some make-believe words; You would say the sounds of the letters or read the whole word as best you can. It is okay if you get stuck. Next, I would ask you to listen to a few sounds and you would decide whether the pairs of tonal or rhythm patterns you hear sound the same or different. You would indicate your choice by drawing a circle around the picture on the answer sheet. If the two parts sound the same, you would circle the boxes at the top with the two faces that are the same. If the two parts sound different, you would circle the boxes at the bottom with the two faces that are different. You will hear short musical statements followed by musical answers. Remember each musical statement because you will be asked to decide whether each musical answer is like each musical statement or different from each musical statement. If a musical answer is different from a musical statement, you will be asked to tell how it is different. If a musical answer is different from a musical statement it will be because there is at least one tonal change in the musical answer or because there is at least one rhythm change in the musical answer. There will never be both tonal changes and rhythm changes in a musical answer. If a musical statement and musical answer are the same, you will circle the boxes which have the same faces. If the musical answer is different from the musical statement because there is a rhythmic or tonal change, you will circle the box with different faces at the bottom. Be sure to listen to all of the musical parts before you choose your answer. Could bad things happen if I join this research?* Some of the activities we ask you to do might be difficult and you might get tired. We will try to make sure that no bad things happen. BUT, you can say NO to what we ask you to do for the research at any time and we will stop. Could the research help me? We think being in this research study may help us understand how to become better music teachers. We are hoping the test we use to measure can help your teachers design lessons for you and other kids like you. What else should I know about this research? If you don’t want to be in the study, you don’t have to be. It is also OK to say yes and change your mind later. You can stop being in the research at any time. If you want to stop, please tell us. You can ask questions any time. Take the time you need to make your choice. Is there anything else? If you want to be in the research after we talk, please write your name below. We will write our name too. This shows we talked about the research and that you want to take part. 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John Muir Award: Inspiring nature and climate action in Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park is a special place for nature, with many protected habitats and rich biodiversity. Despite this, the National Park is threatened by the global nature crisis. Pressures from invasive non-native species, pollution and a rapidly changing climate mean that many of these iconic species and habitats need our help. The following stories and actions aim to inspire and support meaningful and positive impact on nature and climate through your John Muir Award activity. Connecting to nature Exploring wild places following the Scottish Outdoor Access Code helps inspire action for climate and nature. Whether you’re hiking, canoeing, camping, identifying plants and animals, or enjoying art and mindfulness, spending time outdoors directly impacts our mental wellbeing and fosters long term pro-environmental behaviours. Resources: Scottish Outdoor Access Code Sensory Trust Nature Activities Mission:Explore Five Pathways to Nature Connection Invasive non-native species (INNS) The National Park has several invasive non-native species (INNS) which have an adverse effect on our native species. Non-native plants invade, spread and then settle which can result in a loss of native flora and fauna, whilst non-native mammals can bring disease, predate and outcompete our native wildlife. The removal of Rhododendron by Award groups has helped bring back native woodland while removing Sitka spruce has increased the native water vole population in our wetlands. Find out more about invasive non-native species in the National Park’s case study below. Resources: Invasive Non-Native Species Case Study Scottish Invasive Species Initiative Alien Detectives Learn about native species with The Lost Spells Improving key habitats and tackling major threats The National Park has numerous habitats including freshwater and sea lochs, rivers and burns, native woodlands, moorlands and wetlands. By looking after them we ensure their resilience to climate change so that the native species they support can thrive. Invasive non-native species, pollution and climate change are some of the threats to nature that you can take action on. Start by using the resources below. Resources: Learning for Sustainability Padlet Biodiversity and Climate Change Education Pack Species and habitat surveys Understanding and recording biodiversity helps measure the health of our habitats and species and their adaptability to climate change pressures. Award groups have conducted bat, red squirrel, air quality and seasonal surveys which have helped broaden our understanding of the National Park. Discover how you too can record biodiversity and help us understand the impact of climate change. Resources: Great Scottish Squirrel Survey OPAL Surveys Nature’s Calendar Water quality and plastic pollution Freshwater and marine habitats are all part of the National Park’s biodiversity, but some are in poor quality, in some cases due to pollution. Plastic pollution can easily be tackled by taking part in a litter pick. Check out the national litter pick initiatives you can be a part of. Resources: Marine Conservation Society’s Beach Cleans The Great Nurdle Hunt Keep Scotland Beautiful Improving and increasing our woodlands Planting native trees in appropriate locations helps combat climate change since they store more carbon as they grow older while providing better habitats for native animals and plants. The National Park’s Junior Rangers carry out tree surveying, tree planting and seed collection to help improve our woodlands. Learn more about native woodlands and how you can conduct your own surveys with Woodland Trust resources. Resources: Woodland Trust ID App Ancient Tree Inventory Temperate Rainforest Survey Trees and Woodlands Case study Protecting our peatlands Peatlands are one of our biggest carbon sinks and are a habitat for many unique species, but many are in poor condition after being historically drained to plant trees or graze livestock. The National Park’s Youth Committee is a great example of how you can become a voice for nature. By avoiding products that contain peat (such as garden fertiliser) or campaigning for the John Muir Trust’s Peatland Appeal, you too can help protect this vital habitat. For further information and examples, read the full report: How the John Muir Award delivers for Climate and Nature in Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park. 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Dear Friends, We made it to the finishing line and the 2023 school year is over! I hope it has been a year filled with much learning, connection and joy. It was a pleasure to see so many of you at Playventure on Wednesday evening, taking in the many creative learning projects and displays from our students, listening to all the fabulous performers we have right across our community from students, staff and family members, and enjoying a delicious bite from our food trucks and FOTV Sausage Sizzle. A big thank you to Kat Piotrowski and Alex Williams for running the Sausage Sizzle – and to the excellent senior students who barbecued so efficiently, even in the significant heat! As 2023 is coming to a close, we ask that you exit your 2023 Stage WhatsApp Chats and join your relevant 2024 Stage WhatsApp Chat! These links are being emailed to those of you who have signed up to receive FOTV comms. If you don’t receive an email with your link, please get in touch at firstname.lastname@example.org. These links are private and closed, and only intended for those parents/carers in that stage, which is why we don’t publish them in the current chats. If you have multiple students at LLV in different stages, you will receive multiple emails! We are also currently recruiting for Stage Socialites! Are you interested? The role of a Stage Socialite is a fairly easy way to volunteer and support your school community. The main tasks are planning a few social events for your stage across the year and sharing school and FOTV information on your Stage Chat. Danya would love to hear from you if you think you’d like to help – email her here. Don’t forget to come along to some of our HOLIDAY HANGS over the summer break – you’ll find more information on the following pages regarding dates and venues for your Stage. There’s also some holiday workshop and classes information from our local community, including a huge arts program from Ku-ring-gai Art Centre. Finally, when we return to our Village in February, it will be time to think about our 2024 FOTV Annual General Meeting, which will immediately follow our Term One General Meeting on Thursday 22 February, 7:30pm. We’ve received some nominations already for the 2024 Leadership Team, but I would like to mention we are still looking for someone to join the team who has excellent IT skills and can support our Association in managing all our tech and online platforms. Please get in touch with me if that sounds like you! My email is email@example.com As always, thank you for your support, kind words, engagement and enthusiasm for all things Friends of the Village! My best wishes to you for a wonderfully restorative and relaxing summer holiday, Lisa President \| Friends of the Village www.fotv.org.au 2023 End of Year Staff Gifts 2 x $50 Westfield Gift Vouchers FOTV Thank You for Being a Friend Tote Bag Mini Farms 100% Pure Local Raw Honey Wholefood & Spice Native Bush Salt Tony’s Chocolonely Milk Chocolate Gingerbread Tony’s Chocolonely Milk & Dark Rainbow Set Every staff member was so happy to receive a gift bag jam packed with... 2024 is the Year of Community at Lindfield Learning Village. At FOTV, we’ve always prioritised community, connection, collaboration, inclusiveness and enthusiasm! In 2024, we want to harness those values and support our school in two major ways. Total Fundraising Goal $113,500 There are two ways to support these fundraising goals: 1. Pay your voluntary P&C Donation on your school schedule of fees 2. Support our fundraising projects and events throughout the year 2024 Term 1 Dates THURSDAY 1 FEBRUARY New Years I-II Students & All Year 7 Students FRIDAY 2 FEBRUARY All Year 7-12 Students, All Year 3 Students, New 1-6 Students MONDAY 5 FEBRUARY All Students Years 1-12 MONDAY 12 FEBRUARY All Kindergarten Students THURSDAY 22 FEBRUARY Friends of the Village Term 1 General Meeting and Annual General Meeting The Tanya Pearson Academy will present their full-length production The Nutcracker on December 16 and 17 at the Concourse Theatre, Chatswood. In keeping with Christmas tradition, this production which showcases professional special Guests Artists including members of The Australian Ballet, will enchant audiences with a festive experience. This magical production features the live music accompaniment performed by the SYO Philharmonic Orchestra under the direction of Conductor Stephen Williams. 20% off for Groups of 10-16 Use Code: SCHOOLIES10 [BOOK NOW] Applications are now open for students to join the Minister’s Student Council – the peak forum for interaction between NSW public school students, NSW Education and the NSW Deputy Premier and Minister for Education. The Minister’s Student Council, known as the DOVES (Department of Student Voices in Education and Schools) was created in 2021 following a request from the NSW Government to develop a formal structure to access student views. The Council meets twice a term either virtually or face-to-face where they also participate in workshops and hear about NSW Department of Education initiatives. The council provides advice on education and school policy as well as feedback to aid in the planning and development of department programs. Their mission is to be an innovative student voice that designs, implements, and contributes to inclusive and positive change in the NSW education system. The Council’s structure aims to have direct input and influence on education and school policy through discussions and consultation with the Minister for Education and NSW Education stakeholders. The Council: - Provides forums for student opinions, ideas, feedback and concerns in regards to their education and schooling; - Represents a diverse range of student voices in order to have a direct and positive influence on education and school policy; - Is an advocate for positive student engagement and inclusivity through means of educational improvement and innovation in NSW schools. The Council has provided feedback on a range of policy initiatives to date, as well as advice and insights on the return to school roadmap following periods of learning from home due to COVID-19. The Minister’s Student Council, known as DOVES (Department of Student Voices in Education and Schools), involves 27 advocates from each of the nine educational directorates in NSW including Connected Communities. Three students from each directorate are elected to the council. These advocates are supported within their directorate by a DOVES champion – a teacher who helps with logistical arrangements and leadership training for DOVES members. DOVES Council meetings are held at least twice a term where students feel safe to openly discuss issues to be raised with the Minister and further contribute to positive change and outcomes to make NSW the best education system in the country. As required by the Minister, the DOVES may be asked for input into policy and current issues throughout the year that directly affects students and their educational experience. DOVES forums are also held at a regional/local level to ensure wider student consultation on matters that are current and important to the future of education and/or relevant to groups of students within schools. The Minister’s Student Council has ongoing support from the NSW Department of Education. Applications to join the DOVES Council open annually in Term 4 for students currently in Years 5–9, with interviews held in Week Three of Term 1 2024. Students are appointed to the DOVES for a two-year period, so the number of positions available each year may vary. Students who are unsuccessful in being appointed to the DOVES council, will have the opportunity to participate in the regional-level DOVES forums. APPLICATIONS CLOSE 9 FEBRUARY 2024. Please visit this page for how to apply. www.fotv.org.au COME TO OUR HOLIDAY HANGS Kindergarten Saturday 13 January, 10am Queen Elizabeth Reserve Stage One Sunday 14 January, 10am Clifton Gardens Stage Two & Three Saturday 20 January, 10am Clifton Gardens Stage Four Sunday 21 January, 2pm Northbridge Baths We’d love to see lots of you there to welcome our new families and to catch up after the craziness of the festive season has (hopefully) passed! The New Families program aims to settle you as smoothly as possible into village life and create a sense of belonging for students and their families – all before the first day of school! CHOOSE ONE OR CHOOSE THEM ALL ### FRIENDS OF THE VILLAGE OVERVIEW & MEMBERSHIP Friends of the Village (FOTV) is the P&C Association supporting Lindfield Learning Village. P&C Associations play a vital role in supporting the public education system which is inclusive of all, irrespective of culture, gender, academic ability and socio-economic status. Here’s how you can support and engage with your P&C: - sign up to become a FOTV Member ($2) - attend quarterly FOTV General Meetings - request to join the WhatsApp FOTV Comms channel by emailing firstname.lastname@example.org - request to receive FOTV Comms emails by emailing email@example.com - have a look at our website for news, dates, more information and Online Shop - join one of our Working Groups or suggest a new one - nominate yourself for a Leadership Team position - become a Stage Socialite, organising fun activities and gatherings for your Stage - volunteer at our school cafe, The Bitter Pea by Cafe Feoh - support FOTV fundraising events and projects ### STAGE BASED WHATSAPP CHATS In addition to our FOTV Comms channel, every stage has a Whatsapp chat where you can connect with other families, ask questions, and generally get to know your fellow Villagers. We pride ourselves on making these spaces friendly, inclusive and helpful and we ask that each member use the chat mindfully, utilising the search function before asking a FAQ and keeping the conversation to school-related topics. Send us an email to firstname.lastname@example.org and we’ll give you the appropriate link. ### BUDDY GROUPS Sometimes, you just need a Friend! We’ve got a buddy system in place for new families who’d like to connect with existing families over the holidays. Email email@example.com and we’ll put 3-4 newbies together with 1-2 existing Villagers, doing our best to make sure the students are of a similar age and stage. Then you can connect privately and sort out some times to get together. ### HOLIDAY HANGS Stage based Holiday Hangs are a chance for each Stage to gather somewhere fun and hang out for a couple of hours. It’s a great way to find new friends for existing and new Villagers and these events are always very popular. \| Stage \| Location \| Date \| \|----------------\|---------------------\|--------------------\| \| Kindergarten \| Queen Elizabeth Reserve \| Sunday 3 December, 10am & Saturday 13 January, 10am \| \| Stage One \| Clifton Gardens \| Sunday 14 January, 10am \| \| Stage Two & Three \| Clifton Gardens \| Saturday 20 January, 10am \| \| Stage Four \| Northbridge Baths \| Sunday 21 January, 2pm \| ### FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL EVENTS COFFEE & CHATS Monday 5 February 8:30-9:30am – The Bitter Pea It’s the first day of school for ALL students stages 1 through 6! So, after you’ve dropped them off, come and buy an excellent coffee from Ken & Thuy and have a chat with Friends old and new. FREE ICE BLOCKS ON US! Monday 5 February We’ll be handing out ice blocks to all the students (Years 1-12) on their first day at school for 2024! KINDERGARTEN WELCOME TO THE VILLAGE COFFEE MORNING Monday 12 February, 9:45am - The Bitter Pea After you’ve dropped your child at the K-2 Hub for their first day of school ever (!!), come and feel all the feels with us at The Bitter Pea. We’ll have some goodies to share with you as you mark this momentous day. Looking for a Creative Way to Engage the Children over Summer? Ku-ring-gai Council’s Ku-ring-gai Art Centre & Gallery Space in Recreation Ave, Roseville invites students aged 5-16 years to our Summer School Holiday Program from January 15-25, 2024. Enjoy a range of half-day and full day workshops covering all types of art and craft. Creative options include sculpture, pottery wheel throwing, cartoon drawing, Egyptian art projects, jewellery making, portrait painting and more. Parents are encouraged to use their Creative Kids Vouchers to receive substantial savings. Go to Art Centre School holiday program Ku-ring-gai (nsw.gov.au), to view program. Bookings open now online or phone us on 9424 0310. 2024 SUMMER SCHOOL HOLIDAY PROGRAM Bookings are now online Please choose carefully – no refunds krg.nsw.gov.au/artcentre Important information - Children must bring a hat, snack/lunch, water, and a smock. - Enclosed shoes are recommended. - If your child has a disability or allergies please advise the Art Centre office on booking. - All programs are for school aged children. Classes are skills based so we cannot accept bookings for children under 5 years or those who have not yet started school. - Your child must be collected at the end of class, including in between half-day classes. There are no child-minding facilities at the Art Centre. Nut policy To protect vulnerable children, the Art Centre has a policy of no nuts or nut products. Please do not bring foods containing nuts or their products on site. MORNING ART WORKSHOPS 9.30AM-12.30PM FEE $70 Includes studio time & tuition, use of tools & all your materials WEEK ONE Monday 15 Jan E 2118 Ages: 5-9 PET PORTRAITS ON CANVAS Bring a picture of your loved pet and learn how to create a convincing likeness on canvas. E 2119 Ages: 8-12 HOW TO DRAW THE HUMAN EYE The eyes are some of the most challenging human body parts to capture. Learn observational drawing skills to improve your art. Tuesday 16 Jan E 2120 Ages: 6-11 LEARN TO PAINT A LANDSCAPE Block out your canvas with a coloured background and use dark and light colours to build a landscape. E 2121 Ages: 8-12 BEADED JEWELLERY Design and make stunning beaded creations for your own collection or as gifts for others. Wednesday 17 Jan E 2122 Ages: 8-12 MINI MASTERPIECES ON CANVAS - MONET'S WATER GARDEN PICASSO'S PORTRAITS Learn to paint a colourful abstract face using the techniques of Picasso. E 2123 Ages: 5-9 SPLATTER ART Messy art exploration where we try techniques like splashing, splattering and blowing paint across our canvas to achieve exciting effects. Thursday 18 Jan E 2124 Ages: 5-9 POWERFUL POETRY - LEARN TO WRITE AND PERFORM YOUR PIECE Go beyond the written word and learn how to confidently deliver a performance. E 2125 Ages: 8-12 BEADED JEWELLERY Details refer to class E 2121 (Tue 16 Jan) Friday 19 Jan E 2126 Ages: 8-12 DRAWING - MANGA PORTRAITS Learn how to create anime styled portraits using techniques to draw the face and flowing hair. E 2127 Ages: 5-9 DRAW & PAINT A DINOSAUR T-Rex or Velociraptor? Whatever your favourite pre-historic beast is, you will learn how to create one. WEEK TWO Monday 22 Jan E 2148 Ages: 5-9 EGYPTIAN INSPIRED ART PROJECTS Create a crafted mummy, a sparkling scarab beetle or a golden pharaoh's face. E 2149 Ages: 8-12 HOW TO DRAW THE HUMAN EYE The eyes are some of the most challenging human body parts to capture. Learn observational drawing skills to improve your art. Tuesday 23 Jan E 2150 Ages: 5-9 PAPER MARBLING A technique for creating beautiful swirling designs by dipping papers into floating inks. E 2151 Ages: 8-12 EGYPTIAN INSPIRED ART PROJECTS Create a crafted mummy, a sparkling scarab beetle or a golden pharaoh's face. E 2152 Ages: 6-11 OUTBACK ART PROJECTS Create a bejewelled goanna or a dreamtime landscape inspired by Australian nature. E 2153 Ages: 13-16 DRAWING - CARTOON DRAWING Learn how to draw fun cartoon characters. Wednesday 24 Jan E 2154 Ages: 5-9 MY STORY IN A COLOURFUL CONCERTINA BOOK Your child will tell the story of their unique personality in a crafted book using paint, collage and pen. E 2155 Ages: 13-16 DRAWING - CARTOON DRAWING Learn how to draw fun cartoon characters. Thursday 25 Jan E 2156 Ages: 5-9 MY STORY IN A COLOURFUL CONCERTINA BOOK Your child will tell the story of their unique personality in a crafted book using paint, collage and pen. E 2157 Ages: 13-16 DRAWING - CARTOON DRAWING Learn how to draw fun cartoon characters. AFTERNOON ART WORKSHOPS 1PM-4PM FEE $70 Includes studio time & tuition, use of tools & all your materials WEEK ONE Monday 15 Jan E 2128 Ages: 6-11 PET PORTRAITS ON CANVAS Bring a picture of your loved pet and learn how to create a convincing likeness on canvas. E 2129 Ages: 13-16 HOW TO DRAW THE HUMAN EYE The eyes are some of the most challenging human body parts to capture. Learn observational drawing skills to improve your art. Tuesday 16 Jan E 2130 Age: 8-12 LEARN TO PAINT A LANDSCAPE Block out your canvas with a coloured background and use dark and light colours to build a landscape. E 2131 Ages: 5-9 BEADED JEWELLERY Design and make stunning beaded creations for your own collection or as gifts for others. Wednesday 17 Jan E 2132 Ages: 6-11 MINI MASTERPIECES - MONET'S WATER GARDEN Learn to paint an impressionist view of water lilies. E 2133 Age: 8-12 SPLATTER ART Messy art exploration where we try techniques like splashing, splattering and blowing paint across our canvas to achieve exciting effects. Thursday 18 Jan E 2134 Ages: 8-12 POWERFUL POETRY - LEARN TO WRITE AND PERFORM YOUR PIECE Go beyond the written word and learn how to confidently deliver a performance. E 2135 Ages: 5-9 BEADED JEWELLERY Details refer to class E 2131 (Tue 16 Jan) Friday 19 Jan E 2136 Ages: 6-11 MIXED MEDIA & COLLAGE Create a series of works on paper using textured materials and interesting positioning. E 2137 Age: 8-12 SPLATTER ART Details refer to class E 2133 (Wed 17 Jan) # AFTERNOON ART WORKSHOPS 1PM-4PM FEE $70 Includes studio time & tuition, use of tools & all your materials ## WEEK TWO \| Day \| Workshop \| Age Group \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-----------\| \| Monday \| E2156 PET PORTRAITS ON CANVAS \| Ages: 5-9 \| \| \| Bring a picture of your loved pet and learn how to create a convincing likeness on canvas. \| \| \| \| E2157 EGYPTIAN INSPIRED ART PROJECTS \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Create a crafted mummy, a sparkling scarab beetle or a golden pharaoh’s face. \| \| \| Tuesday \| E2158 PAPER MARBLING \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| A technique for creating beautiful swirling designs by dipping papers into floating inks. \| \| \| \| E2159 SPLATTER ART \| Ages: 5-9 \| \| \| Messy art exploration where we try techniques like splashing, splattering and blowing paint across our canvas to achieve exciting effects. \| \| \| Wednesday \| E2160 OUTBACK ART PROJECTS \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Create a bejewelled goanna or a dreamtime landscape inspired by Australian nature. \| \| \| \| E2161 DRAWING - POKEMON DRAWING \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Learn how to draw your favourite Pokémon characters or create your own. \| \| \| Thursday \| E2162 PAINT SEASCAPES & SURF SCENES \| Ages: 6-11\| \| \| Experiment with colour and different ways to apply paint to paper to create waves, water and wonderful effects capturing summer at the sea. \| \| \| \| E2163 EGYPTIAN INSPIRED ART PROJECTS \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Create a crafted mummy, a sparkling scarab beetle or a golden pharaoh’s face. \| \| # FULL DAY ART WORKSHOPS 10AM-3PM FEE $140 Includes studio time & tuition, use of tools & all your materials ## WEEK ONE \| Day \| Workshop \| Age Group \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-----------\| \| Monday \| E2138 POTTERY WHEEL THROWING FOR TEENS \| Age: 13-16\| \| \| Learn to use a potter’s wheel to create simple decorative pottery. Limited class size. \| \| \| \| E2139 PAINT A MAGPIE ON CANVAS \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Study and draw magpies. Learn to style your drawing, then paint this iconic black and white Aussie bird against a vibrant colour block background. \| \| \| Tuesday \| E2140 SUMMER SEA CREATURES FROM CLAY \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Your child will be introduced to sketching and then hand-building in clay. They may decorate their sculpted clay creatures with colourful acrylic paints. \| \| \| \| E2141 COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW - PERFORMANCE ART - DANCE, DRAMA, SINGING & ART EXPRESSION \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| A day of creative performance where children express their colourful ideas through drama, dance, costume, creative writing, poetry and visual arts. \| \| \| Wednesday \| E2142 SUMMER SEA CREATURES FROM CLAY \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Your child will be introduced to sketching and then hand-building in clay. They may decorate their sculpted clay creatures with colourful acrylic paints. \| \| \| \| E2143 ABSTRACT SCULPTURE USING CRAFT & RECYCLED MATERIALS \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Hand build and craft your imaginative sculpture using interesting materials. \| \| \| Thursday \| E2144 POTTERY WHEEL THROWING FOR TEENS \| Age: 13-16\| \| \| Learn to use a potter’s wheel to create simple decorative pottery. Limited class size. \| \| \| \| E2145 COLOURFUL PRINTMAKING \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Learn how to use a roller and coloured inks to make exciting print-based images. \| \| \| \| E2146 SUMMER SEA CREATURES FROM CLAY \| Ages: 6-11\| \| \| Your child will be introduced to sketching and then hand-building in clay. They may decorate their sculpted clay creatures with colourful acrylic paints. \| \| \| \| E2147 STORY MAKING - EXPLORE CREATIVE WRITING \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Discover the process to create and write a well-structured and engaging story. \| \| \| Friday \| E2148 MY CREATIVE POTTERY PROJECT \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Your child sketches their own creation using their imagination and then hand-builds it in clay. They may decorate their sculpted piece with colourful acrylic paints. \| \| \| \| E2149 ADVANCED PORTRAIT PAINTING FOR TEENS \| Age: 13-16\| \| \| Practice new skills to take your portrait work to the next level. \| \| ## WEEK TWO \| Day \| Workshop \| Age Group \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-----------\| \| Monday \| E2164 POTTERY WHEEL THROWING FOR TEENS \| Age: 13-16\| \| \| Learn to use a potter’s wheel to create simple decorative pottery. Limited class size. \| \| \| \| E2165 COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW - PERFORMANCE ART - DANCE, DRAMA, SINGING & ART EXPRESSION \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| A day of creative performance where children express their colourful ideas through drama, dance, costume, creative writing, poetry and visual arts. \| \| \| Tuesday \| E2166 MY CREATIVE POTTERY PROJECT \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Your child sketches their own creation using their imagination and then hand-builds it in clay. They may decorate their sculpted piece with colourful acrylic paints. \| \| \| \| E2167 SPARKLING SUMMER JEWELLERY \| Ages: 6-11\| \| \| Make quality beaded jewellery pieces that shimmer and shine. \| \| \| Wednesday \| E2168 MY CREATIVE POTTERY PROJECT \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Your child sketches their own creation using their imagination and then hand-builds it in clay. They may decorate their sculpted piece with colourful acrylic paints. \| \| \| \| E2169 ADVANCED PORTRAIT PAINTING FOR TEENS \| Age: 13-16\| \| \| Practice new skills to take your portrait work to the next level. \| \| \| Thursday \| E2170 POTTERY WHEEL THROWING FOR TEENS \| Age: 13-16\| \| \| Learn to use a potter’s wheel to create simple decorative pottery. Limited class size. \| \| \| \| E2171 SPARKLING SUMMER JEWELLERY \| Ages: 8-12\| \| \| Make quality beaded jewellery pieces that shimmer and shine. \| \| # AGE GROUPS MINI MASTERS AGES 5-9 Our youngest artists must have already started school KU-RING-GAI KIDS AGES 6-11 Ku-ring-gai Art Centre’s general children’s classes are for primary school students JUNIOR ART MASTERS AGES 8-10 Junior artists are upper primary students YOUTH ARTISTS AGES 13-16 Our teenage classes are suitable for beginner, developing and emerging artists # CREATIVE KIDS VOUCHERS We welcome your Creative Kids vouchers for ALL holiday classes. Book using your vouchers at krg-events.bookable.net.au Upload your voucher as a jpg at time of booking for your discount. Conditions apply. # NEED LONGER DAY SUPPORT? To support parents looking for a longer day option, we will happily provide lunchtime supervision for children who are booked in for both morning and afternoon workshops on the same day. Please call the office to book this service. Tennis Camps Camp 1 - Monday 18/12 - Friday 22/12 Camp 2 - Wednesday 3/1 - Friday 5/1 Camp 3 - Monday 8/1 - Friday 12/1 Camp 4 - Monday 15/1 - Friday 19/1 Camp 5 - Monday 22/1 - Thursday 25/1 Camp 6 - Monday 29/1 - Tuesday 30/1 Skills, Drills and Games Full Day or Half Day Camps Before Care and After Care Available Awards and Prizes FREE BBQ Lunch on Fridays BOOK NOW: Chatswood Tennis Centre - (02) 9411 1500 www.chatswoodtennis.com.au	1acac894-0532-4c75-80b4-861fb93bf06f	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://fotv.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/VOTV-15.12.23.pdf	2024-04-18T13:41:53+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817206.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20240418124808-20240418154808-00055.warc.gz	236,724,852	6,158	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.929997	eng_Latn	0.995395	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2774, 3115, 3587, 3938, 4507, 7884, 8291, 11878, 12588, 17868, 25428, 25872 ]	[ 0.921875, 3.03125 ]	1	0
Living with Atrial Fibrillation The 2019-2020 school year was a challenging one for all of us, and we are grateful to our students, families, staff, and community partners for your continued support. We look forward to welcoming you back in August! An estimated 2.7 million Americans are living with atrial fibrillation (AF). That makes it the most common heart rhythm abnormality in the U.S. AF itself usually isn’t life-threatening. But it can lead to other serious problems. These include chronic fatigue, congestive heart failure and stroke. The good news is that AF can be treated and controlled with help from your healthcare provider. If you’ve been diagnosed with AF, careful management can help reduce your risk of major health problems. Your heart is an amazingly coordinated system. Muscles work to pump blood throughout the body, and an electrical system tells the heart when to beat. The Heart as a Pump The heart has four chambers. The two top ones are the atria. The right atrium receives blood from the body. The left atrium receives blood from the lungs. The ventricles are the main pumping chambers. They are below the atria. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, where it’s refreshed with oxygen. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood all through the body. The sinus node is a group of heart cells in the wall of the right atrium. It acts as the heart’s pacemaker. Electrical impulses sent from the sinus node signal the heart muscle to contract. This begins each heartbeat. These impulses follow conduction pathways to travel across the heart muscle in an orderly fashion. This causes the heart to beat steadily. Each electrical impulse normally spreads over the atria first. These chambers contract, which helps blood flow into the ventricles. Next, the electrical impulse spreads to the ventricles, causing them to contract and pump blood out to all the body’s cells. With AF, your heart’s electrical impulses lose their regular rhythm. The impulses no longer come from the sinus node. Instead, they come from other parts of the atria. When someone is in AF, they have an irregular heartbeat. During AF, the impulses are very rapid (more than 300 beats per minute) and uneven. In response to these impulses, the atria contract quickly and unevenly. This means they aren’t able to pump blood the way they should. In atrial fibrillation, the atria quiver like a bowl of gelatin, instead of pumping rhythmically and forcefully. Sometimes rapid AF impulses cross to the ventricles. This causes them to beat rapidly and irregularly as well. However, this ventricular rate is much slower than the atrial rate. It usually ranges from 120 to 160 beats per minute. Several abnormal impulses form inside both atria. Often, the cause of AF is unknown. But certain factors can make you more likely to develop it. AF often affects people who have coronary heart disease or who’ve had a heart attack. Other conditions linked with AF include: - High blood pressure - Recent heart surgery - Valvular heart disease (affecting one or more of the valves) - Inflammation of the heart muscle (myocarditis) or lining of the heart (pericarditis) - Congenital heart defect (one present at birth) - Overactive thyroid gland - Acute or chronic lung disease Older people are more likely to have AF than younger people. In fact, the risk of AF increases with age. Atrial fibrillation is the most common heart arrhythmia in persons over the age of 65. Diabetes, excessive alcohol use and stimulant drug use are other factors that increase the risk of AF. Although atrial fibrillation can feel weird and frightening, an AF episode usually doesn’t have harmful consequences by itself. The real danger is the increased risk for stroke. Even when symptoms are not noticeable, AF can increase a person’s risks for stroke and related heart problems. Usually, the most serious risk from AF is that it can lead to other medical problems, including: - Stroke - Heart failure - Chronic fatigue - Additional heart rhythm problems - Inconsistent blood supply Atrial Fibrillation and Stroke During AF, some blood may not be pumped from the atria into the ventricles efficiently because the atria are quivering like a bowl of gelatin instead of pumping forcefully and rhythmically. Blood that’s left behind can pool in the atria and form blood clots. If a blood clot leaves the heart and enters the bloodstream, it can travel to your brain, block an artery or blood vessel in the brain and cause a stroke. Everyone with AF is at risk for a stroke, but some people are at greater risk than others. These include individuals who have already had a stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) as well as people over age 75 and those with hypertension, heart failure, or diabetes. Heart failure means the heart isn’t pumping enough blood to meet the body’s needs. AF can lead to heart failure because the heart is beating so fast that it never properly fills up with blood to pump out to the body. As a result, when the heart can’t pump the blood forward, symptoms develop because: - Blood can “back up” in the pulmonary veins (the vessels that return oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart), which can cause fluid to back up into the lungs. - When AF causes heart failure, fluid in the lungs can cause fatigue and shortness of breath. Oxygen-rich blood is not being delivered to the body and brain, causing physical and mental fatigue and reduced stamina. Fluid also can build up in the feet, ankles, and legs, causing heart-failure related weight gain. Symptoms of Atrial Fibrillation Some people who have AF don’t feel a thing. Others notice changes in their heartbeat right away. Many people feel a fast, uncomfortable, irregular heartbeat. It’s sometimes described as a “flopping” or “fluttering” feeling in the chest. Dizziness, sweating and chest pain or pressure also can occur, particularly when the ventricular rate is rapid. Treating AF correctly is the best way to reduce your risk for major vascular events, including stroke. Your treatment depends on the underlying cause and type of AF, your own symptoms, and your level of disability. Your healthcare provider will work with you on the best way to treat your AF. But all AF treatment plans should include three goals: - Control your ventricular rate within a relatively normal range - Restore a normal heart rhythm, if possible - Prevention of blood clots from forming and causing strokes Controlling Your Heart Rate Your ventricles are your heart’s main pumping chambers. Your ventricles respond to AF by beating rapidly and irregularly. That causes the racing or “flopping” feeling in your chest. To control your heart rate, your doctor may prescribe medications to slow down the rate at which the ventricles contract. These medications may include a beta-blocker, a calcium channel blocker, or digitalis. Controlling the ventricular rate will: - Normalize your heart rate. - Decrease your heart’s workload. - Reduce your discomfort. - Prevent congestive heart failure. Restoring the Proper Rhythm To restore normal rhythm, the problem electrical signals must be stopped. Your doctor may recommend using medication. Another option is to apply an electrical shock to the chest (called cardioversion) after you’re given a short-acting anesthetic to put you to sleep for a few minutes. (See page 12 to learn more.) Sometimes a combination of the medication and cardioversion is used. Preventing Clots with Medication Your doctor will likely prescribe medication to prevent blood clots from forming within your heart due to your AF. Warfarin and aspirin are the two most commonly used, but there are also new oral antithrombotic agents, which might be prescribed. All these medications reduce the blood’s ability to clot (coagulate). This helps reduce the risk of stroke in most patients with AF. Warfarin, an anticoagulant (blood thinner), is currently the most commonly used drug for preventing blood clots. If you are taking warfarin, your healthcare provider will do a test called a Prothrombin Time (ProTime or PT). The results of this test are called an “INR” number. Checking the INR helps to keep your blood clotting at a safe and effective level. To be sure you’re getting the right dose of warfarin, you should have an INR test at least once a month. Newer anti-clotting medications do not require the frequent monitoring to check blood levels and may be an appropriate alternative to decrease stroke risk. Aspirin has an anti-clotting effect. It makes blood platelet cells less likely to form clots and is often used in patients who have lower risk for having a stroke. You are encouraged to work with your healthcare professional to decide on the most appropriate medication to take based on your personal stroke risk and response to the anti-clotting medication. If the dose is incorrect, these medications can cause abnormal bleeding or fail to protect you against clot formation. Visit heart.org/AFib to learn more and get the most current scientific updates. Call your healthcare provider right away if you have any unusual bleeding or bruising while taking these medications. If you forget to take your daily anticoagulant dose, don’t take an extra one to catch up! Follow your healthcare provider’s directions about what to do if you miss a dose. Talk to your healthcare professional about switching from one anticoagulant to another (including changing to a generic version). Be extra careful. Even small variations in the amount of the dose of a medication can cause problems. Always tell your doctor, dentist and pharmacist that you take one of these medicines. This is especially important before you start taking a new medication or have any procedure that can cause bleeding. Discuss any new medications with your healthcare providers. Many drugs change the effects of these agents on the body. Even vitamins (and some foods) could change the effect. All medications have advantages and disadvantages in preventing strokes due to AF. But the benefits outweigh the potential risks in terms of safeguarding your health. Please discuss which medication is best for you with your healthcare provider. Other treatments may control or stop the electrical impulses that cause AF. Electrical Cardioversion Electrical cardioversion is a procedure that delivers a small electrical shock to the heart from outside the chest wall. This stops the heart’s electrical activity briefly. The normal rhythm produced by the sinus node can then take over. Cardioversion can treat AF, but it is not a cure. Your healthcare provider can tell you if this procedure might help you. Catheter Ablation To control the ventricular rate during AF, a catheter (thin wire) is inserted through a blood vessel to the heart. It delivers radiofrequency energy to destroy abnormal electrical cells. This is called a catheter ablation. It prevents the ventricles from beating too fast. If a catheter ablation is done, a permanent pacemaker will be implanted to maintain a normal heart rate. The ablation procedure will control the ventricular rate and reduce your symptoms. However, your atria will still have AF. You’ll still have an ongoing risk for blood clotting and stroke. To manage this, you’ll need to take anticoagulants indefinitely. Another alternative treatment for AF is a surgery called the Maze Procedure. Incisions are made in the atria during open-heart surgery. Then, the incisions are sewn up. The scar tissue left behind blocks AF’s abnormal electrical paths. Finally, remember that researchers continue to make progress in finding ways to prevent or cure AF. Visit us online at heart.org/AFib for ongoing updates on emerging treatment options for AF and other resources and information to help you manage your condition. What You Can Do to Reduce Your Risk The best thing you can do is to follow your treatment plan and take things one day at a time. Take Your Medications Take all medications exactly as directed. Managing your AF requires a steady amount of each medication in your body. That’s why it’s critical to follow your healthcare provider’s instructions. Live a Healthy Lifestyle Make healthy lifestyle choices. Ask your healthcare provider for smart eating guidelines. Don’t smoke. If you do smoke, quit now. Choose a physical activity program that you can stick to and enjoy. Ask for the Support You Need Your symptoms aren’t easy for others to see. It may be hard for family, friends or employers to understand how AF affects your health and daily life. Explain your condition, treatment plan and any lifestyle changes to your friends and family. Ask for their encouragement and support. This can help you live your life with as few disruptions as possible. FOR MORE INFORMATION We have many educational booklets to help you make healthier choices to reduce your risk, manage disease or care for a loved one. Topics include: - Nutrition and weight management - Smoking - Cholesterol - High blood pressure - Physical activity - Controlling risk factors - Cardiovascular conditions - Treatments - Procedures - Stroke and more To learn more, call us toll-free at 1-800-AHA-USA1 (1-800-242-8721) or contact your nearest American Heart Association office. You can also visit our Web site, heart.org. For information on stroke, call 1-888-4-STROKE (1-888-478-7653) or visit us online at strokeassociation.org. HEART ATTACK Warning Signs Some heart attacks are sudden and intense, but most of them start slowly, with mild pain or discomfort. Here are some of the signs that can mean a heart attack is happening. - Chest discomfort. Most heart attacks involve discomfort in the center of the chest that lasts more than a few minutes, or that goes away and comes back. It can feel like uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness or pain. - Discomfort in other areas of the upper body. Symptoms can include pain or discomfort in one or both arms, the back, neck, jaw or stomach. - Shortness of breath. This may occur with or without chest discomfort. - Other signs. These may include breaking out in a cold sweat, nausea or lightheadedness. As with men, women’s most common heart attack symptom is chest pain or discomfort. But women are somewhat more likely than men to experience some of the other common symptoms, particularly shortness of breath, nausea/vomiting and back or jaw pain. If you or someone you’re with has any of these symptoms, immediately call 9-1-1 or your emergency response number. Don’t wait longer than five minutes before calling for help. You need to get to a hospital right away. (Calling 9-1-1 is almost always the fastest way to get lifesaving treatment.) STROKE Warning Signs - Sudden numbness or weakness of the face, arm or leg, especially on one side of the body - Sudden confusion, or trouble speaking or understanding - Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes - Sudden trouble walking, dizziness or loss of balance or coordination - Sudden, severe headache with no known cause If you or someone with you has one or more of these signs, don’t delay! Immediately call 9-1-1 or your emergency response number so an ambulance (ideally with advanced life support) can be sent for you. Also, check the time so you’ll know when the first symptoms appeared. It’s very important to take immediate action. If given within three hours of the start of symptoms, a clot-busting drug can reduce long-term disability for the most common type of stroke. For heart- or risk-related information, call the American Heart Association at 1-800-AHA-USA1 (1-800-242-8721) or visit us online at heart.org. For stroke information, call our American Stroke Association at 1-888-4-STROKE (1-888-478-7653) or visit strokeassociation.org. For information on life after stroke, call and ask for the Stroke Family Support Network. The statistics in this brochure were up to date at publication. For the latest statistics, see the Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics Update at heart.org/statistics. VISIT US AT: Heart.org/afib American Heart Association \| American Stroke Association® National Center 7272 Greenville Avenue Dallas, Texas 75231-4596 The American Heart Association/American Stroke Association’s work to promote awareness and understanding of Atrial Fibrillation is supported in part by Janssen Pharmaceuticals. © 2011, American Heart Association.	8a6443ec-cbb3-4112-a927-b66554330d98	CC-MAIN-2024-42	https://www.stroke.org/-/media/Stroke-Files/Stroke-Resource-Center/Prevention/Atrial-Fibrillation-Brochure-ucm_455300.pdf?sc_lang=en	2024-10-06T19:51:40+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-42/segments/1727944253422.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20241006183547-20241006213547-00659.warc.gz	898,048,864	3,486	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99196	eng_Latn	0.998157	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 31, 249, 750, 1299, 1915, 2756, 3579, 4795, 5974, 6495, 7494, 9090, 10241, 11371, 11871, 12831, 13482, 15575, 16475 ]	[ 2.3125 ]	3	0
Children's guide to Adoption Western Bay Regional Adoption Service Western Bay Adoption Service Guidance for Social Workers The Western Bay Regional Adoption Service is a partnership of the three local authorities, Bridgend, Neath Port Talbot and Swansea which became operational in April 2015. It is one of five regions within Wales forming the National Adoption Service. This Children’s Guide to Adoption is designed to be used in a number of ways so that it can be relevant for children of different ages and different levels of understanding. - It is purposely loose leaf with no page numbers. Social workers and/or foster carers can choose the sections relevant to different children dependent on their age and also their individual circumstances. These can be put together in a folder and added to as a child grows or circumstances change. For example, younger children may not need the section which describes a judge. Or some children may not need that section until it becomes relevant to them, to avoid confusion. - Some sections can be photocopied for more extensive use or if plans change, for example the timetable for children or the questions they want to ask. - For young children parts will have to be read and the emphasis may be on the more involved part of the guide, such as drawing. An acknowledgement of their feelings may be more important than their understanding of the concept of adoption. Older children may be happy to go through this by themselves. - Makaton or signing may be needed for children with specific disabilities. The guide will have to be read to children with a visual impairment. - Where there is uncertainty about a child’s level of understanding this guide may have to be used in conjunction with other resources to enable the expression of feelings and emotions. This booklet is to help you to understand what adoption is all about and to answer some of the questions that you may have. You can read this with your foster carers or your social worker and ask them about anything that you don’t understand or tell them about how you feel. What is adoption? We were all babies once and we all have a family or a person that we were born to. We call this our “birth family” and this might include mum, dad, brothers and sisters, grandparents, aunties, uncles and cousins. Sometimes the families that children are born into cannot look after them. Some parents find it difficult to manage to look after children properly. Some parents hurt their children in different ways and it is important that children do not get hurt. Some birth families might understand that they can’t look after their child properly and agree that it would be better for their child not to live with them. Some birth families don’t want their children to stop living with them even though they can’t look after them properly or keep them safe. Then the social workers and a judge may decide that it is better for the child not to live with them. What is a Social Worker? A Social Worker is someone whose job it is to help people when they have problems. Sometimes they have to help families. If they are worried about the children or think that the family needs help, they may find a foster family for the child to live in, just like the family you are living with now, until they decide what is best for the child or children. What’s a judge? A judge works in a court where all sorts of decisions are made. We often think of courts as places where people go who might have done something wrong so that a judge may decide what to do with them. Many of the courts that we see on television are that kind of court. But courts can also help to try and solve problems, particularly in families and they can make decisions about children, to make sure that they are looked after and safe. One of the decisions made in a court, by a judge, is whether or not you should live with your birth family. If it is decided that a child cannot live with his or her birth family, it is sometimes agreed that the child should have a chance to belong to a new family and this is what adoption is. Adoption means that you will go to live with a family that will look after you and to whom you will belong. They will become your parents and any children in the family will become your brother or your sister. This doesn’t mean that you have to forget about your birth family. Sometimes it is okay for children to keep in touch with some members of their birth family, if that’s what they want. This might mean that they can see them now and then or it might mean that they can send letters. Sometimes it is better that children don’t stay in touch, because they find it upsetting or it won’t help them. The social worker will have to decide what is best for you but you can tell them about how you feel about keeping in touch. If the social worker is worried about you seeing your family, even if it is what you want, they will explain to you why they think it shouldn’t happen. Even if it is decided that you should not stay in touch with your birth family, you can always ask questions about them. Birth parents can still love their child even if they can’t look after them properly or keep them safe What about my brothers and sisters? If you have brothers and sisters it may be that they came to foster care with you. Although the social workers try very hard to keep brothers and sisters together that is not always possible. If you had to go to a different foster family than your brothers or sisters your social worker will have tried to keep you in touch with one another. If you cannot go to the same new family the social worker will try to make sure that you can stay in touch with one another, though again, that it is not always possible. Where do adopters come from? There are some families who would like to have a child come to live with them and belong to them. Some of these families might not have had any children born to them; some may have children; some may have grown up children; some may have adopted before. Before they can have a child come to live with them, a lot of time is spent by social workers getting to know them and making sure that they can look after children properly and keep them safe. Social workers will try to find the right family for you. Your social worker will talk to you about how they are looking for a family and you can talk to them about what is important for you about a family. When they think that they have found the right family for you, your social worker will tell you all about them and maybe show you some pictures. They will then arrange for the family to come and visit you so you can start to get to know them and they can start to get to know you. You will have the chance to spend some time with them, perhaps having some days out and doing things together, so that you can get to know them more and more. Your social worker will visit you and see how you are getting on and how you feel about what’s happening. When you and everyone else feel that you know each other enough and are happy to take the next step, you will go and live with them. If you don’t feel happy about the new family, or you feel confused or worried, you should tell your social worker or your foster carer. Sometimes children feel a bit muddled with all that is going on and talking to someone makes them feel better. It is important that you try and say what you feel. Once I go and live with them am I adopted? No. Not straight away. Your social worker will visit you in your new family and talk to you about how you are settling in and see if you have any worries. When you have lived with your new family for a while and everyone feels that it is right to take the next step, your new parents will ask a court if they can adopt you. A judge at the court will set a date when you and your new family and your social worker can go and meet him or her, to talk about how things have been going. If everything seems fine, the judge makes something called an Adoption Order and that is when you legally become a part of your new family. That means that you belong to them and they belong to you, but it still doesn’t mean that you have to forget about your birth family or that they have to forget about you. You can ask questions and talk about them with your new family. Will I still go to the same school? It really depends on how far away from your school that your new family lives. You may have to change schools but everyone will try to help you, to make sure that you settle in well. Can I still see my friends? Again, it depends on where your new family lives. But they will do all they can to help you to stay in touch with your friends and to help you to make new ones. What if I don’t feel happy about what is happening? Sometimes children, when they are first told about being adopted, can feel a bit sad or a bit worried. You might feel like that. You might feel quite happy and settled with your foster carers and don’t want to move. Or you might feel you are losing your birth family. If you feel unhappy you should, in the first place, talk to your social worker. You can also talk to your foster carers. If you feel unhappy after you have moved to your new family you might feel able to talk to them about how you feel. You could also talk to the social workers who work in the adoption team, who will be visiting your new family to see how things are going. If, after talking to people, you still feel unhappy or if you don’t feel that you can talk to anyone, you can either: • make a complaint to the agency that is making the decisions for you, or… • contact an independent agency, where there are people who don’t work for the agency making the decisions If you want to make a complaint to the agency you can, if you feel able to, let your social worker know this and they will explain how to go about this. If you want to contact an independent agency all the information is given at the end of this booklet. My thoughts on what’s happening? These next pages are for you, to say any of the things that you want to say. You can say what you think about adoption. You can write any questions that you have. You can draw pictures. You can say the things that you would like in your new family. You can say the things that you would like your new family to know about you. This is what I think about adoption Here are some of my questions... Your chance to say what you would like These are the things that I would like in my new family... These are the people that I would like to stay in touch with... About me I like to go to bed with my: □ door open □ closed I like to sleep with my light □ on □ off These are some of the things that I like to do... These are the things that I don’t like doing... These are some of the things that I like to eat... These are the foods that I don’t like... Other things that I want them to know... My timetable... When plans have been made for me I can use this timetable to help me know when things are going to happen. \| Day/Date \| What’s Happening \| How I feel \| \|----------\|------------------\|------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| You can draw a picture or write something Names and contact details of people I can talk to... My Social Worker: Name: Telephone: E-mail: If you are not happy about something your social worker has said or done you can contact their boss who is: Name: Telephone: E-mail: Your Social Worker in the Adoption Team: Name: Telephone: E-mail: If you are not happy about something your social worker in the Adoption Team has said or done you can contact their boss who is: Name: Telephone: E-mail: Useful Information... The following Organisations are independent, which means that they don’t work for the local authority, the agency that is making the decisions for you. They will help to make sure that your views are heard, if you don’t think that you are being listened to. Voices from Care Freephone: 029 20451431 E mail: firstname.lastname@example.org Child Law Advice Line Telephone: 0300 330 5480 Talk Adoption Freephone: 0808 808 1234 E mail: email@example.com Talk Adoption will listen to you about anything to do with adoption. Childline Freephone: 0800 881111 Childline will listen to you about anything and particularly help children who are being hurt. The Children’s Commissioner in Wales is called Sally Holland. Sally’s job is to stand up and speak out for children and young people. She works to make sure that children are kept safe. You can get in touch with Sally Holland by: Children & young people's freephone number: 0808 801 1000 or text 80 800 start your message with COM Children's Commissioner for Wales Oystermouth House, Phoenix Way Llansamlet, Swansea. SA7 9FS TEL…………………01792 765600 FAX………………01792 765601 EMAIL……….firstname.lastname@example.org WEBSITE……www.childcom.org.uk Our responsibility to you... Your social worker works for the local authority where you live. It is the local authority that has some responsibility for making decisions for you. There are lots of people who work for this local authority, all of whom want to help children and young people. Every agency has to have a “Statement of Purpose”, which is a booklet which explains the things that the people who work in the Western Bay Adoption Service think are important. Here are some examples: - They must find a family that is best for you... - They must make sure that your new family will keep you safe and make sure you are well looked after ... - They must listen to your wishes and feelings about being adopted... - They will make sure your new family is helped to look after you now and all the time you are growing up... If you want to know more about how the local authority works, ask your social worker to get you some more information This document is also available in Welsh. 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THE HISTORY OF DEFORESTATION IN SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO AND METHODS USED IN AFFORESTATION OF OLD AGRICULTURAL FIELDS Matthew Aleksa An undergraduate thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Honours Bachelor of Science in Forestry Faculty of Natural Resource Management Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario 08-MAY-2022 Major Advisor LIBRARY RIGHTS STATEMENT In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the HBScF degree at Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, I agree that the University will make it freely available for inspection. This thesis is made available by my authority solely for the purpose of private study and research and may not be copied or reproduced in whole or in part (except as permitted by the Copyright Laws) without my written authority. Signature: ____________________________ Date: 14-May-2022 A CAUTION TO THE READER This HBScF thesis has been through a semi-formal process of review and comment by at least two faculty members. It is made available for loan by the Faculty of Natural Resources Management for the purpose of advancing the practice of professional and scientific forestry. The reader should be aware that opinions and conclusions expressed in this document are those of the student and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the thesis supervisor, the faculty, or Lakehead University. The forests of southwestern Ontario were logged in the 1700’s for use by the British and French navies as ship masts, spars and hulls. Early settlers cleared the forests to make way for agriculture and settlements. The large-scale deforestation had devastating results to the land and people. Erosion, flooding, drought, loss of wildlife and fish habitat, the inability to grow crops and deserted farms resulted. Eventually, it was recognized that planting trees was the only way that the damage could be restored. As a result, legislation was passed to encourage tree planting but it took time and the willingness of municipalities, landowners, government and concerned agricultural groups for trees to be planted on a larger scale. This thesis is a literature review describing the history of land clearing in southwestern Ontario and explores the use of afforestation methods to regenerate old agricultural fields. A great deal has been learned about the best practices for success in afforestation. Understanding soil type, matching tree species to soil, species requirements, planting methods, competition control and tending are all important factors. After over two hundred years when deforestation started restoration of the land still continues in southwestern Ontario as is exemplified by popular tree planting programs in effect today such as the 50 Million tree program. I would like to Acknowledge Dr. Mat Leitch, my supervisor, for his support during the process of writing this thesis and Dr. Leni Meyer as my second reader. I will never forget their wood science and soils classes during my time at Lakehead. I would also like to thank the Faculty of Natural Resource Management for their support and understanding in the development of this thesis. Thank you to everyone involved in assisting me in the development of this thesis. \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| Library Rights Statement \| 2 \| \| A Caution To The Reader \| 3 \| \| ABSTRACT \| 4 \| \| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS \| 5 \| \| TABLE OF CONTENTS \| 6 \| \| List of Figures \| 8 \| \| 1.0 INTRODUCTION \| 9 \| \| OBJECTIVE \| 9 \| \| 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW \| 10 \| \| 2.1 THE LAND \| 10 \| \| 2.1.1 EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT \| 10 \| \| 2.2 RESULTS OF LAND CLEARING \| 12 \| \| 2.2.1 AGRICULTURAL FIELD EROSION \| 13 \| \| 2.3 REFORESTATION BEGINS \| 20 \| \| 2.3.1 AGREEMENT FORESTS \| 22 \| \| 2.3.2 WOODLANDS IMPROVEMENT ACT AGREEMENTS, 1966 \| 22 \| \| 2.3.3 THE 50 MILLION TREE PROGRAM – 2007 \| 23 \| \| 3.0 AFFORESTATION OF OLD AGRICULTURAL FIELDS \| 23 \| \| 3.1 MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES \| 24 \| \| 3.2 SIZE OF SITE \| 24 \| \| 3.3 SOIL TYPE AND SITE CHARACTERISTICS \| 24 \| \| 3.4 MATCHING SPECIES TO SOIL TYPE \| 25 \| \| 3.5 PLANTING METHODS \| 26 \| \| 3.6 COMPETITION CONTROL \| 27 \| \| 3.7 CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANTING HARDWOOD \| 28 \| \| 3.8 Example Afforestation Plans \| 29 \| \| 3.8.1 Site #1 \| 29 \| \| 3.8.2 Site #2 \| 30 \| \| Section \| Page \| \|--------------------------\|------\| \| 4.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS\| 30 \| \| 5.0 DISCUSSION \| 32 \| \| 6.0 CONCLUSION \| 33 \| \| 7.0 LITERATURE CITED \| 34 \| LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 - EARLY FARMERS CLEARED AND BURNED FORESTS TO CREATE AGRICULTURAL LAND. (ZAVITZ 1908). 12 FIGURE 2 - SAND BLOWN OUT FROM UNDER PINE STUMPS. ‘WASTELAND’ IN WALSINGHAM TOWNSHIP, NORFOLK COUNTY (ZAVITZ 1908). 14 FIGURE 3 - LOCATION OF NORFOLK COUNTY, ONTARIO (NIEWOJT 2007). 15 FIGURE 4 - THE SOIL TYPES AND MAJOR WATERCOURSES OF NORFOLK COUNTY. THE FIRST SETTLERS FARMED TO THE WEST OF TURKEY POINT MARSH. LATER SETTLEMENT ESTABLISHED A POPULATED CORRIDOR THAT CONTINUED EAST ALONG THE LAKE AND NORTH ONTO THE HEAVIER CLAY SOIL (NIEWOJT 2007). 16 FIGURE 5 - AN ABANDONED FARM IN CHARLOTTENVILLE TOWNSHIP, NORFOLK COUNTY. THE REMNANT OF THE WAGON IS BEING GRADUALLY COVERED BY SAND (ZAVITZ, 1908). 17 FIGURE 6 - AN ABANDONED FARM IN SOUTH WALSINGHAM TOWNSHIP, NORFOLK COUNTY (ZAVITZ 1908). 18 FIGURE 7 - SAND DRIFTS COVERING FENCE LINES (OMNRF ARCHIVES IN OMNRF 2019). 19 FIGURE 8 - MIDHURST FOREST STATION 1925. PLANTATION OF TWO YEAR OLD RED PINE (ZAVITZ 1925). 21 FIGURE 9 - AN EXAMPLE OF A PLANTING MACHINE TOWED BEHIND A SMALL FARM TRACTOR (OMNRF 2019) 27 1.0 INTRODUCTION Southwestern Ontario has a long history of changing land use and forestry practices. To understand the present distribution and types of forests, agricultural use, population growth and attitudes towards natural environments it is very helpful to look to the past. The first settlers who came to southwestern Ontario saw the forests as something to be conquered and cleared to make way for agriculture as did the governments of that time (Bowley 2015; Dunkin 2008). The result of large-scale deforestation was devastating to the environment and ultimately to the farmers and those living in settlements and towns. The soils were so depleted on sandy submarginal farmland that deserts developed with blowing and shifting sands. Rivers and creeks either flooded or ran dry, wells became contaminated. Crops failed and farmers moved off their homesteads (Zavitz 1908; OMNR 1982). It took many years, changing governments and concerned groups such as the Ontario Fruit Growers Association and individuals such as Edmund Zavitz, to make a difference and foster change (Dunkin 2008). Eventually, government programs to re-establish forests began and over time Agreement Forests were planted and woodlots were sustainably managed. Landowners with marginal agricultural land were assisted to plant and manage their forests. The agricultural and forested landscape of southwestern Ontario can be better understood today when looking at past clearing and forest establishment practices and patterns. Much has been learned regarding afforestation on a variety of soil types using different species. Achieving diversity over time for a healthy forest environment is often the goal of the forest owner and forest practitioner. OBJECTIVE The forests of southwestern Ontario have been cleared and high graded over a long period of time. This led to many detrimental effects which prompted the development of a number of different programs and practices to try to restore forests and regenerate marginal farmland. This paper presents a literature review describing the history of land clearing in southwestern Ontario and explores the use of afforestation identifying which management strategies are most effective to successfully regenerate old fields. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 THE LAND The historical forests of southern Ontario were established on various soil types deposited from the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the Wisconsinan Glaciation period. Areas of sand, gravel, deep clays, and loams exist throughout the area (Dyke 2004). Before European settlement the Indigenous people living there used the forests as a source of food and shelter. There is evidence that they cleared small areas for cultivation of crops and used fire to improve the habitat for forage, medicines and hunting (Burden et al. 1986). By our standards, the historical forests were vast, with large trees and a diversity of plants and wildlife. A variety of tree species existed depending on the soil type and ecosite, and as a result of Indigenous land use. A variety and abundance of Carolinian tree species existed in the most southern areas near Lake Erie (Elliot 1998). Considering the long development of much of the forest many areas would have been dominated by climax species, that is, species of trees at the end of their successional phase, consisting of sugar maple, beech, and hemlock, with pines and oaks more prominent in areas that were subject to fire on drier sites (OMNR 2019). 2.1.1 EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT With the arrival of Europeans came changes to the forest. In the 1600’s various European explorers and fur traders moved through the southern forests but in the 1700’s settlement occurred along with logging. The first main logging efforts were to supply the British and French navies with ship masts, spars and hulls from 1776 to 1836. During the Napoleonic wars, large red and white pine were cut and squared for export to the United Kingdom. Changes to the British trade policy in the 1850s, and a treaty between Canada and the United States increased the export of pine sawlogs to the U.S (Elliot 1998). By the 1800’s the early settlers of southern Ontario were focused on land clearing for farms and to produce crops. At that time, the government’s priority was on settlement and agricultural development, which would be accomplished through deforestation and conversion of the land to a farming economy (Elliot 1998). Little regard was given to trees that were seen as obstacles for removal to allow for cultivation and as another cash crop. Forests were cut and or burned to clear areas for agriculture. Potash was sometimes produced from the ashes and sold for use in the manufacture of soap, glass, tanned leather, gunpowder, and bleached cotton textiles. Fuelwood and construction materials were used for farms and exported as well (OMNR 1982). The clearing of forests in southern Ontario advanced quickly. From 1840 to 1887, over sixty per cent of the Trent River watershed was cleared for cultivation and about eighty per cent of forest cover had been removed from townships along Lake Ontario and further inland by about 1891 (Bowley 2015). The early European settlers believed that the land was something to be controlled and that forests should be removed to reinvent the pastoral environment they left behind in Europe (Dunkin 2008). (Figure 1) shows an area which was cleared of forest and burned to create agricultural land. The stumps would need to be removed to plant crops. Many of these areas were later shown to be unsuitable for agriculture. This particular area was later purchased by Simcoe County in 1922 to become part of the Municipal Forest now known as the Hendrie Forest. 2.2 RESULTS OF LAND CLEARING The removal of forests over the landscape had devastating results. Some of the worst effects were seen where entire watersheds were harvested. Trees slow winter snow melt and replenish ground water. Without trees the snow melted quickly and the soil without tree roots was unable to absorb the melt or rainwater. Large amounts of water ran along ground surfaces causing soil erosion, formation of large gullies and ran into rivers causing flooding along entire river systems. Shallow wells became contaminated with erosion and runoff. Since groundwater retention was affected, there was a loss of soil moisture and reduced stream baseflows and summer droughts. The loss of trees also contributed to droughts by reducing rainfall and increasing temperatures (Bowley 2015; OMNR 1982). Several watersheds were adversely affected by overharvesting including the Trent Water system, Ganaraska watershed, Grand River watershed and the Thames watershed (Bowley 2015). For example, the Grand River Watershed with its tributaries is the largest watershed in southern Ontario. It covers 6,800 square kilometers and starts in the highlands of Dufferin Country where Luther Marsh is a headwater source and runs 310 kms southwest into Lake Erie (GRCA n.d.). Settlers harvested the cedar which was prominent around Luther Marsh and along the banks of the Grand River for use as cedar fencing in the 1880’s. As the forests continued to be cleared along the river for cultivation, snow melted quickly in the spring and didn’t have a chance to percolate into the ground. Since the marsh area was devoid of trees it couldn’t hold water and discharged it gradually. In the spring, water flowed down stream overflowing the banks causing flooding over most of the 300 km distance to Lake Erie. The river was used as a source of water and for transportation to the towns built along the waterway. Flooding in spring and summer droughts when the rivers dried up became a growing problem. Sewage disposal in the river and effluent from later factories caused pollution (Bowley 2015). In 1912 the Grand River Improvement Association tried to control annual flow along the river by erecting a series of dams and reservoirs. This was a start to remedy the problem but flooding, drought, and pollution continued for some time until much later in 1934 when the Grand River Conservation Commission was formed which later in 1948 became the Grand River Conservation Authority (GRCA n.d.). 2.2.1 AGRICULTURAL FIELD EROSION In 1903 Judson Clarke, Ontario’s first chief forester and Edmund Zavitz, then forester working at the Agricultural College in Guelph, travelled southern Ontario, and recorded the desert like conditions that resulted from deforestation. Large areas were recorded and photographed in Norfolk and Simcoe Counties as well as the Oak Ridges Moraine and Prince Edward County. These were areas where forests had been harvested, crops grown, or cattle grazed until the fertile soil was depleted leaving the lands susceptible to wind erosion exposing infertile dried sands (Bacher 2011). It was clear that soil type contributed to the extent of erosion that occurred after deforestation and agricultural use. Where there were large areas of sand, erosion was at its worst and greatest. As a result of his tour of the growing devastation, Zavitz produced a “Report on the Reforestation of Waste Lands in Southern Ontario” in 1908 which was delivered to the Ontario Legislature where he reported that there were 10,000 acres (4,040 hectares) in Norfolk County of “sand lands unfit for agriculture” which he said, “must be placed under forest management” (Figure 2) (Zavitz 1908). In addition, he estimated that there were 25,500 ha of land in Lambton, Simcoe, Northumberland and Durham Counties that should be protected from ground fires to allow for natural regeneration as well as areas requiring planting (Zavitz 1908). The estimates of area at that time needing attention run as high as 150,000 ha (OMNR 1982). Figure 2 - Sand blown out from under pine stumps. ‘Wasteland’ in Walsingham Township, Norfolk County (Zavitz 1908). An example of the results of deforestation which Zavitz observed occurred in Norfolk County (Figure 3), where a large sand plain exists north of Lake Erie where white pine was the predominant species. Settlement by Loyalists originally occurred on the north shores of Lake Erie and spread east and north towards Brantford avoiding the large sand plain (Figure 4) (Niewojt 2007). Figure 3 - Location of Norfolk County, Ontario (Niewojt 2007). The forest resource on the sand plain eventually became an important source of timber. White pine was in high demand by the late 1820’s as a valued building material in the American construction market. When the Erie Canal was completed in 1825 exports increased via the Great Lakes as the population and urban development increased in the U.S. (Niewojt 2007). The settlers of the area harvested timber in the winter and worked their farms in the summer, giving them extra income to manage their new homesteads (Bowley 2015). After the forests were removed, farmers on the sand plain grew crops and did well until the soil was depleted of nutrients and crop yields declined. They next grazed cattle until there was no longer enough vegetation to feed them and then tried to graze sheep for wool. In the end, the soil was so depleted that there was very little vegetation left to hold down the sands. Many farmers moved off the land to find other ways to make a living and others tried to farm on small areas (Niewojt 2007; Dunkin 2008; Zavitz 1908). With large areas devoid of forests strong winds swept across the countryside blowing sand. In some areas fencerows and farm buildings would become partially buried and sand drifted across roads. In the winter blowing and drifting snow made travel difficult. (Figure 5) shows a farm in Norfolk County in 1908 with drifting sand encroaching on deserted farm buildings and cart. An example of what was once a thriving farm desolated due to poor land management practices. This was a pattern repeated across southern Ontario where forests were cleared on sandy sites that eventually became impoverished through farming and eventually deserted (figure 6) and (Figure 7). Figure 5 - An abandoned farm in Charlotteville Township, Norfolk County. The remnant of the wagon is being gradually covered by sand (Zavitz, 1908). Figure 6 - An abandoned farm in South Walsingham Township, Norfolk County (Zavitz 1908). In his 1908 report, Zavitz pointed out the benefits of establishing forests on the wastelands he had seen in southern Ontario, “The policy of putting these lands under forest management has many arguments in its favour. It will pay as a financial investment; assist in insuring a wood supply; protect the headwaters of streams; provide breeding ground for wild game, provide object lessons in forestry, and prevent citizens from developing under conditions which can end only in failure” (Zavitz, 1908). 2.3 Reforestation Begins The vision that Zavitz had in his 1908 Report on the Reforestation of Waste Lands in Southern Ontario, of tree nurseries and forest management demonstration areas came into being with the purchase and development of the first forest station near St. Williams in 1908 by the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests. At that time, he taught at the Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph and had worked at the small provincial nursery there. This nursery was moved to St. Williams in 1908 (Bacher, 2011). The St. Williams nursery offered landowners free trees to plant on their private lands on poor sites such as sand and gravel and marginal farmland. Government assistance in the form of education was advised at that time (Bowley 2015). After the success of St. Williams Nursery other forest stations were established in key areas of poor farmland that required reclamation. These included Norfolk Forest station #2 in 1924, Midhurst Forest Station in 1922 (Figure 8), Orono Forest Station in 1922, Howard G. Ferguson Forest Station in 1946, Fort William Forest Station in 1946 (ODLF 1960). In 1871 the government passed An Act to Encourage the Planting of Trees Upon the Highways in the Province. This Act gave Municipalities the authority to plant roadside trees to help stop wind erosion. The program was minimally successful. By 1879 other groups such as the Ontario Fruit Growers Association were also showing great concern over the lack of tree planting and was one of the groups most persistent pressuring government (Dunkin, 2008). In 1883 this Act was replaced by the Tree Planting Act which provided landowners with a small payment as an incentive to plant trees. Unfortunately, the approach of landowners doing their own work at that time was not very successful in planting large areas (OMNRF 2019). It is interesting to note however, that gradually over time from 1905 to 1919, 3,440,000 trees were distributed from nurseries mostly to private landowners (Arrnson 2001). In 1911 the Counties Reforestation Act was passed recognizing that it was important to give Counties and Townships the ability to purchase land for the purpose of planting trees on the large wastelands. Even though loans of $25,000 were offered, no interest was expressed in the program (Armson 2001). 2.3.1 AGREEMENT FORESTS In 1921 with the interest of Premier E.C. Drury and Zavitz as Provincial Forester the Reforestation Act was passed, which enabled the province to enter into agreements for reforesting, developing, and managing lands held by the counties (the Agreement Forest Program). In this way, the government paid for and did all the work to establish forests on land that the Counties owned and were covered by an Agreement. In 1922 the first Agreement Forest was established in Simcoe County, close to Drury’s home near Barrie. It was called the Hendrie Forest and started with 1000 acres (405 ha) (OMNR 1982). Over the years the Agreement Forest program grew and expanded its ownership criteria and ability to sell timber. In total there were 56 Agreement Forests in southern Ontario covering 128,853 ha of plantations and natural forest by 1998. At that time, the province turned over the control and management of the lands to the owners. These forests are now referred to as Community Forests (OMNRF 2019; Borczon 1982). It is interesting to note that through the efforts of many foresters and interested groups from the time the wastelands of Simcoe County were identified, reforested and managed, that in 2022 Simcoe County was named the Forest Capital of Canada. 2.3.2 WOODLANDS IMPROVEMENT ACT AGREEMENTS, 1966 Under the Woodlands Improvement Act, an individual landowner was able to enter into an agreement with the Ontario government, whereby their property was assessed, a management or planting plan was prepared, site preparation, planting work and competition control was done for the landowner and the landowner paid for trees at a subsidized cost. In return, the landowner agreed to protect the plantation for a 15-year period. Advice would be provided after that time on management of the plantation. Woodlot improvement assessment and improvement work would also be provided in existing woodlots. The minimum area required to enter into an agreement was five acres. This program was very productive and successful as it offered private landowners real assistance to regenerate submarginal agricultural lands and improve woodlots through advice and tree marking to produce high quality trees. The program ended in 1993 and at that time more than 137,000 ha were under management and 213 million seedlings had been planted (OMNR 2001; OMNRF 2019). 2.3.3 THE 50 MILLION TREE PROGRAM – 2007 In 2007 the Ontario government started the 50 Million Tree Program whereby a commitment was made to plant 50 million trees on 25,000 ha of private and public land. Forests Ontario, a non-for-profit organization was engaged as the lead delivery agent for the program and covers up to 90 percent of the costs for tree planting on one hectare of land or greater. The landowner signs a 15-year management agreement in return. The program now includes a minimum requirement to plant 500 trees. In total as of 2021 over 36 million trees have been planted on 17,000 ha. (MacDonald et al. 2020; Forests Ontario 2022; OMNRF 2019). This program is similar to the Woodlot Improvement program, with the landowner engaging in a 15-year agreement and a planting plan is provided to the landowner along with assistance to plant the trees by service providers. 3.0 AFFORESTATION OF OLD AGRICULTURAL FIELDS Through the efforts of many dedicated foresters and forestry technicians since the time of Edmund Zavitz, much has been learned about the practices used to successfully regenerate old agricultural fields. Following are some considerations to take into account when embarking on the task of creating a new forest. There are several points to consider when approaching the project of establishing a new forest on an old agricultural field. These include management objectives, size of site, soil type, site characteristics, matching species to the soil and site conditions, type of planting stock, site preparation, planting method, herbicide needs and if choosing to plant hardwoods what special requirements are needed (OMNRF 2019; Trees Ontario 2012). In addition to these points are considerations of cost and available labour which will vary depending on location. In some cases, subsidies to assist in costs may be available. 3.1 MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES There may be several management objectives being considered when creating a plan to reforest an old field and these will be influenced by the area being reforested and the site and soil conditions. Some objectives may include, the production of forest products, creating or improving wildlife habitat, protecting streams and watersheds, protecting a site from wind and water erosion, recreation, improving aesthetics, increased habitat connectivity and ecological site restoration (OMNRF 2019; Boothroyd-Roberts et al. 2012). The site and soil conditions will influence the species that can be planted, and this will influence the objectives as will the size of the area under management (OMNR 1995; White et al. 2005). 3.2 SIZE OF SITE On larger sites, the more common objectives such as timber production, wildlife habitat and erosion control are more suitable since planting and herbicide application machinery may be used and are more cost effective. On small areas the opportunity for ecological restoration may be incorporated since it is more costly and requires intensive work and several different species (Trees Ontario 2012; OMNRF 2019). 3.3 SOIL TYPE AND SITE CHARACTERISTICS The type of soil that is present determines the options of species that can be planted and therefore has the greatest effect on the decisions of objectives and management. The site characteristics including the topography, steepness of slopes, and the amount of grass and other vegetation or shrubs present are all considerations that may constrain the decisions being made in the afforestation plan (von Althen 1977; OMNRF 2019). Since most of the old fields in southern Ontario are privately owned, other important factors for the private landowner to consider when establishing a new forest include: availability of labour to get the establishment work done, location and proximity to markets to sell forest products, proximity to a nursery to supply planting stock, the type of forest products that will be produced such as fuelwood or lumber, and financial considerations or the costs and time involved in establishing and tending the plantation (OMNRF 2019; OMNR 1995). 3.4 MATCHING SPECIES TO SOIL TYPE Choosing a species of tree that is best suited to a particular soil type is a very important step in establishing a new forest. Knowing the different soils, moisture and drainage on the planting site is the first step in determining the choices of tree species that will do best (Groninger et al. 2003). Typical species used in afforestation are conifers since they tolerate light and tend to do better on soils that are more impoverished with reduced fertility and topsoil loss such as found on old agricultural fields. Typical species include white pine, red pine, white spruce, and eastern white cedar (Trees Ontario 2012; OMNR 1995). White pine does well on coarse and medium soils which are gravelly, loamy, sandy, and silty. It will tolerate a wider range of moisture regimes than other pines from moist to moderately dry. It shouldn’t, however, be planted on dry sites or sites that are prone to drying. It is susceptible to blister rust and white pine weevil and if planted in areas prone to these, control measures will need to be taken. White pine is also susceptible to frost damage as it begins its growth early in the spring (OMNRF 2019; Ostry et al. 2010; White et al. 2005; OMNR 1995). Red pine does well on coarse, and medium soils which are gravelly, sandy, loamy, and silty. It does best on deep, well drained, sandy soils. It doesn’t do well on poorly drained, poorly aerated, or calcareous soils (soils derived from limestone). Competition from grasses, raspberry and shrubs may reduce its survival and growth so tending for competition is important. Red pine doesn’t have any serious pests or disease problems (OMNRF 2019; White et al. 2005; OMNR 1995). White spruce does well on coarse to very fine soil textures of varying natural drainage, however it doesn’t do well on deep well drained sands. It exhibits slow initial growth after planting and larger stock is recommended as it is also prone to frost damage (OMNRF 2019; White et al. 2005). Eastern white cedar does well on coarse to very fine textured soils with drainage from good to poor on coarser sites. It is often chosen for sites that have fresh mineral soils with a high calcium content (OMNRF 2019). It is important to understand that on sandy impoverished sites it is best to establish a conifer species to create the soil and light conditions to allow shade tolerant hardwood species to later naturally seed in under the conifer if the goal is to attain a mixed species forest (Trees Ontario 2012). It may be too difficult and costly to establish hardwood on these old fields. The establishment of hardwoods is possible on more fertile moist sites, but these have to be chosen carefully (von Althen 1991). 3.5 PLANTING METHODS Trees are planted on old agricultural fields either by hand or by machine. Hand planting is done on sites where accessibility is more difficult or on steep slopes, rocky ground or variable drainage and on areas that are small where machinery would not have enough space to maneuver. The wedge method is a typical way that hand planting is done on old fields. An experienced planter can plant up to 1000 trees per day (OMNRF 2019). Tree planting machines (Figure 9) are suited to larger areas that are easy to access and are flat to gently rolling with limited rockiness. There are a number of different planting machine models that are used; however, the typical planting machine is towed behind a tractor, has a round “vertical cutting blade (a coulter) that cuts into the sod, a scalper that removes the sod and other vegetation to expose the mineral soil, and a trencher that opens a slit that receives the planting stock. Rubber tired packing wheels pass on either side of the slit to pack the soil around the tree” (OMNRF 2019). One person sits on the tree planting machine and controls the spacing between the trees with the rows and carries out the planting. The tractor driver controls the distance between the rows and a third person monitors the quality and spacing of the trees and prepares and supplies the stock for planting. Planting machine crews can plant up to 8000 trees per day (OMNRF 2019). Figure 9 - An example of a planting machine towed behind a small farm tractor (OMNRF 2019) 3.6 COMPETITION CONTROL It is important to control competition of herbaceous and woody plants when establishing a plantation of trees on old fields. “A weed is a plant growing where it is not wanted, competing with more desirable plants for water, nutrients, sunlight and space. Weeds compete with trees by quickly developing root systems in the top several inches of soil, which reduce water and nutrient availability to tree roots” (Zeleznik et al. 2004). Continued effort and monitoring after planting are needed to keep the plantation free of competition and invasive species for the success of the established trees (J. Nickelson et al. 2015). There are several methods used to control the competition of herbaceous and woody plants on old fields. These include mechanical and chemical site preparation treatments before planting and tending treatments after planting as well as the use of cover crops. Often there may be a combination of treatments depending on the site, severity of competition and the tree species used. In southern Ontario, there often is a variety of farm equipment available to use for site preparation, tending and chemical treatments. The goal is to reduce the competition to allow the trees to reach a height where they start to close their canopy, shade the ground weeds and become free to grow (Trees Ontario 2012; Groninger et al. 2004; OMNR 2019). Site preparation may include mowing, band spraying herbicide in a narrow band, full boom spraying, disking, ploughing and furrowing. Some of these methods may also be combined. The competing plants may be only partially removed or completely removed depending on the goals of treatment. The choice of method will also be very dependent on the site conditions, equipment availability, and access (OMNR 2019; Zelenik 2004). Cover crops are used to prevent the invasion of unwanted competing vegetation. They are used especially where a cultivated field is being converted to a forest where mineral soil is exposed and will dry out. Often a mix of white Dutch clover and barley is used as well as ryegrass or wildflowers. Mowing can be done to cut and maintain the cover crop. Sometimes herbicide treatments are also used such as band spraying to tend the plantation (OMNR 2019; Zelenik 2004). 3.7 CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANTING HARDWOOD Hardwood species have specific site requirements to be successful in plantations and demand intensive tending to produce successful growth. They require more soil nutrients and moisture than conifers and are highly susceptible to competition from herbaceous plant species and to rodent damage (von Althen 1991). Important factors to include for a successful hardwood plantation are firstly, the selection of the planting site. High value hardwoods require deep, fertile, moist but well drained soils. Secondly, competition control. This includes site preparation such as ploughing and disking the entire area to minimize competition at the beginning of establishment. Tending is very important for the first two to three years after planting until the canopy has closed and the ground is shaded providing competition control (von Alton, 1991). Protection of the trees from rodents where necessary. In some areas rodents such as mice and voles can cause damage to young hardwood trees by gnawing at the bark and girdling the trees. Where there are heavy grasses rodents can hide from predators, therefore reducing the cover helps reduce the number of rodents. Poison baits and trapping have been used to reduce the number of rodents where populations are high (von Althen 1991, OMNRF 2019; Pedlar et al. 2006). 3.8 EXAMPLE AFFORESTATION PLANS The following subsections 3.8.1 and 3.8.2 contain examples of afforestation plans for two old field sites. 3.8.1 Site #1 A stony site with gently rolling topography, which has a well drained moderate to deep medium textured loam. Accessibility is year-round. The field is in grass and in the past was grazed by cattle. The area of the site is 2 hectares or 5 acres. The objective is to establish a forested site to rehabilitate the site, create habitat for wildlife, reduce wind, connect forested blocks, recreation and to create some sawlogs in the future which will open the stand to allow hardwood to naturally seed from a nearby hardwood woodlot to create a more mixed and diverse forest. Hand planting is recommended for the site due to the stones throughout. Spacing will be 2.4 m between rows and 1.8 m within rows. A spacing of 1.5 m by 1.5 m may be considered for white pine to encourage the trees to gain height more quickly thereby reducing leader diameter and weevil infestation (OMNRF 2019; OMNR 1995). Bareroot white pine, eastern white cedar, European larch, red pine and Norway spruce are being recommended for planting. White pine will be planted over most of the site. Norway spruce will be used as a windbreak. The other species will be planted in groups to add diversity to the site. After planting, the herbicide simazine mixed with iron oxide for colour to provide visibility will be sprayed in spots around the trees using a backpack sprayer after planting in the spring before weed emergence. After the second growing season glyphosate will be applied in the fall using a backpack sprayer after the trees have hardened off at the end of the growing season (OMNRF 2019; OMNR 1995). White pine will be susceptible to white pine weevil and blister rust and should be monitored carefully. For white pine weevil an insecticide can, be considered for use in the spring. Also, the infested leaders can be clipped and destroyed in June or July and corrective clipping can be done to encourage a new leader to form. To reduce blister rust, the infected branches should be pruned to prevent cankers from forming on the main stem. It is also helpful to control competition to reduce the moisture under the trees and allow air flow through the plantation (OMNRF 2019; Trees Ontario 2012). 3.8.2 Site #2 A relatively flat site, not rocky, which has a well drained deep medium textured sandy loam which is not calcareous. Accessibility is year-round. The field is in grass and other herbaceous plants and was grazed by cattle in the past. The area of the site is 4 hectares or 10 acres. The objective is to establish a forested site to rehabilitate the site, create habitat for wildlife, connect forested blocks, recreation and create red pine small poles from thinning’s and sawlogs in the future. Machine planting to red pine with white spruce as a windbreak on the western windward side is recommended. Spacing will be 2.4 between the rows and 2.1 between the trees within the rows. Bareroot red pine and white spruce planting stock will be used (OMNRF 2019; OMNR 1995). The plantation will be band spayed with simazine in the spring after planting to control competition before the weeds emerge. The site will be monitored in the summer to determine when the next application of herbicide should be applied. The herbicide glyphosate will be applied after the second growing season in the fall if required. The plantation will continue to be monitored for the need to control competition (OMNRF 2019; OMNR 1995; Zelenik 2004). Future thinning’s of the red pine to maintain growth and vigour will be scheduled at the appropriate times. 4.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS To understand and report on the history of forest clearing in southwestern Ontario and the subsequent detrimental effects, a review of information recorded from 1908 is included. The subsequent initiatives and programs undertaken to try to rehabilitate the land after deforestation required a literature review of historical information and writings that describe the years of progress towards re-establishing forests. A search of scientific journals and silviculture guides that discuss what has been learned over the years by foresters, forest technicians, and scientists to successfully establish forests on old agricultural fields was done. The Lakehead University Library was a significant source of information with key word searches including “afforestation”, “history of forestry”, “competition in afforestation”, “old field planting”, “private land tree planting”, “site preparation”. Google Scholar was also used to search key words and known authors such as E.J. Zavitz and K. Armson. Personal library was also useful for information related to silviculture and historical information. The literature searched spanned many years to include relevant historical and more recent publications from 1908 to 2022. 5.0 DISCUSSION The first settlers that came to southern Ontario viewed the forest as something to be conquered with the wish to control their environment (Dunkin 2008; OMNR 1982). To the early settlers re-creating their pastoral homes as farmers and using the forest for economic gain made sense. The advance of deforestation across southern Ontario to create farms is repeated in the literature and evident in the photos taken by Edmund Zavitz in 1908. With the advance of settlements and farming however, little attention was paid to the natural environment, the protection of waterways and more vulnerable soils and shallow sites. The literature points to the large areas of deforestation which include entire watersheds and the resulting flooding and droughts (Dunkin 2008; Bowley 2015; Armson 2001). With land clearing and farming taking place on more sandy soils, Zavitz recorded the blow sands and desert like conditions which remained after the soil was depleted and settlers left their farms. Even though there were those who had concerns regarding the detrimental results of deforestation, it is clear it took many years for political, municipal and landowner support to start making positive changes by planting trees. (Bacher 2011; Borczon 1982; Armson 2001). The most significant change occurred in 1922 with the establishment of the first Agreement Forest (Borczon 1982; Armson 2001). Since that time, other government programs such as the Woodlands Improvement Act in 1966 and the 50 Million Tree program in 2007 have made significant progress to help the private landowner re-establish forests and improve the management of woodlots. (OMNRF 2019; Elliot 1998; Armson 2001). Through the years of effort by foresters, forest technicians and scientists much has been learned about afforestation and management of plantations. It is clear that the large-scale land disturbances that occurred in southern Ontario take a long time to recover from. The literature on afforestation points out that it is very important that careful site rehabilitation through the understanding of soils and matching tree species to soils be done for a successful plantation (OMNRF 2019; Trees Ontario 2012; von Althen 1991). Consideration of objectives in afforestation plans and the restoration of sites to diverse species for a variety of habitats will provide sustainable forests for the future. The need to continue restoring forest cover and sustainably manage existing forests in southwestern Ontario is apparent. With increased urbanization and the need to combat global warming the planting and managing of trees takes on additional urgency and importance. 6.0 CONCLUSION The original forests of southern Ontario were cleared by settlers for agriculture, used as lumber and fuel for their homesteads and towns, and exported to Europe and the United States as squared timber and lumber. The results of the large-scale deforestation caused erosion, flooding, drought, loss of habitat for fish and wildlife and the loss of rich diverse natural environments. The once productive farms originally established on fertile forest soils were abandoned as the soils were depleted especially on sandy sites. The resulting blow sands and unproductive soils were left unattended, and erosion by wind and water increased. It took many years for a successful response from government, municipalities and landowners to abate the detrimental effects of deforestation. Through the vision, tenacity and dedication of foresters like Edmund Zavitz, restoration of many “wastelands” was possible through the establishment of trees which grew into the forests we see today. With ongoing urbanization in southern Ontario, it is important that the protection of established forests continue in a sustainable way and that we increase forest cover whenever possible. These forests will protect water systems and fish habitat, provide habitat for wildlife, purify air and water, provide forestry jobs and carbon sequestration to help combat global warming. Much has been learned about afforestation practices to successfully establish forest cover and create diversity over time. Understanding the history of past deforestation will help guide practitioners and landowners in rehabilitating sites and create new forests again. With the assistance of knowledgeable forest managers and available literature, guides and extension notes, forest cover and well managed woodlots can continue to grow. With the present demand for the ongoing tree planting programs, we see today, it is clear that private landowners and community forest owners see value and need to continue with the efforts started by foresters such as Edmund Zavitz so many years ago. Armson, K.A., W. R. Grinnell, F. C. Robinson. 2001. Chapter 1. History of reforestation in Ontario pp. 3-22 in Wagner, R.G., S.J. Colombo, (eds.), Regenerating the Canadian Forest: Principles and Practice for Ontario. Queen’s Printer, Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Toronto. 650 pp. Bacher, J.C. 2011. Two Billion Trees and Counting - The Legacy of Edmund Zavitz. Dundurn, Toronto, ON 274 pp. Boothroyd, K., D. Gagnon, B. Truax. 2013. Can hybrid poplar plantations accelerate the restoration of forest understory attributes on abandoned fields? Forest Ecology and Management 287:77-89. Bowley, P. 2015. Farm forestry in agricultural southern Ontario.ca. 1850-1940: Evolving strategies in the management and conservation of forests, soils and water on private lands. Scientia Canadensis 38(1):22–49. Burden, E.T., J.H. McAndrews, G. Norris. 1986. Palynology of Indian and European forest clearance and farming in lake sediment cores from Awenda Provincial Park, Ontario. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 23(1):43-54 Dunkin, J. 2008. A forest for the trees: Deforestation and conservation efforts in Northumberland County, Ontario 1870–1925. The International Journal of Regional and Local Studies 4(1):47-70. Dyke, A. S., 2004. An outline of North American deglaciation with emphasis on central and northern Canada. Developments in Quaternary Sciences 2:373-424. Elliot, K. 1998. The forests of southern Ontario. Forestry Chronicle 74(6):850-854. Forests Ontario. 2022. 50 Million Tree Program. https://forestsontario.ca/en/program/50-million-tree-program. March 24, 2022. [GRCA] Grand River Conservation Authority. n.d. Grand River Conservation Authority History. https://www.grandriver.ca/en/who-we-are/GRCA-history.asp. March 10, 2022. Groninger, J.W., S.G. Baer, D. A. Babassana, D.H. Allen. 2004. Planted green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) and herbaceous vegetation responses to initial competition control during the first 3 years of afforestation. Forest Ecology and Management 189:161-170. MacDonald, H., D. McKenney, K. McLaven, S. Perry. 2020. Realizing expectations from planting trees on private land in Ontario, Canada. Landscape Online 78:1-9. Nickelson, J.B., E.J. Holzmueller, J.W. Groninger, D.B. Lesmeister. 2015. Previous land use and invasive species impacts on long-term afforestation success. Forests 6:3123-3135. Niewójt, L. 2007. From waste land to Canada's tobacco production heartland: Landscape change in Norfolk County, Ontario. Landscape Research 32(3): 355-377. [ODLF] Ontario Department of Lands and Forests. 1960. Fifty Years of Reforestation in Ontario. L.K. Cameron, Toronto. 33 pp. [OMNRF] Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry. 2019. Afforestation Guide for Southern Ontario. Queen’s Printer for Ontario, Toronto. 320 pp. [OMNR] Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 2001. Critical Review of Historical and Current Tree Planting Programs on Private Lands in Ontario. Ont. Min. Nat. Res. Toronto. 32 pp. [OMNR] Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1982. Evergreen Challenge The Agreement Forest Story. Queen’s Printer for Ontario, Toronto. 60 pp. [OMNR] Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1995. Extension Note Planning for Tree Planting. Queens Printer for Ontario, Toronto. 4 pp. Ostry, M.E., G. Laflamme, S.A. Katovich. 2010. Silvicultural approaches for management of eastern white pine to minimize impacts of damaging agents. Forest Pathology 40:332-346. Pedlar, J.H., D.W. McKenney, S. Fraleigh. 2006. Planting black walnut in southern Ontario: midrotation assessment of growth, yield, and silvicultural treatments Can. J. For. Res. 36:495–504. Trees Ontario, 2012. A Discussion Paper for Alternative Approaches to Afforestation in Ontario. Toronto, Ontario. 65 pp. von Althen, F.W. 1991. Afforestation of former farmland with high-value hardwoods. Forestry Chronicle 67(3):209-212. von Althen, F.W. 1977. Hardwood planting in Ontario. Forestry Chronicle 53(4):209-214. White, T.J.R., S.W.J. Dominy, D.J. Allen. 2005. Review of best practices for tree planting on marginal agriculture lands in Ontario. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forestry Service. Sault Ste. Marie, ON. 98 pp. (Cited in Trees Ontario, 2012). Zavitz, E.J. 1908. Report on the Reforestation of Waste Lands in Southern Ontario. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto, ON. 25 pp. Zeleznik, J., R. Zollinger. 2004. 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From the Editor’s Desk We thought last month was action-packed, but September was even more energetic on project related activities. There were many a first that the club achieved – from a first in spearheading an Inter-District project to becoming the first ADRAG Chapter in the District. It was a month of going all out with small and large efforts that manifested “Serve to Change Lives” in everything. We have showcased a few of these moments for you to relive them and also to experience the joy that these project initiatives will no doubt bring forth for our larger communities in times to come. As September goes past and as October unfurls, do see, read and realise what small groups of people working together can achieve, and also get ready for another exciting month of helping people become self-reliant! Warm Rotary Regards, Aparna Gupta October 2021: Economic & Community Development When communities become economically self-sustaining, a sustainable change is achieved! As we enter October, all Rotary Clubs serve to create this long-lasting change in the lives of its communities and people. Come join in! President’s Message Dear Changemaker Members, September is special. It is the harbinger of good weather and celebrations. September in Rotary means Basic Education and Literacy. With schools opening, we are gearing up to distribute school uniforms and shoes. Director Happy Schools, Rtn. Geeta Jain has diligently been collecting used smart phones for children doing online classes. Isha yoga session on health and wellness was held in the beginning. This was coordinated by PP Rtn. Seema Bangia. A milestone for us was Inter district conference on Cancer and lifestyle, spearheaded by Dr. Rtn. Rao with RC of Bareilly Central. 07 Rotary Clubs of Bareilly participated in the event with full enthusiasm. Two important District appointments were announced this month. Rtn. PP Sunil Khanna is appointed as Section head of Inter country Committee (ICC). A MOU between Egypt and India was signed under his guidance. Rtn. PP Lalit Mattu is appointed as Section head for Italy and Malta as well as District Chair for Plantation. Another milestone for our club is becoming the First ADRAG chapter in our District 3011. Our club was initiated on 21st Sept 2021 as the 1st ADRAG NCR chapter. A fine feather for our club. Polio Immunization was carried out with full gusto by H Sect. Rajeev, Dr. Saxena, Dr. Manju, PP Lalit, AG Sushma and PP Arun Gupta at Sikanderpur Health Centre. 2100 children were administered Polio drops over 3 days. Lunch was organized for all the 30 health workers. Another first was to jointly hold ADRAG awareness meeting with all the 04 interact schools along with Rotaractors and club members. September proved very eventful for our club with 3 first offs. This is possible only when all the members come together and help each other. A BIG HIGH FIVE to all the members. Meeta Ghosh President 2021-22 Rotary International President's Message September 2021 I am sure you are having an enriching experience as you Serve to Change Lives. One of the ways you can make the greatest change in a person’s life is to help them learn to read. Literacy opens up the world to us. It makes us better informed about life in our own communities and opens vistas to other cultures. Reading and writing connects people and gives us another way to express our love for one another. September is Basic Education and Literacy Month in Rotary. Enhancing literacy skills is critical in our pursuit of reducing poverty, improving health, and promoting peace. In fact, if all students in low-income countries left school with basic reading skills, it would result in a significant cut in global poverty rates. Without education, illiterate children become illiterate adults. Today, 14 percent of the world’s adult population — 762 million people — lack basic reading and writing skills. Two-thirds of that group are women. Literacy and numeracy skills are essential to obtaining better housing, health care, and jobs over a lifetime. Especially for girls and women, literacy can be a life-or-death issue. If all girls completed their primary education, there would be far fewer maternal deaths. And a child is more likely to survive past age 5 if he or she is born to a mother who can read. Improving outcomes for more people worldwide is possible only if countries remove barriers to education for girls. The economic argument for doing so is clear: In some countries where schooling is geared toward boys, the cost of missed economic opportunity is more than $1 billion per year. We don’t have to travel far from our homes to encounter those whose lives are being curtailed because they struggle with reading, rely on others to read for them, or cannot write anything more than their own name. Starting this month, consider how your club can Serve to Change Lives through literacy: Support local organizations that offer free programs to support adult literacy or local language learning, or that provide teachers with professional development centered around reading and writing. Become literacy mentors, or work with an organization like the Global Partnership for Education to increase learning opportunities for children around the world. Have conversations with local schools and libraries to see how your club can support their existing programs or help create needed ones in your community. In India, the TEACH program, a successful collaboration between the country’s Rotary clubs and its government, has demonstrated how to scale up literacy efforts to reach millions of children. And at a time when schools across India were closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the program’s e-learning component reached more than 100 million children through national television. Literacy is the first step out of poverty. As Nobel laureate Malala Yousafzai has noted, “One child, one teacher, one book, and one pen can change the world.” Shekhar Mehta President 2021-22 Our Club got installed as NCR Chapter for ADRAG, which is Alzheimer, Dementia Rotary Action Group. We have been honoured to be the lead club in Our District 3011. This project is for spreading awareness about what these diseases are and how they are different from old age issues. The effort is to help people discern and help all elderly – grandparents, parents, neighbours around us. The project also aims to help the caregivers as well. An Alzheimer’s Awareness Meet was also organised for Rotaractors-Interactors of the Club a few days after the installation. Project Work Inter-District Project Launched on Cancer Awareness: Joint Club Session between RCGQE and RC Bareilly Central The club initiated inter district physical Project meeting with Rotary Club Central Bareilly on cancer awareness and lifestyle on 12th Sep at Rotary Bhawan, Bareilly. Our member and Oncology Head of Paras Hospitals, Dr Col Rao was the Guest Speaker and another oncologist Dr. Piyush, joined him. 7 Rotary clubs of Bareilly came with members and were very enthusiastic to continue to hold this campaign in Bareilly and adjoining cities. The talk was delivered to a hall packed with Rotarians. Our DG Anup Mittal and Bareilly DG Rtn Singhal gave full support to this initiative. On this occasion Club Flags were also exchanged with 5 Rotary Clubs of Bareilly, namely, Rotary Club of Bareilly Central, Rotary Club of Bareilly Main, Rotary Club of Rohilkhand, Rotary Club of Bareilly West and Rotary Club of Heritage. President Meeta, Hon. Secretary Rajeev Goel and his wife Shalli Goel attended. The event received local press coverage as well Project Work Polio Day: Camp at Sikanderpur Polio Camp was organized by the Club at Sikanderpur Wellness Centre on 26th Sep. Polio drops were administered to the children in Sikanderpur Village and lunch was arranged for all the Health workers. This initiative was carried out by Rtn. Dr. D Saxena and R’Anne Dr. Manju Saxena. Hon Secretary Rtn. Rajeev Goel, PP Rtn. Lalit Mattu, PP Arun Gupta, and AG Rtn. Sushma Mattu. “The Best Chance to Eradicate Polio is Now” - Aidan O’Leary, Dir Polio Eradication, WHO Application Submission for District Grant President Meeta Ghosh attended the District Grant Session organized by DG Anup Mittal. She also submitted a grant application for construction of a water harvesting check dam in Bhojkala wala in Alwar district. September being the Basic Education and Literacy month for Rotary International, it has been our endeavour to specifically go an extra mile in this area and carry out projects/activities with a focus on education and skill development. Two initiatives that our Club has been a part of: 1. Aajeevika – Skilling & Employability Through Hybrid Learning Initiative of our Rotary District facilitated by NIIT Foundation Aajeevika focuses on skill training of the underprivileged students by imparting training in a hybrid model. The thrust is on employability and following courses have been designed to achieve this objective... - Certificate Course in Customer Relationship Management BPO Voice - Career Edge IT for Professional (Data Entry) - Certificate Course in Business Correspondent Banking and Financial Sector - Certificate Course in Retail and Inventory Management - Certificate Course in Digital Marketing - Certificate Course in Microsoft Office - Certificate course in Active Basic IT - Certificate Program in Spoken English and Personality Development - Certificate Course in Advanced Word and Excel - Job Readiness Training - Certificate Course in Digital and Financial Literacy. BASIC ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: 18 YEARS OF AGE, XTH PASS. DURATION-3/6 MONTHS. FEES: SPONSORED BY ROTARY. INCASE YOU WANT TO ENROLL ELIGIBLE CHILDREN OF YOUR MAID/DRIVER/ANY OTHER DISADVANTAGED SECTION OF SOCIETY, PLEASE DM@ GITA JAIN 9650991062. Our efforts have resulted in enrollment of 20 needy students in 3 months. 2. Donation of spare/used smart phones for needy students - Making Online Education Possible This month two smartphones and one Ipad have been donated by our benevolent Rotarians. The pandemic has uprooted life as we have known it. Among the worst hit are kids from humble households, many of whom are being forced to abandon studies and take up work/labour. Apart from financial hardship, this is also because most educational institutions have shifted to online mode, leaving this particular section of eager-to-learn students with the lack of necessary infrastructure. A lot of them have been struggling to access their classes as they do not have the devices (eg: smartphones, computers, laptops etc.) that support online connectivity and learning. I feel that we can play a part, as small as it might be, in facilitating these students to continue their studies. Rotary Club (Gurgaon, Qutub Enclave chapter) has undertaken a local drive to collect unused/spare smartphones (even in minimal working conditions) and distribute them through government schools in NCR via the network established by Rotary Club. I request and urge you to join this endeavour. If you have any concerns/queries or are ready to donate your old phones, please DM@ Gita Jain 9650991062. We continue to welcome names of eligible children for Aajeevika and also contributions of any used smartphones. Please reach out to Gita Jain at the nos. mentioned above for any queries or contributions. Club Activities Session by ISHA Foundation on Yoga for Immunity On 3rd Sept, the club organized a talk on Yoga For Immunity by the instructors and Guides from Isha foundation. It was an enlightening session on how our breathing affects our body so minutely. They explained how body is such a fine instrument which at every stage in life undergoes changes. When we keep it in tune with mind and nature then that balance is beautifully maintained. Should there be any mishandling of any kind with mind or body, the signs are clearly seen by any aware person. The session highlighted how Yoga is a coming together of both mind and body is a pure science and, can be understood better by becoming a practitioner. Appointment of District Director Rotaract Ananya Satti of Sherwood Convent received her Rotaract District Director pin and badge in presence of DG Anup Mittal. Signing of MoU: India Egypt Inter Country Committee Rtn. Sunil Khanna was appointed President (Section Head) of Inter Country Committee (ICC), by our ICC National Chair, PDG Deepak Talwar. An MOU was signed between Egypt and India, in a virtual Zoom meeting. Rotary International Director Rtn. Dr. Mahesh Kotbagi and DG 3011, DG 3142 graced the occasion. Rtn. Lalit Mattu has been appointed Section Head similarly for Italy and Malta. It is therefore a double achievement for the Club. ‘My Bit’ for Environment: A collective member initiative All club members have pledged to do their little bit every day for the environment. These pictures show the different ways in which they are contributing. - Contribution by Sushma Mattu - Growing organic vegetables and plants - Contribution by Anju Khanna - Making Manure from organic kitchen waste - Contribution by Vanita Naval - Contribution by Rajeev Sabherwal - Contribution by Shalli Goel Horizon End-September 2021, Rotary Club of Gurgaon Qutab Enclave Forthcoming Birthdays & Anniversaries October 7th Anil Trigunayat 14th Neeru Adlakha 18th Rashmi Sood 27th Vanita Naval October 11th Gita Jain & R. K. Jain 24th Anil & Anupama Trigunayat Member Contribution Some thoughts on what is Rotary and who is a Rotarian – by Anil Bhatnagar ‘Sahar’ ‘रोटरी’ सफ़र में सिर्फ़ उजाले हों कहाँ मुमकिन है, रात में सुबह की उम्मीद लगाए रखिए, अंधेरा कोसने से कम नहीं होने वाला, ये ज़रूरी है दिया कोई जलाए रखिए। ‘रोटरी’ के सदस्य मैं हूँ, टिप्पटिमाता हुआ, एक नन्हा सा दिया, किंचित भी मत भयभीत हो तुम, दो अंधेरों को चुनौती, हूँ न मैं.... एक नन्हा सा दिया। We welcome any comments or suggestions that you may have for this newsletter Please share them on whatsapp or a mail on email@example.com OR +91 9811305030	58341435-ac96-4114-b349-90cd79aeaf5e	CC-MAIN-2022-21	https://rotaryindia.org/Documents/ebulletin/Group698/21-22_Horizon_Issue_318102021105921AM.pdf	2022-05-20T17:15:25+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662533972.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20220520160139-20220520190139-00241.warc.gz	546,851,364	3,150	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.915535	eng_Latn	0.996162	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "hin_Deva" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1131, 2968, 6021, 6587, 7657, 8426, 11508, 12872, 13401, 14161 ]	[ 2.046875 ]	1	0
May 28, 2015—Celebrating the New Archives Construction Launch By Sharon White The Archives renovation project is launched! About sixty-five people from Belleville and Hastings County attended the celebration on May 28th and witnessed the hammering of the ceremonial first spike to mark the occasion. Belleville’s Mayor Taso Christopher, Hastings County Warden Rick Phillips, and Historical Society President Richard Hughes represented the three partners in the Archives and gave remarks expressing their enthusiasm and appreciation for the partnership and the many people who have brought the Archives to this exciting juncture. All speakers expressed appreciation for Gerry Boyce’s immense contributions over the past 58 years. Driving the first spike, from left, Councillor Garnet Thompson, Society President Richard Hughes, Contractor Brad Belch, Mayor Taso Christopher and Warden Rick Phillips Photo by Donna Fano Orland French presented a giant cheque from the Historical Society in the amount of $268,000 towards the furnishing and equipping of the new facility. Happy munching on the special giant cake, also from the Historical Society, followed. Historical Society Capital Campaign chairman and past-president, Orland French, presented a giant cheque for $268,000 to Warden Rick Phillips and Mayor Taso Christopher Orland and Richard cutting the cake Photos by Donna Fano The Pride and Self-Reliance of Tyendinaga Township By Vern Whalen The two qualities of pride and self-reliance in Tyendinaga were extremely evident in local historian Jim Kennelly’s talk on the history of Tyendinaga Township. He spoke at the Hastings County Historical Society public presentation on Tuesday, May 19th at Maranatha. Many among the estimated 165 attendees travelled from Tyendinaga to hear Kennelly’s speech. Just east of Belleville lies the historic township of Tyendinaga, the proud home of over 4,000 citizens. It is one of the few townships in Ontario to escape the amalgamations of the Mike Harris government in the 1990s. Pride and self-reliance are part of the heritage for which Tyendinagans are noted. The roots of the township can be traced back as far as the early 1800s. A population survey in 1824 noted 324 residents, although the number may or may not have included the Mohawk natives who arrived in the late 1700s. By 1834, the population had grown to 1,160, and just a year later to 1,443. In 1850, amazingly, 6,200 inhabitants were noted in Tyendinaga. Where were these early pioneers coming from? A good number were coming from the British Isles as Tyendinaga would have been one of the few front townships still relatively empty and with easy access to the Bay of Quinte and Lake Ontario. Many United Empire Loyalists who originally inhabited Sophiasburgh came across the bay to find new homes. The first wave of Irish Catholics arrived in the early 1820s due to the socioeconomic conditions in Ireland. By 1847, a second and much larger wave started to arrive due to the Irish potato famine. Many of these unfortunate famine refugees, suffering from cholera, arrived in Shannonville. For many weeks funeral processions came from Shannonville to Marysville to have the victims buried in unmarked graves at the Marysville Catholic Church cemetery. During these early days, sawmills and flour mills grew up along the Salmon River where small communities such as Shannonville, Milltown, Lonsdale and Roslin sprang up. Millwrights, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, coopers, molders, merchants, carpenters and masons contributed to the economy. The subsistence farming that occurred in much of the township meant that many farmers grew tomatoes for the canning factories in Shannonville and Deseronto. Many cheese factories also dotted the township and provided a source of income for both the farmers and men in the community. The cheese-making season, however, ran only from spring to fall as the cows were dried up in the winter. Education was not forgotten during these early times. By 1837, there were ten schools in the township and twenty-two by 1847. Due to the number of Catholics, there were many separate schools, and indeed, at one time, these Catholic schools outnumbered the public schools. By the 1870s, older log schools were being replaced by structures that spoke of the well-being of the community. The great divide in the township was the Catholic-Protestant divide, which was not only religious but also geographic. Besides the many Irish Catholics, a large number of Irish Protestants from the north, as well as Scottish Presbyterians, English Anglicans and UE Loyalists lived in the area. Soon the Orangemen found a prominent role in the community, even jockeying for power on the township council. The first Orange Lodge in Tyendinaga was formed in 1830, and eventually, it spawned more. In 1871, militant Irish Catholics murdered a Protestant, and the men responsible escaped by boat to the United States. Tensions ran high as around this time in Belleville, an Irish Catholic couple, the Aylwards, were hung in a case which members of the Catholic community were convinced lacked justice. Families grew and migrated to the western reaches of Canada and the United States. People moved to the manufacturing centres in Belleville, Napanee and Kingston. The township mills and small factories slowly disappeared. Many local farms were not viable in the twentieth-century agricultural world as farming was regarded as a tedious 24/7 activity. In Tyendinaga’s history, it would be remiss not to mention the influence of party telephone lines, church socials and dances, and July 1st celebrations; the sense of community found in threshing communities, and the impact of the South Hastings Baseball League, the oldest of its kind in Ontario. The history of the township is as much a history of the people who led and guided it. There have been people such as Thomas Dorland and his son Nathaniel, for many years the Reeve and MPP; John White, Reeve and MPP; long-time clerk and Justice of the Peace, Michael Nealon and the many priests and ministers who administered the many churches. This sense of community has continued up to the present with long-time Councillor and Reeve Mrs. Margaret Walsh and current Reeve Rick Phillips. Tyendinaga Township reeve Rick Phillips, left, and historian Jim Kennelly, right, embrace former reeve Margaret Walsh Photo by Orland French John A. Macdonald in Belleville A Story from the Archives, by Elizabeth Mitchell We first find John A. Macdonald in Belleville when he was involved as a lawyer in a couple of court cases around 1839–1840. He was defence attorney for William Portt in his suit against Cephas Peterson, and around the same time, acted as the plaintiff’s attorney for William Kerr in a case of trespass against Hugh Maginnis. In 1860, as guest at a dinner given in his honour in Belleville, he stated that he was emphatically a “Bay of Quinte Boy,” to which there were great cheers from the audience, and he mentioned one of his “oldest, best and truest friends,” George Benjamin. Then in 1869, he presented Hastings County Council with a portrait of George Benjamin, a former Warden of the County, for which the Council thanked him, saying that “they value highly the gift, which will always be warmly cherished.” Macdonald became Prime Minister in 1867 with Confederation, and remained in office until he was brought down by the Pacific Scandal in 1873, in which members of the Conservative government were found to have accepted bribes from private interests bidding for a national rail contract in the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Macdonald’s undoing was a telegram he personally sent to one of the bidders in August 1872, saying “I must have another $10,000.” Discovery of this bribe led to a massive defeat for the Conservatives in the election in January 1874. Macdonald retreated from public life, and went back to his law practice in Kingston. Meanwhile, the governing Liberals made a free-trade agreement with the U.S. in 1874. However, with Canada in an economic depression, Macdonald and the Conservatives adopted a protectionist policy in order to build Canadian industry. This policy struck a chord with voters, and the Conservatives started winning by-elections. The Conservatives held a number of political picnics across Ontario in the summers of 1876–1878 to increase their public support. An important one was held in Belleville on September 12, 1876. The next day, the Intelligencer’s headline read “Bowell’s Machine delivered audience for another triumph.” Party workers had organized reduced railway fares, booked the Fairgrounds, arranged to feed thousands, and put up banners and arches along the route from the Grand Trunk Station to the Fairgrounds. The crowds arrived by boats from Prince Edward County, Napanee, Trenton, and by Grand Trunk railway from Kingston. The Intelligencer, owned by Mackenzie Bowell, was the Conservative newspaper. The Ontario Chronicle, the Liberal paper, expressed their opinion that this was “what cheap steamboat fares and a free lunch will produce.” Macdonald spoke on a stage in the Fairgrounds, and the day concluded with a banquet for over 150 at the Dafoe House, the forerunner to the Hotel Quinte. The Conservatives went on to win the election on September 17, 1878, and Macdonald served as Prime Minister again, until his death on June 6, 1891. Sir John’s last visit to Belleville was on October 6, 1886, when he came to this area as Prime Minister for the sod-turning ceremony for construction of the Murray Canal in Trenton. From Brighton, Macdonald and his party went on to Belleville by boat, arriving at the wharf in the Gipsy. They were then driven in a carriage, escorted by a band, along a route that was densely packed, to the residence of Alex Robertson, MP, at the corner of Hotel (now Victoria) and Charles Streets, where they dined. At 9 p.m., there was a torchlight procession along Hotel Street to Front Street, along Front Street to Bridge Street, and up Bridge Street to the Opera House located on the southwest corner of Bridge and Church Streets, beside the Armouries. The Opera House was densely packed, and there were “thousands” more outside, according to the Intelligencer. After his address, Sir John and Lady Macdonald were “driven to their private [railway] car, which awaited them on Pinnacle Street, and soon after, departed.” Planning the Archives— The Volunteers’ Role A Story from the Archives, by Annis Ross Picking up from Sharon White’s presentation showing the overall floor plan of our new Archives space at the Belleville Public Library, I led the audience through the different individual spaces. We are trying to achieve a sense of openness and welcoming, while making best use of the available space, which will be wheelchair accessible. Entering the Archives space, visitors will encounter a reception desk and an area for coats and storage lockers. Visitors will usually stay in the public Research Room. There you will be able to use the reference library books, self-service microfilm and our databases and card catalogues to identify any other files or boxes you wish to look at. The Archivist or Volunteers will be available to help. They will bring requested items to you and generally oversee the Research Room. All of the archival records will be kept in three locked storage vaults, accessible by a key card used by the Volunteers who retrieve your requested records and bring them to the public Research Room. These storage vaults will contain high-density shelving systems, which allow us to store more materials. A staff Work Area is adjacent to the public Research Room, with our map cabinets separating the two spaces. In the centre of this room, there will be a large work surface for processing new records. Three additional work stations will be at one end of this room for use by staff, as well as shelving to store our display panels and any work in progress. Our Digitization Team will have their own work room with work surfaces, scanners and other equipment. The Archivist’s office is next door to the Digitization Room. The Archives Volunteers had several opportunities to meet with Architect Ray Zaback to review draft plans and provide feedback. Two meetings last summer were particularly helpful, with the Architect making revisions to the drawings in real time as the changes were suggested, and showing them to us on a large screen. Then on October 16, 2014, the Architect presented the plans at a public meeting that was well attended by municipal officials and the general public. The basic plans were in place at that time, but we continued to discuss some of the details. As the designated facilitator for consultations with other Volunteers, I spoke with people representing a cross section of various tasks performed. This was our opportunity to get it right. Volunteers could suggest a change to their existing work stations or equipment to enable improvements in functionality, layout, efficiency, ergonomics, etc. We are looking forward to this wonderful new facility in the Library building. The Oversize Picture Project * A Story from the Archives, by Nick White Volunteers undertake many different projects at the Archives, and in 2015, I have been working with Laurel Bishop and Kieran Delaney on making high-resolution archival-quality digital copies of what has been called the oversize pictures in the collections. When scanned at high resolution, the digital images of these pictures allow us to see details of these negatives and prints that often cannot be appreciated by the naked eye. An example is this picture of the Victoria Building built in 1842 by Nelson Gilbert Reynolds at the northeast corner of Front Street and Victoria Avenue in Belleville. The extras are a fascinating addition to the Walmsley & Spafford staff. --- An Autograph By Vern Whalen One of the all-time great hockey players and I now have more than one thing in common. Bobby Hull, also known as the Golden Jet in his prime, spent sixteen years in the National Hockey League plus six in the now defunct World Hockey Association. Over his twenty-two-year career, he scored over eight hundred goals and won numerous awards. After his playing days were over, he was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame. The initial thing that we had in common was that both Bobby and I grew up in the quaint small Eastern Ontario village of Point Anne, just east of Belleville. Both our fathers worked at the local Canada Cement plant to support their families—eleven in the Hull family and six in the Whalen family. There is no question that when Bobby made the grade of the National Hockey League at the tender age of eighteen, he put the tiny village of about five During his rookie year of 1957, my parents were invited by Bobby’s parents to go to Toronto on a Saturday to watch the Maple Leafs play Hull and his Chicago Blackhawks. I asked my Dad to try and get Bobby’s autograph for me. The next day Dad turned over to me a picture of the hockey star which he had signed on the back: “To Vernie (yeah, but I was only nine years old) – Best Wishes Bobby Hull.” I have kept this cherished memento all these years. Although it is somewhat wrinkled and worn, it remains a boyhood treasure. Two months ago Bobby’s eldest sister, Jackie Gilbert, dropped by our house to get a copy of my book, Point Anne: History of a Cement Factory Village. Her son Scott was going to Chicago the next day to spend the weekend with his Uncle Robert (as Bobby was called by his family). Scott and a friend were going to be guests of Bobby at a Blackhawks game. Jackie wanted her son to take the book to her brother, and she asked me to autograph the book for him. Today, Bobby Hull is seventy-six years old, and I am sixty-six. After fifty-eight years of idolizing this great hockey player and naturally my boyhood hero, it was quite a thrill to return the favour of an autograph. Isn’t it strange and amazing how life sometimes comes full circle? --- ON THE HOME FRONT July and August, 1915 By Laurel Bishop July 7: “Soldiers Suffering from Nervous and Mental Trouble. Ontario Physicians ask Gov’t to Equip Expedition of Doctors and Nurses. … This war differs from any incident of its character in the history of mankind. … the strain and horrors to which the soldier is exposed by day and night have resulted in an increase in insanity beyond anything yet recorded. Throughout the Province the suggestions of the Medical Council have been received with universal acclaim. In following the course outlined the Government would receive in full measure the support of the people of this Province.” July 8: “Soldiers to Go Home to Harvest the Crop. Ottawa. Leave of absence of one month may be granted to non-commissioned officers and men of the expeditionary forces in Canada for the purpose of enabling them to take part in the harvesting work throughout the country.” July 22: “Old Razors for Soldiers. … Smith Hardware Co., 31 Front street undertake to send these razors, through the Cutler’s Co. of England. … over 70,000 old razors, after being refitted, have been sent to the soldiers in the field, and word has been received that many more would be appreciated. … Old razors left at Clarke’s Drug Store, Front street, are also forwarded to the same quarter.” July 24: ”For the purpose of organizing the work of enlistment in the city a meeting was held in the Armouries last night. … A committee was formed for each ward, and it was left to them to consider the time and place of holding a meeting in their respective wards. … Mr. Northrup said that there was a duty for everyone to perform—a duty he or she owed his or her country. He hoped the only trouble the recruiting officers had from now on would be the selecting of the physically fit from among the numbers who would enlist.” July 27: “The recruiting organization of Belleville is proceeding with all the zest of an election campaign. Several of the Ward Committees met last night at the Armouries and completed their organization.” July 31: “Recruiting Rally at High School. Despite the fact that circulars were yesterday distributed at residences in Ketcheson Ward … the attendance of residents of that ward was meagre. The Johnstone pipe band headed the recruits who marched to the school grounds. … The recruits, a number of ladies and the speakers of the evening virtually comprised the meeting, which was presided over by ex-Mayor Wills. … There may be indifference, at present, but he hoped that the citizens would be aroused to the importance of these recruiting meetings.” August 3: “The Samson Ward recruiting meeting was well attended last night, the side lawn of Queen Alexandra School being packed by interested and patriotic citizens. At eight o’clock the local recruits marched on to the grounds preceded by the 15th Regiment Band, and followed by a representation of the school cadets. … The meeting passed off in a very successful manner, and was one to encourage the promoters of the league.” August 5: “A service was held in Emmanuel Reformed Episcopal Church last evening, which was fairly well attended considering the inclement weather. The object of the meeting was to commemorate the anniversary of the proclamation of war by Great Britain against Germany. … Special prayers were said and appropriate hymns were sung.” August 7: “Recruiting Rally in Murney Ward. A fine recruiting meeting under the auspices of the Belleville Speakers’ Patriotic League was held last evening at Queen Mary School in West Belleville. The spacious assembly room of the school was filled with ladies, men and children, who evidently took much interest in the proceedings. Previous to the meeting the 15th Regiment band discoursed a number of patriotic selections, playing upon the lawn in front of the school. … Col. Ketcheson spoke briefly, referring to the fact that he was present because his heart was in the matter. … Rev. Dr. Blagrave, Rector of Christ Church, was next called upon and he gave a most interesting and inspiring address. … Some young men are not enlightened as they should be as to the seriousness of this great war. It is a serious conflict; of that there is not the slightest doubt. We are wiser than we were a year ago, wiser as to our resources, and wiser as to the resources of the enemy.” August 11: “The attendance at the Baldwin ward Recruiting Rally last night, was the largest yet. Over eight hundred men women and children were there, sitting on chairs, or standing on the beautiful lawn. … Mr. O’Flynn, when called upon, spoke right to the point. … Belleville and the County of Hastings had nothing to be proud of. They had not stood up with other townships and cities of equal size. They had been so self-centred that they had no time for the national danger. But the Belleville boys who had gone had proven equal to the best. They were boys to be proud of,—all trumps. … ‘We must send a never ending stream of reinforcements,’ concluded the speaker ‘to drive the heathen back. Stand by the right, send on our boys. God will protect them, and in the future, when we tell of the part Belleville took in the Big War, it will be with honest pride and satisfaction.’ (Applause).” August 14: “A telegram was received in Belleville last evening, saying that Capt. Dick Ponton would arrive at the G.T.R. station at 2 o’clock this morning. The news quickly spread, and a large crowd of friends and acquaintances were at the station and gave the gallant young officer a rousing welcome. The band of the 15th Regiment was present, and played Capt. Ponton to the corner of Bridge and Front streets. This brought hundreds more from their beds, and the city presented a most unwonted sight for such an early hour of the morning. … Arrived at the corner of Front and Bridge streets the young Captain made another short speech. ‘Why, Front street is paved!’ he remarked, a sally which was greeted with laughter and cheers. It was a thoroughly genuine welcome home, which the officer, invalided home, thoroughly deserved; and it is to be hoped that Belleville will accord a similar greeting to all the other heroes who return from the war.” August 14: “The 8th Canadian Mounted Rifles, in training at Barriefield Camp, concluded their fifty-mile march yesterday and arrived at Belleville about 5 o’clock. … the soldiers proceeded by way of Foster avenue and Bridge street to the Agricultural grounds, where they will stay until Monday. … Some distance out of the city the road was lined with spectators, but on Bridge street the crowd was enormous. Everywhere our soldier visitors attracted the highest admiration, and no doubt the event will assist recruiting in a marked degree. Shortly after the evening meal had been provided by the Army Service Corps, the men were dismissed. Later on Front street had again a large mixture of khaki with its other colors.” August 27: “One of the most interesting and enthusiastic patriotic meetings ever held in this section was that conducted under the auspices of the Queen Mary Patriotic Club which assembled in the grounds and school of the Third Concession of Thurlow on Thursday evening, the 26th inst. … Splendid music was furnished by the Foxboro band and patriotic songs were sung by Messrs. S.C. Gay and Bruce Martin, and interesting and instructive addresses were delivered. … The meeting closed by the singing of the National Anthem and cheers for the army, navy and ladies of the Queen Mary Patriotic Club.” --- The Rawdon Township Cenotaph Machine Guns By Richard Turtle For more than ninety years the cenotaph at the village of Harold has featured a handsome granite monument which was dedicated in 1922, bearing the names of 167 local men who served in World War I. This monument was graced on both sides by German machine guns, taken as war trophies at the end of World War I; however, decades of harsh winter winds and summer heat has led to serious deterioration of these guns. Thanks to the initiative of a group of concerned citizens, including Hastings County Historical Society director John Lowry, this situation will soon be reversed. The Stirling-Rawdon Historical Society has accepted the task of refurbishing the aging guns, and local Branch 228 (Stirling) of the Royal Canadian Legion has generously offered to finance the project. Research has shown that these war trophies were part of the nearly 15,000 weapons, including rifles, machine guns, mortars and field pieces that were brought to Canada during and after the war. They were originally collected in order to establish a war museum, but instead were offered to communities, institutions and organizations for display purposes. Other local communities also received machine guns; however, a significant number were scrapped during World War II, including two in the village of Stirling, while a pair that arrived in Marmora might have received the same fate. The WWI German Machine Gun Being Refurbished After 90 Years at Rawdon Township Cenotaph It is known that two Maschinengewehr 08 machine guns were captured by the Second Division CEF troops at the end of the war. It is also known that one of the weapons at the Rawdon Township cenotaph was captured in 1918 during the Battle of Arras. The provenance of the other gun is uncertain. The Arras weapon appears to have been disabled by a sniper’s shot due to the presence of what appears to be a bullet hole in the water chamber. These guns, capable of firing 500 rounds a minute, were water cooled using a chamber that surrounded the barrel. This was a key target for marksmen hoping to quickly overheat the weapon, rendering it useless. This community project is now underway, with the machine guns having been removed for a careful, comprehensive restoration and repainting according to researched specifications. As we mark the 100th anniversary of World War I, the Rawdon Township cenotaph, honouring the local men who marched off to war but did not return as well as those who came back, will be given a new life to ensure that memories remain vivid well into the next hundred years. Billa Flint Comes to Life An amazing new book is coming off the presses in June! The life story of Billa Flint is told for the first time in this new biography by historian Armand La Barge. The title, Billa Flint: King of Hastings County, tells it all. He was a politician, businessman, philanthropist, temperance advocate, religious leader, lumberman and land speculator, and he influenced life in Belleville and Hastings County in the 1800s as no other person. He developed a lumber, milling and mining empire while taking a keen interest in Belleville’s education system and its religious and social institutions. The book will be launched at the Tweed Heritage Centre on June 14 from 1:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m. It will be available from the Hastings County Historical Society at the Heritage Centre in Cannifton from June 14 and from the Society’s Bookstore where purchase can be arranged through PayPal. It will also be available at the Society’s monthly public presentations which resume in September. Price $18.95 Thanks go to our Sponsors! Bay Mazda 60A Millennium Pky, Belleville, ON K8N 4Z5 Phone: 613-962-9236 Hastings County Historical Society Presentation Topic: History of Sir James Whitney School For the Deaf Speaker: Donna J. Fano Come and hear the fascinating history of Ontario’s oldest provincially funded school for the Deaf which began in 1870 up to the present. ASL Interpreter provided Date: Tuesday, Sept. 16, 2015 Time: 7:30 p.m. Location: Maranatha 100 College Street West, Belleville (Please use rear parking lot and back entrance and go to Meeting Room) Note to Authors—By submitting material to be printed in the Outlook, the author confirms that he/she holds both legal and moral rights to the material, and grants permission to the Hastings County Historical Society to use this material in print and/or electronically. The opinions expressed in articles submitted to the Outlook are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Hastings County Historical Society, its Board or its members. HASTINGS COUNTY HISTORICAL SOCIETY DIRECTORS Officers President Richard Hughes Vice President Vern Whalen Treasurer Grant Harrison Secretary Mary-Lynne Morgan Directors at Large Cliff Allan Bill Hunt Bill Kennedy John Lowry Diane Sule Hal Wilson Ex-officio: Gerry Boyce (Historical Advisor) Orland French (Past President) Sharon White (Archivist) Sub-committees Bus Tours Mary-Lynne Morgan (Administration) County Liaison John Lowry Education Bill Kennedy Exhibits/Displays/Events Co-ordinator Cliff Allan & Hal Wilson Membership Elizabeth Mitchell Outlook Production Donna Fano & Laurel Bishop (Co-editors) Outlook Distribution Elizabeth Mitchell Programs Vern Whalen Public Relations (Print/Radio/TV) Mary-Lynne Morgan Website Orland French Website Assistant HCHS Website www.hastingshistory.ca Heritage Centre Phone No. 613-962-1110 Hastings County Historical Society is based at the old township office in Cannifton. Please address mail to 154 Cannifton Rd. North, General Delivery, Cannifton, ON, KOK 1K0. Outlook is published eight months of the year for members and friends of the Society. Submissions can be sent to firstname.lastname@example.org Member Designation	590434f1-ba6f-479c-afbb-16e06bd377f1	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://discover.cabhc.ca/uploads/r/community-archives-of-belleville-and-hastings-county/1/1/8/11871215059ed4065e9e04af68bd20fca048326287a2e762a00807e1bbfd6c98/June_Outlook_2015.pdf	2021-10-16T20:25:18+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585025.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20211016200444-20211016230444-00569.warc.gz	323,570,919	6,332	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.991951	eng_Latn	0.998731	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1783, 6419, 10765, 14841, 19139, 24434, 27438, 29554 ]	[ 2.0625, 1.4453125 ]	1	0
MA Summer Math Calendar 1st through 5th grade Just as students benefit from reading throughout the summer, it is also beneficial for them to engage in math activities. Research shows that students better maintain and strengthen their math skills through regular and meaningful practice. We have created this summer math calendar to provide your child and your family with a variety of math activities to explore this summer. The goal is for your child to have fun thinking and working collaboratively to communicate mathematical ideas. The activities reflect a range of difficulty with the intent that your child can choose the activities that are at a “just right” level. While working on these activities, ask your child how he found a solution or why she chose a particular strategy. This packet consists of 2 calendar pages and an alternate summer math calendar that allows you to fill in your own activities. Each month’s activities are organized into 28 “math boxes.” You can choose which activities you and your child would like to complete on whichever day you want. We encourage your child to complete 20 boxes per month, coloring in each box as it is completed. We recommend that you integrate an average of 10-20 minutes of math activities into your child’s day, by completing these activities and reviewing basic facts. Return the signed calendars to your child’s new teacher in the fall. We hope that you enjoy the activities, extend them, create new ones, and have fun! Happy summer, happy math, Mrs. Schmitz RESOURCES: Singapore Math Practice: We recommend the app Sumdog, a fun and free Singapore based learning engine that adapts its questions quickly to each student’s ability. Fact Fluency Practice: Fact Fluency is a key component of overall math competency. Short, frequent fact practice will result in improved confidence and achievement. We recommend 10 minutes daily. Here are some great online resources: K-1st - 10 Frame Fill (free app) 10 Frame Fill provides children practice with recognizing additive 10 families. 2nd-3rd - Math Playground (web) http://www.mathplayground.com/ This website is full of fantastic math fact games 4th-5th - Reflex: https://www.reflexmath.com/ ADDITIONAL RESOURCES: Websites/Apps: http://illuminations.nctm.org https://www.youcubed.org/tasks/ https://www.prodigygame.com/ https://www.mathlearningcenter.org/resources/apps https://www.freckle.com/math/ https://www.khanacademy.org https://www.kenkenpuzzle.com https://noetic-learning.com/summermath/index.jsp - ($24.95) \| Play a math game. \| There are 3 ducks swimming in the lake, 4 more ducks join them. How many ducks are in the lake now? Draw a picture! \| Practice your math facts. \| Look in your bedroom. Find 10 different toys. Line them up from tallest to shortest. Which one is in the middle? How do you know? \| Write your first and last name. How many letters are there in all? Do you have a middle name? How many letters are in all 3 names. \| Count by 5's to 50. Count by 10's to 100. Count by 2's to 20. \| Take a walk outside. Count how many insects, birds, and animals you see. Draw a picture. \| \|------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Go to a math website. \| Read a math book. \| Practice counting on from numbers other than one. Can you start at 4 and count to 20? How about start at 17 and count to 50? \| Play a game like basketball, mini-golf, or soccer. Who had the most points? By how much? \| Play a math game \| Play Ten Frame http://illuminations.nctm.org \| Using sidewalk chalk make a pattern with some shapes that you know. Ask someone to see if they can tell you the pattern! \| \| Play "number bond" go fish. \| Put these numbers in order from least to greatest: 71, 24, 17, 42 \| Mr. Nelson loves books. He has 9 favorite books. Mrs. Besser has 4 favorite books. How many more favorite books does Mr. Nelson have? \| Read a math book. \| Write a number bond to represent the people in your family. Can you do it a different way? \| Practice your math facts. \| There were 6 ladybugs on the swingset and 3 on the slide. How many lady bugs were there altogether? \| \| Read a math book. \| Practice your math facts. \| Go to a math website. \| Play a math game \| Count backwards starting at 47 all the way to 29. Now count backwards from 29 to 1! \| Go to a math website. \| Make a yummy summer treat with an adult. Write down the recipe and share it with Mrs. Schmitz! \| \| Play a math game. \| Count 100 objects (example: Cheerios, raisins, rocks). How many ways can you group your objects? (By 2's, 5's, and 10's...) \| Practice your math facts. \| Jump 3 times: once like a bunny, once like a frog, and once like a child. Measure each jump. Which jump was the shortest? Longest? \| Take 5 coins. What is the total value of the coins you have? Do this 5 times. \| Look in your kitchen. Find 5 boxes of different sizes in your kitchen. Line them up from tallest to shortest. Now line them up from thickest to thinnest. \| Count how many steps it takes you to get from your room to the kitchen. Try giant steps. How many more regular steps did it take? \| \|------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Go to a math website. \| Read a math book. \| Count by 10's to 100. Then count by 1's to 100. Which took longer? \| Tell a friend a story problem to go with 3 + 2. Then try a story to go with 5 - 2. \| Play a math game \| Go to a math website. \| Write numbers 0-20 on a piece of paper. \| \| If I have 3 dogs and my friend has 2 dogs. How many dogs do we have altogether? Draw a picture. \| Roll 2 dice. Add the 2 numbers together and write a number sentence. Play this 10 times. \| If I have 6 pieces of candy and I gave my friends 4 of them, how many pieces of candy do I have left? \| Read a math book. \| Look at a calendar. How many days are left until school begins? How many weeks? \| Practice your math facts. \| When you go out, count how many people are wearing shorts versus long pants and compare. Why might that change on another day? \| \| Read a math book. \| Practice your math facts. \| Go to a math website. \| Play a math game \| If I have 7 books, how many more books do I need to get to 10 books? Draw a picture. \| Go to a math website. \| How many different ways can you add two numbers together to make 10? \| \| Play a math game. \| Tell an adult an addition story problem to go with 6+5. Now tell a subtraction story for 11-5. Make up other addition and subtraction story problems. \| Practice your math facts. \| Make a list of 10 things that you see that are rectangles. Make a list 10 things you see that are circles. Was it easier to find the rectangles or circles? Why? \| Create your own story problem. Have someone else solve it. \| Play a hiding game. Get 7 pennies. Put some in 1 hand and some in the other hand. Show 1 hand, and have the adult figure out what’s hiding. Switch roles. Play 10x. \| If I go to the store and get 4 bananas and 7 apples, how many pieces of fruit do I have altogether. Write a number sentence. \| \|------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Go to a math website. \| Read a math book. \| Skip count by 10’s from 16 to 136. Skip count by 5’s from 30 to 125. Skip count by 2’s from 10 to 50. \| Listen to the whole story before answering: I had 4 shells. I got 2 more. I got 3 more. I lost 2. How many do I have? Make and solve other problems. \| Play a math game \| Go to a math website. \| Roll 2 dice together and add to find the sum. Record the sum. Do this 20 times. What sum did you get the most often? Why? \| \| If you have 3 books but you want to have 10, how many more books do you need? Write a number sentence to solve the problem. \| How many different ways can you add two numbers to make 10? Write the number sentences. \| Use the symbols >,<, and = to complete the number sentence: 35 ○ 52 42 ○ 14 72 ○ 32 \| Read a math book. \| Skip count with a parent by 2’s, 5’s, and 10’s. Stop at 100. Write about which number was the easiest to count by. \| Practice your math facts. \| Make a list of 2-D and 3-D shapes. Go on a scavenger hunt to look for those shapes. Bring your list and check off the shapes you find. \| \| Read a math book. \| Practice your math facts. \| Go to a math website. \| Play a math game \| Find 10 more and ten less than 34, 67, and 25. \| Go to a math website. \| Write numbers 1-120 on a piece of paper. \| \| Activity \| Task \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Play a math game. \| Count by 2's to 50 starting at 12. Count by 10's to 64, starting at 4. What did you notice about the numbers you say? \| \| Practice your math facts. \| A small pack of gum has 6 pieces. How many pieces of gum are in 3 packs? What about in 5 packs? What if each pack had 7? 8? \| \| Go to a math website. \| If a person has 2 pairs of shoes, how many individual shoes do they have? What if they have 3 pairs? How about 5 pairs? \| \| Read a math book. \| Practice your math facts. \| \| Get a pile of coins. How many ways can you make 25 cents using pennies, nickels and dimes? \| Find 10 more and 10 less than 67, 23, and 84. \| \| How many books are on 1 shelf? First, make an estimate. Then count them by 2's. How close was your estimate? \| How many seconds does the traffic light stay green? Red? How much longer is 1 light than the other? \| \| Read a math book. \| Today I walked 6 blocks. Yesterday I walked 10 blocks. How many more blocks did I walk yesterday? \| \| If I have 3 pencils but I want 12, how many more pencils do I need? Write a number sentence to go along with your answer. \| Write about one time you had to use math in your everyday life. (ie going to the grocery store and counting money) \| \| Play Adding 10. Roll a die. Add 10 to the number rolled. Record your number sentence. Repeat 10 times. \| Practice your math facts. \| \| Use the symbols >,<, and = to complete the number sentence: 21 ○ 19 23 ○ 32 61 ○ 61 \| Count backwards from 30 to 0. Count backwards by 10's from 80 to 0. Count backwards by 5's from 40 to 0. \| \| Play a math game. \| I am thinking of an odd number. It is between 33 and 40. You say it when you skip count by 5’s. What number am I? \| \|------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Practice your math facts. \| Write down ten numbers between 11-99. Add 10 to each number. Write the number sentences. \| \| Play 10 questions. One person thinks of a number between 1 and 100. The other person asks 10 yes/no questions to figure out the number. (ie is it odd?) \| Think of a day you look forward to. How many days until then? How many weeks? \| \| Make 3 addition number bonds that equal 15. \| \| \| Go to a math website. \| Read a math book. \| \|----------------------\|-------------------\| \| Set the table for dinner. How many utensils would you need for 6 plates? How many for 8 plates? How many for 10? \| Write three number bonds that have the number 7 in them. \| \| Play a math game \| Go to a math website. \| \| Make 78 cents three different ways using quarters, dimes, nickels, and pennies. \| \| \| How much do I have if I have 3 quarters, 2 dimes, 1 nickel, and 1 penny? Can you show the same value with less coins? \| Make 3 addition number bonds that equal 8. \| \|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------\| \| What time is it now? What time will it be in 30 minutes? What time was it 60 minutes ago? \| Read a math book. \| \| Play 10 questions. One person thinks of a number between 1 and 100. The other person asks 10 yes/no questions to figure out the number. (ie is it odd?) \| Practice your math facts. \| \| Write down two addition and two subtraction number sentences for the fact family of 5, 7, and 12. \| \| \| Read a math book. \| Practice your math facts. \| \|------------------\|--------------------------\| \| Go to a math website. \| Play a math game. \| \| Make 94 cents three different ways using quarters, dimes, nickels, and pennies. \| Go to a math website. \| \| Look at an analog clock. How many minutes until the next hour? \| \| \| Activity \| Task \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Play a math game. \| Write 3 word problems and have a family member or friend solve them. Did they understand the problems you wrote? \| \| Practice your math facts. \| Look in your refrigerator. Categorize the items as dairy, fruit, vegetable, meat, grains, fats, or other. Make a tally chart. \| \| Write down ten numbers between 11-99. Subtract 10 from each number. Write the number sentences. \| Draw a circle and divide it into 2 equal pieces. Can you divide it into 4 equal pieces? Can you cut it into any other equal pieces? \| \| Make 3 addition number bonds that equal 10. \| Record the time three different times in one day. Write down what you did at that time and how long you did each activity. \| \| Go to a math website. \| Find 10 things in your house to measure with a ruler. Which item was the biggest? Which was the smallest? What was the difference between them? \| \| Read a math book. \| Make 3 addition number bonds that equal 21. \| \| How many times can you hop on your left foot in a minute? Your right foot? Compare the number of hops using the symbols <, >, or =. What’s the difference? \| Roll a die and use the numbers to make a two different 3 digit numbers. Which number is bigger? Say the numbers out loud to an adult. \| \| Write 3 number bonds that have the number 5 in them. \| Read a math book. \| \| Play a math game \| Name 3 ways to make 45 cents. Draw coins and write about the different combinations. \| \| Go to a math website. \| I have 7 books but I want 25. What do I do? Write about how I would solve that problem. \| \| Read a math book. \| Practice your math facts. \| \| Roll a die 15 times. Record if the number is even or odd. Did even or odd get rolled more times? How many more? \| \| Play a math game \| How many quarters can you have if you have $3.25? How many nickels? \| \|------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Practice your math facts. \| List all the factors of 36: List all the factors of 48. What are the common factors? \| \| Play 10 questions. One person thinks of a number between 1 and 100. The other person asks 10 yes/no questions to figure out the number. (ie is it odd?) \| Think of a day you look forward to. How many days until then? How many weeks? \| \| Find a box. Measure the perimeter. Find the area of the top and one of the sides. \| Go to a math website. \| \| Go to a math website. \| Read a math book. \| \| If Ms. Schmitz painted 400 fingernails, how many people’s nails did she paint? \| Draw a number line 0-2. Label the following fractions: $\frac{1}{4}$, $\frac{1}{2}$, $1\frac{3}{4}$ \| \| Play a math game \| Go to a math website. \| \| Pick a 2 digit number, multiply it by 10. Subtract from the original number. Is this divisible by 9? Try this 4 more times. \| Draw a rectangle that has a perimeter of 20 units, find the area. \| \| Find 4 ways to divide 100 into equal groups. \| 30 people are eating lunch together and want to share sandwiches. If they each $\frac{1}{4}$ of a sandwich, how many should be ordered? Will there be any left over? \| \| What time is it now? What time will it be in 45 minutes? What time was it 90 minutes ago? \| Read a math book. \| \| Mr. Nelson made a grid of 16 squares. How many squares should he color if he wants to color $\frac{1}{2}$, $\frac{1}{4}$, $\frac{1}{8}$? \| Practice your math facts. \| \| Read a math book. \| Practice your math facts. \| \| What number am I? I am less than 25 x 10 and greater than 22 x 10. I am a multiple of 5 and am odd. The sum of my digits is 10. \| Play a math game \| \| Subtract: 7009 - 567 \| How do you know your answer is correct? \| \| Go to a math website. \| Look at an analog clock. How many minutes until the next hour? \| \| Play a math game. \| Find an object that is a rectangular prism. How many faces, vertices and edges does it have? Make a list of all the rectangular prisms you see. \| Practice your math facts. \| Subtract: 3450 - 1789 Check your answer! Does it make sense? \| Draw an array that represents 8 x 7 What is the answer? \| Round 3786 to the nearest hundred? Ten? How does the number change? \| Draw a number line 0-3. Plot these fractions on the number line: ½, 1 ¾, 2 2/3 \| \|------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\| \| Go to a math website. \| Read a math book. \| Divide: 56 ÷ 8 Can you draw a picture to show your thinking? \| Is ½ the same thing as 2/4? What about 4/6 & ¾? Explain your thinking to someone! \| Play a math game \| Go to a math website. \| Compare these fractions: ¾ is greater than, less than or equal to ½? \| \| Create a graph about favorite summer activities. Collect data from at least 6 people. What were your findings? \| Draw a pair of parallel lines, Draw perpendicular lines. Draw intersecting lines. Label them! \| Find the area of a rectangle with whole number side lengths. Show that the area is the same as would be found by multiplying the side lengths. \| Read a math book. \| Multiply: 453 x 25 \| Practice your math facts. \| I am more than the perimeter of a square with a side of 25. I am an odd number. I am less than 70 + 33 Who am I? \| \| Read a math book. \| Practice your math facts. \| Go to a math website. \| Play a math game \| I am a 2-digit number. I am between 6 x 8 and 11 x 5. The sum of my digits is 6. What am I? \| Go to a math website. \| When rounded to the nearest thousand I become 3,000. What numbers could I be? \| \| Activity \| Description \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Play a math game. \| \| \| Find the perimeter of your bedroom. You are going to re-carpet your room and need to figure out the area. What is the area? \| \| \| Practice your math facts. \| \| \| Mr. C is buying a rug for his classroom. The rug's length is 8 yards, 2 feet and 4 inches long. The rug's width is ¼ of its length. What is the perimeter of the rug? \| \| \| Play 10 questions. One person thinks of a number between 1 and 1000. The other person asks 10 yes/no questions to figure out the number. \| \| \| Think of a day you look forward to. How many days until then? How many weeks? Can you figure out how many hours? \| \| \| In a science lab, there are 7 beakers that each contain 40 ounces of liquid. There are 9 other beakers with 30 ounces of liquid. How much liquid is there in all? \| \| \| Go to a math website. \| \| \| Read a math book. \| \| \| A package of gum has 20 sticks. If you buy 8 packets and give ½ a packet to Mrs. Schmitz, How many sticks of gum will you have? \| \| \| A bakery makes donuts and puts them in boxes of 2 dozen. If there are 56 5th graders, how many boxes do we need so each student can have 1 donut? \| \| \| Play a math game \| \| \| Go to a math website. \| \| \| Draw a number line 0-4. Plot these fractions on the number line. 1 ½, 2 ¼, ¾, \| \| \| Create your own bar graph about favorite summer activities. Compare your data. Can you describe your findings using %? How about fractions? \| \| \| Put these numbers in order from least to greatest. ¼, 0.5, 0.97, ¾, 0.01, 0.1, %, \| \| \| Mrs. Besser's garden is in the shape of a square with a perimeter of 32 square feet. What is the area of her garden? \| \| \| Read a math book. \| \| \| Write a multiplication word problem that has a product of 354. Have someone solve it! \| \| \| Practice your math facts. \| \| \| List the factors of 36. List the factors of 48. Do they have any common factors? If so, do you notice anything interesting? \| \| \| Read a math book. \| \| \| Practice your math facts. \| \| \| Go to a math website. \| \| \| Create your own math game \| \| \| Review long division: Roll 3 dice. Record, Now roll 2 dice. Record. Now divide. Did you remember how to do this? If not, try again, \| \| \| Go to a math website. \| \| \| You go on a bike ride to Fort Snelling. It is 1.9 miles. Then you ride another 1.5 miles to Dairy Queen. How many miles did you ride? \| \| \| Play a math game. \| Mrs. Magnuson has 351 pieces of candy in a jar. She gives each 4th grader 2 pieces of candy (44). How many pieces are still in her jar? \| Practice your math facts. \| Mr. C has lots of costumes. He decides to wear a different one every day for 6 weeks. How many costumes does he have? \| Go to a math website. Play a game for 10 min.. \| Divide: 7624 by 27 How do you know your answer is correct? \| Practice your math facts. \| \|------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------\| \| Go to a math website. \| Read a math book. \| Find the prime factors for 90 Using a tree diagram. \| You planning for a trip. If you are going to be gone for 12 days, how many hours will you be gone? \| Play a math game \| Go to a math website. \| Create a bar graph that represents different summer sports. Ask 10 people which is their favorite. Graph your data.. \| \| Fill in the missing numerator: $2/6 = ?/48$ $3/4 = ?/36$ $7/8 = ?/56$ \| Go to a math website. \| Draw a right angle Draw an obtuse angle Draw an acute angle. Label them! \| Read a math book. Today I read for 88 minutes. Yesterday I read for 107 minutes. How many more minutes did I read yesterday? \| Write your own story problem using a 3 digit divided by a 2 digit number. Have someone solve it! How do you know if they’re correct? \| List the factors of 30. Now list the factors of 45. Circle the common factors. What do you notice? \| \| Read a math book. \| Watch a weather report. Write a news article about the weather this week. Describe the math that is measurable in your article. \| Mrs. Schmitz’s sister lives at the reverse of her house number. The difference between their house numbers ends in two. What are the lowest possible numbers of her house? \| Create a math game \| Write a story about one time you had to use math in your everyday life. (ie going to the grocery store and counting money) What did you learn? \| Practice your math facts. \| If a hen and a half lay an egg and a half in a day and a half, How many eggs will half a dozen hens lay in half a dozen days? \|	609c6d53-1bc6-43bf-835b-0e66babd6c52	CC-MAIN-2020-40	https://resources.finalsite.net/images/v1592338029/minnehahaacademynet/ouhqewegg5zltdngx7fr/SUMMER-Math-Calendars-1-5.pdf	2020-09-29T09:46:27+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600401641638.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200929091913-20200929121913-00449.warc.gz	585,104,076	5,819	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995524	eng_Latn	0.99562	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2538, 4815, 7048, 9412, 11619, 13754, 16275, 18251, 20188, 29340, 31714 ]	[ 4.625, 4.40625 ]	1	0
READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST This Resource Booklet contains Documents 1 and 2 which you should use to answer the questions. You should spend approximately 10 minutes reading the documents before attempting to answer the questions. This is allowed for within the time set for the examination. The documents below consider issues related to sustainable futures. Read them both in order to answer all the questions on the paper. Document 1: adapted from Wasteful initiatives: The power of upcycling in Africa, an article written by Taofuma Musewe. The author is an International Representative for Consultancy Africa and an external consultant for strategic research driven projects. The article was published in 2013 by Consultancy Africa, a research and consultancy company based in South Africa. Recycling is well-known as a sustainable way of life. We collect old clothes, books, boxes, bottles, cans and other waste. We sort them and send them for processing to extract materials such as glass, metals and paper pulp. So we save resources and reduce the problem of waste disposal. Recycling can use less energy than processing and manufacturing raw materials and can reduce the waste piled up in dumps, buried in landfill sites or burnt. However, there is a more sustainable process that uses little or no energy or resources: upcycling. Upcycling uses old items like clothing, office appliances and furniture to produce new goods for use or sale, with no reprocessing or extraction of materials. Making waste items into something useful increases their value. Indeed, many people have successful upcycling businesses. Upcycling has environmental benefits. If it is done professionally, some energy and resources may be used, but upcycling can also be done at home without either. Upcycling stops waste going to landfill sites which produce methane, a greenhouse gas. It also reduces the demand for newly-manufactured goods. Upcycling is becoming a popular pastime for people who enjoy arts and crafts. These factors make upcycling attractive in the face of Africa’s environmental problems. Africans have been upcycling for years. Ethiopians use old tyres to make the soles of their traditional “selate” and “barabasso” shoes. This inspired soleRebels, an Ethiopian brand, now popular internationally and known as the world’s first Fairtrade green footwear firm. In South Africa, artisans (people who make a living from making things by hand) work with wire in new ways to create furniture, toys and other items. Richard Mandongwe is one such artisan who creates flowers using plastic bottles and wire. Upcycling also helps communal memory and heritage. It can help preserve and give historical value to items that would otherwise be thrown away. Artlantique is a furniture company that repurposes West African fishing boats. It uses old fishing boats to make unique pieces of African furniture. The company provides jobs and brings teams of local craftspeople together to work, helping to create social and cultural links. Upcycling is an exciting choice for producers and consumers who wish to be different. For these people, upcycling is trendy and fashionable. The WREN design is a South African range of bags made from organic and/or natural fabrics, such as paper packaging, coffee sacks and antique grain sacks. It has made an impact on the fashion world, featured in multiple magazines, blogs and websites as a new, trendy brand to look out for. Upcycling is an easy way to make a difference and deserves the support of local communities. The number of African businesses upcycling for profit is increasing. However, people also economise by upcycling in their homes, schools and workplaces. Whether for profit or not, upcycling helps all Africans to recover valuable resources from waste and maintain Africa’s environmental beauty. Therefore, upcycling is a much better alternative than recycling for Africans who are environmentally aware, who wish to preserve the history of used items and who wish to be fashionable. The circular economy may be the answer to sustainability. It would work better than recycling, which can use a lot of energy. Materials that have been mixed up or contaminated lose value and are expensive to recycle. Many goods and materials cannot be recycled and are just burnt or buried in landfill. In the circular economy, however, goods are returned to the manufacturer after use and not thrown away. They are designed to be long-lasting, easy to repair and reuse. They are easy to take to pieces and to upgrade or remake into items as good as, if not better than, the originals. Some large companies such as Renault and Rolls-Royce already use circular processes because it makes commercial sense. Caterpillar, the heavy machinery manufacturer, has an operation – Cat Reman – which remanufactures engine parts to same-as-new condition and sells them under warranty at reduced prices. Dutch manufacturer MUD Jeans allows customers to rent instead of buy jeans, which it promises to repair and ultimately remake into new jeans. Another popular idea is that makers of household appliances, such as washing machines, could rent them out and charge customers per wash. It is possible that people may be persuaded to think of clothing and washing machines as services and not possessions. However, companies will find it complicated to organise and keep track of the many goods they rent out. Companies will have more reason to invest in lasting design if they own their products forever, but you still need regulations to ensure materials are not just thrown away. Businesses also use circular processes in their offices. For many years, photocopiers have been rented, not owned. However, according to waste prevention charity Wrap, hundreds of thousands of office chairs and desks are thrown away each year. Office specialist Rype opened in 2014. It offers to lease furniture on a “repair and replace” contract. Greg Lavery (CEO of Rype Office) says that, “With skill and well-designed recovery programmes, furniture can be repaired or remade as good-as-new, more cheaply and using much less energy and fewer materials”. The circular economy is an attractive idea but it will not happen immediately. Making new products involves change. Designers and architects must widen their focus on the new and stylish to include the flexible and lasting. Manufacturers will make long-term income from renting but lose short-term profits. They will need support from banks to cover lost income from sales. Above all, for the circular economy to succeed, industry and governments must agree how to measure its environmental effects. Only then can the public be sure that industry is offering solutions to the planet’s problems and not just statistics that sound good. Just as society has embraced recycling, we should now work towards a much more sustainable circular economy. Circular processes save energy, are inexpensive in the long-term and create less waste. Permission to reproduce items where third-party owned material protected by copyright is included has been sought and cleared where possible. Every reasonable effort has been made by the publisher (UCLES) to trace copyright holders, but if any items requiring clearance have unwittingly been included, the publisher will be pleased to make amends at the earliest possible opportunity. To avoid the issue of disclosure of answer-related information to candidates, all copyright acknowledgements are reproduced online in the Cambridge International Examinations Copyright Acknowledgements Booklet. This is produced for each series of examinations and is freely available to download at www.cie.org.uk after the live examination series. Cambridge International Examinations is part of the Cambridge Assessment Group. 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A Pre-Show Drama Workshop Plan BRANAR PRESENTS THE TABLE Written by Christian O’Reilly Directed by Marc Mac Lochlainn CURRICULUM LINKS DRAMA - Exploring and making drama - Reflecting on drama - Co-operating and communicating in making drama SPHE - Myself and my family - My friends and other people - Relating to others - Resolving conflict - Developing citizenship ENGLISH - Oral Language: Exploring and Using - Create narratives and retell stories and events, both real and imaginary, for various audiences, using imaginative and figurative language, elaborating where appropriate This standalone drama class introduces the basics of telling stories through acting. Once the children have seen the show and read Branar’s comic we’re sure they’ll make connections to its themes. INTRODUCTION This is an acting workshop to introduce you to some of the ideas you’ll be meeting in The Table by Branar being performed at The Peacock Theatre. We want to keep the play itself a surprise but we hope this class will help you think about some of its themes before you see it. First we’re going to look at ‘oaths’, something human beings have been doing ever since we started living together. It’s part of the big human story of how we give meaning to our lives. Then we’ll invent some stories of our own using drama and explore what they tell us about our own world. Finally we’ll see how changing some of the relationships in our dramas makes a difference to how they feel. TALKING ABOUT OATHS PART ONE Show the class this picture and ask them what they think is going on. - What do you see? - What are the people doing with their hands? - Who is it? - Do you know what they are doing? TALKING ABOUT OATHS PART TWO Now show them this one from an old film and ask them the following questions. — Where have you heard people say ‘I swear to tell the truth the whole truth and nothing but the truth.’ — What’s happening in this picture? — How is it the same as the other one and how is it different? (That they aren’t famous people, ordinary people do it too under certain circumstances.) VIEW IMAGE HERE TALKING ABOUT OATHS PART THREE Introduce the idea of an ‘oath’, that it is like a very serious promise. Show them the image on the right. You could also talk about Professor Snape making An Unbreakable Vow (picture in the Appendix) if Harry Potter references help. VIEW IMAGE HERE TALKING ABOUT OATHS PART FOUR Have you heard of any of these examples of oaths. – Oath to join a gang. – Oath of allegiance. – Oath of citizenship. – Oath of office. – Hippocratic Oath. PART FIVE—DRAMA Try putting your hands up like the people in the photo. – What does it feel like to do that? – Does it matter where you hold your hand, how loosely or firmly? (There’s no right answer here just maybe a sense of the formality of the gesture. Why have people chosen to do it this way and not another way?) MAKING THEIR OWN SCENES PART ONE Think of a scenario where someone might be making an oath. What would it look like? These can be completely made up, no need to reproduce actual scenarios. But five suggestions from your previous discussions could be: - About to give evidence in a courtroom - Joining a gang who require an oath of secrecy - Becoming the president of a country - Joining the army, navy or air force of a country (or the space force in the future) - Taking an oath of citizenship. PART TWO—DRAMA Don’t tell us, show us using Freeze Frames. Freeze Frames are when you make a physical reproduction of a moment, as if someone were taking a photo of it. In groups of 4/5 make a snapshot of the moment that the oath is being made. So if only one of them is making the oath the others will have to choose other people who could be in the scene. E.g. The judge, court clerk, lawyers/other gang members/the president’s family etc. Encourage the students to use all of their body even though the image is frozen. Remind them to have a sense of what you would be feeling at that moment. Once they have an image encourage them to remember exactly where they were, especially in relation to each other. MAKING THEIR OWN SCENES PART THREE Now look at each freeze frame in turn, drawing out what they show about the class’s ideas about oaths. When you look at each one ask: - Can you guess what’s going on? - If every picture tells a story, what’s the story of this freeze frame? - What does it look like is going on? - Is there a feel to the scene (formality/informality, possible sense of ceremony, seriousness) - How many witnesses do they have? - How many other people do you need to make it effective? - Is there a particular person or persons in charge? FOR OLDER CHILDREN See if they’ve got the idea of institutional authority, that it implies a wider social/political context. - What makes it different from a vow? PART FOUR Now you can make it come alive. You can say up to 10 words after “I swear…” Have a quick look at each one. - What do you need to make it sound like a proper oath? (maybe sincerity). PART FIVE—REFLECTION Tells us about this world you’ve made up. - Why does the oath make sense in this world? Tease out ideas around formality or ritual giving actions weight, also you may explore the emotional elements behind loyalty to an idea, place or person. INTRODUCING CONFLICT PART ONE—DISCUSSION – Why would someone refuse to say the oath? (e.g. disagreement or discomfort with it) – When would we not accept someone saying the oath? e.g. If we think they didn’t mean it or we suspected they were doing it for other reasons PART TWO—DRAMA Introducing conflict in their scenario. – What more story do we need to add so there’s disagreement in the worlds that you’ve created? – In your groups explore ideas like disagreement with what the oath says, with what that means and with taking the oath. Encourage them to create characters here who have reasons to disagree with the oath. – A would-be president who doubts their own ability. – A rival gang member who doesn’t want a new member to join. – Someone who’s been made to enlist in the army by their family. – Someone who’s being asked to swear an oath of citizenship to a country whose government they disagree with. – A witness who is really part of the crime. PART THREE Now create another freeze frame where we see the conflict about to happen. Emphasise that the conflict doesn’t have to be physical but drama comes from conflicting emotions, so what the characters are thinking and feeling is important, and that will effect their stance, gestures and faces. PART FOUR—THOUGHT-TRACKING Put your hand on the shoulder of some or all of the characters and have them say what is going through their mind. Encourage them to say it as if they were the character, ‘I wish I didn’t have to do this’, as opposed to, ‘He doesn’t want to do this’ and say it with the emotion appropriate to the thought. PART FIVE Now let the scene run for a few seconds to see what might happen next. This will involve the groups improvising for a bit. They shouldn’t need much prompting as the disagreements they’ve created and the reminder of that (with thought-tracking) means the characters will have conflicting desires which generates drama. DEVELOPING THE DRAMA POLARISING ARGUMENTS PART ONE—DISCUSSION – Is there a way that some of the people in the story we’ve made so far could be part of a family? PART TWO—DRAMA – Decide how your characters are related in a family way. – Now stand in the old position of your freeze frame. – How does this change what you are thinking and feeling? DISCUSSION – How does this make it different from if they didn’t know each other so well? PART THREE—DRAMA Now make a freeze frame of a scene when the family are in their home after the conflict has happened. – How would they talk about it in the home? – Do people hold their viewpoints very strongly? – Does that make it harder to resolve the conflict? FINAL REFLECTIONS PART ONE—DISCUSSION – What’s it like making freeze frames of something instead of just talking about them? – Do you have more of an idea about why people’s make oaths? – Did introducing family connections make a difference to your stories? PART TWO—DRAMA Make a final freeze frame of all the characters in a year’s time. – Is the conflict resolved or are the characters still fighting? CITIZENSHIP CEREMONIES ‘I (name) having applied to the Minister for Justice for a certificate of naturalisation, hereby solemnly declare my fidelity to the Irish nation and my loyalty to the State. I undertake to faithfully observe the laws of the State and to respect its democratic values.’ At the ceremony candidates will take an oath of fidelity to the nation, receive their certificate of naturalisation and thereby become Irish citizens. THE UNBREAKABLE VOW IN HARRY POTTER In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Severus Snape makes an Unbreakable Vow to Narcissa Malfoy. Almost all of the preparation of the Vow is mental, and it requires a third party, the Bonder, who actually casts the spell, and whose wand is used to actually provide the magical power to reinforce the Vow. VIEW IMAGE HERE EXTRA STEP — INTRODUCING ALLEGORY AND METAPHOR Remember the Harry Potter Unbreakable Vow. What are the Harry Potter books about, in general? If your tableaux were a story about a real family quarrel you might not want to make it public. How can we tell stories about things whose details we might want to keep private or which feel a bit complicated? Have you heard the story about the farm where the pigs take over because the farmer is so mean to all the animals. But then after a while the pigs start to walk on two legs and take all the best food and make the other animals work for them. They become like the farmer. It’s from a book called Animal Farm written by George Orwell about 80 years ago and was his way of telling a story about the Russian Revolution, something that had really happened 25 years before and which he thought had eventually made things worse. What do we call it when we make up one story which is really about something else? Or you could say its telling a new story based on the same shapes or events of the old one. Can you think of an allegory for some of the stories you invented? 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What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Security David Evans University of Virginia http://www.cs.virginia.edu/evans/ cs290 Spring 2008 21 February 2008 What Every Human Should Know About Security David Evans University of Virginia www.cs.virginia.edu/evans/ cs290 Spring 2008 21 February 2008 “Many children are taught never to talk to strangers, an extreme precaution with minimal security benefit.” “Emma Lion loves to make new friends, but Mama tells her to be careful and never talk to strangers. Emma sees new people to meet everywhere she goes. How will she know who is a stranger?” Security Research study of systems in the presence of adversaries about what happens when people don’t follow the rules Security • Technical questions – Figuring out who is not a “stranger” (authentication) – Controlling access to resources (protection and authorization) • Value judgments – Managing risk vs. benefit (policy) • Deterrents – If you get caught, bad things happen to you Protecting assets from misuse Quiz Authentication, Protection, Authorization, Policy, or Deterrent? Authentication, Protection, Authorization, Policy, or Deterrent? Charlottesville Airport, Dec 2001 British Parliament, Dec 2007 Principles for Designing and Building Secure Systems Principle 0: Know what you are protecting, and what the threats are. Principle 1: Keeping secrets is hard. Design systems so that they don’t depend on secrets being kept from adversaries. If you need a secret, make it small and well defined. Kerckhoffs’ principle, 1883 Authorization with “Secrets” Authentication/Authorization using Secrets Who are you? ID = #5187230 Generate random number $ r $ Prove it by encrypting $ r $ Compute $ x = E_K(r) $ Check $ x = E_K(r) $ Encryption - $ E $ is an encryption function: algorithm for scrambling bits in a way that depends on $ K $ - $ K $ is a secret key shared between card and reader (backend database) \[ x = E_K(r) \] Threat: Eavesdropper cloning cards. Requirement: attacker who overhears $ x $ and $ r $ (even many pairs) should not be able to guess $ K $. Recall Principle 1: Keeping secrets is hard. Design systems so that they don’t depend on secrets being kept from adversaries. If you need a secret, make it small and well defined. Security should depend only on keeping $ K $ secret (not on keeping algorithm or protocol secret). NXP Mifare Classic RFID Tag - Billions of units deployed - Cost < $1 - Planned for nationwide deployment in Netherlands - Uses secret encryption algorithm Reverse-Engineering a Cryptographic RFID Tag, Karsten Nohl, David Evans, Starbug, Henryk Plötz, Feb 2008. Reverse Engineer Circuit Very error-prone and tedious process (but can be automated) Mifare Crypto-1 Does knowing E matter? Who are you? ID=#5187230 Generate random number r Prove it by encrypting r Compute x=E_K(r) Check x=E_K(r) Failure of Security through Obscurity • If there are enough possible keys, it shouldn’t matter if attacker knows E (if it is a good encryption algorithm) • Mifare algorithm has several weaknesses that made it easier to find K without needing to try all possible keys Principle 2: Need to Know Basis Once you release information, there is no way to get it back. Give out as little as necessary to enable useful things. Principle of “Least Authority” Facebook Platform Privacy-by-Proxy. Adrienne Felt, David Evans, Feb 2008. Application Needs Recall Principle 2: Need to Know Basis Once you release information, there is no way to get it back. Be careful about what you release. No need to give applications access to information they don’t use. Proxying 1. profile.php? 2. your gadget? 3. my gadget - FBML 4. profile.php - XHTML U.Va. News U.Va. Engineering School Student Probes Facebook’s Vulnerabilities January 30, 2007 — Facebook, the social networking platform that has revolutionized online social networking, is vulnerable to attacks that could expose private information, according to a student at the University of Virginia. Paul, a fourth-year student in the School of Engineering and Applied Science at U.Va., created a Facebook application that can be used to steal private information from a Facebook application or a group that allows the user to interact with other users. Although these applications add value to a Facebook user’s profile page, they also collect private information about the user. Paul’s application, which he calls “Facebook’s Privacy Policy,” is designed to expose the vulnerabilities of Facebook’s platform. It is actually running on an application developer’s server, where a user can enter his or her Facebook username and password to access the application. “The Facebook privacy policy always seemed unachievable to me,” said Paul, an engineering student at U.Va. “I was this annoying feeling that led me to investigate Facebook’s vulnerabilities so I could find out how to make it work.” Paul’s application, which he calls “Facebook’s Privacy Policy,” is designed to expose the vulnerabilities of Facebook’s platform. It is actually running on an application developer’s server, where a user can enter his or her Facebook username and password to access the application. There are currently no restrictions on what applications (and their developers) can do with the information they collect. Facebook does not require that applications ask for permission before they have access to a Facebook user’s private information. In fact, most of the time, the application will not even ask for permission. “Even if applications request access to private information,” said Paul, “they’re never going to ask for it.” from c\|net article: I asked Facebook's [chief privacy officer] Kelly what his company is doing to ensure that application developers do not violate the rules by saving a copy of user data that passes through their servers. He cited "extensive security mechanisms operating behind the scenes," although, he refused to expand on this, due to "security reasons." He wasn't too happy when I accused him of practicing security though obscurity, a concept widely mocked in security circles. He dismissed my charge as a mischaracterization. Recap - Principle 0: Know what you are protecting, and what the threats are. - Principle 1 (security-through-obscurity doesn’t work): Design systems so that they don’t depend on secrets being kept from adversaries. - Principle 2 (least authority): Give others what they need to do useful work, but not more. Not everything you need to know about security Questions http://www.cs.virginia.edu/evans My home page http://www.cs.virginia.edu/wheel Research group blog If you steal property, you must report its fair market value in your income in the year you steal it unless in the same year, you return it to its rightful owner. 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2012 Youth Health Survey Report WRHA Access River East Community Area Grade 7 - 12 Acknowledgments This report was made possible through the efforts of many organizations and people: - School administrators, teachers, and staff who coordinated the Youth Health Survey - Partners in Planning for Healthy Living and its member organizations who oversaw the survey development and implementation processes - CancerCare Manitoba, Department of Epidemiology and Cancer Registry for their assistance in statistical programming and data analysis, and to the CancerCare Manitoba Foundation for their generous support - Manitoba Education, Manitoba Healthy Living, Seniors and Consumer Affairs, and Healthy Child Manitoba - All Manitoba Regional Health Authorities - Youth Health Survey Topic Expert working groups who gave input on survey question design and the report - Students who participated in the Youth Health Survey with enthusiasm, honesty and willingness. # Table of Contents Reading this Report ........................................................................................................... 4 Promoting Health in Schools ............................................................................................... 5 Quick Facts ......................................................................................................................... 6 Survey Participation .......................................................................................................... 8 Perceptions of Health and Mental Wellbeing ................................................................. 10 Physical Activity .................................................................................................................. 21 Sun/UV Safety ..................................................................................................................... 30 Healthy Eating and Healthy Weights ............................................................................... 32 Tobacco Use ......................................................................................................................... 42 Alcohol, Marijuana and Other Drug Use ........................................................................... 52 Youth Safety and Injury Prevention .................................................................................. 58 Healthy Sexuality ................................................................................................................ 64 List of References .............................................................................................................. 72 This Youth Health Survey was completed by Manitoba students in Grades 7-12 during the 2012-2013 school year. Between 2006 and 2008, the first Youth Health Survey was completed by Manitoba students in Grades 6 to 12. Although the two surveys are similar, the current survey includes many expanded and adapted questions. In addition, due to the exclusion of Grade 6 students from this current survey, comparisons to results from the previous Youth Health Survey should be done with caution and should note this limitation. This report provides a snapshot on students’ health behaviours. The results presented here reflect the responses of the youth themselves. Asking questions about youth health behaviors can help you to learn what youth are thinking, what motivates them and what’s important to them. Throughout the report, many ideas for action are provided to support your work. In addition, your divisional Physical Education and Health Education Consultants and your Regional Health Authority are a rich source of information in school health planning. It is hoped that reading this report may be one step on a journey toward improving the health of students in your schools and in creating a healthy school environment. This report includes the following schools: Chief Peguis Junior High École John-Henderson Junior High School Elmwood High George V School John G. Stewart School John Pritchard School Kildonan East Collegiate Miles MacDonnell Munroe Junior High River East Collegiate Robert Andrews School Salisbury Morse Place School St. Alphonsus School The King’s School Valley Gardens Junior High Please note that students may not have answered every question in the survey and therefore each question has a certain amount of missing data. The results presented in this report only include students who had a valid answer for the question being reported on. In cases where there was a large amount of missing data (≥10%), a footnote is included in the graph or text to reflect this. In some cases, only a small number of students may have chosen a particular response category for a sensitive question. In these cases, the results will be suppressed to protect the privacy of these students. This safeguard will come into effect when 6 or fewer students choose a particular response and make up 6% or less of the total. The resulting graph or table will feature an “S” to indicate that the data has been suppressed, or be reported as “too small to report” in the text. Why is Promoting Health in Schools Important? Education and health are interdependent (Joint Consortium for School Health [JCSH], 2012). Healthy students are better learners and better-educated individuals are healthier (JCSH, 2012). Children and youth can achieve their fullest potential as learners if their physical, mental, intellectual and emotional health needs are met. Some of the best opportunities for positively influencing the health of young people and preventing health risk behaviours from starting are found in the school setting (World Health Organization [WHO], 1999). Research shows that: - Healthy young people are more likely to learn more effectively - Health promotion can help schools to meet their targets in academic achievement and meet their social aims - Youth who feel good about their school and feel connected to adults are less likely to undertake high risk behaviours and are likely to have better learning outcomes - Schools are also workplaces for school staff and can promote and model effective workplace health promotion for the benefit of their staff and ultimately their students (St. Leger et al., 2010) Being a Healthy School Healthy Schools is rooted in the principles of comprehensive school health (CSH). CSH is an internationally recognized framework for supporting improvements in students’ educational outcomes while addressing school health in a planned, integrated and holistic way. CSH helps educators, school administrators, students, regional health authorities, health practitioners and others work together to create an environment that makes their school the best place possible to learn, work, and play. CSH is not limited to the classroom – it addresses the whole school environment with actions in four interrelated pillars that provide a strong foundation for healthy schools: - Social and physical environment - Teaching and learning - Partnerships and services - Healthy school policy (JCSH, 2012) Within this broad foundation, a variety of health-related topics need to be considered, including those in this report. Taking action in all four CSH pillars is working in a holistic and comprehensive way and increases the impact of healthy school activities. Being a healthy school is a journey that can start with a few simple changes that can improve the health and wellbeing of students and staff. Some schools start with an emphasis on one health topic. This can lead to a broader set of healthy school policies and practices which, combined, create a school culture that supports greater student health and achievement. Manitoba’s Healthy Schools Initiative Healthy Schools is a partnership of Manitoba Healthy Living, Seniors and Consumer Affairs, Manitoba Education and Healthy Child Manitoba. To find out more about Healthy Schools, go to www.manitoba.ca/healthyschools. Quick Facts Perception of Health and Mental Wellbeing - 59% of students perceived their health to be excellent/very good; 40% perceived their health to be good/fair and 1% perceived their health to be poor - 58% of students reported flourishing mental health; 36% report moderate mental health; 6% reported languishing mental health School and Community Connectedness - 79% of students feel close to people at their school - 84% of students feel they are part of their school - 86% of students are happy to be at their school - 90% of students feel safe at their school - 87% of students feel safe in their community - 98% of students feel safe in their home - 94% of students have at least one close friend to share things with - 93% of students feel their family supports them - 60% of students feel involved in their community Bullying and Personal Threats - 26% of students reported that they have been physically threatened or injured in the past year - 7% of students reported that they have been threatened or injured with a weapon in the past year - 39% of students reported that they had been bullied, taunted or ridiculed in the past year - 22% of students reported that someone had said something bad about their race or culture in the past year - 12% of students reported that someone said something bad about their sexual orientation or gender identity in the past year - 39% of students reported that someone said something bad about their body shape or size in the past year - 20% of students reported that someone had asked for personal information over the internet in the past year - 9% of students reported that someone made them feel unsafe when they were in contact over the internet in the past year - 16% of students reported being bullied or picked on through the internet in the past year Sleep - 22% of students get 9 or more hours of sleep on school nights (Sunday to Thursday) Physical Activity - 40% of female and 51% of male students were active; 41% of female and 34% of male students were moderately active; and 20% of female and 15% male students were inactive - 65% of students use active transportation to get to and/or from school in a typical week - 47% of students limit their screen time to the recommended amount of 2 hours or less per day on weekdays (Monday-Thursday) • 33% of students limit their screen time to the recommended amount of 2 hours or less per day on weekends (Friday-Sunday) Sun/UV Safety • 38% of students reported that they always/often use sun/UV protection (seek shade, use sunscreen with SPF 15 or higher, and/or cover up) • 7% of students reported that they had ever used artificial tanning equipment Healthy Eating and Healthy Weights • 38% of students reported eating fruit and/or vegetables 7 or more times per day • 25% of students reported eating salty and sugary snacks 3 or more times per day • 8% of students reported eating fast foods 3 or more times per day • 78% of females and 68% of males fall within the recommended healthy weight category Tobacco Use • 10% of female and 11% of male students reported being current smokers (daily and occasional) • 2% of students reported using smokeless tobacco in the past month • 38% of tobacco users reported wanting to stop their use of tobacco Alcohol, Marijuana and Other Drug Use • 21% of students reported having consumed at least one drink of alcohol in the past month • 16% of students reported consuming five or more drinks within a couple of hours on at least one day in the past month • 16% of students reported using an illegal, prescription, or over-the-counter drug for the purposes of getting high in the past month Injury Prevention and Safety • 2% of students reported having driven one or more times after drinking alcohol in the past month • 3% of students reported having driven one or more times after using illegal drugs including marijuana in the past month Healthy Sexuality (This section was completed by students in grades 9 to 12, and in grades 7 to 12 at Elmwood High, but does not include students from St. Alphonsus or The King’s School) • When asked the age when they first had sex, 73% of students reported that they had never had sex • The age that the most number of students reported having sex at for the first time was 15 years old • 50% of students who reported being sexually active indicated that they always wear a condom when they have sex Survey Participation This report presents the findings of the 2012/2013 Youth Health Survey. Following is the demographic profile of the students who completed the survey. 5277 students from ACCESS River East completed the survey. The students who responded were 48% female and 52% male. Grade Level of Students Student Age (years) Years Lived in Canada Between 2008 and 2010, Manitoba welcomed 5078 new permanent residents 10 to 19 years of age (Manitoba Labour and Immigration, 2011). The health among immigrants can be influenced by: - Their country of origin - Host country - Personal experiences - Low socio-economic status - Cultural conflicts - Language - Role changes and identity crises - Racial discrimination - Provincial and community factors such as social isolation (Messias & Rubio, 2004) Any health interventions should be targeted to the specific immigrant sub-population with consideration given to cultural acceptability and preference (Flynn et al., 2006). Number of Years Lived in Canada - All of my life, 82% - 5 years or less, 10% - 6 or more years, 8% Perceptions of Health and Mental Wellbeing Why We Study Mental, Emotional and Social Health Mental health and wellbeing contribute to our enjoyment of life, better physical health, improved educational attainment, increased economic participation and rich social relationships (Friedli & Parsonage, 2007; Kirkwood et al., 2008; Mental Health Commission of Canada [MHCC], 2009, MHCC, 2012). Healthy emotional and social development in childhood lays the foundation for mental health and resilience throughout life (MHCC, 2012). The health and wellbeing of children and youth is influenced by many factors, including family income, social support networks, personal health practices and coping methods, biology and genetics, education and the physical environment of home and school (Public Health Agency of Canada [PHAC], 2011). “Mental health status is associated with risk behaviours at all stages of the life cycle. For instance, in young people, depression and low self-esteem are linked with smoking, binge drinking, eating disorders and unsafe sex.” (Herrman & Jané-Llopis, 2005) Schools can promote positive mental health and create resilience, providing youth with resources to thrive and, in adverse conditions, to cope by buffering negative stressors (Weare & Nind, 2011). Perception of Health Youth perceptions of good health are strong predictors of long-term healthy behaviours and quality of life (Saewyc et al., 2006). We asked students to describe their health. \| Perception of Health \| % of Respondents \| \|----------------------\|------------------\| \| Poor \| 1% \| \| Good/Fair \| 40% \| \| Excellent/Very Good \| 59% \| Perception of Body Weight 62% of young people of normal weight feel that their body is about the right size (Boyce, King, & Roche, 2008). Studies show that girls tend to see their bodies as being too fat and boys tend to see their bodies as too thin (Freeman et al., 2011). We asked students about their own perception of their body weight. Overall, 77% of students reported that they considered themselves to be about the right weight; 15% consider themselves to be overweight; and 8% consider themselves to be underweight. 10. Do you consider yourself: - Overweight? - About the right weight? - Underweight? Perception of Body Weight by Gender - Male - Underweight: 10% - About the right weight: 79% - Overweight: 11% - Female - Underweight: 6% - About the right weight: 75% - Overweight: 19% Perception of Body Weight by Grade - Grade 7-8 - Underweight: 8% - About the right weight: 79% - Overweight: 13% - Grade 9-10 - Underweight: 8% - About the right weight: 77% - Overweight: 15% - Grade 11-12 - Underweight: 8% - About the right weight: 76% - Overweight: 16% Youth Employment Some studies have shown that by graduation 80% of high school students have had a part-time job (Loughlin & Barling, 1998). Youth employment can be complimentary with schooling. It may teach time management and organizational skills, responsibility and may motivate students to work harder at school to achieve a career goal (Rothstein, 2007). However, working more than 20 hours per week may cause students to achieve at lower levels academically (Staff et al., 2010). They are also more likely to engage in negative behaviors, have lower academic and career aspirations, and are less likely to hold leadership positions, engage in extracurricular activities, and attend or stay in university/college (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). We asked students about part-time work. Overall, 29% of students had a part-time job outside of school. Number of Work Hours Outside of School - Less than 15 hrs/week: 21% - 15 hrs or more/week: 8% - Do not work: 71% Youth Volunteering Studies show that people who volunteer report better health and greater happiness (Borgonovi, 2008). Feeling engaged and valued within extracurricular activities is shown to be an important protective factor associated with good or excellent health (Smith et al., 2011). "Positive youth development approaches should focus on building relationships with caring adults within the community through engagement in challenging activities in which youth are active participants rather than solely recipients of services or supports." (Morrison & Kirby, 2010) 37% of students report volunteering once a month or more often. These are the types of activities that students reported participating in: School and Community Connectedness Adolescents with positive interpersonal relationships tend to fare better in terms of mental health (Freeman et al., 2011; Smith et al., 2011). A B.C. youth study showed that the more connected youth felt to family or school, the more likely they were to report excellent general health and higher self-esteem, and the less likely they were to have considered suicide (Smith et al., 2011). "Students need to feel safe... safe enough to try new things... safe enough to discover their strengths." (Morrison & Kirby, 2010) The following tables show the percentage of students who agree with the feelings expressed in the statements: \| Statement \| % Agree \| % Disagree \| \|------------------------------------------------\|---------\|------------\| \| I feel close to the people at this school \| 79% \| 21% \| \| I feel I am a part of this school \| 84% \| 16% \| \| I am happy to be at this school \| 86% \| 14% \| \| I feel safe at my school \| 90% \| 10% \| \| I feel safe in my community \| 87% \| 13% \| \| I feel safe in my home \| 98% \| 2% \| \| I have at least one close friend that I can \| 94% \| 6% \| \| share things with \| \| \| \| I feel my family supports me \| 93% \| 7% \| \| I feel involved in my community \| 60% \| 40% \| Youth who are able to identify adults in the community who know and care about them tend to experience a greater sense of wellbeing (Morrison & Kirby, 2010). \| Statement \| % Agree \| % Disagree \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------\|------------\| \| At my school adults care about people my age \| 84% \| 16% \| \| At my school there is an adult who I trust \| 73% \| 27% \| \| If I need help, I believe a counselor or other adult could help me \| 78% \| 22% \| \| If I need help, I would talk to a counselor or other adult \| 65% \| 35% \| Bullying Bullying is characterized by acts of intentional harm, repeated over time, in a relationship where an imbalance of power exists. It can include physical actions (punching, kicking, biting), verbal actions (threats, name calling, insults, racial or sexual comments), and social exclusion (Public Safety Canada, 2008). School bullying is associated with: - Lower academic achievement - Lower school satisfaction - Lower levels of school engagement (Schneider et al., 2012) Consequences of cyber-bullying are similar to those of traditional bullying, including increased anxiety and emotional distress. Online victimization may also lead to more serious distress, including depression, self-harm, and suicide (Schneider et al., 2012). Victims of both cyber and school bullying were more than four times as likely to experience depressive symptoms and more than five times as likely to attempt suicide as were non-victims (Schneider et al., 2012). Roughly 6% of students aged 12 to 19 report bullying others on a weekly basis, and 8% report that they are victims of bullying weekly (Public Safety Canada, 2008). We asked students about bullying and personal threats in the past year. \| \| Never in the past year \| 1 or more times in the past year \| \|---------------------------------------------\|------------------------\|----------------------------------\| \| a. Physically threatened or injured you \| 74% \| 26% \| \| b. Threatened or injured you with a weapon such as a gun, knife or club \| 93% \| 7% \| \| c. Bullied, taunted or ridiculed you \| 61% \| 39% \| \| d. Said something bad about your race or culture \| 78% \| 22% \| \| e. Said something bad about your sexual orientation or gender identity \| 88% \| 12% \| \| f. Said something bad about your body shape or size \| 61% \| 39% \| \| g. Asked for personal information over the internet (e.g. address, phone # or last name) \| 80% \| 20% \| \| h. Made you feel unsafe when you were in contact with them over the internet \| 91% \| 9% \| \| i. Bullied or picked on you through the internet (e.g. posted something on Facebook or emailed you) \| 84% \| 16% \| Emotional, Psychological and Social Wellbeing We asked students to respond to a number of statements related to thoughts and feelings. 16. During the past month (30 days) how often did you feel... a. Happy b. Interested in life c. Satisfied with life d. That you had something important to contribute to society e. That you belonged to a community (like a social group, your school or neighbourhood) f. That our society is becoming a better place for people like you g. That people are basically good h. That the way our society works makes sense to you i. That you liked most parts of your personality j. Good at managing the responsibilities of your daily life k. That you had warm and trusting relationships with others l. That you had experiences that challenged you to grow and become a better person m. Confident to think or express your own ideas or opinions n. That your life has a sense of direction or meaning to it ☐ Never ☐ 2 or 3 times a week ☐ Once or twice ☐ Almost everyday ☐ About once a week ☐ Every day Defining Mental Health Responses were analyzed using the Keyes Mental Health Continuum to categorize children into three categories of mental health. The first three statements (a, b, c) represent emotional wellbeing. The next six statements (d to i) represent psychological and social wellbeing (Keyes, 2006; Keyes, 2009). (1) Flourishing: (respond 'every day' or 'almost every day' to one of the first three statements and to at least six of the other statements) Flourishing is defined as being filled with positive emotion and functioning well psychologically (i.e have self-acceptance, positive relationships, personal growth, purpose in life, and environmental mastery and autonomy) and socially (see society as meaningful and understandable, see society as possessing the potential for growth, when they feel they belong to and are accepted by their communities, and see themselves as contributing to society). (2) Languishing: (respond 'never' or 'once or twice' to one of the first three statements and at least six of the other statements) Languishing is defined as possessing low level of well-being and may be conceived as a life of emptiness and stagnation, constituting of quiet despair that parallels accounts of individuals who describe themselves and life as "a shell", and "a void", "hollow", "empty". (3) Moderate: (are neither flourishing nor languishing) The Mental Health Continuum tool indicated that overall, 58% of students reported flourishing mental health, 36% reported moderate mental health, and 6% reported languishing mental health. Anything less than flourishing mental health is not optimal and may in fact be a potential warning sign for poor mental health in the future. Actions to both sustain flourishing states of mental health and actions to enhance moderate or languishing states of mental health are necessary to protect and promote mental health (Keyes, 2006). A Canadian study reports that 21 to 26% of boys and 24 to 38% of girls have indicated that they feel depressed at least once a week. Students with low levels of emotional wellbeing are also more likely to report low levels of academic achievement (PHAC & JCSH, 2008a). 44% of students reported feeling so sad or hopeless in the past 12 months that they stopped doing some usual activities for awhile. Youth Sleep There is a normal change in sleeping patterns during adolescence. Youth require 9 to 9½ hours of sleep per night, but the actual sleep time for this group is less (Greig et al., 2010; Millman, 2005). Adequate sleep is a critical factor in youth health and health-related behaviors (Chen, Wang, & Jeng, 2006). There is a significant correlation between sleep quality and mental wellbeing (British Columbia Ministry of Health, 2007). Self-reported shortened total sleep time, erratic sleep/wake schedules, late bed and rise times, and poor sleep quality are associated with poor academic performance for youth (Wolfson & Carskadon, 2003). Students were asked how many hours of sleep that they get on an average school night (Sunday to Thursday) and weekend night (Friday and Saturday). Students were asked how often they had trouble going to or staying asleep, and staying awake during class or at school. 37% of students reported that they ‘often’ or ‘always’ have trouble going to sleep or staying asleep. 25% of students reported that they ‘often’ or ‘always’ find it difficult to stay awake during class or school. Ideas for Action The key components of mental health promotion include supporting individual resilience, creating supportive environments and addressing the broader determinants of health (Morrison & Kirby, 2010). What Can Schools Do? Positive Mental Health Key strategic actions for positive mental health promotion/programming include: - Balancing universal and targeted approaches - Starting early with the youngest children and continuing with older ones - Operating for a lengthy period of time - Taking a whole-school approach - Creating supportive public and school policies - Building safe and caring environments - Directing instruction for students on skills and strategies that enhance their coping and problem solving capacities - Engaging and mobilizing community members in promoting protective factors - Collaborating and integrating services and supports that share a common vision (Morrison & Kirby, 2010; Weare & Nind, 2011) Targeting Bullying Reducing bullying in schools substantially impacts youth’s emotional wellbeing (Bond et al., 2001). There is consensus that a whole school approach is effective in reducing bullying. The key principles of this approach are: - Strong teacher and adult leadership and strong student-teacher bonding - Clear and consistent behavioural norms - Adult awareness and involvement - Effective (focused and intense) supervision - Involvement of multiple stakeholders - Involvement of youth in program development and delivery - Target multiple and protective risk factors - Focus on early, long-term interventions - Be gender and age specific and focus on social skills (Public Safety Canada, 2008) Resource: The Joint Consortium for School Health has developed the Positive Mental Health Toolkit. The tool kit is a resource designed to help schools promote positive mental health. To access the resource go to [http://www.jcsh-cces.ca](http://www.jcsh-cces.ca) or contact Manitoba Healthy Schools. Perceptions of healthy body weight Media literacy interventions teach youth how to critically analyze the media and recognize cultural pressures regarding body shape and weight. They focus on changing youth perception about the “thin ideal” promoted by the media and developing their ability to realistically assess what constitutes a healthy body (British Columbia Ministry of Health, 2007). What Can Communities Do? Collaboration between school and community fosters student connections and student learning (Morrison & Kirby, 2010). Together, schools and communities can: - Create continuums of care for positive development and prevention of mental health concerns - Organize evidence-informed early intervention services and supports that can be accessed easily and timely - Provide continuity of assistance for those with chronic conditions who require more intensive supports (Morrison & Kirby, 2010) What Can Parents Do? Bullying Autonomy supportive practices such as acknowledging the child's feelings, taking the child's perspective, providing rationale, allowing choice, and minimizing pressure have been found to be most effective in creating pro-social values and behaviours in preventing bullying (Roth, Kanat-Maymon, & Bibi, 2011). Positive Mental Health Parents can promote positive mental health through five core positive parenting principles: 1) Ensuring a safe and engaging environment 2) Creating a positive learning environment 3) Using assertive discipline 4) Having realistic expectations 5) Taking care of oneself as a parent (PHAC, n.d.-a) What Can Youth Do? Positive Mental Health Mentoring programs have been shown to contribute to students' resiliency, enhance their self-esteem and increase their learning (Ellis & Small-McGinley, 2000). Sleep The following tips can help youth to improve their sleep: - Go to bed at the same time each night and get up at the same time each morning - Make sure the bedroom is quiet, dark, comfortable and cool - Do not watch TV, use computers or phones, or play video games in the bedroom - Get exercise, but not within a few hours of bedtime - Avoid meals within a few hours of bedtime (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2012) Crisis Services are available and accessible across the province for youth, schools, communities, and family. A contact list is on-line at [www.gov.mb.ca/healthyliving/mh/crisis](http://www.gov.mb.ca/healthyliving/mh/crisis) Physical Activity Why We Study Youth Physical Activity "Escalating levels of obesity and chronic disease worldwide have ignited public health interest in physical activity and inactivity. There is a large body of evidence to suggest that physical activity contributes significantly to the health of the cardiovascular, cellular, endocrine, and skeletal systems and to mental health." (Naylor & McKay, 2009) The Canadian Physical Activity Guidelines recommend; For health benefits, youth aged 12 to 17 years should accumulate at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity daily. This should include: - Vigorous intensity activities at least three days per week - Activities that strengthen muscle and bone at least three days per week - More daily physical activity provides greater health benefits (Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, 2012) Being active for at least 60 minutes daily can help teens: - Improve their health - Do better in school - Improve their fitness - Grow stronger - Have fun playing with friends - Feel happier - Maintain a healthy body weight - Improve their self-confidence - Learn new skills (Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, 2012) Only 7% of Canadian youth accumulate 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on at least six days a week (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2012). Students' Physical Activity Rates In 2007, as part of an effort to increase physical activity levels, Manitoba Education mandated the amount of time that Kindergarten to Grade 10 students spend in Physical Education/Health Education (PE/HE) classes in 2007. Grade 11 and 12 PE/HE were made compulsory in 2008. We asked students to report how much hard/vigorous and moderate physical activity they did each day for the previous week and then calculated their level of physical activity. 45% of students were active, 37% were moderately active and 17% were inactive. Defining Level of Physical Activity Physical activity is measured in average daily Metabolic Equivalents (METs), which is an indicator of the average intensity of a student's daily physical activity. - Moderate intensity physical activity (e.g., walking, biking and recreational swimming) burns 3 to 6 METs - Vigorous intensity physical activity (e.g., jogging, team sports, fast dancing, jump rope) burns more than 6 METs Average Daily METs = [(# of Vigorous hours x6METs) + (# of Moderate hrs x3METs)] / 7 days - Inactive - Average Daily METs are less than 3 - Moderately active - Average Daily METs range from 3 to 8 - Active - Average Daily METs are greater than 8 When Students Are Active We asked students how physically active they were at the following times: before school, during recess/spare, lunch, and after school. After school programming that incorporates physical activity can provide the safe location and equipment needed to support youth in being physically active (Pate & O’Neill, 2009; Rye et al., 2008). Physical Activity with Friends Having friends that are physically active increases youth participation in physical activity (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 1997). Youth are more likely to report more intense physical activity when in the company of peers or close friends (Salvy et al., 2008). 73% of students reported that three or more of their closest friends were active. Participation in Physical Activities Inside and Outside of School Student participation in extracurricular activities is associated with students having a positive body image, better self-esteem and overall improved mental health (Smith et al., 2011). We asked students how often they participated in activities organized within and outside of school, and when the activities took place outside of school, how often they were with a coach or without a coach or instructor present. Overall, 55% of students reported that in the past month they participated in before school, lunch time or after school physical activities organized by their school. 57% of students reported that in the past month they participated in physical activity organized outside of their school with a coach. 83% of students reported that in the past month they participated in physical activity organized outside of their school without a coach or instructor present. --- Participation in Physical Activities One or More Times per Week - Organized by school - Male: 45% - Female: 38% - Organized outside school with a coach or instructor - Male: 49% - Female: 44% - Organized outside school without a coach or instructor - Male: 69% - Female: 58% Active Travel to/from School Students who get to or from school actively are more physically active than those who do not (Pabayo et al., 2012). Studies have found that students who travel to and from school actively are also more physically active outside of those trips (Pabayo et al., 2012). 35% of Canadians aged 10 to 16 report using active transportation to get or from school (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2012). Students reported on the number of days they actively traveled (either fully or partly) to school during a typical week. Parents' Physical Activity Studies have shown that youth who perceive at least one of their parents as active are more likely to be physically fit (Voss & Sandercock, 2012). Parents’ behavioural modeling and encouragement and support of their child’s physical activity increase youth physical activity (Voss & Sandercock, 2012). 47% of students reported that their parents were ‘often’ active outside of work and 40% of students reported that their parents were ‘never’ or ‘rarely’ active. 13% of students reported that they ‘didn’t know’. Barriers to Students’ Physical Activity We asked students to report what stops them from being physically active and what helps them to be physically active. 41% of students believe that they are active enough. The boys in your schools reported these barriers to physical activity most frequently: 1) Other responsibilities (30%) 2) The activities available do not interest me (24%) 3) It’s hard to find time to be physically active (23%) 4) It costs too much (11%) The girls in your schools reported these barriers to physical activity most frequently: 1) Other responsibilities (40%) 2) It’s hard to find time to be physically active (40%) 3) The activities available do not interest me (31%) 4) It costs too much (18%) Facilitators to Students’ Physical Activity 12% of students report that they are not physically active. The boys in your schools reported these facilitators to physical activity most frequently: 1) Desire to be fit and healthy (64%) 2) Desire to look a certain way (37%) 3) Family support (33%) 4) Friend support (32%) The girls in your schools reported these facilitators to physical activity most frequently: 1) Desire to be fit and healthy (64%) 2) Desire to look a certain way (51%) 3) Family support (36%) 4) Friend support (34%) Environmental and policy approaches to increasing physical activity can have especially positive impacts as they benefit all people in the environment rather than focusing on changing the behaviour of one person at a time (Brownson et al., 2001). Youth and Screen Time “Screen time”, such as sedentary time spent watching TV, playing computer games, and doing other similar activities, is one of many complex and interactive factors contributing to overweight and obesity (PHAC & JCSH, 2008b). Studies show that too much screen time is linked to declining levels of fitness and nutrition, and sleeping problems (Screen Smart, 2010). One study found that youth who watched TV for more than four hours a day were twice as likely to be obese (Must & Tybor, 2005). Too much other sedentary activity aside from screen time can also be unhealthy. Television and video games have also been linked to violent and aggressive behaviours, substance use and abuse and body image issues. Most of these negative health impacts are the consequence of the inappropriate advertising and messaging that are part of the media environment (Janssen, 2008). Minimizing screen time and other sedentary activity can help teens: - Maintain a healthy body weight - Improve their self-confidence - Do better in school - Improve their fitness - Have more fun with their friends - Have more time to learn new skills (Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, n.d.) The Canadian Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines recommend that youth aged 12 to 17 years should minimize the time they spend being sedentary each day by: - Limiting recreational screen time to no more than two hours per day (lower levels are associated with additional health benefits) - Limiting sedentary (motorized) transport, extended sitting and time spent indoors throughout the day (Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, n.d.) Canadian studies show more than 60% of students report watching two or more hours of television per day (PHAC & JCSH, 2008b). 10 to 16 year-olds get an average of 6 hours and 37 minutes of screen time per day. This largest source of screen time is television (2 hours and 39 minutes), followed by computers (2 hours and 7 minutes) and video games (1 hour and 51 minutes) (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2012). Time Spent in Front of a Screen We asked students how much time they spent outside of school hours in front of a screen (including TV, computer, texting, etc.). 53% of students reported spending more than two hours per day in front of a screen on weekdays (Monday to Thursday). 67% of students reported spending more than two hours per day in front of a screen on weekends (Friday to Sunday). Ideas for Action What Can Schools Do? Effective and promising policies for physical activity in schools can include: - Raising the quantity of physical education (PE) with a goal of daily PE, and ensure that students are active for a large percentage of class time - Providing a variety and choice of physical activities that meet specific needs for all students - Determining the qualifications that PE teachers and physical activity leaders must have - Integrating physical activity and lessons about physical, psychological and social benefits of physical activity into other curricula beyond PE class - Providing adequate, regular and appropriate training for educators, as well as support for implementation - Exposing youth to a wide variety of physical activities and sports at school (through PE, lunch periods, intramural and interschool sports programs and other extracurricular activities) that meet the needs, interests and abilities of all students, and seek students’ input for activities - Ensuring that there is safe walking and cycling to school - Providing funding to ensure that adequate facilities and equipment are available for physical activity, including bike racks - Establishing partnerships with municipalities and youth organizations to optimize use of school and community facilities such that community members access schools after hours and students have community-based physical activity opportunities (recreation centres, playgrounds and parks) during school hours (Craig et al., 2001; Lagarde & LeBlanc, 2010) Safe Routes to School programs have been effective in increasing students' overall energy expenditures by focusing on active travel. These programs aim to: - Educate youth about the health and environmental benefits of active travel - Bring together citizen groups and professionals to make streets safer for walking and biking along school routes (Rye et al., 2008) What Can Communities Do? The Guide to Community Preventive Services reports strong evidence for the following strategies: - Community-wide campaigns to increase knowledge about physical activity benefits, ways to increase physical activity, overcoming barriers and increasing participation in community activities - Individualized health behaviour programs to teach skills and provide social support - Social support interventions such as buddy systems, contracts with others to complete specified levels of physical activity, walking groups or other groups to provide support - Community scale urban design and land use policies which consider everyday walking/travel distances, continuity of sidewalks, aesthetics and safety - Creation of, or enhanced access to places for physical activity such as walking trails, exercise facilities, and other existing nearby facilities, combined with promotion of their use - Prompts to encourage use of stairs such as motivational signs placed in or near stairwells or at the base of elevators promoting the benefits of taking the stairs (Community Preventive Services Task Force, 2010) What Can Parents Do? Studies suggest that families have the potential to increase youth physical activity through the following practices: - Talking to their child about being physically active - Providing transportation to places where their child can be active - Paying for their child’s participation on a sports team or membership to a gym - Being physically active, model a healthy lifestyle - Having physical activity equipment/resources in the home - Implement household rules on screen time (Bauer, Berge, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2011; Summerbell et al., 2005, Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2012) Why We Study Youth Sun/UV Safety Ultraviolet (UV) rays come from the sun and from indoor tanning equipment. Overexposure to UV rays has been linked to the following negative health effects: sunburns, premature skin aging, skin cancer, eye problems, and weakening of the immune system (Health Canada, 2011a). It is estimated that one in seven Canadians will develop some form of skin cancer in their lifetime, making it the most common type of cancer (Bandi et al., 2010). Prevention of sun/UV damage is most important in youth because the effects of sun/UV exposure are cumulative over the lifetime. Sun/UV Protection We asked students about their sun/UV protection habits. Overall, 38% of students ‘often’ or ‘always’ use sun/UV protection. Artificial Tanning Artificial tanning equipment can be even riskier than the sun; some machines can emit UV levels up to five times stronger than the Australian summer midday sun (WHO, 2003). Use of artificial tanning equipment, even one time, before the age of 35 is associated with a 75% increase in the risk of melanoma, the most serious form of skin cancer (WHO, 2009). Overall, 7% of students have used artificial tanning equipment at least once in their life. Ideas for Action What Can Schools Do? Programs should have multiple components that include: - Addressing peer norms and knowledge - Aligning sun/UV safety with other healthy behaviours such as promoting sun/UV safety while taking part in physical activity outdoors - An emphasis on the practice of multiple sun/UV protection behaviours (Andreeva et al., 2008; Bandi et al., 2010; Canadian Strategy for Cancer Control, 2006) Resource: The Canadian Cancer Society’s SunSense Program provides lesson plans and resources for all ages available at http://www.cancer.ca/Manitoba/Prevention/Sun and UV/MB-Sun safe communities.aspx?sc_lang=en (Canadian Cancer Society, 2012). What Can Communities Do? Communities can create policies and environment changes to discourage and decrease sun/UV exposure. Some ideas include: - Creating shade structures near public recreation sites, such as near playground equipment and sports fields’ spectator and bench areas - Coordinating beach umbrella lending programs at public beaches - Implementing and enforcing bylaws banning youth use of indoor tanning equipment What Can Youth Do? Youth can protect themselves by: - Avoiding exposure and seeking shade during peak hours (11 am to 4 pm, and when the UV index is more than 3) - Covering up with clothing (e.g. a wide-brimmed hat and sunglasses) - Wearing a good amount of sunscreen that protects against UVA and UVB rays, is SPF 15 or higher - Reapplying sunscreen after swimming and sweating - Avoiding indoor tanning (Canadian Cancer Society, 2012; CancerCare Manitoba, 2012) Why We Study Youth Eating Habits Eating patterns are established early in life and have an impact on lifelong health (Janssen, 2008). Healthy eating during childhood contributes to: - Optimal health, growth and cognitive development - Good academic performance - Reduced risk of becoming overweight or obese - Reduced risk of chronic disease later in life, such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes and osteoporosis (Health Canada, 2012a) Foods Youth Eat We asked students how many times* they ate certain foods or drank certain beverages the previous day. 36. Yesterday, how many times did you eat or drink the following: a. 100% fruit juice b. Fruit (not counting fruit juice) c. Green salad d. Carrots e. Potatoes (not including french fries or potato chips) f. Other vegetables (not counting carrots, potatoes or salad) g. Whole grains (e.g. whole grain bread, pasta, cereal or brown rice) h. Cheese/yogurt i. Meat or fish (not fried), eggs, nuts, meat alternatives j. Salty or sugary snacks (e.g. potato chips, granola bars, chocolate or cookies) k. Fast food (e.g. hot dogs, hamburgers, fries, pizza or chicken nuggets) l. Water m. Milk (white, chocolate or soy) n. Pop/soda (non diet), slurpees, slushies o. Diet Pop/soda p. Sports drinks (Gatorade, etc.) q. Energy drinks (Red Bull, etc.) r. Coffee/lattes/iced coffee s. Creatine/other supplements t. Meal replacement bars or shakes (Vector, Powerbars) It should be noted that the food frequency measured above and Canada’s Food Guide are not directly comparable, as the Food Guide is concerned with daily recommended servings (quantities) and food frequency measures the number of times a food is actually eaten with no consideration for how much is eaten (Janssen, 2008). Fruits and Vegetables Eating fruit and vegetables has many positive health impacts including lower risk of heart disease, stroke, cancer, overweight and obesity, and may reduce risk of cataracts, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and hypertension (Dehghan, Akhtar-Danesh, & Merchant, 2011; Van Duyn & Pivonka, 2000). Canada’s Food Guide recommends that young people eat seven (females) or eight (males) servings of fruits and vegetables per day (Health Canada, 2011b). The majority of Canadian students report eating less than one serving per day (Janssen, 2008). Although 100% fruit juice can be part of a healthy diet, it lacks dietary fiber and when consumed in excess can contribute extra calories. The majority of the fruit recommended should come from whole fruits (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010). Defining Daily Fruit and Vegetable Consumption Daily fruit and vegetable consumption was defined as the sum of times that a student drank 100% fruit juice, and ate fruit (not including fruit juice), green salad, carrots, potatoes (not including french fries or potato chips) and other vegetables (not including salad, carrots or potatoes). Whole grains Youth need six (females) or seven (males) servings of grains per day, and it is recommended that at least half of these are whole grains (Health Canada, 2011b). Eating whole grains regularly is associated with lower risk of heart disease and diabetes, and a longer, healthier life (Lang & Jebb, 2003). 33% of students reported eating whole grains three or more times per day. Milk and Dairy Youth need three to four servings of milk or alternatives (e.g. yogurt, cheese, soy) per day to promote optimal bone health (Health Canada, 2011b). The Canadian nutrition survey found that by ages 10 to 16, 61% of boys and 83% of girls do not meet their recommended minimum of three servings per day (Garriguet, 2004). - 21% of students reported consuming milk (white, chocolate or soy) three to four times per day. - 65% reported consuming milk (white, chocolate or soy) less than three times per day. - 14% reported consuming milk (white, chocolate or soy) more than four times per day. 65% of boys and 52% of girls reported consuming dairy (milk, cheese and yogurt) three or more times per day. Meat, Fish, Eggs, Nuts and Meat Alternatives Youth need two (females) or three (males) servings of meat or alternatives per day (Health Canada, 2011b). - 36% of students consumed meat and alternatives (including fish, eggs and nuts) two to three times per day. - 50% consumed meat and alternatives less than two times per day. - 14% consumed meat and alternatives more than three times per day. Salty and Sugary Snacks and Fast Foods With the already demanding schedule of youth and their families, more youth are eating unhealthy snacks, fast food, and pre-prepared/instant food in lieu of balanced meals. Fast and pre-prepared/instant food items don’t necessarily follow recommended portion sizes, tend to be higher in fat, sodium, sugar, and calories in general, and have lower nutritional value (Booth, Pinkston, & Carlos Poston, 2005). Access to fast and pre-prepared/instant food items at school, in convenience stores, and at recreational facilities also increases youth’s intake (He et al., 2012). Drinks Research has shown a link between soft drink consumption and higher body weight. Sugar-sweetened beverages have a low satiety potential compared to solid food, so that total energy intake may be greater with fluid calories than solid calories (Canadian Obesity Network, 2010). Canadian students report eating fewer sweets and drinking fewer non-diet soft drinks than in the past. This reduction has coincided with the widespread introduction of healthy eating policies in schools across the country (Janssen, 2008; PHAC & JCSH, 2008b). Creatine/Other Supplements/Meal Replacement Bars or Shakes While adults may experience athletic improvements with the use of dietary supplements, the benefits for youth aren’t yet known (Evans et al., 2012). At this point, there is no research to conclude if creatine is safe to take by those under 18 years of age (Sports Nutrition Advisory Committee & Coaching Association of Canada, 2011). The Sport Nutrition Advisory Committee recommends that athletes should individually have their diet assessed by a Registered Dietitian who specializes in sports nutrition to determine if extra protein is warranted (Sports Nutrition Advisory Committee & Coaching Association of Canada, 2011). 8% of students reported consuming creatine or other supplements at least once per day. (Note: ≥10% of students did not have a valid response.) 14% of students reported consuming a meal replacement bar or shake at least once per day. (Note: ≥10% of students did not have a valid response.) Breakfast Habits Eating breakfast, at home or school, improves youth’s memory, concentration levels, problem-solving abilities and creative thinking; it reduces hunger and maintains a healthy weight (Garriguet, 2004; Healthy Child Manitoba, 2006). A study showed that only half of B.C. teens always eat breakfast on school days (Poon et al., 2006). We asked students about their breakfast habits. Overall, 25% reported that they do not usually eat breakfast. Of those students who reported eating breakfast 94% reported eating breakfast at home, and 6% reported eating breakfast at school. Almost half (48%) of Manitoba schools who participated in the Manitoba School Nutrition survey provide breakfast programs (Government of Manitoba, 2009a). We asked students why they do not usually eat breakfast. - 66% reported they do not have time for breakfast. - 30% reported they cannot eat early in the morning. - 5% responded there is not always enough food in the home. Lunch Habits The 2009 Manitoba Schools Nutrition Survey reported that 95% of Manitoba schools with cafeterias follow some nutrition guidelines or standards, an increase from 57% in 2006 (Government of Manitoba, 2009a). Schools can encourage students to eat home-prepared lunches or healthy choices from the school cafeteria by providing adequate microwaves for reheating food, offering a wide selection of healthy choices in the cafeteria, minimizing cafeteria lines, and by demonstrating that staying on-site for lunch would allow them to participate in school lunch time activities (Beaulieu & Godin, 2012). We asked students about their lunch habits on school days. Dinner Habits A longitudinal Canadian study found that youth regularly having dinners together with their family each evening not only promotes better eating behaviours and physical health, but also relates to better cognitive, emotional, and social competencies. This study also showed that in Grade 6, over two-thirds of students indicated they sat down to dinner with their families on average five or more times a week. This percentage declined to just over half of Grade 10 students (King & Hoessler, n.d.). We asked students about how often they had dinner with the people that they live with. 85% of students reported that they ‘often’ or ‘always’ eat dinner with the people they live with. Youth and Healthy Weight Currently, one in four youth in Canada are overweight or obese. Overweight and obesity among youth has been rising steadily in Canada in recent decades. Increases were highest among youth aged 12 to 17 years with overweight and obesity more than doubling for this age group, from 14 to 29% between 1979 and 2004 (PHAC, n.d.-b). "The most widespread consequences of childhood obesity are psychosocial. Obese children become targets of early and systematic discrimination. As they mature, the effects of discrimination become more culture-bound and insidious." (Dietz, 1998) Increasingly, obese youth are being diagnosed with a range of health conditions previously seen almost exclusively among adults, including high cholesterol, high blood pressure, Type 2 diabetes, sleep apnea and joint problems (PHAC, n.d.-b). Being overweight or obese in early childhood significantly increases the likelihood of being overweight or obese in adolescence and adulthood, with all the accompanying health problems (PHAC, n.d.-b). Body Mass Index We asked students to report their weight and height. We then calculated their Body Mass Index (BMI) using the CDC’s BMI guidelines for Children and Teens (2011a). Body Mass Index (BMI) is a ratio calculated using a person's weight in kilograms and height in meters squared (kg/m²). It measures excess weight and not excess body fat (Statistics Canada, 2010). BMI is an inexpensive and easy-to-perform method of screening for weight categories that may lead to health problems. For youth, BMI is age- and sex-specific and is often referred to as BMI-for-age (CDC, 2011a). Overall, 73% of students fall within the healthy weight category for their age and sex, 4% fall within the underweight category for their age and sex, and 23% fall within the overweight/obese category for their age and sex. (Note: ≥10% of students did not have a valid response.) The behavioural patterns contributing to the rise in obesity include increased consumption of high energy density foods, low consumption of fruits and vegetables and a shift to less active travel and more sedentary leisure time activities. Walkable neighbourhoods, areas with a low density of fast food outlets, and restrictions on the promotion of energy-dense foods all contribute to lower risk of obesity (Allender et al., 2011; Kesten, Griffiths, & Cameron, 2011). Ideas for Action* What Can Schools Do? School Food and Nutrition Policies In 2005, the Manitoba government mandated, and then proclaimed in 2008 through an amendment to the Public Schools Act, all publicly-funded Manitoba schools to develop written school food and nutrition policies as part of their school plan (Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, 2008). The Manitoba School Nutrition Survey (Government of Manitoba, 2009a) revealed that over 95% of Manitoba’s schools have developed nutrition guidelines to determine which foods are served and sold at school. The Manitoba School Nutrition Handbook (Government of Manitoba, 2009b) was developed as a resource and provides guidelines to schools. The handbook helps schools to: - Promote healthy eating consistent with what is taught in the school curriculum - Make the healthy choice the easy choice for students - Support students in establishing lifetime healthy eating habits School Breakfast Programs Eating breakfast improves youth’s memory, concentration, problem-solving abilities and creative thinking (Government of Manitoba, 2009c). Breakfast programs have been linked with improvements in students’ meal patterns and nutritional outcomes, and ensures that students from low-income households have access to a healthy meal at the start of the day (Bartfeld & Ahn, 2011). Establishing partnerships with local partners can help offset the cost for breakfast programs. Preventing and Reducing Obesity Obesity is a sensitive issue and it is important to minimize harm, avoid stigmatization and victim-blaming. Avoid using the term ‘obesity’ publicly and present interventions as healthy eating and physical activity programs (Flynn et al., 2006; King et al., 2011; Wadden & Didie, 2003). School-based interventions that have shown significant reductions in youth’s weight include the following components: - Combined healthy eating and physical activity interventions - Interventions that include family involvement - Longer term interventions (at least one year) - Computer or technology-based and peer-modeling strategies - Interventions that include both educational and environmental components, such as - Organized physical activity opportunities during breaks, before and after school - After school activity space and equipment - Increased physical education class time - Available/accessible healthy food - Restrictions on unhealthy food - Food pricing policies - Opportunities to develop links between school, home and community activities (Ayliffe & Glanville, 2010; De Bourdeaudhuij et al., 2011; Dobbins & McRae, 2012; Flynn et al., 2006; Khambalia et al., 2012; Lobstein & Baur, 2005) Home Economics Home economics education can play a key role in giving youth the knowledge and ability to make healthy eating a part of their lifestyle. Home economics education can help youth to: - Gain exposure to new, healthy foods - Recognize and identify fresh, ripe, in-season fruit and vegetables - Plan balanced and healthy meals - Create food budgets - Develop “food literacy” (ability to read, understand and use nutrition labels) - Gain food preparation skills (Fordyce-Voorham, 2011) What Can Communities Do? Community Programs - Food preparation classes can broaden the variety of foods that people consume, as well as increase preparation competency using available foods. For example, canning and pickling classes can enable community members to preserve and use foods available in their area. - Community gardens increase fruit and vegetable consumption, increase physical activity, make use of unused land, and can become a forum for discussing wider social issues (Twiss et al., 2003). Policy Solutions To reduce population obesity overall, a comprehensive, multi-sectoral, population-based solution is needed. Regular school-based physical education, comprehensive school health programs, reduced television viewing time and community-wide interventions can contribute to obesity reduction (Canadian Population Health Initiative, 2004; Wadden & Didie, 2003). Some policy solutions include: - Subsidy programs to support healthy eating - Food labeling to help consumers understand the health implications of their choices - Regulation of marketing to youth, particularly for unhealthy foods and beverages - Financial incentives to promote physical activity (tax credits) - Financial disincentives, such as a tax on “unhealthy” foods and beverages (PHAC, n.d.-c) What Can Parents Do? Parents can encourage healthy eating by: - Offering a variety of foods at meals by following Canada’s Food Guide - Ensuring youth have the opportunity to eat a healthy breakfast - Packing a healthy lunch - Making time for meals together whenever possible - Including youth in planning and preparing meals (Government of Manitoba, 2009c) Why We Study Youth Smoking - An estimated 150 million youths worldwide use tobacco; approximately half of these young smokers will die of tobacco-related diseases in later life (Bancej et al., 2007). - Every $1 spent on preventing tobacco use results in $19 saved in treatment costs for smoking-related health problems (St. Leger & Nutbeam, 2000). - 17% of all deaths in Canada are attributed to smoking (Health Canada, 2011d). - More deaths are caused each year by tobacco use than by all deaths from HIV, illegal drug use, alcohol use, motor vehicle injuries, suicides, and murders combined (CDC, 2011b). - The youth smoking rate has decreased over the past decade from 22% in 2001 to 12% in 2011 (Health Canada, 2012b). Continued cessation and prevention programs are needed to further decrease the number of youth smokers and ensure that youth non-smokers don’t start smoking. Youth Smoking Behaviours - Most people, who have ever smoked, started smoking in their teenage years (Bridge & Turpin, 2004). - The average age at which students smoke their first whole cigarette is 13.4 years (Health Canada, 2012c). - The earlier the age of onset of tobacco smoking, the greater the risk the youth will become nicotine dependent (Ziedonis, 2006). - 76% of individuals who have ever smoked a whole cigarette will go on to become a current smoker (Health Canada, 2011d). - By the time most teen smokers decide to quit they find they cannot (McVea, 2006). - Symptoms of nicotine dependence among youth can appear within days or weeks of smoking even two cigarettes per week (Alouf, Feinson, & Chidekel, 2006). Abstaining from smoking is associated with: - Lower likelihood of trying alcohol and marijuana - Higher likelihood of staying in school - Higher levels of school engagement - Greater academic motivation and achievement (Andrews, 1991; Ellickson et al., 1998; Ellickson, Tucker, & Klein, 2008; Thomas, Baker, & Lorenzetti, 2007) Who Smokes? It is estimated that adolescent smokers who reach a consumption level of at least 100 cigarettes will continue to smoke for another 16 to 20 years (Pierce & Gilpin, 1996). Questions 42 and 43 were used to define occasional, daily and non-smokers. Overall, 10% of students are current smokers (this includes both daily and occasional smokers). Student Smoking Status by Grade - Grade 9 - Current smoker: 10% - Non-smoker: 90% - Grade 10 - Current smoker: 13% - Non-smoker: 87% - Grade 11 - Current smoker: 13% - Non-smoker: 87% - Grade 12 - Current smoker: 19% - Non-smoker: 81% Student Smoking Status by Gender - Male - Current smoker: 11% - Non-smoker: 89% - Female - Current smoker: 10% - Non-smoker: 90% Student Susceptibility to Future Smoking The intention to smoke is considered to be the best single predictor that an individual will smoke (Tingen, Andrews, & Stevenson, 2009). Youth are at increased risk for smoking if their peers, siblings, or parents smoke. Smoking bans in the house, vehicle and school can reduce the risk that students will begin smoking (Hackbarth, 2012; Leatherdale & Manske, 2005; Schultz et al., 2010). We asked students if they thought they might smoke in the future. 38% of all students were susceptible to smoking. In particular, 30% of the students categorized as non-smokers were susceptible to future smoking. Defining Susceptibility to Smoking Q44, Q45, and Q46 were used to determine a student’s susceptibility: Not susceptible to smoking = Students answered ‘Definitely not’ to each of questions Q44, Q45 and Q46. Susceptible to smoking = Students answered ‘Definitely yes’, ‘Probably yes’ or ‘Probably not’ to any of the three questions (Q44, Q45, Q46). Missing Susceptibility = If any of the three questions were left blank (Q44, Q45, Q46), susceptibility was missing for that student. Other Tobacco Products In a 2011 survey, 5% of Canadian youth aged 15 to 19 reported ever using smokeless tobacco (Health Canada, 2012c). This compares to 1% of youth aged 15 to 19 in 2008 (Health Canada, 2010a). 2% of students reported using smokeless tobacco (chewing tobacco, snuff or dip) in the past month. In a 2011 survey, 6% of Canadian youth aged 15 to 19 reported smoking any type of cigar in the past 30 days (Health Canada, 2012b). This compares to 4% of youth aged 15 to 19 in 2008 (Health Canada, 2010a). Reducing the appeal of little cigars to youth is an important goal of the Cracking Down on Tobacco Marketing Aimed at Youth Act, which came into force in 2010 (Health Canada, 2012b). 7% of students reported smoking cigars or cigarillos within the last month. How Students Obtain Cigarettes Canadian surveys have shown that students obtain cigarettes by a number of methods: purchasing them directly from stores, requesting others to purchase from stores on their behalf, purchasing from individuals, being given cigarettes freely from friends, and getting them at home. Most youth smokers (52%) get cigarettes from small grocery stores, while 12% get cigarettes from a gas station, and 28% get cigarettes from parents, siblings or friends (Health Canada, 2012b). Despite the fact that 84% of retailers refused to sell cigarettes to minors, 56% of Canadian students who were too young to legally purchase cigarettes did so from a retail store (Health Canada, 2010b; Health Canada, 2012b). We asked students how they obtained cigarettes. ![Bar chart showing how students obtain cigarettes](image) Exposure to Second-Hand Smoke Second-hand smoke exposure in youth is associated with asthma, altered lung function and growth, infections, cardiovascular effects, behaviour problems, sleep difficulties, increased cancer risk, and a higher likelihood of starting to smoke (Alouf, Feinson, & Chidekel, 2006; Treyster & Gitterman, 2011). Youth are less likely to smoke if smoking is “denormalized” through vehicle and home smoking bans, regardless of their parents’ smoking status (Schultz et al., 2010). Students were asked how often they were exposed to second-hand smoke. ![Student Exposure to Second Hand Smoke](image) Students were asked where they were exposed to second-hand smoke in the past month. ![Where Students are Exposed to Second Hand Smoke](image) (Note: ≥10% of students did not have a valid response.) Stopping Tobacco Use Those who start smoking before age 18 are more likely to become established smokers and are less likely to be able to quit (Dobbins et al., 2008; Kuper, Adami, & Boffeta, 2002; Ziedonis et al., 2006). Young smokers want to quit smoking and make frequent attempts (McVea, 2006; Pbert et al., 2011). Even young smokers who only smoke once in a while can have difficulty quitting (Ziedonis et al., 2006). Youth are more vulnerable than adults to the consequences of nicotine and subsequent addiction. For this reason cessation interventions at the early stages of tobacco addiction would likely be beneficial in motivating them to quit, helping them to do so successfully, and protecting them against the threat of ongoing addiction (Tingen, Andrews, & Stevenson, 2009). 38% of students reported that they would like to stop using tobacco. 52. Do you want to stop your use of tobacco? - I have never used tobacco - I have already stopped (for at least the last month) - Yes, within a month - Yes, within 6 months - Yes, but I am not sure when - No, I do not want to stop Desire to Stop Using Tobacco \| Response \| % of Respondents \| \|---------------------------------\|------------------\| \| I have already stopped \| 46 \| \| Yes, within 6 months \| 13 \| \| Yes, but I am not sure when \| 26 \| \| No, I do not want to stop \| 16 \| School Smoking Policy 75% of Canadian and 74% of Manitoba students reported that their schools had clear smoking rules (Propel Centre for Population Health Impact, 2009). The introduction and enforcement of smoke-free school policies can act as an important facilitator to school-based prevention interventions (Bauld, Branding, & Templeton, 2009; Lovato et al., 2010). Students are more likely to smoke if there is a large number of students smoking on the school periphery (Lovato et al., 2010). The smoking bans need to be strongly enforced to be effective (Hackbarth, 2012). We asked students if someone would get into trouble if they were caught breaking the smoking rules in their school. Enforcement of Smoking Rules - Yes, 39% - No, 12% - I do not know, 49% Ideas for Action Collaboration between schools, community, public health and parents is needed to prevent and reduce youth tobacco use. What Can Schools Do? Research has shown that successful efforts include education (coordinated curriculum), a supportive environment (clear, enforced rules about smoking), services and students who know people care (University of Waterloo, 2007). Effective smoke free programs include the following key components: - A Multi-faceted approach including active learning, awareness of influences to smoke, skill building, deconstructing media messages promoting tobacco use, and youth involvement in developing and implementing the intervention - Adapted to the needs and cultures of various minority groups - Adapted to fit specifically with different education curricula - Take advantage of electronic media and communication - School-based/group-based - Are at least five sessions in duration, but ideally maintained until age 18 - Use of motivational enhancement (personalized feedback), cognitive behaviour techniques (self-awareness of tobacco use, enhancing motivation to quit, helping to prepare for quitting and developing strategies to stay quit) and social influence approaches - Offer tobacco cessation supports early in the progression of their smoking behaviour as cessation interventions with youth double the odds of quitting tobacco - Involve youth in a meaningful way in program development and implementation - Enforce smoke-free school policies (Bancej et al., 2007; Dino et al., 2011; Dobbins et al., 2008; Grimshaw & Stanton, 2006; Hackbarth, 2012; McVea, 2006; Sussman, Sun, & Dent, 2006; Ziedonis et al., 2006) What Can Communities Do? School programs should be implemented in conjunction with other community-wide tobacco control initiatives such as: - Policies to increase taxation on tobacco products - Smoking bans in public places frequented by youth - Restrictions on advertising and promotion of tobacco products - Media campaigns that target tobacco industry manipulation tactics - Policies that restrict youth access to tobacco (should include random retail inspections combined with merchant education) (Hackbarth, 2012) Schools that prohibit smoking near school grounds, are located where tobacco prices are high and include tobacco prevention initiatives have the lowest smoking rates, confirming that community level policies affect youth consumption (Forster, Widome, & Bernat, 2007; Hackbarth, 2012). What Can Parents Do? Parental involvement is recommended for: - Establishing smoke-free homes and vehicles - Influencing social associations - Talking to teens about smoking - Reinforcing that most people do not smoke - Reinforcing that most people who do smoke try to quit unsuccessfully (Alouf, Feinson, & Chidekel, 2006; Schultz et al., 2010; Tingen, Andrews, & Stevenson, 2009) What Can Youth Do? Young smokers prefer peer-delivered cessation messages that emphasize the long term health consequences of smoking and some social and short term health effects (Latimer et al., 2012). Additional resources and links to existing programs for schools, communities, parents and youth can be found on the Manitoba Government Tobacco Control and Cessation website: http://www.gov.mb.ca/healthyliving/smoking.html Why We Study Youth Alcohol, Marijuana and Other Drug Use “Youth are not only more likely than adults to engage in risky alcohol and drug use, but also disproportionately experience greater harms from that use.” (Young et al., 2011) Youth who delay alcohol and drug use are more likely to experience: - Greater academic achievement and optimal brain development - Greater participation in youth activities and reduced interpersonal conflicts - Optimal physical development and health, and reduced risk of bodily harm - Lower risk of alcohol dependency and use and abuse of other drugs (Bonnie & O’Connell, 2004; Health Canada, 2001; Young et al., 2011) Alcohol Acute consequences of youth drinking can include unintentional injury or death associated with: - Driving while drunk - Homicide and violence - Suicide attempts - Sexual assault - Burns and drowning - Risky sexual health behaviours and - Vandalism and property damage (Bonnie & O’Connell, 2004) Prevention efforts aimed at deterring or delaying alcohol use are most appropriate for junior and early high school years, whereas efforts to reduce frequency of alcohol use are more appropriate for students in the final years of high school (Young et al., 2011). Marijuana and Other Drugs Marijuana is the most widely used illegal drug by youth. The negative impacts associated with marijuana use include: - Impaired attention span, concentration, and memory - Lung irritation and the ingestion of tar, a known cancer-causing agent - A dependence syndrome - Increased risk of motor vehicle crashes - Cardiovascular disease - Adverse effects on youth psychosocial development and mental health (DeCorby, McRae, & Dobbins, 2012; Hall & Degenhardt, 2009; Young et al., 2011) Misuse of drugs other than marijuana can also have considerable negative impacts, such as addiction, increased risky behaviour and injury, and decreased mental, physical and emotional health. 54. During the past month (30 days), on how many days did you have at least one drink of alcohol? (One drink of alcohol is defined as a bottle of beer, a glass of wine, a shot of liquor or a cooler) - [ ] I have never drank alcohol - [ ] I have drank alcohol, but not in the past month - [ ] 1 or 2 days - [ ] 3 to 5 days - [ ] 6 to 9 days - [ ] 10 or more days Youth Alcohol Use Alcohol use is almost twice as prevalent as marijuana use among Canadian students (Young et al., 2011). A study found 46 to 62% (ranging by province) of Canadian students and 55% of Manitoba students reported past-year alcohol use (Young et al., 2011). In Grade 7, three out of ten Canadian students have used alcohol but this increases dramatically to nine in ten students by Grade 12 (Young et al., 2011). We asked students about their alcohol use. One drink of alcohol was defined as a bottle of beer, a glass of wine, a shot of liquor, or a cooler. Overall, 47% of students reported having at least one drink of alcohol in their lifetime. Past Month Use of Alcohol* 21% of all grades 7 to 12 students reported having consumed at least one drink of alcohol in the past month. 23% of the students who consumed alcohol in the past month, reported drinking alcohol on six or more days. Youth Binge Drinking According to the Atlantic Alcohol Risk Continuum, 11.5% of Manitoba’s Grade 7/8 students and 17% of Manitoba’s Grade 9 to 12 students meet the criteria of being high risk for alcohol dependency (Friesen, Lemaire, & Patton, 2008). Binge drinking is defined as five or more drinks within a couple of hours. 19 to 30% of Canadian students (ranging by province) and 27% of Manitoba students reported drinking five or more drinks on a single occasion within the month prior to being surveyed (Young et al., 2011). We asked students about drinking five or more drinks within a couple of hours. 16% of all grades 7 to 12 students reported consuming five or more drinks of alcohol within a couple of hours on at least one day in the past month. 56. In the past month (30 days), how many times have you... (Used marijuana/hashish [pot, weed, etc.]; Used cocaine or crack; Used methamphetamines [speed, crystal meth, crank or ice]; Used ecstasy; Used LSD or other hallucinogens [shrooms, acid, etc.]; Taken a prescription or over-the-counter drug to get high [painkillers, Ritalin, Oxycontin, Xanax, etc.]) - 0 times - 1-2 times - 3-9 times - 10 or more times 57. In the past year (12 months), how many times have you... (Used marijuana/hashish [pot, weed, etc.]; Used cocaine or crack; Used methamphetamines [speed, crystal meth, crank or ice]; Used ecstasy; Used LSD or other hallucinogens [shrooms, acid, etc.]; Taken a prescription or over-the-counter drug to get high [painkillers, Ritalin, Oxycontin, Xanax, etc.]) - 0 times - 1-2 times - 3-9 times - 10 or more times --- Youth Marijuana and Other Drug Use Aside from alcohol and cannabis, ecstasy is the most prevalent drug (4 to 7% report lifetime use) followed by inhalants (2 to 4% report lifetime use) used by Canadian youth (Young et al., 2011). We asked students about their substance use. Use in Past Year It is estimated that between 17 and 32% of Canadian (ranging by province) and 22% of Manitoba students reported past-year marijuana use (Young et al., 2011). In the past year, 23% of all students reported using an illegal, prescription or over-the-counter drug for the purposes of getting high. 20% of all students reported using marijuana or hashish in the past year. Use in Past Month It is estimated that between 9 and 17% of Canadian (ranging by province) and 13% of Manitoba students reported past-month marijuana use (Young et al., 2011). In the past month, 16% of all students reported using an illegal, prescription or over-the-counter drug for the purposes of getting high. The most common type of drug used in the past month was marijuana/hashish (14%). Ideas for Action What Can Schools and Communities Do? "To maximize effectiveness, school-based strategies work best when situated alongside community-wide strategies that reach young people in other parts of the system..." (Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse [CCSA], 2010a) A recent review showed strong evidence for the following characteristics of effective alcohol and drug abuse prevention programs: - Comprehensive, school-based alcohol and marijuana interventions - Programs that include skill development (e.g. refusal skills, self management skills, and social skills) - Programs for students 10 to 15 years of age - Programs of at least one-year duration (DeCorby, McRae, & Dobbins, 2012; Lemstra et al., 2010) Building on Our Strengths: Canadian Standards for School-Based Youth Substance Abuse Prevention provides a practical evidence-based process to guide school actions. These are the steps: A. Assess the situation - Do we know the prevention activities already in place and how well they are working? - Have we determined student substance use patterns and harms? - Do we know the factors that strengthen our students or alternatively place some at risk for substance abuse? - Have we clarified the perceptions and expectations of all concerned? - Have we assessed our school's resources and capacity to act? B. Prepare a plan and build capacity - Do our goals address priority harms and relevant factors for our students? - Have we engaged students in the initiative? - Are we strengthening links with parents and other partners? - Do we conduct professional development and support on an ongoing basis? - Have we taken steps to sustain the initiative? C. Implement a comprehensive initiative - Do we take steps to cultivate a positive health - promoting climate for all in our school? - Are we delivering developmentally appropriate classroom instruction at all levels? - Have we implemented targeted activities as needed? - Have we prepared, implemented and maintained relevant policies? D. Evaluate the initiative - Did we conduct a process evaluation of our initiative? - Did we conduct an outcome evaluation of our initiative? - Have we fully accounted for costs associated with the initiative? (CCSA, 2010a) Resource: A similar checklist entitled Stronger Together is available for community-based groups. Both the school and community documents are available online at [www.ccsa.ca](http://www.ccsa.ca) (CCSA, 2010b) A directory of youth addictions services in Manitoba is available online at [www.gov.mb.ca/healthyliving/addictions/youth](http://www.gov.mb.ca/healthyliving/addictions/youth) Youth have suggested the following solutions for decreasing underage drinking: - Provide varied, affordable, accessible sport and recreation options, including youth clubs and facilities, and transportation for rural youth - Involve and include youth in the broader community - Involve youth in creating the solutions - Offer non-judgmental information on alcohol and the associated risks - Provide parents with support and information - Consider the impact of advertising and provide counter social marketing - Decrease easy access to alcohol - Use technology solutions such as a card-based purchase system and breathalizers in cars - Increase the consequences of underage drinking (Shrans, Schellinck, & Zou, 2009) What Can Parents Do? The following factors about parenting have been found to be associated with delaying alcohol initiation in teens: - Parental modeling - Limiting availability of alcohol to the child - Parental monitoring - Parent-child relationship quality - Parental involvement and general communication - Disapproval of youth drinking - General discipline (Ryan, Jorm, & Lubman, 2010) Resource: The Strengthening Families for the Future program is an example of an effective prevention program for families where youth are at risk; see [http://www.camh.ca/Publications/CAMH_Publications/strengthen_families.html](http://www.camh.ca/Publications/CAMH_Publications/strengthen_families.html) (Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 2009) Why We Study Youth Safety Injury is the number one cause of death for children in Canada, accounting for 30% of all deaths with an average of 300 deaths for children younger than 14 years of age, every year (Mackay et al., 2011). "That is to say 25 children die from injury every month, the equivalent of one classroom of children per month." (Mackay et al., 2011) Most injuries sustained by children and youth are both predictable and preventable (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2012). According to the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Manitoba (2006), 66% of teen deaths occurring in 2006 were preventable. Vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death among young people aged 15 to 24 (CDC, 2009). It is generally accepted that because teens are the least experienced drivers as a group, they have a higher risk of being involved in an accident compared with more experienced drivers. Furthermore, when this lack of experience is combined with the use of alcohol or other substances that impact cognitive and motor abilities, the results can be tragic (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2010). Impaired driving is one of the more serious consequences of alcohol and drug use. Graduated Driver Licensing programs were enforced across Canada to ease novice drivers into the driving environment, allowing them to gradually gain experience under lower risk conditions. The novice driver phase is marked by a number of restrictions including zero alcohol consumed when driving and prohibiting driving after certain hours at night (Transport Canada, 2011). Nova Scotia’s, Ontario and B.C.’s Graduated Driver Licensing programs were assessed, and were deemed the cause of a 15 to 30% reduction of collisions (Transport Canada, 2011). Drinking and Driving Of the 16 to 19 year-old drivers in Manitoba car crashes in 2007, 71% of those that were killed and 34% of those seriously injured had been drinking (Traffic Injury Research Foundation of Canada, 2010). It’s important to note that significant impairment occurs at very low blood alcohol concentration levels (Ogden & Moskowitz, 2004). Driving after Drinking 12 to 20% of Canadian (ranging by province) and 19% of Manitoba Grade 12 students reported driving in the past year within an hour after drinking alcohol (Young et al., 2011). We asked students about their experiences with driving after drinking alcohol. Overall, 5% of students reported that they have driven a car or other vehicle after drinking alcohol at least once in their lifetime. In the past month, 2% of students reported having driven a car or other vehicle one or more times after drinking alcohol. Riding in a Vehicle with Someone Who Had Too Much to Drink 26 to 38% of Canadian (ranging by province) and 38% of Manitoba students reported riding in a vehicle during the past year with someone that had been drinking (Young et al., 2011). We asked students about their experiences being a passenger with a driver that had too much to drink. Overall, 14% reported riding in a car or other vehicle at least once in their lifetime driven by someone who had too much to drink. In the past month, 6% of students reported riding in a car or other vehicle driven by someone who had too much to drink. Illegal Drugs and Driving Marijuana affects the areas of the brain that control the body’s movements, balance, coordination, memory, and judgment, as well as sensations. Studies have shown that the higher the marijuana levels, the higher the risk of motor vehicle crashes (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2010). Driving after Using Illegal Drugs In a cross-Canada study, between 3.3 and 6% of Canadian students (ranging by province) and 5.5% of Manitoba students reported driving in the past year within an hour after using marijuana (Young et al., 2011). We asked students about their experiences with driving after using illegal drugs. Overall, 5% of students reported that they had driven a car or other vehicle at least once in their lifetime after using illegal drugs. In the past month, 3% of students reported that they had driven a car or other vehicle after using illegal drugs. (Note: ≥10% of students did not have a valid response.) Riding in a Vehicle With Someone Who Had Been Using Illegal Drugs An estimated 18 to 26% of Canadian students (ranging by province) and 22% of Manitoba students have been a passenger with someone in the past year who had been using marijuana (Young et al., 2011). We asked students about their experiences being a passenger with a driver that had been using illegal drugs. Overall, 14% of students reported riding in a car or other vehicle at least once in their lifetime driven by someone who had been using illegal drugs. In the past month, 9% of students reported riding in a car or other vehicle driven by someone who had been using illegal drugs. (Note: ≥10% of students did not have a valid response.) 63. In general, do you wear... (A helmet when you ride a bike; A helmet when you ride other vehicles [e.g., snowmobile, ATV, dirt bike, motorcycle]; A seatbelt when riding in a car, truck or SUV; A life vest when you're in a small boat [e.g., canoe, raft, small motor boat]) - Never - Rarely - Often - Always - Only when an adult makes me - I do not do this activity Youth Use of Safety Equipment We asked students about their use of protective equipment. Use of a Helmet while Cycling "A properly fitted bike helmet decreases the risk of serious head injury by as much as 85% and brain injury by 88%." (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2012) 78% of people hospitalized with a severe head injury following a cycling accident in the last decade were not wearing a helmet when their injury occurred (Canadian Institute for Health Information, 2011). In June 2012, Manitoba’s Highway Traffic Amendment Act (Bicycle Helmets) received Royal Assent. This Bill mandates that cyclists under 18 years of age must wear a helmet when riding a bicycle (Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, 2012a). - 12% of students who cycle reported ‘always’ wearing a helmet when they ride a bike. - 10% report ‘often’. - 70% report ‘never’ or ‘rarely’. - 8% report ‘only when an adult makes me’. Use of a Helmet while Riding Snowmobiles, ATVs, Dirt Bikes, and Motorcycles The number of serious injuries involving ATV injuries across Canada is growing, and almost 20% of these injuries involve trauma to the head (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2012). Head injuries are the leading cause of mortality and serious morbidity associated with snowmobiling (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2012). As of 2010, Manitoba’s Off Roads Vehicle Act mandated that drivers and passengers of off roads vehicles (including snowmobiles, ATVs, and dirt bikes) must wear a helmet at all times, unless they are using the off roads vehicle for farming, commercial fishing, hunting or trapping (Government of Manitoba, 2010). - 50% of students who ride other vehicles (such as snowmobiles, ATVs, dirt bikes, or motorcycles) reported ‘always’ wearing a helmet. - 13% report ‘often’. - 34% report ‘never’ or ‘rarely’. - 3% report ‘only when an adult makes me’. Use of a Seatbelt Motor vehicle traffic collisions are the leading cause of injury-related death among Canadians 1 to 24 years of age combined, and the leading cause of death overall for persons 15 to 24 (PHAC, 2012a). Passengers not wearing their seatbelt involved in collisions are three times more likely to be injured and 16 times more likely to have a fatal injury, as compared to passengers with their seatbelt on (PHAC, 2012a). A recent Canadian study has shown that overall 95% of people wear their seatbelts (PHAC, 2012a). Manitoba’s Highway Traffic Act mandates that seatbelts are worn by drivers and all passengers if available (Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, 2012b). - 81% of students reported ‘always’ wearing a seatbelt when riding in a car, truck or SUV. - 12% report 'often'. - 5% report 'never' or 'rarely'. - 2% report 'only when an adult makes me'. Use of a Life Vest Not wearing a life jacket is the most serious risk factor in fatal boating incidents (Life Saving Society, 2012). Approximately 90% of recreational boaters who have drowned in Canada were not wearing life jackets (Safe Kids Canada, 2007). Federal legislation requires that life jackets are within reach on board. Safe Kids Canada (2007) recommends that Canada "amend the federal law on life jackets to require all boaters, children as well as adults, to wear a life jacket at all times when on board." We asked students about wearing a life vest when in a small boat. - 54% of students reported ‘always’ wearing a life vest when in a small boat. - 21% reported 'often'. - 20% reported 'never' or 'rarely'. - 5% reported wearing a life vest 'only when an adult makes me'. Ideas for Action Research has shown that there are effective injury prevention practices, most often through a comprehensive approach of education, engineering and enforcement measures (Mackay et al., 2011). What Can Schools Do? Cycling Safety/Helmets - Create/enforce a helmet policy for cycling on school property and at school cycling activities. - Promote cycling safety (e.g. discourage wearing headphones and impaired cycling) and helmet use on your school website, newsletters, and in other communications to parents. - Use the Manitoba Public Insurance [MPI] Cycling Champion facilitator training (n.d.-a) to train teachers and student leaders, use for public speaking assignments, and teach the younger grades. See http://www.mpi.mb.ca/english/rd_safety/BikeSafe/Champions.html - Promote the Low Cost Bicycle Helmet Program to students and their families. Helmets are made available at reduced prices (Manitoba Healthy Schools, n.d.). See http://www.gov.mb.ca/healthyschools/lcbh.html Personal Flotation Device (PFD) Use - Ensure school policies require PFDs for boating (e.g. at school picnics and camps). - Ensure swimming policies require PFDs for non-swimmers. Alcohol/Substance Use and Impaired Driving There is evidence to support that school based instructional programs reduce riding with drinking drivers (Elder et al., 2005). To maximize the effectiveness of school-based interventions on drinking/drugged driving, they must be part of a larger community effort that incorporates policy, organizational, and economic changes in addition to community-wide education (Elder et al., 2005). Resources: - Guest speakers from the Addictions Foundation of Manitoba or MPI - Teens Against Drunk Driving (TADD) activities (e.g. start a TADD chapter at your school) - Require safe grad planning/policies - Launch a youth multimedia competition to engage youth in addressing the issue; see http://www.isitworthit.ca/index-english.php (No Regrets Peer Leadership Program, 2012) - Manitoba School Board Association’s Safety Guidelines: Physical Activity in Manitoba Schools (2012); see http://www.mbschoolboards.ca/whatwedo/documents/2012%20Physical%20Education%20Guide.pdf - Active and Safe Kids Manitoba for resources on playground, bicycle, swimming, skateboarding, and ice skating safety; see http://www.activesafekidsmanitoba.ca - Explore the MPI website for other resources: - Road Safety Learning Resources for Schools (n.d.-b); see http://www.mpi.mb.ca/english/rd_safety/learningresources/rslearningresourcesforschools.htm - SpeedWatch or SchoolZone Loan program (MPI, n.d.-c); see http://www.mpi.mb.ca/english/rd_safety/Speeding/s_programs.html - What’s Your Hurry interactive website on speed and driving (MPI, 2007); see http://www.whatsyourhurry.com/english/index.html Healthy Sexuality Why We Study Youth Sexual Behaviours and Sexuality We know that sexual attitudes and behaviors are established during the time leading up to and throughout adolescence. Healthy sexuality is a positive and life-affirming part of being human. However, sexual activity among teens can pose health risks such as unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Teen Pregnancy Manitoba’s teen pregnancy rates are above the national average (McKay, 2006). Some of the short and long term personal consequences of unintended teen pregnancies include: - Lack of readiness to be a parent - Increased school drop-out rates - Poor academic performance - Risk for additional unintended pregnancies - Adult poverty - Reduced workforce readiness - Decreased overall child and family wellbeing (Phillips, 2010) Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) STI rates among Canadian youth are unacceptably high and have been rising in recent years (McKay, 2005). Chlamydia and gonorrhea rates are highest among youth ages 15 to 24 years (PHAC, 2012b). In 2010, Manitoba’s chlamydia and gonorrhea rates were the highest of Canada’s provinces (PHAC, 2012b). Many STIs have few or no noticeable symptoms so individuals may not be aware they are infected. These infections can lead to serious health complications if left untreated. For example, untreated chlamydia infection can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, chronic pelvic pain, and ectopic pregnancy (McKay, 2005). HIV, though treatable, currently remains incurable, and, if not successfully managed, is associated with faster disease progression to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and related complications, and to mortality (Shepherd et al., 2010). Healthy Teen Romantic Relationships There are skills, knowledge and attitudes about relationships that can help youth develop as healthy emotional and sexual beings. This includes being able to recognize their sexual feelings as separate from the desires and pressures of others, accept these feelings, and exercise control over their sexual decision-making. Teens who have a greater sense of control in sexual situations are more likely to refrain from intercourse and also more likely to use condoms when they have sex. Building good romantic relationships is also a component of healthy sexual development. This includes getting to know another person, building trust, dealing well with conflict, striving for power equality, and having fun. Good romantic relationships build positive sexual health outcomes (Schalet, 2011). The following section was completed by students in grades 9 to 12, and in grades 7 to 12 at Elmwood High, but does not include students from St. Alphonsus or The King’s School. Gender Identity Gender identity refers to one’s sense of oneself as male, female, or transgender (American Psychological Association, 2012a). In conversation, several service providers in Manitoba are receiving an increasing number of requests from schools for consultation to help staff support the rising number of transgender students in their populations. ‘Transgender’ is an umbrella term for persons whose gender identity, gender expression, or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth. Not everyone whose appearance or behavior is gender-nonconforming will identify as a transgender person (American Psychological Association, 2012a). Therefore, caution should be used when interpreting the results from question 64. We asked students about their gender identity. 2% of students reported that they identify as being transgender or identify with a different sex than what they reported in the demographic question of the survey. 5% of students reported that they have questioned their gender identity. Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to the sex of those to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted (American Psychological Association, 2012b). Research indicates that approximately 2 to 10% of Canadians self-identify as non-heterosexual (PHAC, 2008). We asked students about their sexual orientation. 7% reported they are attracted to both males and females or members of the same sex as they reported in the demographic question of the survey. Gay, lesbian, bisexuals and transgender people may suffer extensive social stigma. These feelings and behaviours are likely the result of real and perceived discrimination—overhearing homophobic and transphobic comments, experiencing verbal, physical and sexual harassment, and a lack of perceived safety in public areas (Taylor et al., 2011). Age of Initiation of Sexual Behaviours Youth who delay sex are at lower risk of having multiple sex partners, which in turn leads to decreased risk of acquiring STIs, including HIV, and involvement in unplanned pregnancy (Habel et al., 2010; Rotermann, 2005). The average age that Canadian youth first have sex is 16.5 years (Rotermann, 2005). When asked at what age they first had sex, 73% of students reported that they have not had sex. The most common age that students first reported having sex was 15 years old. Comprehensive risk reduction programs that promote both abstinence and sexual risk reduction are effective in reducing sexual activity and increasing protective sexual behaviours among youth (Stanger-Hall & Hall, 2011). Negative Sexual Experiences Sexual assault refers to all incidents of unwanted sexual activity (Brennan & Taylor-Butts, 2008). Experiencing sexual assault and sexual abuse can be very emotionally traumatic and have long-lasting mental and emotional effects. A study of B.C. youth showed that youth who have been sexually abused reported higher rates of stress, despair, self-harm and suicidal thoughts (Smith et al., 2011). They were also less likely to report excellent general health, feeling safe at school, and plans to continue their education beyond high school (Smith et al., 2011). We asked students if they had ever had sex when they didn’t want to. 18% of students who reported being sexually active, answered ‘yes’ when asked if they had ever had sex when they didn’t want to. Using Protection Students were asked whether they had used protection for preventing STIs and/or pregnancy, and, if so, what method was used. The most common method of protection against STIs and pregnancy that students reported using was condoms. 13% of students who reported being sexually active, indicated that they do not use any method to prevent STIs and pregnancy. 70. In general, when you have sex how often do you use condoms? - I have not had sex - Never - Rarely - Often - Always Winnipeg youth reported less condom use as they get older, from about 82% of 15 to 17 year-olds down to 67% among 18 and 19 year-olds (Prairie Research Associates, 2012). This is because youth often begin using hormonal methods for their birth control at older ages, and don’t perceive themselves to be at risk of STIs in monogamous relationships (Hock-Long, 2012). Because many STIs are asymptomatic, young people may not know that they are carrying an infection from their last relationship. At least two forms of protection (birth control and condoms) should therefore always be encouraged—this is known as “dual protection”. Students were asked about their use of condoms. 50% of students who reported being sexually active indicated that they always use a condom when having sex. “Condoms used consistently and correctly provide protection against getting or spreading an STI—including HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.” (McKay, 2005) A number of factors reduce the likelihood that a condom will be used—lower inhibitions with alcohol and substance use, being ‘in the moment’, embarrassment with discussing condom use, mis-perception of being in monogamous relationship—despite young people being knowledgeable about contraception as well as aware of how to access it (Brown & Guthrie, 2010; Hock-Long, 2012). Students were asked about their reasons for not using condoms all the time. The most common three reasons reported for not using a condom all of the time were: 1) I don’t like how condoms feel (20%) 2) I use another form of protection (17%) 3) I trust my partner (14%) Students were asked how often they felt comfortable talking to the persons(s) they are having sex with about using condoms or birth control. - 24% of students who reported being sexually active reported they are ‘never’ or ‘rarely’ comfortable talking to the person(s) they are having sex with about using condoms or birth control. - 22% reported ‘often’. - 55% reported ‘always’. We also asked students who have had sex how comfortable they were talking to the person(s) they are having sex with about STIs. - 44% of students reported they are ‘never’/‘rarely’ comfortable talking to the person(s) they are having sex with about STIs; - 17% reported ‘often’; - 39% reported ‘always’. Youth sexual activities are more likely to be safe, wanted, and gratifying when relationships are equal – that is, not characterized by large age differences – and when youth feel satisfied, experience intimacy, and are able to discuss contraception openly within their relationships (Schalet, 2011). Sex and Alcohol or Drugs We asked students if they had unplanned sex after using alcohol or drugs. 34% of students who reported being sexually active report having unplanned sex after using alcohol or drugs in the past year. Sex for Money, Food, Shelter, Drugs or Alcohol Most research indicates that the average age of entry into the sex trade is between 16 and 20 years of age (Cool, 2004). Preventive measures need to address the factors, e.g. poverty, discrimination and abuse, that lead people to a situation where sex for food, money, shelter, drugs or alcohol becomes their only perceived, or real, option for survival. We asked students if they engaged in any sexual activity for money, food, shelter, drugs or alcohol. 2% of students reported engaging in any type of sexual activity for money, food, shelter, drugs or alcohol. Where Youth Prefer to Get Information About Sex Adult acceptance of youth sexuality makes it easier for teens to recognize that they are sexual beings, plan sexual acts, negotiate sexual interactions, and ask for assistance when they need it (Schalet, 2011). Students reported where they preferred to access information on sexuality/puberty/birth control/STIs. Text messaging technology provides a great opportunity to provide teens with free, confidential, and accurate information about their sexual health (Phillips, 2010). Ideas for Action What Can Schools Do? Create Safe Places for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Students Providing information about gender identity and sexual orientation in health education can help to meet the needs of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender students as well as provide a context in which issues such as homophobia, transphobia, and discrimination based on gender identity or sexual orientation can be addressed (McKay, 2005; Taylor et al., 2011). Furthermore, school policies should include specific measures addressing anti-transphobia, anti-homophobia and anti-biphobia measures in order to effectively ensure a safe and respectful place for community learners (Taylor et al., 2011). Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs) aim to provide students with a safe space, an understanding adult, and committed peers in working towards making their schools more welcoming for students of all gender identities and sexual orientations (Taylor et al., 2011). Students from schools with GSAs tend to be more open with their peers about their gender identity and sexual orientation, and believe that their school community is supportive of transgender, gay, lesbian and bisexual people (Taylor et al., 2011). In December 2012, The Public Schools Amendment Act (Safe and Inclusive Schools) was introduced to Manitoba’s Legislative Assembly with a proposed requirement that school boards establish and implement a written policy concerning respect for human diversity (Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, 2012c). The policy would also need to accommodate pupils wanting to establish and lead organizations that use the name “gay-straight alliance”. Sexual Health Education Health education should move beyond delay and STI and pregnancy prevention to include the skills, relationships, and resources youth need for healthy sexual development (Schalet, 2011). Comprehensive sexual health education should be offered consistently from the beginning of elementary school through to the end of high school (PHAC, 2008). Sexual education programs in school are integral to providing youth with valid and reliable information contributing to their knowledge about sexuality and self-efficacy (Picot et al., 2012). The 10 key ingredients of effective sexual health education are: 1. A realistic and sufficient allocation of classroom time to achieve program objectives 2. Provide teachers/educators with the necessary training and administrative support to deliver the program effectively 3. Employ sound teaching methods including the utilization of well-tested theoretical models to develop and implement programming 4. Use research to identify student characteristics, needs, and optimal learning styles to tailor instruction to students’ ethnocultural background, sexual orientation, and developmental stage 5. Specifically target the behaviours that lead to negative sexual health outcomes, such as STI/HIV infection and unintended pregnancy 6. Deliver and consistently reinforce prevention messages related to sexual limit-setting (e.g. delaying first intercourse, choosing not to have intercourse), consistent condom use and other forms of contraception 7. Include program activities that address the individual’s environment and social context including peer and partner pressures related to youth sexuality 8. Incorporate the necessary information, motivation and behavioural skills to effectively enact and maintain behaviours to promote sexual health 9. Provide clear examples and opportunities to practice (e.g. role plays) sexual limit setting, condom use negotiation, and other communication skills so that students are active participants in the program, not passive recipients 10. Incorporate appropriate and effective evaluation tools to assess program strengths and weaknesses in order to improve subsequent programming (McKay & Bissell, 2010) Access to school based health centers is associated with increased contraceptive use and STI screening (Ethier et al., 2011). In addition, condom distribution programs can significantly increase condom use among teens that are sexually active. These programs also result in considerable cost savings related to medical costs for STI infections (McKay, 2005). What Can Communities Do? Programs must also address the influence of environmental factors on individual efforts to acquire and apply the knowledge, motivation and skills needed to maintain or enhance youth sexual health. Income and access to services are two of the many examples of the different ways in which the social environment, and particularly social inequality, can affect sexual health (PHAC, 2008). What Can Parents Do? Parent-teen communication has been shown to delay sexual intercourse and increase contraceptive use (Campero et al., 2011; Commendador, 2010). Talking to teens about sex and contraception won’t encourage sexual activity and will result in lessening the chance that young people will experience unintended pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections (Carter, 2012). With regards to gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender youth, family acceptance and support can act as a buffer against the negative effects of discrimination (Diamond et al., 2011). Youth perceive this support as a form of protection and advocacy, giving a boost to their self-esteem, sense of competency, and resilience (Diamond et al., 2011). What Can Youth Do? 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WHAT IS A HIGH SCHOOL AND BEYOND PLAN? Welcome to your High School and Beyond Plan (HSBP)! To be ready for roughly 67% of the jobs in today’s world, you need additional education or training after high school. Using the time you are given to work on your HSBP can help you maximize your education and prepare to move forward after high school graduation. The HSBP graduation requirement focuses on three guiding questions: - Who am I?, - What can I become?, and - How do I become that? Use these three questions as your guide to think about who you are and what you are passionate about, explore possible jobs that align with your interests, skills and dreams, and discover what kind of post-high school education and/or training will best prepare you for a job that fits you! Your school counselor, advisor and/or teachers, and your family or guardian(s), can help you create and update this plan as your interests and goals change. Use the activities that help build your HSBP to guide your decisions about which are the best available classes to take. Ideally, you’ll be able to enroll in a combination of required and elective classes that will provide an opportunity to explore your interests, develop your skills, meet specific credit and course requirements, and prepare for your future goals. Post high school options to consider as a meaningful first next step after high school include on-the-job training (including internships and public service), technical colleges, industry-recognized certificate programs, apprenticeship programs, military training, or two/four-year colleges. There are multiple state and federal financial aid programs and other sources of financial assistance that can help pay for the further education and training you need to complete through one or more of these post-high school options. WHAT MUST BE DONE TO COMPLETE THIS GRADUATION REQUIREMENT? Required elements of your High School and Beyond Plan (sections will be underlined): - Identification of your career goals using a career interest inventory. - Identification of your educational goals. - A course plan that meets state and local graduation requirements, aligns with your career and educational goals, and documents your chosen graduation pathway(s). - As part of the course planning process, students must be informed of and provided access to Dual Credit and College Bound Scholarship information and document any completed Career and Technical Education (CTE) equivalency courses. - Evidence you received information about state and federal financial aid options. - A current résumé or activity log. By 8th grade, you will complete your first career interest inventory. The results can show you careers that match your interests, skills, and personality. This information may help you decide what classes to take in 9th grade. You should revise your plan each year to match your changing interests and ideas about what you want to do the year after graduating from high school. If you have not met standard on your statewide math, science, and/or English language arts (ELA) assessments; your plan must also include interventions and academic supports, additional courses, or both that can help you meet related course and credit graduation requirements. Remember, the HSBP is used to guide your high school experience and prepare you for postsecondary education or training and/or a career. This plan should be updated each year to: - reflect your academic progress through a review of your high school transcript, - document accomplishments and activities, and - assess progress toward identified goals and make adjustments if needed. Your plan should be revised as often as necessary to accurately reflect your changing interests, goals, and needs. If you also have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) transition plan, your HSBP and IEP transition plan will be developed in alignment with each other. You may notice this IEP magnifying glass throughout the document as a cue for which information should be aligned. School staff can use the information in your plan to help connect you with opportunities aligned with your HSBP, so help them help you by taking this seriously and only including information that accurately reflects your current plan! HSBP-IEP CTE Case Study – Sherrie Brown – February 2021 PERSONAL PROFILE – WHO AM I? What interests, skills, abilities, values, goals, dreams, and personality traits fit you? Middle School: • I am friendly, easy going and creative. I love art classes and learning about computers • I know that the strategies that are helpful for me are guided notes, calculators and brainstorming activities for writing • I want to live in an apartment in a big city and find a job where I can be artistic. • I am good at art, computers, drama and I like learning more about science • I want to take more art and computer classes in high school • My dream job would be to be an animator for Pixar Films High School: • I have a great memory. I love work that allows me to think creatively to solve a problem. • I know that the strategies that help me be successful are to use a tape recorder during lectures, to have a calculator for math and use a graphic organizer for writing. • I value creativity and finding new ways and innovative solutions to problems • My dream is to learn more about computer design and become a graphic designer. • I bring skills in photography, photo editing (including Adobe Photoshop), and using the Microsoft Suit to create products CAREER GOALS – WHAT CAN I BECOME? What are some jobs and careers that match who you are and who you want to be? While a career interest assessment must be taken by 8th grade, different assessments can be taken at any time to guide your next steps as your interests and career aspirations change. MY TOP CAREERS OF INTEREST: 1. Graphic Designer 2. Computer Programmer 3. Animator 4. EDUCATION GOALS AND PLAN – HOW DO I BECOME THAT? What education or training do you need – both during and after high school – to prepare for your career interest(s)? For students who are also served by an IEP, HSBP goals need to align with the IEP transition plan goals. MY EDUCATIONAL GOALS Once you have ideas of possible career interests, use the websites listed in the Resources section at the end of this High School and Beyond Plan (HSBP) to explore what post-high school option(s) can best prepare you for the career(s) you are interested in. When setting your goals, know that there are financial resources available to help students achieve their dreams. First determine a “priority,” or top choice, educational goal; and then you can build your academic course plan to reach that goal. Then, find a second post-high school education or training option that can also prepare you for what you want to do. Knowing there is more than one post-high school option that can prepare you for your career(s) of interest can provide some flexibility to change your mind and adjust your course choices as needed. MY TOP POST-HIGH SCHOOL GOAL ☐ On-the-job training: ☐ Apprenticeship ☐ Military (enlist) ☒ Specialty or Career College: an Art Institute to study graphic design (See IEP Transition Plan) ☐ Technical College: ☐ Two-year College ☐ Four-year College (includes ROTC and Military Academies) ☒ Other: MY BACK-UP POST-HIGH SCHOOL GOAL ☐ On-the-job training: ☐ Apprenticeship ☐ Military (enlist) ☐ Specialty or Career College ☐ Technical College ☒ Two-year College (study graphic design) ☐ Four-year College (includes ROTC and Military Academies) ☐ Other: ### MY ACADEMIC COURSE PLANNER Directions: List the courses you have taken (or plan to take) each year in high school. Pay attention to local/state graduation requirements and admission requirements for post-high school options of interest. \| SUBJECT AREA \| GR 9 \| GR 10 \| GR 11 \| GR 12 \| \|-------------------------------------\|-----------------------\|------------------------\|------------------------\|------------------------\| \| English \| English 9 (1.0) \| English 10 (1.0) \| English 11 (1.0) \| Creative Writing (1.0) \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 4 \| \| \| \| \| \| Mathematics \| Algebra I (1.0) \| Geometry (1.0) \| Algebra II (1.0) \| \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 3 \| \| \| \| \| \| Science \| Physical Science (1.0) \| Biology (1.0) \| \| AP Computer Science Principles (1.0) \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 3 \| \| \| \| \| \| Social Studies \| \| World History (1.0) \| US History (1.0) \| Civics (0.5) Psychology (0.5) \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 3 \| \| \| \| \| \| Health and Fitness \| PE (0.5) \| Fitness for Life (1.0) \| \| \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 2 \| Health (0.5) \| \| \| \| \| *Arts or PPR \| Visual Communications (1.0) \| Media Arts/Web Design Technology (1.0) \| Commercial Art (1.0) \| CAD Drafting and Design (1.0) \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 2* \| \| \| \| \| \| *World Language or PPR \| \| \| \| \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 2* \| \| \| \| \| \| Career Technical - CTE \| Graphic Design (1.0) \| \| \| \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 1 \| \| \| \| \| \| General Electives \| Advisory (0.25) \| Advisory (0.25) \| Advisory (0.25) \| Advisory (0.25) \| \| Credits required for Graduation = 4 \| Yearbook 1 (1.0) \| Computer Application (1.0) \| Yearbook II (1.0) \| Personal Finance (1.0) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| TOTAL CREDITS: 24 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 Graduation requirements may vary. Please note: - Local Graduation Requirements: In the first column make sure the total credits required for graduation reflect your local high school’s credit requirements. - College Admissions Requirements: Refer to specific institutions’ admission requirements or Washington Student Achievement Council ([http://www.wsac.wa.gov/](http://www.wsac.wa.gov/)) PPR = Personalized Pathway Requirement; flexible credits based on High School and Beyond Plan (Complete pg. 7) --- 1 All CTE courses (indicated in red) provided in this example have the potential to meet the Industry Recognized Credential (IRC) or dual credit opportunity requirement of CTE graduation pathways. (For professional guidance only)* HSBP-IEP CTE Case Study – Sherrie Brown – February 2021 MY TRANSCRIPT, PROGRESS REVIEW Review your grades/transcript and progress toward identified goals every year. Revise your course choices and educational or career goals as your interests change. - Transcript/Progress Review with my School Counselor/Advisor/Case Manager Date: 4/20/16 - Transcript/Progress Review with my School Counselor/Advisor/Case Manager Date: 4/20/17 - Transcript/Progress Review with my School Counselor/Advisor/Case Manager Date: 4/19/18 - Transcript/Progress Review with my School Counselor/Advisor/Case Manager Date: 4/19/19 - Transcript/Progress Review with my School Counselor/Advisor/Case Manager Date: - Transcript/Progress Review with my School Counselor/Advisor/Case Manager Date: MY PARENT/GUARDIAN/FAMILY CONNECTION TO MY PLAN Engaging your parent(s)/guardian(s)/family in supporting your HSBP is an important part of the process. Annual Student Led Conferences or student led IEP Team Meetings for middle and high school students are considered a best practice for sharing your progress and inviting adults to help you reach your goals. - Academic Progress Review and Course Selection (SLC/IEP Team Meeting) Date: 4/20/16 - Academic Progress Review and Course Selection (SLC/IEP Team Meeting) Date: 4/20/17 - Academic Progress Review and Course Selection (SLC/IEP Team Meeting) Date: 4/19/18 - Academic Progress Review and Course Selection (SLC/IEP Team Meeting) Date: 5/03/19 - Academic Progress Review and Course Selection (SLC/IEP Team Meeting) Date: - Academic Progress Review and Course Selection (SLC/IEP Team Meeting) Date: MY PERSONALIZED PATHWAY REQUIREMENT (PPR) Depending on how many total credits your high school requires, there are at least 7 “flexible” credits – 4.0 electives and up to 3.0 PPR credits – that you can use to choose classes that explore possibilities and best prepare you for the post-high school option you want to pursue. For the 2.0 World Language and/or second 1.0 Fine Art credit requirements, the PPR allows you to substitute course(s) that better align with your career or educational plan. Course substitution decisions must be aligned with your post-high school plan. Please note that while World Language is only required for 4-year college admissions, it is a critical skill in an increasingly global society and economy. Top Career(s) of Interest: Graphic designer and Computer Programmer Post-High School Education/Training Plan (click in box next to your current first choice plan): - [ ] On-the-job training - [ ] Tech College/Program - [x] Specialty or Career College - [ ] Military - [ ] Apprenticeship - [ ] 2-year college - [ ] 4-year college - [ ] Other: Course(s) Replacing Fine Art (up to 1.0): Not Applicable Course(s) Replacing World Language (up to 2.0 credits): Commercial Art (1.0) and CAD Drafting and Design (1.0) How does my career interest connect with the PPR course(s) I am taking or plan to take? The Personal Pathway Requirements classes of Commercial Art and CAD Drafting connect to my post-secondary goal of obtaining a job as a graphic designer. I also want to learn more about computer science and mechanical drafting as these may be a secondary career of interest for me. MY GRADUATION PATHWAY(S) Students must complete at least one Graduation Pathway that will help prepare you for the post-high school option you plan to pursue. Use this section of your HSBP to keep track of which graduation pathway(s) you meet. You may combine different ELA (E) and math (M) options. \| ☐ ACT and/or ☐ SAT \| Math Score = [ ] Date [ ] “ELA” Score = [ ] Date [ ] \| \|--------------------\|------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| Math Score = [ ] Date [ ] “ELA” Score = [ ] Date [ ] \| \| ☐ ASVAB (AFQT Score) * Only ASVAB scores from the student’s jr. and/or sr. year are valid for military entrance/enlistment \| Student’s AFQT Score = [ ] Date Taken [ ] \| \|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------\| \| \| Jr. Year* Sr. Year* \| \| \| Posted AFQT Score [ ] \| \| \| Date of Posted Score [updated on SBE website by 9/1 annually] [ ] \| \| ☒ CTE Course Sequence² {Does not need to meet specific standards for ELA and/or math; 2.0 total credits minimum} \| Career(s) of interest: Graphic Designer (in progress) \| \|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| Course #1 Visual Communications Credit 1.0 \| \| \| Course #2 Media Arts/Web Design Technology Credit 1.0 \| Career(s) of interest: Computer Programmer (planned) Course #1 Computer Application Credit 1.0 Course #2 AP Computer Science Principles Credit 1.0 \| ☐ Dual Credit Class (E) ☐ Dual Credit Class (M) \| Course Grade [ ] \| \|-------------------------------------------------\|------------------\| \| ☐ Dual Credit Exam (E) ☐ Dual Credit Exam (M) \| Exam Score [ ] \| \| ☐ SBA / ☐ WA-AIM (check which one) \| ☐ Math Score ☐ ELA Score \| \|------------------------------------\|--------------------------\| \| ☐ Transition Course (E) ☐ Transition Course (M) \| Course Grade [ ] \| \|-------------------------------------------------\|------------------\| \| \| College (articulation agreement) \| \| \| Course Grade [ ] \| \| \| College (articulation agreement) \| What is your post-school goal? How is your chosen Graduation Pathway(s) preparing you? My goal is to enroll in a specialty college or art institute to study graphic design. I would like to obtain job in graphic design. By taking a CTE course sequence, I will build my skills, learn more about both computer programming and graphic design fields and be ready for technical school after I graduate. ² It is important to note that Sherrie has multiple combination of CTE course sequences within the same CTE pathway/program area that could be used to satisfy the CTE course sequence graduate pathway. (For professional guidance only) HSBP-IEP CTE Case Study – Sherrie Brown – February 2021 MY RÉSUMÉ OR ACTIVITY LOG Your HSBP must include a complete and current résumé by the end of 12th Grade. A résumé or activity log summarizes who you are, including but not limited to, your experience, what you can do, and your unique skills, talents, and abilities. You will usually need one if you are applying for a job, an internship, or scholarship, and one may even be needed for a college application. CREATING A RÉSUMÉ OR ACTIVITY LOG For a high school student, a good introductory level résumé or activity log generally has five parts: - Contact information: The top of your résumé or activity log shows your contact information. Make your name in a larger point size so it stands out. Your contact information should include legal name, phone number (where you can be easily reached), and a personal email address that’s “professional” – make a habit of checking it! - Objective: Briefly describe (2–3 sentences) why you want the job (or college acceptance or scholarship), and what you can bring to the organization (why they should hire/choose you). - Not applying for a job right now? Write an objective for a job you want someday. - Making an activity log for writing a personal statement for college/scholarship applications? More details about your leadership roles, goals, or unique life circumstances are needed. - Skills and Strengths: Even if you have never held a paid job before, you do have skills, abilities, and interests. When you write about your skills and strengths: - Use short points, not sentences. (Ex: Delivered after school care for two younger siblings) - Use action words. (Ex: Led, organized, managed, designed, developed, delivered, prepared, etc.) - Use workplace “soft skills” to describe your strengths. (Ex: Clear communicator, punctual, team builder, adaptable, problem-solver, possibility-creator, responsible, reliable, self-starter, etc.) - Use numbers and percentages to quantify your accomplishments. (Ex: Delivered groceries to 200 elderly citizens during COVID-19 stay at home order) - Include technical or computer skills. (Proficient with Microsoft Office and Adobe Flash) - Education: Note the name of your high school and date you expect to earn a high school diploma. Include the names of classes that help build skills related to the job you plan to apply for, especially Career and Technical Education (CTE), leadership and honors, or college level classes. Consider including your grade point average if 3.0 or higher. - Experience: List your paid and unpaid jobs, including name of company (if applicable) and how long you worked there, and community services/volunteer time and activities; especially any that show your leadership skills and/or dedication. Briefly describe what you did. You can also list any awards or other recognitions you have received either in or out of school. Use the tracker provided on the following page to document relevant information as you go through high school, especially any community service hours if required for graduation, so that it is ready to be used for creating and updating your résumé or activity log. Objective: Briefly describe what you want and what you can bring to the organization. I am a motivated young adult who demonstrates strong work ethic and creative ability and aim to apply my graphic design skills and artistic drive as a summer intern at your company. I will leverage by experience as an artist and graphic designer to contribute to your company’s goals and needs. Skills and Strengths: Remember, short points using action words. - Proficient in the Microsoft Suit in a variety of applications to create work products - Skilled in photography and utilizing Photoshop and Adobe Creative Suite - Detail driven artist whose graphic design work was featured in the Western Gorge Highschool Yearbook and Western Gorge Highschool website. Education: High School, expected diploma date, related classes, GPA (if over 3.0). TBD High school(s): Western Gorge Highschool Related classes: Visual Communications, Graphic Design, Media Arts/Web Design Technology Experience: Work, activities, community service, leadership, awards, and recognitions. \| What did you do (name)? \| For whom/what organization? \| How long? \| Main responsibilities and tasks? Leadership? Accomplishments? \| \|-------------------------\|----------------------------\|-----------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Yearbook Committee Editor \| Volunteer-Western Gorge Highschool \| September 2019-Current \| Supported the development of the school yearbook by editing and organizing photos in alignment with yearbook themes. \| \| Logo Designer \| Volunteer-Western Gorge Highschool \| Project: September of 2020 \| Worked collaboratively with both school staff and club members to design the logo for Robotics Club. This was featured on club shirts, the yearbook and on the team website. \| \| Volunteer \| Busy Bee Child Development Center \| September 2018-May 2019 \| Worked primarily with preschool age children to provide childcare and deploy enrichment activities to support child growth. \| MY FINANCIAL AID OPTIONS Since most adults change career paths multiple times during their working years, it is important to understand what financial resources are available for when/if you choose to pursue further education and/or training through an apprenticeship or a 2- or 4-year college or technical/specialty college. This section of your HSBP is required to ensure all students know what support is available and how to access state and federal financial assistance after high school. I will find out my financial aid options through either the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) or the Washington Application for Student Financial Aid (WASFA). ➢ Go to https://wsac.wa.gov/apply to access the different materials and information you and your parent(s)/guardian(s)/family need to apply for these sources of financial aid. ➢ I will be considered a dependent student for financial aid. ☒ Yes ☐ No (Check for dependency status at https://studentaid.gov/apply-for-aid/fafsa/filling-out/dependency). By (digitally) signing below, I indicate that I have received information about which application I can use (FAFSA or WASFA) and how to find out what information and materials are needed to complete the application. Name: ___________________________ Date: ___________________________ 1. If applicable, the colleges I am most interested in attending with their financial aid deadlines are: College: Art Institute of Western Washington Priority Deadline: To be determined, 2021 College: Art Institute of Western Gorge Priority Deadline: To be determined, 2021 College: Eastern Community College Priority Deadline: To be determined, 2021 2. If I need help figuring out or applying for financial aid, the trusted adult I will talk to is: Mary Jones 3. I can also get help at my school’s Financial Aid Advising Day on: 4. I applied for financial aid using the FAFSA or WASFA on (date): ☐ Not applicable 5. I applied for a College Bound Scholarship in middle school: ☐ Yes ☐ No ☒ Not applicable (If not sure, ask your School Counselor, Advisor or Case Manager to help you find out.) 6. I have reviewed and compared my financial aid award offers: ☐ Yes ☐ No ☐ Not applicable 7. I do not plan to apply for financial aid because: ACADEMIC INTERVENTIONS AND SUPPORTS For students who haven’t yet met standard on the 10th grade statewide assessment in ELA and/or math, additional support to ensure readiness for a meaningful first step after high school must be provided. Any interventions, supports, or specific courses being considered as ways to help you meet high school graduation requirements must be consistent with your educational and career goals. Options may include (but are not limited to): Priority class choices or schedule changes 1:1 support for “on track” graduation plan Academic interventions with frequent progress checks Social/emotional supports Dual credit course(s) Career and technical equivalency course(s) Transition course(s) Credit recovery course(s) Locally determined courses with qualifying assessments Remedial course(s) Tutoring/Mentoring Parent/guardian/teacher/school counselor conference Attendance contract Extended school day opportunity Summer school MY ACADEMIC INTERVENTIONS AND SUPPORTS I plan to graduate using a CTE course sequence graduation pathway. Based on my state test scores from my freshman year I do not need any additional interventions and supports at this time. \| Chosen Strategy: \| Timeline: \| Result: \| \|------------------\|-----------\|---------\| \| Tutoring after school 1x per week \| Freshman year \| By getting help with writing and reading comprehension, I passed my 9th English class with a C+. \| \| Tutoring after school 2x per month \| Sophomore year \| By getting help with writing and reading comprehension, I passed my 10th English class with a B- in the first semester. \| \| 1:1 support for “on track” graduation plan \| Monthly check-in with case manager during Advisory \| During monthly check-in’s we look at all my grades to make sure I’ve got all my work turned in and to see if anything needs to be made up or retaken; So far, I’m passing all my classes with at least a C \| ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR 8TH GRADE STUDENTS I met my state assessments in middle school and do not need additional supports going into high school. 8th GRADE STUDENTS WHO HAVE NOT EARNED A LEVEL 3 ON THE MIDDLE SCHOOL STATE ASSESSMENT IN MATH High school students who earned a middle school math state assessment score below Level 3 must take a math course in both 9th and 10th grades. The planned courses may include career and technical education equivalencies in math, if in alignment with your post-high school goals. ☐ Planned 9th grade math course: ☐ Planned 10th grade math course: ☐ Complete a Student Learning Plan before entering 9th grade (http://www.k12.wa.us/studentlearningplan/default.aspx) For your parent/guardian: By signing below (which is optional), I acknowledge that my son/daughter needs to take math, or an appropriate CTE equivalent course, in 9th and 10th grades. I also recognize that additional academic interventions and supports may be proposed to ensure my son/daughter is prepared to meet state and local graduation requirements. Parent/Guardian Signature: Date: Possible future implications for the third credit of math and science For your academic course planning, if math and/or science are courses in which you may struggle, be aware that your third credit of mathematics and third credit of science can be somewhat flexible but must be aligned with your career interests and post-high school plan. In addition, your parent(s) or guardian(s) and/or the school counselor or principal must agree with your course choices for these specific credits. Free Websites for Taking a Career Interest Inventory Career Bridge: http://www.careerbridge.wa.gov/Survey_Cluster.aspx Career One Stop: https://www.careeronestop.org/toolkit/careers/interest-assessment.aspx Advance CTE: Interest Survey for Career Clusters: https://careertech.org/student-interest-survey US Occupational Outlook Handbook: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/ Free Websites to Explore Post-High School Options Using your career interests and goals to guide you, explore these links to various educational and training options that can prepare you for a first job after high school. - Apprenticeship Programs: http://www.lni.wa.gov/tradeslicensing/apprenticeship/ - Apprenticeship Program of Study: http://www.k12.wa.us/careerteched/pubdocs/ProgramsofStudyandApprenticeshipAlignmentGrid.pdf - CTE Programs of Study: http://www.k12.wa.us/careerteched/ProgramsofStudy.aspx - Industry Standard Certificate Programs and Career Clusters: http://www.k12.wa.us/CareerTechEd/clusters/ - Military Training: http://todaysmilitary.com/ - Plan Your Future (planning resources for career/college/apprenticeship/financial aid): https://wsac.wa.gov/actionplan - 2-year Community or Technical Colleges in WA state: https://www.sbctc.edu/our-colleges/search-college-programs/default.aspx - 4-Year Public Colleges in WA state: http://www.wsac.wa.gov/college-admissions - 4-Year and 2-Year Colleges (Out of state/Private) - College Board’s Big Future: https://bigfuture.collegeboard.org/ - Peterson’s College Guide: https://www.petersons.com/college-search.aspx#/sweeps-modal Free Resources to Inform Students About Financial Aid Applications Use these links to access FREE resources and support to help you and your family understand and apply for potential financial aid options. - How to Create your FSA ID for the FAFSA (video) at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FpfAMe4aa0&feature=youtu.be - College Bound Scholarship information at https://readysetgrad.wa.gov/college/college-bound-scholarship-program (remember to apply by June 30th of your 8th grade year!) - Washington College Grant information at https://wsac.wa.gov/wcg - FREE texting reminder service (for financial aid steps) at https://wsac.wa.gov/otterbot EXCERPT: INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM (WITH SECONDARY TRANSITION) Student name: Sherrie Brown Date of IEP meeting: 4/19/2019 Student ID: 0000002 IEP annual review date: 4/17/2020 Eligibility category: Specific Learning Disability Evaluation Date: 4/01/2017 Primary language: English Birthdate: 02/05/2004 Age: 16 Grade: 10 District: Western Gorge Serving School: Western Gorge High School Parent(s) name(s): Noah and Jayleen Brown Resident School: Western Gorge High School Primary language at home: English Interpreter needed? ☐ Yes ☒ No Surrogate parent: ☐ Yes ☒ No If yes, name: N/A Primary staff contact name: Mary Jones Title: Special Education Case Manager PRESENT LEVELS OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE (including the strengths of the student and the concerns of the parents for enhancing the education of their student) Present levels of academic achievement: Sherrie is currently a 10th grader. Her strengths are in the area of short and long-term memory and problem solving. Additionally, Sherrie excels at developing meaningful relationships with her peers and is very artistic and creative. Her learning disability in the areas of reading comprehension and written expression require specially designed instruction in the resource room and accommodations in her general education classes. Sherrie has a significant learning disability in reading (4.7) and writing (4.0). Her comprehension (with accommodations of recording and graphic organizers) is in the average range. Sherrie self-reports that it is much easier to comprehend when listening vs. when reading and during applied tasks and this is supported by classroom data. She is able to independently advocate for and utilize spellcheck, recording devices and word lists. Academically, she maintained Bs with a C in Biology for the first semester of her 10th grade year. She met her IEP goals for her 9th grade year. She is currently earning As and Bs in her classes. Sherrie is interested in graphic design and computer design. She wants to attend a vocational technical school, or an art institute. Sherrie’s secondary program should be delivered in the general education setting with special education support and include CTE classes in graphic design, CAD, and Web design. She also needs to fulfill requirements in math and English. Sherrie’s goal area should include: - Academics: She continues to need services in reading and written language, including strategies and accommodations. She needs a tape recorder to record class lectures and demonstrations in her English, Biology, and CAD classes. She also needs a calculator for completing assignments, quizzes, and tests in her Algebra classes. - Career: She would benefit from the CTE classes offered at the high school in art, design, computer design and technology. - Community Experiences: Sherrie should explore training programs in her areas of interest. She would benefit from a work-based learning experience and/or internship in graphic design. Present levels of functional performance (e.g., communication, motor, social, behavior, life/adaptive skills, etc.): Sherrie’s oral expression skills are also a strength as are her interpersonal skills. Sherrie volunteered at the Busy Bee Child Development Center during her 9th grade year. She worked primarily with the three-year-olds and her supervisor reported that she was dependable and reliable and related very well with the students. Additionally, Sherrie has communication and artistic ability have led to her exceeding expectations in the role of both yearbook committee editor and logo designer to assist with the development of the Western Gorge yearbook. According to Sherrie and her parents, she is independent at home and intends to pursue living on her own after graduation. She is athletic and is on the junior bowling league and enjoys rollerblading. Her PE teacher reports she is a leader in her PE class. She is also quite active in church activities outside of school at this time. She reports she plans to stay active in group activities (bowling, music, sport events) and independent activities (sewing, reading, roller-blading). Effect of the disability on the student’s involvement and progress in the general education curriculum: Sherrie’s learning disability in the areas of reading comprehension and written expression requires specially designed instruction in the resource room and accommodations in her general education classes. She requires extended time on tests (English, Algebra, Biology, and World History classes). She will be provided with preferential seating in Algebra. She will be provided with digital recorded texts, study guide, and multiple choice or short answer tests rather than essay for all subjects. She may record lectures in across all subjects and use a calculator for Algebra. CONSIDERATION OF SPECIAL FACTORS: 1. Does this student require special transportation? - [ ] Yes ☑ No If yes, describe (if not addressed on the service matrix): 2. Does this student require Extended School Year (ESY) services? - [ ] Yes ☑ No - [ ] To be determined by: Date: If ESY is determined by the IEP team to be necessary, complete and attach the ESY addendum. 3. Does the student’s behavior negatively impact his/her learning or the learning of others? - [ ] Yes ☑ No If yes, consider the student’s need for positive behavioral supports/ interventions, a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA), and/or a Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP). - [ ] A Behavioral Intervention Plan has been developed for this student (refer to the BIP addendum). 4. For a student with limited English proficiency, does the student have language needs? - [ ] Yes ☑ No If yes, describe those needs as they relate to the student’s IEP: 5. For a student with a visual impairment, is the student in need of Braille instruction and/or use of Braille? - [ ] Yes ☑ No If yes, describe: 6. Does the student have communication needs? (Consider the communication needs of the student, and in the case of a student that is deaf or hard of hearing, consider the language and communication needs, opportunities for direct communication with peers/professional personnel in the child’s language and communication mode.) - [ ] Yes ☑ No If yes, describe: 7. Does the student need assistive technology devices and/or services? - [ ] Yes ☑ No If yes, describe: 8. Are there any other factors not already addressed (such as medical concerns or other issues), or other adaptations needed? - [ ] Yes ☑ No If yes, describe: SECONDARY TRANSITION \| Student participated in IEP meeting? \| If no, what steps were taken to ensure that the student’s preferences/interests were considered? \| \|-------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| ☑ Yes ☐ No \| \| AGE APPROPRIATE TRANSITION ASSESSMENTS (include results of informal and/or formal assessments including student’s needs, strengths, preferences, and interests): - ☑ surveys/questionnaires - ☐ profiles/portfolios - ☐ vocational assessment(s) - ☑ interview(s) - ☐ other: __________________________ According to surveys, questionnaires and student interviews conducted in March 2019: Strengths: - Oral expression skills and interpersonal skills • Short and long-term memory and problem solving • Has natural leading tendencies and thrives in roles where she can support others • Ability to independently advocate for and utilize spellcheck, recording devices and word lists • Art and tasks which require creativity • Using computers to create art and graphics • Very career oriented and driven to improve her skillsets in computers, art and graphic design Preferences: • The option to listen to materials rather than read them • Working with others • Being a leader in activities • To work at a job where she is able to be creative and create visual products • To live independently upon graduating for high school Interest: • Athletics (bowling, rollerblading) • Yearbook Committee • Graphic design, art and computers • Being active in church activities • Attending sporting events • Sewing and reading Needs: • Ability to record lectures and demonstrations • Graphic organizers • Access to a calculator for math classes and content • Extended time on tests • Preferential seating during math tasks • Digital recorded texts • Study guides • Multiple or short answer tests rather than essay Sherrie is interested in computers and graphic design. She took the ASVAB on 3/19/2019 and demonstrated mechanical aptitude. Her art teacher said that she is talented (Grade: A). She is currently learning Media Arts/Web Design Technology and her teacher reports she is exceeding task expectations (Grade: A). She also exceeded task expectations in Graphic Design and Visual Communication courses in her freshman year. Sherrie would like to attend a technical college or an art institute to study graphic design. She will need instruction, work-based training, and community experiences to prepare for this goal. Sherrie needs the opportunity to explore technology that will allow her to fully access computer graphic design. Sherrie needs to meet with the DVR counselor her senior year for intake purposes. She and her family should receive information about DVR this year to better understand and access the agency. \| EDUCATION/TRAINING (Required to be addressed for all students) \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Measurable Postsecondary Goal(s) (What the student will do after graduation from high school in the area of education/training) \| After graduation, Sherrie will enroll in a technical college or an art institute to study graphic design. \| \| Transition Services (list Transition Services related to Education/Training, including IEP goal number(s) if applicable) \| \| Transition Service \| Staff/Agency Responsible \| IEP Goal # \| \| Practice and support to fill out applications to technical colleges \| Special Education and General Education Staff \| Goal 1, 3, 4 \| \| Practice and Support to draft and revise a resume \| Special Education and General Education Staff \| Goal 1, 3, 4 \| HSBP-IEP CTE Case Study – Sherrie Brown – February 2021 \| ACT testing and accommodations \| School Staff \| N/A \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------\|-----\| \| Visit three technical colleges or art institutes and apply to school(s) of her choice no later than 12/1 of her senior year \| Special Education and General Education Staff \| N/A \| \| Apply for all possible financial aid and vocational rehabilitation eligibility for tuition assistance \| Sherrie and parents will be supported by Special Education and General Education Staff \| N/A \| EMPLOYMENT (Required to be addressed for all students) Measurable Postsecondary Goal(s) (What the student will do after graduation from high school in the area of employment) After graduation, Sherrie will be employed as a graphic designer. Transition Services (list Transition Services related to Employment, including IEP goal number(s) if applicable) \| Transition Service \| Staff/Agency Responsible \| IEP Goal # \| \|--------------------\|--------------------------\|------------\| \| Three job shadow experiences in graphic design company. \| Special Education and General Education Staff \| N/A \| \| Job preparation skills and review \| Special Education and General Education Staff \| N/A \| COURSE(S) OF STUDY (list the course(s) of study needed to assist the student in reaching his/her postsecondary goals, unless already described above, or attach a list of courses) Grade 9: English 9, Algebra 1, Physical Science, PE, Health, Visual Communications, Graphic Design, Advisory Grade 10: English 10, Geometry, Biology, PE, World History, Fitness for Life, Media Arts/Web Design Technology, Advisory Grade 11: English 11, Algebra II, PE, US History, Commercial Art, Computer Application, Advisory, Yearbook 1 Grade 12: Creative Writing, Personal Finance, AP Computer Science Principles, Civics, Psychology, CAD Drafting and Design, Advisory, Yearbook 2 Sherrie will utilize a CTE course sequence as her graduation pathway. - She is working towards completing a skills and technical CTE course sequence through her successful completion of Visual Communication and Media Arts/Web Design Technology courses, this is anticipated to be complete at the end of 2019. - She is also working towards the completion of a second CTE course sequence in business and marketing by obtaining a passing grade in Computer application and AP Computer Science Principles courses by the end of her senior year. \| Subject Area & Goal # \| Measurable Annual Goal \| Method/Criteria for Evaluating Progress (if not addressed in a separate document) \| \|----------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Reading: Comprehension Goal #1 \| By 4/17/2020, when given a literary passage, assistive technology (audio) and a graphic organizer Sherrie will verbally explain the relationship between: characters, plot, setting, tone, point of view and theme from 45% to 85% accuracy. \| As measured by teacher data, reviewed weekly \| \| Reading: Decoding Unfamiliar words Goal #2 \| By 4/17/2020, using teacher-selected fiction and nonfiction samples, Sherrie will increase her ability to decode unfamiliar words from 40% to 80% accuracy on three consecutive trials. \| As measured by teacher data, reviewed weekly \| \| Written Expression: Writing Goal #3 \| By 4/17/2020, when given a prompt, Sherrie will utilize a graphic organizer to independently use the five-step writing process to write a three-paragraph narrative, descriptive or expository essay with main ideas and supporting details, increasing accuracy from 60% to 80% accuracy on a teacher made writing rubric for 4 out of 5 consecutive work samples. \| As measured by teacher data, reviewed weekly \| \| Written Expression: Writing Goal #4 \| By 4/17/2020, when given a writing prompt, Sherrie will utilize correct grammar mechanics, increasing accuracy from 64% to 80% accuracy on a teacher made grammar rubric for 4 out of 5 consecutive work samples. \| As measured by teacher data, reviewed weekly \| \| Subject \| Accommodations/Modifications Needed \| \|---------\|-------------------------------------\| \| \| Presentation \| \| \| Use large print/Braille/audio books \| \| a \| Audio Digital Books \| \| \| Alter format of materials (highlight, type, spacing, color-code, etc.) \| \| a \| Provide study outlines/guides/graphic organizers \| \| \| Cloze Reading Strategy \| \| \| Read class materials orally \| \| \| Low-vision devices (magnifiers, Closed Circuit TV, etc.) \| \| \| Sign Language – ASL or SEE \| \| \| Shortened assignments \| \| \| Limited multiple choice \| \| \| Modify/repeat/model directions \| \| \| Rephrase test questions and/or directions \| \| c, e, f, h \| Provide test/assessment study guide \| \| \| Provide extra credit options \| \| \| Simplify text wording/language \| \| \| Read class materials orally \| \| \| Assign peer tutor/note taker \| \| a \| Other: Multiple choice rather than essay tests \| \| \| Timing/Scheduling \| \| \| Prior notice of assignments/assessments \| \| \| Extra time to complete assignments \| \| \| Modify student’s schedule (describe below): \| \| c, e, f, h \| Extra time on assignments/assessments \| \| \| Allow breaks (during work, between tasks, during testing, etc.) \| \| a \| Other: Tape recorder to record class lectures \| \| Subject \| Accommodations/Modifications Needed \| \|---------\|-------------------------------------\| \| \| Setting \| \| \| Individualized/small group instruction \| \| e \| Preferential seating \| \| \| Reduce environmental distractions (test/study in separate location, noise buffers, etc.) \| \| \| Other: \| \| \| Response \| \| \| Speech to Text \| \| \| Text to Speech \| \| \| Allow dictation to a scribe \| \| e \| Allow use of a calculator \| \| c, f, h, m \| Allow use of digital recordings \| \| \| Utilize oral responses to assignments/assessments \| \| \| Spelling and grammar check \| \| \| Hands-on assignments \| \| \| Other: \| \| \| Other \| \| \| Provide desktop list of tasks \| \| \| Provide homework lists \| \| \| Behavior plan/contract \| \| \| Provide daily assignment list/schedule \| \| \| Modified grading (describe below): \| \| \| Other: Adult Proximity \| \| \| Other: Allow movement breaks and standing while working \| \| \| Other: Token Economy and positive reward system \| \| \| Other: Social Stories \| \| \| Other: School/Home Communication System (daily) \| POINTS TO CONSIDER: - The IEP team makes the determination of what modifications and individual accommodations are necessary for the student. - Copies of this page should be provided to the general education teacher(s) or other staff who will be responsible for making these accommodations. - Accommodations provided on state and districtwide assessments (as noted on the previous page) should be those that are provided as part of the regular instructional program. a. All subjects b. Reading c. English d. Spelling e. Math f. Science g. Social Studies h. History i. Health j. Economics k. Physical Education l. Music/Art m. Vocational n. Lunch/Recess o. Library p. Extracurricular Activities q. Other: r. Other: ## SUMMARY OF SERVICES MATRIX \| Service \| Initiation Date \| Frequency (e.g., minutes per week) \| Location (setting) \| Duration (end date) \| Staff Responsible for Delivering Service \| \|-------------------------------\|-----------------\|------------------------------------\|--------------------\|---------------------\|------------------------------------------\| \| Special Education \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (specially designed instruction): \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Reading \| 4/19/2019 \| 175 Minutes Weekly \| Special Education \| 4/17/2020 \| Special Ed Teacher \| \| Writing \| 4/19/2019 \| 175 Minutes Weekly \| Special Education \| 4/17/2020 \| Special Ed Teacher \| \| Related Services \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (i.e. – speech, motor, counseling, vision/hearing, transportation, interpreting services, orientation/mobility, parent training, etc.): \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Supplementary Aids and Services \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (allows student to be educated with non-disabled peers to the maximum extent in general education or other educational setting): \| \| \| \| \| \| ### PARTICIPANTS IN IEP MEETING (Signatures are used to document participation in the meeting and do not constitute agreement or disagreement): \| Name/Title \| Name/Title \| \|-----------------------------\|-----------------------------\| \| Noah Brown \| Jayleen Brown \| \| Parent/Guardian \| Parent/Guardian \| \| Sherrie Brown \| Mary Jones \| \| Student \| Special Education Teacher \| \| \| Michael Robinson \| \| General Education Teacher \| District Representative \| \| Tammy Watson DVR Counselor \| \| \| Name/Title \| Name/Title \| Other individuals who should be informed of his/her responsibilities in implementing the IEP (bus driver, librarian, etc.): CTE Teachers and Employers ### TRANSFER OF RIGHTS: Beginning at least one year before reaching age 18, the student has been informed that all rights will transfer to the student at age 18, unless there is a guardianship or other determination that the student cannot make educational decisions. ☐ Yes ☐ No POINTS TO CONSIDER: - When the student reaches age 18 (or majority), the district must notify the parents and the student that rights have transferred to the student, and provide any notices required to the student and parents. --- Individualized Education Program with Secondary Transition by Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.	c06e30bf-14e3-4cc8-b7be-04665aeddca4	CC-MAIN-2024-22	https://ospi.k12.wa.us/sites/default/files/2022-12/AppendixB-HSBP-Example-CTE.pdf	2024-05-20T00:47:57+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058009.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20240519224339-20240520014339-00189.warc.gz	394,021,985	11,035	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.98011	eng_Latn	0.994695	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1833, 4395, 5590, 7645, 11719, 13303, 14925, 18501, 21654, 23677, 25937, 27853, 29452, 31668, 36009, 39248, 42224, 44633, 46374, 50180, 53801 ]	[ 2.484375, 2.828125 ]	1	0
Grade 7 Math SELF-ASSESSMENT & REVIEW PACKET FORM C The 100 questions in this packet align to a checklist of 60 goals. What’s included? ▶ A list of math goals for each CCSS domain and cluster ▶ 100 review questions, by cluster ▶ 11 pages plus answers This packet is a PDF so it can either be assigned electronically for distance learning, or printed at home or school. Do your students know these important Grade 7 topics? ▶ Solving Equations & Inequalities ▶ Rational Numbers & Expressions ▶ Area & Circumference of Circles ▶ Similar Triangles ▶ Percent Increase & Decrease ▶ Probability of Compound Events ▶ Interpreting Data Distributions \| Domain \| Pages \| \|------------------------\|-------\| \| EXPRESSIONS & EQUATIONS \| 1-2 \| \| 7E1. Use properties of operations to generate equivalent expressions. \| \| \| 7E2. Solve real-life and mathematical problems using numerical and algebraic expressions and equations. \| \| \| GEOMETRY \| 3-4 \| \|-------------------------\|-------\| \| 7G1. Draw, construct, and describe geometrical figures and describe the relationships between them. \| \| \| 7G2. Solve real-life and mathematical problems involving angle measure, area, surface area, and volume. \| \| \| THE NUMBER SYSTEM \| 5-6 \| \|-------------------------\|-------\| \| 7N1. Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions to add and subtract rational numbers. \| \| \| 7N2. Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions to multiply and divide rational numbers. \| \| \| RATIOS & PROPORTIONS\| 7-8 \| \|--------------------------\|-------\| \| 7R1. Analyze proportional relationships and use them to solve real-world and mathematical problems. \| \| \| 7R2. Solve multistep percent problems. \| \| \| STATISTICS & PROBABILITY \| 9-11 \| \|-------------------------------\|------\| \| 7S1. Use random sampling to draw inferences about a population. \| \| \| 7S2. Draw informal comparative inferences about two populations. \| \| \| 7S3. Investigate chance processes & develop, use, and evaluate probability models. \| \| \| ANSWER SECTION \| 1-4 \| About the Goals This packet contains a list of goals for each cluster of content in the Common Core State Standards for Grade 7 mathematics. Cluster headings are taken directly from CCSS documents, and each cluster has 2 to 9 goals. The goals are clear and concise, in the style of typical chapter or lesson objectives. About the Review Questions For each Grade 7 goal there are one or more review questions, usually in short-answer format. Some questions are in multiple choice or multiple response format. This packet contains a total of 100 review questions that provide an excellent overview of all CCSS content for Grade 7. Using Self-Assessment Beside the goals/objectives are item numbers of the related questions. For each goal, students should write Yes or No to indicate whether they understand the content. \| DOMAIN S CLUSTER 2: Draw informal comparative inferences about two populations. \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 1. Visually compare the centers and spreads of distributions on dot plots. [7.SP.3] \| Review Questions 88 \| YES – NO \| \| 2. Use measures of center and variability to make inferences. [7.SP.4] \| Review Questions 89-91 \| YES – NO \| If desired, a parent or teacher may mark the goals that students have mastered. You may want to recheck students’ mastery of the same goals later in the year using parallel forms of this packet. About the Domain Icons Each domain is represented by a letter-shaped icon that includes elements to symbolize key content. For example, the “E” icon includes variables and the “S” icon includes a circle graph and a spinner. Domain icons provide a quick way to identify the domain or strand of content on the pages. Distance Learning File Tips You may assign this file or individual pages in a password protected classroom management system. Students can type answers into a separate file, or write answers on paper and submit as a photo. If your system has an option of adding an annotation layer to a PDF, you can have students type or draw answers on that layer and submit the annotated PDF. Follow-Up Suggestions ▶ Try parallel or more advanced review packets. If students grasp most concepts, download and review the next grade level and/or review this level again in four to six weeks. ▶ If necessary, review math from the prior grade. If students struggle with a lot of concepts, try easier review packets or online practice games from various websites or activity books. ▶ Try printable card games. Card games are available for the topics listed below. Kids can play easy games with an aide, a friend, parents, or other family members. The sets are numbered and color coded to match the clusters and goals. Versatile, fun, printable games provide extra practice and strengthen concepts. Card Games for Grade 7 7E11 Simplifying Linear Expressions 7E12 Expressions for Percent More & Less 7G22 Circumference & Area of Circles 7G22 Area and Perimeter of Rounded Shapes (4 Card Sets) 7G25 Volume of Rectangular Prisms 7N11-C Adding Integers Using Chips 7N11-N Adding Integers on a Number Line 7N12 Relating Subtraction of Integers to Addition 7N13 FREE Distance Between Integers on a Number Line 7N24-N Multiplying Integers on the Number Line 7N24-D Relating Division of Integers to Multiplication 7R12 Equivalent Rates 7R21 Tax and Interest 7S33 Simple Probability Terms of Use Thank you for downloading a printable K8 Math Sense (K8MS) resource and/or the related digital files! 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Angie Seltzer Grade 7 Self-Assessment & Review EXPRESSIONS AND EQUATIONS Do you understand the skills below? Answer the review questions. Then mark YES or NO for each skill. DOMAIN E CLUSTER 1: Use properties of operations to generate equivalent expressions. \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 1-3 \| YES – NO \| \| 4-5 \| YES – NO \| \| 6 \| YES – NO \| 1. Add and subtract linear expressions with rational coefficients. [7.EE.1] 2. Expand or factor linear expressions. [7.EE.2] 3. Interpret related expressions in real situations. [7.EE.2] DOMAIN E CLUSTER 2: Solve real-life and mathematical problems using numerical and algebraic expressions and equations. \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 7 \| YES – NO \| \| 8-9 \| YES – NO \| \| 10 \| YES – NO \| \| 11 \| YES – NO \| \| 12-13 \| YES – NO \| \| 14 \| YES – NO \| \| 15 \| YES – NO \| \| 16 \| YES – NO \| \| 17 \| YES – NO \| 1. Use operations with whole numbers to solve multi-step problems. [7.EE.3] 2. Use fractions to solve multi-step problems. [7.EE.3] 3. Use decimals to solve multi-step problems. [7.EE.3] 4. Assess reasonableness of answers by using estimation. [7.EE.3] 5. Solve linear equations of the form $ px + q = r $ and $ p(x + q) = r $. [7.EE.4a] 6. Write linear equations to solve word problems. [7.EE.4a] 7. Relate algebraic solutions to arithmetic solutions. [7.EE.4a] 8. Write and solve linear inequalities for situations. [7.EE.4b] 9. Graph and interpret solutions to inequalities. [7.EE.4b] 1. Simplify by adding and/or subtracting. \[ 8.2k - (-6) - 4.19k + 5.31 \] 2. Subtract. \[ \frac{3}{8}n - \frac{9}{16}n \] 3. What is the difference? \[ 5.64x - (-4.36x) \] 4. Mark (✓) the choice(s) equivalent to $-3(8c - 5)$. There may be more than one answer. \[ \square -24c - 5 \quad \square 3(-8c + 5) \] \[ \square -24c + 15 \quad \square -9c \] 5. Simplify. \[ 0.5(x - 2.6y) - 0.5(x + 2.4y) \] 6. A mattress is on sale for 35% off. Let $ m $ be the original price. Mark (✓) the choice(s) that can represent the sale price of the mattress. \[ \square m - 0.35m \quad \square 1.35m \] \[ \square m - 0.35 \quad \square 0.65m \] 7. An auditorium has 8 sections of 180 seats and 4 sections of 135 seats. If people are sitting in 1,235 seats, how many seats are empty? 8. A large rectangular mural is $8\frac{1}{2}$ feet long and has an area of $42\frac{1}{2}$ square feet. What is the perimeter of the mural? 9. What value of $g$ makes the equation true? \[ \frac{3}{10} + 5\frac{2}{5} = \frac{g}{50} + 2\frac{7}{10} \] 10. Jen was earning $17.20 per hour at the beginning of one year, then got a 10% raise. Later in the same year, she got a 5% raise. After the second raise, how much was she earning per hour? Round to the nearest cent. 11. A storage box is about 12 inches wide, 16 inches long, and 11 inches tall. Which is the best estimate for the volume of the box? A. 39 inches B. 1,000 square inches C. 1 cubic foot D. 3 cubic feet 12. Solve: $11.5k - 16.3 = 15.9$ 13. What is the solution to $70 = 3.5(n - 0.4)$? 14. Melody spent $56.60 for art supplies. She bought 6 tubes of oil paint and one canvas. The canvas cost $15.50 and the tubes of paint were equally priced. How much did she spend on each tube of paint? 15. The length of a rectangular room is 12 feet and the width is 15 feet. Find the area of the room in square yards. Show your work. 16. Tyler can spend up to $16 for peaches that are $1.25 per pound. Write and solve an inequality for this situation. Use $p$ to stand for the number of pounds. 17. This number line shows values of $n$ that are solutions to an inequality. Write the inequality. Do you understand the skills below? Answer the review questions. Then mark YES or NO for each skill. DOMAIN G CLUSTER 1: Draw, construct, and describe geometrical figures and describe the relationships between them. \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|--------------------\| \| 18-19 \| YES – NO \| \| 22 \| YES – NO \| \| 20 \| YES – NO \| \| 21 \| YES – NO \| \| 23 \| YES – NO \| 18. The two triangles are similar. What scale factor maps triangle $ABC$ onto $DEF$? \[ \begin{align} A & \quad D \\ B & \quad E \\ C & \quad F \\ \end{align} \] 19. For Question 18, what is the length of segment $BC$ to the nearest tenth? 20. On separate paper, use a ruler to draw a line segment about 3 inches long and label the endpoints $F$ and $G$. With a protractor, create triangle $FGH$ with a 40-degree angle at $F$ and a 65-degree angle at $G$. What is the measure of angle $H$? 21. On separate paper, draw a right triangle with two legs that measure 8.3 cm and 5.1 cm. Then measure the hypotenuse of the triangle (the longest side) to the nearest tenth centimeter. 22. A scale drawing of a playground is shown. Each side of a grid square represents 6 meters. On the grid below, make a new scale drawing of the same playground using the scale shown. 23. Suppose a solid cube is sliced in half diagonally to create two triangular prisms. What two-dimensional shape is formed by each cut surface? DOMAIN G CLUSTER 2: Solve real-life and mathematical problems involving angle measure, area, surface area, and volume. 1. Recognize relationships between parts of a circle. [7.G.4] 2. Apply formulas for circumference and area of circles. [7.G.4] 3. Solve equations to find supplementary, complementary, vertical, and adjacent angles. [7.G.5] 4. Solve problems involving area and surface area. [7.G.6] 5. Solve problems involving volume of rectangular prisms. [7.G.6] \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 24 \| YES – NO \| \| 25-27 \| YES – NO \| \| 28-29 \| YES – NO \| \| 30-31 \| YES – NO \| \| 32 \| YES – NO \| 24. The diameter of a circle is 82 inches long. What is the radius? 25. What is the circumference of a circle that has a radius of 4.2 meters? Round the answer to the nearest tenth. 26. What is the area of a circle that has a diameter of 12.8 centimeters? Round the answer to the nearest whole number. 27. The diameter of a circle is 20 meters and its area is $n\pi$ square meters. What is the value of $n$? 28. In the figure below, the measure of angle $DFG$ is 144 degrees. Write and solve an equation with $x$ to find the measure of angle $DFC$. 29. Expressions for the measures of $\angle AOB$ and $\angle DOC$ are shown. Write and solve an equation to find $x$. Then find $m\angle AOB$. Equation: ______________________ $x = \underline{\hspace{1cm}}$ $m\angle AOB = \underline{\hspace{1cm}}$ 30. The rectangular base of a prism has an area of 42 square inches and the volume is 210 cubic inches. What is the height of the prism? 31. One leg of a right triangle is 41 centimeters long, and the area of the triangle is 369 square centimeters. What is the length of the second leg of the triangle? 32. The volume of a box is 2.5 cubic feet. The length is 24 inches and the width is 15 inches. What is the height of the box in inches? Do you understand the skills below? Answer the review questions. Then mark YES or NO for each skill. DOMAIN N CLUSTER 1: Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions to add and subtract rational numbers. \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|--------------------\| \| 33-35 \| YES – NO \| \| 36-37 \| YES – NO \| \| 38 \| YES – NO \| \| 39-43 \| YES – NO \| \| 44-46 \| YES – NO \| 33. In football, a gain can be shown as a positive number, while a loss is negative. Write an expression with integers to represent a loss of 9 yards followed by a loss of 3 yards. Then find the overall gain or loss. 34. A plane was flying at an altitude of 19,500 feet above the ocean and then ascended 8,500 feet. Next it descended 3,500 feet and leveled off. What was the new altitude? 35. Write numbers for the two points that are 2.5 units from Point T. 36. Adding -29 is the same as subtracting what number? 37. Mark (✓) the choice(s) with the same value as -23 + 16. - $ -\|16 - 23\| $ - $ -(23 + 16) $ - $ 23 - 16 $ - $ -(23 - 16) $ 38. What is the distance between the two numbers shown on the number line? 39. What is the sum of -58 and 43? 40. Add: $-500 + (-150)$ 41. Subtract: $-40 - (-70)$ 42. Subtract: $220 - 320$ 43. Simplify: $-7 + 11 + 16 - 14 + (-7) + (-10)$ 44. Simplify: $\frac{1}{2} + \left( -\frac{9}{10} \right) - \frac{3}{10}$ 45. What is the value of the expression? $-6.2 - (-0.7 - 4.5)$ 46. Simplify: $-\frac{7}{10} + -1 + -0.004$ Write the answer as a decimal. ### DOMAIN N CLUSTER 2: Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions to multiply and divide rational numbers. \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|--------------------\| \| 47-48 \| YES – NO \| \| 49 \| YES – NO \| \| 50 \| YES – NO \| \| 51-54 \| YES – NO \| \| 55-58 \| YES – NO \| \| 59-60 \| YES – NO \| \| 61 \| YES – NO \| \| 62-63 \| YES – NO \| #### 47. Simplify: \[ \left( -\frac{1}{6} \right) \left( -\frac{1}{3} \right) (-3) \] #### 48. Mark (✓) the choice(s) equal to \[ \frac{3}{5} \]. \[ \frac{-3}{5}, \quad -\left( \frac{-3}{5} \right), \quad \frac{3}{5}, \quad -\left( \frac{-3}{5} \right) \] #### 49. The change in value of a stock, in dollars, was $-0.75$. Write an expression and then find the total change in the value of 5 shares of this stock. #### 50. Let $ b $ stand for the length of one table in inches. Suppose $ n $ tables are placed end-to-end. Write an expression for the length of $ n $ tables in feet. #### 51. What is the product of $-12$ and $-4$? #### 52. Divide: $ 40 + (-8) $ #### 53. Simplify: $-40(30)$ #### 54. Simplify: \[ \frac{150}{-50} \] #### 55. Multiply: $ 5(-8) \left( -\frac{1}{2} \right) \left( -2 \frac{1}{4} \right) (-10) $ #### 56. Simplify: \[ -9 \left( -6 \frac{1}{3} \right) \div 2 \] #### 57. Simplify: \[ (-1)^{10} \left( \frac{1}{5} \right)^2 \] #### 58. Divide: \[ -\frac{3}{10} + \left( -\frac{1}{4} \right) \] #### 59. Write \[ \frac{11}{16} \] as a decimal. #### 60. Write \[ -9 \frac{4}{50} \] as a decimal. #### 61. How many whole pieces of rope each $ 2 \frac{1}{2} $ yards long can be cut from a rope that is $ 24 \frac{1}{2} $ yards long? #### 62. Evaluate the expression. \[ 30(-0.2)(1.1) + 22(0.03)(10) - (5.3)(0.2) \] #### 63. What is the value of \[ -4 \left[ -\frac{5}{6} \div \left( -\frac{2}{3} \right) \right] \]? RATIOS AND PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Do you understand the skills below? Answer the review questions. Then mark YES or NO for each skill. DOMAIN R CLUSTER 1: Analyze proportional relationships and use them to solve real-world and mathematical problems. \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 64 \| YES – NO \| \| 65 \| YES – NO \| \| 66-67 \| YES – NO \| \| 68 \| YES – NO \| \| 69 \| YES – NO \| \| 70 \| YES – NO \| \| 71-72 \| YES – NO \| 64. If a bicyclist has gone $3 \frac{1}{4}$ miles in $\frac{1}{4}$ hour, what is the rate in miles per hour? 65. Write a true proportion using two of these ratios. $$\frac{6}{14} \quad \frac{8}{16} \quad \frac{9}{21}$$ 66. The pairs of numbers in the table form proportions. What is the value of $h$? \| Minutes \| 150 \| 180 \| 270 \| \|---------\|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| Hours \| 2.5 \| 3 \| $h$ \| 67. Find the value of $y$ in the proportion. $$\frac{8}{9} = \frac{9}{y}$$ 68. The table shows a proportional relationship for two purchases of bags of peanuts at a shop. What is the price for one bag of peanuts? \| Quantity \| Price \| \|----------\|-------\| \| 3 \| $5.37 \| \| 5 \| $8.95 \| 69. Nate wrote the equation $4p = 6k$ to represent a proportional relationship between the price in dollars, $p$, and a quantity $k$ of juice bottles. When $k$ is 1, what is the value of $p$? 70. Whenever Jack slices 5 loaves of bread, he makes 80 slices. He makes 48 slices from 3 loaves of bread. Write an equation to find the number of slices, $n$, he cuts from $b$ loaves of bread. 71. A boat is moving at a constant rate. The graph shows the relationship between time and distance. What unit rate is shown by the graph? 72. Refer to the graph in Question 71. How many seconds does it take to move 120 meters? DOMAIN R CLUSTER 2: Solve multi-step percent problems. 1. Use percent to solve simple interest and tax problems. [7.RP.3] Review Questions: 73-74 Do you understand? YES – NO 2. Use percent to solve markup and markdown problems. [7.RP.3] Review Questions: 75-76 Do you understand? YES – NO 3. Use percent to solve problems about tips, commissions, and fees. [7.RP.3] Review Questions: 77-79 Do you understand? YES – NO 4. Solve problems about percent of increase or decrease. [7.RP.3] Review Questions: 80-82 Do you understand? YES – NO 5. Calculate percent error. [7.RP.3] Review Questions: 83 Do you understand? YES – NO 73. A person bought a hat for $19.98 plus 8% tax. What was the total price? Round to the nearest cent. 74. Suppose you deposit $3,000 into a savings account. If the account pays 0.3% interest per month, how much money will be in the account after one month? Assume that you do not withdraw any money. 75. The price of a pair of shorts is marked down 30% from the original price of $42.00. What is the sale price? 76. A store owner paid $8.90 each for bed pillows and sold them for $19.95 each. What was the percent markup to the nearest percent? 77. Nicholas has an online bank account that charges a fee of 1.9% on each deposit. What is the fee for a deposit of $134.50? Round to the nearest cent. 78. Justin and his family paid $85.00 for a restaurant meal. They want to leave a tip of 15% for their server. How much tip should they leave? 79. Jessie sells shoes. She gets a bonus if she sells more than $1,000 of shoes in an 8-hour day. The bonus is 8% on the portion of sales above $1,000. How much is the bonus for a day that she sold $1,850 of shoes? 80. A store raised the price of a backpack from $15.97 to $18.88. What was the percent increase in price? Round your answer to the nearest 0.1 percent. 81. At a 3-day festival, 300 souvenir hats were sold on Friday. On Saturday, hat sales increased by 30% compared to Friday. On Sunday, the hat sales were 30% lower than on Saturday. How many hats were sold on Saturday and on Sunday? Saturday: ____________ Sunday: ____________ 82. Refer to Question 81. Were hat sales on Sunday the same as on Friday? Explain why or why not. 83. A student estimated the weight of a melon as 6.8 kilograms. If the actual weight was 7.5 kilograms, what was the percent error rounded to the nearest percent? (Hint: Compare the estimated weight to the actual weight.) Do you understand the skills below? Answer the review questions. Then mark YES or NO for each skill. DOMAIN S CLUSTER 1: Use random sampling to draw inferences about a population. \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|--------------------\| \| 84 \| YES – NO \| \| 85 \| YES – NO \| \| 86-87 \| YES – NO \| 84. A cheese company manager wants to check whether a machine that fills bags of shredded cheese is putting in the correct amount by weight. After the machine fills the bags, they are packaged in cartons of 24 bags. Which of these methods will provide the best representative sample of the filled bags? Explain your answer. (a) Weigh one bag from every carton of 24 bags. (b) Weigh the first three bags of cheese filled by the machine each day. (c) Weigh a few bags randomly every 2 to 3 hours. 85. Forty students out of 600 at a school were chosen at random and asked to name their favorite classic board game from four choices. \| Board Game \| Number of Students \| \|------------\|--------------------\| \| Monopoly \| 16 \| \| Scrabble \| 10 \| \| Life \| 8 \| \| Checkers \| 6 \| Mark (✓) the true statement(s). ☐ 10% of students chose Scrabble. ☐ Twice as many students chose Monopoly as Life. ☐ Less than a fifth of the students chose checkers. ☐ More than half of the 600 students at the school are expected to favor Monopoly. 86. In three different classes in a school, students were asked if they planned to attend an upcoming school play. The results are shown in the table. \| Class \| # of Students \| Yes \| No \| \|-------\|---------------\|-----\|----\| \| A \| 22 \| 14 \| 8 \| \| B \| 24 \| 14 \| 10 \| \| C \| 32 \| 15 \| 17 \| Suppose the school has 800 students, and each row of the table is used to predict the school play attendance. Give three predictions of how many students will attend the school play. Make one based on each row of the table. 87. Refer to Question 86. Explain why the predictions vary. 88. The dot plots at the right show game scores of two students, Harper and Porter. Each student has played the game 20 times. Answer the questions about the scores by visually comparing the two dot plots. a. Which student’s scores had a greater mean? b. Which student’s scores had a greater mean absolute deviation? 89. A family had two species of apple trees, Fuji and Granny Smith. They weighed 50 randomly selected apples from each tree and made this box plot. What percent of the Granny smith apples weighed the same or more than the maximum weight of the Fuji apples? 90. Use the data from Question 88. Suppose Harper plays the game 50 more times. For how many of the 50 games do you expect the score to be less than 40? (Hint: First find the probability that she scores less than 40.) 91. Use the data from Question 89. Suppose the family weighs 200 randomly selected Granny Smith apples. Which is a reasonable estimate for the number of apples that would weigh 140 grams or less? A. 25 B. 40 C. 50 D. 100 DOMAIN S CLUSTER 3: Investigate chance processes and develop, use, and evaluate probability models. 1. Compare probabilities and relate to likelihoods of events. [7.SP.5] 2. Use relative frequency of outcomes to approximate probability. [7.SP.6] 3. Calculate simple probabilities based on equally-likely outcomes. [7.SP.7a] 4. Make predictions based on relative frequency, and compare results to predictions. [7.SP.7b] 5. Calculate probabilities of compound events. [7.SP.8a] 6. Create an organized list, table, or tree diagram for a compound event. [7.SP.8b] 7. Design and use simulations of compound events. [7.SP.8c] \| Review Questions \| Do you understand? \| \|------------------\|--------------------\| \| 92 \| YES – NO \| \| 93 \| YES – NO \| \| 94-95 \| YES – NO \| \| 96 \| YES – NO \| \| 97-98 \| YES – NO \| \| 99 \| YES – NO \| \| 100 \| YES – NO \| 92. If the probability of an event is 0.6, how likely is the event to occur? A. somewhat likely B. somewhat unlikely C. very likely D. very unlikely 93. Matt played a game 20 times. He scored above 300 points for 16 of the games. Based on his record, what is the probability that he will score above 300 points the next time he plays the game? 94. The 11 letters of the word PROBABILITY are written on separate cards. If you draw a card randomly, what is the probability of drawing a card with the letter B? 95. A spinner is $\frac{3}{8}$ red, $\frac{5}{12}$ blue, and $\frac{5}{24}$ green. What is the probability of spinning blue or green? 96. Refer to Question 93. Suppose Matt plays the game 50 more times and his skill at the game stays the same. How many times would you expect his score to be above 300 points? 97. Elizabeth spins a spinner that has 5 equal parts numbered 1 to 5, and tosses a die numbered 1 to 6. In one spin and one roll of the die, what is the probability that both numbers are greater than 4? 98. Suppose you toss a fair coin four times. What is the probability of landing on tails all four times? 99. For a picnic, Nan is planning to wear black pants with a red, blue, or purple shirt. She is also choosing from a checked, dotted, or striped scarf. She will wear flip flops or tennis shoes. On separate paper, draw a tree diagram that shows the combinations of a shirt, a scarf, and shoes. How many combinations are possible? 100. At a carnival, a game involves spinning two spinners that are equally divided into blue, red, and green. A person spins the spinners and wins a prize if they both land on blue. In Excel, the formula “= RANDBETWEEN(1,3)” will generate a random whole number from 1 to 3. On separate paper, describe how to create a simulation of playing the carnival game 50 times.	80152bd2-3ad1-4fbe-a625-bb9b0ab9f0c0	CC-MAIN-2023-14	https://www.k8mathsense.com/assets/images/previews/grade7/G7_Review_C_Preview.pdf	2023-03-31T16:06:56+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296949644.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20230331144941-20230331174941-00536.warc.gz	910,462,034	7,656	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.982169	eng_Latn	0.997284	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 647, 2191, 5603, 7636, 10113, 11643, 13193, 15199, 16857, 18891, 20834, 23315, 25439, 26464, 29313 ]	[ 4.09375, 4.34375 ]	2	0
The Dionne Quintuplets Reading 1. Annette, Cecile, Emilie, Marie, and Yvonne Dionne were sisters. They were born on May 28, 1934, in Ontario, Canada, during the Great Depression. Their parents were very poor and already had five children. The sisters soon became internationally famous as the first surviving quintuplets. The quintuplets’ doctor, Dr. Dafoe, also became famous. 2. The Ontario government and Dr. Dafoe took the children away from their parents. Dr. Dafoe put the baby girls in a special hospital of their own across the road. Their new “home” was called Quintland. It was more like a theme park. At Quintland, as many as 6,000 visitors a day came to watch the girls play. The girls’ story inspired three Hollywood movies. The Dionne Quintuplets became Canada’s number one tourist attraction during the late 1930s. 3. But the quintuplets’ father wanted his daughters back. Finally, after nine years of fighting the Ontario government, the girls went to live with their parents again. At home, life was not easy for the sisters. Today, only two of the sisters survive. They have written a book called We Were Five. The book tells about their lives, Quintland, and their abusive father. Reading Comprehension Answer the following questions using complete sentences. 1. Were Annette, Cecile, Emilie, Marie, and Yvonne brothers? 2. When were they born? 3. Where were they born? 4. Why did the sisters become internationally famous? 5. Who also became famous? 6. Who took the children away from Mr. and Mrs. Dionne? 7. Where were the baby girls put? 8. Did visitors come to watch the girls eat? 9. Were the Dionne Quintuplets Canada’s number two tourist attraction? 10. How many years did Mr. Dionne fight the Ontario government? 11. Was life enjoyable for the sisters at home? 12. Today, how many of the sisters survive? 13. What is the name of the book the sisters wrote? 14. What is the book about? Vocabulary Review A. Unscramble the Words Unscramble the words below from the story. Then write one original sentence for each word. \| WORD \| UNSCRAMBLED \| SENTENCE \| \|------------\|-------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| 1. tsleupnuquit \| \| \| \| 2. orop \| \| \| \| 3. tenmonrevg \| \| \| \| 4. eehmt \| \| \| \| 5. troisvis \| \| \| \| 6. usrviev \| \| \| \| 7. ctatronait \| \| \| \| 8. visebua \| \| \| B. Find the Words Now find the words from the exercise above in the word search to the right.	82c5971a-1be5-444d-8711-40bc3309442a	CC-MAIN-2021-39	https://www.itum.qc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/83_Dionne-Quintuplets_Can_Student.pdf-sec1.pdf	2021-09-27T11:09:26+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780058415.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20210927090448-20210927120448-00709.warc.gz	839,639,317	636	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.9988	eng_Latn	0.998791	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1205, 1933, 2949 ]	[ 4.34375 ]	1	0
Thinking twice before we light up the night Regarding night-lighting our gardens described in the last issue, Jean has objections: "Some of us really like the natural dark and object to 'light pollution' that prevents us from enjoying the moon and stars." "Unless you are using solar lights, every light is adding to global warming gasses from the electric generating plant. Think about it!" Displaying about a dozen pumpkins is all the night lighting I do in my own garden. Yet I can admire both darkness and light in others' landscapes. Photo ©2008 Steven Nikkila Your points are valid, Jean but I won't press them here. I prefer the dark, like seeing stars and know that some plants don't grow well when their night is broken by even a little light. However, I don't have the energy to take on the keepers of municipal lighting systems and the insurers of retail and commercial parking lots. I also lack ammunition to counter the arguments for light versus accidents and crime. Yet that seems the best route to take since the street lamps in one city block or corporate campus probably contribute more to light pollution and global warming than all the low-voltage fixtures in a whole city's worth of gardens. I don't like to question dollars and materials we spend on our gardens, in most cases. That's because gardening as many of us pursue it is, at its core, an extravagance. When we spend our time and the world's resources to cultivate ornamental plants rather than foodcrops, fruit, trees for lumber and herbs for medicine, everything we do is over the top. In a world short on water, fuel and space, we're questionable from the ground up. We're wasters of everything. I can argue that flower gardens aren't frivolous, but worth some minimal allocation of resources since they stave off the desertification of urban areas. We might find a place in the supply line for these oases where children see things grow, people learn about natural processes and wildlife maintains a toehold. My perspective is that gardeners make a positive contribution, even if they grow only flowers, even if they illuminate their plants, and that most of them are more involved in conservation than non-gardeners. When I teach, write, share letters like yours and speak to gardeners I ask them to make a difference by doing just what you recommend, to think before they act. What they say to me, write and what I see happening says they do that well in everything from weighing costs of a pesticide use against its benefit to deciding whether to buy pumpkins from a local farm market versus gourds from a chain store that trucks produce from afar. Each of us has a unique set of expenses and benefits. I think it's the sum total that matters, not the parts. So someone may be using pesticides I would choose to avoid but does so with reasoned forethought and careful aim, then comes up "even" with me by not using gas as I do on silly road trips. A person who contributes to neighborhood noise and extra gasoline consumption by using a leaf blower may ration water so well that I become a water glutton by comparison. The guy with the flashy night lighting may use less electricity than I because I habitually doze over my keyboard. As one woman told me, when I questioned whether something we were planning was more wasteful than it should be, "Janet, I don't play golf, party or smoke any more. I garden. Permit me this indulgence." So I enjoy well done night lights and even recommend them to thoughtful gardeners. I'll worry about them after the sodium vapor light installed by a neighbor that's left on all night, every night in defense of a backyard filled with a motor home, boat and trailered snow machines. Horticulturist: A whole lot of culture growin' on! Grow a bit of this and that? That's horticulture and you're a horticulturist. Horticulture: Growing fruits, vegetables, flowers or ornamental plants Specialists have titles, too, from agriculturist to forester and pomologist: Agriculture: Cultivating soil, harvesting useful crops and raising livestock Aquiculture: Cultivating natural produce of water; raising fish in ponds Arboriculture: Cultivating trees/shrubs, especially for ornamental purposes Floriculture: Culture and management of ornamental and flowering plants Forestry: Developing and caring for forests; management of growing timber Olericulture: Producing, storing, processing and marketing vegetables Pomology: Science of cultivating fruit Silviculture: Establishing, developing and caring for forest trees Vermiculture: Cultivating worms especially for bait or composting Viticulture: Cultivating vines, especially grapes There is no one right way to garden. Janet Macunovich Jack o' lantern better than electric lights? I carve pumpkins because it's fun and neighborhood kids love the show. That I do this for a display that lasts only a week has always seemed a shame. Just recently I've realized that the situation is more sinister -- it ought to be a crime to use pumpkins so lavishly. Surprisingly, electric lights may be more environmentally friendly than candle-lit gourds! The Water Footprint Network's efforts opened my eyes. In a move to encourage water conservation, it tells us about the amounts of water used to grow or produce various foods and basic goods. At www.waterfootprint.org I learned it takes 1,100 drops of water to produce one drop of coffee, 13 gallons to turn out one orange and 37 gallons to yield 2.2 pounds of potatoes. Pumpkins weren't listed but if they're midway between orange and potato I am ashamed to say the 315 pounds of pumpkin carved here this year required nearly 4,000 gallons of water. All for a light show and a bag full of roasted pumpkin seeds. (No, Aunt Chris, I'm sorry but I did not bake a single pie or loaf of pumpkin bread -- I "fed" only the compost.) Gardener keeps adding but Crocuses subtract "Bulbless in Sterling Heights, Michigan" sends us this mystery to ponder: You taught our class when and how to plant Snow Crocus (Crocus minimus) bulbs. I have been doing so in my front yard ever since. In fact I have been planting them at the grave sites of friends and family members, too. They look way cool in the spring when the grounds keepers remove the grave blankets and the plot is covered with flowers. I average about 75 bulbs a season in my front yard and at least 25-35 at each grave site. Not all come up in the spring and I understand there are several reasons why but, last fall I purposefully did not plant bulbs in the same spot as I always do in my front yard and nothing came up this spring. Should I not get at least 1 considering there must be at least 450 bulbs planted over the last eight years? I dibble the hole as instructed, provide a mixture of dry peat moss, potting soil and a touch of Holly tone bulb fertilizer. I do not have a vole or squirrel problem. I was thinking that in the spring after the first cutting I fertilize the lawn with the usual pre-emergent fertilizer. Could I be killing the bulbs with the pre-emergent weed killer in the lawn fertilizer? Few plants are as cheery as snow crocus (C. minimus) which bloom in March in zone 5. They are capable of naturalizing -- multiplying and spreading -- in a bed or in a lawn. Rabbits and deer eat the foliage, while voles and squirrels love to dig and eat the corms -- all potential curbs to their population. This year a reader may prove whether weed-n-feed is also on the crocus' enemy list. Photo ©2008 Steven Nikkila I love a mystery, bulbless. You gave us great information but maybe a crucial clue is missing: Do the bulbs prosper at the other places where you plant them? Is it only in your front lawn that they fail? If you answer "yes" to those questions, you can solve the puzzle for all of us: Plant more snow crocus in your lawn this fall. Then next spring when the time comes for you to apply the weed-n-feed to your lawn, apply it on one of the other crocus plantings, too. Snow crocuses push up their flowers first, leaves later. The foliage spends all of April socking away starch to make a bulb-like stem base called a corm. Clip a flower, no big deal. Kill the foliage before its time or trick it into tainting the corm and the jig’s up. If your bulbs are planted in the lawn and you’re applying that herbicide in April, the crocus foliage may be reacting to it. Pre-emergent weed killers formulated for use on lawn are supposed to kill seedlings as they germinate without affecting grass plants already in leaf, but those results are predictable only on standard lawns and weeds. Crocuses are sensitive to at least one such herbicide (s-ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate). They may be sensitive to others but that hasn’t been documented because tests wouldn’t routinely run on crocus-infested sod. No need to wait a year for results. Apply herbicide next spring, wait several weeks, then dig in both a treated and untreated bed. Look for new corms. You’ll tell us how the story comes out, won’t you?!! Any time is transplant time if plant's lot improves Karen’s dressed for fall and rarin’ to garden! She asks, “When is a good time to transplant my Knock Out rose?” “When is a good time to split and transplant geranium ‘Rozanne’? Is it too late to do in October?” If I have the time and inclination, “now” is always the best time to move it, even move plants at the very end of fall. For specifics of moves to winter interest, join me at Gardenviews next Saturday. See “Where to Catch Janet…” on page 7. Photo ©2008 Steven Nikkila October is not too late to move a rose. If the soil it’s going into is well drained and the spot is better for it than where it is now, I say go for it at any time of year. Otherwise just before budbreak -- sometime in April --is probably "best." Taking the transplant down to bare root is a good thing to do any time there are big differences between the soil in the current and new locations. The best times to transplant woody plants in general are just before they break bud in spring and in the last week of August or beginning of September. Perennials such as geranium divide very well in September, October and April, but with attention to watering afterward will divide almost any time. I rinsed soil off the edge of this bloody cranesbill (Geranium sanguineum) to show you one of the heavily rooted sections. It’s begging to be split off and given its own place to grow. Plants with such thick, waxy roots are tough enough to survive bare root in the open for days. Photo ©2008 Steven Nikkila It's said that we shouldn't move pines when they're candling -- extending their new growth. Yet I've been involved with a number of exceptions, like the weeping white pine at right. We had no option -- it was candling but our orders were 'move it now or cut it down.' We kept an eye on it after the move so it never went dry and it fared very well. You saw it on page 1, 13 years after this move. Photo ©2008 Steven Nikkila This week in Janet's garden Grow with me! this week I will: Concentrate on cutting lawn back from the edge and weeding along the edge of beds. In case the weather cuts the season short I want to have that zone under control since it's where all weeds start. *********************** Set mouse traps to catch voles, where I see their pill-bottle-sized holes with furrowed gangways around the garden. These mouse-like rodents eat plant crowns and bulbs and can be so numerous in what the farmers call a "mouse year" to eat clear through the crown of a gardener-daunting ornamental grass. *********************** Move the Christmas cactus into a cool, little-used room where the lights will stay off all evening and night. The plant needs 12+ hours of cool, uninterrupted darkness each calendar day -- no one running in and flipping the lights on. In about 8 weeks it'll set buds for Christmas or New Year's. It sits in an east window so it gets great light by day. Give it unbroken dark nights now for a winter holiday bloom. Or let it bloom when it will, because a Christmas cactus in bloom is great at any season. Photos ©2008 Steven Nikkila The 45mph garden You can put a gardener behind the wheel but you can't take the flowers out of her eyes. Look at what's catching driver's eyes and raising questions this week. It's really too bad that sassafras (S. albidum) is tough to transplant and doesn't fare well as a nursery crop. If it was easier to grow commercially this native plant would probably grace a lot more front yards. The bark is furrowed gray and the foliage is reliably luminous even in years when other fall favorites are a bit muddy in tone. A single tree often displays red, orange and yellow leaves all at the same time. A sassafras tree is useful as well as beautiful. The leaves can be ground for file powder, a thickener in Cajun recipes. The shoots are the original flavoring in root beer. The wood yields a good yellow dye. Photo ©2008 Steven Nikkila Wrap-up with Grins and Grow-ans that turn our green thumbs up or down Grins: To people who say in fall, "Oh don't look at my garden, it's so shaggy." That's just fall -- overblown and a bit frumpy. Enjoy it -- these are the same plants you said "will probably never grow for me" just last spring! Grow-ans: To transplanting bad with good when you divide or move plants around. If a plant is coming out of a bed with a weed problem, better to rinse its roots and divide it even to tiny pieces -- whatever it takes! -- to be sure you don't carry along even one root piece of the likes of bishop's weed (snow on the mountain, Aegopodium podagraria), horsetail (scouring rush, Equisetum arvense) or thistle. Who's Janet? A professional gardener and educator since 1984, Janet Macunovich designs, plants and tends gardens through her business, Perennial Favorites. She teaches and writes about gardening at schools, conferences, in her books, this weekly column, the monthly Michigan Gardener and other publications. Email questions to her at firstname.lastname@example.org. Where to catch Janet in-person: Saturday, November 1, 10:00 - 11:30 a.m., "An Enchanting Winter Garden," to help you identify your garden's off-season strengths, plan changes and select additional plants and features so it's a joy to see from November to April. This presentation is sponsored by Gardenviews store, 202 W. Main in Northville. There's no fee but you should call to reserve a seat (248-380-8881) -- we meet across the street from the store, in the Rec Center and it certainly is nice to know how many places to set! And later that same day, November 1, across town: 1:00 - 3:00 p.m., "Redesigning the garden's bones." I'm taking a look at how to improve the structure of a garden in Troy, Michigan. You can come see how this kind of design work is done during the very best season to see, evaluate and plan changes to the "bones." Free to my newsletter readers. Email or call Janet (email@example.com or 248-681-7850) for details and to reserve a spot in this limited-space workshop. Thursday November 6, 10 a.m. to noon, "Garden by Janet - Bring your gloves and tools!" At a Beverly Hills, Michigan garden, we're testing the drainage, interpreting soil test results and seeing the results of plants growing in soil of differing drainage and nutrient levels. Learn how to do all this for your own garden. Email or call Janet (firstname.lastname@example.org or 248-681-7850) for details and to reserve a spot in this limited-space workshop. Saturday mornings during the depths of winter. In late January I'll host and teach in the Detroit Garden Center's 18th Annual Winter Gardening Seminar. Design and native plants lead the list of topics. Watch for more news of that here or check in as the snow flies for more information from the Detroit Garden Center (313-259-6363). About attending Gardens by Janet sessions: We gardeners are let-me-see, hands-on people and that's how we learn best. In these sessions, I offer you that kind of chance to grow. You can visit me where I'm working and you can either watch or work with me side by side. I hope you'll bring your gloves and join in so you realize the most value for the time. At the gardens I tend through my business, Perennial Favorites: I've worked for many years with some of my clients, who understand my enthusiasm for teaching. They open their gardens to small groups who want to see and practice "how to." When the work I'm scheduled to do may be of interest to you and the situation allows on-lookers or apprentices, I invite you in. I've volunteered in the Detroit Zoo Adopt-A-Garden program for 20 years. During that time more than 100 people have worked with me, some for a day and others for years. We have fun, we learn, we accomplish much. The program requires that regular garden volunteers complete an interview and orientation process but you can try it for a time or two on a temporary pass as my student. If you'd like to join me at the Detroit Zoo, email email@example.com. Make the subject line of your email "I'll help at the zoo with Janet." That email will put you in touch with my good friend Deb Tosch who keeps my group's schedule straight while I plan and lead the work. You'll receive upcoming work dates and instructions for finding us at the zoo. Watch this space to join me in other non-profit gardening events and in gardens I design and tend.	849c1215-050a-4b41-8d71-1b70c070cfdb	CC-MAIN-2024-42	https://gardenatoz.com/media/94916/WhatsUp12.pdf	2024-10-14T18:17:01+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-42/segments/1727944255489.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20241014163540-20241014193540-00699.warc.gz	230,640,669	3,955	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998612	eng_Latn	0.998727	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1448, 4807, 8069, 10642, 12221, 14135, 17481 ]	[ 2.96875 ]	1	0
Money is used to buy things. Money can come in all different shapes and sizes. In the United States of America, money is made of paper (bills) or metal (coins). The most common coins are pennies, nickels, dimes, and quarters. There are also half-dollar and dollar coins. The coin with the smallest value is a penny. A penny is worth 1 cent ($). It takes one hundred pennies to equal a dollar ($). A penny’s value can be written as $0.01 or 1¢. You can add up coins to make different values. A nickel and two dimes have the same value as five nickels or one quarter—25¢. Each coin has a “head” side and a “tail” side. All coins have a president’s face on the “head” side. Look below to see what each of the different coins looks like, how much it is worth, and what president is on it. \| Coin \| Value \| President \| \|--------\|-----------\|----------------------------\| \| penny \| $0.01 or 1¢ \| Abraham Lincoln \| \| \| \| 16th president, 1861–1865 \| \| nickel \| $0.05 or 5¢ \| Thomas Jefferson \| \| \| \| 3rd president, 1801–1809 \| \| dime \| $0.10 or 10¢ \| Franklin D. Roosevelt \| \| \| \| 32nd president, 1933–1945 \| \| quarter\| $0.25 or 25¢ \| George Washington \| \| \| \| 1st president, 1789–1797 \| E Pluribus Unum. This Latin phrase is on all coins in the United States of America. It says “Out of many, one.” This means that out of the many states and many different people in the USA, we all come together to make one country. Money can be counted in whole dollars or in parts of a dollar. There are bills worth $1, $5, $10, $20, or even $50 or $100. These bills represent whole numbers. Money can also be counted in parts of a dollar, or fractions. The place value after the decimal point shows parts of a number. You need these place values to represent coins, such as pennies, nickels, dimes, and quarters. Place value helps determine how big or small the value of a digit is. Place value matters when you count whole numbers. In the number 172, the digit “1” is in the hundreds place. It means there is one group of one hundred. The digit “7” is in the tens place. It means that there are seven groups of ten—seventy. The digit “2” is in the ones place. It means that there are two ones—two. Place values can also show parts of a whole number. You can imagine all whole numbers as having a decimal point followed by zeros. One dollar can be written as $1 or $1.00. The first place to the right of the decimal is the tenths place. The second space to the right of the decimal is the hundredths place. A penny is worth one-hundredth of a dollar. One-hundredth can be written as a fraction: $\frac{1}{100}$. Or it can be written as a decimal with the “1” in the hundredths place: 0.01. If you had seven pennies, how would you write that as a fraction of a dollar? How would you write it as a decimal? A dime is worth one-tenth of a dollar. One-tenth can be written as a fraction: $\frac{1}{10}$. Or one-tenth can be written as a decimal with “1” in the tenths place: 0.1. If you had three dimes, how would you write that as a fraction of a dollar? How would you write it as a decimal? Twenty-five cents goes into one dollar (or one hundred cents) exactly four times, so a quarter is worth one-fourth of a dollar. A quarter can be written as a fraction $\frac{25}{100}$ that is reduced to $\frac{1}{4}$. Or it can be written as a decimal place with “2” in the tenths place and “5” in the hundredths place: 0.25. This is the same as two dimes plus five pennies. Why do you think a quarter is called a quarter? Hint: what is a synonym for one-fourth? In this chart, each number has one digit “1.” Identify the place value of each digit “1.” \| hundreds \| tens \| ones \| . \| tenths \| hundredths \| \|----------\|------\|------\|-----\|--------\|------------\| \| 1 \| 7 \| 2 \| . \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 0 \| 3 \| 6 \| . \| 1 \| 2 \| \| 0 \| 1 \| 5 \| . \| 0 \| 3 \| \| 3 \| 9 \| 6 \| . \| 1 \| 4 \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| . \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 0 \| 1 \| 2 \| . \| 3 \| 0 \| \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| . \| 2 \| 3 \| Answers: 172—hundreds. 36.12—tenths. 15.03—tens. 396.14—tenths. 123—hundreds. 12.3—tens. 1.23—ones. Counting Coins Match the groups of coins on the left to their values on the right. Answers are below. A. ![Image of coins] 15¢ B. ![Image of coins] 35¢ C. ![Image of coins] 41¢ D. ![Image of coins] 2¢ E. ![Image of coins] 8¢ F. ![Image of coins] 75¢ Answers: A = 8¢. B = 2¢. C = 15¢. D = 75¢. E = 41¢. F = 35¢. Litter is any type of human-made trash that is put in a place it doesn’t belong. Plants and animals—including humans—need a healthy and clean environment to live. When people litter, it hurts the environment and creates an unhealthy habitat for plants and animals. When animals eat litter, they can choke, get sick, or die. Animals can be injured or trapped by litter. As the litter breaks down (decomposes), the pieces enter the soil. Plants can get sick or die. Animals that eat these plants can also get sick or die. You can help protect the environment by not littering and by cleaning up litter wherever you see it. Always put your trash in the proper place. Some materials—like paper, plastic, and metal—can be easily recycled and should be put in a recycle bin. Many food scraps can be composted to return nutrients to the soil. Other garbage should go into a trash can. If you see litter, clean it up! Be careful; you don’t want to cut yourself on any sharp edges. Wear gloves or use a “pick up stick” when you pick up litter. Don’t put your hands in places you can’t see. \| type of litter \| time to decompose \| \|-------------------------\|-------------------\| \| paper towel \| 2-4 weeks \| \| cigarette \| 1-5 years \| \| plastic bags \| 10-20 years \| \| styrofoam cup \| 50 years \| \| tire \| 50-80 years \| \| plastic forks \| 100 years \| \| soda can \| 80-200 years \| \| plastic water bottle \| 450 years \| \| disposable diaper \| 450 years \| \| fishing line \| 600 years \| \| glass bottles \| 1,000,000 years \| Where does trash belong? • recycling bin • trash can • compost heap • landfill • reuse facility • waste-to-energy plant	<urn:uuid:7b1b2b08-5304-4c18-adea-3cb4423326d3>	CC-MAIN-2019-30	https://arbordalepublishing.com/ForCreativeMinds/CashKat_FCM.pdf	2019-07-16T09:12:08Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195524517.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20190716075153-20190716101153-00249.warc.gz	320,260,604	1,773	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.965603	eng_Latn	0.998828	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1552, 4368, 4688, 6520 ]	[ 4.46875 ]	1	0
Stress: Teaching suggestions 1. Get a student to read the instructions out loud and check that the students understand them. 2. Let the students do the activity individually before comparing their lists with their partner. 3. Stop the activity. 4. Elicit feedback. Activity 2 1. Get a student to read the instructions out loud and check that the students understand them. 2. Let the students do the activity individually before checking in pairs. 3. Monitor closely. 4. Stop the activity. 5. Elicit feedback. 6. Rather than give answers at this stage, go straight to Activity 3. Answers: See Activity 3 Activity 3 1. Get a student to read the instructions out loud and check that the students understand them. 2. Let the students do the activity. 3. Monitor closely. 4. Stop the activity. Answers: 1. strongest 2. strain 3. emphasis 4. prioritize 5. anxious 6. pressure 7. rhythm Activity 4 1. Get a student to read the instructions out loud and check that the students understand them. 2. Let the students begin their conversation, in English, in pairs or small groups. 3. Monitor closely. 4. Stop the activity. 5. Elicit feedback. Activity 5 If your students don’t have access to computers in the classroom, set this for homework. Answers: 1. Four main reasons are given for stress. 2. Over 30 million working days are lost annually in the UK alone. 3. Monday (morning). 4. See next page Quick Quiz Answers Read the clues below and write the solutions on a piece of paper. Then take the first letter of each answer and rearrange them to find the word connected with this month’s talking point subject, ‘Stress.’ 1. In its severest forms stress can ……LEAD……to hypertension, heart attacks and mental breakdown. 2. Changes in our bodies through ….ADOLESCENCE…. the aging process, being ill, etc. can cause people to feel stressed. 3. Any changes in our lives (be they bad or good) can cause a person to feel stressed and lead to ……RELATED……..physical symptoms. 4. The number of working days lost through stress-related problems is so great that the World Health Organisation has dubbed stress ‘a global ……EPIDEMIC…..’ 5. Surgeons cannot simply …X-RAY….. a patient suffering from stress, locate the source of the complaint and then operate to remove it! Answers: RELAX (R for Related [3], E for Epidemic [4], L for Lead [1], A for Adolescence [2], X for X-ray [5]). Activity 6 This activity can be set as homework to be followed up and consolidated in a future lesson generating more discussion. What did most students feel about the question? What reasons were put forward in each case? Did the students read anything which changed their minds on the topic? (etc.)	1570908b-cbc8-46d6-9507-2d99d73b1d65	CC-MAIN-2024-30	http://www.tefl.net/esl-lesson-plans/TP_Stress_TS.pdf	2024-07-25T19:33:04+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-30/segments/1720763861452.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20240725175545-20240725205545-00105.warc.gz	50,621,325	619	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997814	eng_Latn	0.998186	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1401, 2680 ]	[ 4.28125 ]	2	0
AstroLOve ASTROLOGY OF COMPATIBILITY, CONNECTIONS, & CHEMSITRY The Dark Pixie ASTROLOGY ## Contents: ### Class 1: Synastry - Lesson 1: Harmonious Connections in Synastry 3 - Lesson 2: Mercury Through Pluto Connections in Synastry 6 - Lesson 3: The Houses in Synastry 10 - Lesson 4: Extra Synastry Notes 12 - Lesson 5: Synastry Examples 14 ### Class 2: Composites - Lesson 1: Composite Chart Parts 18 - Lesson 2: What to Look For in a Composite Chart 21 - Lesson 3: Composite Chart Examples 23 ### Class 3: Transits - Lesson 1: Transits in Love 29 - Lesson 2: Transits Example 34 - Lesson 3: Using Electionals 36 ### Class 4: Chemistry - Lesson 1: Indicators of Sexual Chemistry 39 - Lesson 2: Chemistry Examples 41 - Lesson 3: What You’re Into by Sign 44 ### Extra - Spotting Who to Avoid 48 - Performing a Relationship Analysis 54 - Transit Aspects to Composite Planets 58 Class 1: Synastry Lesson 1: Harmonious Connections in Synastry When you want to get a gauge on compatibility with someone, you use synastry, which is comparing your chart to the chart of someone else's. Comparing the two charts can give you an idea of what kind of compatibility you have with each other. The Sun rules your true identity, the Moon rules your emotional self, and the Ascendant rules your outer self, and this trio is the astrological triad in your natal chart. You will often find that you're drawn to people who link to your Sun, Moon, or Ascendant sign in their own Sun, Moon, or Ascendant sign, and this can be excellent for compatibility. This trio is so closely linked to who we are, the building blocks for our entirely personality, so having this link shows an innate understanding of who each of you are. A classic - and crazy strong! - example of the importance of the triad connections is Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward. They were married for decades and seen as one of the most successful Hollywood marriages. Their triad? Both were Capricorn Risings, his Sun was Aquarius and her Moon was Aquarius, and her Sun was Pisces and his Moon was Pisces. Oddly, Joanne said that the two didn't have many common interests and gave each other a lot of space, but their triad connections were so strong, they just fit right together. You can compare each personal planet in your chart to the same planet in their chart, and get a quick idea of how harmonious or challenging whatever that planet rules is between the two of you. It can be considered harmonious when they're in the same sign or the same element. Signs of the same element have natural harmony. The elements are: Fire: Aries, Leo, Sagittarius Earth: Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn Air: Gemini, Libra, Aquarius Water: Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces You can also have a harmonious pairing when one person has a planet in a sign, and the other person has the natural ruler of that sign conjunct their planet (so say, you have Venus in Sagittarius and they have Venus conjunct Jupiter, the natural ruler of Sagittarius). When you have a planet conjunct another in your chart, they each bring their own natural energy to the other, almost making it like the planet is in the sign the other planet rules rather than the sign it’s actually in. So in the example, if you have Venus conjunct Jupiter, Venus will feel like Venus in Sagittarius at times and Jupiter will feel like Jupiter in Taurus or Libra at times. The natural rulers of the signs are: Sun: Leo Moon: Cancer Mercury: Gemini, Virgo Venus: Taurus, Libra Mars: Aries Jupiter: Sagittarius Saturn: Capricorn Uranus: Aquarius Neptune: Pisces Pluto: Scorpio Another option for a harmonious connection is through the houses. Each sign pairs up naturally with one house, and this can bring compatibility that may not seem obvious via the signs. The sign-house pairings are: - Aries - 1st house - Taurus - 2nd house - Gemini - 3rd house - Cancer - 4th house - Leo - 5th house - Virgo - 6th house - Libra - 7th house - Scorpio - 8th house - Sagittarius - 9th house - Capricorn - 10th house - Aquarius - 11th house - Pisces - 12th house So, let's say one person has Sun in Gemini and the other person has Sun in Scorpio. These would not seem compatible by the signs, but if the Gemini has Sun in the 8th house, or the Scorpio has Sun in the 3rd house, this can provide a powerful link. You can make the same kind of link with any of the planets. Planets that are in the 1st house can make someone seem like they have the sign that planet rules as their Rising, and this can also provide a strong link (so say you have Uranus in the 1st house in Scorpio; you could connect with someone through the Scorpio energy or through Aquarius, the sign Uranus rules). Lesson 2: Mercury Through Pluto Connections in Synastry Mercury is the planet of communication, so having harmonious Mercurys helps with your ability to communicate with one another and see eye-to-eye. If you don't have harmonious Mercurys, communication may be difficult at times. If one person's Mercury conjuncts another person's planet, this can also impact communication: conjunct the Sun or Moon can make communication much easier and free-flowing; conjunct Venus can make communications pleasant between you and stimulate affection, conjunct Mars can make you super engaging; conjunct Jupiter can help you enjoy communication; conjunct Saturn can make communication difficult and you may not open up as much; conjunct Uranus can make communication a little erratic and one of you may think the other is brilliant or cuckoo; conjunct Neptune can bring misunderstandings and one of you may feel a bit drowned out by the other, but it can help with subconscious understanding; and conjunct Pluto, communication can be intense but sometimes one may try to dominate the other mentally. Venus is the planet of love and relationships, so having harmonious Venuses is suuuper helpful for compatibility. It shows you both have the same approach and want the same things naturally in love and relationships. If one person's Venus conjunct another person's planet, this can impact the love: conjunct the Sun or Moon is excellent, and you can have strong loving feelings between you; conjunct Mars can bring a lot of passion and sizzle; conjunct Jupiter can bring great affection and genuine connection; conjunct Saturn can make it difficult to express affection, and you may not want to share; conjunct Uranus can bring some erratic energy into the relationship overall, and it may be a connection that starts fast and ends faster; conjunct Neptune can show a spiritual connection on the positive side, but can also make it difficult to be open with feelings; and conjunct Pluto can show intense passion, but also some fighting over power and control in the relationship. Mars is the planet of energy and drive, so having harmonious Mars shows you both can be motivated by the same things and take action in similar ways. If one person’s Mars conjuncts the other’s Sun or Moon, this can be a pairing that energizes and spurs action; conjunct Jupiter can bring a little luck in the pairing and you can create big things together; conjunct Saturn can stifle energy, but can also help you to be more productive together (and good for business pairings); conjunct Uranus can help you respect each other’s individuality, but also bring out impulsive behavior; conjunct Neptune can bring more spiritual connection; and conjunct Pluto can create a powerful pairing, but you may have to work on managing strong energy that can quickly become destructive. Jupiter is the happy planet, and Jupiter connections in synastry can show a genuine like between you. This is a great thing to see for any relationship where you really need to get along, and it’s one of my favorite things to see. Saturn is the planet of restriction, so Saturn connections can bring some challenges as one person may feel stifled and limited by the other. It can be good for professional connections though since Saturn is natural ruler of goals and ambitions. Saturn can also be helpful for commitment, so you may take a relationship with someone more seriously if you have a Saturn connection, and can stick with it through hard times (though sometimes it means you stick with it even when it’s terrible and you should leave). Though I tend to find that many people struggle with someone who connects to their Saturn, and you just may not like them at all (unlike with Jupiter). This tends to be more often with a conjunction to Saturn. Uranus connections can bring out a feeling of instability and inability to count on each other or the relationship; since Uranus is natural ruler of friendships, this can be a good link with a friend since you’re more likely to give each other space and respect each other’s individual expression. Uranus also can be in play with a connection that is unusual in some way. Neptune connections can show you have a spiritual connection, and this may come from past lives (if you believe in past lives) or be karmic in nature. There can be extra empathy and compassion, but care needs to be taken that boundaries remain solid and healthy so one doesn’t take advantage of the other, which can happen all too often. Pluto connections can bring on power struggles and control issues as one wants to dominate and control the other. There is capability for great transformations and great passion, but you need to respect each other and not try to take power away from each other. The Lunar Nodes are the points in the Moon’s orbit where the Moon crosses the ecliptic, and are spiritual/karmic in nature. There’s a North Node and a South Node, and they exactly oppose one another. Having a North Node connection can show you two are meant to come together for a reason, to help one another grow and find your potential. It can feel uncomfortable at times though, because this is unfamiliar energy that we can resist if we’re not ready. You may run from someone you have a North Node connection with if you’re not ready (Sun-Moon-Rising and Jupiter connections can help). Having a South Node connection can help you feel like you’ve known each other before (or did in a past life, if you believe in past lives). There is familiarity that helps you to feel at ease with each other, but you can outgrow each other with the South Node because it represents the past. If you have a South Node connection, you generally also want to have a North Node connection and other strong connections to lower the chances that you will outgrow each other. Chiron is an asteroid representing our greatest wounds and how to heal from them. Having a Chiron connection can show you either help each other to heal or hurt each other and cause more wounds. Chiron doesn’t move very fast, so having Chiron in same or compatible signs is pretty normal (unless you have a massive age difference), so you’re mostly going to look at Chiron aspects to the personal planets, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Lunar Nodes. Hard aspects (squares and oppositions) can bring out greater ability to wound, while easy aspects (sextiles and trines) can bring out greater ability to heal. Conjunct the Sun or Moon can go either way; conjunct Mercury, Venus, or Jupiter tends to be more positive, while conjunct Mars, Saturn, or Pluto tends to be more challenging. Lesson 3: The Houses in Synastry Then we have chart overlay. To overlay the chart means to take the planets and house cusps from one person’s chart and see where they fall in the other person’s chart. This shows what you (your chart) does to them (their chart) in a more direct way. It’s helpful to think of it as what I (my planet) do to you (your house) and what you (your planet) do to me (my house). Where your Sun falls, you shine a light and bring attention in their life; where your Moon falls, you bring out emotion and stimulate their needs; where your Mercury falls, you generate lots of activity and a desire for variety; where your Venus falls, you bring out the love; where your Mars falls, you motivate and inspire; where your Jupiter falls, you help them expand; where your Saturn falls, you restrict them; where your Uranus falls, you bring change and push outside of their comfort zone; where your Neptune falls, you bring a little cloud haziness and need for intuitive guidance; and where your Pluto falls, you bring intensity and fight them for power. In romantic relationships, it’s helpful to have planets falling in the 5th house of love and 7th house of relationship; planets in the 12th house can be challenging, especially a personal planet as it can cause you or your partner to hide your true self (Sun), your emotions (Moon), your opinions (Mercury), your affections (Venus), or your desires (Mars). Friendships are ruled by the 11th house, so it’s helpful to have planets fall in the 11th house with a friend (3rd house is also helpful for friendships; 11th house can also help with the foundation of friendship in a romantic relationship). The professional houses are the 2nd (money), 6th (work), and 10th (career) houses, so planets falling in these houses can be helpful for professional relationships; the 8th house rules mutually beneficial relationships, so business partnerships can benefit from planets falling in the 8th house. Family relationships can benefit from planets falling in the 4th house of home and family. I also often find with siblings that are close that you'll have 3rd and/or 4th houses or rulers aligned. One thing I love to see is overlay between the 5th, 7th, or 8th houses in romantic relationships. The 5th house rules love, the 7th house rules relationships, and the 8th house rules intimacy, so when your 5th, 7th, or 8th house overlaps with your partner’s 5th, 7th, or 8th house, this means that when a transit (moving) planet is going through your house, it's going through theirs at the same time, and this naturally brings both of your attentions to your relationship and each other. No forcing, no having to try consciously, it just happens. The only downside is when it's Saturn touring them at the same time - that can signal a difficult period! Lesson 4: Extra Synastry Notes I want to list the things that I look for in synastry most for strong connections: Triad connections (Sun-Moon-Rising) Venus conjunct the Sun, Moon, or angle (1st, 4th, 7th, or 10th house cusp) Jupiter conjunct a personal planet or angle North Node conjunct a personal planet or Jupiter Personal planets falling in the 7th house Overlap of the 5th-7th-8th houses And these are connections that can prove challenging or show red flags: Mars conjunct, square, or opposite Pluto Venus conjunct, square, or opposite Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, or Pluto Saturn conjunct, square or opposite Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, or an angle Planets in the 12th house Chiron square the personal planets, conjunct one of the Lunar Nodes, or square the Lunar Nodes One extra little quirky thing you can assess is asteroid connections. There are love asteroids you can look up and if one of their personal planets or Jupiter is conjunct (or one of your personal planets or Jupiter is conjunct one of their love asteroids), that can be helpful (but orbs are small with asteroids, so under 3 degrees, and many believe under 2 degrees). Love asteroids you can check: Amor (number 1221), Juno (number 3), Cupido (number 763), Valentine (number 447), Aphrodite (number 1388), Lust (number 4386), Sappho (number 80), and Nymphé (number 875). Since there are so many asteroids (thousands of them), you can also usually find an asteroid for each of your names (first, middle, or last, and if not spelled exactly, then sounds alike). You can look up the asteroid of each other’s names and see where their name falls in your natal chart, your name falls in their natal chart, and compare to each other’s charts. I find that when set off by transit planets or by progressions, this can trigger the person coming into your life (so if you dig back to around when you met and look at transits and progressions, you’ll usually find the name asteroids involved at the time being aspected in the natal or progressed charts, or making aspects as transit asteroids). A few other asteroid connections you can evaluate: - Asteroid Nemesis (number 128) connections can show you’re essentially enemies in some way, at odds to one another, or one of you may view the other as your nemesis - Asteroid Pandora (number 55) connections can show someone who gets under your skin, who may annoy you but you’re still drawn to them for some reason, or who points out the things you don’t want to see (or you do that for them) - Asteroid Nessus (number 7066) is the asteroid of abuse, so Nessus connections may be red flags to avoid, especially close conjunctions - Asteroid Achilles (number 588) connections can show someone who is your Achilles heel, or you are theirs Lesson 5: Synastry Examples Let's break down a real-life couple’s synastry, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, Prince William and Kate Middleton. Here is their synastry chart: Name: ♂ Duke of Cambridge William [Adb] born on Mo., 21 June 1982 in Paddington, ENG (UK) 0w12, 51n32 Time: 9:03 p.m. Univ. Time: 20:03 Sid. Time: 14:00:57 Comparison with: ♀ Duchess of Cambridge Catherine [Adb] (outside) (Method: Web Style / Placidus) Sa., 9 Jan. 1982 7:00 p.m. Berkshire, ENG (UK) \| Sun \| 0 Can 6°22" \| 19°51' \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Moon \| 4 Can 57°53" \| 18°04' \| \| Mercury \| 8 Gem 58" .0" \| 0°14' \| \| Venus \| 25 Tau 39°47" \| 7°13' \| \| Mars \| 9 Lib 12°19" \| 10°28' \| \| Jupiter \| 0 Sco 29°21' \| 7°16' \| \| Saturn \| 15 Lib 30°26" \| 21°50' \| \| Uranus \| 1 Sag 29°40' \| 3° 8' \| \| Neptune \| 25 Sag 32°37' \| 25°28' \| \| Pluto \| 24 Lib 9°40' \| 26°44' \| \| True Node \| 13 Can 19°52" \| 22°02' \| \| Chiron \| 25 Tau 16°58" \| 18° 3' \| AC: 27 Sag 26°10" Z: 12 Aqu 41' 3: 0 Ari 19°19'24' MC: 2 Sco 20°41" 11: 24 Sco 9° 12: 11 Sag 16°40'56' Both William and Kate are Cancer Moons, so they connect strongly emotionally. Both of their Moons are conjunct the North Node, and both were born on an eclipse! William was born on a solar eclipse in Cancer while Kate was born on a lunar eclipse in Capricorn. Talk about a power couple, they’re an eclipse power couple! Add to that William has Jupiter conjunct his Midheaven while Kate has Jupiter conjunct her Immum Coeli; the Midheaven and Immum Coeli are on an axis representing the foundation of our lives. So they come together on solid ground, and seen as being a super grounded coupling. William is a Sagittarius Rising while Kate is a Leo Rising, so they’re both fire sign Risings. They both have Mars in Libra along with Saturn and Pluto, so they’re driven in similar ways. Libra rules relationships, so they likely feel they can do more together than apart. Kate has her Moon and North Node conjunct the 12th house cusp; the 12th house is naturally ruled by Neptune, and William has his Neptune conjunct his Ascendant. They both have an air sign Mercury (Gemini for William, Aquarius for Kate) this is not in the same sign as their Suns (Cancer for William, Capricorn for Kate), so they both likely express themselves differently outwardly and understand that about each other. They both also have a challenged Venus. William has Venus conjunct Chiron and Kate has Venus retrograde (and conjunct Mercury; both conjunctions are less than 1 degree so super close). William’s is no big shock since we all know how we lost his mother; in Kate’s case, I think she was considered a “tomboy” if I remember right, so perhaps she didn’t learn to embrace her femininity until later (actually, probably not fully until she became a mother with Moon on the North Node). So how about the other royal couple, the Duke and Duchess of Sussex aka Prince Harry and Meghan Markle? Their synastry chart: Name: ♂ Duke of Sussex Harry [Adb] born on Sa., 15 September 1984 in Paddington, ENG (UK) 0w12, 51n32 Time: 4:20 p.m. Univ.Time: 15:20 Sid. Time: 14:58:16 Comparison with: ♀ Duchess of Sussex Meghan [Adb] (outside) (Method: Web Style / Placidus) Tu., 4 Aug. 1981 4:46 a.m. Canoga Park, CA (US) \| ☽ Sun \| 22 Vir 56'56" \| 12 Ω 0' \| \| ☾ Moon \| 21 Tau 20'14" \| 4 ♏54' \| \| ☽ Mercury \| 5 Vir 12'22" \| 5 ♈36' \| \| ♀ Venus \| 17 Lib 42'28" \| 13 ♉ 8' \| \| ☽ Mars \| 16 Sag 57' 7" \| 11 ♋27" \| \| ♄ Jupiter \| 3 Cap 33'47" \| 6 ♌41' \| \| ♃ Saturn \| 12 Sco 50'38" \| 5 ♍52' \| \| ☽ Uranus \| 9 Sag 52'42" \| 26 ♎ 3' \| \| ♇ Neptune \| 28 Sag 39'49" \| 22 ♏19r \| \| ☿ Pluto \| 0 Sco 33'27" \| 21 ♐51' \| \| ☽ True Node \| 29 Tau 37'37" \| 1 ♑39' \| \| ☽ Chiron \| 8 Gem32'57'r \| 22 ♒35' \| RC: 11 Cap 21'23" 2: 4 Pis 8' 3: 19 Ari 15' 24D>17' MC: 17 Sco 2' 2" 11: 6 Sag 34' 12: 23 Sag 19' 11Y48' Harry is a Virgo Sun, Taurus Moon, and Capricorn Rising – talk about earth! That is quite the earthy royal. His Moon is conjunct the 4th house cusp (which naturally links to Cancer) and the North Node (so he actually has a very strong link to William and Kate), and his Sun is in the 8th house, which naturally links to Scorpio. Meghan’s Sun is in Leo and the 1st house, which seems to stand out in this group (so not too shocking she does as the outlier American, biracial, and former actress - standing out indeed!). But her Rising is in Cancer (with his Moon conjunct the 4th house cusp), and her Moon is conjunct Saturn, who naturally rules Capricorn, Harry’s Rising. Meghan’s Moon is in Libra and conjunct commitment-minded Saturn and happy Jupiter; they go with Harry’s Venus in Libra, so no surprise she’s the one who got him to “settle down”. His Jupiter is in Capricorn, her Descendant sign, so they have Jupiter connections both ways, which seems to say they genuinely do like each other. Now, she’s pretty different for the royals, so what made Harry opt for someone so out of the main? I’d guess his Mars, who is conjunct unconventional Uranus in the house Uranus naturally rules, the 11th house. So as traditionally-minded as all of his earth energy makes him, there is a strain of a rebel inside that he let out with her. Class 2: Composites Lesson 1: Composite Chart Parts Composites is a reference to the composite chart, which combines your chart with someone else’s and creates a new chart that is the chart of your relationship itself. Your relationship is viewed as its own being, and composites can help explain the people who seem really different on the outside coming together in a way that works. It can also help explain the people who seem like they should fit together well not being good together at all. You can analyze the positions in the composite chart similarly to analyzing a natal chart. A composite planet in a sign, house, and the aspects it makes will operate like they would in a natal chart, except instead of showing a portion of a person’s personality and life, it shows a portion of the relationship. The composite Sun is the identity of your relationship itself, just like it’s your true identity in the natal chart. The house location of the composite Sun can often show the biggest focus within the relationship. You usually want to see a good Sun in the composite chart that’s not making too many hard aspects, otherwise there can be some core issues. The composite Moon is the emotions within the relationship, how you express emotions together and how the relationship impacts you both emotionally. Composite Mercury represents communication in the relationship, and how you engage with one another. Composite Venus is the love and affection in the relationship when it’s any kind of love relationship (romantic, family, friend); in a business relationship, it may focus more on money. You generally want to see a good composite Venus, like with the Sun, for love relationships. Composite Mars can show where the energy of your relationship is located, and how you take action together. Composite Jupiter can show where you can expand together, explore together, and where there is happy energy in the relationship. Composite Saturn can show where you experience struggles, feel restricted together, or have lessons to learn together. Composite Uranus can show where you can experience sudden changes, where the relationship may experience instability, or where you may need things to be different in the relationship. Composite Neptune can show where you may struggle with seeing reality in the relationship, have difficulty grasping, or require a spiritual connection. Composite Pluto can show where you may need to transform together, where you may fight over power/control, or where you may need to dig deeper. The composite 1st house represents the outward face of the relationship; the 2nd house represents finances and values in the relationship; the 3rd house represents communication (with Mercury); the 4th house represents the core of the relationship (and the home/family life you have together in a romantic or family relationship); the 5th house represents the love/affection between you; the 6th house represents the details of the relationship, the mundane aspects; the 7th house represents the others you encounter together; the 8th house represents the things you may push away in the relationship; the 9th house represents where you may need space; the 10th house represents the peak of your relationship, what you can aspire for together; the 11th house represents how you come together as peers and the future of the relationship; and the 12th house represents what's hidden in the relationship along with subconscious/karmic baggage. The North Node represents what you can grow into together to manifest the potential of the relationship, while the South Node represents emotional baggage and bad habits you can fall into together. Chiron can show where healing may need to occur together in order to grow. You can also compare the composite chart to each of your natal charts and perform a little synastry for each of you with the chart of the relationship itself. This can give you an idea of how the relationship itself influences each of you individually, since most relationships impact the people in them differently. It can also help explain why one person in a relationship may be happy with it while the other is not (transits can also explain that too). Lesson 2: What to Look For in a Composite Chart So what are some things that stand out in a composite chart? The first thing is going to be overabundance, having many planets in one sign or house. This can stifle the focus of the relationship, putting too much emphasis on just one area, or it can be a point of great energy. In business relationships, this can be helpful if in the 2nd, 6th, or 10th houses (the professional houses) or Taurus, Virgo, or Capricorn (the professional signs); this can be helpful in a romantic relationship if in the 1st or 5th houses. It can be super challenging if in the 4th, 8th, or 12th houses, Cancer, Scorpio, or Pisces, in part because these are water houses/signs, which are emotional, so the emotional aspect of the relationship can be greatly heightened. In Cancer/the 4th house, there can be issues at the core of the relationship the run deep; in Scorpio/the 8th house, you both may feel like avoiding problems, yet can be prone to major battles and there can be major inequality between you; and Pisces/the 12th house can be most challenging since it hides energy, is subconscious, and the 12th house is the house of being your own worst enemy, so sometimes the relationship can sort of eat itself and you're barely aware. Romantic relationships can really struggle with 12th house energy unless you both have strong 12th house energy in your natal charts (so you're comfortable with the energy). It can be great to have planets conjunct one of the angles in the composite chart, except for Saturn (unless Saturn is conjunct the 10th house cusp since Saturn naturally rules the 10th house). Planets on the angles have greater importance and their energy is stronger in the relationship (so since Saturn is restrictive, you generally don't want Saturn on the 1st, 4th, or 7th house cusps in the composite chart, though like in synastry, Saturn can create strong commitment to one another). In general, you want to avoid interceptions in a composite chart. An intercepted planet is cut off, contained energy that is difficult to access, and it’s especially difficult if it’s one of the composite personal planets (Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars) or the composite 1st house ruler. If a planet in the composite chart is a singleton, the energy of that planet is elevated in the chart, which can be beneficial once you master the energy together, and challenging until you do. Lesson 3: Composite Chart Examples Sometimes you can just look at a chart and see something striking in the layout. Take a look at the Zodiac wheel for this composite chart: Midpoint method What you should see is all of those planets around the 1st house cusp (AC). 7 of the 10 planets surround the 1st house cusp! (8 if you count Pluto) Which tells you that the couple is suuuuper focused on one another and their relationship. And when they met, it was in fact an instant coupling, and they spent every single day together from the day they met for years. The first time I looked at this chart, I felt like those 7 planets were enveloping the 1st house cusp like a hug, and when I asked, sure enough, my client said they were extremely affectionate and always holding hands, kissing, hugging, etc. So this is an instance where the 12th house energy is alright because the planets in the 12th house aren’t focused solely on the 12th house, they’re really focused on the 1st house cusp. Any time you see planets surrounding a house cusp, that house cusp gets the main attention. You see Chiron is on an angle in that chart, conjunct the 7th house cusp – both people in the couple were widows, and their relationship helped each other to heal from losing their spouses. The only difficulty in the relationship was with their children – Pluto in Leo (natural ruler of children), Saturn and Neptune in the 4th house (of family). The husband’s children in particular were hostile to the relationship at first, fearful of losing some of their inheritance to the second wife – Pluto, ruler of power struggles as well as legacies, in the 2nd house of money; paranoid Neptune in the 4th house of family; restrictive Saturn in the 4th and Scorpio, the sign Pluto naturally rules. For a romantic one that's not-so-great, here's Selena Gomez and Justin Bieber: Name: ♀ Selena Gomez [Adb] born on We., 22 July 1992 in Grand Prairie, TX (US) 97w00, 32n45 Time: 7:19 a.m. Univ.Time: 12:19 Sid. Time: 1:53:01 Composite Chart with: ♂ Justin Bieber [Adb] (Method: Web Style / Placidus) Tu., 1 Mar. 1994 0:56 a.m. London, ON Midpoint method \| ☽ Sun \| 20 Tau 10'21" \| \| ☾ Moon \| 24 Can 52'59" +opp.house \| \| ♀ Mercury \| 20 Tau 22'31"r +opp.house \| \| ♀ Venus \| 0 Gem 43'30" \| \| ♂ Mars \| 11 Ari 5'29" \| \| ♄ Jupiter \| 14 Lib 0'15" \| \| ♃ Saturn \| 25 Aqu 1'46" \| \| ♅ Uranus \| 20 Cap 9'39" \| \| ♆ Neptune \| 19 Cap 52'58" \| \| ♉ Pluto \| 24 Sco 7'14"r \| \| ☽ True Node \| 13 Sag 36'40" \| \| ☽ Chiron \| 23 Leo 41'24" \| AC: 3 Lib 33'28" 2: 0 Sco 51' 3: 3 Sag 14' 4: 6 Aqu 27' 5: 9 Gem 53' 6: 12 Can 53'30" 7: 15 Leo 26' 8: 18 Vir 53' 9: 21 Sco 23' 10: 24 Gem 50' 11: 10 Leo 26' 12: 8 Vir 53' MC: 7 Can 53'30" 11: 10 Leo 26' 12: 8 Vir 53' AC MC F C F M F ♂ ♀ ♀ A ♀ AC ♀ ♀ E ♀ ♀ ☽ ☽ W ☽ MC ♀ 25/© The Dark Pixie Astrology The Ascendant is in Libra and Jupiter is in the 1st house, which is nice. Gives focus on the relationship and some easy energy. But Jupiter is opposing Mars in Aries and the 7th house. They did seem to have a back-and-forth kind of thing for a while. The Sun is closely conjunct Mercury in the 8th house, opposing the natural ruler of the 8th house, Pluto. Getting the sense that while there may have been a lot of chemistry, it was also quite volatile. The 8th house energy, the Mars and Pluto oppositions, generally can be volatile and aggressive. The composite Venus is at 0 degrees Gemini. 0 degrees Gemini is the location of a group of fixed stars called Pleiades, the seven sisters, also called the weeping sisters. It’s a position that can be tied to pain, loss - heartbreak! (seems like maybe more her than him given her natal Mercury is retrograde conjunct Venus and Chiron, and well, we’ve seen what’s played out) I wanted to touch on one that wasn’t romantic to show how it can work in a different relationship, so we’ll look at one for a famous friendship (and professional relationship, actually). This is the composite chart for Matt Damon and Ben Affleck: Name: ♂ Matt Damon [Adb] born on Th., 8 October 1970 in Boston, MA (US) Time: 3:22 p.m. Univ.Time: 19:22 Sid. Time: 15:45:46 71w04, 42n22 Composite Chart with: ♂ Ben Affleck [Adb] (Method: Web Style / Placidus) Tu., 15 Aug. 1972 2:53 a.m. Berkeley, CA (US) Midpoint method \| Sun \| 18 Vir 52'34" \| \| --- \| --- \| \| Moon \| 13 Sag 51'42" \| \| Mercury \| 6 Vir 18' 1" \| \| Venus \| 15 Vir 4' 8" \| \| Mars \| 11 Vir 25'18" \| \| Jupiter \| 4 Sag 9'13" \| \| Saturn \| 5 Gem 5'31" \| \| Uranus \| 12 Lib 30'35" \| \| Neptune \| 0 Sag 45'49" \| \| Pluto \| 29 Vir 10'36" \| \| True Node \| 13 Aqu 48'41" \| \| Chiron \| 12 Ari 25'22"r \| AC: 22 Ari 16'58" 2: 26 Tau 50' 3: 26 Gem 54' MC: 23 Cap 50'15" 11: 21 Aqu 56' 12: 21 Pis 51' You should see 6 planets in the 5th and 6th houses – 5th house rules creativity, 6th house rules work. Then there is Jupiter conjunct Neptune, both widely conjunct the Moon, all in Sagittarius and the 8th house - Sagittarius is one of the writing rulers, 8th house rules mutually beneficial endeavors. So how fitting they hit it big with a film they wrote together! Moon-Jupiter-Neptune in Sagittarius along with the 5th house planets creates a lot of good feelings between them as Sagittarius/Jupiter and the 5th house are positive. Interesting Saturn there, in Gemini and the 2nd house - Saturn rules career, Gemini is the other writing ruler sign, and the 2nd house rules money. There are also no planets in a fixed sign and only one planet in a cardinal sign, making it a singleton: Uranus (who I find is the one tied to fame, which makes sense given Uranus rules the masses) in the 6th house (of work) and Libra (ruling partners). All other planets are in mutable signs (so they must have a very flexible adaptable relationship); and there are no planets in a water sign, which would be bad for emotional connection but they are helped in their synastry (Damon’s Jupiter and Venus is in Scorpio, which is Affleck’s Moon sign; there’s actually a lot of Scorpio/Pluto/8th house energy between them in their natal charts and in this composite chart, which helps with the mutually beneficial aspect of their relationship, and also helps with some emotional understanding in a deep way). Class 3: Transits Lesson 1: Transits in Love Synastry and composites help show you your compatibility with someone, the focus on your relationship, its strengths and weaknesses. Transits show you the conditions under which you can meet someone, enter into a relationship/partnership, and you can plan every step with transits. Transits are a reference to transit planets, which are the currently moving planets. As they move, they make aspects to your natal chart, which are when they come to certain angles. Sextiles and trines are easy aspects so mostly positive, while squares and oppositions are hard aspects so mostly challenging, and conjunctions are neutral aspects that can go either way. Let's start with a first date. So, dating is ruled by the 5th house, so usually the best time for a date is when the Moon is in your 5th house (this occurs for 2-3 days every month), or you have a conjunction, sextile, or trine by the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Mars, or Jupiter to the 5th house cusp or 5th house ruler in your chart. In general, you can also do well on a date when the Moon is in Leo, the sign that naturally rules the 5th house. When you have any of the planets making a square or opposition, the hard aspects, to your 5th house cusp or ruler, this can bring difficult energy, and the date may not go so well or as you planned. In general, you want to avoid a date during a void-of-course Moon, which occurs when the Moon no longer makes any major aspects to any other planets until it enters a new sign. The void-of-course Moon can make it so that perhaps the date is fine, but it's just fine, no sparks are flying, the chemistry just isn't there, one or both of you aren't invested, and the next date just may not happen for some reason. Venus, the planet of love, can also be helpful for your first date, and you can look for transit Venus conjunct, sextile, or trine your Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, 1st house cusp (house of the self), or 7th house cusp (house of relationships). If you want to increase your odds even more, make sure both of you have one of these nice aspects going on at the same time so you’re both on the same feel-good page! A lot of this can also be beneficial for going out trolling for someone. In a pinch, just look for Moon in the 5th or 7th houses, in Leo or Libra, no void-of-course Moon, aspects by transit Venus to your natal chart, or positive aspects by transit planets to your natal Venus. How about the next step - saying I love you? (but without the question mark, ha!) Communication is governed by Mercury, the 3rd house, and Gemini, so you can focus on when the Moon is in your 3rd house, Gemini, or conjunct, sextile, or trine your natal Mercury, 3rd house cusp, or 3rd house ruler. Bonus points if there are Venus aspects at the same time by transit Venus or to your natal Venus. Extra bonus points if it’s a conjunction, sextile, or trine between transit Mercury and your natal Venus, or transit Venus and your natal Mercury, 3rd house cusp, or 3rd house ruler. You can find it easier to communicate loving feelings then (a lot easier!). Try to make sure they also have positive communication aspects – otherwise they may not take it well (or say it back!). And the next step - moving in together. Your home and living situation is ruled by the Moon, 4th house, and Cancer, so you want to see positive aspects (sextiles and trines) to your natal Moon, 4th house cusp or ruler, by your Progressed Moon to your natal planets or house cusps, or a progressed planet entering Cancer. Since this is a “next step” in the relationship, you also want to see positive aspects involving the relationship parts of your chart: Venus, the 7th house, and Libra. This can involve sextiles and trines to your natal Venus, 7th house cusp or ruler, by your progressed Venus to your natal planets or house cusps, or a progressed planet entering Libra. Saturn is also usually present with commitment, so a positive transit Saturn aspect to your natal chart (especially to natal Moon or Venus), Saturn transiting your 1st house (of the self), 4th house, 5th house (of love), or 7th house, a conjunction, sextile or trine by transit Jupiter to your natal Saturn, or a sextile or trine by transit Uranus or Pluto to your natal Saturn is also good to see, and helps to ground the energy and add to your level of commitment to one another and to taking the next step. Finally, it's also good to see positive 8th house or Pluto aspects. They rule "other people's money" - basically any finances that impact yourself and another person, and this includes joint finances and resources, which is an important part of moving in together as you merge not only your personal and daily lives, but your financial ones as well (and with money problems being one of the top reasons for relationships ending, it's kinda important!). Positive 8th house and Pluto aspects help you to merge the financial side of things more easily and hopefully avoid the financial issues that can drive a wedge between you quickly. Now you move on to wanting to get engaged - like with moving in together, this is a big next step in commitment, so you'll want to see positive aspects with Venus, the 7th house, or Libra. Like with saying I love you, this is also a communication thing, so you'll want to also have positive aspects with Mercury, the 3rd house, or Gemini. For choosing a wedding date, electionals may be of better use than personal transits since so many people are involved (covered in a bit). The general conditions for meeting someone and entering into a relationship personally involve aspects to the 5th and 7th house rulers or cusps, natal or progressed Venus, or progressed 5th or 7th house aspects. Jupiter helps with being open to love, while Saturn helps with being open to commitment. If you only have Jupiter and no Saturn, then this can create love, but it may not last without stabilizing Saturn. If you only have Saturn and no Jupiter, this may bring commitment and a relationship, but one that ultimately lacks love and affection (and may be based more on comfort and security). If you have transit Uranus aspects in play, this can show going for someone totally different from what you’d normally go for, entering into an unusual or unconventional relationship, or experiencing love at first sight. If you have transit Neptune aspects in play, this can show feeling like you have a soul mate connection with someone, but it can also show being deceived and not seeing someone for who they really are. Both Uranus and Neptune need Saturn aspects in play to help tone down their challenges and make them manageable, otherwise you may end up in a very wonky relationship! If you have transit Pluto aspects in play, this can bring out obsessive qualities. If you’re naturally inclined to be a little obsessive or attract obsessive people, it can be much worse (hello stalker). Pluto also greatly increases passion, so connections can be passionate and intense. Purely sexual relationships can benefit from Pluto aspects, though Pluto may not be too happy with the no strings part (Pluto is too jealous and possessive to have no strings). The 8th house tends to be in play for a purely sexual relationships (and Mars in the 8th house can be notorious for it, especially since it’s only for about 2 months so it can be fling-y). Retrogrades govern redos, so exes coming back into your life can come with retrogrades of Mercury or Mars in your 5th or 7th houses, Venus retrograde, Jupiter retrograde in the 1st, 5th, or 7th houses, or any of them aspecting the ruler of the 5th or 7th houses, aspecting the 5th or 7th house cusps, aspecting natal or progressed Venus, or aspecting the progressed 5th or 7th house cusps. And then there is breaking up. This usually comes with transit Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, or Pluto touring the 1st, 5th or 7th houses, making hard aspects to the 1st, 5th, or 7th house cusps or rulers, or to natal or progressed Venus. Hard Saturn aspects in particular tend to break a lot of people up during the first year of your relationship. As your relationship moves on, grows and strengthens, you can work through these hard aspects (and all long-term relationships do). It’s just difficult when it hits in that first year or so since you’re not in that super committed, established place yet. When long-term relationships break up, you usually need to see hard Saturn plus hard Uranus, Neptune, or Pluto, and the more hard aspects, the more likelihood you’ll break up. There have been times when I’ve done relationship readings and seen that one person in the relationship will have very hard aspects, and the other person won’t; I find that this usually shows that the person without the many hard aspects is the one who wants the breakup and likely instigates it, and the one with the many hard aspects isn’t going to be too happy about it! And, you can assess aaaalllllll of this not only with your natal charts, but also with the composite chart. You can focus on the transits happening to the composite chart, and this can tell you more about the conditions you’re experiencing in the relationship. Lesson 2: Transits Example For a celebrity example of some of this, if you got the Intro to Love Astrology mini class, you know I brought up George Clooney and his 1st house Aries Venus contributing to his burning through relationships. Here is George’s natal chart: Name: George Clooney [Adb] born on Sa, 6 May 1961 in Lexington, KY (US) 84w30; 38n03 Time: 2:58 a.m. Univ. Time: 7:58 Sid. Time: 17:15:45 Natal Chart (Method: Web Style / Placidus) Sun sign: Taurus Ascendant: Pisces \| ☀ Sun \| 15 Tau 32'57" \| \| ☽ Moon \| 27 Cap 58'22" \| \| ♀ Mercury \| 20 Tau 45' 6" \| \| ♀ Venus \| 13 Ari 4'14" \| \| ♀ Mars \| 0 Leo 8'42" \| \| ♀ Jupiter \| 6 Aqu 33'38" \| \| ♀ Saturn \| 29 Cap 50'45" \| \| ♀ Uranus \| 21 Leo 40'35" \| \| ♀ Neptune \| 9 Sco 47'41" \| \| ♀ Pluto \| 5 Vir 34' 5" \| \| ♀ True Node \| 3 Vir 15'40" \| \| ♀ Chiron \| 6 Pis 7'32" \| AC: 11 Pis 57'26" 2: 26 Ari 11' 3: 26 Tau 34' MC: 19 Sag 49'51" 11: 11 Cap 29' 12: 6 Aqu 19' © The Dark Pixie Astrology When he met and married Amal, transit Uranus was conjunct that natal Venus of his. Uranus can make you want something totally different from what you’ve wanted before and make different relationship decisions than you have been. In his case, it meant finally committing to someone, and someone different from those he’d been with before. They got married under transit Jupiter trine his natal Venus as well, and transit Pluto trine his natal 7th house cusp. Saturn was transiting his 8th house (no more intimacy-less sex), and interestingly, opposing his 7th house ruler. Both transit Venus and the Sun were in his 7th house of relationships when they got married, and the Moon was transiting his 7th and 8th houses. And his progressed 1st and 7th houses moved into new signs, showing a whole new approach to relationships. Lesson 3: Using Electionals You can also use electional astrology to plan things out (helpful if you have no known birth time). Electional astrology focuses on what the planets are doing to each other rather than what they’re doing to your charts. With electionals, you choose the moment of an event based on the chart for that specific moment. This is taken from an old electionals class, and covers the 5 aspects of relationships: going on a first date, moving in together, getting engaged, getting married, and getting divorced (start to finish!). Try to hit as many points as you can listed. It’ll likely be impossible to hit them all, so use your judgment which you’re going to focus on as most important. For going on a first date look for: - The Moon in Leo (ruling dating) or Libra (ruling relationships) - An applying sextile or trine to Venus by the Moon - Sextile or trine between Venus and Mars - Avoid Venus retrograde (if you can’t, absolutely do not allow Venus retrograde to rule the 1st, 5th, or 7th houses) - Avoid the ruler of the 1st, 5th, or 7th houses retrograde - Ascendant in Leo or Libra - The ruler of the 1st house in the 5th or 7th houses, or the ruler of the 5th or 7th houses in the 1st house - Venus in the 1st, 5th or 7th houses - Avoid Venus in the 12th house - Jupiter in the 5th or 7th houses - Avoid malefics in the 7th house - The 5th or 7th house ruler sextile or trine the 1st house ruler or 1st house cusp For moving in together, look for: - The Moon in Cancer (ruling the home) or Libra - An applying sextile or trine to Venus and Saturn by the Moon - Avoid Venus retrograde - Avoid the rulers of the 1st, 4th, or 7th houses retrograde - Ascendant in Cancer or Libra - The ruler of the 1st house in the 4th, 5th, or 7th houses - The ruler of the 4th house in the 5th or 7th houses - The rulers of the 5th or 7th houses in the 4th house - Venus in the 1st, 4th, or 7th houses - Jupiter in the 1st, 4th, or 7th houses - Avoid malefics in the 4th house - The 4th house ruler sextile or trine the 1st house ruler or cusp - The 4th house ruler sextile or trine the 7th house ruler or cusp - The Moon sextile or trine the 5th or 7th house ruler or cusp For getting engaged, look for: - The Moon in Libra - An applying sextile or trine to Venus and Saturn by the Moon - Sextile or trine between Venus and Saturn - Avoid Venus retrograde - Avoid the ruler of the 1st, 7th, or 10th houses retrograde - Ascendant in Libra - The ruler of the 1st house in the 7th house - The ruler of the 7th house in the 1st or 10th houses - Venus in the 1st, 5th, or 7th houses - Jupiter in the 1st, 5th, or 7th houses - Avoid malefics in the 7th or 10th houses - The 5th, 7th, or 10th house ruler sextile or trine the 1st house ruler or 1st house cusp For getting married, look for: - The Moon in Libra or a fixed sign (grounding energy that lasts) - An applying sextile or trine to Venus by the Moon - Well-aspected Venus - Avoid Venus retrograde (unless both people have Venus retrograde in the natal or progressed charts) - Avoid the ruler of the 1st or 7th houses retrograde - Ascendant in Libra or a fixed sign - The ruler of the 1st house in the 7th house or 7th house ruler in the 1st house - Venus in the 1st, 3rd (expressing love), 5th, 7th, 10th, or 11th (groups) houses - Avoid malefics in the 1st or 7th houses - The 7th house ruler sextile or trine the 1st house ruler or 1st house cusp For getting divorced, look for: - The Moon in Libra or Sagittarius (the law) - An applying sextile or trine to Jupiter by the Moon - Avoid Jupiter retrograde unless you have Jupiter retrograde in the natal or progressed chart - Avoid the rulers of the 1st, 7th, or 9th houses retrograde - Ascendant in Libra, Sagittarius, or Pisces (dissolving) - The ruler of the 1st house in the 7th or 9th houses - The rulers of the 7th or 9th houses in the 1st house - Venus in the 9th or 12th houses (ending) - Saturn in the 7th or 9th houses - The 9th house ruler sextile or trine the 1st house ruler or 1st house cusp Class 4: Chemistry Lesson 1: Indicators of Sexual Chemistry So focus on love and commitment is great and all, but if there's no sexual chemistry and it's a romantic relationship, then there's not much of the romance going on. So, what creates a lot of sizzle? First, look at Venus and Mars connections. If your Venus aspects their Mars or their Venus aspects your Mars, this can create a strong sexual connection. Venus is sensuality while Mars is desire and action, so their connection helps to take action on sensual desires. The conjunction is best because it shows you're on the same wavelength and want the same things, but the square and opposition can actually create the strongest sizzle being hard aspects. Sextiles and trines create a more pleasant connection, but not as strong as the others. Then there is the 8th house, the house of intimacy and sex. When someone has a natal planet or angle that falls in your 8th house, you can feel some major sexual attraction to them, except when it's Saturn (since Saturn restricts). If one of your planets falls in someone else's 8th house, that can make them attracted to you. You can also experience sexual attraction to a lesser extent if they have a planet (except Saturn) conjunct your 8th house ruler, or a personal planet conjunct, square, or opposite your natal Pluto (Pluto is natural ruler of the 8th house). The downside to the 8th house though is it's very heavy energy emotionally, and Pluto/8th house rules power struggles, control issues, and obsession, so you want to be careful with that. But the attraction can be great! (this may be more of an issue in nonsexual relationships since there's no sexual outlet for the energy) The most important position though is Eros (number 433), asteroid of sex. Eros is pure sex, no worrying about intimacy, commitment, or any of that stuff. It’s a little bit of what you want in a primal sense. If someone has a planet (except Saturn) conjunct your natal Eros, or you have one conjunct theirs, this can create a lot of sexual chemistry (especially the personal planets). You generally want your Eros to be in compatible signs (so remember elemental compatibility from the synastry class). Some other synastry connections that can show a strong sexual connection are connections between Venus conjunct, square, or opposite Uranus (Uranus may be present with unusual connections) or Mars conjunct an angle (angles are points of action and Mars stimulates desire). Some composite chart positions that can show a strong sexual connection are planets in the 8th house (aside of Saturn, though Saturn can sometimes show taking your sexual commitment/exclusivity seriously), composite Venus and Mars in aspect (especially conjunct, square, or opposite), composite Eros in the 1st, 5th, 7th, or 8th house, composite Eros aspecting one of the composite angles, composite Venus conjunct, square, or opposite composite Uranus or Pluto, composite Mars in the 1st or 5th house, or composite Mars aspecting one of the composite angles. You can also compare each of your individual charts to the composite chart and assess for sexual chemistry individually. This may show one of you being a lot more sexually attracted than the other! Lesson 2: Chemistry Examples When I looked up the charts for the royals, I was struck by Meghan and Harry's chemistry - it's pretty strong! That sizzle might be what brought them together in the first place. Their synastry chart with Eros: Name: ♂ Duke of Sussex Harry [Adb] born on Sa., 15 September 1984 in Paddington, ENG (UK) 0w12, 51n32 Time: 4:20 p.m. Univ. Time: 15:20 Sid. Time: 14:58:16 Comparison with: ♀ Duchess of Sussex Meghan [Adb] (outside) (Method: Web Style / Placidus) Tu., 4 Aug. 1981 4:46 a.m. Canoga Park, CA (US) \| ☽ Sun \| 22 Vir 56'56" \| 12 Ω 0' \| \| ☾ Moon \| 21 Tau 20'14" \| 4 ♋54' \| \| ☿ Mercury \| 5 Vir 12'22" \| 5 ♈36' \| \| ♃ Venus \| 17 Lib 42'28" \| 13 ♉ 8" \| \| ☊ Mars \| 16 Sag 31'7" \| 11 ♍39" \| \| ☎ Jupiter \| 9 Cap 33'47" \| 6 ♒41" \| \| ☣ Saturn \| 12 Sco 50'38" \| 5 ♑52" \| \| ☤ Uranus \| 9 Sag 52'42" \| 26 ♓ 3" \| \| ☥ Neptune \| 28 Sag 39'49" \| 22 ♒19"r \| \| ☧ Pluto \| 0 Sco 33'27" \| 21 ♋51" \| \| ☢ True Node \| 29 Tau 37'37" \| 1.133° \| \| ☣ Ascendant \| 22 Cap 21'27" \| 23 ♋38" \| \| 433 Eros \| 22 Sag 57'30" \| 3 ♒34" \| RC: 11 Cap 21'23" 2: 4 Pis 8' 3: 19 Ari 15' 24°21" MC: 17 Sco 2' 2" 11: 6 Sag 34' 12: 23 Sag 19' 11°48' First, Venus and Mars. Meghan’s Venus is in Virgo and Harry’s Mars is in Sagittarius, so they square. Harry’s Venus is in Libra and Meghan’s Mars is in Cancer, also square. Double Venus-Mars squares, aye heat! On top of that, her Virgo Venus squares his Sagittarius Uranus. Must’ve been quick. Second, Harry’s Mercury is conjunct his 8th house cusp. Mercury naturally rules the 3rd house and Virgo, and Meghan’s Venus is in Virgo and conjunct the 3rd house cusp. That’s not a super obvious chemistry connection on the surface, but also adds to their sizzle. Third, Meghan’s Venus, Moon, Saturn, and Jupiter all fall in Harry’s 8th house. It’s a good thing Saturn’s there to ground some of the energy otherwise they might have been more of an intense fling! Fourth, his Eros is at 22 degrees Sagittarius conjunct her Neptune at 22 degrees Sagittarius. So it might be a transcendent, soulful experience between them. Her Eros is at 3 degrees 33 minutes Taurus EXACTLY trine his Jupiter at 3 degrees 33 minutes Capricorn. An abundance of chemistry! And in their composite chart, Venus and Mars are conjunct out-of-sign, and Eros is in Aquarius conjunct the 11th house cusp - don’t want to know the kink that’s bringing out, thanks! Another one I figured had to have something strong was Katy Perry and her ex Russell Brand (they hopped to it fast and came apart just as quick!). It’s all Eros with them: her Eros is in Capricorn, his Ascendant sign, and sandwiched between Mars and Jupiter, and he has Mars conjunct Jupiter (and Moon) in Aries; his Eros is conjunct the 8th house cusp, which naturally connects to Scorpio, and holy cow is she super Scorpio (triple Scorpio - Sun, Moon, Rising - plus Sun conjunct Scorpio ruler Pluto, and Mercury and Saturn in Scorpio); and in their composite chart, Eros is in Scorpio (to go with all of her Scorpio and his Eros on the 8th) and is conjunct Uranus in the house Uranus naturally rules, the 11th house - fast and furious and very very weird! (Orlando Bloom is a much better fit for her btw, he gets her Scorpio energy being a Scorpio Moon himself, but has a much more grounded chart than Brand and links nicely to her Capricorn Mars/Jupiter and Taurus North Node in the 7th house, which says she needs a nice and stable relationship with a nice and stable person) Another that struck me at the time was Nina Dobrev and Ian Somerhalder. They have the Venus-Mars conjunction with her Venus in Sagittarius conjunct his Mars in Sagittarius (and under 1 degree). Their composite Venus is conjunct Uranus and North Node in Sagittarius as well. She was very young when they first got together, and Sagittarius likes the student-teacher kind of thing. His Venus and Uranus in Scorpio also conjunct her Pluto. Her Eros is conjunct Mars in Aries, and his Moon is Aries. Lesson 3: What You’re Into by Sign Now here’s a quick rundown of what the signs want from sex (this can apply to your natal Venus, Mars, Eros, or 8th house cusp signs, or planets conjunct; it may also apply to the composite positions, and could explain being into something together that maybe you weren’t into with anyone else): Aries: Aries wants to take charge in sex, and may be more focused on what they want and not care quite so much what the other person wants. Aries doesn’t like to take sex too seriously, and wants to enjoy itself. Aries can be quick to initiative sex, and doesn’t want to think too much about it. Aries doesn’t usually need a ton of foreplay, likes quickies, and a little spontaneity. Their head and face can be sensitive to touch as well. Taurus: Taurus is the slow burn sign, so quickies tend to be out. It takes time for Taurus to get going, but once Taurus starts, it’s going for a while. Block out some time! Can’t go wrong with stimulating the senses with Taurus through food, drink, music, water, dance. Taurus doesn’t mind getting dirty (sometimes literally in the dirt!). Taurus can be turned on by nature and the outdoors, but also by luxurious surroundings and fancy hotel rooms. Taurus likes massages, and the neck can be extra sensitive. Gemini: Gemini is the sign of the mind, so you may need to make love to the mind before you make love to the body. As Gemini rules communication, dirty talk can go over well, and this is the sign ruling oral sex. Gemini can think up lots of fantasies, but may not act on them without a looooot of coaxing. Conversation can be foreplay for Gemini, and their shoulders, arms, and hands can be most sensitive. Cancer: Cancer is the sign of emotions, so this sign usually wants an emotional connection before a physical one. Physical and emotional intimacy can go hand-in-hand. Cancer can be attentive in bed, wanting to tend to your needs, and may be most turned on in really romantic settings (even cheesy!). Cancer may not be very open about what they want though, so you have to get them to open up. Cancer rules the chest, which can be most sensitive (and can be really into boobs). Leo: Leo loves the hunt, but usually wants to be the one chased instead of doing the chasing. Leo wants to feel like the prize, and may demand a lot of attention sexually. At the same time, Leo wants praise for their own technique. Leo tends to either be a very selfish lover or a very generous lover. Leo can love role-playing (and really get into character). Leo rules the back and the heart, so the back can be most sensitive, and the areas right over their heart. Virgo: Virgo may be the Virgin, but that's usually not literal! Virgo rules sexual extremes, and can go from prolonged periods of celibacy or near celibacy to being a sexual beast. Kinkiness and perversions are under the domain of Virgo. Virgo tends to take a "health" approach to sex, seeing it more as a perfectly normal, physically healthy experience, so there may not be too much judging on what you're into, but there also may not be as much intimacy. Virgo may prefer a clean place to have sex, or showering first. Virgo rules the solar plexus, which can be most sensitive. Libra: Libra rules others, so Libra can be very concerned about their partner, and Libra wants to make sure their partner is perfectly satisfied. But this is the sign of the Scales, so they also expect equal reciprocation. Libra can be most turned on in beautiful, luxurious surroundings, and after doing something romantic, and may have a hard time with surroundings that seem dirty or loud or chaotic in some way. The lower back can be most sensitive to touch. Scorpio: Scorpio is the sign ruler of sex in general, so this is usually the sign people think is the most sexual, but that's not necessarily the case. Scorpio can be super passionate and intense, but without an emotional intimate connection, can get bored, impatient, and unsatisfied. Have that connection, and Scorpio is all in. Scorpio rules power and control, so this sign can be into BDSM (though this can link more strongly to asteroid Sado, number 118230). Sagittarius: Sagittarius takes the lightness of a fire sign and mixes it with the physical passion of previous sign, Scorpio, and can be super passionate but without the intense strings. Sagittarius loves the game, and knows how to play it well. This is the sign of free-wheeling sexual endeavours, having many partners (or at least many without commitment). Sagittarius is open to exploring cultural views of sex, and experimenting with positions. Sagittarius likes being the teacher or having a teacher. Capricorn: Capricorn is the authority figure, so Capricorn may want to be in charge or be with someone who is. Capricorn isn't really into teaching though, so you've got to already be trained by someone else before sleeping with them. Capricorn is the traditional sign, so they may take a more traditional approach to sex and not be into anything too kinky. They do tend to keep quiet about their sex lives. This is an earth sign, so they can be surprisingly sensual. Aquarius: Aquarius is the experimental sign, so this sign can be experimental in bed, and willing to try some things that seem weird. Aquarius is a fairly distant sign, so there may not be much passion, intensity, or emotion involved. Even though Virgo is the Virgin, Aquarius is really the one who doesn’t need sex. Though since Aquarius rules groups, an orgy might work! (lol actually orgies are governed by asteroid Bacchus, number 2063). You may want to change things up frequently with Aquarius, or boredom kicks in fast. Pisces: Pisces is a mutable water sign, which makes it the most fluid and flowy, so Pisces can be into a lot of different things at any moment. Pisces can be into one thing one day, and something else the next. Pisces is highly adaptable to whatever their partner is into, so very little may be off of the table. Pisces rules imagination, so stimulating their imagination can turn them on, and Pisces is super romantic, so they can also be turned on from romantic gestures. Also, Pisces rules feet (so add in some Virgo and you’ve got a foot fetish!). Spotting Who to Avoid Now to something you really want to know - how to spot someone to avoid! LOL! Now, not every position outlined is doomed to be the bad boy/girl associated with it; every position has a positive and negative expression, and if they've done the work often associated with these positions, they can express it positively. But make sure they're doing that before you throw caution to the wind! Start with the two-faced jerk - this is often seen with a personal planet (Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars - also sometimes the Ascendant) anaretic (at 29 degrees) in Gemini (ruler of the Twins - no surprise!). In the natal chart, this can be a natural thing for them (they may not even realize that they are two-faced). When they've recognized and worked through whatever challenge is associated with their anaretic planet, then they can drop the two-face and become a dynamic, but open, personality. You may also see this with an anaretic 3rd house cusp (naturally connects to Gemini), and anaretic Mercury in general of any sign (since Mercury rules Gemini, but it's worse when in Gemini). This can occur temporarily with planets that enter 29 degrees Gemini in the progressed chart as well. What about cheaters? Difficult Pisces energy can surprisingly be prone to cheating, but usually not in a way where they're trying to hurt you; instead they just get lost in the romantic notions of the moment and don't think too much about the consequences; I've noticed this a lot with Pisces Venus. You can also look at squares and oppositions between Neptune (ruler of Pisces) and the Sun, Moon, Venus, or Mars, or a particularly prominent/challenged. If they have a prominent Saturn that isn't too afflicted, that can counteract a lot of the Neptune/Pisces energy. Squares and oppositions between Venus and Pluto can show someone who cheats to get at you, the vengeful one (though it may be more in retaliation for something bad you’ve done – so don’t do bad!). Chiron can also be involved when it’s on the side of sex addiction, and it’s usually a highly sexual chart that goes with that; JFK and Bill Clinton are good examples, with JFK having a loaded 8th house - house of sex - and Clinton having Moon in the 8th and a wide Libra stellium starting with Mars on his Ascendant and including Venus, Neptune, Chiron, and Jupiter; even though neither came out as sex addicts, their charts seem to say they are/were: Casanovas? Well this one’s easy, check out asteroid Casanova (number 7328) - look for Casanova especially challenged, conjunct a planet, one of the nodes, or an angle. Example: Leonardo DiCaprio has asteroid Casanova conjunct his Mercury and Uranus in Libra (sign of relationships), and while his Casanova isn’t anaretic, the two planets it’s conjunct are! His Neptune is also conjunct his North Node. Name: ♂ Leonardo DiCaprio [Adb] born on Mo, 11 November 1974 in Los Angeles, CA (US) 18w15, 3n03 Time: 2:47 a.m. Univ. Time: 10:47 Sid. Time: 6:14:48 Natal Chart (Method: Web Style / Placidus) Sun sign: Scorpio Ascendant: Libra \| Sun \| 18 Sco 39'46" \| \| --- \| --- \| \| ☽ Moon \| 15 Lib 44'11" \| \| ☽ Mercury \| 29 Leo 15'25" \| \| ☽ Venus \| 19 Sco 53'11" \| \| ☽ Mars \| 19 Sco 35'35" \| \| ☽ Jupiter \| 8 Pis 5'38" \| \| ☽ Saturn \| 18 Can 47'55" \| \| ☽ Uranus \| 29 Lib 24'11" \| \| ☽ Neptune \| 19 Leo 14'45" \| \| ☽ Pluto \| 8 Lib 13'13" \| \| ☽ True Node \| 10 Sag 22' 2" \| \| ☽ Chiron \| 21 Aq 2'21" \| \| 7328 Casanova \| 2 Lib 13'39" \| \| AC: 3 Lib 18' \| 2: 0 Sco 29' \| 3: 1 Sag 0' \| \| MC: 9 Can 23'45" \| 11: 5 Lec 46' \| 12: 6 Vir 9' \| The stalker? Strong Pluto/8th house/Scorpio energy (obsessive!), particularly if it lines up with strong connections to your own chart (so even if they're not obsessive with everyone, they may be with you - you may want to be especially careful with anyone whose natal Pluto is conjunct any of your natal personal planets or angles). On the upside, this can be great for chemistry, but that can mean that can create a more difficult connection at times (you get caught up in the sex haze and lose track of reality!). It can be good for business connections (just maybe keep it business only!). The commitment-phobe? Jupiter/Sagittarius is the eternal bachelor/ette. It can be hard to tie down someone with strong Jupiter or Sagittarius energy (most often Jupiter conjunct Venus or Mars, Sagittarius Venus/Mars, or a natal Sagittarius stellium). Sometimes this can also be seen with independent Uranus, and if someone has a strong natal Uranus, they may want more space than "commitment" can give them. Also, difficult natal Saturn can make it hard for someone to commit (remember Clooney). What about the liar-liar-pants-on-fire? There are some asteroids to check out - Veritas (490), Truth (249521), and Fides (37) - and if they are prominent in their natal chart, particularly difficulty aspected (especially by Jupiter!), then there may be some issues with "bending" the truth (to be nice!). Look for conjunct or opposite a personal planet or angle (and remember asteroids have a tight orb of 2 degrees). On the flip side, this can also make someone super truthful (to a fault), and it tends to go one way or the other (either super blunt or pathological liar). And the momma's boy? Cancer and the Moon rule the mother, so if there's strong Cancer or a prominent Moon, mommy may figure a bit too prominently in their life. Now, it's nice when they have a good relationship with their mother, you just don't want a smothering relationship! If they have an afflicted Moon or 4th house, that may be more of an issue. Also Chiron in Cancer or the 4th house (since Chiron rules wounds). And I find that those with a strong Black Moon Lilith also tend to have “difficult” mothers. I also wanted to include an old newsletter article about the astrology of being catfished - since that’s a whole other kind of problem!: Being catfished is such a modern-times, 1st-world problem, but a pretty common one, it seems. What is likely going on that leads one to be catfished? If you guessed Neptune, give yourself a cookie! Neptune is the planet of deception, whether it’s someone else deceiving us or us deceiving ourselves – and both of those things are usually the case when you’re catfished. Neptune has the rose-colored glasses and wants to believe in the fantasy created in your head, and believes whatever wonderful lies it’s told. This can be a temporary problem with transit Neptune, and when he’s conjunct, square, or opposite your natal Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, or 1st or 7th house rulers, this is something you always have to be careful of. Get grounded and if there’s a nagging feeling that it’s too good to be true, well that’s probably your intuition telling you something! Since it’s by transit, it’s only temporary, but transit Neptune aspects can last quite a while (on and off for up to a couple years), so stay on top of yourself. If you have a strong natal Neptune (or strong Pisces energy, the sign Neptune rules), then this is something you have to be mindful of your entire life. You’re just naturally someone who is prone to the fantasies and who wants to see the best in people, and unless you also have some strong Pluto/Scorpio/8th house or Saturn/Capricorn/10th house (the rulers of reality), you can be more susceptible than most to being taken for a ride by people. Setting up boundaries – spiritually, mentally, and emotionally – is suuuper important for you to help avoid the downfalls. It can also be helpful for you to strengthen your connection to your intuition, which can be very strong but often is quite scattered until you get some control over it. Once you do control it, your intuition can help you figure out who to trust (and who not to). Performing a Relationship Analysis First, you want to assess synastry to gauge compatibility. For each planet for both people, write down: - Sign location - Element of sign - House location - Element of house - Planets conjunct the planet - Signs the planets conjunct rule - The house(s) the planet rules - What signs naturally link to that house - Is the planet retrograde - Is the planet at a critical or anaretic degree - Is the planet intercepted - Is the planet on the North or South Node Focus on connections with the Sun-Moon-Rising, Venus-Mars, and Jupiter and the personal planets for helpful connections. You can consider if many positions are square or opposite between the two charts since this can create a lot of friction between the two people. Sometimes this can increase sexual chemistry, but without lots of supportive positive connections, it can ultimately be an extremely challenging relationship. Also consider if there are repeating themes between the two charts, like both people have Moon opposite Pluto or both have a challenged Mars. In these cases, even though the specific aspect or position is challenging in the natal chart, it can be a source of understanding between the two people since it's something both have to deal with. Then do an overlay and put each person’s planets in the other person’s houses. Remember that it’s what I (my planet) do to you (your house) and what you (your planet) do to me (my house). Keep in mind what the energy of each planet is and what each house rules: Sun shines a light and brings attention Moon brings out emotions Mercury brings out ideas and communication Venus brings pleasant energy and affection Mars brings lots of energy and drive Jupiter brings expansive and lucky energy Saturn brings restrictions and lessons Uranus brings changes, the unconventional, and erratic energy Neptune brings foggy energy and need for intuition Pluto brings transforming energy and need to manage power/control 1st house is self 2nd house is finances, values, self-esteem 3rd house is communication 4th house is home/family and foundation 5th house is love, creativity, fun 6th house is work, health, daily life 7th house is others, relationships 8th house is shared resources, the dark underbelly 9th house is higher learning, travel, beliefs 10th house is career, goals, direction 11th house is friends, dreams, future, causes 12th house is spirituality, the past, subconscious mind, hides energy Second, assess the composite chart. Make note of the sign and house location of the personal planets, the house location of the outer planets, and the aspects they make and houses they rule. You can think of a composite chart almost like a natal chart and what would apply to an individual natal chart instead applies to the composite chart for two people. Compare the composite chart to the natal charts for each person as well to get an idea of how each person feels about the relationship separately. You can almost do a synastry for each person with the composite chart to see how they interact with and are impacted by the relationship individually. (since we are usually impacted by relationships differently!) Third, look at transits. Check aspects for each person: Transit aspects to the 5th and 7th house rulers Transit aspects to the 5th and 7th house cusps Planets in the 5th and 7th houses Transit aspects to natal and progressed Venus Progressions involving the natal or progressed 5th or 7th houses or Venus Progressed planets in Libra (sign of relationships) Retrogrades in the 5th or 7th houses New/full moons or eclipses in the 5th or 7th houses or aspecting natal or progressed Venus While synastry and composites tell you about compatibility and the heart of the relationship, transits tell you if there is anything standing in the way now, or if there is good energy to keep moving forward together. Many hard aspects by Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto can be difficult to overcome and often show nothing good coming if early in the relationship. In an established relationship, it can show a challenging time that needs to be handled with care to survive. You also need to look at transits with the composite chart, and hard aspects can similarly show hard times for the relationship. You’ll also want to progress the composite chart (can be done for free in astro.com in Extended Chart Selection) and assess the progressed composite chart against the regular composite chart, and against both people’s natal and progressed charts. Transit Aspects to Composite Planets These are general interpretations for when the transit planets are aspecting the composite chart planets (transit planets in the composite houses are in the composite interpretations e-book; this is separate since it’s not provided on the website, only in AstroLove!). You can get an idea of what to expect as you’re looking at upcoming transit aspects to the composite chart. When you’re assessing the transit aspects, make sure to consider the house(s) the planet rules in the composite chart as well, since this may be where the energy of the aspect is funneled (just like when transit aspects to your natal planets). Transit Aspects to the Composite Sun When the transit Sun is sextile or trine the composite Sun, this can bring helpful energy to the relationship around the day it’s exact. It can shine a light on positive things going on between you, and help you focus together. When the transit Sun is square or opposite the composite Sun, this can make you more aware of challenges that exist in the relationship, and bring out more friction. You may need to work on internet or external issues within the relationship together. When the transit Sun is conjunct the composite Sun, this creates a composite Solar Return, and you may find that something is coming home, so to speak, in the relationship. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine the composite Sun, this can help with the emotional connection in the relationship. You may be more supportive of each other, and can strengthen the foundation of the relationship, albeit temporarily since Moon aspects only last a few hours. When the transit Moon is square or opposite the composite Sun, this can create emotional upheaval in the relationship, and you may struggle with being subjective with one another. Under the opposition, you may focus on ending something together. When the transit Moon is conjunct the composite Sun, this can make you more open with what you feel with one another, and you may focus on starting something new together. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine the composite Sun, this can improve communication in the relationship, and you may be more expressive with one another. When transit Mercury is square or opposite the composite Sun, this can create communication difficulties in the relationship, and you may have an argument or not see eye-to-eye on something. When transit Mercury is conjunct the composite Sun, this can bring out important ideas and plans together, or make you much more open with what you're thinking with one another. When transit Venus is sextile or trine the composite Sun, this can help you to be more pleasant with one another, and you can generally feel more at ease with the connection. In a love relationship, you may be more affectionate. When transit Venus is square or trine the composite Sun, you may be more stubborn and obstinate with one another, and not want to deal with issues that arise. When transit Venus is conjunct the composite Sun, this can bring out good feelings between you, and in a love relationship, you can express affection more easily. You may be more compromising, and strive to keep the peace. When transit Mars is sextile or trine the composite Sun, you may have more energy and drive when you're with each other, or more energy and drive to focus on your relationship. You may be more positive about the connection. When transit Mars is square or opposite the composite Sun, you may struggle with one another, get into a fight, feel frustrated with the relationship, and can push back against one another. When transit Mars is conjunct the composite Sun, there can be extra energy in the relationship between you that needs to be used up. It can be helpful for starting anything new together, but if not used, may lead to fights and frustration. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine the composite Sun, this can bring great energy to the relationship, and you can make improvements in the connection or do something fun together. You may pursue opportunities together, especially in professional connections. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite the composite Sun, this can make you lazier when dealing with one another or the relationship, and you may need some space from each other. When transit Jupiter is conjunct the composite Sun, this can make you more positive together, want to expand your relationship in new ways, and can explore together. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine the composite Sun, this can help with commitment between you. You can feel more loyal, more committed to the relationship, and can feel things are more stable. When transit Saturn is square or opposite the composite Sun, this can make you feel restricted and limited in the relationship, and you may not have as much time for one another (or don't want to spend time with one another). Commitment to the relationship may be challenged. When transit Saturn is conjunct the composite Sun, commitment can be strengthened if you feel this is the right relationship for the two of you. If not, then there can be a parting of ways as the restrictive energy of Saturn becomes too stifling. When transit Uranus is sextile or trine the composite Sun, you can deal with one another in new and different ways, and make changes in the relationship that are beneficial. When transit Uranus is square or opposite the composite Sun, you may experience unstable energy, changes that are difficult to manage, and one or both of you may act erratically. There may be restless, rebellious energy to deal with, and a major change in likely needed, but it needs to be undertaken the right way. When transit Uranus is conjunct the composite Sun, change can feel inevitable, but you can take control of it together and make the change positive. If you refuse, then the change can take over the relationship. When transit Neptune is sextile or trine the composite Sun, you can feel the spiritual connection between you to be strong, and you can be more pleasant and accommodating of one another. When transit Neptune is square or opposite the composite Sun, you may struggle with seeing the issues that exist in the relationship, which allows them to grow and get worse until you push through the fog to see the reality. It may be difficult to be realistic together, and you can be more easily manipulated. When transit Neptune is conjunct the composite Sun, you can be the spiritual connection strongly, as if there is a reason you're in one another lives at the moment, and you can move together intuitively. But you can also be under a strong fog that doesn't lift until the conjunction is over, and there can be a big mess underneath it if you're not making sure to stay tethered to the ground together. When transit Pluto is sextile or trine the composite Sun, this can help improve intimacy in personal relationships, and improve usage of resources in professional relationships. You can make small transformations for the better together. When transit Pluto is square or opposite the composite Sun, this can bring out anything that is deeply hidden in the relationship, and any simmering anger, bottled up rage or hatred or envy. You may bring out the worst in one another at times, and have to work on major transformations and to be as respectful and understanding as possible, not allowing emotion to take over everything. When transit Pluto is conjunct the composite Sun, this makes a major transformation extremely important, otherwise there can be incredible struggles over power and control within the relationship, and one may try to dominate the other, or you may encounter others who try to control the two of you. If you work with the energy, you can emerge stronger together and with a very strong bond. Transit Aspects to the Composite Moon When the transit Sun is sextile or trine the composite Moon, this can be beneficial for the emotional connection between you, and shine a light on how you connect emotionally in personal relationships. It can create an ease between you. When the transit Sun is square or opposite the composite Moon, this can be difficult for being on the same page emotionally, expressing yourself emotionally, and you may cause each other upset. Under the opposition, there may be something that comes to the surface and needs to be dealt with. When the transit Sun is conjunct the composite Moon, this can create strong emotional energy, and you may focus on something emotionally together, work on the foundation of something, or start something new. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine the composite Moon, this can bring an emotional ease between you, and help with emotional understanding. When the transit Moon is square or opposite the composite Moon, this can show emotional difficulties, and you may feel the foundation of the relationship is shaky and needs to be tended to. When the transit Moon is conjunct the composite Moon, this time of the month can bring your focus together to the relationship, the base of your connection, and you can come back together to focus on something. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine the composite Moon, this can help with being authentic in your communications, and being understood. When transit Mercury is square or opposite the composite Moon, this can make communication more difficult, and you may have a misunderstanding or fight. When transit Mercury is conjunct the composite Moon, this can bring out important communications, and you can find it important to open up. When transit Venus is sextile or trine the composite Moon, this can generate positive feelings for one another and the relationship, and you can get along more easily. When transit Venus is square or opposite the composite Moon, this can make you more stubborn with one another when upset, and you may need to work on being more open. There can also be laziness together. When transit Venus is conjunct the composite Moon, this can be a great aspect for personal relationships, and you can express feelings of affection more easily. All relationships can feel more emotionally at ease and balanced. When transit Mars is sextile or trine the composite Moon, this can spur you to take action together. You can feel driven emotionally, and you can make improvements to the core of the relationship. When transit Mars is square or opposite the composite Moon, this can make you short with one another, easily angered, and quick to fight. Avoid impulsive behavior. When transit Mars is conjunct the composite Moon, this can make you feel more secure in the relationship and focused on strengthening the core of your connection. As it grows strong, you can feel more driven together. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine the composite Moon, this can help with the emotional connection and strengthen the core of the relationship. You can feel much more at ease emotionally, and feel the relationship is easier. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite the composite Moon, the foundation may be a little shaky of the relationship, and you may be lazier together. You may also want more emotional space from one another. When transit Jupiter is conjunct the composite Moon, this can help you to expand your emotional connection, deepen an emotional bond, and make you feel more emotionally secure. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine the composite Moon, you can feel more emotionally stable and secure in the relationship and when dealing with one another. When transit Saturn is square or opposite the composite Moon, this can make emotional expression a challenge, and you may feel emotionally stifled together or by the relationship. There may be something important that needs to be addressed, otherwise a crack can appear in the foundation. When transit Saturn is conjunct the composite Moon, this can help you strengthen the foundation together, but you also may hold back emotionally and have to work on opening up, not letting responsibility take over. When transit Uranus is sextile or trine the composite Moon, you can feel open to trying new ways to strengthen the foundation of the relationship and trying new things together. When transit Uranus is square or opposite the composite Moon, this can breed emotional instability in the relationship, and cause changes that shake the foundation. You may need to work together to be more flexible and open to change. When transit Uranus is conjunct the composite Moon, you can work on changes and do things differently, but you may also want more independence from one another at times. A major change in the dynamic of your relationship may occur. When transit Neptune is sextile or trine the composite Moon, you can feel a strong emotional connection that also feels spiritual. You can be more compassionate and considerate of one another. When transit Neptune is square or opposite the composite Moon, you can experience difficulty understanding what may be happening at the core of the relationship, and issues may arise that can be difficult to understand. You may need to strengthen your spiritual and emotional connection to survive. When transit Neptune is conjunct the composite Moon, you may be more empathic with one another emotionally, sensing what the other is feeling, and can be more creative and artistic together. But you may also need to forge stronger emotional boundaries, otherwise they may be hard to differentiate. When transit Pluto is sextile or trine the composite Moon, you may feel your emotional connection undergoes a little transformation, but for the better. You can feel your emotional bond is stronger and more secure. When transit Pluto is square or opposite the composite Moon, deeply-held emotional issues can come out, and you may struggle with major issues internally or externally. A major transformation likely needs to be made in the relationship, otherwise there can be enormous fights for power and control. When transit Pluto is conjunct the composite Moon, you can focus on strengthening your emotional bond, and feel more powerful together than apart, but you may also give in to darker impulses at times and need to control that. Transit Aspects to Composite Mercury When the transit Sun is sextile or trine composite Mercury, this can improve communications, and you can feel more expressive with one another. When the transit Sun is square or opposite composite Mercury, there may be a struggle to openly communicate, and you may need to watch for misunderstandings or fights. When the transit Sun is conjunct composite Mercury, there can be a meeting of the minds, you can open up about something, and communication can flow. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine composite Mercury, this can help you to say what you feel and mean the things you say with one another, improving the heart-mind connection in the relationship. When the transit Moon is square or opposite composite Mercury, this can bring out upset and fighting, and you may need to watch what you say to one another when upset. When the transit Moon is conjunct composite Mercury, this can make it important for you to open up with one another about something, and you can be more honest and authentic. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine composite Mercury, this can be great for communication and expression. You can open up about something or talk over something important. When transit Mercury is square or opposite composite Mercury, this can make communication difficult, and you may have misunderstandings. You may need to work on seeing eye-to-eye. When transit Mercury is conjunct composite Mercury, communicating may feel easier, or there may be something important that you’re both focused on together. When transit Venus is sextile or trine composite Mercury, this can make communications between you more charming and pleasant. You can agree on things and not get into it over too much. When transit Venus is square or opposite composite Mercury, you may struggle with saying the wrong things, and need to watch how you’re communicating with one another. Be considerate. When transit Venus is conjunct composite Mercury, you can make a compromise, strike a balance, or have good conversation. When transit Mars is sextile or trine composite Mercury, there can be extra communications between you, and you can have more to share with one another. When transit Mars is square or opposite composite Mercury, you can struggle with seeing eye-to-eye and communicating, and can fight. You may need to let your heads cool. When transit Mars is conjunct composite Mercury, you can have a lot to say and share with one another, and you can be more open. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine composite Mercury, this can increase the ideas and conversations flowing between you, and you can get along better when you communicate. You may expand your view of things together. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite composite Mercury, you can struggle with open communication, and may be prone to being inauthentic (or flat out lying). Think about what you say and how you say it. When transit Jupiter is conjunct composite Mercury, there can be ideas and plans you pursue, and you can enjoy communicating with one another. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine composite Mercury, mental energy can seem more stabilized, and communications can be more practical and focused. When transit Saturn is square or opposite composite Mercury, this can squash communications, and you may have a hard time with expression and understanding. You may keep things from one another, and need to work on opening up and not judging. When transit Saturn is conjunct composite Mercury, this can make communications between you more focused on responsibilities, plans, and goals, but there may be less communications in general. When transit Uranus is sextile or trine composite Mercury, you can open up to new ideas together and push outside of your mental comfort zones. You can pursue unconventional solutions to problems. When transit Uranus is square or opposite composite Mercury, you may have a hard time with understanding one another. The way you communicate may need to change, and you may need to work on doing more listening. When transit Uranus is conjunct composite Mercury, you can focus on new ideas, new plans, and new ways of doing things. You may think about your future, but in a whole new way. When transit Neptune is sextile or trine composite Mercury, communications can be pleasant and charismatic between you. You can sense what one another means, even if it's not what you're saying. When transit Neptune is square or opposite composite Mercury, communication may be difficult, and understanding even harder. The fog of Neptune gets in the way, and you may need some mental boundaries. When transit Neptune is conjunct composite Mercury, you can have a strong sense of what each other are thinking, and you can merge your ideas and thoughts together seamlessly, but you may need to maintain boundaries, otherwise you may lose your own opinions. When transit Pluto is sextile or trine composite Mercury, you can work on powerful ideas together, and get to the heart of matters to find solutions. When transit Pluto is square or opposite composite Mercury, you may get into fights, have a hard time hearing one another, and one may try to dominate the other. Opening up your minds can be important, and trying not to be controlling. When transit Pluto is conjunct composite Mercury, this can make the ideas and plans you work on together more important, and you can transform the way you communicate. You can have unrelenting focus together, but you may also need to work on loosening up and being more positive. Transit Aspects to Composite Venus When the transit Sun is sextile or trine composite Venus, you can express affection for one another in a personal relationship, and get along better overall. When the transit Sun is square or opposite composite Venus, this can make you more stubborn with one another, and you may not want to deal with anything important together, feeling lazy. When the transit Sun is conjunct composite Venus, this can bring out good feelings, help you compromise and get along, and show feelings. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine composite Venus, this can increase the good feelings you have for one another, and you can feel emotionally at ease together. When the transit Moon is square or opposite composite Venus, this can bring out laziness when dealing with one another or the relationship, and you may be more stubborn when upset. When the transit Moon is conjunct composite Venus, this can greatly increase positive feelings, affection in personal relationships, and help you to compromise and avoid fighting. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine composite Venus, this can make communications more pleasant, and you can enjoy communicating with one another. When transit Mercury is square or opposite composite Venus, you may have a hard time with communicating, and can dig into your positions, so you may need to open up. When transit Mercury is conjunct composite Venus, you can share good feelings, connect mentally, and get on the same page. When transit Venus is sextile or trine composite Venus, this can bring out good feelings and affection in personal relationships, and you can enjoy one another and the relationship. When transit Venus is square or opposite composite Venus, you may not want to be very affection, or compromising, or pleasant, and can be a little lazy. When transit Venus is conjunct composite Venus, this can bring out the positive ways you feel about each other or the positive ways the relationship impacts your life. When transit Mars is sextile or trine composite Venus, this can help increase creative energy between you. In a romantic relationship, you can be more passionate. When transit Mars is square or opposite composite Venus, you may get into fights, but in a romantic relationship, this can lead to increased sizzle. Outside of a romantic relationship, another outlet needs to be found to release the energy. When transit Mars is conjunct composite Venus, there can be an increase in affection in personal relationships, and a drive to create something new together. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine composite Venus, this can increase affection in personal relationships, and you can enjoy being around one another more. The relationship can seem calmer. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite composite Venus, this can increase laziness between you, and you may be more stubborn and selfish. Making yourselves move might be needed. When transit Jupiter is conjunct composite Venus, you can be open with your good feelings, and make compromises, find balance in the relationship, and keep the peace together. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine composite Venus, stable energy can come into the relationship, and you can feel more secure in your commitment. When transit Saturn is square or opposite composite Venus, affection may be lacking in personal relationships, and you may not want to be around each other too much. You may feel love is lacking in a love relationship. Something may be hanging over the two of you that needs to be addressed. When transit Saturn is conjunct composite Venus, you can feel more committed to the relationship if it's healthy and positive, but may break away if it isn't. When transit Uranus is sextile or trine composite Venus, you can show affection for one another in new ways in personal relationships, and enjoy doing new things together. When transit Uranus is square or trine composite Uranus, you may struggle with rebellious energy, feel restless and agitated, and the relationship may seem unsteady and erratic. Getting control over the erratic energy can be important. When transit Uranus is conjunct composite Venus, some part of the relationship can undergo a big change, and you can do something unconventional together. When transit Neptune is sextile or trine composite Venus, this can increase the good feelings you have, and you can be much more pleasant, charismatic, and have an easier time getting along. When transit Neptune is square or opposite composite Venus, you may have difficulty seeing things in the relationship as they really are, and need to work on being more realistic, otherwise things may not be what you think they are. When transit Neptune is conjunct composite Venus, you may feel spiritually connected to one another in a strong way, but also need to make sure you’re not seeing the relationship with rose-colored glasses, and have good boundaries. When transit Pluto is sextile or trine composite Venus, this can help you feel more bonded to one another and the relationship. You can take the connection seriously, and find solutions together. When transit Pluto is square or opposite composite Venus, there may be a struggle over power and control, and love issues may come out in personal relationships. You have to work on being more open with one another and not being so dark or angry. When transit Pluto is conjunct composite Venus, this can strengthen intimacy in personal relationships, and a transformation may occur in the relationship, but you do need to make sure you avoid power/control issues. Transit Aspects to Composite Mars When the transit Sun is sextile or trine composite Mars, there can be a lot of energy between the two of you to get things done and be active together. You can feel more energized to focus on the relationship. When the transit Sun is square or opposite composite Mars, this can bring out anger and frustration, and you can easily fight. You may need to channel energy into something productive together. When the transit Sun is conjunct composite Mars, this can help you take initiative together and be active, but you can also get into fights if you're not being busy. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine composite Mars, the emotions you have for one another or the relationship can act to drive and inspire you. If you live together, you may make improvements in your living environment. When the transit Moon is square or opposite composite Mars, fighting can be brutal and you can each pull some punches. Try to keep calm and find something else to channel emotional energy for the few hours this is in effect. When the transit Moon is conjunct composite Mars, you can feel emotionally driven to do something together (this may be through the house composite Mars is located or rules). When transit Mercury is sextile or trine composite Mars, this can increase communication between you, and you can work on taking an idea or plan and moving forward with it together. When transit Mercury is square or opposite composite Mars, you may be prone to fighting, and have to channel mental energy between you in a positive way. When transit Mercury is conjunct composite Mars, you can work on plans of action together, and come together mentally. When transit Venus is sextile or trine composite Mars, this can help you enjoy taking action with things together, and you can make positive things happen. When transit Venus is square or opposite composite Mars, there can be extra friction between you, which can be channeled physically in a romantic relationship, but may cause fighting in non-romantic ones. When transit Venus is conjunct composite Mars, you can work to create something new together, and you can enjoy being active. When transit Mars is sextile or trine composite Mars, there can be more action taken together for something, and you can feel more driven to focus on the relationship as well. When transit Mars is square or opposite composite Mars, there can be too much energy between you, which can lead to fighting and aggressiveness, so try to have an outlet together. When transit Mars is conjunct composite Mars, this can help you take a big first step with something together, start a new journey together, or focus on a new project together. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine composite Mars, you can have lots of energy and drive together, and you can be super positive about everything. You may get more done together than apart. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite composite Mars, this may bring out some anger and fighting, and you may need to make sure you're listening to one another. When transit Jupiter is conjunct composite Mars, this can be great energy for starting something new together, and you can feel driven to take action. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine composite Mars, you may be more disciplined with what you work on together, and can accomplish more without overdoing anything. When transit Saturn is square or opposite composite Mars, energy may be stifled in the relationship, and you may feel drained together. There may be responsibilities that you need to work on, and you have to work on doing things the right way. When transit Saturn is conjunct composite Mars, you may be incredibly disciplined, practical, and focused with your energy together, but you may also be more easily drained and feel limited with your options. When transit Uranus is sextile or trine composite Mars, you can push to do things in brand new ways together, and you can feel positive and excited. When transit Uranus is square or opposite composite Mars, there may be restlessness, rebelliousness, and impulsiveness, and the relationship may seem erratic at times. You may need to work on controlling the energy and channeling it productively, otherwise it can break you apart. When transit Uranus is conjunct composite Mars, this can push you outside of your comfort zones in big ways, and you can make big changes. When transit Neptune is sextile or trine composite Mars, you can feel driven to focus on spiritual pursuits together, and instincts together can be strong. When transit Neptune is square or opposite composite Mars, it may be difficult to figure out your motivations with one another, what drives the relationship, or where you’re going together. The fog needs to be removed, and grounding may be needed. When transit Neptune is conjunct composite Mars, you may move together instinctively, guided by an unseen hand, and feel that your spiritual connection is strong. But ulterior motives may be murky so try to be realistic. When transit Pluto is sextile or trine composite Mars, this can help you to work on transformations for the better, and you can feel driven to attain more power and control together. When transit Pluto is square or opposite composite Mars, you may fight a lot more, and anything shoved away can come roaring out. There may be a moment (or moments) where it all just comes rushing out, and a screaming match can be had or violence can come into play, so try to let things out in a healthier, more controlled way. When transit Pluto is conjunct composite Mars, you can accomplish a tremendous amount together and have incredibly passionate energy to make things happen, but you may also get into fights more and need to stay active to use the energy up. Transit Aspects to Composite Jupiter When the transit Sun is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you can feel good about your connection, and can see how you both benefit from the relationship. You may want to expand or explore in some way together. When the transit Sun is square or opposite composite Jupiter, you may feel you need some space from one another, and don’t want to deal with any issues too much. When the transit Sun is conjunct composite Jupiter, you may feel great about the relationship, and can open it up in some way. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you can feel good emotionally about where you’re at together. You can feel that the connection is solid and positive. When the transit Moon is square or opposite composite Jupiter, you may want some emotional distance, and may be emotionally lazy with one another. When the transit Moon is conjunct composite Jupiter, you may feel quite positive about the relationship and the impact it has on your life. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, communications can be very positive, and you can have an easier time opening up. When transit Mercury is square or opposite composite Jupiter, you may say too much and stumble over your words, stick your foot in your mouth, and say things you shouldn’t, so watch it. When transit Mercury is conjunct composite Jupiter, you can enjoy the mental connection, and focus on an important idea or plan. When transit Venus is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you can enjoy each other’s company, and personal relationships can be much more affectionate. You can get along, and try to find middle ground. When transit Venus is square or opposite composite Jupiter, you may have a hard time with stubbornness, and you may feel lazy and not want to do anything about any issues that arise. When transit Venus is conjunct composite Jupiter, you may feel that the relationship is easier, more beneficial, and that you enjoy it more, and can be more open to commitment. When transit Mars is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you can feel very positive together, and may have a little bit of good luck on your side if you don’t push it. When transit Mars is square or opposite composite Jupiter, there can be disputes about how to proceed and what you do, yet you may not actually do anything together, feeling lazy. When transit Mars is conjunct composite Jupiter, you may focus on something new to work on together, some new part of the relationship, and feel very good together. Luck can also increase. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you can feel open to expanding, exploring, and new experiences together, and can be quite positive. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite composite Jupiter, you may want to relax, indulge, and not deal with too much together, and maybe get a little space. When transit Jupiter is conjunct composite Jupiter, it may feel like a new chapter is starting that can last for over a decade, and you can feel it’s time to start anew. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you can balance responsibilities you have together with opportunities you have together and feel things are stable. When transit Saturn is square or opposite composite Jupiter, that may not be the case, and you may focus too much on opportunity and expansion at the expense of responsibilities, or too much on restriction and limitations at the expense of opportunity. Try to find middle ground. When transit Saturn is conjunct composite Jupiter, Saturn may try to overtake Jupiter and force limiting energy on the relationship, but you can find opportunities together by being smart, responsible, and practical. When transit Uranus is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you may focus on doing things in new ways and step outside of your comfort zones. You can think about the future, dreams you have together, and meet new people together. When transit Uranus is square or opposite composite Jupiter, this can bring out difficulties with your beliefs, and you may clash quite a bit. You may want to force your beliefs one each other, but need to be more open. When transit Uranus is conjunct composite Jupiter, you can be extra positive together, and find new ways to expand the relationship and have new experiences together. When transit Neptune is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you can enjoy each other's company, and you can feel spiritually connected. Your beliefs can sync up nicely, and you can be helpful of others together. When transit Neptune is square or opposite composite Jupiter, you may struggle with getting on the same page with your beliefs, and one may try to dupe the other, which needs to be avoided. Also watch for others trying to dupe you together. When transit Neptune is conjunct composite Jupiter, you can feel highly spiritually connected, and your beliefs can blend into one another, so some boundaries may be needed. When transit Pluto is sextile or trine composite Jupiter, you may feel you have more power together and in the relationship when you're expanding and exploring and having new experiences. When transit Pluto is square or opposite composite Jupiter, you can struggle with allowing one another to have space to expand in your own ways, and may be overly pessimistic. Beliefs may be a struggle, and there can be fighting over beliefs. When transit Pluto is conjunct composite Jupiter, you may feel a strong bond in your experiences and world views, and what you're passionate about, and power can grow when you're together. Transit Aspects to Composite Saturn When the transit Sun is sextile or trine composite Saturn, this can bring stabilizing energy to your connection, and you can feel committed to the relationship. When the transit Sun is square or opposite composite Saturn, this can make you feel more restricted and limited by one another or the relationship, and there may be an issue to address or responsibility to focus on. When the transit Sun is conjunct composite Saturn, this can bring out responsibilities and a more practical approach to the relationship, but you may also feel limited. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine composite Saturn, this can bring stabilizing emotional energy. You can feel calmer with one another, and feel the core of the relationship is stable. When the transit Moon is square or opposite composite Saturn, this can make you feel emotionally stifled, and you may not want to express what you’re feeling with one another, or feel that the relationship is holding you back emotionally. When the transit Moon is conjunct composite Saturn, this can make you focus on being more responsible with one another and the relationship, and you can feel more emotionally committed, but may hold back on emotional expression. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine composite Saturn, this can make communications between you more practical and mental energy focused. When transit Mercury is square or opposite composite Saturn, you may have a hard time with understanding, and can keep things to yourselves, but this can make you feel your stifling your expression. When transit Mercury is conjunct composite Saturn, you can focus on being more practical with your ideas and plans together and bring stable energy to the relationship, but you may also limit communications. When transit Venus is sextile or trine composite Saturn, you may feel the commitment you have to the relationship is stable and secure, and you can feel good about how you handle responsibilities together. When transit Venus is square or opposite composite Saturn, you may feel something is restricted in the relationship, and in personal relationships, you may not be affectionate. Issues may be highlighted and need to be addressed. When transit Venus is conjunct composite Saturn, you can focus on improving the relationship, working on goals, or taking up responsibilities, but you may not be very expressive together. When transit Mars is sextile or trine composite Saturn, you may have very disciplined energy and drive, and can take action for the things you want together. When transit Mars is square or opposite composite Saturn, energy may feel too controlled or lacking, and you may feel extra focused on issues in the relationship and existing limitations. This can cause frustration and annoyance. When transit Mars is conjunct composite Saturn, there can be great progress made with whatever you work on together, but you may not work on anything else. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine composite Saturn, you can feel that optimism is balanced with reality, and this can allow you to do more together, and feel stable. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite composite Saturn, you may struggle with feeling that restricted and limited in the relationship, yet you may want to avoid any problems that could resolve the issue. Responsibility can be important. When transit Jupiter is conjunct composite Saturn, you can expand your relationship in practical ways and find opportunities by being responsible. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine composite Saturn, you may feel that the relationship is stable and feel comfortable with the commitment you have to the relationship. When transit Saturn is square or opposite composite Saturn, this can bring out some friction in the relationship, and there may be a major issue that needs to be addressed, otherwise this can lead to fracture and parting. If you can move out of these aspects, you can feel set up together for a while. When transit Saturn is conjunct composite Saturn, innate issues in the relationships can become a focus, and situations may arise that force you to work on problems, learn how to grow the relationship or connection, and work well together. You can emerge more connected. When transit Uranus is sextile or trine composite Saturn, you may feel that you can try new ways of improving stability and commitment, and can balance the old with the new together. When transit Uranus is square or opposite composite Saturn, there may be unexpected events that disrupt the stability of the relationship. Some degree of space may be needed, some room to breathe. When transit Uranus is conjunct composite Saturn, how you commit to one another and the relationship or what brings you together may undergo a big shift, and you can focus on new goals together. When transit Neptune is sextile or trine composite Saturn, you can work together to strengthen your soul connection, and ground the energy. When transit Neptune is square or opposite composite Saturn, there may be a struggle with dealing with insecurity in the relationship, and you may have a hard time figuring out what the root causes are for problems and how to deal with them. You may be overly practical together or overly imaginative, and need to find some middle ground. When transit Neptune is conjunct composite Saturn, this can be excellent for making dreams reality together and grounding spiritual connections, but you may also need to make sure Neptune doesn't take over Saturn (and bring the fog) or Saturn doesn't take over Neptune (and kill compassion and imagination). When transit Pluto is sextile or trine composite Saturn, you may be extra disciplined together, focused on accomplishing something together and achieving more power. When transit Pluto is square or opposite composite Saturn, this can make you feel more restricted and limited, and repression may be a problem. Responsibilities may overwhelm you, and you need to bring some lighter energy into the relationship, otherwise it can drown in the dark. When transit Pluto is conjunct composite Saturn, you can accomplish a great deal together, whatever you set your mind to (so it’s excellent for business relationships), but your focus may be intense together and needs something productive, otherwise there can be some issues. A transformation may need to be made in the relationship related to the house Saturn is in or rules. Transit Aspects to Composite Uranus When the transit Sun is sextile or trine composite Uranus, this can help you to focus on new ways of approaching the relationship, or work together to implement changes. You can focus on the future together, or hopes and dreams you have for the relationship. When the transit Sun is square or opposite composite Uranus, you may feel you need time apart, and you can feel restless and rebellious with one another. You may need to avoid being erratic or impulsive. When the transit Sun is conjunct composite Uranus, it may be a time to work on a change together or deal with something unexpected. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine composite Uranus, this can help you to make changes with the foundation of the relationship, but in positive ways. When the transit Moon is square or opposite composite Uranus, there may be a feeling that something at the core is unsettled, and you can be emotionally unstable with one another. Stability may be difficult. When the transit Moon is conjunct composite Uranus, you can focus on finding new ways of connecting emotionally or push outside of your comfort zones. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine composite Uranus, this can help you find new ways of communicating and being understood by one another, and you can think outside of the box together. When transit Mercury is square or opposite composite Uranus, you may have a hard time with understanding, and there can be some restlessness with the activities you’re working on (if any) or in your daily lives. When transit Mercury is conjunct composite Uranus, you may focus on a change together, and work on something different. When transit Venus is sextile or trine composite Uranus, you may be more affectionate in new ways in personal relationships, and can give each other enough room to be independent but still feel secure. When transit Venus is square or opposite composite Uranus, there can be erratic energy in the relationship, and you may be short with one another. You may need to control impulses. When transit Venus is conjunct composite Uranus, you can enjoy doing new things together, making a change in the relationship, and opening up to new people together. When transit Mars is sextile or trine composite Uranus, you may take action together with something new and different, and can work to make changes that can be beneficial, or work on a future goal. When transit Mars is square or opposite composite Uranus, you may push against one another, and want more time away from each other, but need to make sure you don’t push too far away from one another. Watch for fighting. When transit Mars is conjunct composite Uranus, there can be a great desire to make a change, to have more independence in the relationship, and energy and drive can increase overall. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine composite Uranus, there can be positive energy between you for doing things in new ways, and pursuing new opportunities. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite composite Uranus, you may feel rebellious with one another, but can be lazy when it comes to dealing with issues. When transit Jupiter is conjunct composite Uranus, this can be excellent for positive changes, expanding in new and unconventional ways, and creating new opportunities together. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine composite Uranus, this can help you to bring more stability to changes, and to find practical ways to be more independent. When transit Saturn is square or opposite composite Uranus, there may be issues to overcome in order to make the changes you want, and you may feel stifled in the relationship, unable to express your individuality, which can lead to restlessness and frustration, but you may keep that to yourself. When transit Saturn is conjunct composite Uranus, you can work on changes together in practical ways, creating plans for doing things in new ways, and lowly pursuing the unconventional. Note: Since Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto are the slow movers and shouldn't differ too wildly in the composite chart from your natal charts (unless there's a super massive age difference), those interpretations are left out (just think of them as doubled energy when they're occurring to your natal charts, and focus on the composite houses Uranus, Neptune, or Pluto are in and rule). Transit Aspects to Composite Neptune When the transit Sun is sextile or trine composite Neptune, you can be more charming with one another, and feel a spiritual connection. You may be more considerate of one another. When the transit Sun is square or opposite composite Neptune, you may struggle with being realistic with one another, and can feel something fading from the relationship. You may be more vulnerable together and need better boundaries. When the transit Sun is conjunct composite Neptune, you can feel a strong spiritual connection and move together intuitively, but you may struggle with the fog of Neptune. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine composite Neptune, you can be more compassionate with another, more emotionally understanding, and want to help each other. When the transit Moon is square or opposite composite Neptune, you may feel uneasy emotionally about something but are uncertain of what exactly, or have a hard time putting your finger on emotional issues that arise. When the transit Moon is conjunct composite Neptune, your instincts together can be strong, and you can focus on giving to one another, but may need some emotional boundaries. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine composite Neptune, this can help with being charismatic in your communications with one another, and you can sense what one another think. When transit Mercury is square or opposite composite Neptune, understanding may be difficult, and you may not be listening to one another clearly. You may not be talking about the right things, or at all. When transit Mercury is conjunct composite Neptune, you can feel connected spiritually and mentally, and focus on something creatively. When transit Venus is sextile or trine composite Neptune, you can be compassionate with one another, understanding, and want to help each other. This can be good for affection in personal relationships. When transit Venus is square or opposite composite Neptune, you may have difficulty expressing affection, and you may not have much time for each other. Your judgment of something may be clouded temporarily. When transit Venus is conjunct composite Neptune, you can feel spiritually connected, like you’re meant to be for some reason, and can be more sacrificing for one another or the relationship. When transit Mars is sextile or trine composite Neptune, you may feel more spiritually connected, and can be intuitively guided together. You can be more compassionate with one another and toward others together. When transit Mars is square or opposite composite Neptune, you may struggle with boundaries, question motives, and may feel that the relationship is draining on you. There may be something hidden that is causing the issue. When transit Mars is conjunct composite Neptune, you may feel you’ve been brought together for a reason, and that you’re moving together on a fated path. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine composite Neptune, this can help you feel good together and about the relationship, and you may be in the right positions to find the right opportunities together. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite composite Neptune, you may have a hard time seeing eye-to-eye on beliefs, and can struggle with laziness that creates distance in the relationship. When transit Jupiter is conjunct composite Neptune, you can be compassionate and creative with one another and others, and feel your beliefs are in sync. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine composite Neptune, stable energy may be brought to your spiritual connection, and you can feel more grounded. When transit Saturn is square or opposite composite Neptune, there can be a struggle with being compassionate and understanding with one another, being overly realistic, or questioning the purpose of your connection. When transit Saturn is conjunct composite Neptune, you can focus on doing something practical with a dream together, and being more helpful of others, but may also feel you need to ground your spiritual connection. Note: Since Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto are the slow movers and shouldn’t differ too wildly in the composite chart from your natal charts (unless there’s a super massive age difference), those interpretations are left out (just think of them as doubled energy when they’re occurring to your natal charts, and focus on the composite houses Uranus, Neptune, or Pluto are in and rule). Transit Aspects to Composite Pluto When the transit Sun is sextile or trine composite Pluto, you can share more easily with one another, and can feel that the bonds between you are strong, and that you have more power together. When the transit Sun is square or opposite composite Pluto, you may struggle over power and control of something, and can get into heated arguments. Try to work on positive transformations, even small ones. When the transit Sun is conjunct composite Pluto, you can feel the connection is strong and powerful, and are more drawn to one another. When the transit Moon is sextile or trine composite Pluto, you can feel the emotional bonds you have is strong, and you can feel emotionally invested in the relationship. When the transit Moon is square or opposite composite Pluto, you may struggle with deeply-held issues and feelings that can come out and cause problems, and if fights occur, they can get ugly, so try to control yourselves. When the transit Moon is conjunct composite Pluto, you can feel a strong connection to the relationship and one another, and feel the power within the pairing. You may focus on something small that can be transformed. When transit Mercury is sextile or trine composite Pluto, you can dig into something together, have great focus, and feel passionate about your ideas and plans. When transit Mercury is square or opposite composite Pluto, you may have a hard time with communication and can get into a fight. Watch what you say to one another. When transit Mercury is conjunct composite Pluto, you may have intense focus together, and increased passion for something you can work on together. When transit Venus is sextile or trine composite Pluto, you can feel more passionate about your connection and get along better. Personal relationships can be more affectionate and romantic relationships can be more passionate. When transit Venus is square or opposite composite Pluto, you may need to watch for being cruel with one another, and try to be more considerate. When transit Venus is conjunct composite Pluto, your connection may seem more powerful, and you may enjoy focusing on something serious together or working on a transformation. When transit Mars is sextile or trine composite Pluto, you can focus on doing something together intensely, and energy can be passionate. You may feel stronger together. When transit Mars is square or opposite composite Pluto, you may fight against each other, and fights can be epic, so try to be civil or it may go too far. When transit Mars is conjunct composite Pluto, you can focus on a transformation, work on something new that can strengthen your bond, and energy can be high so it needs an outlet. When transit Jupiter is sextile or trine composite Pluto, you may feel you can focus on new opportunities together to create more power and control. When transit Jupiter is square or opposite composite Pluto, there can be struggles over power and control, and you may need to avoid being too hurtful of each other. When transit Jupiter is conjunct composite Pluto, you can be researching together, work to transform, and find power together, or do something that is to each of your benefits. Watch for controlling behavior. When transit Saturn is sextile or trine composite Pluto, this can help you channel passionate energy you may have together into something productive, and can be especially helpful for business connections. When transit Saturn is square or opposite composite Pluto, you may feel frustrated with one another or the relationship, and issues that have been simmering or bottled up may be exposed. Try to deal with issues instead of avoiding them. When transit Saturn is conjunct composite Pluto, this can give an opportunity to get incredibly focused together on something important, but you need to make sure you don’t stifle each other or harbor resentment. 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ZERO TO FOUR GUIDEBOOK Understanding the effects of health issues during child development CONTROLLED ASTHMA OVERVIEW Asthma is a lung disease that makes it hard to breathe. The small tubes that allow air to travel to the lungs are called airways. With asthma, the airways become narrow because they get swollen and muscles around them tighten. This makes it harder to get air in and out of the lungs. The lungs of people with asthma also make more mucus, which can block the airways. Asthma is a chronic disease, which means that it does not go away. However, asthma is not the same for every child. Some children have symptoms every day, while others only have symptoms a few times a year. Some symptoms may come and go depending on the weather or a child’s age. Diagnosing and treating asthma in children under 4 years old can be hard. In babies and young children, the main symptoms of asthma are wheezing and coughing. Wheezing is a high pitched sound that may happen when your child breathes out. Other illnesses can also cause wheezing and coughing though, so sometimes it is hard to know if your child has asthma. Also, tests to measure how well someone is breathing are harder to use on young children. If you think your child might have asthma, it is important to discuss it with a doctor. SYMPTOMS Most children with asthma have their first symptoms before they are five years old. Anyone can have asthma, but it is common in children who have a family history of asthma. Asthma is also common in children who have allergies and children who have are around cigarette smoke a lot. Signs of asthma in young children could include: - Coughing - Wheezing - Trouble breathing - A tight, uncomfortable feeling in the chest (sometimes children cannot explain this feeling) Symptoms of asthma are different for each child. Some children have symptoms every day. Other children may have symptoms only a few times a year. Symptoms may be worse at night. Coughing is the most noticeable symptom in children. An asthma attack is when the child has severe symptoms and trouble breathing. They may need to go to the emergency room or the hospital. It is important to always have your child’s asthma medicines with you. You won’t always know when an asthma attack will happen. Certain events or triggers may cause asthma symptoms. An asthma trigger is something that makes asthma symptoms start up or get worse. Some triggers are: - Being sick with a colds or other lung infections - Things that cause allergies like dust, pets or pollen - Cigarette smoke - Strong emotional reactions, like crying or laughing - Gastrointestinal reflux Exercise or activity can also be an asthma trigger. With the right medicines, kids with asthma can live healthy, active lives. It is still important for children to be active even if they have asthma. Talk to your child’s doctor so that they can find the right medicines for your child. Not all young children who have wheezing have asthma. But it is important for a doctor to see your child if they do have wheezing, to make sure they can breathe well. Doctors will also work with you to make a plan for when your child starts wheezing in the future. They will make sure you have the right medicines for your child. PARENTS It is important to keep track of your child’s symptoms and know their triggers. This will help your child’s doctor make a treatment plan. You can help your child live with asthma by following the asthma treatment plan. There may be long breaks between asthma symptoms in your child. Your child may have symptoms one day and not again for a few days, weeks, or months. You should keep track of your child’s symptoms and tell your child’s doctor. This will help the doctor make a treatment plan. If your child is having symptoms every day or even a couple times per week that is too much. A treatment plan will help control your child’s asthma. VISITING THE DOCTOR If your child has wheezing, or coughs a lot, take them to see their doctor. The doctor may ask a lot of questions. Some questions the doctor might ask are: - Does anyone in your family have asthma? - How often does your child have symptoms of asthma? - Does coughing wake your child up at night? - Has your child been sick with a cold recently? - How often does he or she have trouble breathing? - If your child has trouble breathing, how long does it last? Has your child ever needed to go to the emergency room because they had trouble breathing? Does your child have any pollen, dust, pet or food allergies? Is your child exposed to cigarette smoke? If your child’s doctor thinks that your child has asthma, he or she may suggest a treatment. There are two kinds of medicine to treat asthma: Relievers and Controllers. Relievers: These medicines work to relax tight muscles around the airways. These are taken for quick relief of asthma symptoms. Children with asthma should always have their rescue medicines close by. Everyone who takes care of a child with asthma needs to know how to use these medicines. This includes babysitters and teachers. Controllers: These medicines are for children who have symptoms more than a few times a month. They work to decrease irritation, swelling, and mucus that blocks airways. This medicine takes several weeks to work and will not help your child immediately. For controllers to work, you must use them every day. Over several weeks you will start to see your child get better. If your child continues to take them every day, they will have less cough, wheezing, and asthma attacks. Your child may need to use relievers less often if they use controllers correctly. Controllers help prevent asthma symptoms. Talk to your child’s doctor to make sure they have the right medicines. Make sure that you know how and when to use each medicine. WARNING SIGNS Severe, or really bad, asthma attacks can be dangerous. Sometimes it can require emergency treatment. If your child is experiencing an asthma attack, please call your doctor right away. If your child is struggling to breathe, call 911 for an ambulance. The following signs and symptoms can help you know if your child is having an asthma attack: - Using belly muscles to breathe - Gasping for air - Breathing in so hard that the belly is sucked under the ribs - Trouble talking because of heaving breathing THE GOAL IS CONTROL! Asthma can be a scary disease, especially when it is your baby or young child. When you visit your child’s doctor, bring a list of questions. Ask the doctor about anything that is making you worry. As many times as you need. You can even repeat the directions to your doctor to make sure you understand them. It is very important to make sure your baby or child has the right medicines if they have asthma. With the right medicines, your baby can be healthy and active, just like other kids. Asthma does not go away, but it CAN be controlled. Ask your doctor for help, and together you can make the best plan for your child. HEALTHY VISION OVERVIEW Just like learning to walk and talk, infants develop sight slowly over 6 to 8 months. Infants are not born with the ability to focus their eyes, move them correctly and use them together as a team. From birth, children see the world through their eyes. As the brain grows, an infant learns how to use the information the eyes take in. Even before they learn to reach and grab with their hands and sit-up, the eyes provide information to the brain that is important for development. Eye and vision problems in infants can cause delays in: - Gross motor skills, like rolling over and crawling - Fine motor skills, like moving fingers and picking up small items - Speech skills - Language skills Knowing the milestones of your infant’s vision development will help make sure your child is seeing properly. DEVELOPMENT Birth to four months: - At birth, infants experience a lot of new sights and sounds. Their main focus is on objects 8 to 10 inches from their face. Infants are sensitive to bright light. Their pupils remain constricted, or narrow, to limit the light coming into the eyes. - During the first months of life, an infant’s eyes are not well coordinated and may appear to wander or to be crossed. - Infants are first drawn toward high contrast images, like black and white pictures, bull’s eyes or very simple face shapes. At one month, an infant will look longer at bold colors and contrasting patterns. - By eight weeks, infants begin to focus their eyes on the faces of a parent or other individuals close to them. The human face is an infant’s favorite image. As their vision increases, an infant will be able to see the face more clearly and will become responsive to facial expressions. - By three months of age, an infant should begin to follow moving objects with their eyes and reach for things around them. As an infant begins to look and reach for objects, the eyes start working together and vision quickly improves. During this time, infants are learning to use their eyes and hands together. This is called eye-hand coordination. Five to eight months - An infant’s control of eye movements and eye-body coordination skills get better. - By five months, an infant begins to develop depth perception. Depth perception is being able to judge if something is close or far away. A baby is not born with depth perception. - Crawling helps with the development of eye-body coordination. Early walkers who did minimal crawling may not learn to use their eyes together as well as babies who crawl a lot. Nine to twelve months - At nine months, an infant may begin to pull themselves up to a standing position, as well as grasping objects with a thumb and forefinger. - At twelve months, most infants will begin crawling and trying to walk. Crawling is important because it helps develop better eye-hand coordination. - During this time, infants can judge distances. They can throw objects the right direction and distance. One to two years old - At one to two years, children are interested in exploring everything that surrounds them. They like looking and listening. They recognize familiar images in books and can scribble with a crayon or pencil. - By two years, a child’s eye-hand coordination and depth perception should be well developed. PARENTS Parents play a critical role in helping to assure their child’s eye and vision can develop properly. Good vision is developed through a learned process of looking, touching, and exploring. Birth to Four Months - Change the crib’s position and change your child’s position in it - Keep reach and touch toys within your baby’s focus (about 8 to 12 inches) - Talk to your child as you walk around the room - Alternate right and left sides with each feeding - Have toys with different textures, sizes, weights and forms Five to Eight Months - Hang a mobile toy across the crib for your child to grab, pull and kick - Give your child plenty of time to play and explore on the floor - Provide plastic or wooden blocks that can be held in both hands - Play “patty cake” or “peek-a-boo” and move the baby’s hands through the motions while singing - Use simple words and sentences about clothing, food, toys and baby Nine to Eleven Months - Play hide and seek games with toys - Name objects when talking, encourage crawling - Place objects on a highchair tray that can be pushed off and dropped to the floor - Read books and tell stories to your child Twelve to Eighteen Months - Roll ball back and forth to help a child track objects with the eyes - Give your child building blocks and balls of all shapes and sizes to play with - Read books and tell stories to your child - Pretend play with telephones, stuffed animals and dolls Nineteen to Twenty-Four Months - Build towers and structures - Play with toys that can be put together or taken apart - Encourage imagination and storytelling - Play with four-wheeled toys that can be moved Two to Three Years - Encourage running, tumbling and climbing - Provide your child with lots of time to create and draw - Play make-believe games, dolls, dress-up clothes or stories - Talk about objects, colors and shapes - Allow child to play with other children the same age Three to Four Years - Allow time for drawing, coloring, and activities with clay and play dough - Read books with your child - Challenge child to dodge, throw, stop/go, turn sharp corners - Set up times to encourage play in small groups - Tell stories and encourage conversation EYE EXAMS It is important for a doctor to check a child’s vision as they grow. Vision screenings can help parents and doctors find eye problems in a child. If problems are found early, it is more likely that they can be treated. Vision screenings can be performed by a pediatrician, family doctor, or other trained health care provider. It can also be offered at schools, community health centers, or community events. It is recommended that a doctor examine a newborn infant’s eyes. If a baby is premature or born early, is at high risk for medical problems or has other health problems, an eye doctor should do a screening. It is recommended that a second vision screening be done when a child is between six months and one year old. This can be done at a child’s well child exam. At age three or before or during preschool, a child’s vision and eye alignment should be screened by an eye doctor or pediatrician. WARNING SIGNS Although a doctor examines your child’s eyes at birth, it is important to pay attention to changes in your child’s eyes as they develop. Keep an eye out for the following signs of concern: - Your child does not follow an object with both eyes - Your child has trouble moving either or both eyes in all directions - Your child’s eyes jiggle and cannot hold still - Your child’s eyes are crossed most of the time, or one or both of the eyes turns in or out - One of your child’s pupils appear white, particularly in photographs - Your child’s eyes seem sensitive to light If your infant was born premature, they are at greater risk for developing certain eye problems, including astigmatism (blurred vision), myopia (nearsightedness), retinopathy of prematurity (abnormal blood vessel growth that can lead to blindness), and strabismus (eye misalignment). Contact your infant’s doctor for more information. DENTAL HEALTH OVERVIEW Healthy teeth are important to your child’s health. They help with healthy eating and overall health. Even though they will eventually lose them, it is important to keep baby teeth strong and healthy. Baby teeth with cavities or infections can be painful. Good oral health also helps a child’s speech development. From the time your child is born, there are things you can do to promote healthy teeth and prevent tooth decay. Tooth decay is the most common childhood disease in the United States. Tooth decay is damage from germs in your mouth that eat away at the tooth. Over time, these germs can cause a hole in the tooth, called a cavity. Tooth decay and cavities can be painful and can affect a child’s learning and focus in school. DEVELOPMENT Teeth vary in size, shape and location in the mouth. By the time a baby is born, their 20 baby teeth have usually formed in the gums. Teeth will start to break through the gums when a baby is 4-6 months old. This can vary from child to child and some baby’s won’t develop any teeth at all until they are closer to one year old. When teeth are ready, they will come out pairs. The lower teeth come in first. There is normally a space or gap between each baby tooth. This leaves room for a child’s adult teeth. If teeth do not come in a year after they are supposed to, take your child to a dentist to make sure they are developing properly. By the time a child is 2 to 3 years old, all their teeth should have come out. Before birth: - Teeth begin to develop before the baby is born, around 4 - 6 weeks into the pregnancy. - Around 3 months into the pregnancy, the hard tissue that surrounds the teeth form. Six to Twelve months: - The bottom front teeth are the first to erupt, around 4-7 months. - The upper middle teeth come in next, between 8-12 months. Thirteen to Eighteen months: - Your child’s first lower molar will come in. Soon after that the upper molar will come in. - After the first molars have come in, the teeth next to the bottom front teeth will come in. Twenty-four months and Up: - Usually, after your child reaches two years old, the four-second molars (the last of the baby teeth) appear. TEETHING When your child’s teeth break through the gums, it may be uncomfortable and painful. This time of discomfort for your baby is called teething. Teething usually begins around 4-6 months of age. Some babies are fussier than usual when they are teething. This may be because of soreness and swelling in the gums before a tooth comes in. These symptoms usually begin 3-5 days before the tooth shows, and they disappear as soon as the tooth breaks through. Some signs of teething are: - Biting their fingers or toys - Not wanting to eat and drink because their mouths hurt - Drooling - Sensitive or swollen gums - Problems sleeping - A low fever Parents can help their baby feel better while teething by: - Using a clean finger to gently rub your baby’s gum for 2 minutes at a time. - Give baby sage objects to chew on, such as teething rings. - If needed, talk to your baby’s doctor about using pain medication Pain relievers and medications that you can rub on babies’ gums can be harmful if too much is used. Do not use teething tablets or gels that contain the ingredients belladonna or benzocaine. These ingredients may cause side effects and people are encouraged not to use them. If your child has a fever and is fussy, it may not be due to teething and you should talk to your child’s doctor. PARENTS It is important for parents to help children develop good oral health. Fluoride is a mineral that helps stop cavities in children and adults. Baby toothpaste does not have fluoride in it. Since babies cannot spit, this is safer. In many places, the amount of fluoride in drinking water is enough to help your baby’s teeth grow in strong. If you do not give your baby tap water or if there is not fluoride in the water where you live, or you are not sure, talk to your baby’s doctor. Here is a list of ways that you can care for your baby’s teeth: - As soon as baby teeth appear, brush your child’s teeth using a baby-size toothbrush and a small drop of baby toothpaste. - Brush your child’s teeth twice a day. Once in the morning and once right before bedtime. - At 6 months of age, talk to your child’s doctor about using a fluoride supplement. - When your baby is 2 years old, increase the amount of toothpaste to the size of a pea. At this age, start using toothpaste that does contain fluoride, as they can spit most of it out instead of swallowing it all. This will help your child’s teeth to grow in stronger. - Do not put your baby to sleep with a bottle. When the baby falls asleep, the milk will stay in their mouth and can lead to tooth decay and cavities. - Transition your child from a bottle to a cup, as soon as they are ready to hold it on their own. - Do not give your baby a spoon or pacifier that has been put in your mouth first. Bacteria can be passed to your baby. - Provide healthy foods and limit snacks and drinks that have a lot of sugar. VISITING THE DOCTOR As soon as your child’s first tooth appears, it is time to schedule a dentist appointment. It is recommended that your child visit no later than their first birthday. The first visit is mainly for the dentist to examine your child’s mouth and to check growth and development. Going to the dentist at a young age helps your child feel comfortable and safe during visits. During this visit, the dentist will likely do the following things: - Check for oral injuries, cavities or other problems. - Let you know if your child is at risk of developing tooth decay. - Clean your child’s teeth and provide tips for daily care. - Discuss teething, pacifier use, or thumb sucking habits. - Discuss treatment, if needed, and schedule the next check-up. HEALTHY HEARING OVERVIEW In the first few years of life, hearing is an important part of a child’s social, emotional, and brain development. Hearing loss can happen when a part of the ear is not working the right way. This includes parts like the outer ear, middle ear, inner ear and nerves. Hearing loss can be in one or both ears. Hearing loss may cause a child to have problems with how they talk, and have trouble learning. It can also cause problems with their social skills and behavior. Hearing is tested when a baby is born. It is important that a young child get hearing screened early and checked regularly. It is always better to find a hearing problem early so you can work with a doctor to treat it. DEVELOPMENT Birth to 3 Months: At birth, all newborns have a hearing screening before leaving the hospital. This can help identify children born with hearing loss. Sometimes hearing loss is caused by things like infection, trauma, or listening to a lot of loud noises. During the first few weeks of life, infants should react to loud sounds, recognize a parent’s voice and calm down if crying, “coo” and makes pleasure sounds. Four to Six Months: By around 4 months, an infant should be able to: - follow sounds with his or her eyes - respond to changes in the tone of voice - notice toys that make sounds - pay attention to music - laugh - babble when excited or unhappy - make gurgling sounds when alone or playing Seven Months to One Year: - By around 7 months, an infant should be able to: - enjoy playing peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake - turn and look in the direction of sounds - listen when spoken to - understand words for common items such as “cup”, “shoe” or “juice” - babble to get attention - practice different speech sounds - communicate using gestures such as waving or holding up arms - By a child’s first birthday, they should have one or two words (“hi”, “dog”, “dada”, “mama”). One to Two Years: By around 1 year, a toddler should be able to: - know parts of the body and point when asked - follow simple commands and understand simple questions - enjoy simple songs - stories and rhymes - point to pictures in books - acquire new words - use one or two word questions - put two or more words together - use words that start with many different letters Two to Three Years: By around 2 years, a toddler should be able to: - use two or three word phrases to talk about and ask for things - speak in a way that is understood by family members and friends - name objects Three to Four Years: By around 3 years, a toddler should be able to: - hear you when you call from another room - hear the television or radio at the same sound level as other family members - answer simple questions such as “who?” “what?” “where?” and “why?” - talk about activities at daycare, preschool or friends’ homes - use sentences with four or more words - speak easily without having to repeat syllables or words PARENTS Parents are often the first to sense that their child has a hearing problem. It is important to recognize the signs of hearing loss as early as possible. Parents can do this by observing your child’s development. Early signs of problems include: no reaction to loud noises and/or no response to your voice. If you suspect a problem, do not wait in getting your child’s hearing tested. Make sure your baby passed their hearing screen after they were born. If your child was not born in a hospital or was not born in the United States, they might not have had this test. If they did not have a newborn hearing test, or if they did not pass it when it was done, be sure to follow up with your doctor to have your baby’s hearing checked. Any additional testing they recommend will be very important to have done. VISITING THE DOCTOR A hearing screening can show if your child might have hearing loss. A hearing screening is easy and is not painful. There are different types of screenings depending on how your child’s age, development, and health status. A hearing screening can be conducted by your child’s doctor, or by a special hearing professional, called an audiologist. Usually the screening includes soft sounds played into headphones. An audiologist may know an infant or toddler is responding by his or her eye movements or head turns. A full hearing test is a complete test that takes place at a hearing clinic. This test will help determine if the hearing loss will go away, or will stay. It will also help decide what kind of treatment is best to help your child’s hearing loss. WARNING SIGNS The signs and symptoms of hearing loss are different for each child. Your child may have hearing loss if he/she: - Was late to begin speaking as a toddler - Does not speak clearly - Does not follow directions (you may think they are not paying attention or just ignoring you) - Often says, “Huh?” - Turns the TV volume up too high - Has no reaction to loud noises - Shows no response to your voice - Complains of earaches, ear pain or head noises HEALTHY NUTRITION OVERVIEW Eating well gives your child the energy to grow, learn, and play. Eating well means eating the right amount of nutrients. Everything that your child eats and drinks has nutrients. Your child’s body uses nutrients to work the way it should. Nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Some foods are healthier than others, so choices are important. Poor nutrition can cause health problems. This can mean being underweight or overweight. But children can have poor nutrition and still be a normal weight for their age. Your doctor can help teach you which foods are important for your child to eat, if you are not sure. Many health problems from poor nutrition can be very serious. Your child’s brain, bones, and whole body needs good nutrition to grow. DEVELOPMENT Birth to Six Months Breastmilk or formula will provide all of the nutrition needed during a child’s first six months of life. During the first month, infants will feed during that day and at night. As infants grow, feeding will change. After the first few weeks, babies will start to feed less often and sleep for longer periods of time. Infants who drink formula digest the milk more slowly. This may mean that the infant has fewer feedings than an infant that drinks breast milk. Six Months to One Year Between four to six months old, most babies are ready to start eating solid foods. How can you tell if baby is ready for solid foods? Here are a few hints: - Your baby’s tongue thrust reflex is gone. This means they stop sticking their tongues out to help them suck. - Your baby can support his or her own head - Your baby is interested in food When your baby is ready, introduce one new food at a time. Babies like cereals with a lot of iron, strained fruits and vegetables, and pureed meats. At this age, solid foods are only a supplement. Breastmilk and formula will still meet your baby’s basic nutritional needs. Do not feed your baby honey or cow’s milk. By nine months, babies are able to hold food in their fingers and may try feeding themselves. Babies can also begin trying foods with different textures and tastes. One to Two Years Toddlers between one to two years old have little tummies, so serving foods that are packed with nutrients is important to their growth. Toddlers will continue to feed themselves, first with their fingers and then with forks and spoons. It is up to parents to decide what type of foods to offer at mealtime, but it is up to your toddler to decide which of these foods to eat and how much. Avoid feeding your toddler foods that they could choke on, such as popcorn, hot dogs, hard fruits, whole grapes, raisins or nuts. Some toddlers drink a lot of cow’s milk. But, milk can fill up a child and doesn’t have all the nutrients that other food can give them. Cow’s milk doesn’t have iron which is really important for children and their learning skills. Two to Four Years It is important that children between two to four years eat a variety of healthy foods. When children eat many different kinds of foods, they get a balance of the vitamins they need to grow. At this age, children can also begin to be involved in meal preparation. For example, they can tear lettuce for a salad or help set the table. Having family meals and setting a daily meal routine is important for young children. PARENTS Parents help shape a child’s eating choices. You can help your child by following the tips below: - Offer different types of healthy foods. This includes fresh fruits and vegetables, low fat dairy products (milk, yogurt, cheese), protein (beans, chicken, turkey, fish, hamburger, tofu, eggs), and whole grain cereals and bread. - Let your child choose the portion. Encourage your children to choose their own serving size by using small plates, bowls, and cups. Young children may not eat everything that is on their plate, and that is okay. At this age, children should learn to know when they are full. It is important that parents encourage their children to try new foods. - Have regular mealtimes with the family. When it is meal or snack time, turn off the TV, and eat together at the table. - Limit sugary drinks. Young children should not be drinking too many sugary drinks. This includes soda, juice drinks, lemonade, sweet tea, and sports drinks. These can lead to cavities and unhealthy weight gain. The best drinks are water and milk. - Teach table manners. Young children are ready to learn basic table manners. Parents can help by teaching them how to hold a utensil correctly and how to use a knife. Children can also learn to not talk with a full mouth, or how to ask for food across the table. VISITING THE DOCTOR Children should regularly go to the doctor to make sure that they are healthy. A doctor can check your child’s weight and growth. Your child’s doctor will tell you if your child needs to make any changes to their diet. A doctor can direct you to the right services about how to find, choose, and cook healthy foods for you and your child. LEAD-FREE CHILDREN OVERVIEW Lead is a harmful metal that can be dangerous to young children. Lead was used in wall paints and water pipes in old homes. Sometimes lead is found in soil and in toys made outside the United States. It can also be in some pottery paint and herbal medicines made outside of the United States. Lead can be inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the skin. Dust from lead paint is the number one source of lead poisoning in children. Lead is harmful to everyone, but babies and young children are at greatest risk for health problems from lead poisoning. There is no safe level of exposure to lead. Lead poisoning can cause serious health problems including anemia, kidney damage, and brain damage. The effects of lead exposure cannot be corrected. Protecting children from lead exposure is important for lifelong good health. The best way to do this is by making sure your home is lead-free. DEVELOPMENT Children ages 6 months to 3 years are most likely to be exposed to lead. Children of this age spend a lot of time on the floor and try to put things in their mouths. This raises their chances of swallowing lead dust or paint chips. During this time, a child’s body is quickly growing. Lead can have damaging effects on a child’s growth, behavior and ability to learn. Only a small amount of lead is needed to harm a young child. PARENTS There are many ways that parents can reduce a child’s exposure to lead before they are harmed. Here are several tips on how to protect your child: - Test your home for lead. Ask the landlord about lead before you sign a lease. If the apartment or home was built before 1978, try and get it tested for lead. - Keep your house lead-dust free. When old paint cracks and peels, it makes lead dust. Lead dust is so small you cannot see it. Children can get the dust on hands and toys when playing on the floor. Use damp paper towels to clean up lead dust around windows, play areas and floors. - Anytime you see paint that is peeling or cracking, talk to your landlord about repainting it. Until the flaking paint has been covered or removed, do not let your children play near it. Areas around windows are common places where newer paint is worn away. This can uncover old layers of lead paint. As windows are opened and closed, this paint becomes dust. Be sure your child does not play here or get this dust on their hands. • Wash hands. Wash your child’s hands with soap and water after play to get rid of lead dust, especially before eating. Try to also wash your children’s toys on a regular basis, especially toys that they put in their mouths. • Give your child healthy foods. Feed your child healthy foods with calcium, iron and vitamin C. These foods can help keep lead out of the body. • Clean up dirt. Soil surrounding your home can contain lead. Plant grass over bare soil or use mulch or wood chips. • Test your tap water. Ask your landlord to do this for you. You can also find kits to do it yourself at most drug stores. Lead can be found in old pipes. Use only cold water from the tap for drinking and cooking—hot water is more likely to have higher amounts of lead. • Don’t use herbal remedies that may contain lead. [You can visit this link to learn more about remedies that may have lead in them.](#) • Don’t use glazed pottery for cooking or serving food VISITING THE DOCTOR The most important thing you can do is make sure you don’t have lead in your home. But it is also important to have your child checked by their doctor. Your child’s doctor can help determine if your child has lead poisoning. A lead test will help doctors know the amount of lead in your child’s blood. The doctor will draw blood from the finger or a vein. In infants, the blood may be taken from the heel. The blood sample will be processed by a machine, and the results will be ready in a few days. If your child has high levels of lead in their blood, the doctor will assign a treatment plan. This treatment may include diet changes, getting rid of environmental sources of lead and possibly medication. Your child will be retested often to make sure their lead levels are going down. WARNING SIGNS It can be hard to know if your child has lead poisoning. Children usually do not look or feel sick. The only sure way to know is to get a lead test. Possible symptoms in young children include: - Being overly tired or hyper - Irritability - Aggressive behavior - Poor attention span - Developmental delay - Trouble sleeping - Loss of appetite - Vomiting - Headache - Anemia SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL HEALTH OVERVIEW The way your child acts, especially around other people, is called behavior. Your child will start to develop relationships with people from the moment they are born. But, the process of talking with, sharing and interacting with others can take many years. The area of development that involves learning to interact with other people and control emotions is called social and emotional development. It is important to help a young child learn to control their emotions and behavior. A child’s first relationships help shape who they are, who they become, how they understand the world. Social and emotional development is important to a child’s sense of well-being. Children who are emotionally healthy have good relationships with adults and peers. DEVELOPMENT Birth to Three Months From the moment a baby is born, they spend time watching and listening to the people around them. In the first month, your baby will begin to make eye contact, cry for help, and respond to a parent’s smile or voice. At two months, your baby will study faces, gurgle and “coo” in response to sounds, prefer to look at people rather than objects and develop a smile. By three months, your baby will start a conversation by smiling and gurgling, smile back when you smile at him and imitate some movements and facial expressions. Many parents worry about spoiling their children during this phase. It’s good to understand that the way you care for your child at an early age can affect how they grow up. The most important thing to teach your newborn and young child is that they are growing up in a safe, supportive environment. This means responding to their frequent cries, identifying their needs, and comforting them whenever they need it. Putting the time in at this early age will make them less likely to have behavioral problems when they’re older. Four to Six Months Between this time, your baby may experience a dramatic change in personality. As they learn to sit up, use their hands, and move about, babies become more interested in the outside world. Your baby will reach out and touch everything they see. Around 4 and 5 months, your baby will laugh when tickled, be interested by other children, and begin to tell the difference between family members. By 6 months, babies will begin to know their own name, “coo” when happy, and make grunting and squealing noises. This kind of exploration is important and very normal. Sometimes it can feel strange for your child to explore your face or reach for your possessions, but it’s not because they are “being greedy” or trying to take things from you. This is a normal developmental stage. Seven to Twelve Months During these months, your child may begin to have anxiety when left with strangers, babysitters or even other family members. Your baby is more likely to have separation anxiety when tired, hungry or sick. Also, during this time, your baby will begin to develop self-awareness by looking in mirrors and reflections. At 10 months, your baby will begin to develop self-esteem, and will respond to positive sounds such as clapping. Babies around this time also show moods such as sad, happy or angry. By 12 months, your baby may have temper tantrums, develop a sense of humor or cling to one parent over the other. One Year Your baby will spend their first year going between wanting to be independent and clinging to parents. Now that your baby can walk and do things on their own, they have the power to move away from mom and dad and test new skills. But at the same time, your baby is not entirely comfortable alone. You may find your baby coming to you for comfort, especially when tired, sick or scared. During this time, your baby will begin to talk using words and sounds, recognize familiar people, and interact with others. Two Years Your child will begin to experience ups and downs during their second year. Although they want to be independent and adventurous, your baby still lacks many of the skills required to do all that he would like. When your baby oversteps a limit and is pulled back, he may react with anger and frustration. By two years, your child is engaging more with those around them—they will begin to socialize and show interest in others. Three Years During this time your child may soon be starting preschool. Although they do not understand how to share or take turns, your child will begin to look for other kids to play with. At this age, young children will also start to use their imagination by playing dress up, pretend play, or other activities. Your child will also start to show understanding by offering hugs or kisses. Four Years By age 4, your child will show interest in being part of a group, learn to share and cooperate more with others, and be physically affectionate by giving hugs and kisses. Instead of being shy, your child will be more friendly, talkative, and curious. Also, your child will start to be more independent, especially in dressing, feeding, and putting away toys. PARENTS It is important for you to develop a close emotional bond with your child. In the early months, you can do this by quickly responding to your baby’s needs. As your child gets older, you can grow close to them by playing, comforting, and engaging with them. Reading with your child is a great way to interact. Talk to them while you are together, describing what you are doing, and pointing out things that you see. Hearing more words causes your baby’s brain to develop, so it is important to talk with them, even before they can understand what the words mean. It is also important to smile at them, play with them, and look them in the eye. This is how they learn to engage and about other people’s emotions. The more confident and secure your child feels, the more independent and well behaved they will be. By giving your child praise when they show a good behavior, they are encouraged to repeat that behavior. As you continue to do this, your child will start to feel good about their accomplishments and about themselves. VISITING THE DOCTOR Your child’s doctor can help you if there are problems with your child’s social and emotional development. The doctor may be able to teach you ways to help your child at home. For certain problems, they may give your child medicine. The doctor can also connect you to other health services in your community. You should not be embarrassed. All children are different. Helping your child makes you a good parent. However, it can be hard for your child’s doctor to know if there are problems just by looking at them. It is important for you to describe what you and your baby are doing each day so that the doctor can better understand your child’s personality. WARNING SIGNS If you notice some of the following things you may want to talk to your child’s doctor. A health professional can help you understand your child’s social and emotional development. By Nine Months: - Your child is not responding to sounds - Your child is not smiling - Your child avoids close contact or cuddling - Your child cannot self-soothe or calm himself - Your child has no interest in games like peek-a-boo By One Year: - Your child is not showing interest in other children his age - Your child cannot wait for something he wants - Your child is very rigid about routine, food items, clothing, etc. - Your child has limited or fleeting eye contact with others - Your child does not imitate any of your actions - Your child does not respond when you call her name - Your child does not follow your point when you try to show something, or bring attention to something - Your child doesn’t take turns in a simple turn-taking game like chase or peek-a-boo By Two Years: - Your child doesn’t imitate other people - Your child constantly moves from one activity to another and is not able to stay at an activity for brief periods - Your child requires constant attention to stay at an activity - Your child doesn’t show any interest in other children - Your child doesn’t “show” things to other people - Your child is extremely “rigid” about routines, becoming extremely upset when they are changed - Your child is passive, and doesn’t want to try things other children his or her age are doing - Your child has extreme difficulty waiting for items he or she wants By Three Years: - Your child is not interested in pretend play - Your child has extreme difficulty separating from you - Your child is not starting or responding to simple interactions with other children - Your child is showing abnormal aggression - Your child shows extreme fears that interfere with daily activities - Your child is extremely “rigid” about routines By Four Years - Your child is not able to initiate or join in play with other children - Your child is not able to share at all with other children - Your child wants to be dependent on caregivers for everything - Your child becomes extremely upset when things are changed - Your child has extreme difficulty separating from you - Your child is fearful, and does not want to try things other children his age are doing - Your child has extreme fears that get in the way of daily activities TRAUMA AND STRESS AT HOME OVERVIEW Trauma is a single or group of scary events that change how a person reacts to stress. These types of events make people feel afraid or in danger. Trauma can happen from events like being in a flood, fire, or car accident. Trauma can be when a person is abused by another person, in a physical, mental, or emotional way. Trauma can also happen from seeing something scary happen to someone else. Other examples of an event that may cause trauma are death of a family member, or divorce. Trauma can happen before a child is born (inside the womb) or as children are growing up. It is important to recognize that some events may be traumatic for children. Although you may not be able to prevent some of traumatic events, there are ways to support children who have experienced trauma. Effects of trauma can be very different for different people. Two children in the same family may have very different effects of a trauma they both experienced. When a child experiences trauma they may have trouble dealing with some events or situations for the rest of their life. Trauma can change a child’s behavior, how they relate to other people, and the way they react to everyday events. It also can make children miss school more often and fall behind in the classroom. It could have lasting effects on their overall success in school. A child who has experienced trauma may have other health problems as they become an adult. Recovery from trauma may be a long process in some cases. But children can control their behavior better if they receive help and support from adults in their life to work on issues with them--the earlier the better! DEVELOPMENT When babies or young children have gone through trauma, they show it in many different ways. As children grow, they reach certain milestones, or learning of new skills. For example, a baby learns to crawl. A school age child learns to make friends. A teenager learns to become more independent. Children who have gone through trauma may not be able to master these skills or it could be delayed. Babies Babies learn to sit up, crawl, grab, walk, sleep and toilet train. In babies who have gone through trauma, parents will notice that their child has trouble sleeping, trouble eating, and difficulty being soothed and are easily frightened. In babies, it is important that they develop a good attachment with their parents or caregivers. This means that the baby develops trust and security with an adult. Though many babies go through stages where they don’t sleep well, don’t want to be alone, and want to be held all the time, babies who have gone through trauma can show more extreme general fearfulness, which can look like they are afraid of being alone, going to sleep. Older babies go through stages where they are afraid of strangers, but babies that have experienced trauma may show a greater distrust of others or show no interest in caregivers. Slower achievement of developmental milestones could turn into developmental delays. Young Children Most young children experience separation anxiety when they are around 1 to 2 years old. In young children who have trauma, this separation anxiety may not go away, and the child may be especially fearful that a parent may not return. Children might also have temper tantrums that are more frequent and extreme than normal. Sometimes, young children may go back to younger behaviors, such as baby talk or bed wetting. As young children start to go to school, teachers may notice that your child has an overreaction to loud noises, physical contact or sudden movements. A child might also develop new fears during this time. PARENTS As you can see from reading above- sometimes it is very hard to know if a baby’s behavior is part of normal development, or a reaction to more severe stress. Talk to your doctor whenever you have questions or concerns, as your level of worry and stress is also important. Most children are able to overcome traumatic experiences. One of the best ways that children are able to heal is with constant support from their parents or caregivers to make them feel safe, secure, and protected. The amount of support a child receives is the most important factor in how well a child can recover after a traumatic event. There are specific things that a parent can do to help: - Give your child a safe place to go to when they feel overwhelmed - Create a routine with structure and stability for your child - Have a support system so that your child feels safe (include teachers, family members, neighbors, etc.) - Recognize “triggers”—the events/reminders/cues that cause your child to become upset - Remain calm and listen to your child Caring for a child with trauma can be stressful and tiring. It is important that parents practice healthy self-care during this time. This can be done by: eating regularly, getting enough sleep, exercising, spending time with people you trust, and/or talking with a counselor. VISITING THE DOCTOR You should talk to your doctor if you are worried about your child in any way. The more you explain what has happened to your child, the more they will be able to help. They can do a medical check at their office to understand what your child needs. You and your doctor can create a plan for your child. The doctor can also connect your family to people in your neighborhood that can help. WARNING SIGNS Trauma signs and symptoms in young children can look like many different things. If you are worried that your child has experienced a traumatic event, visit your child’s doctor as soon as possible. Common signs might be: - Trouble eating - Trouble sleeping - Clingy or trouble separating from parents - Irritable and difficulty soothing - Limited play and exploration - Trouble speaking - Easily frightened - Aggressive behavior - Loss of recent developmental achievement Controlled Asthma Asthma in Children. (n.d.). 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(2017, January 1). Retrieved March 6, 2017, from [http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/feed47m.html?WT.ac=p-ra#](http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/feed47m.html?WT.ac=p-ra#) Feeding Your 8 to 12 Month Old. (2014, September 1). Retrieved March 6, 2017, from [http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/feed812m.html?WT.ac=p-ra#](http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/feed812m.html?WT.ac=p-ra#) Feeding Your 1 to 2 Year Old. (2014, September 1). Retrieved March 6, 2017, from [http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/feed12yr.html?WT.ac=ctg#](http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/feed12yr.html?WT.ac=ctg#) Feeding Your Preschooler. (2014, November 1). Retrieved March 6, 2017, from [http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/feed-preschooler.html#](http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/feed-preschooler.html#) LOUIS A. KAZAL, JR., M.D., Navajo Health Foundation/Sage Memorial Hospital, Ganado, Arizona Am Fam Physician. 2002 Oct 1;66(7):1217-1225. Lead-Free Children Lead Poisoning. (2015, February 1). Retrieved on February 13, 2017, from [http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/lead-poisoning.html#](http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/lead-poisoning.html#). Blood Lead Levels in Children: What Parents Need to Know. (2016, March 7). Retrieved on February 13, 2017, from [https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/all-around/Pages/Blood-Lead-Levels-in-Children-What-Parents-Need-to-Know.aspx](https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/all-around/Pages/Blood-Lead-Levels-in-Children-What-Parents-Need-to-Know.aspx). Lead Poisoning is a Danger for Every Baby and Child: Here's What You Should Know. (2012, July 1). Retrieved on February 13, 2017, from [https://www.health.ny.gov/publications/2594/](https://www.health.ny.gov/publications/2594/). Social Emotional Learning Emotional and Social Development: Birth to 3 Months. (2009, August 1). Retrieved February 27, 2017, from [https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/Pages/Emotional-and-Social-Development-Birth-to-3-Months.aspx](https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/Pages/Emotional-and-Social-Development-Birth-to-3-Months.aspx) Emotional and Social Development: 4 to 7 Months. (2009, August 1). Retrieved February 27, 2017, from [https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/Pages/Emotional-and-Social-Development-4-7-Months.aspx](https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/Pages/Emotional-and-Social-Development-4-7-Months.aspx) Emotional and Social Development: 8 to 12 Months. (2009, August 1). Retrieved February 27, 2017, from [https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/Pages/Emotional-and-Social-Development-8-12-Months.aspx](https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/Pages/Emotional-and-Social-Development-8-12-Months.aspx) Emotional Development: 1 Year Olds. (2015, November 21). Retrieved February 27, 2017 from [https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/toddler/Pages/Emotional-Development-1-Year-Olds.aspx](https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/toddler/Pages/Emotional-Development-1-Year-Olds.aspx) Emotional Development: 2 Year Olds. (2015, November 21). Retrieved February 27, 2017, from [https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/toddler/Pages/Emotional-Development-2-Year-Olds.aspx](https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/toddler/Pages/Emotional-Development-2-Year-Olds.aspx) Emotional Development in Preschoolers. (2015, November 21). Retrieved February 27, 2017, from [https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/preschool/Pages/Emotional-Development-in-Preschoolers.aspx](https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/preschool/Pages/Emotional-Development-in-Preschoolers.aspx) Social Development in Preschoolers. (2015, November 21). Retrieved February 27, 2017, from [https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/preschool/Pages/Social-Development-in-Preschoolers.aspx](https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/preschool/Pages/Social-Development-in-Preschoolers.aspx) Trauma Bassuk, E.L., Konnath, K.K., Volk, K.T. (2006). Understanding Traumatic Stress in Children. The National Center on Family Homelessness. 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Musical Octopus Plays Peek-a-boo! Parent Guide & Instructions This guide contains important information. Please keep it for future reference. See the Learning™ See your child’s play and learning with the LeapFrog® Learning Path. With each LeapFrog toy on your child’s path, you can see the skills your child is exploring during play, learn about what comes next and discover creative learning ideas that are tailored uniquely to your child. leapfrog.com/learningpath The LeapFrog Learning Path is not available in all countries. Register your product online! You can also sign up to receive email updates with special offers, educational insights and the latest in learning from LeapFrog. leapfrog.com Fun next steps on your child’s path to reading! From peek-a-boo play... To be there every step of the way. It’s a hope you have for your child and one that LeapFrog shares. Toys like the Peek-A-Shoe™ Talking Octopus combine the joy of play with skills to help children take their next steps toward a lifelong love of learning. Get more ideas to support your child’s learning at: leapfrog.com/learningpath Get more ideas to support your child’s learning at: leapfrog.com/learningpath Products sold separately. All products may not be available in all countries. Actual products may vary. Learning Skills Ball-drop fun to peek-a-boo surprises! Numbers Children build number recognition skills as they lift each numbered shoe and hear its number spoken aloud. Counting Fun learning songs help children explore number order and counting. Colors/Colours Five bright shoes expose children to colors/colours as they lift the shoes and play peek-a-boo! Motor Skills Dropping balls into the Octopus and lifting the shoes helps children build hand-eye coordination and gross and fine motor skills. Instructions for Play Getting Started To turn on PEEK-A-SHOE™ Talking Octopus, slide the volume switch to the desired volume setting. To turn it off, slide the switch to OFF. Note: The Octopus toy will turn off automatically after a period of inactivity. You can wake it up again by changing modes, opening or closing a shoe, pressing the music button or dropping a ball into the hat or arm. Learning Modes PEEK-A-SHOE™ Talking Octopus offers many ways to play and learn! 123 Counting Mode Lift shoes to hear numbers or count sea animals during play! Color/Colour Mode Lift a shoe to learn its color/colour. Drop a ball and explore colors/colours as you search for the ball under the shoes! Music Mode Press the music note to hear 2 lyrical songs (Sea Creatures Song and I’m an Octopus I Love to Count to Eight) and 4 instrumental tunes. Instructions For Care For indoor, dry-location use only. Keep food and beverages away from product. Do not spill liquid of any kind on this product as it may render it inoperative. Clean with a slightly damp cloth (cold water). Do not use soap, detergent or other chemicals. Never submerge the unit in water. Allow to dry before re-use. Avoid prolonged exposure to extreme temperatures and direct sunlight. Avoid dropping the unit. Never try to dismantle it. CAUTION:* Use only the balls that come with this toy. Do not use other balls or objects. AVERTISSEMENT: Utilisez uniquement les balles fournies avec ce jouet. N'utilisez pas d'autres balles ni autres objets. CAUTION: To be used under the direct supervision of an adult. ATTENTION: Doit être utilisé sous la présence directe d'un adulte. CAUTION: Routinely check this toy for proper and safe condition. If there is any damage or broken parts, remove toy from use. ATTENTION: Vérifiez régulièrement que ce jouet est en bon état et qu'il ne présente pas de danger. Dans le cas contraire (par exemple, s'il est cassé à certains endroits), tenez ce jouet hors de portée des enfants. NOTICE: This toy works best when placed on a level surface. A level surface allows the balls to drop into random shoes. NOTICE: Ce jouet est plus efficace lorsqu'il repose sur une surface plane. La surface plane permet aux balles de tomber au hasard dans les trous. Battery Information Requires 2 AA (called LR6 in some countries) alkaline batteries, not included. Battery Removal and Installation Instructions 1. Open the battery door with a screwdriver. 2. If used or spent batteries are present, remove these batteries from the unit by pulling up on one end of each battery. 3. Install new batteries as shown in the polarity (+/-) diagram inside the battery compartment. 4. Replace battery door securely. Battery Safety Batteries are small objects. Batteries must be replaced by an adult. Follow the polarity (+/-) diagram in the battery compartment. Promptly remove dead batteries from the toy. Dispose of used batteries properly. Remove batteries for prolonged storage. Only batteries of the same or equivalent type as recommended are to be used. - DO NOT incinerate used batteries. - DO NOT dispose of batteries in fire, as batteries may explode or leak. - DO NOT mix old and new batteries or types of batteries (i.e., alkaline/standard). - DO NOT use rechargeable batteries. - DO NOT recharge non-rechargeable batteries. - DO NOT short-circuit the supply terminals. Sécurité relative aux piles Les piles sont des objets de petite taille. Le remplacement des piles doit être effectué par un adulte. Respectez le schéma de polarité (+/-) reproduit dans le compartiment des piles. Enlevez rapidement les piles usagées du jouet. Suivez les procédures adéquates pour vous débarrasser des piles usagées. Retirez les piles en cas de non-usage prolongé. Utilisez uniquement des piles ou accumulateurs du type recommandé ou d'un type équivalent. - NE PAS incinérer les piles usagées. - NE PAS jeter les piles au feu car elles peuvent exploser ou fuir. - NE PAS mélanger piles usagées et piles neuves, ni différents types de piles (c'est-à-dire alcalines/standard). - NE PAS utiliser des piles rechargeables. - NE PAS recharger des piles non rechargeables. - NE PAS court-circuiter les terminaux d'alimentation. FCC Notice: This device complies with Part 15 of the FCC rules. Operation is subject to the following two conditions: 1) This device may not cause harmful interference, and 2) This device must accept any interference received, including interference that may cause undesired operation. NOTE: This equipment has been tested and found to comply with the limits for a Class B digital device, pursuant to part 15 of the FCC Rules. These limits are designed to provide reasonable protection against harmful interference in a residential installation. This equipment generates, uses and can radiate radio frequency energy and, if not installed and used in accordance with the instructions, may cause harmful interference to radio communications. However, there is no guarantee that interference will not occur in a particular installation. If this equipment does cause harmful interference to radio or television reception, which can be determined by turning the equipment off and on, the user is encouraged to try to correct the interference by one or more of the following measures: - Reorient or relocate the receiving antenna. - Increase the separation between the equipment and receiver. - Consult the dealer or an experienced radio/TV technician for help. NOTE: Changes or modifications to this unit not expressly approved by LeapFrog Enterprises, Inc., could void the user’s authority to operate the equipment. This Class B digital apparatus complies with Canadian ICES-003. Cet appareil numérique de la classe B est conforme à la norme NMB-003 du Canada. Environmental Phenomena - The unit may malfunction if subjected to radio-frequency interference. It should revert to normal operation when the interference stops. If not, it may become necessary to turn the power off and back on, or remove and reinstall the batteries. - In the unlikely event of an electrostatic discharge, the unit may malfunction and lose memory, requiring the user to reset the device by removing and reinstalling the batteries. Impact de l'environnement - Une défaillance de fonctionnement de l'appareil peut survenir s'il est sujet à des interférences avec les fréquences radioélectriques. Le fonctionnement normal de l'appareil devrait reprendre avec l'arrêt des interférences. Si ce n'est pas le cas, il peut s'avérer nécessaire d'éteindre et rallumer l'appareil ou de retirer et réinstaller les piles. - Dans l'éventualité peu probable d'une décharge electrostatique, un mauvais fonctionnement et une perte de mémoire de l'appareil peuvent se produire. L'utilisateur doit alors retirer et réinstaller les piles pour réinitialiser l'appareil. CONSUMER SUPPORT U.S. Consumer Service Contact: Visit our Consumer Support website at www.leapfrog.com/support 24 hours a day. Canada Consumer Service Contact: Visit our Consumer Support website at www.leapfrog.ca/support 24 hours a day. U.K. Consumer Service Contact: Visit our Consumer Support website at www.leapfrog.co.uk/support 24 hours a day. Australia Consumer Service Contact: Please submit questions to our support staff via email at firstname.lastname@example.org. LIMITED WARRANTY: Subject to a limited three (3) month warranty. Visit our website at www.leapfrog.com for full details of the warranty provided in your country. LeapFrog shall not be liable for any incidental or consequential damages for the breach of any warranty on this product. Some jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of incidental or consequential damages, or limitation on how long an implied warranty lasts, so the above limitations or exclusions may not apply to you. GARANTIE LIMITÉE: Ce produit est soumis à une garantie limitée de trois (3) mois. Veuillez consulter notre site Web à l'adresse www.leapfrog.com pour obtenir l'intégralité des informations de garantie fournies dans votre pays. LeapFrog ne sera pas responsable des dommages directs ou indirects résultant de la violation de cette garantie limitée. Certaines juridictions n'autorisant pas l'exclusion ou la limitation des dommages consécutifs ou indirects, ni même la limitation de la durée des garanties implicites, il est donc possible que les limitations ou exclusions ci-dessus ne s'appliquent pas à votre cas. For information on how this product might be recycled, visit www.leapfrog.com/recycle or call (800) 701-5327. LEAPFROG, the Leapfrog logo, the LeapFrog Learning Path logo, PEEK-A-SHOEL, SEE THE LEARNING, MY OWN LEAPTOP, TAG and the Tag Junior logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of LeapFrog Enterprises, Inc. © 2011 LeapFrog Enterprises, Inc. All rights reserved. leapfrog.com For ages 9-36 months. Convient aux enfants de 9 à 36 mois. Item number: 19179 Part number: 605-11714-A Troubleshooting \| Symptom \| Try This \| \|---------\|----------\| \| Toy does not turn on or does not respond \| - Make sure the OFF/LOW/HIGH switch is not in the OFF position - Make sure batteries are correctly installed - Make sure battery cover is securely attached - Remove batteries and put them back in - Clean battery contacts by rubbing lightly with a soft eraser and then wiping with a clean and dry cloth - Install new batteries \| \| Toy makes improper responses \| - Follow the above instructions to clean battery contacts - Install new batteries \|	487ce26d-7411-4ba3-a210-86a293550161	CC-MAIN-2021-49	https://t7.leapfrog.com/images/p/parent-guide-peek-a-shoe-octopus-us_19179.pdf	2021-12-05T05:05:01+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363135.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20211205035505-20211205065505-00403.warc.gz	605,041,702	2,576	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.961359	eng_Latn	0.976442	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 710, 1304, 3116, 11436 ]	[ 2.421875 ]	2	0
16 Brogade was built in 1636, i.e. shortly after the big fire in 1633, by mayor Hans Christensen. With 18 bays, the house is the longest half-timbered building in town. 19 Brogade – Hugos Gård – Here is a restored medieval cellar from about the 14th century with well preserved floors and monk brick walls with niches. The cellar is today noted as Sealand’s best beer place, specialising in beer and offering more than 200 different brands from all corners of the world. Live music in summer and winter. 23 Brogade was built c. 1638. Note the wood carvings in the timber frame that are believed to come from the workshop of well known wood carver Abel Schroder in Næstved. Both brickwork and woodwork have been painted in the same colour. The painting technique with everything in one colour was time saving, and gave rise to a Danish saying “over stok og sten” – wood and stone alike” for something made in haste. Torvebyen – one of the newer parts of Køge, built in 2010 and the following years. Surrounded by multi-storey houses, built in a modern, simple style, is a small shopping square with a splendid view across Køge River. 7 Vestergade – “Garvergården” (The Tannery) was built 1580-1600. There was a tannery here from c. 1770 until the early 20th century. The building and its neighbour opposite, 6 Vestergade, survived the big fire in 1633. 16 The Comfortable Køge Chair – Fændediget. The artist, bronze caster Allan Olsen, has created a humorous chair, considering that it is actually not very comfortable. Have a try! Det lille thehus (The Small Tea House) at Torvebyen. In the 18th century, prominent Køge ladies held their ladies’ parties in the Tea House that stood in the garden of the former merchant’s residence. The listed building was delicately restored in 2017/18. 16 Vestergade – “Richters Gård” (Richter’s House), built 1644. With its exuberant carvings, this house is probably the best preserved half timbered building in Køge. It has a delicately preserved 17th century atmosphere - within and without. Today the cosy, historic premises provide the setting for a pub, “Richters Ølstue”. 29 Vestergade – is from 1875. Note the decorative ironwork above the gateway and under the windows. Køge Town Hall’s old 17th century clock sits above the gateway inside the courtyard. The back building is the former iron foundry from 1885, a listed building. Excavations show that the street of Vestergade is Køge’s oldest arterial road. At the west end of the road is Klosterkirkegården (Abbey Cemetery). It is all that remains of a Franciscan abbey founded in 1484 and taken over by the city in 1532. The abbey was used as building materials for the town hall in 1532. Opposite the cemetery you can see a flagstone in the pavement marking the site of the former western town gate. Torvet 1 – Køge Town Hall – is the oldest still functioning town hall building in Denmark - c. 1552. The facade, however, dates from 1802. At the top, a relief depicts two Roman goddesses, Justitia (justice) and Minerva (wisdom). And above them sits the shining sun as a symbol of happiness and prosperity. Torvet (The Market Square) – is the oldest still functioning town hall building in Denmark - c. 1552. The facade, however, dates from 1802. At the top, a relief depicts two Roman goddesses, Justitia (justice) and Minerva (wisdom). And above them sits the shining sun as a symbol of happiness and prosperity. 2 Torvet: Torvet was erected 1852-54. Formerly it was the site of a large merchant’s residence, in the 17th century the home of Hans Bartskaer and his wife, who were victims of the so-called “Køge Huskors” (Køge Evil Cross). The following witch hunt had as result that 15 women were accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake. 6 Kirkestræde – This house was used in “Matador”, a Danish TV series, as home for Agnes and Fede. Their wedding party could be viewed from outside through the windows on the first floor, and it was in the gatehouse that Fede’s wife Marie fetched their son Knud to look for his brother Aksel. See also the tablet in the gatehouse. 13 Kirkestræde – Smedgården (The Smithy) – was built in the early 16th century. The house was inhabited by smiths, hence the name. In front of the entry are two porch stones, by the way the only ones in Denmark preserved in their original position. A special postage stamp depicting the Smithy was issued in 2005 in a series named ‘Danish Homes’. 20 Kirkestræde is the oldest precisely dated half timbered building in Denmark, built in 1527 (see the dating in the beam above the door). It is only on the streetside that it is built of monk bricks, whereas the rest of the building has mud walls. You should notice the impressive roof tiles, nicknamed “monks and nuns”. The nun tiles all have a hole and the monk tiles a small top. Today the house accommodates a children’s library. Køge Church – St Nicolai – beautiful town church, erected in 1324. The church tower is 43 m high and formerly served as lighthouse for ships. Open to visitors in summer. The church includes four votive ships. The pews are decorated with angel heads to the aisle, and many of the heads’ noses were chopped off during the Swedish War when the Swedes occupied Køge, but they have been repaired. Prominent and rich citizens were buried beneath the floor of the central aisle. In hot weather, the tombs would reek, hence the term “stinking rich”. In the past, churches were mostly built on the most elevated site in town. And you walked up to Køge Church, whereas today you walk down to enter the church, because the street level has risen over the centuries due to all the refuse filling underground. Køge Church was also used in the Danish TV series of “Matador”. Mads Skjern’s daughter, Ellen Skjern, was married there. KØS – Museum of Art in Public Spaces. The museum includes a permanent collection of examples of 20th century art, on view to the public in changing shows. Bjørn Nørgaard’s very famous sketches for Queen Margrethe’s tapestries are also on view in the building, which is a splendid piece of architecture both inside and out. The unique square in front of KØS comprises 111 white staircases and plateaus that invite to all kinds of exhibitions and activities. 5 Norregade – c. 1620. The timber frame has been preserved in the second storey only. Please note that the “cobble stones” in the gatehouse are made of wood, a useful noise prevention method for passing horse carriages. 4 Norregade – Køge Museum – consists of two buildings erected as a merchant’s residence c. 1610 and 1619 respectively. The museum has been accommodated here since 1909. In the museum’s garden is one of Denmark’s oldest half-timbered houses (c. 1500). Visit the museum to hear the story of the dramatic loss of the warship Dannenbroge while the kids climb aboard the toy ship in the garden. It is also suggested to visit the Town Archives @parket, which is reached through the museum’s garden. The Archives hold documents dating as far back as the late 16th century in addition to more than 120,000 photos relating to the town’s history. Carpark building with public roof gardens – In 2017, a new multi-storey car park saw the light of day in Køge. In order to make the building fit into the townscape around the train station, the facade has been designed with reddish steel and planting, which provides an interesting play of shadows and colours. Public roof and kitchen gardens have been laid out on part of the building’s roof. The roof gardens include: outdoor kitchen, tool shed, vegetable gardens, open spaces, toilet facilities etc. Strædet – the newest part of Køge. Køge’s town development continues, and one of its most recent features is Strædet. It is a street offering good shopping facilities, cafés and a huge cinema. At one end of Strædet is the square Kulturtorvet, and at the other end is Stationstorvet, which is intended to be a new meeting point in town when paired with the 20 m wide footbridge across the railway. The footbridge makes it possible to cross the railway with direct access to the station platforms. The bridge provides a splendid view of rail traffic, the town of Køge and the harbour. 1 Brogade – Køge Pharmacy – built in the 1660s by Køge’s first pharmacist, Jørgen Berendsen. The present facade dates from 1865. 7 Brogade – Oluf Jensens Gård (Grisegården - Pig House) – includes warehouses and a mixture of other buildings providing a good impression of yesterday’s merchants’ residences. Pigs were traded in the courtyard. 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CrossFitKids ISSUE TWENTY SEVEN Forging the Future Of Fitness FEBRUARY 15th, 2008 Kids & Weightlifting: Dispelling The Myths Jeff Martin & Cyndi Rodi OPERATION THIN MINT A taste of home and a smile to show we care Common knowledge is sometimes neither accurate nor helpful. Case in point, the pervasive misconceptions and mythology pertaining to kids and weightlifting that have swirled around the health and fitness communities. For years, the ominous warning, "it is not safe for kids to lift weights" has been spoken with authority and rarely challenged. The customary rationale behind this point of view has been that lifting will hurt their growth plates. To hear the naysayers tell it, kids who lift weights are going to grow up to become misshapen dwarves. This has not been our experience at CrossFit Kids HQ. Nor is it what is being reported by CrossFit Kids programs around the world. Looking at the active kids we are raising and training, we see the opposite effect. We see strong, lean, healthy kids, standouts in PE who are able to adapt to a wide range of sports. Okay, some of them around here may be short, but that is due to genetics, not weightlifting. What is a Growth Plate and Why Should We Worry? A growth plate, also known as the epiphyseal plate or physis, is an area of developing tissue located near the ends of long bones in children and teens. Each long bone has at least two growth plates located at each end "between the widened part of the shaft of the bone (the metaphysis) and the end of the bone (the epiphysis)" (1). It is at these ends that growth takes place. Growth plates are weaker than the ligaments and tendons which connect the bones to one another, and as such are extremely vulnerable. "The energy-absorbing capability of the growth plate is lower than that of bone, ligament, or tendon, which explains why the open growth plate is the preferential site for failure when the joint is injured" (7). Trauma to the joint is more likely to cause a growth plate fracture than injury to the bone or connective tissue. Because "the growth plate is the last portion of the bone to harden (ossify)" (1), damage to this soft tissue is always a concern in the event of impact and/or trauma. Several factors determine the prognosis of a growth plate injury. Severe injuries that cause the cessation of blood flow to the end of the bone can stunt growth. A shattered or crushed growth plate increases the likelihood that abnormal growth will occur resulting in a shortened or deformed limb, and infection is always a risk when open wounds are present. The age of the child plays a key role since "younger bones have a greater ability to remodel" (9). This is why an adolescent who is near the end of the growth phase is at greater risk for long-term problems. Finally, the location of the injury and its type (classified by such factors as blood supply, nerve damage and degree of separation) determine the ability of the body to heal itself. The presence of rapid growth means the bones of children heal faster than those of adults. If not promptly and properly treated, a growth plate injury can lead to lifelong difficulties created by abnormalities in bone development. Clearly this gives us reason to pause when considering loading our children and adolescents with weights. This may account for past assumptions and attitudes regarding weightlifting and kids. In continued... page 3 1983, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a position statement which concluded that weightlifting should be avoided by preadolescents due to its high injury rate. This opinion was reinforced in a paper published by Sewell and Micheli (1986) in the Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics. Despite a later paper by Micheli (1988) that reversed his stance regarding preadolescent weight training, the earlier publication continued to influence perceptions and beliefs. A second American Academy of Pediatrics position paper was published in 1990 which added prohibitive language for adolescents in weight training, stating that, "Unless good data becomes available that demonstrate safety, children and adolescents should avoid the practice of weight lifting, power lifting, and body building..." (12). Such policies resounded through the medical and fitness communities and set the tone for subsequent studies and publications for many years. Unfortunately these men and women were forwarding bad policy based on erroneous and unfounded assumptions. Anecdotal Observations CrossFit Kids have soundly demonstrated this position is a fallacy. Our kids routinely lift weights and have experienced none of the injuries or negative effects historically attributed to childhood and adolescent weightlifting. Connor is sixteen and has been CrossFitting for four years. During this period of time, he has progressed from working movements with PVC to lifting numbers that grown men envy. He has had no broken bones, regularly spars full contact and has been competing in varsity high school wrestling since his freshman year. Connor is a fierce competitor who aggressively works to achieve his many goals and holds the record at Brand X for several benchmark workouts. No evidence of injury in him. Keegan is fourteen and has been CrossFitting twice a week for three years. He is a top-notch soccer player who has been recruited to play for older intra teams, and he is an accomplished climber whose advice on "the wall" is sought by kids and adults alike. Keegan is routinely one of the fastest players on his soccer team and possesses the stamina to play hard into the final minutes of the game. In the past year, Keegan has been able to up the ante on his weightlifting regimen and has achieved several body weight and over-body weight lifts with no injury or growth issues. David is seventeen and is the quintessential athlete. He is a talented soccer player who was invited to play soccer overseas and on the La Jolla Nomads in southern California. As a freshman in high school, he lettered in 3 sports. He has been training with Connor from the beginning, four years ago. David has made remarkable strides that are the combined result of his natural athletic talent and his incredible work ethic. He routinely challenges himself and has come to embody the promised potential of the CrossFit method. Through continued... page 4 it all, David has remained free of injury and continued to grow in a normal manner. Each of these young men competed in the 2007 CrossFit Games. Though CrossFit Kids does not recommend or condone max efforts for the majority of children and teens, we felt it was both safe and appropriate to allow them to participate in the CrossFit Total due to their lengthy CrossFit histories and carefully supervised training protocols. In addition, all three boys were exhibiting secondary sex characteristics associated with increasing testosterone production, a benchmark for gradually shifting to maximum lifts. Prior to making the decision to allow them to train and compete at this level, we had taken great pains to scour the current literature to determine the legitimacy of claims that adolescents are at greater risk for growth plate injury. We found no data to support such claims. In fact there is evidence that one-rep max lifts are safe IF (and it's a big if) the teen has demonstrated a mastery of the technique. All three of these athletes had been participating in CrossFit since their preadolescent years and demonstrated the knowledge and skills necessary to compete. Each had a fantastic showing at The Games while incurring no injuries or physical problems as a result of their participation. This makes for a great story, and we are very proud of their efforts. However, the truth of the matter is, even if we hadn't allowed these young men to compete at such a level, they would still have been lifting on a regular basis. Kids are exposed to lifting whether they like or not. Duncan is nine and has been CrossFitting for 3 years. He lifts weights in CrossFit Kids classes but, more importantly, he lifts in his daily life. Every day, Duncan has to lug his ten-pound backpack to school. In the process he performs multiple lifts and strength movements. He lifts it from the floor (deadlift), carries it on his back, picks up the things that drop out of it onto the ground (lunge/squat), climbs into the truck with it on his back (weighted pull up) and delivers it safely to his classroom. When he returns home in the afternoon, he stows his backpack on the counter by overhead pressing/push pressing it into place. He routinely lifts half his body weight as a course of his normal activities and continues to move his limbs unimpeded by growth plate problems. The same experiences are true for most kids. Girls and boys alike encounter daily experiences that dictate their participation in unsupervised weight training. It is not possible to get through life without performing some sort of lifting. This is why we decided several years ago to teach our kids to properly and safely perform lift movements. In the true spirit of CrossFit, our goal was to simply give the kids the skills they required to meet the demands of daily life and to improve their health and fitness. The added benefit was the phenomenal gains our CrossFit Kids began to make, growth plate injury free since our inaugural workout nearly three years ago. Our kids are testimony that weightlifting is a safe and positive activity for kids. Not only are we seeing injury free strength gains and increased coordination. We are witnessing perceptual changes in what they believe about themselves and their abilities. These things didn't happen by chance. We have taken great pains to design a program that is safe and effective. Each child or teen has been carefully supervised and trained. Each one has been treated as an individual, their strengths and special needs considered and addressed. As a result, their individual stories are uniquely compelling. Justin is 9 years old and has been CrossFitting for 3 years. Justin came to us shy and lacking confidence. He was physically capable but afraid to risk looking silly. We brought Justin along slowly, helping him to recognize his potential. Justin has gone from using PVC pipe to low weight dumbbells and barbells, each step made only after demonstrating a solid understanding of technique. He recently completed a set of 45 beautiful hang squat cleans with a 15# bar. Justin has sustained no injuries as a result of his lifting efforts. Darby is a 12 year-old female who has always worked hard but came to us with profound flexibility issues. We spent time working individually with her, performing a number of drills to help her improve in this area. Darby participated in the 2007 Fight Gone Bad benefit at the "C" level which required her to perform the push press and sumo deadlift highpull with a 35# bar. Darby accumulated 203 points in FGB and has not demonstrated any pain or injury from these or her other weightlifting efforts. Delaney is 9 years old and has, from the beginning, demonstrated a penchant for detail. Her movements are often flawless, and her efforts have been impressive. Delaney attended Coach Burgerner's Olympic Lifting Certification at the age of seven. Our efforts with Delaney have been to keep her enthused and continually challenging herself. Delaney is a healthy, injury free CrossFitter. McKenna is 7 years old and, like all these kids, has been with us from the beginning. Always devoted to CrossFit Kids, McKenna has only recently begun to demonstrate the physical and emotional maturity to move beyond PVC or low-weight dumbbells to actually perform slightly higher weighted movements. McKenna has had to weather the storm of watching her older peers achieve beyond her abilities and is gradually finding her own path. She is currently using eight to fifteen pound bars and dumbbells and a 12 kilogram kettlebell. McKenna is injury free and, in fact, is much taller than many of the older kids. Courtney is 10 years old and has been a CrossFitter for two years. She is bold and fearless, willing to challenge boys and adults alike. We immediately realized Courtney's potential but knew we needed to temper her enthusiasm with realistic expectations. Courtney worked with the kids' class for a number of months until we felt confident her technique was proficient. We then moved her to the advanced kids' class where we continue to hone her lifting skills and monitor her maturity. By her last summer break, we felt comfortable giving Courtney permission to workout beside her parents in adult classes. Courtney has become a top performer at Brand X. She recently completed "Jackie" in record time, then went on to participate in a weekend soccer tournaments. No injuries here. All our kids regularly appear in the CrossFit Kids Journal and on our website demonstrating proper form and recording stellar efforts in weightlifting and other strength training. We regularly include videos on the CrossFit Kids website of children ranging in age from four to eighteen performing weighted movements; thrusters, shoulder presses, cleans, etc. Each of these was sent to us by proud parents who are willingly subjecting their children to this type of training. Is there simply an abundance of "bad" parents in the CrossFit community? Or is it possible that weight training does not pose a danger to children and teens? Significantly, none of the kids in these videos show signs of abnormal growth patterns or obvious injuries. As parents, we want what is best for our kids, and we take our roles as trainers and programmers very seriously. Of course we don't want to encourage something that could potentially harm the development of any child. So in spite of anecdotal evidence to the contrary, we were compelled to ask the question, "Is it true that kids who lift weights have a disproportionate amount of growth plate injuries compared to the rest of the population?" Looking for Empirical Data CrossFit is by nature a community grown by anecdotal evidence. This does not, however, preclude the careful review of available empirical data. We searched numerous peer reviewed journals, and our efforts to clarify the role of weightlifting in growth plate injuries yielded no evidence to support previous claims. In fact we found a mound of evidence that challenges and disproves the once commonly-held beliefs about kids and weightlifting. A host of articles generated by the scientific community fail to mention weightlifting as a cause of growth plate injuries and, in fact, clearly state that strength training is safe and beneficial for children and teens. Strength training has been found to be an important part of fitness training for children and teens, contributing to improvements in multiple aspects of health and life. There has been much discussion about the ability of children to improve strength and enhance muscular development. Critics believe a lack of testosterone renders weight training with children useless. This is a ridiculous notion. There are a plethora of studies which continued... page 7 document impressive strength gains and increases in muscle mass via weight training in both women and the elderly, two populations that are not known for their high testosterone levels. Dr. Avery Faigenbaum (et al.), one of the foremost experts on strength training with kids, has published numerous articles that "have revealed significant increases in muscle strength and mass in preadolescent boys and girls" (13), and similar findings were reported by other researchers as early as the mid-1980's (15). Beyond the benefits of strength gains and enhanced muscle mass, "Reports indicate that youth resistance training may improve motor performance skills, may reduce injuries in sports and recreational activities, and may favorably alter selected anatomic and psychosocial parameters." In 2005, a study was presented to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) which offered sound evidence that resistance training brought about significant increases in strength and "favorable body composition changes in overweight and obese children." The accompanying press release stated that such training can safely play a role in "a comprehensive health-enhancement strategy" for girls and boys alike, "including those with a disinterest in physical activity." The statement went on to say, "Parents and coaches who are concerned about the safety of resistance training for kids, and even young athletes, should know that it is a safe and effective activity for this age group, provided it is well designed and supervised." Strength training has been shown to protect muscles and joints from injury, boost heart and lung function, and lower cholesterol (8). Weight training increases bone density. According to the American Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, weightlifting produces healthier children who are less prone to injury. It also helps fend off bone degeneration in later life. Osteoporosis has been called "a pediatric disease with geriatric consequences." The amount of bone mass that is created during childhood and adolescence is "an important determinant of lifelong skeletal health" (11). Healthy habits that contribute to increased bone density (e.g., bank bone), like weightlifting in the early years, can help to fend off such degenerative diseases. The positive effects of strength training go beyond the physical. Some experts report that strength training may boost self confidence and improve social skills in young people. The Mayo Clinic concurs; calling on studies that suggest strength training can improve self-esteem and decrease the chance of depression in children and teens (8). According to Dr. Faigenbaum, lifting weights offers positive feedback in the form of "visual reinforcement" which becomes a tangible marker of how much progress is being made. He discusses the positive impact weight training can have on the psyche of an obese child. Because weight lifted is positively related to bodyweight, heavier children typically train with heavier weightloads than their lighter peers. Unlike most athletic activities in which extra bodyweight is undesirable (e.g., running, jumping, soccer, basketball), strength training actually favors the larger... youth and gives them a much needed sense of physical achievement (6). In 2001, the American Academy of Pediatrics (1) issued its new policy statement regarding strength training by children and adolescents. Recommendations of this new policy include: "Strength training programs for preadolescents and adolescents can be safe and effective if proper resistance training techniques and safety precautions are followed," and specifically with regard to growth plate injuries, "Such injuries are uncommon and are believed to be largely preventable by avoiding improper lifting techniques, maximal lifts, and improperly supervised lifts." Dr. Bernard Griesemer, collaborative author of the AAP statement, was later quoted as saying, "We support anything that gets kids to become active and stay physically active – and that doesn't cause injuries – and strength training can be all those things" (5). A complete reversal of previous policy, the AAP statement paved the way for positive changes, limited only by the hold prior beliefs maintain upon educators, trainers and the medical community. So why the shift in perception and recommendation? It turns out, it's not weightlifting that is hurting our kids. One large study showed that the majority of growth plate injuries in children resulted from a fall, "usually while running or playing on furniture or playground equipment." Competitive sports accounted for one-third of all injuries, while recreational activities such as bicycling, skateboarding and skiing contributed one-fifth of all cases (9). There is a dearth of empirical data regarding growth plate injuries and weightlifting. It simply does not exist. To the contrary, several studies have shown the risk of growth plate injuries to be "LESS during weight training compared to other sports," and "in published literature, all incidences of injury were attributed to either poor training design or lack of supervision" (15). Furthermore, the American College of Sports Medicine has stated that "50 percent of preadolescent sport injuries could be prevented in large part by youth strength and conditioning programs" (13). The relevance of such statistics lies in which sports are being linked to growth plate injuries. We don't hear physician's counseling parents against letting kids play soccer. Nor do we see the American Academy of Pediatrics issuing a policy statement recommending that parents not let their kids ride bikes until they have reached puberty. Yet these sports have statistically high injury rates including fractures, dislocations and sprains, exactly the types of injuries that pose a danger to growth plates. The concern with these activities is not necessarily the risk of severe trauma but in minor injuries that can negatively impact the growth plates. "An injury that would cause a sprain in an adult can be associated with growth plate injury in a child" (9). Weightlifting does not appear among the ranks of those activities which pose such a danger and, clearly, is not the high risk behavior it was once thought to be. Empirical data has successfully confirmed our anecdotally derived conclusions. continued... page 9 It is important to note that current recommendations do not condone strict weightlifting that calls for exposure to extreme loads and max efforts. Neither the empirical nor anecdotal data support carte blanche in applying weight training to children and adolescents. This distinction cannot be overemphasized. It is these types of activities that can produce the strain and torque necessary to cause growth plate injuries. Instead, strength training is defined as "resistance training" which incorporates the use of "free weights, weight machines, elastic tubing, or body weight" (1). Recommendations for this type of training with children and teens are very clear: Strength training should emphasize well-trained, low-weight reps under highly controlled and supervised circumstances. CrossFit Kids Policy CrossFit Kids believes in and endorses this type of weightlifting for kids. We utilize body weight exercises and free weights to build strength, improve muscle tone and enhance performance. We do not endorse max effort lifts for kids. We believe in using the smallest stimulus possible to achieve the training effect desired, whether young or old. Due to their still developing neuromuscular systems, kids receive a training effect from sub maximal efforts. Ignoring this is foolish, reckless and exposes kids to the same risk of injury that other age groups risk when going for max efforts. It is the hallmark of a bad trainer to expose young clients to this risk. Gradual exposure provides significant results while avoiding the pitfalls of excessive loading and max efforts in children and teens. A properly managed training regimen is imperative to both safety and efficacy. Weightlifting allows our kids to be successful and safe. It is, by design, the art of moving an object without injuring oneself. Children, who engage in weightlifting, learn the proper fundamentals when they are young enough to still be developing neural pathways. Motor recruitment patterns become engrained movements for life. They will be able to draw on those patterns to become better athletes and safer individuals, coordinated and able to lift objects safely whether in sport or daily life. The task, then, is to create a template for safe and effective weight training. Age Appropriate Training Recommendations regarding the appropriate age to begin weightlifting with children vary widely. There have been studies that demonstrate the safety and efficacy of weight training with children as young as four years old (14). However, weight training with kids is not simply a scaled version of what we use for adults. There are special considerations which apply to young children that will adapt and increase in complexity as they grow into experienced adolescents. Weight training with young children should be fun and informative at their level of understanding. The object is "to introduce the body to the stresses of training and to teach basic technique and form" (14). No kids' workout program will succeed if you cannot keep them interested. Thus, training sessions should be short and basic. Use weightlifting as skill work or as part of a short WOD to avoid boredom. Five to ten minutes, depending on the age group, will probably be the cutoff for their attention spans. Break complex movements into separate segments of focus work. After each portion has been mastered, link the movements together. Always begin young children's training with unweighted or PVC movements. This allows them the luxury of comprehending and perfecting technique without the dangers associated with loading. Once trainer and child are confident in the child's abilities, move to low weight dumbbells. Motor pathways, once developed, become the foundation for future increased efforts. Increasing loads should never be the goal with young children. Strength gains at this age are neurological rather than a result of hypertrophy. Training with multiple reps at low weights "allows children to build a physiological pathway for their technique" (14). This ripens the child for positive adaptations that occur as a result of repetition rather than heavy loading. Increases in load and intensity should be gradual and should never be prioritized ahead of safety and efficacy. Gradually increasing the demands being placed on a child's body creates a training protocol that is both safe and effective. This same principle applies to older kids who have not yet received qualified and carefully supervised training. Advanced weight training with kids still has safety and efficacy as its focus. Though weights can be increased at a greater rate during adolescence, the primary goal continues to be perfect form. Unlike earlier years when weights are light and "perfect is relative," meaning each child's performance is rated only on their continued... page 11 abilities for that day, utilizing heavier loads in adolescence demands a strict definition of perfection. This is an integral part of advanced training that can often times be met with resistance. Kids who are watching their peers lift superior amounts of weights may have a difficult time understanding and/or accepting a training protocol that moves at a slower rate. However, the clock and a focus on numbers can become a hindrance to a safe and effective training program—a fact that must be repeatedly driven home to teenagers. The increased possibility of injury means training teenagers to accept small gains and to value good form over heavy lifts is of utmost importance. A good and responsible trainer will find a way to effectively hold this ground while maintaining the interest of a teen. Delayed gratification has become a little-known entity. Weight training requires trainer and trainee alike to step back and view the bigger picture. The eventual gains to be made when good form is deeply entrenched in movement patterns are immeasurably greater than those achieved in a premature rush for big numbers. We learned this the hard way at CrossFit Kids HQ and had to spend an entire frustrating year backing off the weights and retracing our training steps with two of our teenage boys. The results of this arduous journey, however, have been performance gains and weightlifting increases beyond what we could have imagined. By considering safety first, we managed to also improve both the efficacy and efficiency of our program. Conclusion Weightlifting with children and teens has gotten a bad rap over the years. Unfounded allegations dominated and directed the attitudes and policies of the fitness and medical communities for nearly twenty years. Fortunately, the myths surrounding this activity have been dispelled, and policies have gradually been rewritten as mounds of research have demonstrated that weightlifting is not only safe but offers numerous positive benefits. Research has confirmed the observations of CrossFit parents and trainers around the world. Weight training is good for our kids. Weight training with kids should be a highly supervised, methodical process of developing motor pathways followed by small incremental increases with experienced adolescents. No amount of "glory" brought about by an overly ambitious lift can justify the inherent danger in moving kids along too quickly. Helping children and teens to appreciate the value of small gains should be of primary concern to a trainer, just as demonstrating perfect form should become a coveted source of satisfaction for kids. The goal of a weight lifting program should not focus entirely on strength gains. "Teaching kids about their bodies, promoting safe training procedures, and providing a stimulating program that continued... page 12 gives participants a more positive attitude towards resistance training and physical activity are equally important" (16). A sense of self worth, feelings of competence, life long improvements in overall motor skills-these are but a few of the benefits to be gained from weight training with children and teens. Learning to appreciate little victories while looking with anticipation for the rewards of later years help to hone the physical, emotional and social skills of a child. Train them to do it correctly, teach them the value of doing it well, and the big lifts will come. 1. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. www.orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00040&return_link=0. "Growth Plate Fractures," October 2007. 2. American Academy of Pediatrics. www.aap.org. "Strength Training by Children and Adolescents," June 2001. 3. American College of Sports Medicine. www.acsm.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=/CM/HTMLDisplay. "Obese Children Benefit From Resistance Training," June 2005. 4. Benjamin, H., Glow, K. & Mees, P. Physician and Sports Medicine, The, Patient Advisor. www.physssportsmed.com/issues/2003/0903/ben_pa.htm. Sept. 2003. 5. Davis, J. webmd.com. www.webmd.com/news/20010605/strength-training-safe-effective-for-kids. "Strength Training Safe and Effective for Kids," June 2001. 6. Faigenbaum, A.D., EdD et. al. Pediatrics. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/104/1/e5?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=strength%2Btraining&searchid=1078874584555_14893&stored_search=&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&journalcode=pediatrics. "The Effects of Different Resistance Training Protocols on Muscular Strength and Endurance Development in Children," Vol. 104 No. 1, July 1999. p.e5. 7. Grogan, D & Ogden, J. Pediatrics in Review. www.pedsinreview.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/13/11/429. "Knee and Ankle Injuries in Children," 1992. 8. mavoclinic.com. www.mayoclinic.com/health/strength-training/H001010. "Strength training: OK for kids when done correctly," January 2006. 9. Medical College of Wisconsin. www.healthlink.wcu.edu. "Growth Plate Injuries," July 5, 2005. 10. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases. www.niams.nih.gov. "Growth Plate Injuries," October 2001. 11. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases. www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Bone/Bone_Health/Juvenile/default.asp. "Juvenile Bone Health," August, 2002. 12. Pierce, K., Byrd, R., Stone, M. coaching.usolympicteam.com/coaching/kpub.nsf/v/dec06. "Position Statement and Literature Review: Youth Weightlifting." 13. Westcott, W. & Faigenbaum, A.D. www.ssymca.org/quincy/str_train_youth_fitness.htm. "Strength Training For Youth Fitness." 14. Hatfield, Disa. USAPL, powerLINES. www.usapowerlifting.com/newsletter/15/features/features1.html. "Getting Strong Safely: Considerations for Youth Strength Training," October 2003. 15. Isaac, L. Queensland Weightlifting Association. www.qwa.org/articles/effects.asp. "The Effects of Weightlifting on the Youth Physique." 16. Faigenbaum, A.D. www.nsca-lift.org. "Youth Resistance Training."	<urn:uuid:20a24fe2-805f-45fc-81d6-2a60d57d9785>	CC-MAIN-2019-09	http://www.crossfit.com/cf-seminars/SMERefs/Kids/CFKKidsWeightLiftingFeb2008.pdf	2019-02-17T05:29:51Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247481624.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20190217051250-20190217073250-00555.warc.gz	337,462,574	6,441	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.968472	eng_Latn	0.998456	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 216, 3430, 6366, 9410, 12047, 15173, 18392, 21557, 24336, 26416, 29267, 32401 ]	[ 1.6875, 2 ]	2	0
Student’s access to Work: Work sent to students through Class Group Gmail /Google Classroom Topic: UNIT 3 from Skills for Writing - SPY FICTION Resource: from Student Book 'Skills for Writing' pages 8-11 ZOOM LESSON 1 and ZOOM LESSON 2 - Spy Fiction - Pace and Threat- Activity 1- Hurricane Goldlines 1-44: the extract taken from the first novel of 'The Young Bond' series by Charlie Higson. (SFW page 8-9) ZOOM LESSON 3 - Spy Fiction - Pace and Threat - Writer's Workshop (SFW page 10) ZOOM LESSON 4 - Spy Fiction - Pace and Threat -Activity 2 -What do better writers do? (SFW page 11) ASSESSMENT for LEARNING: Students are assessed continuously for GC work; Homework and contributions during class discussions. Homework at the end of Zoom Lesson 1 and Zoom Lesson 3 Submission date: \| DATE /LESSON No. \| ACTIVITY \| \|------------------\|----------\| \| LESSON 1 and LESSON 2 \| ZOOM LESSON 1 AND ZOOM LESSON 2 \| \| 8E 27TH SEPT SUNDAY 3RD PERIOD \| LEARNING OUTCOMES: Create a list of appropriate verbs to use in own writing for a specific effect \| Learning Objectives: - Understand key words, and ideas presented in the text. - Identify events - Infer layers of meaning within the text. - Understand how writer’s use verbs to create a sense of danger and threat. - Understand writer’s purpose Success Criteria: I can - Identify and explain key words, events and ideas presented in the text. - infer layers of meaning within the text. • explore the use of verbs to suggest threat and danger • select suitable evidence • express views about excitement and danger or threat that interested me NOTE: - In your Note book, make notes of teacher’s explanation - Your notes will help to: - answer questions given as Homework / questions posted in Google Classroom Starter Activity— max. 10 mins Teacher explains how pace and threat are two key elements of a successful spy story and how writers use high level of pace and threat to hold the reader's attention. Pace and threat Look at the words below. List the words that convey a sense of pace. List the words that convey a sense of threat speed trouble menace movement fast-moving danger hazard action \| pace \| threat \| \|------\|--------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Teaching Activity 1 Why are pace and threat key features of spy fiction? How can writers create a sense of threat? How can writers create a sense of pace? Teacher’s explanation In a spy fiction the hero is constantly placed in dangerous and threatening situations-and moves fast often to escape from one dangerous and threatening situation to another! In spy fiction, writers choose vocabulary, and different language techniques that emphasize danger, threat, shifts in action, events and situations creating excitement, suspense. In addition to the choice of vocabulary, language techniques, the writer’s organization of ideas in a variety of sentence structures and paragraphing serves writers intention or purpose to grab readers interest. ACTIVITY 2 - Read the extract taken from ‘Hurricane Gold’, the first novel of ‘The Young Bond’ series by Charlie Higson. Read and annotate - key words and ideas presented in the extract (SFW pages 8) Identify - narrator, - characters, - main event, James watched as the young man waved his gun at Precious and JJ. ‘Where’s your father?’ he yelled. ‘Tell me or I’ll hurt you.’ ‘He’s not here,’ wailed Precious. ‘He’s flown down south. He won’t be back until after the storm.’ (As Precious said the word ‘storm’ three things happened at once. There was a terrific crack of thunder, the whole house shook and the lights went out. The storm had finally arrived. Precious screamed. The young man snarled at her to shut up. There was just enough light coming through the window for James to see him grab the two children and drag them out of the room.) James stayed put, breathing heavily. The intruders seemed to have come prepared, but with luck they wouldn’t know that he was here at all. James waited in the Wendy house for a full five minutes. Once he was sure that the man wasn’t coming back he crept out of his hiding place and tiptoed over to the playroom door. He hardly needed to be quiet. The storm was making a fearsome racket as it buffeted the house. There was a cacophony of different sounds; crashing, hissing, roaring, squealing, rumbling. As he moved out into the corridor James felt the full force of the wind slam into the house like a physical object. He could actually feel the floor moving beneath his feet, and the walls seemed to sway and shudder. He glanced out of the window, but all he could see was a swirling maelstrom of cloud and rain. There was a startling flash and another blast of thunder, then a gust of wind so powerful it blew the windows in. The rain followed, hosing down the corridor in horizontal bars. The walls were instantly soaked and a picture flew off the wall. PLENARY: Take feedback Or - identify narrator, - characters, - main event and briefly summarise the extract HOMEWORK 1 Write a summary of the extract in your own words: Lesson 2 Teacher guides students to i Continue reading lines 26-44 from the extract taken from 'Hurricane Gold', the first novel of 'The Young Bond' series by Charlie Higson The noise from outside was like nothing that James had ever heard before, like boulders crashing down a mountainside. The wind was whipping around in the corridor and the house was vibrating as if at any moment it might crack up and be blown away. James dropped to his knees and crawled along the sodden carpet as bits of debris were hurled past his head. He reached the stairs and slid down them on his backside in the darkness. He made it safely to the lower landing and peered out between the banisters into the hallway below. The servants were being rounded up and herded into the dining room by two of the men. The raid had been planned like a military operation. James was the only person who might be able to get out and go for help. Main Teaching Activity 1. Discussion on various language features- verbs, adjectives, pronouns, determiners, noun phrases and structural features such as long and short sentences, punctuation, paragraphing etc. that can be used to create pace and threat. Students make notes as teacher explains. Class discussion of questions on page 9 1. In this extract, James, Precious and JJ face two different threats at the same time-the threat of the intruders and the threat of the storm. Give examples of verbs, noun phrases from the text that convey the threat of the intruders and the threat of the storm. \| threat of the intruders \| threat of the storm \| \|-------------------------\|---------------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 2. "James was the only person who might be able to get out and go for help." What does this suggest about a. the character of James? ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... b. the role of the hero in spy stories? ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 3. How does the writer use language to create a sense of threat? - Consider similes and the effect of danger - Select verbs and explain the effect ........................................................................................................................................... 4. How does the writer use sentence structures (length of sentences) to create pace in the narrative? ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 4. How does the sense of pace and threat interest the reader? ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... PLENARY for Lesson 1 and 2 Teacher concludes the lesson recalling - the main event or what happens in the extracts with appropriate textual references - the importance of language features – and how they help to create suspense, danger and threat LESSON 3 ZOOM LESSON 3 and 4 LEARNING OUTCOMES: Write a short extract focusing on verb choice and paragraphing Learning Objectives: - Review of writer’s use of verb choice - Understand how writers organise information and ideas in long and short paragraphs - Understand how writers structure short paragraphs to create pace and dramatic impact in spy fiction Success Criteria: I can - Identify and explain how writers use verbs to describe gangsters’ thoughts and actions and create a sense of threat - Select evidence from the text - Explore structure of sentence structures and paragraphing to create pace Instruction to students: In your notebook, make notes of teacher’s explanation Teacher Activity- Teacher reviews with student in a class discussion on the choice of language, in particular verbs, to create a sense of pace and threat. ACTIVITY 1 Verb Choice: what verbs do- Verbs can describe: - an action: ‘He fell over the cliff.’ - a situation: ‘He was on the floor.’ - a thought or feeling: ‘He wondered why.’ Identify the verbs that create a sense of threat in the extracts below: Make a list of verbs from the text that convey a sense of pace and threatACTIVITY 2 Writer's Workshop: Writers can create a sense of threat through the details they choose to describe, but they can increase the sense of threat through the language they use to describe those details. Look at the box below. --- WRITER'S WORKSHOP: Creating a sense of pace and tension How can I choose language to create a sense of threat? Writers can create a sense of threat through the details they choose to describe, but they can increase the sense of threat through the language they use to describe those details. Look at the verbs the writer has used to describe what one of the gangsters says and does: ‘Where’s your father?’ he yelled. ‘Tell me or I’ll hurt you.’ Precious screamed. The young man snarled at her to shut up. There was just enough light coming through the window for James to see him grab the two children and drag them out of the room. Now look at the verbs the writer has chosen to describe the impact of the storm: James felt the full force of the wind slam into the house like a physical object. He could actually feel the floor moving beneath his feet, and the walls seemed to sway and shudder. How effective are these verbs? Try replacing each one with a new verb to add to the sense of threat. For example, what is the effect of changing: ‘Where’s your father?’ he yelled. to ‘Where’s your father?’ he moaned. or ‘Where’s your father?’ he asked. How effective are these verbs? Make a list of some other verbs not found in the extract that you could use to emphasize threat in a spy story. ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ACTIVITY 2- - The writer has used verbs to describe what one of the gangsters says and does to increase the sense of danger and threat Identify the verbs that create a sense of threat in the extracts below: a. ‘Where’s your father?’ he yelled. ‘Tell me or I’ll hurt you.’ b. Precious screamed. The young man snarled at her to shut up. There was just enough light coming through the window for James to see him grab the two children and drag them out of the room. - The writer has used verbs to describe the impact of the storm and to increase the sense of danger and threat c. James felt the full force of the wind slam into the house like a physical object. He could actually feel the floor moving beneath his feet, and the walls seemed to sway and shudder. Teacher guides students about HOMEWORK 2 PLENARY for Lesson 3 - the importance of language features, verbs that describe characters actions, thoughts and events and how they help to create suspense, danger and threat HOMEWORK 2 3. How does the writer use language to interest and engage the reader in the extract? DATE / LESSON No \| ACTIVITY ---\|--- LESSON 4 8E 30th SEPT WEDNESDAY 1ST PERIOD \| ZOOM LESSON 4 LEARNING OUTCOMES: Write a short extract focusing on verb choice and paragraphing Learning Objectives: - Understand why writers structure their ideas in long and short paragraphs - Understand how writers structure short paragraphs to create pace and dramatic impact in spy fiction Success Criteria: I can - Show awareness of the effect of writers use of paragraphs – long paragraphs to express information and short paragraphs for suspense, tension and dramatic effect (Assessment for Reading) - choose verbs effectively to write my own spy story. - Vary the length of paragraphs to create pace and dramatic impact in my writing. (Assessment for writing) Instruction to students Your notes will help to answer question posted in Google Classroom TEACHING ACTIVITY Teacher explains how paragraphs are used to create pace in writing. (SFW page 10) Teachers shows a video and invites feedback through whole class discussion. ACTIVITY 1 Watch the following Youtube video on paragraphing- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hsPNJEMOJO From the video what are the key techniques you learn about paragraphing? What other key techniques could be used? ACTIVITY 2 Read the text below for a better understanding of why paragraphs are used: How can I use paragraphs to create pace in my narrative? There are four reasons to start a new paragraph in your writing: - when you change the subject or focus of your story - when you change to a new setting - when you change to a new time - when a different character begins speaking. However, writers often ignore these rules when they want to create a sense of pace. In the Young Bond extract, the writer has used lots of short paragraphs as he quickly moves his focus from the gangsters to the storm to James Bond’s movements through the house. Look at the shortest paragraph in the extract: The storm had finally arrived. The writer has isolated this sentence in its own, very short paragraph to give this moment more dramatic impact and heighten the threat of the storm. Are there any other sentences in the extract that would make an effective short paragraph? Select other sentences in the extract that would make an effective short paragraph? ACTIVITY 3 Explain ‘What do better writers do?’ (SFW page 11) Better writers: - are aware of the effect they want to have on their reader. - choose vocabulary such as verbs very carefully to achieve this effect. - vary the lengths of their paragraphs, using longer paragraphs to convey information, and shorter paragraphs for dramatic impact. ACTIVITY 4 Look at the paragraphing in this version of the extract. What effect does it have? -- James watched as the young man waved his gun at Precious and JJ. ‘Where’s your father?’ he yelled. ‘Tell me or I’ll hurt you.’ ‘He’s not here,’ wailed Precious. ‘He’s flown down south. He won’t be back until after the storm.’ As Precious said the word ‘storm’ three things happened at once. There was a terrific crack of thunder, the whole house shook and the lights went out. The storm had finally arrived. Precious screamed. The young man snarled at her to shut up. There was just enough light coming through the window for James to see him grab the two children and drag them out of the room. James stayed put, breathing heavily. The intruders seemed to have come prepared, but with luck they wouldn’t know that he was here at all. James waited in the Wendy house for a full five minutes. Once he was sure that the man wasn’t coming back he crept out of his hiding place and tiptoed over to the playroom door. Now look at the paragraphing in this version of the extract. What effect does it have? James watched as the young man waved his gun at Precious and JJ. ‘Where’s your father?’ he yelled. ‘Tell me or I’ll hurt you.’ ‘He’s not here,’ wailed Precious. ‘He’s flown down south. He won’t be back until after the storm.’ As Precious said the word ‘storm’ three things happened at once. There was a terrific crack of thunder, the whole house shook and the lights went out. The storm had finally arrived. Precious screamed. The young man snarled at her to shut up. There was just enough light coming through the window for James to see him grab the two children and drag them out of the room. James stayed put, breathing heavily. The intruders seemed to have come prepared, but with luck they wouldn’t know that he was here at all. James waited in the Wendy house for a full five minutes. Once he was sure that the man wasn’t coming back he crept out of his hiding place and tiptoed over to the playroom door. PLENARY- - Teacher recalls how the writer has used short paragraphs effectively in spy stories to create a sense of pace and increase the sense of threat - Likewise in GC, students will write a short extract in paragraphs, using the verbs in appropriate places to suggest danger, action or pace, \| DATE / LESSON No \| ACTIVITY \| \|------------------\|----------\| \| LESSON 5 8E 30th SEPT WEDNESDAY 2ND PERIOD \| LESSON 5 GOOGLE CLASSROOM \| LEARNING OUTCOMES: - Write a short extract using effective verbs and paragraphs to convey a sense of pace and threat. Learning Objectives: - Understand why writers structure their ideas in long and short paragraphs - Understand how writers structure short paragraphs to create pace and dramatic impact in spy fiction Success Criteria: I can • use verbs effectively to convey pace and threat in a short paragraph • use appropriate paragraphing to convey pace and threat in a short paragraph Instruction to students Based on the understanding of the zoom lessons 1,2,3 and 4 ,write a short extract of a spy story (in 5-10 sentences), where you use effective verbs and paragraphs to create a sense of threat and pace. Your extract of a spy story could describe a • a hero being threatened by a villain or villains, like the gangsters in ‘Hurricane Gold’. • a hero being threatened by a difficult situation, like the storm in ‘Hurricane Gold’. • Or something else. You can use the list of verbs you had made in Zoom lesson 3. The verbs can describe the way the character speaks or acts or his/her situation. yelled running lunge shudder skittering snarled thundering slam eluded shivering grab slipped sway burned sprayed You can use a variety of paragraph lengths, as you have learnt in Zoom lesson 4, to make your writing interesting. Check your writing. Read the instructions given below: CHECK YOUR WRITING 1. Look back at your writing from [ ] Annotate your extract to explain some of the decisions you have made. It might look something like this: He hurtled through the trees, the jungle just a blur of green. He could hear them, hear their angry shouts as they smashed through the dense undergrowth just metres behind him. And then silence. 2. Which column best describes your use of paragraphing and verb choice? - pronouns and determiners make reader wonder who these people are and what is going on - verb choices create a sense of movement and pace - short, one-sentence paragraph suggests a sudden, unexpected change \| I used some paragraphs to organise my main ideas. \| I used paragraphs throughout and had some success with creating a sense of pace with my paragraphs. \| I used paragraphs clearly and effectively throughout to give my story a sense of pace. \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| I chose some verbs deliberately, but some verb choices did not contribute to the sense of threat. \| Most of my verb choices were deliberate and contributed to the sense of threat. \| I chose all of my verbs carefully and deliberately to create a sense of pace and threat. \| Annotate: __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________	a02f144f-1fc6-4dd0-a2b8-d0b4c28df53a	CC-MAIN-2023-23	https://www.stmarysdubai.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Week-5-English-Language-Yr8E.pdf	2023-06-09T05:50:31+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224655247.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20230609032325-20230609062325-00408.warc.gz	1,074,729,332	4,366	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.936368	eng_Latn	0.99884	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "gmh_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1471, 2404, 3332, 3936, 5345, 6720, 9437, 10616, 12538, 13735, 14691, 17021, 18792, 19907, 21651 ]	[ 4.6875, 4.6875 ]	1	0
Commission on the Status of Women Sixty-fifth session 15–26 March 2021 Follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women and to the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly entitled “Women 2000: gender equality, development and peace for the twenty-first century” Statement submitted by International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists, and World Federation of Engineering Organizations, non-governmental organizations in consultative status with the Economic and Social Council* The Secretary-General has received the following statement, which is being circulated in accordance with paragraphs 36 and 37 of Economic and Social Council resolution 1996/31. * The present statement is issued without formal editing. Statement The International Network for Women Engineers and Scientists (INWES) and the World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) together represent women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) across 100 nations. These two organizations are committed to attracting girls to undertake careers in STEM and play an important role in developing and supporting programmes that encourage girls to study the enabling subjects of science and mathematics in school. Our organizations encourage parents, teachers and counsellors to support girls to study and pursue careers in science or engineering and provides support and advice to industry and government to retain women in the workforce, support women in their STEM careers, encourage them to achieve leadership positions and celebrate their achievements. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought into focus the important role of science and engineering in combating the impacts of the pandemic, from developing rapid diagnostic tools to detect the virus infection, the use of advanced manufacturing and 3D printing for the rapid deployment of personal protective equipment to the use of artificial intelligence in detecting a suitable vaccine and development of online courses for education from elementary school through college. Scientists and engineers, especially women who can provide a different perspective, are needed for all these important tasks. While progress has been made for gender equality in many parts of the world, there are still significant areas where there is much to be done. The World Economic Forum 2020 Gender Gap Report indicates that at the current rate, it will take nearly 100 years to close the gender gap. In simple terms this means that gender parity across a range of sectors including health, education and work, will take nearly three generations to achieve. INWES and WFEO agree with the United Nations Secretary General that, gender parity at all levels – political, cultural, economic and social – is a ‘central objective’ and that this will come from the education of women especially in science and engineering. We therefore support Clause 24 of the Agreed Conclusions of the Commission on the Status of Women at CSW61 in March 2017 which it reaffirmed the right to education, as well as access to quality and inclusive education, contributes to the achievement of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls. We support the conclusion in Clause 24 that new technologies, which are changing the structure of labour markets, provide new and different employment opportunities that require women and girls to acquire skills ranging from basic digital fluency to advanced technical skills in science, technology, engineering and mathematics and in information and communications technology. INWES and WFEO also reaffirm the conclusion relating to managing technological and digital change for women’s economic empowerment and agrees that there is a need to: support women’s access, throughout their life cycle, to skills development and decent work in new and emerging fields, by expanding the scope of education and training opportunities in, inter alia, science, technology, engineering and mathematics, information and communications technology and digital fluency, and enhance women’s and, as appropriate, girls’ participation as users, content creators, employees, entrepreneurs, innovators and leaders; and, strengthen science and technology education policies and curricula, so that they are relevant to the needs of and benefit women and girls, encourage investment and research in sustainable technology, particularly to strengthen the capacities of developing countries, so as to enable women to leverage science and technology for entrepreneurship and economic empowerment in the changing world of work. 2020 has been an extraordinary year with COVID-19 lockdowns forcing the closing of schools and businesses and a sharp increase in the use of internet and communication technologies (ICT) for education and business. The sharp increase has also highlighted the need to address the gender digital divide, i.e. to address the gap in the proportion of women using the internet globally, currently 48 per cent, compared to 58 per cent of men. In relative terms, this means that the global internet user gap is 17 per cent. Most countries with a large gender gap in mobile phone ownership also have a large gender gap among internet users. There is ample evidence that digital skills accelerate every stage of a person’s career – powerful in both education and employment, and increasingly important as women advance into the ranks of leadership. Closing the digital gender gap will accelerate gender equality in many other areas. It is estimated that more than 7 million jobs are at risk in the world’s largest economies over the next five years, principally in office and administrative services, manufacturing and production, and health care. In this scenario, women will lose their jobs at a faster rate than men, since they are less likely to be employed in sectors in which the adoption of new technology will create jobs. This is partially the result of women’s relatively low participation in STEM professions, in which jobs are expected to be created. Digital fluency may help to close some gender gaps, especially if the rate at which women become frequent users of digital technologies is doubled. The significance of increasing the participation of women in the workforce, especially in science and engineering sectors, has been recognised around the world as being essential for economic growth, for innovation, developing new industries and the knowledge economy, and for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, it is clear that more must be done to equip women with the skills to engage in the jobs that are most in demand. Also, it is increasingly important for women to contribute to new technologies and to participate in innovation, especially as this drives productivity and innovation in organizations where gender diversity and inclusion is accepted at all levels. STEM careers will have an increasingly important role in society and the economy and empowering women to participate in the workplace of the future is essential. There are also well-recognized gender gaps in technology startups and in research funding in the science and engineering fields. These gaps not only impact on the career aspirations of women, but also have a negative impact on business innovation and in finding new solutions to addressing global challenges. It is anticipated that 54 per cent of all jobs will require digital skills by 2022 and women will be more adversely affected than men especially as they are unrepresented in the STEM sector. It is imperative that women recognise the importance of engagement in science and technology and consider careers in these fields, which should no longer be considered to be “male dominated” but a career pathway for all young people worldwide. Women will also benefit from technology in terms of improved education and health. Improvements in communications and access to technology will enable more women to participate in the new economy as entrepreneurs and play key roles in achieving the United Nations SDGs. INWES and WFEO are committed to advancing the 2030 Agenda and that increasing the participation of women in STEM careers is critical to achieving the United Nations SDGs. Accordingly, we declare our commitment to: Continue to develop projects and programs to attract more girls, especially in Africa and Asia to undertake studies in science and mathematics in high school. Encourage young women and girls to consider careers in science, technology and engineering. Continue to showcase the achievements of women scientists and engineering in our regional and international events and conference and include topics relating to gender and sustainable development as themes/major tracks. Continue our efforts in outreach programs to girls with information workshops for parents and educators on careers in STEM. Encourage and support leadership development of women engineers and scientists through seminars. Encourage governments and industry to attract and support women in STEM, and to address the need for diversity in STEM fields at all levels in the efforts to achieve the United Nations SDGs in their organisations. Support research and develop innovative projects on the role of women in science, technology and engineering. INWES and WFEO believe that it is an imperative that United Nations bodies and Member States ensure that women receive the education, legal and social protections, and support to pursue careers in STEM to achieve their personal aspirations, contribute to the economic futures of their countries and achieve the empowerment of women and the 2030 Agenda.	a8156123-0c60-4a7a-a851-bd2e2a44bc45	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N20/359/70/PDF/N2035970.pdf?OpenElement	2023-12-10T05:16:19+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679101195.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20231210025335-20231210055335-00633.warc.gz	169,650,389	1,743	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.992007	eng_Latn	0.997853	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 736, 4192, 7981, 9689 ]	[ 2.3125 ]	2	0
Life Science CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission to reduce the cost of textbook materials for the K-12 market both in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-content, web-based collaborative model termed the “FlexBook,” CK-12 intends to pioneer the generation and distribution of high-quality educational content that will serve both as core text as well as provide an adaptive environment for learning. Copyright © 2009 CK-12 Foundation, www.ck12.org Except as otherwise noted, all CK-12 Content (including CK-12 Curriculum Material) is made available to Users in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution/Non-Commercial/Share Alike 3.0 Unported (CC-by-NC-SA) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/), as amended and updated by Creative Commons from time to time (the “CC License”), which is incorporated herein by this reference. Specific details can be found at http://about.ck12.org/terms. ## Contents 1 Studying Life 1 1.1 Lesson 1.1: The Nature of Science .......................... 1 1.2 Lesson 1.2: The Scientific Method .......................... 15 1.3 Lesson 1.3: Tools of Science ................................. 22 1.4 Lesson 1.4: Safety in Scientific Research .................... 31 2 Introduction to Living Organisms 41 2.1 Lesson 2.1: What are Living Things? ......................... 41 2.2 Lesson 2.2: Chemicals of Life ............................... 48 2.3 Lesson 2.3: Classification of Living Things ................. 65 3 Cells and Their Structures 81 3.1 Lesson 3.1: Introduction to Cells ........................... 81 3.2 Lesson 3.2: Cell Structures .................................. 88 4 Cell Functions 99 4.1 Lesson 4.1: Transport ........................................ 99 4.2 Lesson 4.2: Photosynthesis .................................. 107 4.3 Lesson 4.3: Cellular Respiration ............................. 114 5 Cell Division, Reproduction, and DNA 123 5.1 Lesson 5.1: Cell Division .................................... 123 5.2 Lesson 5.2: Reproduction .................................... 130 11.3 Lesson 11.3: Worms .................................................. 332 12 Other Invertebrates .................................................. 343 12.1 Lesson 12.1: Mollusks ........................................... 343 12.2 Lesson 12.2: Echinoderms .................................... 352 12.3 Lesson 12.3: Arthropods ...................................... 359 12.4 Lesson 12.4: Insects ........................................... 374 13 Fishes, Amphibians, and Reptiles ............................. 393 13.1 Lesson 13.1: Introduction to Vertebrates .................. 393 13.2 Lesson 13.2: Fishes ........................................... 399 13.3 Lesson 13.3: Amphibians ...................................... 409 13.4 Lesson 13.4: Reptiles ......................................... 416 14 Birds and Mammals ............................................... 435 14.1 Lesson 14.1: Birds ............................................. 435 14.2 Lesson 14.2: Mammals ........................................ 446 14.3 Lesson 14.3: Primates and Humans .......................... 458 15 Behavior of Animals .............................................. 473 15.1 Lesson 15.1: Understanding Animal Behavior .............. 473 15.2 Lesson 15.2: Types of Animal Behavior ..................... 493 16 Skin, Bones, and Muscles ........................................ 511 16.1 Lesson 16.1: Organization of Your Body .................... 511 16.2 Lesson 16.2: Integumentary System .......................... 522 16.3 Lesson 16.3: Skeletal System ................................ 533 16.4 Lesson 16.4: The Muscular System ........................... 548 17 Food and the Digestive System .................................. 565 17.1 Lesson 17.1: Food and Nutrients ............................. 565 17.2 Lesson 17.2: Choosing Healthy Foods .......................... 577 17.3 Lesson 17.3: The Digestive System .......................... 585 18 Cardiovascular System ........................................... 601 18.1 Lesson 18.1: Introduction to the Cardiovascular System .... 601 18.2 Lesson 18.2: Heart and Blood Vessels ......................... 613 18.3 Lesson 18.3: Blood ............................................. 620 18.4 Lesson 18.4: Health of the Cardiovascular System .......... 632 19 Respiratory and Excretory Systems ............................ 643 19.1 Lesson 19.1: Respiratory System .............................. 643 19.2 Lesson 19.2: Health of the Respiratory System ............... 651 19.3 Lesson 19.3: Excretory System ................................ 663 20 Controlling the Body ............................................. 677 20.1 Lesson 20.1: Nervous System .................................. 677 20.2 Lesson 20.2: Eyes and Vision ................................. 691 20.3 Lesson 20.3: Other Senses ..................................... 702 20.4 Lesson 20.4: Health of the Nervous System .................. 714 21 Diseases and the Body’s Defenses ............................. 729 21.1 Lesson 21.1: Infectious Diseases .............................. 729 21.2 Lesson 21.2: Noninfectious Diseases ......................... 739 21.3 Lesson 21.3: First Two Lines of Defense ..................... 751 21.4 Lesson 21.4: Immune System Defenses ....................... 759 22 Reproductive Systems and Life Stages ......................... 775 22.1 Lesson 22.1: Male Reproductive System ...................... 775 22.2 Lesson 22.2: Female Reproductive System ................... 781 22.3 Lesson 22.3: Reproduction and Life Stages .................. 789 22.4 Lesson 22.4: Reproductive System Health .................... 802 23 From Populations to the Biosphere 815 23.1 Lesson 23.1: Introduction to Ecology 815 23.2 Lesson 23.2: Populations 821 23.3 Lesson 23.3: Communities 831 23.4 Lesson 23.4:: Ecosystems 841 23.5 Lesson 23.5: Biomes and the Biosphere 848 24 Ecosystem Dynamics 859 24.1 Lesson 24.1: Flow of Energy 859 24.2 Lesson 24.2: Cycles of Matter 869 24.3 Lesson 24.3: Ecosystem Change 876 25 Environmental Problems 885 25.1 Lesson 25.1: Air Pollution 885 25.2 Lesson 25.2: Water Pollution and Waste 896 25.3 Lesson 25.3: Natural Resources 906 25.4 Lesson 25.4: Habitat Destruction and Extinction 918 26 Appendix: Life Science 941 26.1 Investigation and Experimentation Activities 941 www.ck12.org Chapter 1 Studying Life 1.1 Lesson 1.1: The Nature of Science Lesson Objectives - Understand that science is a system based on evidence, testing, and reasoning. - Describe what the life sciences are and some of the many life science specialties. - Describe the scientific method and why it is important. - Define the words "fact," "theory," and "hypothesis." - Describe some of the tools of life science. - Know that scientists are required to follow strict guidelines. Check Your Understanding - What do you expect to learn from this class? Introduction Before proceeding through this class, you need to realize a number of fundamental concepts of science. You need to: - Know that science is a way of knowing about the physical world, based on observable evidence, testing predictions, and reasoning. - Understand that, in science, theories and knowledge are constantly tested and questioned. - Know that, when new information conflicts with existing explanations, scientists modify their explanations to be consistent with all evidence. • Understand that principles of philosophy and religion usually cannot be tested scientifically, because they are not based on observable evidence. • Identify what the life sciences are and some of the many specialties • Know the difference between scientific theory and fact. These raise several interesting questions: 1. Why is modern science producing many more improvements in our lives than it did a hundred years ago? Modern science is based on evidence, inquiry and testing which have replaced personal beliefs, mythology and other biased sources of information. 2. Is there anything that science cannot explain? Yes there is. Questions about ethics (right and wrong) and belief in supernatural forces can not be explained through science. 3. How can we “think like scientists?” To think like a scientist, you would need to: (a) ask questions about the world around you and seek new evidence that will help answer questions, (b) base your understanding of the world on evidence, testing and reasoning instead of biased belief systems, (c) continuously question and test the accuracy of your knowledge and assumptions (including so-called “common sense”). Goals of Science Science, religion, mythology, and magic share the goal of knowing about and explaining the world, such as the physical world, but their approaches are vastly different. The difference between them is their approach to “knowing.” The vastness of the living, physical world includes all organisms (Figure 1.1), on land (Figure 1.2) and in the sea (Figure 1.3). As humans, some of the things we want to know and understand are what makes us healthy, what makes us sick, and how we can protect ourselves from floods, famine and drought. Throughout history, humans have looked for ways to understand and explain the physical world. Try to imagine what humans thought about themselves and the world around them 1,000 years ago, or 5,000 years ago, or more. If you were born then, how would you have explained why the sun moved across the sky, then disappeared? How would you explain why your body changes as you grow, or birth and death? What explanation would you have for lightning, thunder, and storms? Throughout time, different cultures have created hundreds of different myths and stories and even gods to explain what they saw. Ancient Greeks explained that lightning was a show of their god Zeus’ anger. Scandinavians claimed that their god of thunder, Thor, was responsible for the rumbling and bolts of lightning. Without any formal science, many cultures have also blamed diseases, such as epilepsy, on evil spirits and other imaginary Figure 1.1: Escherichia coli bacteria (25) Figure 1.2: A male lion. (9) Figure 1.3: A Humpback whale. (15) entities. For example, there is evidence that many different cultures drilled holes in the skulls of patients who had seizures or other maladies, thinking that they were releasing evil spirits. Science as a Way of Knowing During your own and your parents’ lifetimes, advances in medicine (Figure 1.4), technology, and other fields have progressed faster than any other time in history. This explosion of advances in our lives is largely due to human use of modern science as a way of understanding. Today’s scientists are trained to base their comprehension of the world on evidence and reasoning rather than belief and assumptions. ![The anatomy lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp](image) Figure 1.4: The anatomy lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp. Modern science is: - A way of understanding about the physical world, based on observable evidence, reasoning, and repeated testing. - A body of knowledge that is based on observable evidence, experimentation, reasoning, and repeated testing. As we learn more, new information occasionally conflicts with our current understanding. When this happens scientific explanations are revised. The Figure 1.5 demonstrates this. However, science cannot scrutinize what is good versus what is bad (morality), because these are values, ideas that lack measurable evidence. Science is not used to examine philosophy. Figure 1.5: In 1847, a doctor, Ignaz Semmelweis, demonstrated that when he washed his hands before delivering babies fewer women died from infection. Before this, doctors held untested beliefs about the causes of disease, such as a person’s behavior, or the air they breathed. (5) or supernatural entities, such as the existence or nonexistence of a god. However, science can be used to examine the effects of these experiences. The most important message from this chapter is that science is not only a way of knowing it is also a way of thinking and reasoning. Scientists try to look at the world objectively - without bias or making assumptions. How? Scientists learn to be skeptical, to question the accuracy of our ideas. They learn to base their understanding of the physical world on evidence, reasoning and repeated testing of ideas. To Think Like a Scientist To think like a scientist, you need to be skeptical about and question your assumptions, including what often seems like common sense. Questioning ideas can often lead to surprising results. For example, if you ask people whether it’s easier to keep a plastic cutting board clean or a wooden one clean, most people will think that the plastic board is easier to keep clean and has fewer germs (Figure 1.6). Why do most people believe that plastic is safer? Probably because we assume that it is easier to wash germs off plastic than off wood. This assumption is promoted by the makers of plastic cutting boards and it sounds reasonable. After all, wood stains and looks unhygienic; plastic cutting boards come out of the dishwasher shiny and clean looking. But is plastic actually better? When scientists tested this idea, the answer turned out to be no. The researchers treated used cutting boards with different kinds of germs and then washed the boards. They found, much to their surprise, that gouged and sliced wooden cutting boards had far fewer germs than gouged and sliced plastic boards. The researchers discovered that germs that cause food poisoning, such as E. coli and Salmonella, are absorbed into the wood and seemed to vanish. On plastic, the germs sit on the surface in cuts in the plastic where they are difficult to clean out but can contaminate food. Furthermore, in a different study of food poisoning, people who used wooden cutting boards were less than half as likely to get sick as people using plastic ones. "Common sense" may seem to have all the answers, but science is all about following the evidence. So what is good evidence? Evidence is information that can be used to confirm or refute an idea or to explain something. Both scientists and lawyers use evidence to support an idea or to show that an idea is probably wrong. Scientific evidence has certain features, which may be different from legal evidence. Evidence is: 1. a direct, physical observation of a thing, a group of things, or of a process over time. 2. usually something measurable or "quantifiable." 3. the result of something. For example, a book falling to the ground is evidence in support of the theory of gravity. A bear skeleton in the woods would be supporting evidence for the presence of bears. What Are the Life Sciences? The life sciences are the study of living organisms and how they interact with each other and their environment. These include all the biological sciences. Life sciences deal with every aspect of living organisms. The life sciences are so complex that most scientists focus on just one or two subspecialties — see tables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3. Also, some focus on the relationship between living organisms, which is depicted in a phylogenetic “Tree of Life” (Figure 1.7). Table 1.1: Subspecialties that focus on one type of organism \| Subspecialty \| Studies \| \|--------------------\|----------------------------------------------\| \| Botany \| plants \| \| Marine biology \| organisms living in and around oceans, and seas \| \| Microbiology \| microorganisms \| \| Virology \| viruses \| \| Taxonomy \| the classification of organisms \| \| Zoology \| animals \| \| Fresh water biology\| organisms living in and around freshwater lakes, streams, rivers, ponds, etc. \| \| Bacteriology \| bacteria \| \| Entomology \| insects \| Table 1.2: Fields of life sciences that examine the structure, function, growth, development and/or evolution of living things \| Life Science \| What it Examines \| \|-------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Cell biology \| cells and their structures \| \| Morphology \| the form and structure of living organisms \| \| Immunology \| the mechanisms inside organisms that protect them from disease and infection \| \| Developmental biology and embryology \| the growth and development of plants and animals \| \| Biochemistry \| the chemistry of living organisms \| \| Epidemiology \| how diseases arise and spread (Figure 26.3) \| \| Anatomy \| the structures of animals \| \| Physiology \| the physical and chemical functions of tissues and organs \| \| Neuroscience \| the nervous system \| \| Genetics \| the genetic make up of all living organisms (heredity) \| \| Molecular biology \| biology at the molecular level \| Table 1.3: Fields of biology that examine the distribution and interactions between organisms and their environments \| Life Science \| What it Examines \| \|--------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Ecology \| how various organisms interact with their environments \| \| Population biology \| the biodiversity, evolution, and environmental biology of populations of organisms \| \| Biogeography \| the distribution of living organisms (Figure 1.9) \| Scientific Theories Science theories are produced through repeated studies, usually performed and confirmed by many individuals. Scientific theories are well established and tested explanations of observations. These theories produce a body of knowledge about the physical world that is collected and tested through the scientific method (discussed in the Scientific Method lesson). The word “theory” has a very different meaning in daily life than it does in science. When someone at school says, “I have a theory,” they sometimes just mean a hunch or a guess. This everyday meaning for “theory” can confuse people when well-tested and widely accepted scientific theories are discussed by nonscientists. For example, the theory of evolution is a well-established scientific theory that some people incorrectly say is just a hunch. A scientific theory is based on evidence and testing that supports the explanation. Scientific theories are so well studied and tested that it is extremely unlikely that new data will discredit them. The idea that matter is made up of atoms, evolution, and gravity are all scientific theories about how the world works that scientists accept as fundamental principles of basic science. However, any theory may be altered or revised to make it consistent with new evidence. Figure 1.7: The Phylogenetic Tree of Life shows the relationship between living organisms. Humans and other mammals (eukaryotes) appear on the right side of the tree. The base of the tree represents the ancestor of all living organisms. (8) Figure 1.8: Epidemiologists study how diseases spread. The above map shows where humans contracted West Nile Virus between 2000 and 2006. It is believed the virus entered the United States in New York City in 1999. Notice how rapidly the virus spread across the U.S. (13) Figure 1.9: Alexander von Humboldt mapped the distribution of plants across landscapes and recorded a variety of physical conditions such as pressure and temperature. Today, biogeographers study the diversity and distribution of organisms across Earth. (20) Two Important Life Science Theories In the many life sciences, there are possibly hundreds or thousands of theories. Yet there are at least two fundamental theories, which provide a foundation for modern biology. They are: 1. The Cell Theory 2. The Theory of Evolution The Cell Theory The Cell Theory states that: - All organisms are composed of cells (Figure 1.10). - Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism. - Cells only come from preexisting cells; life comes from life. ![Figure 1.10: The two types of cells, eukaryotic (left) and prokaryotic (right).](image) The development of the microscope in the mid 1600s made it possible to come up with this theory (Figure 1.11). The Theory of Evolution In biology, evolution is the process of change in the inherited traits of a population of organisms over time. Natural selection is the process where organisms that are better suited to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce than others that are less suited to the environment. This theory basically states that better suited organisms live longer and have an easier time reproducing, passing on their traits that made them better suited... to their environment. The theory of evolution by natural selection is often called the “great unifier” of biology, because it applies to every field of biology. It also explains the tremendous diversity and distribution of organisms across Earth. All living organisms (Figure 1.12 is a sampling) on Earth are descended from common ancestors. Lesson Summary - Science is a way of understanding (knowing) about the physical world that is based on evidence, reasoning, and testing predictions. - A body of knowledge that has been thoroughly tested can still undergo further testing, and revisions as new evidence and questioning are raised. - Science differs from other ways of knowing, because it is entirely based on observable evidence and its explanations are constantly questioned and tested. - Science produces theories and general knowledge that allow us to better understand the world and to apply this knowledge to solve problems. Review Questions 1. How is modern science different from other ways of knowing? 2. Explain why science cannot be used to examine whether someone is good or bad? 3. How is the scientific meaning of the word “theory” different from its use in day-to-day conversation? 4. What do all fields of life science have in common? 5. What are the three characteristics of evidence? 6. What is the goal of science? Figure 1.12: Evolution explains the millions of varieties of organisms on Earth. (2) 7. What would you study if you were a biogeographer? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Moore, John, A., Science as a Way of Knowing: The Foundations of Modern Biology. Harvard University Press, 1993. - Trefil, James, The Nature of Science, An A-Z Guide to the Laws and Principles Guiding the Universe. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 2003. - Darwin, Charles, Origin of the Species. Random House 1988. - Cromer, Alan, Uncommon Sense: The Heretical Nature of Science, Oxford University Press. 1993. - The Nature of Science the Prentice Hall Science Series 1993. - American Association for the Advancement of Science. Science for All Americans. 1993. - Johnson, Rebecca, Genetics (Great Ideas of Science), Twenty-First Century Books, 2006. - Hedrick, Philip, W., Genetics of Populations (Biological Science (Jones and Bartlett)) Jones and Brothers Publishers, 2005. - Charles Darwin: And the Evolution Revolution (Oxford Portraits in Science) by Rebecca Stefoff. Oxford Press. New York, 1996. - Fleisher, Paul, Evolution (Great Ideas of Science). TwentyFirst Century Books, 2006.. - [http://www.project2061.org/publications/dsl/online/index.php?chapter=1](http://www.project2061.org/publications/dsl/online/index.php?chapter=1) - [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/nature/index.shtml](http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/nature/index.shtml) Vocabulary anecdotal evidence A description of an event that is used to make a point. biogeography The study of the distribution of living organisms. ecology The study of the interactions of organisms with each other and with their environment. evidence Something that gives us grounds for knowing of the existence or presence of something else. life science The study of living organisms and how they interact with each other and their environment. population biology The study of the biodiversity, evolution, and environmental biology of populations of organisms. science A way of knowing about the physical world, based on observable evidence, testing predictions, and reasoning. science theories Well established and tested explanations of observations; produced through repeated studies, usually performed and confirmed by many individuals. Points to Consider - Next we are going to discuss the scientific method. You may have heard someone say that you can ruin your eyes if you sit too close to the television set. - Describe how “thinking like a scientist” could help you figure out if this common sense idea is true or false. 1.2 Lesson 1.2: The Scientific Method Lesson Objectives - Consider how the scientific method is one of the most important reasons for how modern science is advancing more rapidly than in the past. - Describe the scientific method as a process. - Explain why the scientific method allows scientists and others to examine the physical world more objectively than other ways of knowing. - Describe the steps involved in the scientific method. Check Your Understanding - What is science? - What is a scientific theory? Introduction The scientific method is an inquiry process used to investigate the physical world using observable evidence and testing. This method allows scientists to "conduct" science in a uniform process. This process allows the information collected to be reproduced by other scientists, and most importantly, this process allows the information to be accepted and trusted. Imagine that you are a scientist who wants to know something like, “Why do whales migrate?” or “Why do some people get more colds than others do?” Two hundred years ago, you could have come up with theories without necessarily thoroughly testing your ideas. But there were many exceptional scientists who made outstanding contributions. Here is a painting of Michael Faraday in his laboratory in the Royal Institution in England during the 1800s (Figure 1.13). Michael Faraday is best known for his contributions to chemistry, and he probably used some form of the scientific method to answer his questions. ![Michael Faraday in his laboratory at the Royal Institution during the mid 1800s](image) Figure 1.13: Michael Faraday in his laboratory at the Royal Institution during the mid 1800s. (4) As a modern scientist today, you would use the scientific method, collecting evidence to test your hypothesis and answer your questions. The scientific method presents a general idea of how science is conducted; it is not a strict pattern for doing research. Scientists use many different variations of the scientific method to meet their specific needs. Almost all versions of the scientific method include the following steps, though not always in the same order: 1. Make observations 2. Identify a question you would like to answer about the observation 3. Research: find out what is already known about your observation 4. Form a hypothesis 5. Test the hypothesis 6. Analyze your results 7. Communicate your results A hypothesis is a proposed explanation that allows you to make predictions about what ought to happen if the hypothesis is true. If the predictions are accurate, that provides support for the hypothesis. If the predictions are incorrect, that suggests the hypothesis is wrong. Make Observations Observe something in which you are interested. Here is an example of a real observation made by students in Minnesota (Figure 26.1). Imagine that you are one of the students who discovered this strange frog. ![A frog with an extra leg](image) Figure 1.14: A frog with an extra leg. Imagine that you are on a field trip to look at pond life. While collecting water samples, you notice a frog with five legs instead of four. As you start to look around, you discover that many of the frogs have extra limbs, extra eyes or no eyes. One frog even has limbs coming out of its mouth. You look at the water and the plants around the pond to see if there is anything else that is obviously unusual like a source of pollution. Identify a Question That is Based on Your Observations The next step is to ask a question about these frogs. For example, you may ask why so many frogs are deformed. You may wonder if there is something in their environment causing these defects. You could ask if deformities are caused by such materials as water pollution, pesticides, or something in the soil nearby (Figure 1.15). Yet, you do not even know if this large number of deformities is “normal” for frogs. What if many of the frogs found in ponds and lakes all over the world have similar deformities? Before you look for causes, you need to find out if the number and kind of deformities is unusual. So besides finding out why the frogs are deformed, you should also ask: “Is the percentage of deformed frogs in pond A (your pond) greater than the percentage of deformed frogs in other places?” ![A pond with frogs](image) Figure 1.15: A pond with frogs. (14) Research Existing Knowledge About the Topic No matter what you observe, you need to find out what is already known about your topic. For example, is anyone else doing research on deformed frogs? If yes, what did they find out? Do you think that you should repeat their research to see if it can be duplicated? During your research, you might learn something that convinces you to alter your question. Construct a Hypothesis A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of an observation. For example, you might hypothesize that a certain pesticide is causing extra legs. If that’s true, then you can predict that the water in a pond of healthy non-deformed frogs will have lower levels of that pesticide. That’s a prediction you can test by measuring pesticide levels in two sets of ponds, those with deformed frogs and those with nothing but healthy frogs. A hypothesis is an explanation that allows you to predict what results you will get in an experiment or survey. The next step is to state the hypothesis formally. A hypothesis must be “testable.” Example: After reading about what other scientists have learned about frog deformities, you predict what you will find in your research. You construct a hypothesis that will help you answer your first question. Any hypothesis needs to be written in a way that it can: 1. Be tested using evidence. 2. Be falsified (found false/wrong). 3. Provide measurable results. 4. Provide yes or no answers. For example, the following hypothesis can be tested and provides yes or no answers: “The percentage of deformed frogs in five ponds that are heavily polluted with a specific chemical X is higher than the percentage of deformed frogs in five ponds without chemical X.” Test Your Hypothesis The next step is to count the healthy and deformed frogs and measure the amount of chemical X in all the ponds. This study will test the hypothesis. The hypothesis will be either true or false. An example of a hypothesis that is not testable would be: “The frogs are deformed because someone cast a magic spell on them.” You cannot make any predictions based on the deformity being caused by magic, so there is no way to test a magic hypothesis or to measure any results of magic. There is no way to prove that it is not magic, so that hypothesis is untestable and therefore not interesting to a scientist. Analyze Data and Draw a Conclusion If a hypothesis and experiment are well designed, the experiment will produce measurable results that you can collect and analyze. The analysis should tell you if the hypothesis is true or false. Example: Your results show that pesticide levels in the two sets of ponds are statistically different, but the number of deformed frogs is almost the same when you average all the ponds together. Your results demonstrate that your hypothesis is either false or the situation is more complicated than you thought. This gives you new information that will help you decide what to do next. Even if the results supported your hypothesis, you would probably ask a new question to try to better understand what is happening to the frogs and why. When you are satisfied that you have accurate information, you share your results with others. You will probably revise your hypothesis and design additional experiments along the way. Communicate Results Scientists communicate their findings in a variety of ways. For example, they may discuss their results with colleagues, talk to small groups of scientists, give talks at large scientific meetings, and write articles for scientific journals. Their findings may also be communicated to journalists. Example: You eventually decide that you have strong results to share about frog deformities. You write an article and give talks about your research. Your results could contribute towards solutions. Drawing Conclusions and Communicating Results If a hypothesis and experiment are well designed, the results will indicate whether your hypothesis is true or false. If a hypothesis is supported by the results of a study, scientists will often continue testing the hypothesis in new ways to learn more. If a hypothesis is false, the results may be used to construct and test a new hypothesis. The next step is to analyze your results and to communicate them to other scientists. Scientific articles include the questions, methods and the conclusions from their research. Other scientists may try to repeat the experiments or change them. Scientists spend much time sharing and discussing their ideas with each other. Different scientists have different kinds of expertise they can use to help each other. When many scientists have independently come to the same conclusions, a scientific theory is developed. A scientific theory is a well-established explanation of an observation. It is generally accepted among the scientific community. Scientific theories are discussed in The Nature of Science Lesson. Basic and Applied Science Science can be "basic" or "applied." The goal of basic science is to understand how things work - whether it's why things fall on the floor or the structure of cells. Basic science is the source of most scientific theory and new knowledge. Applied science is using scientific discoveries to solve practical problems or to create new technologies. Even though basic research is not intended to solve problems directly, basic research always provides the knowledge that applied scientists need to solve problems. For example, medicine and all that is known about how to treat patients is applied science based on basic research (Figure 1.16). Lesson Summary - The scientific method is an inquiry process used to investigate the physical world using observable evidence and testing. - A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of an observation; it is used to test an idea. - A theory is a well-established explanation of an observation. A hypothesis must be written in a way that can be tested, is falsifiable (to be able to prove that something is false), is measurable, and will help answer the original question. Review Questions 1. How is a hypothesis different from a theory? 2. What does a hypothesis need to include? 3. What does “falsifiable” mean? 4. List the steps of the Scientific Method? 5. What is basic research? 6. What is applied research? 7. What does a scientist do if their research results conflict with previous theories or popular knowledge? 8. Is it OK for scientists to change their ideas? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - William Souder, A Plague of Frogs: The Horrifying True Story Hyperion Press, 2000. Vocabulary applied science The application of science to practical problems. basic science Research whose goal is just to find out how the world works, not to solve an urgent problem. Basic research is the source of most new scientific information and nearly all new theories. falsifiable Testable. If a hypothesis generates predictions that can be shown to be true or false by experiment or observation, the hypothesis is “falsifiable” or “testable.” hypothesis A proposed explanation for something that is testable. predict To say what will happen in a given situation. A scientific prediction is different from an everyday prediction, like predicting the weather before it happens. A scientific prediction is related to a specific hypothesis. scientific method A careful way of asking and answering questions to learn about the physical world that is based on reason and observable evidence. scientific theory A well-established set of explanations that explain a large amount of scientific information. Points to Consider • Next we consider the tools of the scientist. • How do you think scientific “tools” can help a scientist? • What do you think is one of the more common tools of the life scientist? 1.3 Lesson 1.3: Tools of Science Lesson Objectives • Describe the growing number of tools available to investigate different features of the physical world. • Describe how microscopes have allowed humans to view increasingly small tissues and organisms that were never visible before. Check Your Understanding - What is the scientific method? - What is an experiment? Using Microscopes Microscopes, tools that you may get to use in your class, are some of the most important tools in biology Figure 1.17. Before microscopes were invented in 1595, the smallest things you could see on yourself were the tiny lines in your skin. The magnifying glass, a simple glass lens, was developed about 1200 years ago. A typical magnifying glass may have doubled the size of an image. But microscopes allowed people to see objects as small as individual cells and even large bacteria. Microscopes let people see that all organisms are made of cells. Without microscopes, some of the most important discoveries in science would have been impossible. Microscopes are used to look at things that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye. Microscopy is a technology for studying small objects using microscopes. A microscope that magnifies something two to ten times (indicated by 2X or 10X on the side of the lens) may be enough to dissect a plant or look closely at an insect. Using even more powerful microscopes, scientists can magnify objects to two million times their real size. Some of the very best early optical microscopes were made four hundred years ago by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (Figure 1.18), a man who taught himself to make his own microscopes (Figure 1.19). When he looked at a sample of scum from his own teeth, Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria. In rainwater, he saw tiny protozoa. Imagine his excitement when he looked through the microscope and saw this lively microscopic world. van Leeuwenhoek discovered the first one-celled organisms (protists), the first bacteria, and the first sperm. Robert Hooke, an English natural scientist of the same period of history, used a microscope to see and name the first "cells" (Figure 1.20), which he discovered in plants. Some modern microscopes use light, as Hooke’s and van Leeuwenhoek’s did, but others may use electron beams or sound waves. Researchers now use four kinds of microscopes: 1. Light microscopes allow biologists to see small details of biological specimens. Most of the microscopes used in schools and laboratories are light microscopes. Light microscopes use refractive lenses, typically made of glass or plastic, to focus light either into the eye, a camera, or some other light detector. The most powerful light microscopes can magnify images up to 2,000 times. Light microscopes are not as powerful as other higher tech microscopes but they are much cheaper and anyone can own one and see many amazing things. 2. Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) focus a beam of electrons through an Figure 1.17: Basic light microscopes opened up a new world to curious people. 1, ocular lens or eyepiece; 2, objective turret; 3, objective lenses; 4, coarse adjustment knob; 5, fine adjustment knob; 6, object holder or stage; 7, mirror or light (illuminator); 8, diaphragm and condenser. (11) Figure 1.18: Antoine van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch cloth merchant with a passion for microscopy. (1) Figure 1.19: Drawing of microscopes owned by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek. Bacteria were discovered in 1683 when Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope he built to look at the plaque on his own teeth. (12) Figure 1.20: Robert Hooke’s early microscope. (19) object and can magnify an image up to two million times with a very clear image ("high resolution"). 3. Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) (Figure 1.21) allow scientists to map the surfaces of extremely small objects. These microscopes slide a beam of electrons across the surface of specimen, producing detailed maps of the shapes of objects. 4. Scanning acoustic microscopes use sound waves to scan a specimen. These microscopes are useful in biology and medical research. ![A scanning electron microscope](image) Figure 1.21: A scanning electron microscope. (6) ### Other Life Science Tools What other kinds of tools and instruments would you expect to find in a biologist’s laboratory or field station? Other than computers and lab notebooks, biologists use very different instruments and tools for the wide range of life science specialties. For example, a medical research laboratory and a marine biology field station might not use any of the same tools. Tools such as a radiotelemetry device (Figure 1.22), or a thermocycler (Figure 1.23) and even a fume hood (Figure 1.24) are all biological equipment. ![Radiotelemetry Device](image) Figure 1.22: A radiotelemetry device used to track the movement of seals in the wild. (22) ### Using Maps and Other Models You use models for many purposes. A volcano model, is not the same as a volcano, but it is useful for thinking about real volcanoes. We use street maps to represent where streets are in relation to each other. A model of planets may show the relationship between the positions of planets in space. Biologists use many different kinds of models to simulate real events and processes. Models are often useful to explain observations and to make scientific predictions. Some models are used to show the relationship between different variables. For example, the model in Figure 26.4 says that when there are few coyotes, there are lots of rabbits (left side of the graph) and when there are only a few rabbits, there are lots of coyotes (right side of the graph). You could make a prediction, based on this model, that removing all the coyotes from this system would result in an increase in rabbits. That’s a prediction that can be tested. Figure 1.23: A thermocycler used for molecular biological and genetic studies. (17) Figure 1.24: A laboratory fume hood. This laboratory hood sucks dangerous fumes out of a lab and allows researchers to work with dangerous chemicals without breathing them. (27) Figure 1.25: This graph shows a model of a relationship between a population of coyotes (the predators) and a population of rabbit, which the coyotes are known to eat (the prey). (18) Lesson Summary - From the time that the first microscope was built, over four hundred years ago, microscopes have been used to make major discoveries. - Life science is a vast field; different kinds of research usually require very different tools. - Basic research produces knowledge and theories; applied research uses knowledge and theories from basic research to develop solutions to practical problems. - Scientists use maps and models to understand how features of real events or processes work. Review Questions 1. What did van Leeuwenhoek discover when he looked at plaque from his own teeth under the microscope? 2. What does the symbol 10X on the side of a microscope mean? 3. What is a scientific model? 4. Look at the predator/prey (coyote/rabbit) model again. What does the model predict would happen to the rabbit population if you took away all the coyotes? 5. How long ago were the first microscopes invented? 6. What tool would you use to keep track of where a wolf travels? 7. What is the relationship between basic and applied research? Vocabulary applied research Research designed for the purpose of producing results that may be applied to real world situations. basic research Research to gain new knowledge about the basic processes of life, including how the body works; but the goal is not a commercial application. electron microscopes Used to create high magnification (magnified many times) and high resolution (very clear) images. microscopes A set of lenses used to look at things too small to be seen by the unaided eye. microscopy All the methods for studying things using microscopes. optical (light) microscopes A microscope that focuses light, usually through a glass lens; used by biologists to small details of biological specimens. scanning acoustic microscopes A microscope that focuses sound waves instead of light. scanning electron microscopes A microscope that scans the surfaces of objects with a beam of electrons to produce detailed images of the surfaces of tiny things. Points to Consider - What could be some hazards that biologists may face in the laboratory? - What could be risks of doing field research? - So what do you think biologists do to protect themselves? 1.4 Lesson 1.4: Safety in Scientific Research Lesson Objectives - Recognize how the kind of hazards that a scientist faces depends on the kind of research they do. - Identify some potential risks associated with scientific research. - Identify who and what safety regulations are designed to protect. Check Your Understanding - What is the scientific method? Introduction There are some very serious safety risks in scientific research. Research can involve many different kinds of risks. Yet, if science were as dangerous as some horror movies make it look, not many people would become scientists. Since the life sciences deal with living organisms, some research may have risks not found in other fields. Safety practices are needed to work with any potentially hazardous situation, such as: - pathogenic (disease-causing) viruses, bacteria or fungi - parasites - wild animals - radioactive materials - pollutants in air, water, or soil - toxins - teratogens - carcinogens - radiation The kinds of risks that scientists face depend on the kind of research they perform. For example, a bacteriologist working with bacteria in a laboratory faces different risks than a zoologist studying the behavior of lions in Africa. Think back to the deformed frogs discussed earlier, the ones in the pond with extra limbs or extra eyes. If there is something in the frogs’ environment causing these deformities, could there be a risk to a researcher in that environment? A chemical in the pond that could cause such deformities is called a “teratogen.” Or perhaps a disease is causing the deformities. Infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria are called biohazards (Figure 1.26). Biohazards include any material such as medical waste that could possibly transmit an infectious disease. A used hypodermic needle or a vial of bacteria are both biohazards. Laboratory Safety Most laboratories are safe places to visit. If you plan to work in a scientific laboratory, ask someone to tell you about the safety rules they are required to follow. Scientists must follow regulations set by federal, state, and private institutions. For example, scientists cannot work with hazardous materials or equipment without: - Getting approval to do the specific research. • Using safety equipment, such as hoods and fans (Figure 1.27 and Figure 1.28). • Demonstrating that the staff are familiar with risks, know how to respond to problems, and can follow safety regulations. • Accepting laboratory inspections by safety officers at any time. Figure 1.27: An example of a science laboratory workbench. A fume hood is on the left. (28) Figure 1.28: Scientists studying dangerous organisms such as Yersinia pestis, the cause of bubonic plague, use special equipment that helps keep the organism from escaping the lab. (16) Scientists who work in the outdoors, called "field scientists," are also required to follow safety regulations designed to prevent harm to themselves, other humans, to animals, and the environment. Scientists are required to follow the same level of safety standards in the field as they do in a laboratory. In fact, if scientists work outside the country, they are required to learn about and follow the laws and restrictions of the country in which they are doing research. For example, entomologists following monarch butterfly (Figure 1.29) migrations between the United States and Mexico would have to follow regulations in both countries. Field scientists are also required to follow laws to protect the environment. Before biologists can study protected wildlife or plant species, they must apply for permission to do so, and obtain a research permit, if required. Lesson Summary - Research of any kind may have safety risks. Because biologists study living organisms as diverse as bacteria and bears, they deal with risks that other scientists may never encounter. - The risks scientists face depend on the kind of research they are doing. - Scientists are required by federal, state, and local institutions to follow strict regulations designed to protect the safety of themselves, the public, and the environment. Review Questions 1. What kinds of hazards might be found in biology laboratories, but not physics laboratories? 2. Who has more freedom to do whatever research they want? Laboratory scientists or field biologists? 3. What is a biohazard? 4. What is a research permit? 5. What are some of the precautions you might take if you were collecting frogs in water you think might be polluted? 6. Name some possible hazards to field biologists. 7. If a scientist does research in a foreign country, which research laws would the scientist need to follow: those of the homeland or the foreign country? Further Reading / Supplemental Links Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (National Research Council, 1999). Chemical Classification Signs: - http://www.howe.k12.ok.us/~jimaskew/nfpa.htm NFPA Chemical Hazard Labels: - http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/NFPA/nfpa_label.html Where to Find MSDS’s on the Internet: - http://www.ilpi.com/msds/index.html Cornell University MSDS: - http://msds.pdc.cornell.edu/msdssrch.asp MSDS Power Point: - http://www.tenet.edu/teks/science/safety/pdf/hazcom/msds.ppt - http://www.research.northwestern.edu/ors/biosafe/index.htm Vocabulary anecdotal evidence A description of an event that is used to make a point. applied research Research designed for the purpose of producing results that may be applied to real world situations. basic research Research to gain new knowledge about the basic processes of life, including how the body works normally; but the goal is not a commercial application. biohazard Is any biological material, such as infectious material that poses a potential to human health, animal health, or the environment. evidence Something used to clearly determine or demonstrate the truth of an assertion. falsifiable Confirmable; capable of being tested (verified or falsified) by experiment or observation. hypothesis A concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena. pathogen A disease causing agent. scientific model Something used to represent feature a real system or item. theory An explanation for an event that is based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning. Points to Consider - We are now moving into examining living things. - What do you think makes something “alive?” - What may be some things a blade of grass, a fly, and you have in common? Image Sources (1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png. Public Domain. (2) Evolution explains the millions of varieties of organisms on Earth. CC-BY-SA 3.0. (3) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chopping_Board.jpg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chopping_Board.jpg). GNU-FDL. (4) M_Faraday_Lab_H_Moore.jpg. Public Domain. (5) Robert A. Thom. [Wikipedia](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia). Public Domain. (6) A scanning electron microscope. GNU-FDL. (7) A mouse cell viewed through a microscope. GNU-FDL. (8) NASA. The Phylogenetic Tree of Life. Public Domain. (9) A male lion. CC-BY 2.0. (10) NCBI. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg). Public Domain. (11) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Optical_microscope_nikon_alphaphot.jpg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Optical_microscope_nikon_alphaphot.jpg). Public Domain. (12) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Van_Leeuwenhoek%27s_microscopes_by_Henry_Baker.jpg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Van_Leeuwenhoek%27s_microscopes_by_Henry_Baker.jpg). Public Domain. (13) USGS. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:WNVUSAMap.png](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:WNVUSAMap.png). GNU-FDL. (14) A pond with frogs. GNU-FDL. (15) A Humpback whale. GNU Free Documentation. (16) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death). Public Domain. (17) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pcr_machine.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pcr_machine.jpg). Public Domain. (18) Talia Karasov. . CC-BY-SA. (19) Robert Hooke’s early microscope. Public Domain. (20) Humboldt1805-chimborazo.jpg. Public Domain. (21) USGS. A frog with an extra leg. Public Domain. (22) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phoca_vitulina_Telemetry.jpg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phoca_vitulina_Telemetry.jpg). CC-BY-SA 2.5. (23) A healthy newborn being examined by a doctor. GNU-FDL. (24) The Biohazard symbol. Public Domain. (25) NIH. Escherichia coli bacteria. Public Domain. (26) The_Anatomy_Lesson.jpg. Public Domain. (27) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fume_hood.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fume_hood.jpg). Public Domain. (28) [http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Lab_bench.jpg](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Lab_bench.jpg). CC-BY 1.0. (29) Derek Ramsey. A Monarch Butterfly. GNU-FDL. www.ck12.org 40 Chapter 2 Introduction to Living Organisms 2.1 Lesson 2.1: What are Living Things? Lesson Objectives - List the defining characteristics of living things. - List the needs of all living things. Check Your Understanding - How do life scientists study the natural world? - Are scientific theories just a "hunch" or a hypothesis? Introduction How would you define a living thing? In other words, what do mushrooms, daisies, cats, and bacteria have in common? (The series of pictures in the Figure 2.1 are additional representations.) All of these are living things, or organisms. It might seem hard to think of similarities among such diverse organisms, but there are actually many similarities. The chemical processes inside all organisms are the same. For example, all living things encode their genetic information in the same way. And many organisms share the same needs, such as the need for energy and materials to build their bodies. Living things have so many similarities because all living things have evolved from the same common ancestor that lived billions of years ago. All living organisms: • Need energy to carry out life processes • Are composed of one or more cells (the cell theory) • Evolve and share an evolutionary history • Respond to their environment • Grow, reproduce themselves, and pass on information to their offspring in the form of genes • Maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis) Figure 2.1: Life on Earth is very diverse, yet all these forms of life share some characteristics. Forms of life include: A) Bacteria, B) Algae, C) Fungi, D) Plants, and E) Animals. (13) Living Things Maintain Stable Internal Conditions All living things have some ability to maintain a stable internal environment. The inside of an organism is separate and different from the outside world. Maintaining that separation and difference is known as homeostasis. For example, many animals work hard to keep their temperature within a certain range. If the animal gets too hot or too cold, it will die. As a result, many animals have evolved behaviors that regulate their internal temperature. A lizard may stretch out on a sunny rock to increase its internal temperature, and a bird may fluff its feathers to stay warm (Figure 2.2). Mammals and birds are homeotherms—meaning they maintain the same temperature most of the time. A lizard or an earthworm is a heterotherm, meaning its temperature can change. Humans and other mammals may deliberately do things to stay warm or to cool off, like lie down under a shady tree. But most mammals maintain a steady temperature primarily through unconscious processes. A portion of your unconscious brain regulates your body temperature. If you get too warm, you start to sweat and the blood vessels in your skin open up to let the blood flow to the surface of your body. If you are too cold, you start to shiver and the blood supply to your skin, hands and feet may be reduced. There are many forms of homeostasis besides temperature regulation. For example, when you have a big lunch, your body produces the hormone insulin, which helps maintain the right amount of sugar in your blood. Meanwhile, your kidneys are hard at work maintaining the right amount of water and salts in your blood. Both of these processes happen unconsciously and are part of homeostasis. Living Things Grow and Reproduce All living things reproduce. Organisms that do not reproduce go extinct, every time. As a result, there are no species that do not reproduce. Reproduction, the process of creating a new organism, is different for different organisms. Many organisms reproduce sexually, where an egg and sperm go together to form a new individual. (Cats are one such species, Figure 2.3.) Other organisms can reproduce without sex ("asexually"). For example, bacteria can simply split in two, producing two identical new cells. But it’s not just bacteria that can reproduce without sex. Some lizards can produce clones of themselves. In such species, all individuals are female and simply lay their eggs when they are ready to reproduce. During all reproduction, the parents pass genetic information to their offspring, a process called heredity. Heredity is the passing of genes to the next generation. These genes influence all the traits of an organism, including overall body shape, size, whether it has fur or feathers, teeth or a beak, eye color, and so on. This genetic information is essential to an organism. In all organisms made of cells, this genetic information comes in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, which we will discuss in lesson 2. (In viruses, which are not made of cells, the genetic information is sometimes in the form of RNA, a different nucleic acid.) DNA contains the "instructions" for building important molecules inside of cells. Living Things are Composed of Cells All living things are composed of cells (Figure 2.4), the tiny units that are the building blocks of life. Cells are the smallest possible unit of life that is still considered living. Most cells are so small that they are usually visible only through a microscope. Some organisms, like the tiny plankton that live in the ocean, are composed of just one cell (Figure 2.5). Other organisms have many millions of cells that make up different body tissues and organs. On the other hand, eggs are some of the biggest cells around, including chicken eggs and ostrich eggs. But most cells are tiny. ![Skin cells](image) Figure 2.4: Skin cells. All living organisms are made of one or more cells. (18) All cells share at least some structures. But there are thousands of kinds of cells with different structures. The cells of plants and mushrooms have a cell wall, while the cells of animals do not. The cells of most organisms have a special membrane around the DNA, but bacterial cells do not. Although the cells of different organisms are built differently, they all function much the same way. Every cell must get energy from food, be able to grow and reproduce, and respond to its environment. ### Living Things Need Resources and Energy In order to grow, reproduce, and maintain homeostasis, living things need energy. The work you do each day, from walking to writing and thinking, is fueled by energy in your cells. But where does this energy come from? The source of energy differs for each type of living thing. In your body, the source of energy is the food you eat. All animals must eat plants or other animals in order to obtain energy and building materials. Plants themselves don’t eat; they use the energy of the sun to Figure 2.5: This paramecium is a one-celled organism. (9) make their “food” through the process of photosynthesis (see Cell Functions chapter). Like animals, mushrooms and other fungi obtain energy from other organisms. That’s why you often see fungi growing on a fallen tree; the rotting tree is their source of energy (Figure 2.6). Although the means of getting energy might be different, all organisms need some source of energy. And since plants harvest energy from the sun and other organisms get their energy from plants, nearly all the energy of living things ultimately comes from the sun. ![Fungi on a log](image) Figure 2.6: Fungi obtain energy from breaking down dead organisms, such as this rotting log. (25) Besides obtaining energy from the foods you eat, you also need the chemical building blocks in food to build and maintain your body. For example, you get calcium for building bones from eating dairy products or leafy greens. Plants obtain nutrients from the soil. Nutrients will be discussed in the next lesson. Lesson Summary - All living things grow, reproduce, and maintain a stable internal environment. - All organisms are made of cells. - All living things need energy and resources to survive. Review Questions 1. Define the word organism. 2. Give two examples of processes that help organisms achieve homeostasis. 3. What are three characteristics of living things? 4. What are a few ways organisms can get the energy they require? 5. What is a cell? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/thenewgenetics.pdf - http://en.wikipedia.org Vocabulary cell The smallest living unit of life; the smallest unit of structure of living organisms. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid; the heredity material; carries the genetic information of the cell. heredity The passing of traits or a tendency to certain traits to the next generation through units of inheritance called genes. homeostasis Maintaining a stable internal environment despite changes in the environment. organism A living thing. reproduction The process by which an organism makes a new organism with at least some of its own genes. Points to Consider - DNA is considered the “instructions” for the cell. What do you think this means? - What kinds of chemicals do you think are necessary for life? - Do you expect that the same chemicals can be in non-living and living things? 2.2 Lesson 2.2: Chemicals of Life Lesson Objectives - Distinguish between an element and a compound. • Explain how elements are organized on the periodic table. • Explain the function of enzymes. • Name the four main classes of organic molecules that are building blocks of life. Check Your Understanding • What are the main properties of all living things? • What is homeostasis? Introduction Physical science and biology are two different subjects in school, so you might see them as two unrelated sciences. However, understanding physical science is essential for understanding biology. Living things are subject to the same physical laws of the universe as non-living things. The rules that apply to chemical reactions in a test tube also apply to the chemical reactions that take place inside your body. To understand how living things function, we must have a little knowledge of physics and chemistry. This includes knowing what elements are and how different molecules come together to form the components of life. The Elements Rocks, animals, flowers, and even your body, are made up of matter. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter makes up everything, living and nonliving. Matter is composed of a mixture of elements. Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances with different properties. Even chemical reactions or physical processes, like heating or crushing, cannot break it down to release a simpler substance. There are more than 100 known elements, and 92 occur naturally around us. The others have been made only in the laboratory. Elements are made up of identical atoms. An atom is the simplest and smallest particle of matter that still retains the chemical properties of the element. Atoms are so tiny that only the most powerful microscopes can detect them. Atoms are the building block of all elements, and of all matter. Each element has a different type of atom, and is represented with a one or two letter symbol. For example, the symbol for oxygen is O and the symbol for carbon is C. Atoms themselves are composed of even smaller particles, including: the positively charged protons, the uncharged neutrons, and the negatively charged electrons. Protons and neutrons are located in the center of the atom, or the nucleus, and the electrons move around the nucleus. How many protons and neutrons an atom has determines what element it is. For example, Helium (He) always has two protons (Figure 2.7), while Sodium (Na) always has 11. To restate this, all the atoms of a particular element have the exact same number of protons, and the number of protons is that element’s atomic number. ![Diagram of an atom of Helium (He)](image) Figure 2.7: An atom of Helium (He) contains two positively charged protons (red), two uncharged neutrons (green), and two negatively charged electrons (yellow). (17) ### The Periodic Table Each element also has unique properties, such as density, boiling point, and how well it dissolves (“solubility”). Density is the mass of the substance per unit of volume. That means that if you take an equal volume of different elements, each different sample will weigh a different amount. For example, a liter of the metal mercury weighs 13 times as much as a liter of water. The boiling point is the temperature at which an element will change from a liquid to a gas. For example, the boiling point of water is 100 degrees Celsius. Once you heat water to this temperature, you see bubbles form as the water turns into vapor. Each element has a different boiling point. Solubility is how well a substance will dissolve in water. You can dissolve more sugar in a liter of water than salt, because sugar is more soluble than salt. Density, boiling point, and solubility have unchanging values for each element. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev constructed the periodic table in 1869, organizing all the elements according to their atomic number, density, boiling point, solubility, and other values. As mentioned above, each element has a one or two letter symbol. For example, H stands for hydrogen and Au for gold. The vertical columns in the periodic table are known as groups and elements in groups tend to have very similar properties. The table is also divided into rows, known as periods. Group 1 (see Figure 2.8) contains the highly reactive metals, such as sodium (Na) and lithium (Li). Just a small amount of these metals will explode into flames when put into water. Another group are the less-reactive metals, such as gold (Au) and platinum (Pt). Since they will not react readily with air and tarnish, these metals are highly valued for making jewelry. There are also highly reactive nonmetals, such as chlorine and oxygen, and some nonreactive gases, such as helium (He) and neon (N), which you might recognize from helium balloons and neon signs. ![Periodic Table](image) Figure 2.8: The periodic table groups the elements based on their properties. (30) ### Chemical Reactions A molecule is any combination of two or more atoms. The oxygen in the air we breathe is two oxygen atoms connected by a chemical bond to form $O_2$, or molecular oxygen. A carbon dioxide molecule is a combination of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Because carbon dioxide includes two different elements it is a “compound” as well as a molecule. A compound is any combination of two or more elements. A compound usually has very different properties from the elements that it contains. Elements and combinations of elements make up all the diverse types of matter in the universe. The process by which two different elements come together to form a compound is one example of a chemical reaction. For example, hydrogen and oxygen together form water. Water has the properties of a liquid, not the properties of the gases hydrogen and oxygen. Water is the product, or end result, of the chemical reaction while hydrogen and oxygen are the reactants, or “ingredients” necessary for the chemical reaction. One important chemical reaction in your everyday life is oxidation, or the combination of oxygen and another element. Examples of oxidation are burning and rusting. When oxygen combines with gas on your stove top, the reaction releases heat that you can use to cook with. (In fact, since fires need oxygen to burn, most fire extinguishers are composed of heavier gasses that will displace the oxygen, smothering the fire.) Rust is formed when oxygen combines with iron (Figure 2.9). These are a few examples of chemical reactions. ![Rust](image) Figure 2.9: Rust is the result of a chemical reaction between iron and oxygen. (16) ### Organic Compounds The chemical components of living things are known as organic compounds, which means they contain the element carbon (C). Living things are made up of compounds that are quite large. These large compounds molecules, known as macromolecules, are made of smaller molecules. You might recognize some of these organic molecules as parts of the food you eat (Figure 2.16). Through eating food, we obtain the organic molecules we need to grow and be healthy. Organic compounds all contain the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). The chain of carbon and hydrogen in organic compounds is sometimes called the “backbone” of organic compounds since they make up the core center structure. What makes organic compounds different from one another is the functional groups, groups of atoms that have unique chemical properties. The addition of a functional group vastly changes the properties of the carbon-hydrogen backbone of organic compounds. Each organic compound is therefore suited to its unique role in living things. ### Carbohydrates Essentially, carbohydrates are sugars or long chains of sugars. An important role of carbohydrates is to store energy. Glucose is a simple sugar molecule with the chemical formula $C_6H_{12}O_6$. Sugar is one type of carbohydrate, but carbohydrates also include long chains of connected sugar molecules. These chains of sugar molecules can be used to store sugar for later use, such as in the form of starches or glycogen. Plants store sugar in long chains called starch, whereas animals store sugar in long chains called glycogen. Both storage molecules contain hundreds or thousands of linked glucose molecules. Chains of sugar molecules also can be used as structural molecules. For example, the hard skeletons of insects and lobsters are made of chitin, a type of carbohydrate. These long chains of sugar molecules are known as polysaccharides. You get the carbohydrates you need for energy from eating carbohydrate-rich foods, including fruits and vegetables, as well as grains such as bread, rice, or corn. The chemical formula $C_6H_{12}O_6$ of glucose means that this molecule has 24 atoms: 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates have a general chemical formula consisting of twice as many hydrogen atoms as carbon and oxygen atoms. Glucose is a monomer, a single unit that when linked together with other monomers forms a long chain known as a polymer. Starch is an example of a polymer. Proteins Proteins have many different functions in living things. Enzymes are a type of protein. Antibodies that protect your body from disease are proteins, and your muscles are made of protein. All proteins are made of monomers (small building block molecules) called amino acids that line up to form long chains. There are only 20 common amino acids. These amino acids have the general chemical formula $H_2NCHRCOOH$, where R is a "side group" which varies between amino acids. It is this side group that gives the amino acids its physical and chemical properties. These amino acids form in thousands of different combinations, generating up to 100,000 unique proteins. Proteins can differ in both the number and order of amino acids. Small proteins have just a few hundred amino acids, whereas the largest proteins have over 25,000 amino acids. ![General Structure of Amino Acids](image) Figure 2.10: General Structure of Amino Acids. This model shows the general structure of all amino acids. Only the side chain, R, varies from one amino acid to another. For example, in the amino acid glycine, the side chain is simply hydrogen (H). In glutamic acid, in contrast, the side chain is $CH_2CH_2COOH$. Variable side chains give amino acids different chemical properties. The order of amino acids, together with the properties of the amino acids, determines the shape of the protein, and the shape of the protein determines the function of the protein. KEY: H = hydrogen, N = nitrogen, C = carbon, O = oxygen, R = variable side chain $(29)$ After a cell makes a protein chain, the chain folds into a 3-dimensional structure (Figure 2.11). Proteins fold based on the sequence and properties of the amino acids. The properties of amino acids can vary widely, so the position of each amino acid in a protein is important. Each folded protein has its own unique shape. It is this shape that gives the protein its function. The primary structure of a protein is the linear sequence of amino acids. The amino acids appear as "beads on a string," as shown in the figure below. The folding of the protein into the 3-dimensional working molecule is based on the initial primary sequence of amino acids. Figure 2.11: Proteins fold into unique 3-dimensional structures, starting with the linear "beads on a string," shown at the top, to the complex structure on the bottom. (14) It’s important for you and other animals to eat food with protein because we cannot synthesize some of these amino acids ourselves. You can get proteins both from plant sources such as beans and from animal sources, like milk or meat. When you eat food with protein, your body breaks the proteins down into individual amino acids and uses them to build new proteins. Therefore, you really are what you eat! Lipids The lipids - the fats, oils, and waxes - are a diverse group of organic compounds. Lipids are not soluble in water. (As you probably know, oil and water don’t mix.) The most common lipids in your diet are probably fats and oils. Fats are solid at room temperature, whereas oils are fluid. Animals use fats for long-term energy storage and insulation. Plants use oils for long-term energy storage. When preparing food, we often use animal fats, such as lard and butter, or plant oils, such as olive oil or canola oil. There are many more types of lipids that are important to life. One of the most important are the phospholipids (see the chapter titled Cell Functions) that make up the membranes that surround all cells. Steroids are the basis for the hormones like testosterone and estrogen. Waxes are useful lipids for plants and animals since they are waterproof. Plants coat their leaves in a waxy covering to prevent water loss, while bees use wax to make their honeycombs. Nucleic acids Nucleic acids are long chains of nucleotides, which are units composed of a sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two main nucleic acids. DNA is the molecule that stores our genetic information and RNA is involved in making proteins. Nucleotides also make up the high-energy molecule Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the energy currency of the cell. Every time you think a thought or move a muscle, you are using the energy stored in ATP. The following series of Figures 2.12, 2.13, 2.14 and 2.15 show examples. ![Figure 2.12: (A) A molecule of glucose (a carbohydrate).](image-url) Figure 2.13: (B) Muscle fibers (protein). $(31)$ Figure 2.14: (C) Phospholipids in a membrane (lipid). $(12)$ Figure 2.15: (D) DNA (nucleic acid). (3) Enzyme Reactions The oxidation reaction occurs readily, but not all reactions move so quickly. Others can take quite a while. Since many of the body’s necessary chemical reactions would take years to happen on their own, you need the help of enzymes. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions, often by bringing the reactants closer together so they can interact more easily (Figure 2.17). Enzymes attach to, or bind, specifically to the reactants. Because enzymes are so specific, you have a different enzyme for every chemical reaction in your body. A single cell may contain hundreds or thousands of different enzymes. When an enzyme attaches, or binds, to another molecule, that molecule is referred to as the substrate. The enzyme is usually much bigger than the substrate. How Enzymes Work How do enzymes speed up biochemical reactions so dramatically? Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the activation energy of chemical reactions. This is illustrated in Figure 2.18. The biochemical reaction shown in the figure requires about three times as much energy without the enzyme as it does with the enzyme. An animation of this process can be viewed at http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/enzymes/transition%20state.swf. As discussed above, enzymes lower activation energy by reducing the energy needed for reactants to come together and react. For example: - Enzymes bring reactants together so they don’t have to expend energy moving about until they collide at random. Enzymes bind both reactant molecules (called substrate), tightly and specifically, at a site on the enzyme molecule called the active site (Figure 2.19). - By binding reactants at the active site, enzymes also position reactants correctly, so they do not have to overcome the forces that would otherwise push them apart. This allows the molecules to interact with less energy. The activities of enzymes also depend on the temperature, ionic conditions, and the pH of the surroundings. Some enzymes work best at acidic pHs, while others work best in neutral environments. - Digestive enzymes secreted in the acidic environment (low pH) of the stomach help break down proteins into smaller molecules. The main digestive enzyme in the stomach is pepsin, which works best at a pH of about 1.5 (see the Digestive and Excretory Figure 2.18: The reaction represented by this graph involves the reactants glucose ($C_6H_{12}O_6$) and oxygen ($O_2$). The products of the reaction are carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) and water ($H_2O$). Energy is also released during the reaction. The enzyme speeds up the reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to start. Compare the activation energy with and without the enzyme. (24) Figure 2.19: This enzyme molecule binds reactant molecules—called substrate—at its active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. This brings the reactants together and positions them correctly so the reaction can occur. After the reaction, the products are released from the enzyme’s active site. This frees up the enzyme so it can catalyze additional reactions. (11) These enzymes would not work optimally at other pHs. Trypsin is another enzyme in the digestive system which breaks protein chains in the food into smaller parts. Trypsin works in the small intestine, which is not an acidic environment. Trypsin’s optimum pH is about 8. - Biochemical reactions are optimal at physiological temperatures. For example, most biochemical reactions work best at the normal body temperature of 98.6 °F. Many enzymes lose function at lower and higher temperatures. At higher temperatures, an enzyme’s shape deteriorates and only when the temperature comes back to normal does the enzyme regain its shape and normal activity. Lesson Summary - Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances with different properties. - Elements have been organized by their properties to form the periodic table. - Two or more atoms can combine to form a molecule. - Molecules consisting of more than one element are called compounds. - Reactants can combine through chemical reactions to form products. - Enzymes can speed up a chemical reaction. - Living things are made of just four classes of macromolecules: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. Review Questions 1. What is density? 2. What are the 4 main classes of organic compounds? 3. Would water, with the symbol H₂O, be considered an element or a compound? 4. How many types of atoms make up gold? 5. Why do you need fats in your diet? 6. Sugar is what kind of organic compound? 7. What is an atom? 8. What monomers make up proteins? 9. Name a few examples of proteins. 10. Name a few examples of lipids in organisms. 11. What are two nucleic acids? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/howgeneswork/protein](http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/howgeneswork/protein) - [http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/dna](http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/dna) Vocabulary amino acids Monomers that combine to make protein chains. atom The simplest and smallest particle of matter that still retains the physical and chemical properties of the element; the building block of all matter. ATP Adenosine triphosphate, the energy "currency" of the cell. carbohydrates Class of organic compound that includes sugar, starch, cellulose and chitin. electron A negatively charged particle in the atom, found outside of the nucleus. element A substance that cannot break down into a simpler substance with different properties. enzyme Protein that speeds up a chemical reaction by binding to the reactants (substrates). functional groups Groups of atoms that give a compound its unique chemical properties. lipids Class of organic compound that includes fats, oils, waxes and phospholipids. matter Anything that takes up space and has mass. neutrons The non-charged particle of the atom; located in nucleus of the atom. nucleic acid Class of organic compound that includes DNA and RNA. organic compounds Compounds made up of a carbon backbone and associated with living things. phospholipids Lipid molecule that makes up cell membranes. product The end result formed from a chemical reaction. protein Class of organic compound consisting of a chain of amino acids; includes enzymes and antibodies. Proton The positively charged particle of the atom; located in nucleus of the atom. Reactants The raw ingredients in a chemical reaction. Waxes A water-proof lipid. Points to Consider - Do you expect the genetic information in the DNA of a cow to be the same or different from that in a crow? - If we are all composed of the same chemicals, how do all organisms look so different? - What characteristics would you use to distinguish and classify living things? 2.3 Lesson 2.3: Classification of Living Things Lesson Objectives - Explain what makes up a scientific name. - Explain what defines a species. - List the information scientists use to classify organisms. - List the three domains of life and the chief characteristics of each. Check Your Understanding - What are the basic characteristics of life? - What are the four main classes of organic molecules that are building blocks of life? Introduction When you see an organism that you’ve never seen before, you probably automatically classify it into a specific group. If it’s green and leafy, you would probably call it a plant. If it’s long and slithers, you would probably classify it as a snake. How do you make such assignments? You look at the physical features of the organism and think about what it has in common with other organisms. Scientists do the same thing when they classify living things. But scientists classify organisms not only by their physical features, but also by their evolutionary history and relatedness. Lions and tigers look like each other more than they look like bears. But it’s not just appearance. The two cats are actually more closely related to each other than to bears. How related organisms are is an important basis for classifying them. Classifying Organisms People have been concerned with classifying organisms back to the time of the Greeks and Romans. The Greek philosopher Aristotle developed a classification system that divided living things into several groups that we still use today, including mammals, insects, and reptiles. Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) (Figure 2.20) built on Aristotle’s work to produce his own extensive classification system and invented the way we name organisms by their genus and species. For example, a coyote’s species name is Canis latrans. “Latrans” is the species and “canis” is the genus, a larger group that includes dogs, wolves, and other dog-like animals. Linnaeus is considered the inventor of modern taxonomy, the science of naming and grouping organisms. He was especially interested in plants, and he used differences in flowers to classify each plant into groups. Modern taxonomists have reordered many groups of organisms since Linnaeus. The main categories biologists use are listed here from the most specific to the broadest category (Figure 2.21). In other words, there are many species in each genus, many genera (plural for “genus”) in each family, and so on. The broadest and most inclusive category is the domain. It is currently believed that there are three domains and six kingdoms. We will discuss these groups more later. But how do taxonomists decide what domain or family an organism belongs to? Like Linnaeus, they still look at the physical features of the organisms and group organisms that look similar together (Figure 2.22). But taxonomists also try to piece together evolutionary relationships when assigning organisms to a specific group. By looking at fossils, ancient remains of living things, they can tell if organisms share a recent common ancestor—sort of like a “grandparent” species. A common ancestor is an ancestor shared by two groups of organisms. For example lions and tigers share a common ancestor; both species are descended from an ancient cat. If two species share a recent common ancestor, it means they are closely related and they will be placed in the same group. Another way to determine evolutionary relationships is by looking for similarities or differences in organisms’ DNA. The number of differences in two organisms’ DNA can show how closely related the two organisms are. You might expect, for example, that human DNA is more similar to chimpanzee DNA than to bacterial DNA. (And it is.) How biologists determine evolutionary history will be discussed in more detail in the Evolution chapter. Naming Organisms Carl Linnaeus recognized a need for a system of names for each species. If we just used common names, we would have many different names in many different languages for the Figure 2.20: In the 18th century, Carl Linnaeus invented the two-name system of naming organisms (genus and species) and introduced the most complete classification system then known. (8) Figure 2.21: This diagram illustrates the classification categories for organisms, with the broadest category (Life) at the bottom, and the most specific category (Species) at the top. (10) Figure 2.22: Darwin suggested that these Galapagos Island finches share a common ancestor and evolved different beaks because they were eating different foods. Modern research confirms this hypothesis. (23) same species. To solve this problem, Linnaeus developed binomial nomenclature, a way to give a scientific name to every organism. Each species receives a two-part name in which the first word is the genus (a group of species) and the second word refers to one species in that genus. For example, the red maple, Acer rubra, and the sugar maple, Acer saccharum, are both in the same genus (Figures 2.23, 2.24 and 2.25). Notice that the genus is capitalized and the species is not, and that the whole scientific name is in italics. The names are nearly always in Latin, the universal language of scholars throughout European history. Sometimes, biologists use Greek or other words. For example, Microtus pennsylvanicus is a species of mouse in Pennsylvania and nearby states. ![Figure 2.23](image1) Figure 2.23: Even though naming species is straightforward, deciding if two organisms are the same species can sometimes be difficult. Linnaeus defined each species by the distinctive physical characteristics shared by these organisms. But two members of the same species may look quite different. For example, people from different parts of the world sometimes look very different, but we are all the same species (Figure 2.26). So how is a species defined? A species is group of individuals that can interbreed with one another and produce fertile offspring; a species does not interbreed with other groups. By this definition, two species of animals or plants that do not interbreed are not the same species. For example, tigers and lions can mate in zoos and produce kittens that are half tiger and half lion. But we still consider tigers and lions separate species. The two cats look and behave differently and are not known to interbreed in the wild, even though they can. Groups of lions and tigers do not interbreed. Domains of Life All life can be divided into 3 domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya (Figures 2.27, 2.28 and 2.29). This is the largest and least specific classification, so the organisms might not look much alike, but they do have some very important traits in common. For example, you might be surprised that mushrooms, plants, and people are all in the same domain. But when you look at the cells of mushrooms, plants, and people, you will see that they do have some similar features. They are all eukaryotic organisms, or in the domain Eukarya. The other two domains are composed of prokaryotic organisms. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells will be discussed in the chapter titled Cells and Their Functions. All the cells in the domain Eukarya keep their DNA inside a membrane, a structure called the nucleus. The cells of other domains have DNA, but it is not inside a nucleus. The domain Eukarya is made up of four diverse kingdoms: plants, fungi, animals, and protists. Plants, such as trees and grasses, survive by capturing energy from the sun, a process called photosynthesis. Animals survive by eating other organisms or the remains of other organisms. Animals range from tiny worms to insects, dogs, and the largest dinosaurs and whales. Fungi, such as mushrooms and molds, also survive by eating other organisms or the remains of other organisms. The last group listed here are the protists. Protists are not all descended from a single common ancestor in the way that plants, animals, and fungi are. Protists are a sort of miscellaneous group; they are all the organisms that are not something else. Protists are a diverse group of organisms that include many kinds of microscopic one-celled organisms, Figure 2.26: These children are all members of the same species, Homo sapiens. (15) Figure 2.27: The "Group D" Streptococcus organism is in the domain Bacteria, one of the three domains of life. (2) Figure 2.28: The Halobacterium is in the domain Archaea, one of the three domains of life. (1) Figure 2.29: The Western Gray Squirrel is in the domain Eukarya, one of the three domains of life. (19) such as algae and plankton, but also giant seaweeds that can grow to be 200 feet long (an alga protist is shown in Figure 2.30). Plants, animals, fungi, and protists might seem very different, but remember that if you look through a microscope, you would find cells with a membrane-bound nucleus in all them. ![Microscopic alga](image) Figure 2.30: This microscopic alga is a protist in the domain Eukarya. (21) The cells of the two other domains - the Archaea and the Bacteria - do not have a nucleus. All the cells in both domains are tiny, microscopic one-celled organisms that can reproduce without sex by dividing in two. The difference between the archaea and the bacteria is in their cell walls. Also, archaea often live in extreme environments like hot springs, geysers, and salt flats, while bacteria are abundant and live almost everywhere. A teaspoon of soil can contain 100 million to a billion individual bacteria. Bacteria obtain energy in lots of different ways. Some infect plants and animals and cause disease. Others break down dead organisms. The cyanobacteria photosynthesize, like plants. In fact, the ancestors of today’s cyanobacteria invented photosynthesis more than two billion years ago. Table 2.2: Three domains of life: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya \| \| Archaea \| Bacteria \| Eukarya \| \|----------------------\|--------------------------------\|--------------------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| Multicellular \| No \| No \| Yes \| \| Cell Wall \| Yes, without peptidoglycan \| Yes, with peptidoglycan \| Varies. Plants and fungi have a cell wall; animals do not. \| \| Nucleus (DNA inside a membrane) \| No \| No \| Yes \| Table 2.2: (continued) \| \| Archaea \| Bacteria \| Eukarya \| \|----------------------\|---------\|----------\|---------\| \| Organelles inside a membrane \| No \| No \| Yes \| Viruses We have all heard of viruses. The flu and many other diseases are caused by viruses. But what is a virus? Based on the material presented in this chapter, are viruses living? No. A virus is essentially nucleic acid surrounded by protein (Figure 2.31). It is not made of a cell; it does not metabolize, it does not maintain homeostasis. Viruses need to infect a host cell to reproduce; they cannot reproduce on their own. However, viruses do evolve. So a virus is very different than any of the organisms that fall into the three domains of life. ![Figure 2.31](image) Figure 2.31: These “moon lander” shaped complex virus infects Escherichia coli* bacteria.* (20) Lesson Summary - Scientists have defined several major categories for classifying organisms: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. - The scientific name of an organism consists of its genus and species. - Scientists classify organisms according to their evolutionary histories and how related they are to one another - by looking at their physical features, the fossil record, and DNA sequences. - All life can be classified into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Review Questions 1. Who designed modern classification and invented the two-part species name? 2. In what domain are humans? 3. Quercus rubra is the scientific name for the red oak tree. What is the red oak’s genus? 4. In what domain are mushrooms? 5. Is it possible for organisms in two different classes to be in the same genus? 6. How are organisms given a scientific name? 7. Define a species. 8. What kingdoms make up the domain Eukarya? 9. What is the name for the scientific study of naming and classifying organisms? 10. What information do scientists use to classify organisms? 11. If molecular data suggests that two organisms have very similar DNA, what does that say about their evolutionary relatedness? 12. Can two different species ever share the same scientific name? 13. If two organisms are in the same genus, would you expect them to look much alike? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html](http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html) - [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9b.html](http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9b.html) - [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/orchid/classifying.html](http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/orchid/classifying.html) Vocabulary archaea Microscopic one-celled organisms with no nucleus that tend to live in extreme environments. bacteria Microscopic one-celled organisms with no nucleus that live everywhere. binomial nomenclature The system for naming species in which the first word is the genus and the second word is the species. cyanobacteria Photosynthetic bacteria. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid: Nucleic acid molecule that stores the genetic information. Eukarya Domain in which cells have a nucleus that includes plants, animals, fungi, and protists. fossils Ancient remains of living things; includes bone, teeth, and impressions. nucleus Tiny structure inside of some cells that walls off the DNA from the rest of the cell; DNA wrapped inside a membrane. species Group of organisms that can mate with one another to produce fertile offspring but do not mate with other such groups. taxonomy The science of naming and classifying organisms. Points to Consider - This lesson introduced the diversity of life on Earth. Do you think it is possible for cells from different organisms to be similar even though the organisms look different? - Do you think human cells are different from bacterial cells? - Do you think it is possible for a single cell to be a living organism? Image Sources (1) CDC. Archaea. Public Domain. (2) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States Department of Health and Human Services. Bacteria. Public Domain. (3) DNA (nucleic acid). Public Domain. (4) a molecule of glucose (a carbohydrate). Public Domain. (5) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/binkley27/2571412895/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/binkley27/2571412895/). CC-BY-SA 3.0. (6) Noel Lee. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/noelzialee/329278556/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/noelzialee/329278556/). CC-BY. (7) Just Us 3. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Silver_maple_5058.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Silver_maple_5058.jpg). CC-BY-SA 3.0. (8) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Carl_Linnaeus.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Carl_Linnaeus.jpg). Public Domain. (9) Paramecium. GNU-FDL. (10) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Biological_classification_S_Pengo.svg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Biological_classification_S_Pengo.svg). CC-BY-SA. (11) CK-12 Foundation. . CC-BY-SA. (12) phospholipids in a membrane (lipid). Public Domain. (13) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Algues_eau_douce.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Algues_eau_douce.jpg) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/squeezyboy](http://www.flickr.com/photos/squeezyboy) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/aussiegall/714115502/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/aussiegall/714115502/) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/ajpierro/240581/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/ajpierro/240581/) Composite image made from five different images.. (a) Copyright holder allows use for any purpose (b) CC-BY-SA 1.0 (c) CC-BY 2.0 (d) CC-BY 2.0 (e) CC-BY 2.0. (14) CK-12 Foundation. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:ProteinStructures.gif](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:ProteinStructures.gif). CC-BY-SA 3.0. (15) Angela Sevin. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/angela7/294746254/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/angela7/294746254/). CC-BY. (16) Hernan Vargas. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/hvargas/2114683166/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/hvargas/2114683166/). CC-BY-SA 2.0. (17) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Atom.svg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Atom.svg). GNU-FDL. (18) Epithelial cells. GNU-FDL. (19) Just chaos. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/7326810@N08/1478892479/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/7326810@N08/1478892479/). CC-BY 2.0. (20) Adenosine. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tevenphage.png](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tevenphage.png). CC-BY-SA 2.5. (21) EPA. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pediastrumboryanum.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pediastrumboryanum.jpg). Public Domain. (22) evamol. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/evamol/989313624/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/evamol/989313624/). CC-BY. (23) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Darwin%27s_finches.jpeg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Darwin%27s_finches.jpeg). Public Domain. (24) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Activation2_updated.svg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Activation2_updated.svg). GNU-FDL. (25) Bill Denney. Fungus on log. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (26) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Chimotrypsin-inhib.png](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Chimotrypsin-inhib.png). Public Domain. (27) Ernesto Andrade. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/dongkwan/2294951493/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/dongkwan/2294951493/). CC-BY 2.0. (28) . CC-BY-SA 3.0. (29) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AminoAcidball.svg. Creative Commons. (30) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Periodic_Table_Armtuk3.svg. GNU-FDL. (31) muscle fibers (protein). Public Domain. www.ck12.org 80 Chapter 3 Cells and Their Structures 3.1 Lesson 3.1: Introduction to Cells Lesson Objectives - Explain how cells are observed. - Recall the cell theory. - Explain the levels of organization in an organism. Check Your Understanding - What are the main characteristics of living things? - Name the four main classes of organic molecules that are building blocks of life. Introduction How do lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids come together to form a living organism? By forming a cell. These organic compounds are the raw materials needed for life, and a cell is the smallest unit of an organism that is still considered living. Cells are the basic units that make up every type of organism. Some organisms, like bacteria, consist of only one cell. Other organisms, like humans, consist of trillions of specialized cells working together. Even if organisms look very different from each other, if you look close enough you’ll see that their cells have much in common. (Use of a microscope in Figure 3.1 helps to illustrate this.) Observing Cells Most cells are so tiny that you can’t see them without the help of a microscope. The microscopes that students typically use at school are light microscopes. Robert Hooke created a primitive light microscope in 1665 and observed cells for the very first time. Although the light microscope opened our eyes to the existence of cells, they are not useful for looking at the tiniest components of cells. Many structures in the cell are too small to see with a light microscope. When scientists developed more powerful microscopes in the 1950s, the field of cell biology grew rapidly. A light microscope passes a light beam through a specimen, but the more powerful electron microscope passes a beam of electrons through the specimen, allowing a much closer look at the cell (Figure 3.2). Transmission electron microscopes (TEM), which pass an electron beam through something, are used to look at a very thin section of an organism and allow us to study the internal structure of cells. Scanning electron microscopes (SEM), which pass a beam of electrons across the surface of something, show the details of the shapes of surfaces, giving a 3D image. Electron microscopes showed many small structures in the cell that had been previously invisible with light microscopes. One drawback to using an electron microscope is that it only images dead cells. A light microscope can be used to study living cells. Cell Theory In 1858, after microscopes had become much more sophisticated than Hooke’s first microscope, Rudolf Virchow proposed that cells only came from other cells. For example, bacteria are composed of only one cell (Figure 3.3) and divide in half to replicate themselves. In the same way, your body makes new cells by the division of cells you already have. In all cases, cells only come from pre-existing cells. This concept is central to the cell theory. The cell theory states that: 1. All organisms are composed of cells. 2. Cells are alive and the basic living units of organization in all organisms. 3. All cells come from other cells. As with other scientific theories, the cell theory has been supported by thousands of experiments. And, since Virchow introduced the cell theory, no evidence has ever contradicted it. Levels of Organization Although cells share many of the same features and structures, as we will discuss in the next section, they also can be quite different. Each cell in your body is specialized for a specific task. For example: Figure 3.3: Bacteria (pink) are an example of an organism consisting of only one cell. (4) - Red blood cells (Figure 3.4) are shaped with a pocket to increase their surface area for absorbing and releasing oxygen. - Nerve cells, which can quickly transmit the sensation of touching a hot stove to your brain, are elongated and stringy to allow them to form a complex network with other nerve cells (Figure 3.5). - Skin cells (Figure 3.6) are flat and fit tightly together. As you can see, cells are shaped in ways that help them do their jobs. Multicellular (many-celled) organisms have many types of specialized cells in their bodies. While cells are the basic units of an organism, groups of specialized cells can be organized into tissues. For example, your liver cells are organized into liver tissue, which is organized into an organ, your liver. Organs are formed from two or more specialized tissues working together for a common function. All organs, from your heart to your liver, are made up of an organized group of tissues. These organs are part of a larger organization pattern, the organ systems. For example, your brain works together with your spinal cord and other nerves to form the nervous system. This organ system must be organized with other organ systems, such as the circulatory system and the digestive system, for your body to work. Organ systems are coordinated together to form the complete organism. As you can see (Figure 3.7), there are many levels of organization in living things. Figure 3.4: Red Blood cells are specialized to carry oxygen in the blood. (12) Figure 3.5: Neurons are shaped to conduct electrical impulses to many other nerve cells. (2) Figure 3.6: These epidermal cells make up the “skin” of plants. Note how the cells fit tightly together. (1) Lesson Summary - Cells were first observed under the light microscope, but today electron microscopes allow scientists to take a closer look at the internal structures of cells. - The Cell Theory says that: - all organisms are composed of cells; - cells are alive and the basic living units of organization in all organisms; and - All cells come from other cells. - Cells are organized into tissues, which are organized into organs, which are organized into organ systems, which are organized to create the whole organism. Review Questions 1. What type of microscope would you use to study living algae cells? 2. What type of microscope would you use to study the details on the surface of a cell? 3. What type of microscope would be best for studying internal structures of cells? 4. According to the cell theory, can we synthesize a cell in the laboratory from organic molecules? 5. Do all cells work exactly the same? 6. Put the following in the correct order from simplest to most complex: organ, cell, tissue, organ system. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Baeuerle, Patrick A. and Landa, Norbert. The Cell Works: Microexplorers. Barron’s; 1997, Hauppauge, New York. - Sneddon, Robert. The World of the Cell: Life on a Small Scale. Heinemann Library; 2003, Chicago. - Wallace, Holly. Cells and Systems. Heinemann Library; 2001, Chicago. Vocabulary cell The smallest unit of an organism that is still considered living; the basic unit that make up every type of organism. organ A group of tissues that work together to perform a common function. organ system A group of organs that work together to perform a common function. scanning electron microscope (SEM) Microscope that scans the surface of a tissue or cell, showing a 3D image. tissue A group of specialized cells that function together. transmission electron microscope (TEM) Microscope used to look at a very thin section of an organism and allow us to study the internal structure of cells. Points to Consider - Do you think there would be a significant difference between bacteria cells and your brain cells? What might they be? - Do you think a bacteria cell and brain cell have some things in common? What might they be? - Do you think cells are organized? What would be the benefit of organization? 3.2 Lesson 3.2: Cell Structures Lesson Objectives - Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. • List the organelles of the cell and their functions. • Discuss the structure and function of the cell membrane and cytosol. • Describe the structure and function of the nucleus. • Distinguish between plant and animal cells. Check Your Understanding • What is a cell? • How do we visualize cells? Introduction Understanding the structure and function of cells is essential to understanding how living organisms work. Cell biology is central to all other fields of biology, including medicine. Many human diseases and disorders are caused by the malfunction of people’s cells. Furthermore, toxins in the environment often act on specific cellular processes. The healthy functioning of the body and its organs is dependent on its smallest unit - the cell. To better understand the biology of the cell, you will first learn to distinguish the two basic categories of all cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. You will also learn what makes a cell specialized; there are major differences between a “simple” cell, like a bacteria, and a “complex” cell, like a cell in your brain. To understand these differences, you need to first understand the basic components of the cell, which include the: • Cell membrane • Nucleus and chromosomes • Other organelles Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells There are two basic types of cells, prokaryotic cells (Figure 3.8), which include bacteria and archaea, and eukaryotic cells (Figure 3.9), which include all other cells. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells; eukaryotic cells can be considered to be “specialized.” Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a cell wall that supports and protects the cell. In prokaryotic cells the DNA, the genetic material, forms a single large circle that coils up on itself. Prokaryotic cells also can contain extra small circles of DNA, known as plasmids. The two types of organisms consisting of prokaryotic cells belong to the domain Bacteria and the domain Archaea. These two domains were discussed in the Introduction to Living Things chapter. Figure 3.8: Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. Instead, their genetic material is a simple loop of DNA. (6) Figure 3.9: Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus (where the DNA “lives,” and surrounded by a membrane) and various other special compartments surrounded by membranes, called “organelles.” For example, notice in this image the mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. (7) The main difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells store their DNA in a membrane-enclosed nucleus. The presence of a nucleus is the primary distinguishing feature of a eukaryotic cell. In addition to the nucleus, eukaryotic cells have other subcompartments, small membrane-enclosed structures called organelles. Membrane-enclosed organelles and a nucleus are absent in prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells include the cells of fungi, animals, protists, and plants. The Plasma Membrane and Cytosol Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have a plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is a double layer of specialized lipids, known as phospholipids, along with many special proteins. The function of the plasma membrane, also known as the "cell membrane," is to control what goes in and out of the cell. Some molecules can go through the cell membrane in and out of the cell and some can’t, so biologists say the membrane is semipermeable. It is almost as if the membrane chooses what enters and leaves the cell. The cell membrane gives the cell an inside that is separate from the outside world. Without a cell membrane, the parts of a cell would just float away. A cell needs a boundary even more than we need our skin. Without a cell membrane, a cell would be unable to maintain a stable internal environment separate from the external environment, what we call homeostasis. You can learn more about cell membranes in the Cell Functions chapter. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells also share an internal fluid-like substance called the cytosol. The cytosol is composed of water and other molecules, including enzymes that speed up the cell’s chemical reactions. Everything in the cell - the nucleus and the organelles - sit in the cytosol. The term cytoplasm refers to the cytosol and all the organelles, but not the nucleus. Table 3.2: Some Eukaryotic Organelles \| Organelle \| Function \| \|-----------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| Ribosomes \| Involved in making proteins \| \| Golgi apparatus \| Packages proteins and some polysaccharides \| \| Mitochondria \| Makes ATP \| \| Smooth ER \| Makes lipids \| \| Chloroplast \| Makes sugar (photosynthesis) \| \| Lysosomes \| Digests macromolecules \| The Nucleus and Chromosomes The nucleus, which is found exclusively in eukaryotic cells, is a membrane-enclosed structure that contains most of the genetic material of the cell (Figure 3.10). Like a library, it holds vital information, mainly detailed instructions for building proteins. The nuclear envelope, a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus, controls which molecules go in and out of the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are the chromosomes, the DNA all wrapped in special proteins. The genetic information on the chromosomes is stored made it available to the cell when necessary and also duplicated when it is time to pass the genetic information on when a cell divides. All the cells of a species carry the same number of chromosomes. For example, human cells each have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each chromosome in turn carries hundreds or thousands of genes that encode proteins that help determine traits as varied as tooth shape, hair color, or kidney function. The Cell Factory Just as a factory is made up of many people, machines, and specific areas, each part of the whole playing a different role, a cell is also made up of different parts, each with a special role. For example, the nucleus of a cell is like a safe containing the factory’s trade secrets, including how to build thousands of proteins, how much of each one to make, and when. The mitochondria are powerhouses that generate the ATP needed to power chemical reactions. Plant cells have special organelles called chloroplasts that capture energy from the sun and store it in the chemical bonds of sugar molecules - in the process called photosynthesis (Figure 3.11). (The cells of animals and fungi do not photosynthesize and do not have chloroplasts.) The vacuoles are storage centers, and the lysosomes are the recycling trucks that carry waste away from the factory. Inside lysosomes are enzymes that break down old molecules into parts that can be recycled into new ones. Eukaryotic cells also contain an internal skeleton called the cytoskeleton. Like our bony skeleton, a cell’s cytoskeleton gives the cell Figure 3.10: In eukaryotic cells, the DNA is kept in a nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by a double plasma membrane called the nuclear envelope. Within the nucleus is the nucleolus (smaller yellow ball). (11) a shape and helps it move parts of the cell. In both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, ribosomes are where proteins are made. Some ribosomes cluster on folded membranes called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). If the ER is covered with ribosomes, it looks bumpy and is called rough ER. If the ER lacks ribosomes, it is smooth and is called smooth ER. Proteins are made on rough ER and lipids are made on smooth ER. Another set of folded membranes in cells is the Golgi apparatus, which works like a mail room. The Golgi apparatus receives the proteins from the rough ER, puts sugar molecule "shipping addresses" on the proteins, packages them up in vesicles, and then sends them to the right place in the cell. Plant Cells Even though plants and animals are both eukaryotes, plant cells differ in some ways from animal cells. First, plant cells are unique in having a large central vacuole that holds a mixture of water, nutrients, and wastes. A plant cell’s vacuole can make up 90% of the cell’s volume. In animal cells, vacuoles are much smaller. Second, plant cells have a cell wall, which animal cells do not. A cell wall gives the plant cell strength, rigidity, and protection. Although bacteria and fungi also have cell Figure 3.11: Diagram of chloroplast (a) and electron microscope image of two mitochondria (b). Chloroplasts and mitochondria provide energy to cells. If the bar at the bottom of the electron micrograph image is 200 nanometers, what is the diameter of one of the mitochondria? (10) Walls, a plant cell wall is made of a different material. Plant cell walls are made of the polysaccharides cellulose, fungal cell walls are made of chitin, and bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan. This is highlighted in Figure 3.12. Figure 3.12: A plant cell has several features that make it different from an animal cell, including a cell wall, huge vacuoles, and several kinds of plastids, including chloroplasts (which photosynthesize). (5) A third difference between plant and animal cells is that plants have several kinds of organelles called plastids. There are several kinds of plastids, including chloroplasts, needed for photosynthesis; leucoplasts, which store starch and oil; and brightly colored chromoplasts, which give some flowers and fruits their yellow, orange, or red color. You will learn more about chloroplasts and photosynthesis in the chapter titled Cell Functions. Under a microscope one can see plant cells more clearly (Figure 3.13). Lesson Summary - Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus; eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. - Each component of a cell has a specific function. - Plant cells have unique features including plastids, cell walls, and central vacuoles. Review Questions 1. What are the two basic types of cells? 2. What are organelles? 3. Discuss the main differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. 4. What is the plasma membrane and what is its role? 5. What organelle is known as the “powerhouse” of the cell? 6. Why does photosynthesis not occur in animal cells? 7. What are the main differences between a plant cell and an animal cell? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Baeruerle, Patrick A. and Landa, Norbert. The Cell Works: Microexplorers. Barron’s; 1997, Hauppauge, New York. - Sneddon, Robert. The World of the Cell: Life on a Small Scale. Heinemann Library; 2003, Chicago. - Wallace, Holly. Cells and Systems. Heinemann Library; 2001, Chicago. Vocabulary cell The smallest unit of an organism that is still considered living; the basic unit that make up every type of organism. cell wall Provides strength and protection for the cell; found around plant, fungal, and bacterial cells. central vacuole Large organelle containing water, nutrients, and wastes that can take up to 90% of a plant cell’s volume. chloroplast Green organelle that captures solar energy and stores the energy in sugars through the process of photosynthesis; chloroplasts are found only in cells that perform photosynthesis. chromosome The cell structure in eukaryotic cells containing the genes; made of DNA and protein. Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes. cytoplasm All the contents of the cell besides the nucleus, including the cytosol and the organelles. cytoskeleton The internal scaffolding of the cell; maintains the cell shape and aids in moving the parts of the cell. cytosol A fluid-like substance inside the cell; organelles are embedded in the cytosol. endoplasmic reticulum (ER) A folded membrane organelle; rough ER modifies proteins and smooth ER makes lipids. eukaryotic cell Cell belonging to the domain Eukarya (fungi, animals, protists, and plants); has a membrane-enclosed nucleus and various organelles. golgi apparatus The organelle where proteins are modified, labeled, packaged into vesicles, and shipped. homeostasis The ability to maintain a stable internal environment separate from the external environment. lysosome Organelle which contains enzymes that break down unneeded materials. mitochondria The organelle in all eukaryotic cells that makes adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the “energy currency” of cells. nuclear envelope A double membrane that surrounds the nucleus; helps regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the nucleus. nucleus Membrane enclosed organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains the DNA; primary distinguishing feature between a eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell; the information center, containing instructions for making all the proteins in a cell, as well as how much of each one. organelle Small structure wrapped in a membrane found only in eukaryotic cells; mitochondria, plastids, and vacuoles, for example. A ribosome is not technically an organelle, because it is not enclosed in a membrane. plasma membrane Surrounds the cell; made of a double layer of specialized lipids, known as phospholipids, with embedded proteins; regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell; also called the cell membrane. plasmid Small circular piece of DNA; found in prokaryotic cells. prokaryotic cell Cell with no nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles; bacteria and archaea. ribosome The cell structure on which proteins are made; not surrounded by a membrane; found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. rough endoplasmic reticulum The part of the ER with ribosomes attached; proteins can be modified in the rough ER before they are packed into vesicles for transport to the golgi apparatus. semi-permeable allowing only certain materials to pass through; characteristic of the cell membrane. smooth endoplasmic reticulum Part of the ER that does not have ribosomes attached; where lipids are synthesized. vesicle Small membrane-enclosed sac; transports proteins around a cell or out of a cell. Points to Consider - Think about what molecules would need to be transported into cells. - Discuss why it would be important for some molecules to be kept out of a cell. Image Sources (1) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Rhoeo_Discolor_epidermis.jpg. GNU-FDL. (2) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pyramidal_hippocampal_neuron_40x.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (3) . (4) Nutloaf. http://www.flickr.com/photos/83371410@N00/1644090403/. CC-BY 2.0. (5) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Plant_cell_structure_svg.svg. Public Domain. (6) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prokaryote_cell_diagram.svg. Public Domain. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Animal_cell_structure.svg. Public Domain. (8) Dartmouth Electron Microscope Facility. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Misc_pollen.jpg. Public Domain. (9) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Microphoto-cells-onion2.jpg. GNU-FDL. (10) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Mitochondria%2C_mammalian_lung_-_TEM_%282%29.jpg. Public Domain. (11) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Diagram_human_cell_nucleus.svg. Public Domain. (12) NCI. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SEM_blood_cells.jpg. Public Domain. (13) Thomas Dreps. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Chloroplasten.jpg. CC-BY-SA. Chapter 4 Cell Functions 4.1 Lesson 4.1: Transport Lesson Objectives - Describe several methods of transporting molecules and ions into and out of the cell. - Distinguish between active and passive transport. - Explain how diffusion and osmosis work. Check Your Understanding - What structure surrounds the cell? - What is the primary component of the cell membrane? - What does homeostasis mean? Introduction All organisms and their cells need to maintain homeostasis. But how can a cell keep a stable internal environment when the environment around the cell is constantly changing? Obviously, the cell needs to separate itself from the external environment. This job is accomplished by the cell membrane. The cell membrane is selectively permeable, or "semipermeable," which means that only some molecules can get through the membrane. If the cell membrane was completely permeable, the inside of the cell would be about the same as the outside and the cell could not achieve homeostasis. How does the cell maintain this selective permeability? How does the cell control what molecules enter and leave the cell? The ways that cells control what passes through the cell membrane will be the focus of this lesson. What is Transport? The selectively permeable nature of the plasma membrane is due in part to the chemical composition of the membrane. Recall that the membrane is a double layer of phospholipids (a "bilayer") embedded with proteins (Figure 4.1). A single phospholipid molecule has a hydrophilic, or water-loving, head and hydrophobic, or water-fearing, tail. The hydrophilic heads face the inside and outside of the cell, where water is abundant. The water-fearing, hydrophobic tails face each other in the middle of the membrane. At body temperature, the plasma membrane is fluid and constantly moving, like a soap bubble; it is not a solid structure. Water and small non-charged molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass freely through the membrane by slipping around the phospholipids. But larger molecules and charged molecules cannot pass through the plasma membrane easily. Therefore, special methods are needed for transporting some molecules across the plasma membrane and into or out of the cell. ![Figure 4.1: The plasma membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.](image) Since atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons, they have no net charge. The negative charges of the electrons balance out the positive charges of the protons. Many molecules have an equal number of electrons and protons, so we call them non-polar molecules. However, some atoms can lose or gain electrons easily, giving them a positive or negative charge. These charged particles are called ions. If an atom loses an electron, it becomes a positively charged ion, such as the sodium ion Na$^+$. If an atom gains an electron, it will be a negatively charged ion, such as the chloride ion, Cl$^-$. Na$^+$ and Cl$^-$ readily form NaCl, or common table salt. Since Na$^+$ and Cl$^-$ are charged, they are unable to pass freely through the plasma membrane. Passive Transport Small molecules can pass through the plasma membrane through a process called diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area where there is a higher concentration (larger amount) of the substance to an area where there is a lower concentration (lower amount) of the substance. The amount of a substance in relation to the volume, is called concentration. Diffusion requires no energy input from the cell (Figure 4.2). Diffusion occurs by the random movement of molecules; molecules move in both directions (into and out of the cell), but there is a greater movement from an area of higher concentration towards an area of lower concentration. The movement of the substance from a greater concentration to a lesser concentration is referred to as moving down the concentration gradient. For example, oxygen diffuses out of the air sacs in your lungs into your bloodstream because oxygen is more concentrated in your lungs than in your blood. Oxygen moves down the concentration gradient from your lungs into your bloodstream. ![Diffusion across a membrane does not require an input of energy.](image) Figure 4.2: Diffusion across a membrane does not require an input of energy. (2) The diffusion of water across a membrane due to concentration differences is called osmosis. If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, meaning the solution has a lower concentration of dissolved material than what is inside the cell, water will move into the cell. This causes the cell to swell, and it may even burst. Organisms that live in fresh water, which is a hypotonic solution, have to prevent too much water from coming into their cells. Freshwater fish excrete a large volume of dilute urine to rid their bodies of excess water. If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, meaning there is more dissolved material in the outside environment than in the cell, water will leave the cell. That can cause a cell to shrink and shrivel. Marine animals live in salt water, which is a hypertonic environment; there is more salt in the water than in their cells. To prevent losing too much water from their bodies, these animals intake large quantities of salt water and secrete salt by active transport, which will be discussed later in this lesson. To keep cells intact, they need to be placed in an isotonic solution, a solution in which the amount of dissolved material is equal both inside and outside the cell. Therefore, there is no net movement of water into or out of the cell. Water still flows in both directions, but an equal amount enters and leaves the cell. In the medical setting, red blood cells can be kept intact in a solution that is isotonic to the blood cells. If the blood cells were put in pure water, the solution would be hypotonic to the blood cells, so the blood cells would swell and burst. This is represented in the Figure 4.3. ![Hypertonic, Isotonic, Hypotonic](image) Figure 4.3: Osmosis causes these red blood cells to change shape by losing or gaining water. (1) Sometimes diffusion across the membrane is slow or even impossible for some charged or large molecules. These molecules need the help of special helper proteins that are located in the plasma membrane. Ion channel proteins move ions across the plasma membrane. Other molecules, such as glucose, move across the cell membrane by facilitated diffusion, in which a carrier protein physically moves the molecule across the membrane (Figure 4.4). Both channel proteins and carrier proteins are specific for the molecule transported. Movement by ion channel proteins and facilitated diffusion are still considered passive transport, meaning they move molecules down the cell’s concentration gradient and do not require any energy input. ![Facilitated Diffusion](image) Figure 4.4: Facilitated Diffusion is a type of passive transport where a carrier protein aids in moving the molecule across the membrane. (11) Active Transport During active transport, molecules move against the concentration gradient, toward the area of higher concentration. This is the opposite of diffusion. Active transport requires both an input of energy, in the form of ATP, and a carrier protein to move the molecules. These proteins are often called pumps, because, as a water pump uses energy to force water against gravity, proteins involved in active transport use energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient. There are many examples of why active transport is important in your cells. One example occurs in your nerve cells. In these cells, the sodium-potassium pump (Figure 4.5) moves sodium outside the cell and potassium into the cell, both against their concentration gradients. ![Sodium-Potassium Pump](image) Figure 4.5: The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium ions to the outside of the cell and potassium ions to the inside of the cell. ATP is required for the protein to change shape. As ATP adds a phosphate group to the protein, it leaves behind adenosine diphosphate (ADP). (14) Transport Through Vesicles Some large molecules are just too big to move across the membrane, even with the help of a carrier protein. These large molecules must be moved through vesicle formation, a process by which the large molecules are packaged in a small bubble of membrane for transport. This process keeps the large molecules from reacting with the cytoplasm of the cell. Vesicle formation does require an input of energy, however. There are several kinds of vesicle formation that allow large molecules to move across the plasma membrane. Exocytosis moves large molecules outside of the cell. During exocytosis, the vesicle carrying the large molecule fuses with the plasma membrane. The large molecule is then released outside of the cell, and the vesicle is absorbed into the plasma membrane. Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in large molecules by vesicle formation. Types of endocytosis include phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Phagocytosis moves large substances, even another cell, into the cell. Phagocytosis occurs frequently in single-celled organisms, such as amoebas. Pinocytosis (Figure 4.6) involves the movement of liquid or very small particles into the cell. These processes cause some membrane material to be lost as these vesicles bud off and come into the cell. This membrane is replaced by the membrane gained through exocytosis. ![Pinocytosis](image) Figure 4.6: During endocytosis, exocytosis and pinocytosis, substances are moved into or out of the cell via vesicle formation. (13) Lesson Summary - The plasma membrane is selectively permeable or semi-permeable, meaning that some molecules can move through the membrane easily, while others require specialized transport mechanisms. - Passive transport methods, including diffusion, ion channels, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis, move molecules in the direction of the lowest concentration of the molecule and do not require energy. • Active transport methods move molecules in the direction of the higher concentration and require energy and a carrier protein. • Vesicles can be used to move large molecules, which requires energy input. Review Questions 1. What happens when a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution? 2. What happens when a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution? 3. What’s the main difference between active and passive transport? 4. List an example of active transport. 5. List the types of passive transport. 6. Why is the plasma membrane considered semipermeable? 7. What is the process where a cell engulfs a macromolecule, forming a vesicle? 8. What is diffusion? 9. Explain the results of a sodium-potassium pump working across a membrane. 10. Does facilitated transport move a substance down or up a gradient? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/cmb/cells/pmemb/passive.html](http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/cmb/cells/pmemb/passive.html) - [http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/molecules/sodium_pump.html](http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/molecules/sodium_pump.html) - [http://www.biologycorner.com/bio1/diffusion.html](http://www.biologycorner.com/bio1/diffusion.html) - [http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biology1111/animations/transport1.html](http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biology1111/animations/transport1.html) - [http://www.brookscole.com/chemistry_d/templates/student_resources/shared_resources/animations/ion_pump/ionpump.html](http://www.brookscole.com/chemistry_d/templates/student_resources/shared_resources/animations/ion_pump/ionpump.html) - [http://www.en.wikipedia.org/](http://www.en.wikipedia.org/) Vocabulary active transport Moving a molecule from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration; requires a carrier protein and energy. concentration The amount of a substance in relation to the volume. diffusion Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration; requires no energy. endocytosis Movement of substances into the cell by vesicle formation. exocytosis Movement of substances out of the cell by a vesicle fusing with the plasma membrane. facilitated diffusion Diffusion in which a carrier protein physically moves the molecule across the membrane; a form of passive transport. homeostasis Maintaining a stable internal environment despite any external changes. hypertonic solution Having a higher solute concentration than the cell; cell will lose water by osmosis. hypotonic solution Having a lower solute concentration than the cell; cell will gain water by osmosis. ion An atom that carries a negative or positive charge. ion channel Protein in the plasma membrane that allows ions to pass through. isotonic solution A solution in which the amount of dissolved material is equal both inside and outside the cell; no net gain or loss of water. osmosis Diffusion of water across a membrane. passive transport Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration; requires no energy. phagocytosis Movement of large substances, including other cells, into the cell by vesicle formation. phospholipid A lipid molecule with a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails; makes up the cell membrane. pinocytosis Movement of macromolecules into the cell by vesicle formation. selectively permeable Semipermeable; property of allowing only certain molecules to pass through the cell membrane. sodium-potassium pump Carrier protein that moves sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell; works against the concentration gradient and requires energy. vesicle formation The formation of a small membrane-bound sac that can store and move substances into and out of the cell. Points to Consider - The next lesson discusses photosynthesis. - It is often said that plants make their own food. What do you think this means? - What substances would need to move into a leaf cell? - What substances would need to move out of a leaf cell? 4.2 Lesson 4.2: Photosynthesis Lesson Objectives - Explain the importance of photosynthesis. - Write and interpret the chemical equation for photosynthesis. - Describe what happens during the light reactions and the Calvin Cycle. Check Your Understanding - How are plant cells different from animal cells? - In what organelle does photosynthesis take place? Introduction Almost all life on Earth depends on photosynthesis. Recall that photosynthesis is the process by which plants use the sun’s energy to make their own “food” from carbon dioxide and water. For example, animals, such as caterpillars, eat plants and therefore rely on the plants to obtain energy. If a bird eats a caterpillar, then the bird is obtaining the energy that the caterpillar gained from the plants. So the bird is indirectly getting energy that began with the “food” formed through photosynthesis. Almost all organisms obtain their energy from photosynthetic organisms, either directly, by eating photosynthetic organisms, or indirectly by eating other organisms that ultimately obtained their energy from photosynthetic organisms. Therefore, the process of photosynthesis is central to sustaining life on Earth. Overview of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process that converts the energy of the sun, or solar energy, into carbohydrates, a type of chemical energy. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water combine with solar energy, yielding glucose (the carbohydrate) and oxygen. As mentioned previously, plants can photosynthesize, but plants are not the only organisms with this ability. Algae, which are plant-like protists, and cyanobacteria (certain bacteria which are also known as blue-green bacteria, or blue-green algae) can also photosynthesize. Algae and cyanobacteria are important in aquatic environments as sources of food for larger organisms. Photosynthesis mostly takes place in the leaves of a plant. The green pigment in leaves, chlorophyll, helps to capture solar energy. And special structures within the leaves provide water and carbon dioxide, which are the raw materials for photosynthesis. The veins within a leaf carry water which originates from the roots, and carbon dioxide enters the leaf from the air through special pores called stomata (Figure 4.7). ![Stomata](image) Figure 4.7: Stomata are special pores that allow gasses to enter and exit the leaf. (4) The water and carbon dioxide are transported within the leaf to the chloroplast (Figure 4.8), the organelle in which photosynthesis takes place. The chloroplast has two distinct membrane systems; an outer membrane surrounds the chloroplast and an inner membrane system forms flattened sacs called thylakoids. As a result, there are two separate spaces within the chloroplast. The interior space that surrounds the thylakoids is filled with a fluid called stroma. The inner compartments formed by the thylakoid membranes are called the thylakoid space. The overall chemical reaction for photosynthesis is 6 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO\textsubscript{2}) and 6 molecules of water (H\textsubscript{2}O), with the addition of solar energy, yields 1 molecule of glucose (C\textsubscript{6}H\textsubscript{12}O\textsubscript{6}) and 6 molecules of oxygen (O\textsubscript{2}). Using chemical symbols the equation is represented as follows: \[ 6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow \text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2 \] Oxygen: An Essential Byproduct Oxygen is a byproduct of the process of photosynthesis and is released to the atmosphere through the stomata. Therefore, plants and other photosynthetic organisms play an important ecological role in converting carbon dioxide into oxygen. As you know, animals need oxygen to carry out the energy-producing reactions of their cells. Without photosynthetic organisms, many other organisms would not have enough oxygen in the atmosphere to survive. Oxygen is also used as a reactant in cellular respiration, which is discussed in the next lesson, so essentially, oxygen cycles through the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration. The Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle The overall process of photosynthesis does not happen in one step, however. The chemical equation of photosynthesis shows the results of many chemical reactions. The chemical reactions that make up the process of photosynthesis can be divided into two groups: the light reactions (also known as the light-dependent reactions, because these reactions only occur during daylight hours) and the Calvin Cycle, or the light-independent reactions. During the light reactions, the energy of sunlight is captured, while during the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted into glucose, which is a type of sugar. This is summarized in Figure 4.9. Figure 4.9: This overview of photosynthesis shows that light is captured during the light reactions, resulting in the production of ATP and the electron carrier NADPH. Through the Calvin Cycle, these materials are used to fix carbon dioxide into sugar. Also during the Calvin Cycle, NADP$^+$ and ADP are regenerated. (3) Stage 1: Capturing Light Energy In the first step of the light reactions, solar energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll (and accessory pigments) within the chloroplast’s thylakoid membranes. This absorbed energy excites electrons in the thylakoid membranes. The electrons are then transferred from the thylakoid membranes by a series of electron carrier molecules. The series of electron carrier molecules that transfers electrons is called the electron transport chain. During this process water molecules in the thylakoid are split to replace the electrons that left the pigment, releasing oxygen and adding hydrogen ions ($H^+$) to the thylakoid space. As the thylakoid becomes a reservoir for hydrogen ions, a chemiosmotic gradient forms as there are more hydrogen ions in the thylakoid than in the stroma. As $H^+$ ions flows from the high concentration in the thylakoid to the low concentration in the stroma, they provide energy as they pass through an enzyme called ATP synthase. ATP synthase uses the energy of the movement of $H^+$ ions to make ATP. Meanwhile, highly energized electrons from the electron transport chain combine with the electron carrier NADP$^+$ to become NADPH (Figure 4.10). NADPH will carry this energy in the electrons to the next phase of photosynthesis, the Calvin Cycle. ![Diagram](image) Figure 4.10: The light reactions includes the movement of electrons down the electric transport chain, splitting water and releasing hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space. (5) Stage 2: Producing Food During the Calvin Cycle, which occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast, glucose is formed from carbon dioxide and the products of the light reactions. During the first step CO$_2$ is attached to a 5-carbon molecule (called Ribulose-5-Phosphate, RuBP), forming a 6-carbon molecule. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme named RuBisCo, which is the most abundant protein in plants and maybe on Earth! The 6-carbon molecule formed by this reaction immediately splits into two 3-carbon molecules, and the 3-carbon molecule is rearranged to a 3-carbon carbohydrate. The energy and electrons needed for this process are provided by the ATP and... NADPH produced earlier in photosynthesis. The "food" made by photosynthesis is formed from the 3-carbon carbohydrate. Two 3-carbon carbohydrates combine to form glucose, a 6-carbon carbohydrate. Next, the 6-carbon RuBP must be reproduced so the Calvin Cycle can start again (Figure 4.11). ![Calvin Cycle Diagram](image) Figure 4.11: The Calvin Cycle begins with carbon fixation, or carbon dioxide attaching to the 5-carbon molecule RuBP, forming a 6-carbon molecule and splitting immediately into two 3-carbon molecules. This is shown at the top of the figure. This carbon molecule is then reduced to a 3-carbon carbohydrate, shown at the bottom of the figure. The energy and reducing power needed for this process are provided by the ATP and NADPH produced from the light reactions. Next, RuBP must be reproduced so the Calvin Cycle can continue. The carbons are the small black circles. You can keep track of the number of carbons at each stage by counting these circles. (10) The 3-carbon product of the Calvin Cycle can be converted into many types of organic molecules. Glucose, the energy source of plants and animals, is only one possible product of photosynthesis. Glucose is formed by two turns of the Calvin Cycle. Glucose can be formed into long chains as cellulose, a structural carbohydrate, or starch, a long-term storage carbohydrate. The product of the Calvin Cycle can also be used as the backbone of fatty acids, or amino acids, which make up proteins. Photosynthesis is crucial to most ecosystems since animals obtain energy by eating other animals, or plants and seeds that contain these organic molecules. In fact, it is the process of photosynthesis that supplies almost all the energy to an ecosystem. Lesson Summary - The net reaction for photosynthesis is that carbon dioxide and water, together with energy from the sun, produce glucose and oxygen. - During the light reactions of photosynthesis, solar energy is converted into the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH. - During the Calvin Cycle, the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH is used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose. Review Questions 1. What is the energy-capturing stage of photosynthesis? 2. What are the products of the light reactions? 3. What are the ATP and NADPH from the light reactions used for? 4. Where does the oxygen released by photosynthesis come from? 5. What happens to the glucose produced from photosynthesis? 6. Describe the structures of the chloroplast where photosynthesis takes place. 7. What is the significance of the electron transport chain? 8. What are the reactants required for photosynthesis? 9. What are the products of photosynthesis? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html](http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html) - [http://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosyn/education/photointro.html](http://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosyn/education/photointro.html) - [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/methuselah/photosynthesis.html](http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/methuselah/photosynthesis.html) - [http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/Bio231/ltrxn.html](http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/Bio231/ltrxn.html) - [http://www.biology4all.com/resources_library/details.asp?ResourceID=43](http://www.biology4all.com/resources_library/details.asp?ResourceID=43) - [http://www.en.wikipedia.org/](http://www.en.wikipedia.org/) Vocabulary ATP synthase An enzyme that uses the energy of the movement of H$^+$ ions to make ATP. Calvin Cycle The reactions of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is converted into glucose, which is a type of sugar; also known as the light independent reactions. chlorophyll Green pigment in leaves; helps to capture solar energy. chloroplast The organelle in which photosynthesis takes place. cyanobacteria Photosynthetic bacteria; also known as blue-green bacteria, or blue-green algae. electron transport chain A series of electron carrier molecules that transfers electrons. light reactions The reactions of photosynthesis that only occur during daylight hours in which the energy of sunlight is captured; also known as the light-dependent reactions. NADPH A high energy electron carrier produced during the light reactions; carries the energy in the electrons to the Calvin Cycle. photosynthesis The process by which plants use the sun’s energy to make their own “food” from carbon dioxide and water; process that converts the energy of the sun, or solar energy, into carbohydrates, a type of chemical energy. stomata Special pores in leaves; carbon dioxide enters the leaf and oxygen exits the leaf through these pores. stroma Fluid in the chloroplast interior space; surrounds the thylakoids. thylakoid Flattened sacs within the chloroplast; formed by the inner membranes. Points to Consider - How is glucose turned into an usable form of energy called ATP? - How do you gain energy from the food you eat? - What would provide more energy - a bowl of pasta or a small piece of candy? - What “waste” gas do you exhale? 4.3 Lesson 4.3: Cellular Respiration Lesson Objectives - Write and explain the chemical formula for cellular respiration. - Explain the two states of cellular respiration. - Compare photosynthesis with cellular respiration. - Describe the results of fermentation and understand when fermentation is needed. Check Your Understanding - Where does the energy captured at the beginning of photosynthesis originate from? - What is the form of chemical energy produced by photosynthesis? - What occurs in oxidation and reduction reactions? Introduction How does the food you eat provide energy? When you need a quick boost of energy, you might reach for an apple or a candy bar. Although foods with sugars can give you a quick boost of energy, they cannot be used for energy directly by your cells. Energy is simply stored in these foods. Through the process of cellular respiration, the energy in food is converted into energy that can be used by the body’s cells. In other words, glucose (and oxygen) is converted into ATP (and carbon dioxide and water). ATP is the molecule that provides energy for your cells to perform work, such as contracting your muscles as you walk down the street or performing active transport. Cellular respiration is simply a process that converts one type of chemical energy, the energy stored in sugar, into another type, ATP. Overview of Cellular Respiration Most often, cellular respiration proceeds by breaking down glucose into carbon dioxide and water. As this breakdown of glucose occurs, energy is released. The process of cellular respiration includes the conversion of this energy into ATP. The overall reaction for cellular respiration is as follows: \[ C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O \] Notice that the equation for cellular respiration is the direct opposite of photosynthesis. While water was broken down to form oxygen during photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined with hydrogen to form water. While photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. This exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen in all the organisms that use photosynthesis and/or cellular respiration worldwide, helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide at somewhat stable levels. Cellular respiration doesn’t happen all at once, however. Glucose is broken down slowly so that cells convert as much sugar as possible into the usable form of energy, ATP. Still, some energy is lost in the process in the form of heat. When one molecule of glucose is broken down, it can be converted to a net total of 36 or 38 molecules of ATP. Although the process is not 100% efficient, it is much more efficient than a car engine obtaining energy from gasoline. Cellular respiration can be divided into three phases. 1. Glycolysis: the breakdown of glucose. 2. The citric acid cycle: the formation of electron carriers. 3. The electron transport chain: the formation of ATP. In eukaryotic cells, the first phase takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell, while the other phases are carried out in the mitochondria. This organelle is known as the “powerhouse” of the cell because this is the organelle where the ATP that powers the cell is produced. Glycolysis The first step of cellular respiration is glycolysis. During glycolysis, the 6-carbon glucose is practically "cut in half," broken down into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules. Glycolysis requires an initial energy-investment step, although in the end, glycolysis produces more energy than was initially invested. Two ATP molecules are used to convert glucose into the two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules. These 3-carbon molecules are then oxidized, which means that they lose electrons, as electrons are transferred to the high energy electron acceptor NAD$^+$, producing the electron carrier NADH. This oxidation step helps produce 4 ATP molecules from ADP. That means, taking into account the initial investment of 2 ATP molecules, glycolysis has a net production of 2 ATP. \| Inputs \| Outputs \| \|-------------------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| Glucose (6-carbon molecule) \| 2 pyruvate (3-carbon molecule) \| \| 2 NAD$^+$ \| 2 NADH (electron carrier) \| \| 2 ATP (energy) \| 2 ADP \| \| 4 ADP \| 4 ATP (energy) \| After glycolysis, the pyruvate can go down several different paths. If there is oxygen available, the pyruvate moves inside the mitochondrion to produce more ATP during further breakdown stages. In the absence of oxygen, the fermentation process begins. Inside the Mitochondria If oxygen is available, the next step of cellular respiration is moving the pyruvate into the mitochondria. The mitochondria have a double membrane. The inner membrane is known as the cristae, and is folded to form many internal layers. Some steps of cellular respiration occur in the cristae, while others take place in the matrix, the inner compartment of the mitochondrion that is filled with enzymes in a gel-like fluid. Within the mitochondria the Kreb’s Cycle or citric acid cycle occurs. The citric acid cycle is a series of oxidation steps that produce NADH and FADH\textsubscript{2}, another type of electron carrier. These electron carriers will be used in the final step of cellular respiration. To begin the Kreb’s Cycle, the 3-carbon pyruvate from glycolysis must be converted into a 2-carbon molecule, which then can enter the cycle. During the cycle carbon dioxide is produced. Two molecules of ATP are also produced per each initial glucose molecule. A graphic of the mitochondria is shown in Figure 4.12. In the final steps of cellular respiration, the electron transport chain accepts the electrons from glucose that are being carried by NADH and FADH\textsubscript{2}. These electrons are passed along the chain until they are finally combined with oxygen, which with the addition of hydrogen ions, becomes water. That is the key reason why this process only occurs in the presence of oxygen. Illustrated in Figure 4.13. As the electrons move down the electron transport chain, energy is released and later used to synthesize ATP. The process of ATP synthesis is exactly the same as photosynthesis; hydrogen ions are pumped across the cristae of the mitochondria, forming a chemiosmotic gradient, and ATP synthase uses the energy of the movement of hydrogen ions back across the membrane, from high to low concentration, to make ATP. Because oxygen is the final electron acceptor in this process, the electron transport chain can only occur in the presence of oxygen. This is known as aerobic respiration. However, there is not always enough oxygen present for aerobic respiration to occur. In this case, the next step after glycolysis will be fermentation instead of the citric acid cycle. Table 4.2: An Overview of the Citric Acid Cycle \| Inputs \| Outputs \| \|-------------------------\|--------------------------\| \| 2 two-carbon molecules \| 4 CO$_2$ \| \| 6 NAD$^+$ \| 6 NADH (electron carrier)\| \| 2 FAD$^+$ \| 2 FADH$_2$ (electron carrier)\| \| 2 ADP \| 2 ATP (energy) \| Figure 4.13: During electron transport, electrons from glucose (carried by NADH and FADH$_2$) are passed along until they are finally combined with oxygen, which with the addition of hydrogen ions, becomes water. Meanwhile, hydrogen ions are pumped across the cristae of the mitochondria, forming a gradient, and ATP synthase uses the energy of the movement of hydrogen ions back across the membrane, from high to low concentration, to make ATP. (8) Fermentation Sometimes cellular respiration is anaerobic, occurring in the absence of oxygen. In the process of fermentation, the NAD$^+$ is recycled so that it can be reused in the glycolysis process. No additional ATP is produced during fermentation, so the organism only obtains the two net ATP molecules per glucose from glycolysis. Yeasts (single-celled eukaryotic organisms) carry on alcoholic fermentation in the absence of oxygen, making ethyl alcohol (drinking alcohol) and carbon dioxide. Alcoholic fermentation is central to bread baking. The carbon dioxide bubbles allow the bread to rise, and the alcohol evaporates. In wine making, the sugars of grapes are fermented to produce the wine. Animals and some bacteria and fungi carry out \textit{lactic acid fermentation}. Lactate (lactic acid) is a waste product of this process. Our muscles undergo lactic acid fermentation during strenuous exercise, when oxygen cannot be delivered to the muscles quickly enough. The buildup of lactate is what makes your muscles sore after vigorous exercise. Bacteria that produce lactate are used to make cheese and yogurt (\textbf{Figure 4.14}). Tooth decay is also accelerated by lactate from the bacteria that use the sugars in your mouth. In all these types of fermentation, the goal is the same: to recycle NAD$^+$ for glycolysis. \begin{figure}[h] \centering \includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{cheese_and_wine.png} \caption{Products of fermentation include cheese (lactic acid fermentation) and wine (alcoholic fermentation).} \end{figure} \textbf{Lesson Summary} - Cellular respiration is the breakdown of glucose to release energy in the form of ATP. - Glycolysis, the conversion of glucose into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules, is the first step of cellular respiration. - If oxygen is available, the pyruvate enters the mitochondria and goes through a series of reactions, including the citric acid cycle, to produce more ATP. - If oxygen is not available, the pyruvate is reduced during the process of fermentation to free up more NAD$^+$ for glycolysis, and there is no net gain of ATP. Review Questions 1. What are the products of alcoholic fermentation? 2. What is the metabolic process where glucose is ultimately converted to two molecules of pyruvate? 3. Why do your muscles get sore after vigorous exercise? 4. What is the purpose of fermentation? 5. Where does the citric acid cycle take place? 6. Write the chemical reaction for the overall process of cellular respiration. 7. Which is more efficient, aerobic or anaerobic cellular respiration? 8. What are the important electron-accepting enzymes in cellular respiration? 9. What is chemiosmosis? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration - http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio104/cellresp.htm - http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookGlyc.html - http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio104/cellresp.htm - http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/Bio231/glycolysis.html Vocabulary aerobic respiration Cellular respiration in the presence of oxygen. alcoholic fermentation Fermentation in the absence of oxygen; produces ethyl alcohol (drinking alcohol) and carbon dioxide; occurs in yeasts. anaerobic respiration Cellular respiration in the absence of oxygen; fermentation. ATP A usable form of energy inside the cell; adenosine triphosphate. cellular respiration The process in which the energy in food is converted into energy that can be used by the body’s cells; in other words, glucose (and oxygen) is converted into ATP (and carbon dioxide and water). citric acid cycle Middle phase of cellular respiration; formation of electron carriers occurs during this phase; also known as the Kreb’s cycle. cristae The inner membrane of the mitochondria. The inner membrane of the mitochondria. electron transport chain Last phase of cellular respiration; used to power the formation of ATP occurs during this phase. FADH₂ Electron carrier produced during the Kreb’s cycle. fermentation Anaerobic respiration in which NAD⁺ is recycled so that is can be reused in the glycolysis process. glycolysis First phase of cellular respiration; breakdown of glucose occurs during glycolysis; produces two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules. lactic acid fermentation Anaerobic respiration that recycles NAD⁺ for glycolysis; occurs in animals and some bacteria and fungi. matrix The inner compartment of the mitochondrion that is filled with enzymes in a gel-like fluid. mitochondria Organelle where cellular respiration occurs; known as the “powerhouse” of the cell because this is the organelle where the ATP that powers the cell is produced. NADH Electron carrier produced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Points to Consider - Now that we know how the cell gets its energy, we are going to turn our attention to cell division. Cell division is a highly regulated process. - What do you think could happen if your cells divide uncontrollably? - When new life is formed, do you think it receives all the DNA of the mother and the father? - Why do you think you might need new cells throughout your life? Image Sources 1. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Osmotic_pressure_on_blood_cells_diagram.svg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Osmotic_pressure_on_blood_cells_diagram.svg). Public Domain. 2. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Diffusion.en.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Diffusion.en.jpg). Public Domain. 3. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg). GNU-FDL. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Estoma.jpg. GNU-FDL. (5) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Thylakoid_membrane.png. Public Domain. (6) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_mitochondrion_diagram_en.svg. Public Domain. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Chloroplast-new.jpg. Public Domain. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitochondrial_electron_transport_chain.png. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (9) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg. Public Domain. (10) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Calvin-cycle3.png. CC-BY-SA. (11) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Scheme_facilitated_diffusion_in_cell_membrane-en.svg. Public Domain. (12) Garrett and Kitty Wilkin. http://www.flickr.com/photos/gareandkitty/244555951/. CC-SA. (13) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pinocytosis.svg. Public Domain. (14) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scheme_sodium-potassium_pump-en.svg. Public Domain. Chapter 5 Cell Division, Reproduction, and DNA 5.1 Lesson 5.1: Cell Division Lesson Objectives - Explain why cells need to divide. - List the stages of the cell cycle and explain what happens at each stage. - List the stages of mitosis and explain what happens at each stage. Check Your Understanding - What is the cell theory? - In what part of your cells is the genetic information located? Introduction Imagine the first stages of a life. In humans, a sperm fertilizes an egg, forming the first cell. From that one cell, an entire baby with trillions of cells will develop. How does a new life go from one cell to so many? The cell divides in half, creating two cells. Then those two cells divide. The new cells continue to divide and divide. One cell becomes two, then four, then eight, and so on (Figure 5.1). Rapid cell division allows the development of new life, but cell division must be tightly regulated. If the body’s close regulation of cell division is disrupted later in life, diseases such as cancer can develop. Cancer involves cells that divide in an uncontrolled manner. Therefore, much research into cell division is underway across the globe in effort to further understand this process and find a cure for cancer. Figure 5.1: Cells divide repeatedly to produce an embryo. Previously the one-celled zygote divided to make two cells (a). Each of the two cells divides to yield four cells (b), then the four cells divide to make eight cells (c), and so on. Through cell division, an entire embryo forms from one initial cell. (17) Why Cells Divide Besides the development of a fetus, there are many other reasons that cell division is necessary to life. To grow and develop, you must form new cells. Imagine how often your cells must divide during a growth spurt. Growing just an inch requires countless cell divisions. Another reason for cell division is to repair damaged cells. Imagine you cut your finger. After the scab forms, it will eventually disappear and new skin cells will grow to repair the wound. Where do these cells come from? Remember that according to the cell theory, all cells must come from preexisting cells. In order to make new skin cells, some of your existing skin cells had to undergo cell division. Besides suffering physical damage, your cells can simply wear out. Over time you must replace old and worn-out cells. Again, cell division is essential to this process. You can only make new cells by dividing similar preexisting cells. The Cell Cycle The process of cell division in eukaryotic cells is carefully regulated. The cell cycle, which in essence is the lifecycle of a cell, is composed of a series of steps that lead to cell division (Figure 5.2). These steps can be divided into two main components: interphase and mitosis. Interphase is when the cell mainly performs its “everyday” functions; for example, it is when a kidney cell does what a kidney cell is supposed to do. On the other hand, mitosis is when the cell prepares to become two cells. Some cells, like nerve cells, do not complete the cell cycle and divide, while others divide repeatedly. Most of the cell cycle consists of interphase, the time between cell divisions. During this time the cell carries out its normal functions and prepares for the next stage. Interphase can be divided into three stages: the first growth phase (G1), the synthesis phase (S), and the second growth phase (G2). During the G1 stage, the cell doubles in size and doubles the number of organelles. Next, during the S stage, the DNA is replicated. In other words, an identical copy of all the cell’s DNA is made. This ensures that each new cell that results after cell division has a set of genetic material identical to that of the parental cell. DNA replication will be further discussed in lesson 3. Finally, in the G2 stage proteins are synthesized that will aid in cell division. In the end of interphase, the cell is ready to enter the mitotic phase. During the mitotic phase, nuclear division occurs, which is known as mitosis. Also cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm, occurs. After cytokinesis, cell division is complete and two genetically identical daughter cells have been produced from one parent cell. The term “genetically identical” refers to the fact that each resulting cell has an identical set of DNA, and this DNA is also identical to that of the parent cell. Mitosis and Chromosomes During cell division, two nuclei must form during the process of mitosis, so that one nucleus can be given to each of cells that form from cytokinesis. In the nucleus, the genetic information of the cell, DNA, is stored. The copied DNA needs to be moved into a new nucleus for the new cell to have a correct set of genetic instructions. The DNA in the nucleus is condensed into chromosomes, structures composed of DNA wrapped around proteins. Each organism has a unique number of chromosomes; in human cells our DNA is divided up into 23 pairs of chromosomes. When a cell is not undergoing division, such as during interphase, the complex of DNA and proteins is a tangled mass of threads known as chromatin. As mitosis begins, however, the DNA becomes tightly coiled into the chromosomes which become visible under a microscope. ![Figure 5.3](image) Figure 5.3: The DNA double helix wraps around histone proteins (2) and tightly coils a number of times to form a condensed chromosome (5). The chromosomes contains millions of nucleotide bases. This figure illustrates the complexity of the coiling process. The red dot shows the location of the centromere, where the microtubules attach during mitosis and meiosis. (16) As mentioned previously, the DNA is replicated during the S stage of interphase. Each chromosome now has two identical molecules of DNA, called sister chromatids, forming the "X" shaped molecule depicted in Figure 5.3. During mitosis, the two sister chromatids must be split apart to give rise to two identical chromosomes (in essence, each resulting chromosome is made of 1/2 of the "X"). Through this process, each daughter cell receives one copy of each chromosome. Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, the chromosomes become tightly wound and become visible under the microscope. Also, the nuclear envelop dissolves, and the spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure containing many fibers that helps to move the chromosomes. By late prophase, the chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers. The spindle fibers will later pull the chromosomes into alignment. During metaphase, the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell. The chromosomes line up in a row, one on top of the next. During anaphase, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate, resulting in two sets of identical chromosomes. During telophase, the spindle dissolves and nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes. The drawings of Figure 5.4 show this process. This is further shown in Figure 5.5. Each new nucleus contains the exact same number and types of chromosomes as the original cell. The cell is now ready for cytokinesis, producing two genetically identical cells, each with its own nucleus. Lesson Summary - Cells divide for growth, development, reproduction and replacement of injured or worn-out cells. - The cell cycle is a series of regulated steps by which a cell divides. - During mitosis, the newly duplicated chromosomes are divided into two daughter nuclei. Review Questions 1. In what phase of mitosis are chromosomes moving toward opposite sides of the cell? 2. In what phase of mitosis do the duplicated chromosomes condense? 3. What step of the cell cycle is the longest? 4. What is the term for the division of the cytoplasm? 5. What happens during the S stage of interphase? 6. Interphase used to be considered the “resting” stage of the cell cycle. Why is this not correct? 7. What are some reasons that cells divide? 8. During what stage of the cell cycle does the cell double in size? 9. Why must cell division be tightly regulated? 10. What is the purpose of mitosis? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis) - [http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Cell_bio/tutorials/cell_cycle/cells3.html](http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Cell_bio/tutorials/cell_cycle/cells3.html) - [http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/mitosis.htm](http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/mitosis.htm) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle) - [http://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm](http://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm) Figure 5.4: An overview of mitosis: during prophase (I and II) the chromosomes condense, during metaphase the chromosomes line up (III and IV), during anaphase the sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell (V and VI), during telophase the nuclear envelope forms (and VII and VIII). (14) Figure 5.5: This is a picture of dividing plant cells. Cell division in plant cells differs slightly from animal cells as a cell wall must form. Note that most of the cells are in interphase. Can you find examples of the different stages of mitosis? (7) - http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objID=AP13604 Vocabulary anaphase Third phase of mitosis where sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell. cell cycle Sequence of steps in eukaryotic cells that leads to cell division. chromatin Complex of DNA and proteins that is visible when a cell is not dividing. chromosomes DNA wound around proteins; forms during prophase of mitosis and meiosis. cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm after mitosis or meiosis. interphase Stage of the cell cycle when DNA is synthesized and the cell grows; composed of the first three phases of the cell cycle. metaphase Second phase of meiosis where the chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell. mitosis Sequence of steps in which a nucleus is divided into two daughter nuclei, each with an identical set of chromosomes. prophase Initial phase of mitosis where chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope dissolves and the spindle begins to form. spindle Fibers that move chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis. telophase Final phase of mitosis where a nuclear envelop forms around each of the two sets of chromosomes. Points to Consider - How might a cell without a nucleus divide? - How are new cells made that incorporate the DNA of two parents? 5.2 Lesson 5.2: Reproduction Lesson Objectives - Name the types of asexual reproduction. - Explain the advantage of sexual reproduction. - List the stages of meiosis and explain what happens in each stage. Check Your Understanding - Can something that does not reproduce still be considered living? - What stores the genetic information that is passed on to offspring? - How many chromosomes are in the human nucleus? Introduction Can an organism be considered alive if it cannot make the next generation? For a species to survive, reproduction, the ability to make the next generation, is absolutely necessary. For a species to be successful, it not only needs to be well adapted to its environment, but also needs to be successful at reproduction. Reproduction allows a population of organisms to pass on their genetic information to the next generation. There are many different ways that organisms reproduce, and these methods are categorized as either sexual or asexual reproduction. There are advantages and disadvantages to each method, but the result is always the same: a new life begins. Asexual Reproduction Some organisms can reproduce asexually, meaning that the offspring have a single parent and share the exact same genetic material as the parent. The advantage of asexual reproduction is that it can be very quick and does not require the meeting of two individuals of the opposite sexes. The disadvantage of asexual reproduction is that it does not involve genetic recombination, a process that can result in an adaptive new set of traits. For example, you might inherit one advantageous trait from your maternal grandmother, another adaptive trait from your paternal grandmother, and other adaptive traits from your paternal grandfather. You have the benefit of the many genes from two lineages combining in a new way. An organism that is born through asexual reproduction, however, only has the DNA from one parent, and it is the exact copy of that parent. Therefore, no new combinations of traits can happen. Prokaryotic organisms, which as you might recall are single-celled, reproduce asexually. Bacteria reproduce through binary fission, where they basically divide in half (Figure 5.6). First, their chromosome replicates and the cell enlarges. After cell division, the two new cells each have one identical chromosome. Mitosis is not necessary as there is no nucleus. Then new membranes form to separate the two cells. This simple process is beneficial to the bacteria, allowing very rapid reproduction. ![Bacteria reproducing by binary fission](image) Figure 5.6: Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. Shown is one bacterium reproducing and becoming two bacteria. (1) There are also several animals that can reproduce asexually. Flatworms can divide in two, then each half regenerates into a new flatworm identical to the original. Many types of insects, fish, and lizards (Figure 5.7) can reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis is a process by which an unfertilized egg cell grows into a new organism. The resulting organism has half the amount of genetic material of the parent, as the starting egg cell has half the amount of DNA compared to the parent. Parthenogenesis is common in honeybees. The fertilized eggs in a hive become workers, while the unfertilized eggs become drones. Egg cells (and also sperm cells) are produced through a cell division mechanism in which the amount of DNA is halved. This process is called meiosis and will be discussed shortly. ![Komodo dragon](image) Figure 5.7: This Komodo dragon was born by parthenogenesis. (5) Sexual Reproduction During sexual reproduction, two parents are involved. Most animals are dioecious, meaning there is a separate male and female sex, with the male producing sperm and the female producing eggs. When a sperm and egg meet, a zygote, the first cell of a new organism, is formed (Figure 5.8). The zygote will divide and grow into the embryo. Animals often have gonads, specialized organs that produce eggs or sperm. The male gonads are the testes, which produce the sperm, and the female gonads are the ovaries, which produce the eggs. Sperm and egg, the two sex cells, are known as gametes, and unite through a variety of methods. Fish and other aquatic animals release their gametes in the water, which is called external fertilization (Figure 5.9). Animals that live on land, however, usually practice internal fertilization. Typically males have a penis that deposits sperm into the vagina of the female. Other anatomical features can accomplish the same goal; birds, for example, have a chamber called the cloaca that they place close to another bird’s cloaca to deposit sperm. Whatever method of fertilization is used, the net result is the same: a zygote that contains DNA from both the male and female. Plants also can reproduce sexually, but their reproductive organs are somewhat different than animals’ gonads. Most plants are flowering plants, meaning their reproductive parts are contained in a flower. The sperm is contained in the pollen, while the egg is contained in the ovary deep within the flower. The sperm can reach the egg through several methods. In self-pollination, the egg is fertilized by the pollen of same flower. In cross-pollination, the sperm from the pollen from one flower fertilizes the egg of another flower. Cross-pollination increases the genetic diversity of the population. Like other types of sexual reproduction, cross-pollination allows new combinations of traits. Cross-pollination can be achieved when pollen is carried by the wind to another flower, or many flowers rely on animal pollinators, like honeybees, or butterflies (Figure 5.10) to carry the pollen from flower to flower. Figure 5.10: Butterflies receive nectar when they deposit pollen into flowers, resulting in cross-pollination. (8) Fungi can also reproduce sexually, but instead of female and male sexes, they have (+) and (-) strains. When the filaments of a (+) and (-) fungi meet, the zygote is formed. As with the sexual reproduction in plants and animals, each zygote receives DNA from two parent strains. Meiosis and Gametes The formation of gametes, the reproductive cells such as sperm and egg, is necessary for sexual reproduction. As gametes are produced, the number of chromosomes must be reduced to half. In humans, our cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes, and each chromosome within a pair is called a homologous chromosome. For each of the 23 chromosome pairs, you received one chromosome from your father and one chromosome from your mother. The homologous chromosomes have the same genes, although there might be alternate forms of each gene, called alleles, which vary between the chromosomes. These homologous chromosomes are separated during gamete formation, therefore gametes have only 23 chromosomes, not 23 pairs. This separation of chromosomes is random. The probability or chance that a particular allele will be in a gamete is 1 in 2. The gamete may receive either the paternal allele (inherited from the father) or the maternal allele (inherited from the mother). This random separation of chromosomes (and therefore alleles) occurs for each chromosome, resulting in an widely varied combination of chromosomes in each gamete. With 23 pairs of chromosomes, this results in over 8 million different combinations of chromosomes a gamete. Haploid vs. Diploid A cell with two sets of chromosomes is diploid, referred to as $2n$, where $n$ is the number of sets of chromosomes. A cell with one set of chromosomes, such as a gamete, is haploid, referred to as $n$. So when a haploid sperm and a haploid egg combine, a diploid zygote will be formed; in essence, when a zygote is formed, half of the DNA in the diploid zygote comes from each parent. The process of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half is called meiosis. Meiosis Prior to meiosis, DNA replication occurs, so each chromosome contains two sister chromatids that are identical to the original chromosome. Meiosis is divided into two nuclear divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II. Each of these nuclear divisions shares many aspects of mitosis and can be divided into the same phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase; however, between the two divisions, DNA replication does not occur. Through this process, one diploid cell will divide into four haploid cells. Meiosis I During meiosis I, the pairs of homologous chromosomes are separated from each other. During prophase I, the homologous chromosomes line up together. During this time, crossing-over can occur (Figure 5.11), the exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes. Crossing-over increases the new allele combinations in the gametes. Without crossing-over, the offspring would always inherit all of the many alleles on one of the homologous chromosomes. Because of crossing over, the alleles on the homologous chromosomes can be scrambled to pass on unique combinations of alleles on the chromosome. Also during prophase I, the spindle forms and the chromosomes condense as they coil up tightly. The spindle has the same function as in mitosis. During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes line up in pairs in the middle of the cell; that is, both chromosome of a pair will line up together. The maternal chromosomes or paternal chromosomes can each attach to either side of the spindle. The assignment of which side is random, so all the maternal or paternal chromosomes do not end up in one gamete. The gamete will contain some chromosomes from the mother and some chromosomes from the father. Note this is different than during metaphase of mitosis; although chromosomes still line up during mitosis, the sister chromatids are separated, and each cell obtains both the maternal and paternal chromosome of each pair. During anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes separate. In telophase I, the spindle dissolves, but a new nuclear envelop does not need to form. That’s because after a brief resting stage, the nucleus will divide again. No DNA replication happens between meiosis I and Figure 5.11: During crossing-over, segments of DNA are exchanged between sister chromatids. Notice how this can result in an allele (M) on one sister chromatid being moved onto the other sister chromatid. (19) meiosis II as the chromosomes are already duplicated, carrying sister chromatids. Meiosis II During meiosis II, the sister chromosomes are separated and the gametes are generated. During prophase II, the chromosomes condense. In metaphase II the chromosomes line up one on top of the next along the equator, or middle of the cell. During anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate. After telophase and cytokinesis, each cell has divided again. Therefore, meiosis results in four cells with half the DNA of the parent cell (Figure 5.12). In our cells, the parent cell has 46 chromosomes, whereas the cells that result from meiosis have 23 chromosomes. These cells will become gametes. (See Figure 5.13). Lesson Summary - Organisms can reproduce sexually or asexually. - The gametes in sexual reproduction must have half the DNA of the parent. - Meiosis is the process of nuclear division to form gametes. Figure 5.12: An overview of meiosis. (12) Figure 5.13: A comparison between binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis. (11) Review Questions 1. What is parthenogenesis? 2. How can organisms reproduce asexually? 3. How would sexual reproduction in a lizard be different than a fish? 4. Are the viable eggs that birds lay need to be fertilized externally? 5. How do most plants reproduce sexually? 6. What is the purpose of meiosis? 7. What is the advantage of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction? 8. If an organism has 12 chromosomes in its cells, how many chromosomes will be in its gametes? 9. During what phase of meiosis do homologous chromosomes separate? 10. In what phase of meiosis do homologous chromosomes pair up? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookmeiosis.html - http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Cell_BIO/tutorials/meiosis/page3.html - http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MqaJqLL49a0&NR=1 - http://en.wikipedia.org/ Vocabulary allele An alternative form of a gene. asexual reproduction A form of reproduction in which a new individual is created by only one parent. binary fission An asexual form of reproduction where a cell splits into two daughter cells. crossing-over Exchange of DNA segments between homologous chromosomes; occurs during prophase I of meiosis. cross-pollination Sexual reproduction in plants where sperm from the pollen of one flower is received by the ovary of another flower. diploid When a cell has two sets of chromosomes. gametes Cells involved in sexual reproduction; typically egg and sperm cells. gonads Organ that produces gametes, such as the ovaries and testes. haploid When a cell has only one set of chromosomes, typical of a gamete. internal fertilization Reproduction occurs through the internal deposit of gametes. external fertilization Reproduction where the eggs are fertilized outside the body. meiosis Nuclear division that results in haploid gametes. ovaries Female gonads in animals that produce eggs. parthenogenesis Reproduction where an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual. sexual reproduction Reproduction where gametes from two parents combine to make an individual with an unique set of genes. sister chromatids Two genetically identical chromosome segments that form after DNA replication. testes Male gonads in animals that produce sperm. zygote Single cell that is formed after the fertilization of an egg; the first cell of a new organism. Points to Consider - What must be replicated prior to mitosis? - How do you think DNA might be replicated? - What might happen if there is a mistake during DNA replication? 5.3 Lesson 5.3: DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis Lesson Objectives - Explain the chemical composition of DNA. - Explain how DNA synthesis works. - Explain how proteins are coded for and synthesized. - Describe the three types of RNA and the functions of each. Check Your Understanding - What is the purpose of DNA? - When is DNA replicated? Introduction Much research in the past fifty years has been focused on understanding the genetic material, DNA. Understanding how DNA works has brought with it many useful technologies. DNA fingerprinting allows police to match a criminal to a crime scene. Transgenic crops, or crops that contain altered DNA, have improved yields for farmers. And you can now test your DNA to find out the chance that your future children may be at risk for a rare genetic disorder. Although we can do some really complicated things with DNA, the chemical structure of DNA is remarkably simple and elegant. What is DNA? DNA, is the material that makes up our chromosomes and stores our genetic information. This genetic information is basically a set of instructions that tell your cells what to do. DNA is an abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid. As you may recall, nucleic acids are the class of chemical compounds that store information. The deoxyribo part of the name refers to the name of the sugar that is contained in DNA, deoxyribose. The chemical composition of DNA is a polymer, or long chain, of nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base. The only difference between each nucleotide is the identity of the base. There are only four possible bases that make up each DNA nucleotide: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). The various sequences of these four bases make up the genetic code of your cells. It may seem strange that there are only four letters in the “alphabet” of DNA. But since your chromosomes contain millions of nucleotides, there are many, many different combinations possible with those four letters. But how do all these pieces fit together? James Watson and Francis Crick won the Nobel Prize in 1962 for piecing together the structure of DNA. Together with the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, they determined that the structure of DNA is two strands of nucleotides in a double helix (Figure 5.14), or a two-stranded spiral, with the sugar and phosphate groups on the outside, and the paired bases connecting the two strands on the inside of the helix (Figure 5.15). The bases do not pair randomly, however. When Erwin Chargaff looked closely at the base content in DNA, he noticed that the percentage of adenine (A) in the DNA always equaled the percentage of thymine (T), and the percentage of guanine (G) always equaled the percentage of cytosine (C). Watson and Crick’s model explained this result by suggesting Figure 5.14: DNA’s three-dimensional structure is a double helix. The hydrogen bonds between the bases at the center of the helix hold the helix together. (22) that A always pairs with T and G always pairs with C in the DNA helix. Therefore A and T, and G and C, are complementary bases. If one DNA strand reads ATGCCAGT, the other strand would be made up the complementary bases: TACGGTCA. These base pairing rules state that in DNA, A always pairs with T, and G always pairs with C. ![Figure 5.15](image) The chemical structure of DNA includes a chain of nucleotides consisting of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. Notice how the sugar and phosphate form the backbone of DNA (one strand in blue), with the hydrogen bonds between the bases joining the two strands. (3) DNA Replication The base pairing rules are crucial for the process of replication. DNA replication is the process by which DNA is copied to form an identical daughter molecule of DNA. During DNA replication, the DNA helix unwinds as the weak hydrogen bonds between the paired bases are broken. The two single strands of DNA then each serve as a template for a new stand to be synthesized. The new nucleotides are placed in the right order because of the base pairing rules. The new set of nucleotides then join together to form a new strand of DNA. The process results in two DNA molecules, each with one old strand and one new strand of DNA. Therefore, this process is known as semiconservative replication because one strand is conserved in each new DNA molecule (Figure 5.16). Protein Synthesis The code of DNA, stored in the base sequences, contains the instructions for the order of assembly of amino acids to make proteins. Each strand of DNA has many, many separate sequences that code for the production of a specific protein. These discrete units of DNA that contain code for the creation of one protein are called genes. Proteins are made up of units called amino acids, and the sequence of bases in DNA codes for the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein. There are about 22,000 genes in every human cell. Does every human cell have the same genes? Yes. Does every human cell use the same genes to make the same proteins? No. In a multicellular organism, such as us, cells have specific functions because they have different proteins, and they have different proteins because different genes are expressed in different cell types. Think of gene expression as if all your genes usually are "turned off." Each cell type only "turns on" (or expresses) the genes that have the code for the proteins it needs to use. So different cell types "turn on" different genes, allowing different proteins to be made, giving different cell types different functions. However, DNA does not directly coordinate the production of proteins. Remember that DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell, but proteins are made on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. How do the instructions in the DNA get out to the cytoplasm so that proteins can be made? DNA sends out a message, in the form of RNA (ribonucleic acid), describing how to make the protein. There are three types of RNA directly involved in protein synthesis. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. The other two forms of RNA, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) are involved in the process of ordering the amino acids to make the protein. This process is called translation and will be discussed below. All three RNAs are nucleic acids and are therefore made of nucleotides. The RNA nucleotide is very similar to the DNA nucleotide except for the fact that it contains a different kind of sugar, ribose, and the base uracil (U) replaces the thymine (T) found in DNA. mRNA is created in a method very similar to DNA synthesis. mRNA is also made up of nucleotide units. The double helix unwinds and the nucleotides follow basically the same base pairing rules to form the correct sequence in the mRNA. This time, however, U pairs with each A in the DNA. In this manner, the genetic code is securely passed on to the mRNA. The process of constructing a mRNA molecule from DNA is known as transcription (Figures 5.17 and 5.18). ![Diagram showing the process of transcription](image) Figure 5.17: Each gene (a) contains triplets of bases (b) that are transcribed into RNA (c). Every triplet, or codon, encodes for a unique amino acid. (20) The mRNA is directly involved in the protein synthesis process and tells the ribosome (Figure 5.19) how to assemble a protein. The base code in the mRNA dictates the order of the amino acids in the protein. But because there are only 4 bases in mRNA and 20 different amino acids, one base cannot directly code for one amino acid. The genetic code in mRNA is read in “words” of three letters (triplets), called codons. For example, GGU encodes for the amino acid glycine, while GUC encodes for valine. This genetic code is universal and used by almost all living things. These codons are read in the ribosome, the organelle responsible for protein synthesis. In the ribosome, tRNA reads the code and brings a specific amino acid to attach to the growing chain of amino acids, which is a protein in the process of being synthesized. Each tRNA carries only one type of amino acid and only recognizes one specific codon. The process of reading the mRNA code in the ribosome to synthesize a protein is called translation (Figure 5.20). There are also three codons, UGA, UAA, and UAG, which indicate that the protein is complete. They do not have an associated amino acid. As no amino acid can be added to the growing polypeptide chain, the protein is complete. The chart in Figure 5.21 should be of use in this area of study. Mutations The process of DNA replication is not always 100% accurate, and sometimes the wrong base is inserted in the new strand of DNA. A permanent change in the sequence of DNA is known as a mutation (Figure 5.22). A mutation may have no effect on the phenotype or can cause the protein to be manufactured incorrectly, which can affect how well the protein works, or whether it works at all. Usually the loss of a protein function is detrimental to the organism. However, in rare circumstances, the mutation can be beneficial. For example, suppose a mutation in an animal’s DNA causes the loss of an enzyme that makes a dark pigment in the animal’s skin. If the population of animals has moved to a light colored environment, the animals with the mutant gene would have a lighter skin color and be better camouflaged. So in this case, the mutation was beneficial. Figure 5.19: Ribosomes translate RNA into a protein with a specific amino acid sequence. The tRNA binds and brings to the ribosome the amino acid encoded by the mRNA. Ribosomes are made of rRNA and proteins. (6) Figure 5.20: This summary of how genes are expressed shows that DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated in turn to protein. (13) Figure 5.21: This chart shows the genetic code used by all organisms. For example, an RNA codon reading GUU would encode for a valine (Val) according to this chart. Start at the center for the first base of the three base codon, and work your way out. Notice for valine, the second base is a U and the third base of the codon may be either a G, C, A, or U. Similarly, glycine (Gly) is encoded by a GGG, GGA, GGC, and GGU. (9) There are many possible types of mutations possible in chromosomes. In the case of a point mutation, there is a change in a single nucleotide. Other mutations can be more dramatic. A large segment of DNA can be deleted, duplicated, inverted, or inserted in the wrong place. These mutations usually result in a non-functional protein, or a number of non-functional proteins. A deletion is when a segment of DNA is lost, so there is a missing segment in the chromosome. A duplication is when a segment is repeated, creating a longer chromosome. In an inversion, the segment of DNA is flipped and then reattached to the chromosome. An insertion is when a segment of DNA from one chromosome is added to another, unrelated chromosome. Even if a single base is changed, it can cause a major problem. The substitution of a single base is called a point mutation. Sickle cell anemia is an example of a condition caused by a point mutation in the hemoglobin gene. In this gene, just the one base change causes a different amino acid to be inserted in the hemoglobin protein, causing the protein to fold differently and not function properly in carrying oxygen in the bloodstream. If a single base is deleted, it can also have huge effects on the organism because this would cause a frameshift mutation. Remember that the bases are read in groups of three by the tRNA. If the reading frame gets off by one base, the resulting sequence will consist of an entirely different set of codons. The reading of an mRNA is like reading three letter words of a sentence. Imagine you wrote “big dog ate red cat”. If you take out the second letter, the frame will be shifted so now it will read “bgd oga ter edc at.” One single deletion makes the whole “sentence”, or mRNA, not read correctly. Many mutations are not caused by errors in replication. Mutations can happen spontaneously and they can be caused by mutagens in the environment. An example of a mutagen is radiation. High levels of radiation can alter the structure of DNA. Also, some chemicals, such as those found in tobacco smoke, can be mutagens. Sometimes mutagens can also cause cancer. Tobacco smoke, for example, is often linked to lung cancer. Lesson Summary - DNA stores the genetic information of the cell in the sequence of its 4 bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. - The information in a small segment of DNA, a gene, is sent by mRNA to the ribosome to synthesize a protein. - Within the ribosome, tRNA reads the mRNA in sets of three bases (triplets), called codons, which encode for the specific amino acids that make up the protein. - A mutation is a permanent change in the sequence of bases in DNA. Review Questions 1. Translate the following segment of DNA into RNA: AGTTC Figure 5.22: Mutations can arise in DNA through deletion, duplication, inversion, insertion, and translocation within the chromosome. A deletion is when a segment of DNA is lost from the chromosome. A duplication is when a segment is repeated. In an inversion, the segment of DNA is flipped and then re-annealed. An insertion or translocation can cause DNA from one chromosome to be added onto another, unrelated chromosome. (18) 2. Write the complimentary DNA nucleotides to this strand of DNA: GGTCCA 3. What makes up a nucleotide? 4. Nucleotides are subunits of which polymers? 5. Amino acids are subunits that make up what polymer? 6. Describe the process of DNA replication 7. Name a mutagen. 8. What is made in the process of transcription? 9. What is made in the process of translation? 10. How does RNA encode for proteins? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/dnarep/intro.html - http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/dna_double_helix/readmore.html - http://www.biostudio.com/demo_freeman_protein_synthesis.htm - http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/transcribe/ - http://www-class.unl.edu/biochem/gp2/m_biology/animation/gene/gene_a2.html - http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/builddna/ - http://en.wikipedia.org/ - http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/scd_background.html Vocabulary amino acid The units (monomers) that combine to make proteins. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid; a nucleic acid that is the genetic material of all organisms. DNA replication The synthesis of new DNA; occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle. double helix Describes the shape of DNA as a double spiral; similar to a spiral staircase. gene The inherited unit of DNA that encodes for one protein (or one polypeptide). mutagen A chemical or physical agent that can cause changes to accumulate in DNA. mutation A change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. nucleotide The units that make up DNA; consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base. RNA The nucleic acid that carries the information stored in DNA to the ribosome. semiconservative replication Describes how the replication of DNA results in two molecules of DNA, each with one original strand and one new strand. transcription The synthesis of a RNA that carries the information encoded in the DNA. translation The synthesis of proteins as the ribosome reads each codon in RNA, which code for a specific amino acid. Points to Consider - Your cells have “proofreaders” that replace mismatched pairs that occurred during DNA synthesis. How would that affect the rate of mutation in your body? - There are many diseases due to mutations in the DNA. These are known as genetic diseases, and many can be passed onto the next generation. Think about how a single base change cause a huge medical problem like sickle cell anemia. - Your DNA contains the instructions to make you. So is everyone’s DNA different? Can it be used to distinguish individuals, like a fingerprint? Image Sources (1) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Bacilli_division_diagram.png. GNU-FDL. (2) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Cell_cycle.png. CC-BY-SA 3.0. (3) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:DNA_Structure.jpg. GNU-FDL. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Sperm-egg.jpg. Public Domain. (5) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Parthkomodo.jpg. CC-BY-SA. (6) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:ProteinTranslation.jpg. Public Domain. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Wilson1900Fig2.jpg. Public Domain. (8) http://www.flickr.com/photos/emeryjl/456175019/. CC-BY 2.0. (9) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Codons_aminoacids_table.png. GNU-FDL. (10) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:DNA_transcription.gif. Public Domain. (11) http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Three_cell_growth_types.png. GNU-FDL. (12) An overview of meiosis.. GNU-FDL. (13) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Genetic_code.svg. GNU-FDL. (14) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gray2.png. Public Domain. (15) http://www.flickr.com/photos/chikawatanabe/1888284871/. CC-BY 2.0. (16) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Chromatin_chromosome.png. GNU-FDL. (17) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Gray9.png. Public Domain. (18) NIH. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Types-of-mutation.png. Public Domain. (19) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Morgan_crossover_2.jpg. Public Domain. (20) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Transcription.png. Public Domain. (21) DOE Human Genome Project. < . Public Domain. (22) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:DNA_Overview.png. GNU-FDL. www.ck12.org 154 Chapter 6 Genetics 6.1 Lesson 6.1: Gregor Mendel and the Foundations of Genetics Lesson Objectives - Explain Mendel’s law of segregation. - Draw a Punnett square to make predictions about the traits of the offspring of a simple genetic cross. Check Your Understanding - What is the genetic material of our cells? - How does meiosis affect the chromosome number in gametes? Introduction For centuries people have been fascinated with the inheritance of human traits. People might say, “You have your father’s eyes,” or, “You have red hair like your granddad; it must have skipped a generation.” These comments show an appreciation of the laws of human inheritance. We inherit traits from our ancestors, and sometimes traits can stay hidden and show up in later generations. Genetics, the study of inheritance, explains how traits are passed on from one generation to the next. Due to recent developments in the field of genetics, we can now seek to understand the inheritance of disease. People today may ask “What are the chances my child will have cystic fibrosis?” and “What is the likelihood that I may have breast cancer if my grandmother had it?” Genetic counselors are trained to address families’ questions about the probabilities of passing on a genetic disorder. When genetic counselors sit down with families to discuss these types of questions, it’s amazing that their answers are derived from the fundamentals of genetics discovered by a monk in the 1800s. ![Gregor Mendel](image) Figure 6.1: Gregor Mendel (9) Mendel’s Experiments The laws of heredity were first developed by an Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel (Figure 6.1), in the 1800s. To study genetics, Mendel chose to work with pea plants because they had easily observable traits and a short generation time (Figure 6.2). For example, pea plants are either tall or short, which are easily identifiable traits. Furthermore, peas can either self pollinate or be cross-pollinated by hand, by transferring the pollen from one flower to the stigma of another. In this way, Mendel could carefully observe the results of crosses between two different types of plants. He studied the inheritance patterns for many different traits in peas, including round seeds versus wrinkled seeds, white flowers versus purple flowers, and tall plants versus short plants. Because of his work, Mendel can be considered the father of genetics. During Mendel’s time, most people believed that traits were contributed from both parents and blended together as they were passed down from generation to generation. For example, if you crossed a short plant and a tall plant, they would expect the offspring to be medium-sized plants. What Mendel observed, however, was that the offspring of this cross (called the F1 generation, derived from the Latin term filius, meaning sons and daughters) were all tall plants. Based on the blending hypothesis, the result of all tall plants was unexpected. Next, Mendel let the F1 generation self-pollinate. He then noted that 75% of the resulting offspring, the F2 generation, were tall, while 25% were short. Therefore, shortness appeared to have skipped a generation. Mendel found this same mathematical result over and over again with all the traits he studied. In all, Mendel studied seven characteristics, with almost 20,000 F2 plants analyzed. For example, purple flowers and white flowers were crossed to produce plants with only purple flowers in the F1 generation. Then after self-pollination, the F2 generation had 75% purple flowers and 25% white flowers. These results did not reflect what you would expect if the blending model of inheritance was correct. ### Dominance Mendel had to come up with a new theory of inheritance to explain his results. His explanation, the law of segregation, is still one of the fundamental laws of modern genetics. He proposed that each pea plant had two hereditary factors for each trait. There were two possibilities for each hereditary factor, such as short or tall. One factor is dominant to the other, meaning it masks the effects of the recessive factor. However, each parent could only pass on one of these factors to the offspring. Therefore, during the formation of gametes, sperm or egg, the heredity factors must separate so there is only one factor per gamete. When fertilization occurs, the offspring then have two hereditary factors. This law explained what Mendel had seen in the F1 generation, because the two heredity factors were the short and tall factors and each individual in the F1 would have one of each factor, and as the tall factor is dominant to the short factor, all the plants appeared tall. In the F2 generation, produced by self-pollination of the F1, 25% of the offspring could have two short heredity factors, so they would appear short. 75% would have at least one tall heredity factor and will be tall. In genetics problems the dominant factor is labeled with a capital letter (T) while the recessive factor is labeled with a lowercase letter (t). If we designate the letter T or t to represent the heritable factor, as each individual has two factors for each trait, the possible combinations are $Tt$, $TT$, and $tt$. Plants with $TT$ would be tall while plants with $tt$ would be short. Since $T$ is dominant to $t$, plants that are $Tt$ would be tall, as with the F1 generation. we described that inherited one factor from the $TT$ tall parent and one factor from the $tt$ short parent. Probability and Punnett Squares To visualize the results of a genetic cross, a Punnett square is helpful. An example of a Punnett square (Figure 6.3) that shows the results of a cross between two purple flowers that each have one dominant factor and one recessive factor ($Bb$). Notice how the possible factors in the sperm ($B$ or $b$) are lined up the side of the square while the possible factors in the egg ($B$ or $b$) are lined up across the top. The possible offspring are represented by the letters in the boxes, with one factor coming from each parent. Notice how the Punnett square can help you predict the outcome of the crosses. Only one of the plants out of the four, or 25% of the plants, has white flowers ($bb$). The other 75% have purple flowers ($BB$, $Bb$) because the color purple is a dominant trait in pea plants. Now imagine you cross one of the white flowers ($bb$) with a purple flower that has both a dominant and recessive factor ($Bb$). The only possible gamete in the white flower is the recessive ($b$), while the purple flower can have gametes with either dominant ($B$) or recessive ($b$). If you write out the Punnett cross, you will see that 50% of the offspring will be purple and 50% of the offspring will be white. Keep in mind that the birth of each offspring is an independent event and has the same probability, so the traits of a previous offspring do not influence the next offspring. In the cross discussed above with two $Bb$ flowers, each offspring has a 75% chance of being purple and a 25% chance of being white. For example, even if the first three offspring in the cross have purple flowers, it does not mean that the next plant must have white flowers. All probability tells you is that overtime the averages of many, many offspring will work out to a predicted ratio. Table 6.1: The Punnett Square of a white flower ($bb$) crossed with a purple flower ($Bb$) \| \| b \| b \| \|-------\|-----\|-----\| \| B \| Bb \| bb \| \| b \| Bb \| bb \| Lesson Summary - Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics, the science of studying inheritance. - According to Mendel’s law of segregation, an organism has two factors for each trait, but each gamete only contains one of these factors. A Punnett square is useful for predicting the outcomes of crosses. Review Questions 1. What is the term for the offspring of a cross, or the first generation? 2. What is the F2 generation? 3. Who is considered the father of genetics? 4. Why did Mendel select peas as a model for studying genetics? 5. In peas, yellow seeds ($Y$) are dominant over green seeds ($y$). If a $yy$ plant is crossed with a $YY$ plant, what ratio of plants in the offspring would you predict? 6. In peas, purple flowers ($P$) are dominant over white flowers ($p$). If a $pp$ plant is crossed with a $Pp$ plant, what ratio of plants in the offspring would you predict? 7. In guinea pigs, black fur ($B$) is dominant over white fur ($b$). If a $BB$ guinea pig is crossed with a $Bb$ guinea pig, what ratio of guinea pigs in the offspring would you predict? 8. In guinea pigs, smooth coat ($S$) is dominant over rough coat ($s$). If a $SS$ guinea pig is crossed with a $ss$ guinea pig, what ratio of guinea pigs in the offspring would you predict? 9. In humans, unattached ear lobes are dominant over attached ear lobes. If two parents have attached earlobes, what is the predicted ratio in the offspring? 10. Why would it be much easier to study genetics in pea plants than in people? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://www.mendelweb.org/MWtoc.html](http://www.mendelweb.org/MWtoc.html) Vocabulary dominant Masks the expression of the recessive trait. F1 generation The first filial generation; offspring of the P or parental generation. F2 generation The second filial generation; offspring from the self-pollination of the F1 generation. gametes Haploid cells involved in sexual reproduction, such egg and sperm. genetics The study of inheritance. punnett square Visual representation of a genetic cross that helps predict the expected ratios in the offspring. recessive Expression is masked by the dominant factor (allele); only expressed if both factors are recessive. Points to Consider - Do you think all traits follow this simple pattern where one factor controls the trait? - Can you think of other examples where Mendel’s law does not seem to fit? 6.2 Lesson 6.2: Modern Genetics Lesson Objectives - Explain Mendel’s laws with our modern understanding of chromosomes. - Explain how codominant traits are inherited. - Distinguish between phenotype and genotype. - Explain how polygenic traits are inherited. Check Your Understanding - What is a visual representation of a genetic cross? - What is stated in Mendel’s law of segregation? Introduction Although Mendel laid the foundation for modern genetics, there were still a lot of questions left unanswered. How is inheritance determined for traits that do not seem to follow a simple dominant-recessive pattern? What exactly are the hereditary factors that determine traits in organisms? And how do these factors work? One of the great achievements of this past century was the discovery of DNA as the genetic material. And it is the DNA that makes up the hereditary factors that Mendel identified. By applying our modern knowledge of DNA and chromosomes, we can explain Mendel’s findings and build on them. Traits, Genes, and Alleles Interpreting Mendel’s discoveries through the eye of modern genetics, we now know that Mendel’s hereditary factors are made up of DNA. Recall that our DNA is wound into chromosomes. Each of our chromosomes contains a long chain of DNA that encodes hundreds, if not thousands, of genes. Each of these genes can have slightly different versions from individual to individual. These variants of genes are called alleles. For example, remember that for the height gene in pea plants there are two possible alleles, the dominant allele for tallness ($T$) and the recessive allele for shortness ($t$). Genotype and Phenotype Genotype refers to the combination of alleles that an individual has for a certain gene. For each gene, an organism has two alleles, one on each chromosome of a homologous pair of chromosomes. The genotype is often referred to with the letter combinations that were introduced in the previous lesson, such as $TT$, $Tt$, and $tt$. When an organism has two of the same alleles for a specific gene, it is homozygous for that gene. An organism can be either homozygous dominant ($TT$) or homozygous recessive ($tt$). If an organism has two different alleles ($Tt$) for a certain gene, it is known as heterozygous. Genes have a specific place on a specific chromosome, so in the heterozygous individual these alleles are in the same location on each homologous chromosome. Phenotype refers to the visible traits or appearance of the organism, as determined by the genotype. For example, the phenotypes of Mendel’s pea plants were either tall or short, or were purple-flowered or white-flowered. Keep in mind that plants with different genotypes can have the same phenotype. For example, both a pea plant that is homozygous dominant for the tall trait ($TT$) and heterozygous plant ($Tt$) would have the phenotype of being tall plants. The recessive phenotype only occurs if the dominant allele is absent, which is when an individual is homozygous recessive ($tt$). Incomplete Dominance and Codominance In all of Mendel’s experiments, he worked with traits where a single gene controlled the trait and where one allele was always dominant to the other. Although the rules that Mendel derived from his experiments explain many inheritance patterns, the rules do not explain them all. There are in fact exceptions to Mendel’s rules, and these exceptions usually have something to do with the dominant allele. One exception to Mendel’s rules is that one allele is always completely dominant over a recessive allele. Sometimes an individual has an intermediate phenotype between the two parents, as there is no dominant allele. This pattern of inheritance is called incomplete dominance. An example of incomplete dominance is the color of snapdragon flowers. One of the genes for flower color in snapdragons has two alleles, one for red flowers and one for white flowers. A plant that is homozygous for the red allele will have red flowers, while a plant that is homozygous for the white allele will have white flowers. On the other hand, the heterozygote will have pink flowers (Figure 6.4). Neither the red nor the white allele is dominant, so the phenotype of the offspring is a blend of the two parents. ![Pink snapdragons](image) Figure 6.4: Pink snapdragons are an example of incomplete dominance. (15) Another example of incomplete dominance is sickle cell anemia, a disease in which the hemoglobin protein is produced incorrectly and the red blood cells have a sickle shape. A person that is homozygous recessive for the sickle cell trait will have red blood cells that all have the incorrect hemoglobin. A person who is homozygous dominant will have normal red blood cells. And because this trait has an incomplete dominance pattern of expression, a person who is heterozygous for the sickle cell trait will have some misshapen cells and some normal cells (Figures 6.5 and 6.6). These heterozygous individuals have a fitness advantage; they are resistant to severe malaria. Both the dominant and recessive alleles are expressed, so the result is a phenotype that is a combination of the recessive and dominant traits. ![Sickle cell anemia causes red blood cells to become misshapen and curved (upper figure) unlike normal, rounded red blood cells (lower figure).](image) Figure 6.5: Sickle cell anemia causes red blood cells to become misshapen and curved (upper figure) unlike normal, rounded red blood cells (lower figure). (12) An example of a codominant trait is ABO blood types (Figure 6.7), named for the carbohydrate attachment on the outside of the blood cell. In this case, two alleles are dominant and completely expressed (designated $I^A$ and $I^B$), while one allele is recessive ($i$). The $I^A$ allele encodes for red blood cells with the A antigen, while the $I^B$ allele encodes for red blood cells with the B antigen. The recessive allele ($i$) doesn’t encode for any antigens. An antigen is a substance that provokes an immune response, your body’s defenses against disease, which will be discussed further in the Diseases and the Body’s Defenses chapter. Therefore a person with two recessive alleles ($ii$) has type O blood. As no dominant ($I^A$ and $I^B$) allele is present, the person cannot have type A or type B blood. There are two possible genotypes for type A blood, homozygous ($I^AI^A$) and heterozygous ($I^Ai$), and two possible genotypes for type B blood ($I^Bi$ and $I^BI^B$). If a person is heterozygous for both the $I^A$ and $I^B$ alleles, they will express both and have type AB blood with both antigens on each red blood cell. This pattern of inheritance is significantly different than Mendel’s rules for inheritance because both alleles are expressed completely and one does not mask the other. Another exception to Mendel’s rules is polygenic inheritance, which is when a trait is controlled by more than one gene. Often these traits are in fact controlled by many genes on many chromosomes. Each dominant allele has an additive effect, so the resulting offspring can have a variety of genotypes, from no dominant alleles to several dominant alleles. In humans, some examples of polygenic traits are height and skin color. People are neither short nor tall, as was seen with the pea plants studied by Mendel, which has only one gene that encodes for height. Instead, people have a range of heights determined by many genes. Similarly, people have a wide range of skin colors. Polygenic inheritance often results in a bell shaped curve when you analyze the population (Figure 6.8). That means that most people are intermediate in the phenotype, such as average height, while very few people are at the extremes, such as very tall or very short. Most polygenic traits are partially influenced by the environment. For example, height is partially influenced by nutrition in childhood. If a child is genetically programmed to be average height but does not get a proper diet, he or she may be below average in size. Other examples of environmentally influenced traits are mental illnesses like schizophrenia and depression. A person may be genetically predisposed to have depression, so when that person’s environment contributes major stresses like losing a job or losing a close relative, the person is more likely to become depressed. Figure 6.7: An example of codominant inheritance is ABO blood types. (4) Figure 6.8: Polygenic traits tend to result in a distribution that resembles a bell-shaped curve, with few at the extremes and most in the middle. There may be 4 or 6 or more alleles involved in the phenotype. At the left extreme, individuals are completely dominant for all alleles, and at the other extreme, individuals are completely recessive for all alleles. Individuals in the middle have various combinations of recessive and dominant alleles. (7) Linkage Linkage refers to particular genetic position or loci, or alleles inherited together, suggesting that they are physically on the same chromosome, and located close together on that chromosome. A crossing-over event during prophase I of meiosis is rare between linked loci. Alleles for genes on different chromosomes are not linked; they sort independently (independent assortment) of each other during meiosis. A gene is also said to be linked to a chromosome if it is physically located on that chromosome. For example, a gene (or loci) is said to be linked to the X-chromosome if it is physically located on the X-chromosome chromosome. Linkage Maps The frequency of recombination refers to the rate of crossing-over (recombination) events between two loci. This frequency can be used to estimate genetic distances between the two loci, and create a linkage map. In other words, the frequency can be used to estimate how close or how far apart the two loci are on the chromosome. In the early 20th century, Thomas Hunt Morgan demonstrated that the amount of crossing over between linked genes differs. This led to the idea that the frequency of crossover events would indicate the distance separating genes on a chromosome. Morgan’s student, Alfred Sturtevant, developed the first genetic map, also called a linkage map. Sturtevant proposed that the farther apart linked genes were on a chromosome, the greater the chance that non-sister chromatids would cross over in the region between the genes during meiosis. By determining the number of recombinants - offspring in which a cross-over event has occurred - it is possible to determine the approximate distance between the genes. This distance is called a genetic map unit (m.u.), or a centimorgan, and is defined as the distance between genes for which one product of meiosis in 100 products is a recombinant. So, a recombinant frequency of 1% (1 out of 100) is equivalent to 1 m.u. Loci with a recombinant frequency of 10% would be separated by 10 m.u. The recombination frequency will be 50% when two genes are widely separated on the same chromosome or are located on different chromosomes. This is the natural result of independent assortment. Linked genes have recombination frequencies less than 50%. Determining recombination frequencies between genes located on the same chromosome allows a linkage map to be developed. Linkage mapping is critical for identifying the location of genes that cause genetic diseases. Lesson Summary - Variants of genes are called alleles. - Genotype is the combination of alleles that an individual has for a certain gene, while phenotype is the appearance caused by the expression of the genotype. - Incomplete dominance and codominance do not fit Mendel’s rules because one allele does not entirely mask the other. - In polygenic inheritance, many genes control a trait with each dominant allele having an additive effect. Review Questions 1. What is a variant of a gene that occurs at the same place on homologous chromosomes? 2. What is the type of allele that only affects the phenotype in the homozygous condition? 3. What type of allele masks the expression of the recessive allele and is therefore expressed in the heterozygote? 4. What is the term for the specific alleles of an individual for a particular trait? 5. What is the term for the appearance of the organism, as determined by the genotype? 6. If a organism has a certain phenotype, such as a tall pea plant, does that mean it must have the same genotype? 7. What is the term for the pattern of inheritance where an individual has an intermediate phenotype between the two parents? 8. IQ in humans varies in humans with most people having an IQ of around 100, and with a few people at the extremes, such as 50 or 150. What type of inheritance do you think this might describe? 9. A dark purple flower is crossed with a white flower of the same species and the offspring have light purple flowers. What type of inheritance does this describe? 10. What is the inheritance pattern where both alleles are expressed? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_gene](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_gene) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygenic_inheritance](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygenic_inheritance) - [http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/evolution/polygen.html](http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/evolution/polygen.html) - [http://www.curiosityrats.com/genetics.html](http://www.curiosityrats.com/genetics.html) - [http://www.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookgenintro.html](http://www.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookgenintro.html) Vocabulary allele An alternative form of a gene. co-dominance A pattern of inheritance where both alleles are equally expressed. genotype The genetic makeup of a cell or organism, defined by certain alleles for a particular trait. heterozygous Having identical alleles for a particular trait. homozygous Having two different alleles for a particular trait. incomplete dominance A pattern of inheritance where the offspring has a phenotype that is halfway between the two parents’ phenotypes. phenotype The physical appearance that is a result of the genotype. polygenic inheritance A pattern of inheritance where the trait is controlled by many genes and each dominant allele has an additive effect. Points to Consider - Hypothesize about the genetic differences between males and females. - Can you name any human genetic disorders? - If a baby inherits an extra chromosome, what might the result be? 6.3 Lesson 6.3: Human Genetics Lesson Objectives - List the two types of chromosomes in the human genome. - Predict patterns of inheritance for traits located on the sex chromosomes. - Describe how some common human genetic disorders are inherited. - Explain how changes in chromosomes can cause disorders in humans. Check Your Understanding - How many alleles does an individual have for each gene/trait? - How do we predict the probability of traits being passed on to the next generation? - What do we call complexes of DNA wound around proteins that pass on genetic information to the next generation of cells? Introduction You might know someone who was born with a genetic disorder, such as cystic fibrosis or Down syndrome. And you might have wondered how someone inherits these types of disorders. It all goes back to Mendel! Mendel’s rules laid the foundation for understanding the genetics of all organisms, including humans. We can apply Mendel’s rules to describe how many human traits and genetic disorders are inherited. Some disorders are caused by a recessive allele, while other disorders are caused by a single dominant allele. Therefore, we can draw a Punnett square to predict the number of offspring that may be affected with these diseases, just like we predicted for other traits in the previous lessons. Since Mendel’s time, we have also expanded our knowledge of inheritance and understand that genes are located on chromosomes. Now we can now explain special inheritance patterns that don’t fit Mendel’s rules. Sex-linked Inheritance What determines if a baby is a boy or a girl? Recall that you have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one pair of which are the sex chromosomes. Everyone has two sex chromosomes, X or Y, that determine our sex. Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one Y chromosome and one X chromosome. So if a baby inherits an X from the father and an X from the mother, it will be a girl. If the father’s sperm carries the Y chromosome, it will be a boy. Notice that a mother can only pass on an X chromosome, so the sex of the baby is determined by the father. The father has a 50 percent chance of passing on the Y or X chromosome, hence it is a 50 percent chance whether a child will be a boy or a girl. One special pattern of inheritance that doesn’t fit Mendel’s rules is sex-linked inheritance, referring to the inheritance of traits which are due to genes located on the sex chromosomes. The X chromosome and Y chromosome carry many genes and some of them code for traits that have nothing to do with determining sex. Since males and females do not have the same sex chromosomes, there will be differences between the sexes in how these sex-linked traits are expressed. One example of a sex-linked trait is red-green colorblindness. People with this type of colorblindness cannot distinguish between red and green and often see these colors as shades of brown (Figure 6.9). Boys are much more likely to be colorblind than girls. That’s because colorblindness is a sex-linked recessive trait. Boys only have one X chromosome, so if that chromosome carries the gene for colorblindness, they will be colorblind. As girls have two X chromosomes, a girl can have one X chromosome with the colorblind gene and one X chromosome with a normal gene for color vision. Since colorblindness is recessive, the dominant normal gene will mask the recessive colorblind gene. For a girl to be colorblind, she would have to inherit two genes for colorblindness, which is very unlikely. Many sex-linked traits are inherited in a recessive manner. ![Figure 6.9: A person with red-green colorblindness would not be able to see the number.](image) A woman can be a carrier of colorblindness, however. A carrier appears normal but is capable of passing on a genetic disorder to her child. Carriers for colorblindness have a heterozygous genotype of one colorblind allele and one normal allele. We can use a Punnett square to predict the probability of a carrier passing on the trait to her children. For example, if a woman who is a carrier for colorblindness has children, her boys would have a 50% chance of being colorblind and her girls have a 50% chance of being carriers. Human Genetic Disorders Some human genetic disorders are also X-linked or Y-linked, which means the faulty gene is carried on these sex chromosomes. Other genetic disorders are carried on one of the other 22 pairs of chromosomes; these chromosomes are known as autosomes or autosomal chromosomes. Some genetic disorders are caused by recessive or dominant alleles of a single gene on an autosome. These disorders would then have the same inheritance pattern as any other dominant or recessive trait. An example of an autosomal recessive genetic disorder is cystic fibrosis. Children with cystic fibrosis have excessively thick mucus in their lungs which makes it difficult for them to breathe. The inheritance of this recessive allele is the same as any other recessive allele, so a Punnett square can be used to predict the probability that two carriers of the disease will have a child with cystic fibrosis. Table 6.3: \| \| F \| f \| \|-------\|-----\|-----\| \| F \| FF \| Ff \| \| \| (normal) \| (carrier) \| \| f \| Ff \| ff \| \| \| (carrier) \| (affected) \| Another recessive trait that we mentioned previously was sickle cell anemia. A person with two recessive alleles for the sickle cell trait (aa) will have sickle cell disease. In this disease the hemoglobin protein is formed incorrectly and the person’s red blood cells are misshapen. A person who does not carry the sickle trait has a homozygous dominant genotype (AA). Remember the trait showed incomplete dominance, so a person who is heterozygous for the trait (Aa) would have some sickle-shaped cells and some normal red blood cells. You can also use a simple Punnett square to predict the inheritance of a dominant autosomal disorder, like Huntington’s disease. If one parent has Huntington’s disease, what is the chance of passing it on to their children? If you draw the Punnett square, you will see that there is a 50 percent chance of the disorder being passed on to the children. Huntington’s disease causes the brain’s cells to break down, leading to muscle spasms and personality changes. Unlike most other genetic disorders, the symptoms usually do not become apparent until middle age. Genetic diseases can also be carried on the sex-chromosomes. An example of a recessive sex-linked genetic disorder is hemophilia. A hemophiliac’s blood does not clot, or clots very slowly, so he or she can easily bleed to death. As with colorblindness, males are much more likely to be hemophiliacs since the gene is on the X chromosome. Because Queen Victoria of England was a carrier of hemophilia, this disorder was once common in European royal families. Several of her grandsons were afflicted with hemophilia, but none of her granddaughters were affected by the disease, although they were often carriers. Because at the time medical care was very primitive, often hemophiliacs bled to death, and usually at a young age. Queen Victoria’s grandson Frederick died at age 3, and her grandson Waldemar died at age 11 (Figure 6.10). ![The British Haemophilia Line](image) Figure 6.10: A pedigree chart shows all the phenotypes for a particular trait in the family. This pedigree chart traces back the occurrence of hemophilia in the British royal family. Those individuals with boxes around them are either female carriers of the trait or males inflicted with the trait. (13) Many genetic disorders are recessive, meaning that an individual must be homozygous for the recessive allele to be affected. Sometimes these disorders are lethal (deadly), however, heterozygous individuals (unaffected individuals with one dominant allele and one recessive allele) survive. This allows the allele that causes the genetic disorder to be maintained in a population’s gene pool. A gene pool is the complete set of unique alleles in a species or population. A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence. New mutations are constantly being generated in a gene pool. Pedigree Analysis A pedigree is a chart which shows the inheritance of a trait over several generations. A pedigree is commonly created for families, and it outlines the inheritance patterns of genetic disorders. Figure 6.11 shows a pedigree depicting recessive inheritance of a disorder through three generations. Scientists can tell the genetics of inheritance from studying a pedigree, such as whether the trait is sex-linked (on the X or Y chromosome) or autosomal (on a chromosome that does not determine sex), whether the trait is inherited in a dominant or recessive fashion, and possibly whether individuals with the trait are heterozygous or homozygous. ![Pedigree Diagram](image) Figure 6.11: In a pedigree, squares symbolize males, and circles represent females. A horizontal line joining a male and female indicates that the couple had offspring. Vertical lines indicate offspring which are listed left to right, in order of birth. Shading of the circle or square indicates an individual who has the trait being traced. The inheritance of the recessive trait is being traced. A is the dominant allele and a is recessive. (1) Chromosomal Disorders Some children are born with genetic defects that are not carried by a single gene. Instead, an error in a larger part of the chromosome or even in an entire chromosome causes the disorder. Usually the error happens when the egg or sperm is forming. One common example is Down syndrome (Figure 6.12). Children with Down syndrome are mentally disabled and have collection of recognizable physical deformities. Down syndrome occurs when a baby receives an extra chromosome from one of his or her parents. Usually a child would have one chromosome 21 from your mother and one chromosome 21 from your father. But in an individual with Down syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome 21. Down syndrome is also known as trisomy 21. ![A child with Down syndrome](image) Figure 6.12: A child with Down syndrome. (16) Another example of a chromosomal disorder is Klinefelter syndrome, in which a male inherits an extra “X” chromosome. These individuals have underdeveloped sex organs and elongated limbs, and have difficulty learning new things. Outside of chromosome 21 and the sex chromosomes, most embryos with extra chromosomes do not even make it to the fetal stage. Because chromosomes carry many, many genes, a disruption of a chromosome potentially causes severe problems with development of the fetus. Besides diseases caused by duplicated chromosomes, other chromosomal disorders occur when the structure of a chromosome is disrupted. For example, if a tiny portion of chromosome 5 is missing, the individual will have cri du chat (cat’s cry) syndrome. These individuals have Lesson Summary - Some human traits are controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes. - Human genetic disorders can be inherited through recessive or dominant alleles, and they can be located on the sex chromosomes or autosomes. - Changes in chromosome number can lead to disorders like Down syndrome. Review Questions 1. How many chromosomes do you have in each cell of your body? 2. How is Down syndrome inherited? 3. A son cannot inherit colorblindness from his father. Why not? 4. One parent is a carrier of the cystic fibrosis gene, while the other parent does not carry the allele. Can their child have cystic fibrosis? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.articlesbase.com/health-articles/what-is-haemophilia-412305.html - http://www.scribd.com/doc/1018249/LectureChromosomes-and-Human-Genetics-Guevedoces - http://geneticdisorderinfo.wikispaces.com/ - http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotype/karyotype.cfm - http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/vlabs/cardiology/index.html - http://en.wikipedia.org/ Vocabulary autosomes The chromosome other than the sex chromosomes. carrier A person who is heterozygous for a recessive genetic disorder; the person does not have the disease but can pass the disease allele to the next generation. sex-linked trait A trait that is due to a gene located on a sex chromosome, usually the X-chromosome. Points to Consider - Human cloning is illegal in many countries. Do you agree with these restrictions? • Why would it be helpful to know all the genes that make up human DNA? • It may be possible in the future to obtain the sequence of all your genes. Would you want to take advantage of this opportunity? Why or why not? 6.4 Lesson 6.4: Genetic Advances Lesson Objectives • Explain how clones are made. • Explain how vectors are made. • Explain what sequencing a genome tells us. • Describe how gene therapy works. Check Your Understanding • What part of the cell contains the genetic material? • What are the base pairing rules for DNA? Introduction Since Mendel’s time, there have been rapid advances in the understanding of genetics. As scientists understand better how DNA works, they can develop technologies that allow us to reveal the genetic secrets encoded in our DNA and even alter an organism’s DNA. Genetic engineering (or biotechnology or DNA technology) has helped us better understand and predict the inheritance of genetic diseases, produce new medicines, and even produce new food products. DNA technology has also made an impact on fighting crime. Because DNA is unique to an individual, the DNA in just a few hairs at a crime scene can help identify a criminal. This technology, known as DNA fingerprinting, has also helped innocent imprisoned people to appeal their case and clear their names. DNA technology has revolutionized not only criminal justice, but also many other aspects of our lives. Recombinant DNA Recombinant DNA is the combination of DNA from two different sources. It is useful in gene cloning and in identifying the function of a gene, as well as producing useful proteins. Human insulin for treating diabetes has been produced through recombinant DNA methods. In this process, a gene of interest (or piece of DNA of interest) is placed into a host cell, such as a bacterium, so the gene can be copied (and cloned) and the protein that results from that gene can be produced. To place the gene of interest into a host cell, a vector, or carrier molecule, is needed to carry foreign DNA into the host cell. Bacteria have small accessory rings of DNA in the cytoplasm, called plasmids. When putting foreign DNA into a bacterium (a host cell), the plasmids are often used as a vector. Viruses can also be used as vectors. The first step of making recombinant DNA involves a restriction enzyme that cuts the vector and the foreign (exogenous) DNA. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences, such as GAATTC as shown in Figure 6.13. There are more than 3,000 known restriction enzymes, most cutting the DNA at a unique sequence. This reaction results in the plasmid opening up a gap with “sticky ends,” which can attach with the complimentary base pairs on the sticky ends of the foreign DNA. Then the enzyme DNA ligase seals the foreign DNA in its new place inside the plasmid. These altered plasmids are introduced back into the bacteria, a process called transformation (Figure 6.14). The bacteria will express the foreign gene. ![GAATTC](image) Figure 6.13: Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences, in this example the sequence “GAATTC.” The enzyme cuts between the G and A on each strand, producing overhanging “sticky ends.” (5) One application of recombinant DNA technology is producing the protein insulin, which is needed to treat diabetes. Previously, insulin had been extracted from the pancreases of animals. Through recombinant DNA technology, bacteria were created that carry the human gene which codes for the production of insulin. These bacteria become tiny factories that produce this protein. A step-by-step depiction of the cloning of the insulin gene is shown below in (Figure 6.15). Cloning Cloning is the process of creating an exact replica of an organism. The clone’s DNA is exactly the same as the parent’s DNA. Bacteria and plants have long been able to clone themselves through processes of asexual reproduction. In animals, however, cloning does not happen naturally. Animals can now be cloned in a laboratory, however. In 1997, a sheep named Dolly was the first mammal ever to be successfully cloned. The process of producing an animal like Dolly Figure 6.14: This image shows a line drawing of a plasmid. The plasmid is drawn as two concentric circles that are very close together, with two large segments and one small segment depicted. The two large segments (1 and 2) indicate antibiotic resistances usually used in a screening procedure, and the small segment (3) indicates an origin of replication. The resulting DNA is a recombinant DNA molecule. (3) Figure 6.15: A step-by-step depiction of the cloning of the insulin gene. The plasmid is opened up with restriction enzymes and the gene of interest (human cDNA) is inserted into the plasmid with complementary linkers, producing the recombinant plasmid. The plasmid is transfected into bacterial cells, where the human protein is produced. (17) starts with a single cell from the animal that is going to be cloned. In the case of Dolly, cells from the mammary glands were taken from the adult that was to be cloned. These cells are called somatic, meaning they come from the body and are not gametes like sperm or egg. Remember that somatic cells have a diploid number of chromosomes. Next, the nucleus was removed from this cell. The nucleus was placed in a donor egg that had already had the nucleus removed. The new cell then divided after the stimulation of an electric shock, and development proceeded normally just as if the embryo had formed naturally. The resulting embryo was implanted in a surrogate mother sheep, where it continued its development. This process is shown in Figure 6.16. ![Cloning Process](image) Figure 6.16: To clone an animal, a nucleus from the animal’s cells are fused with an egg cell (in which the nucleus has been removed) from a donor. (14) Cloning is not always successful, though. Most of the time, this cloning process does not result in a healthy adult animal. The process has to be repeated many times until it works. In fact, 277 tries were needed to produce Dolly. This high failure rate is one reason that human cloning is banned in the United States. In order to produce a cloned human, many attempts would result in the surrogate mothers experiencing miscarriages, stillbirths, or deformities in the infant. There are also many additional ethical considerations related to human cloning. ### Human Genome Project A person’s genome is all of his or her genetic information; in other words, the human genome is all the information that makes us human. The Human Genome Project (Figure 6.17) was an international effort to sequence all 3 billion bases that make up our DNA and to identify within this code the over 20,000 human genes. Scientists also completed a chromosome map, identifying where the genes are located on each of the chromosomes. The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003. Though the Human Genome Project is finished, analysis of the data will continue for many years. There are many exciting applications of the Human Genome Project. The genetic basis for many diseases can be more easily determined, and now there are tests for over 1,000 genetic disorders. The National Institutes of Health, the United States government’s premiere biomedical research community, is also looking for ways to reduce the costs of sequencing so that people can have a map of their individual genome. Although some disorders are caused by a single gene, many other illnesses are caused by a combination of several genes and a person’s lifestyle. Analysis of your own genome could determine if you are at risk for specific diseases. Knowing you might be genetically prone to a certain disease would allow you to better seek preventive lifestyle changes and medical screenings. A genetic map shows the location (or loci) of a gene on a chromosome. Genetic maps are important tools to help researchers understand genes and genetic diseases. Knowing where genes are in relation to other genes and knowing the order of genes on a chromosome is an important aspect of human genetics. The frequency of recombination (crossing-over during prophase I of meiosis) allows geneticists to estimate the distance between loci. Because crossing-over occurs relatively rarely at any location along the chromosome, the frequency of recombination between two locations depends on their distance. The farther apart genes are on the same chromosome, the more likely there is to be a cross-over event between them. The likelihood of a cross-over event between two closely located genes (said to be linked) is small. Gene Therapy Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into a person’s cells to cure a genetic disorder. There are two main types of gene therapy; one done inside the body and one done outside the body. In ex vivo gene therapy, done outside the body, cells are removed from the patient and the proper gene is inserted using a virus as a vector. Then the modified cells are placed back into the patient. One of the first uses of this type of gene therapy was in the treatment of a young girl with a rare genetic disease, Adenosine deaminase deficiency, or ADA deficiency. People with this disorder are missing the ADA enzyme, which breaks down a toxin called deoxyadenosine. If the toxin is not broken down, it accumulates and destroys immune cells. As a result, individuals with ADA deficiency do not have a healthy immune system to fight off infections. In the gene therapy treatment for this disorder, bone marrow stem cells were taken from the girl’s body and the missing gene was inserted in these cells outside the body. Then the modified cells were put back into her bloodstream. This treatment proved sufficient to restore the function of her immune system, but only with continual repeated treatments. During in vivo gene therapy, done inside the body, the vector with the gene of interest is introduced directly into the patient and taken up by the patient’s cells. The vector is inserted where the gene product is needed. For example, cystic fibrosis gene therapy is targeted at the respiratory system, so a solution with the vector can be sprayed into the patient’s nose. Recently in vivo gene therapy was also used to partially restore the vision of three young adults with a rare type of retinal disease that is congenital, meaning present at birth. Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture There are many applications of genetic information, including applications in medicine and agriculture. These applications show daily the significance of biotechnology, and the impact biotechnology has on our society. Medicine As mentioned above, one application of recombinant DNA technology is producing the protein insulin. Using biotechnological techniques, the specific gene sequence that codes for human insulin was introduced into the bacteria E. coli. The transformed gene altered the genetic makeup of the bacterial cells, such that in a 24 hour period, billions of E. coli containing the human insulin gene resulted, producing human insulin to be administered to patients. Recombinant DNA technology has allowed mass quantities of insulin to be produced, treating the growing population that relies on this protein. Though the production of human insulin by recombinant DNA procedures is an extremely significant event, many other aspects of DNA technology are beginning to become reality. In medicine, modern biotechnology provides significant applications in such areas as pharmacogenomics, genetic testing (and prenatal diagnosis), and gene therapy. These applications use our knowledge of biology to improve our health and our lives. Many of these medical applications are based on the findings of the Human Genome Project. Agriculture Biotechnology has also led scientists to develop useful applications in agriculture and food science. These include the development of transgenic crops - the placement of genes into plants to give the crop a beneficial trait. Benefits include: - Improved yield from crops. - Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses. - Increased nutritional qualities of food crops. - Improved taste, texture or appearance of food. - Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals. Crops are obviously dependent on environmental conditions. Drought can destroy crop yields, as can too much rain or floods. But what if crops could be developed to withstand these harsh conditions? Biotechnology will allow the development of crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand harsh conditions. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are two significant factors affecting crop productivity. But there are crops that can withstand these harsh conditions. Why? Probably because of that plant’s genetics. So scientists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions, trying to identify and isolate the genes that control these beneficial traits. The genes could then be transferred into more desirable crops, with the hope of producing the same phenotypes in those crops. Thale cress (Figure 6.18), a species of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), is a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow and its DNA has been extensively characterized. Scientists have identified a gene from this plant, At-DBF2, that gives the plant resistance to some environmental stresses. When this gene is inserted into tomato and tobacco cells, the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat far better than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes could help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments. Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to a rice virus. In Africa, this virus destroys much of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections. Lesson Summary - Using recombinant DNA technology, a foreign gene can be inserted into an organism’s DNA. Cloning of mammals is still being perfected, but several cloned animals have been created by implanting the nucleus of a somatic cell into a cell in which the nucleus has been removed. The Human Genome Project produced a genetic map of all the human chromosomes and determined the sequence of every base pair in our DNA. Gene therapy involves treating an illness caused by a defective gene through the use of a vector to integrate a normal copy of the gene into the patient. Review Questions 1. What is the enzyme used to cut DNA at specific points? 2. What is the term for all the genetic information of the human species? 3. What are the rings of accessory DNA in bacteria that are often used as a vector in genetic engineering? 4. What is the term for producing identical copies of an organism? 5. Can gene therapy cure a disease caused by a virus? 6. What is the vehicle used to introduce foreign DNA into an organism? 7. What is one disease that genetic therapy can help treat? 8. What supplies the cytoplasm of the clone’s cells during the cloning of an organism? 9. What is one application of recombinant DNA technology? 10. Is gene therapy for ADA deficiency a permanent fix? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml - http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/genetics/sect4.htm - http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/whataregd/ada/ - http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2007/nov/07112003.html - http://www.le.ac.uk/ge/genie/vgec/sc/genomics.html - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA - http://www.hhmi.org/biointermediate/vlabs/transgenic_fly/index.html - http://www.groundreport.com/World/Scientists-to-clone-rhino Vocabulary cloning Creating an identical copy of an individual with the same genes. DNA ligase Enzyme that joins DNA fragments together. gene therapy Treatment that provides a new gene to replace a defective gene; potentially “cures” a genetic disease. human genome project International effort to sequence all the base pairs in human DNA. plasmid An accessory circle of DNA in bacteria. recombinant DNA DNA formed by the combination of DNA from two different sources, such as placing a human gene into a bacterial plasmid. somatic cell A body cell; not a gamete. transformation The process by which bacteria pick up foreign DNA and incorporate it in their genome. vector A vehicle, such as a plasmid, used to transfer foreign DNA into an organism. Points to Consider Next we begin to discuss evolution, the change in species over time. - Fossils provide evidence of evolution, but what is a fossil? - If two animals are similar in structure, would you guess they are closely related? Why or why not? Image Sources (1) Rozzychan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PedigreechartB.png. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ishihara_9.png. Public Domain. (3) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Example_plasmid.png. GNU-FDL. (4) NIH. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Codominant.jpg. Public Domain. (5) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Restriction_enzyme.jpg. Public Domain. (6) NIH. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Redbloodcells.jpg. Public Domain. (7) David Remahl. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Bellcurve.svg. The creator of this work allows anyone to use it for any purpose including unrestricted redistribution, commercial use, and modification.. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Human_male_karyotype_high_resolution.jpg. Public Domain. (9) Gregor Mendel. Public Domain. (10) Thale cress.. GNU-FDL. (11) The Laws of Heredity.. Public Domain. (12) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Sicklecells.jpg. Public Domain. (13) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Haemophilia_family_tree.GIF. Public Domain. (14) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Cloning_diagram_english.png. GNU-FDL. (15) http://www.flickr.com/photos/tinfoilraccoon/1463287867/. CC-BY 2.0. (16) A child with Down syndrome.. CC-BY 2.0. (17) Dr. Kathleen A. Marrs. http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.madison.k12.ky.us/ms/departments/science/whatisbiology/assests/pic17b.gif. (18) The Punnett Square of a cross between two purple flowers (Bb). GNU-FDL. www.ck12.org 186 Chapter 7 Evolution 7.1 Lesson 7.1: Evolution by Natural Selection Lesson Objectives • Understand that inherited traits, such as the basic color of skin or a person’s bone structure, are passed on to future generations. • Understand that acquired traits, such as a tan or being good at soccer, are not passed on to future generations (they are not inherited). • Understand that evolution is change of an inherited trait in a population over many generations, such as the change of the color of moths living on an island over many generations. • Understand that natural selection means that organisms with traits that help them survive in their environment are more likely to survive than organisms without that beneficial trait. • Understand how evolution explains: – Why populations change. – Why there are so many different kinds of organisms on Earth. – Why some organisms that look alike only distantly related. – Why some organisms that look very different actually closely related? • Know that both Darwin and Wallace developed the theory of evolution by natural selection at the same time. Check Your Understanding • What does the word evolution refer to when used in day to day conversations? • What does biological evolution mean? Who primarily proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection? Introduction Biological evolution is change in species over time. The idea of evolution was proposed by many people before Charles Darwin (Figure 7.1) began collecting evidence for the idea. Scientists for hundreds of years had hypothesized that species change over time. But it was not until Darwin published his research and detailed analysis that the idea of evolution started to gain widespread acceptance. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection brings all fields of biology together and illuminates nearly every aspect of biology. As one famous biologist said, “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.” ![Charles Darwin](image) Figure 7.1: Charles Darwin was one of the most influential scientists who has ever lived. Darwin introduced the world to the theory of evolution by natural selection, which laid the foundation for how we understand the living world today. (18) Evolution by natural selection explains: - The tremendous variety of organisms on Earth. - Why some organisms that resemble each other are distantly related. - Why some organisms that do not resemble each other are closely related. There are three parts to Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection. 1. Evolution, which is change in species over multiple generations (Figure 7.2). 2. Natural selection, in which individuals of a population that are most likely to survive and reproduce are also most likely to pass on traits that have a genetic basis to any offspring. 3. Adaptation, which are traits that help a plant or animal survive and reproduce in a particular environment. Adaptations are the result of natural selection. For example, light-colored moths on dark trees might be easier for birds to see and catch than dark moths on dark-colored trees. If the moths’ color has a genetic basis, then after many generations of birds catching more light moths than dark moths, the population of moths will consist mostly of dark moths. ![Skeletons of Gibbon, Orangutan, Chimpanzee, Gorilla, and Man](image) Photographically reduced from Diagrams of the natural size (except that of the Gibbon, which was twice as large as nature), drawn by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins from specimens in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Figure 7.2: Humans and the other apes in this drawing all evolved from a common apelike ancestor. (2) In everyday English, “evolution” simply means to “change” or a “stepwise change from simple to complex.” In biology, evolution means change in the inherited traits of a group of organisms over multiple generations (Figure 7.3). Biological evolution has changed biologists’ understanding of all life on Earth. ### Darwin’s Observations Most people in the world did not become aware of the theory of evolution until 1859, when Charles Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. This book described the observations and evidence that he collected over 20 years of intensive research, beginning with a five-year voyage around the world on a British research ship, the HMS Beagle. During this five-year voyage (Figure 7.4), Darwin was able to make observations about plants and animals spread around the world, and to collect specimens to study when he returned to England. Each time the Beagle stopped at a port to do some Figure 7.3: Human earlobes may be free or attached. You inherited the particular shape of your earlobes from your parents. Inherited traits are influenced by genes, which are passed on to offspring and future generations. Your summer tan is not passed on to your offspring. Natural selection only operates on traits like earlobe shape that have a genetic basis, not on traits like a summer tan that are "acquired." (4) Trading, Darwin went on land to explore and look for the local plants, animals, and fossils. One of the most important things Darwin did was to keep a diary. He took extremely detailed notes and drawings about everything he saw as well as his thoughts. Figure 7.4: Charles Darwin’s famous five year voyage was aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836. (7) The Galápagos Islands The around the world voyage of the HMS Beagle was mostly to map the coastline of South America. Darwin’s best known discoveries were made on the Galápagos Islands (Figure 7.5), a group of 16 volcanic islands near the equator about 600 miles from the west coast of South America. Darwin was able to spend months on foot exploring the islands. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection was a result of his observations and over 20 years of examining the specimens he had collected and sent back to England, many of which came from these islands. ![Galápagos Islands](image) Figure 7.5: The Galápagos Islands are a group of 16 volcanic islands 972 km off the west coast of South America. The islands are famous for their many species found nowhere else. (35) Darwin was amazed by the array of life he saw on the Galápagos Islands. He saw animals unlike anything he had ever seen before. Darwin was struck by how the same kind of animal differed from one island to another. For example, the iguanas (large lizards) differed between islands (Figure 7.6). The members of one iguana species spent much of their time swimming and diving underwater for seaweed, while those of another iguana species lived on land and ate cactus. In England, he was accustomed to watching cormorants fly, so he was surprised to find flightless cormorants on the islands alongside flying cormorants. ### Giant Tortoises Giant tortoises (Figure 7.7), large enough for two men to ride on, plodded across the islands and foraged on super tough leaves. Some of the tortoise species were found on only one island. Darwin was fascinated by the number of ways that organisms were well-suited to their environments. Even the tortoise shells were specially adapted to the conditions. Tortoises that ate plants near the ground had rounded shells, while the tortoises that stretched their necks to reach plants higher in shrubs had shells that bent upwards, allowing them to stretch their necks upward (Figure 7.8). Figure 7.6: The Galápagos land iguanas are among the signature animals of the Galápagos Islands. (32) Figure 7.7: The name “Galápagos” means “giant tortoise.” When Darwin arrived on the Galápagos Islands, he was amazed by the size and variety of shapes of these animals. The giant tortoise is a unique animal found only in the Galápagos Islands. There only about 200 tortoises remaining on these islands. (30) Darwin’s Finches The most extensively studied animals on the Galápagos are the finch species (birds) (Figure 7.9). When Darwin first observed the finches on the islands, he did not even realize they were all finches. But when he studied them further, he realized they were all the same type of bird, and that each island had its own distinct species of finch. The birds on different islands had many similarities, but their beaks differed in size and shape. In his diary, Darwin pointed out how each animal is well-suited for its particular environment. The shape of the finch’s beaks on each island were well-matched with the seeds available on their particular island, but not the seeds on other islands. A larger and stronger beak was needed to break open large seeds and a small beak was needed to feed on some of the smallest seeds. Darwin also noticed how different species were distributed around the world. The finch, tortoise and other species found on the Galápagos Islands were similar to species on South America, the nearest continent. Yet they also differed. Likewise, species he saw on islands near Africa were similar to, but different from species on Africa. Figure 7.9: Four of Darwin’s finch species from the Galápagos Islands. The birds came from the same finch ancestor. They evolved as they adapted to different food resources on different islands. The first bird uses its large beak to crack open and eat large seeds. Bird #3 is able to pull small seeds out of small spaces. (31) Return to England When Darwin returned to England five years later, he did not rush to announce his discoveries. Unlike other naturalists before him, Darwin did not want to present any ideas unless he had strong evidence supporting them. Instead, once Darwin returned to England, he spent over twenty years examining specimens, talking with other scientists and collecting more information before he presented his theories. Darwin’s observations eventually resulted in the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection. His now famous book, The Origin of Species is a diary of his explorations and discussion on how he interpreted his observations (Figure 7.10). Other Influences on Darwin How did Darwin come up with his theories? Some of Darwin’s ideas conflicted with widely held beliefs, including those from religious leaders, such as: - All organisms never change and never go extinct; they are fixed. - The world is only about 6,000 years old. It was because of these widely held beliefs that delayed Darwin from presenting his findings. Charles Darwin was influenced by the ideas from several people. Before his voyage on the Beagle: Figure 7.10: Charles Darwin presented the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection in this book. The theories were based on evidence he collected and tested. (29) 1. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed the idea that evolution occurs. However, Darwin differed with Lamarck on several other points. Lamarck proposed that traits acquired during one’s lifetime could be passed to the next generation. 2. Darwin’s grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, wrote a book called Zoonomia. Charles Darwin was influenced by many of his grandfather’s ideas including his descriptions of how species change (evolve) through artificial selection. During artificial selection, people choose specific traits to pass to the next generation, such as with horse or dog breeding (See below). 3. Charles Lyell, a well-known geologist and one of Darwin’s instructors. Darwin learned about geology, paleontology and the changing Earth from Lyell. These findings suggested the Earth must be much older than 6,000 years. 4. Thomas Malthus: Darwin’s ideas of natural selection were inspired by reading an essay by Thomas Malthus, an economist who suggested that humans could overpopulate and potentially exhaust food supplies. Darwin thought this must be especially true for animals, as they have a tendency to have more offspring than people have. There would therefore be a competition for survival. 5. Charles Darwin came upon some of his ideas about natural selection and adaptations from reading about artificial selection and breeding dogs. All dogs, from Chihuahuas to St. Bernards are part of the same species as wolves (Canis lupus). Humans created the different breeds of dogs by selecting dogs with specific traits to breed together. For example, greyhounds were created by selecting the fastest runners and breeding them together (Figure 7.11). 6. After the Voyage of the Beagle: Alfred Russel Wallace, another naturalist, also developed a theory of evolution by natural selection. Alfred Wallace toured South America and came up with a very similar theory of evolution by natural selection at the same time that Darwin did. Darwin and Wallace presented their theories and evidence in public together. Because of the vastness of Darwin’s data, and his book, he is mostly credited and associated with this theory. Natural Selection and Adaptation The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection means that the inherited traits of a population change over time through natural selection. Inherited traits are features that are passed from one generation to the next. For example, your eye color is an inherited trait (you inherited from your parents). Acquired traits are features such strong muscles from working out. Natural selection happens when some organisms have traits that make them better suited (they have better accommodation) to live in a certain environment than others. They are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass their traits on to future generations than those without the special traits. The process of natural selection helps us understand how organisms appear to be so well suited or adapted to their environments. Every plant and animal depends on its traits to survive. Survival may include getting food, building homes, and Darwin’s grandfather had a big influence on Darwin’s ideas by introducing him to artificial selection of dogs and horses. Humans have created hundreds of dog breeds by selecting which dogs to breed based on certain features, such as size, coloration, speed, or facial features. (23) attracting mates. Most of these traits have been changed through natural selection so they allow a plant, animal, or bacteria to survive and reproduce relatively well in their environments. These traits are called adaptations. As environments have changed considerably over time, organisms must constantly adapt to those environments. It is the great diversity of species that increases the chance that at least some organisms adapt and survive any major changes in the environment. Imagine how in winter dark fur makes a rabbit easy for fox to spot and catch in the snow. Natural selection suggests that white-fur is an advantageous trait that improves the chance that a rabbit will survive, reproduce and pass the trait of white fur on to future generations (Figure 7.12). Dark fur rabbits will become uncommon. ![Arctic Hare](image) Figure 7.12: In winter, the fur of arctic hares turns white. The camouflage may make it more difficult for fox and other predators to locate hares against the white snow. (27) ### Polygenic Inheritance and Natural Selection But natural selection leading to evolution does not just select for certain individuals, it selects for groups. More than one individual must adapt to the environment to maintain a population. Natural selection determines which groups of organisms survive, based on their traits, and which do not, that is, natural selection determines the differential survival of groups of organisms. Although some traits are determined by a single gene, many are influenced by more than one gene (polygenic). The result of polygenic inheritance is a continuous spectrum of phenotypic values which often show a bell curve pattern of variation. Given this pattern of phenotypic variability, natural selection can take three forms (Figure 7.14). We will use the hypothetical color distribution in this figure to illustrate the three Figure 7.13: Natural selection determines the survival of groups of organisms. Flight as shown in these geese is an evolutionary step that probably aided in the survival of many birds. (15) types of selection. Directional selection shifts the frequency curve away from the average by favoring individuals with an extreme form of the variation. The curve would still be bell-shaped, but it would have shifted to the left or right, in the direction of the lighter or darker alleles. Stabilizing selection selects for a group of phenotypically average individuals, with individuals with either extreme phenotype selected against. Disruptive selection selects for groups of individuals with extreme phenotypes, selecting against individuals with the average phenotype. Lesson Summary - Evolution is change in species over multiple generations. - Natural selection is how evolution occurs. - Adaptations are the result of natural selection. - Charles Darwin is credited with developing the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection. - Darwin collected much of his evidence on a five year voyage around the world, with much of his data collected on the Galápagos Islands. - The work of many others contributed to Darwin’s theory. Review Questions 1. What is biological evolution? Figure 7.14: Three types of selection can alter allele frequencies, causing microevolution. The effect of stabilizing selection (1) is to select for the average phenotype, reducing variation. Disruptive selection (2) results in two different populations, which may eventually be isolated from one another. Directional selection (3) selects for a group of individuals with a single characteristic. (20) 2. What is natural selection? 3. What is adaptation? 4. What is the difference between an inherited trait and an acquired trait? 5. What was the name of the ship that Darwin traveled on? 6. What is the name of the islands where Darwin studied evolution? 7. A giraffe’s long neck allows the giraffe to eat leaves from high in the tree. This is an example of an ________________. 8. Who proposed a theory of evolution by natural selection that was similar to Darwin’s theory? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Stein, Sara, The Evolution Book, Workman, N.Y., 1986. - Yeh, Jennifer, Modern Synthesis, (From Animal Sciences). - Darwin, Charles, Origin of the Species, Broadview Press (Sixth Edition), 1859. - Ridley, Matt, The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature, Perennial Books, 2003. - Ridley, Matt, Genome, Harper Collins, 2000. - Sagan, Carl, Cosmos, Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 2006. - Carroll, Sean B., The Making of the Fittest: DNA and the Ultimate Forensic Record of Evolution, Norton, 2006. - Dawkins, Richard, The Blind Watchmaker, W.W. Norton & Company, 1996. - Dawkins, Richard, The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press, 1989. - Diamond, Jared, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal, HarperCollins, 2006. - Mayr, Ernst, What Evolution Is, Basic Books, 2001. - Zimmer, Carl, Smithsonian Intimate Guide to Human Origins, Smithsonian Press, 2008. - http://en.wikipedia.org/ Vocabulary acquired trait A feature that an organism gets during its lifetime in response to the environment (not from genes); not passed on to future generations through genes. adaptation Beneficial traits that help an organism survive in its environment. Organisms with beneficial traits are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass their traits on to future generations than those without the special traits. These traits are called adaptations. artificial selection Selection in which people choose specific traits to pass to the next generation, such as with horse or dog breeding. evolution A process in which something passes by degrees to a different stage, such as a living organism turning into a more advanced or mature organism; the change of the inherited traits of a group of organisms over many generations. evolution by natural selection The changes in the inherited traits of a population from one generation to the next; due to a process where organisms that are best suited to their environments have greater survival and reproductive success. Galápagos Islands A group of islands in the Pacific off South America; owned by Ecuador; known for unusual animal life. Many scientists, including Charles Darwin made many discoveries that led to the theory of evolution by natural selection while studying the plants and animals on these islands. inherited traits Features that are passed from one generation to the next. natural selection Results when some organisms have traits that make them better suited to live in a certain environment than others; they are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass their traits on to future generations than those without the special traits. species A group of individuals that are genetically related and can breed to produce fertile young. trait A feature or characteristic of an organism. For example, your height, hair color, and eye shape are physical traits. Points to Consider - Evolution by natural selection is supported by extensive scientific evidence. What do you think this evidence consists of? 7.2 Lesson 7.2: Evidence of Evolution Lesson Objectives - Understand that the scientific theory of biological evolution is based on extensive physical evidence and testing. This includes: - differences between fossils in different layers of rock - the age of rocks and fossils Check Your Understanding - Where did Charles Darwin collect evidence of evolution and what kinds of evidence did he find? - What is natural selection? - What kinds of traits change through evolution? Introduction Though the idea of evolution had been proposed prior to Charles Darwin, most people think of Darwin’s name when they think of evolution. Unlike others before him who based their ideas on speculation, opinions, myths, or folklore, Darwin’s theories were based on a tremendous amount of scientific evidence. In 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace first presented several forms of evidence of evolution. Their evidence included: - fossils of extinct species from different eras - similarities between the embryos of different species - physical traits of different species - the behavior of different species - the distributions of different plant and animal species around the world. Darwin and other 19th century scientists came to the conclusions they did without knowing anything about molecular biology. Today, even more evidence of evolution by natural selection is coming from molecular biology and genetics. Genetics is also helping explain the mechanisms of how evolution occurs. The Fossil Record Paleontologists are the scientists who study fossils to learn about life in the past. Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the distant past. Examples of fossils include bones, teeth, impressions, and leaves. Paleontologists compare the features of species from different periods in history. With this information, they try to unravel how species have evolved over millions of years (Figure 26.2). This Figure 7.15: Evolution of the horse. Fossil evidence, depicted by the skeletal fragments, demonstrates evolutionary milestones in this process. Notice the 57 million year evolution of the horse leg bones and teeth. Especially obvious is the transformation of the leg bones from having four distinct digits to the hoof formation of today’s horse. (3) method works better with some species than others. For example, it is difficult to track the evolution of bacteria from fossils, because their single cells do not last well as fossils. Until recently, fossils were the main source of evidence of evolution (Figures 7.16 and 7.17). The location of each fossil in layers of rocks provides clues to the age of the species and how species evolved in the past. Older materials and fossils are deeper in the earth; newer fossils and materials are closer to the surface. ![Fossil Image](image) Figure 7.16: A fossil is the remains of a plant or animal that existed some time in the distant past. Fossils, such as this one, were found in rocks or soil that was laid down long ago. (17) Fossils and the rocks they are embedded in provide evidence of how life and environmental conditions have changed throughout Earth's history. They also help us understand how the past and present distribution of life on Earth is affected by earthquakes, volcanoes, and shifting seas, and other movements of the continents. The Age of Rock Layers and Fossils The many layers of sedimentary rock provide evidence of the long history of Earth and the order of life forms whose remains are found in the rocks. The youngest layers are not always found on top, because of folding, breaking, and uplifting of layers. If the layers of earth were tilted by earthquakes or volcanoes, geologists can figure out which layers came from the deepest parts of the Earth. The fossils and the order in which fossils appear is called the fossil record. This record provides important records of how species have evolved, divided and gone extinct. Methods used to date the age of rocks and fossils make it possible to determine when these events Figure 7.17: About 40 to 60 million years ago this mosquito and fly were trapped in the gooey stuff, called resin that comes from trees. The fossils in the movie Jurassic Park, were trapped in resin. (14) Geologists use a method called radiometric dating to determine the age of rocks and fossils in each layer of rock. This technique measures the decay rate of radioactive materials in each rock layer (Figure 7.18). Radiometric dating has been used to determine that the oldest known rocks on Earth are between 4-5 billion years old. The oldest fossils are between 3-4 billion years old. Vestigial Structures Millions of species of animals, plants and microorganisms are alive today. Even though two different species may not look similar, they may have similar internal structures, and chemical processes that indicate they can have a common ancestor. Some of the most interesting kinds of evidence for evolution are body parts that have lost their use through evolution (Figure 7.19). Most birds need their wings to fly. But the wings on an ostrich have lost their original use. These are called vestigial structures. Penguins do not use their wings to fly in the air; however they do use them to "fly" in the water. A whale's pelvic bones—which were once attached to legs—are also vestigial structures (Figure 7.20). If you look at an x-ray of the bones in your back (called vertebrae), you will see several Figure 7.18: This device, called a spectrophotometer can be used to measure the level of radioactive decay of certain elements in rocks and fossils to determine their age. (9) Figure 7.19: Mole rats live under ground where they do not need eyes to find their way around. This mole’s eyes are covered by skin. Body parts that do not serve any function are vestigial structures. (22) Figure 7.20: The bones in your arms and hands have the same bone pattern as those in the wings, legs, and feet of the animals pictured above. How have the bones adapted for different uses in each animal? (6) vertebrae that come under your hips. These are called your tailbone. We do not use these small vertebrae; they are further evidence of our evolution. Embryological Evidence Some of the oldest evidence of evolution comes from embryology, the study of how organisms develop. An embryo is an animal or plant in its earliest stages of development, before it is born or hatched. Centuries ago, people recognized that the embryos of many different species have similar appearances (Figure 7.21). The embryos of some species are even difficult to tell apart. Many of these animals do not differ much in appearance until they develop further. Many traits of one type of animal appear in the embryo of another type of animal. For example, fish embryos and human embryos both have gill slits. In fish they develop into gills, but in humans they disappear before birth (Figure 7.22). The similarities between embryos suggests that these animals are related and have common ancestors. For example, humans did not evolve from chimpanzees. But the similarities between the embryos of both species may be due to our development from a common ancestor with chimpanzees. As our common ancestor evolved, both humans and chimpanzees developed different traits. Figure 7.21: This drawing was made to show the similarities between the embryos of many species. Embryos of many different kinds of animals: mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, etc. look very similar. (36) Figure 7.22: This is a six week old human embryo. Notice the similarities between this embryo and those of the other animals in figure 3. (33) Similarities Between Molecules and Genomes Molecular Clocks Arguably, some of the most significant evidence of evolution comes from examining the molecules and DNA found in all organisms (Figure 7.23). The field of molecular biology did not emerge until the 1940s and has since confirmed and extended the conclusions about evolution drawn from other forms of evidence. Molecular clocks are used in molecular evolution to relate the time that two species diverged to the number of differences measured between the species’ DNA sequences or protein amino acid sequences. These clocks are sometimes called gene clocks or evolutionary clocks. The fewer the differences the less time since the divergence of the species. For example, a chicken and a gorilla will have more differences between their DNA and protein amino acid sequences than a gorilla and an orangutan. This provides additional evidence that the gorilla and orangutan are evolutionarily closer related than the gorilla and the chicken. Molecular clocks, combined with other forms of evidence, such as evidence from the fossil record, has provided considerable evidence to estimate how long ago various groups of organisms diverged evolutionarily from one another. Molecular Genetics The development of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in the genomes of all organisms (Figure 7.24). It also provides new information about the relationships among species and how evolution occurs. Molecular genetics provides evidence of evolution such as: - the same biochemical building blocks – such as amino acids and nucleotides - are responsible for life in all organisms, from bacteria to plants and animals - DNA and RNA determines the development of all organisms - the similarities and differences between the genomes, the gene sequences of each species, reveal patterns of evolution. Lesson Summary - Fossil evidence, depicted by the skeletal fragments, demonstrates evolutionary milestones. - Fossils and the rocks they are embedded in provide evidence of how life and environmental conditions have changed throughout Earth’s history. - The fossils and the order in which fossils appear is called the fossil record. Figure 7.23: Almost all organisms are made from DNA with the same building blocks. The genomes (all of the genes in an organism) of all mammals are almost identical. (24) Figure 7.24: This is a map of the genes on just one of the 46 human chromosomes. Similarities and differences between the genomes (the genetic makeup) of different organisms reveal the relationships between the species. The human and chimpanzee genomes are almost identical—just about 1.2% differences between the two genomes. The complexity of the map signifies close evolutionary relationships when the genomes are highly similar. (13) - Geologists use a method called radiometric dating to determine the age of rocks and fossils in each layer of rock. - Radiometric dating has been used to determine that the oldest known rocks on Earth are between 4-5 billion years old. The oldest fossils are between 3-4 billion years old. - Body parts that do not serve any function are called vestigial structures. - Vestigial structures indicate that two species have a recent common ancestor. - The similarities between embryos suggest that animals are related and have common ancestors. - The same biochemical building blocks – such as amino acids and nucleotides - are responsible for life in all organisms, from bacteria to plants and animals. - DNA and RNA determines the development of all organisms. - The similarities and differences between the genomes, the gene sequences of each species, reveal patterns of evolution. Review Questions 1. What are the different kinds of evidence of evolution? 2. How do geologists determine the age of rocks and fossils? 3. What is an embryo? 4. What is a vestigial structure? 5. What is an example of a vestigial structure? 6. What is a genome? 7. What is the most convincing evidence of evolution? 8. How do the embryos of different species support the idea of evolution? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Stein, Sara, The Evolution Book, Workman, N.Y., 1986. - Yeh, Jennifer, Modern Synthesis. (From Animal Sciences). - Darwin, Charles, Origin of the Species, Broadview Press (Sixth Edition), 1859. - Ridley, Matt, The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature. Perennial Books, 2003. - Ridley, Matt, Genome, Harper Collins, 2000. - Sagan, Carl, Cosmos, Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 2006. - Carroll, Sean B., The Making of the Fittest: DNA and the Ultimate Forensic Record of Evolution, Norton, 2006. - Dawkins, Richard, The Blind Watchmaker, W.W. Norton & Company, 1996. - Dawkins, Richard, The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press, 1989. - Diamond, Jared, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal, HarperCollins, 2006. - Mayr, Ernst, What Evolution Is, Basic Books, 2001. - Zimmer, Carl, Smithsonian Intimate Guide to Human Origins, Smithsonian Press, 2008. - [http://en.wikipedia.org/](http://en.wikipedia.org/) Vocabulary embryo An animal or plant in its earliest stages of development, before it is born or hatched. embryology The study of how organisms develop. fossil The preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the distant past; examples include bones, teeth, impressions, and leaves. fossil record Fossils and the order in which fossils appear; provides important records of how species have evolved, divided and gone extinct. genetics The scientific study of heredity. genome All of the genes in an organism. paleontologists Scientists who study fossils to learn about life in the past. radiometric dating A method to determine the age of rocks and fossils in each layer of rock; measures the decay rate of radioactive materials in each rock layer. vestigial structure Body part that has lost its use through evolution, such as a whale’s pelvic bones. Points to Consider - How do you think new species evolve? - How long do you think it takes for a new species to evolve? 7.3 Lesson 7.3: Macroevolution Lesson Objectives - Students will understand the differences between macroevolution and microevolution. - Students will understand that speciation is the formation of new species. - Students will understand the mechanisms of speciation. Check Your Understanding - Why can’t an individual person evolve? Why can only groups evolve over many generations? - What causes a species or a population to evolve? Introduction Small changes or large changes, how does evolution occur? It is easy to think that many small changes, as they accumulate over time, may gradually lead to a new species. Or is it possible that due to severe changes in the environment, large changes are needed to allow species to adapt to the new surroundings? Or are both probable methods of evolution? Microevolution and Macroevolution Microevolution You already know that evolution is the change in species over time, due to the change of how often an inherited trait occurs in a population over many generations. Most evolutionary changes are small and do not lead to the creation of a new species. These small changes are called microevolution. An example of microevolution is the evolution of pesticide resistance in mosquitoes. Imagine that you have a pesticide that kills most of the mosquitoes in your state one year. As a result, the only remaining mosquitoes are the pesticide resistant mosquitoes. When these mosquitoes reproduce the next year, they produce more mosquitoes with the pesticide resistant trait. This is an example of microevolution because the number of mosquitoes with this trait changed. However, this evolutionary change did not create a new species of mosquito, because the pesticide resistant mosquitoes can still reproduce with other mosquitoes if they were put together. Macroevolution Macroevolution refers to much bigger evolutionary changes that result in new species. Macroevolution may happen: 1. when many microevolution steps lead to the creation of a new species, 2. as a result of a major environmental change, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes or an asteroid hitting Earth, which changes the environment so much that natural selection leads to large changes in the traits of a species. After thousands of years of isolation from each other, some of Darwin’s finch population, which was discussed in the Evolution by Natural Selection lesson, will not or cannot breed with other finch populations when they are brought together. Since they do not breed together, they are classified as separate species. Genotype or Phenotype? Natural selection acts on the phenotype - the traits or characteristics - of an individual, not on the underlying genotype. For many traits, the homozygous genotype, $AA$ for example, has the same phenotype as the heterozygous $Aa$ genotype. If both an $AA$ and $Aa$ individual have the same phenotype, the environment cannot distinguish between them. So natural selection cannot choose a homozygous individual over a heterozygous individual. If homozygous recessive $aa$ individuals are selected against, that is they are not well adapted to their environment, acting on the phenotype allows the $a$ allele to be maintained in the population through heterozygous $Aa$ individuals. Carriers Because natural selection acts on the phenotype, if an allele is lethal in a homozygous individual, $aa$ for example, it will not be lethal in a heterozygous $Aa$ individual. These heterozygous $Aa$ individuals will then act as carriers of the $a$ allele. This allele is then maintained in the population’s gene pool. The gene pool is the complete set of alleles within a population. Tay-Sachs disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. It is caused by a genetic defect in a single gene with one defective copy of that gene inherited from each parent, $rr$ for example. Affected individuals usually die from complications of the disease in early childhood. Affected individuals must have unaffected parents, each being a carrier of the defective allele, so the parents are heterozygous $Rr$. This lethal allele is maintained in the gene pool through these unsuspecting heterozygous individuals; they do not show any symptoms of the disease, so most individuals do not get tested to see if they are carriers. ![Figure 7.25: Tay-Sachs disease is inherited in the autosomal recessive pattern. Each parent is an unaffected carrier of the lethal allele.](image) Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium The Hardy-Weinberg model (sometimes called a law) states that a population will remain at genetic equilibrium - with constant (unchanging) allele and genotype frequencies and no evolution - as long as five conditions are met: 1. No mutation (no change in the DNA sequence) 2. No migration (no moving into or out of a population) 3. Very large population size 4. Random mating (mating not based on preference) 5. No natural selection. These five conditions rarely occur in nature. For example, it is highly unlikely that new mutations are not constantly generated. If these five conditions are met, the frequencies of genotypes within a population can be determined given the phenotypic frequencies. The Hardy-Weinberg Equation For example, let’s use a hypothetical rabbit population of 100 rabbits (200 alleles) to determine allele frequencies for color: - 9 albino rabbits (represented by the alleles bb) and - 91 brown rabbits (49 homozygous [BB] and 42 heterozygous [Bb]). The gene pool contains 140 B alleles \[49 + 49 + 42\] (70%) and 60 b alleles \[9 + 9 + 42\] (30%) – which have gene frequencies of 0.7 and 0.3, respectively. If we assume that alleles sort independently and segregate randomly as sperm and eggs form, and that mating and fertilization are also random, the probability that an offspring will receive a particular allele from the gene pool is identical to the frequency of that allele in the population: - BB: $0.7 \times 0.7 = 0.49$ - Bb: $0.7 \times 0.3 = 0.21$ - bB: $0.3 \times 0.7 = 0.21$ - bb: $0.3 \times 0.3 = 0.09$ If we calculate the frequency of genotypes among the offspring, they are identical to the genotype frequencies of the parents. There are 9% bb albino rabbits and 91% BB and Bb brown rabbits. Allele frequency remains constant as well. The population is stable – at a Hardy-Weinberg genetic equilibrium. A useful equation generalizes the calculations we’ve just completed. Variables include - $p$ = the frequency of one allele (we’ll use allele $B$ here) and - $q$ = the frequency of the second allele ($b$ in this example). We will use only two alleles (so $p + q$ must equal 1), but similar equations can be written for more alleles. Allele frequency equals the chance of any particular gamete receiving that allele. Therefore, when egg and sperm combine, the probability of any genotype is the product of the probabilities of the alleles in that genotype. So: Probability of genotype $BB = p \times p = p^2$ and Probability of genotype $Bb = (p \times q) + (q \times p) = 2pq$ and Probability of genotype $bb = q \times q = q^2$ We have included all possible genotypes, so the probabilities must add to 1.0. In our example $0.49 + 2(0.21) + 0.9 = 1$. Our equation becomes: \| $p^2$ \| + \| $2 \ pq$ \| + \| $q^2$ \| = \| 1 \| \|-------\|---\|----------\|---\|-------\|---\|---\| \| frequency of genotype $BB$ \| \| frequency of genotype $Bb$ \| \| frequency of genotype $bb$ \| \| \| This is the Hardy-Weinberg equation, which describes the relationship between allele frequencies and genotype frequencies for a population at equilibrium. Genetic Drift Recall that the third requirement for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a very large population size. This is because variations in allele frequencies that occur by chance are minimal in large populations. In small populations, random variations in allele frequencies can significantly influence the "survival" of any allele. Random changes in allele frequencies in small populations is known as genetic drift. As the population (and therefore the gene pool) is small, genetic drift could have substantial effects on the traits and diversity of a population. Many biologists think that genetic drift is a major cause of microevolution. The Origin of Species The creation of a new species is called speciation. Most new species develop naturally, but humans have also artificially created new subspecies, breeds, and species for thousands of years. Natural selection causes beneficial heritable traits to become more common in a population, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common. For example, a giraffe's neck is beneficial because it allows the giraffe to reach leaves high in trees. Natural selection caused this beneficial trait to become more common than short necks. As new mutations (changes in the DNA sequence) are constantly being generated in a population’s gene pool, some of these mutations will be beneficial and result in traits that allow adaptation and survival. Natural selection causes evolution through the genetic change of a species as the beneficial traits become more common within a population. Artificial selection is when humans select which plants or animals to breed to pass specific traits on to the next generation. A farmer may choose to breed only the cows that produce the best milk (the favored traits) and not breed cows that do not produce much milk (a less desirable trait). Humans have also artificially breed dogs to create new breeds (Figure 7.26). ![Image of two dogs](image) Figure 7.26: Artificial Selection: Humans used artificial selection to create these different breeds. Both dog breeds are descended from the same wolves, and their genes are almost identical. Yet there is at least one difference between their genes that determine size. [8] ### Reproductive Isolation There are two main ways that speciation happens naturally. Both processes create new species by isolating groups (populations) of the same species from each other. Organisms can be reproductively isolated from each other either geographically or by some behavior. Over long period of time (usually thousands of years), each population evolves in a different direction. One way scientists test whether two populations are separate species is to bring them together again. If the two populations do not interbreed and produce fertile offspring, they are separate species. Geographic Isolation Allopatric speciation happens when groups from the same species are geographically isolated physically for long periods. Imagine all the ways that plants or animals could be isolated from each other: - a mountain range - a canyon water such as rivers, streams, or an ocean - a desert Charles Darwin recognized that speciation could happen when some members of a species were isolated from the others for hundreds or thousands of years. Darwin had observed thirteen distinct finch species on the Galápagos Islands that had evolved from the same ancestor. Several of the finch population evolved into separate species while they were isolated on separate islands. Scientists were able to determine which finches had evolved into distinct species by bringing members of each population together. The birds that would not or could not interbreed are regarded as separate species. A classic example of geographic isolation is the Abert squirrel, shown in Figures 7.27) and 7.28). When the Grand Canyon in Arizona formed, squirrels from one species were separated by the giant canyon that they could not cross. After thousands of years of isolation from each other, the squirrel populations on the northern wall of the canyon looked and behaved differently from those on the southern wall. North rim squirrels have white tails and black bellies. Squirrels on the south rim have white bellies and dark tails. Isolation without Physical Separation Sympatric speciation happens when groups from the same species stop interbreeding, because of something other than physical separation, such as behavior. The separation may be due to different mating seasons, for example. Sympatric speciation is more difficult to identify. Some scientists suspect that two groups of orcas (killer whales) live in the same part of the Pacific Ocean part of the year, but do not interbreed. The two groups hunt different prey species, eat different foods, sing different songs, and have different social structures. Different behaviors may have also led to the emergence of two Galápagos finch species that live in the same space. The two species are separated by behavioral barriers such as mating signals. In this case, members of each group select mates according to different beak structures and bird calls. They do not need physical barriers, because behavioral differences do enough to keep the groups separated. Allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation are both forms of reproductive isolation. Allopatric speciation is due to geographic isolation. Sympatric speciation is due to behavioral isolation, or isolation due to different mating seasons, which is also known as temporal isolation. Rates of Evolution How fast is evolution? How long did it take for the giraffe to develop a long neck? How long did it take for the Galápagos finches to evolve? How long did it take for whales to evolve from land mammals? These and other questions about the rate of evolution are difficult to answer, but evidence does exist in the fossil record. The rate of evolution is a measurement of the speed of evolution. Genetically speaking, evolution is how much an organism’s genotype (the genes that make up an individual) changes over a set period of time. Evolution is usually so gradual that we do not see the change for many, many generations. Humans took millions of years to evolve from a mammal that is now extinct. Not all organisms evolve at the same rate. It would be difficult to measure evolution on your family because you are only looking at a small population over a few generations. However Figure 7.28: Kaibab squirrel (a subspecies of Abert’s) found on northern rim of the Grand Canyon (19) there are organisms that are evolving so fast that you may be able to observe evolution! Many scientists use bacteria or other species that reproduce frequently to study evolution. Species with short life cycles and that reproduce frequently evolve much faster than others. Bacteria evolve hundreds (or thousands or more) of times faster than humans do. Bacteria go through so many generations in a few days, that we can actually witness evolution. A human takes about 22 years to go through one generation. But some bacteria go through over a thousand generations in less than two months. Evolutionary Trees Charles Darwin came up with the idea of an evolutionary tree to represent the relationships between different species and their common ancestors (Figure 7.29). The base of the tree represents the ancient ancestors of all life. The separation into large branches shows where these original species evolved into increasingly different populations that would not come back together again. The branches keep splitting into smaller and smaller branches as species continue to evolve into more and more species. Some species are represented by short twigs spurting out of the tree, then stopping. These are species that went extinct before evolving into new species. Other “Trees of Life” have been created by other scientists (Figure 7.30). ![Darwin's Tree of Life](image) Figure 7.29: Darwin drew this version of the “Tree of Life” to represent how species evolve and diverge into separate directions. Each point on the tree where one branch splits off from another represents the common ancestor of the species on the separate branches. (25) Theory? Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection is supported by well over 150 years of scientific evidence, ranging from fossil evidence to DNA evidence. By definition, this is a well tested scientific theory. An abundance of scientific evidence supports this theory. The Figure 7.30: Scientists have drawn many different versions of the “Tree of Life” to show different features of evolution. This “Tree of Life” was made by Ernst Haeckel in 1879. (5) world is very old and has undergone some dramatic changes. Life has been on the planet for most of that time. As you will see in the next lesson, life started as single celled organisms and has evolved over billions of years into complex plants and animals. But this journey has not been easy. Most species that have ever lived are now extinct. There have been a number of mass extinctions, where many species vanished all at once. It is because of the tremendous diversity of species that has allowed some to adapt to whatever changes nature throws in its path, from small changes to major environmental disturbances. So it is nature that selects - hence Natural Selection - which species adapts, survives and evolves. Lesson Summary - Microevolution results from evolutionary changes that are small and do not lead to the creation of a new species. - Macroevolution refers to large evolutionary changes that result in new species. - Macroevolution may happen when many microevolution steps lead to the creation of a new species. - Macroevolution may happen as a result of a major environmental change, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes or an asteroid hitting Earth, which changes the environment so much that natural selection leads to large changes in the traits of a species. - The creation of a new species is called speciation. - Natural selection causes beneficial heritable traits to become more common in a population, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common. - Artificial selection is when humans select which plants or animals to breed to pass specific traits on to the next generation. - Allopatric speciation occurs when groups from the same species are geographically isolated physically for long periods. - Sympatric speciation occurs when groups from the same species stop interbreeding, because of something other than physical separation, such as behavior. - Allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation are both forms of reproductive isolation. - The rate of evolution is a measurement of the speed of evolution. Genetically speaking, evolution is how much an organism’s genotype changes over a set period of time. - Not all organisms evolve at the same rate. - Evolutionary trees are used to represent the relationships between different species and their common ancestors. Review Questions 1. What is the difference between macroevolution and microevolution? 2. What conditions cause organisms to evolve and adapt? 3. What do the branches on the Tree of Life represent? 4. Which organism has a faster rate of evolution: a human or a bacterium? 5. How do you know if two related organisms are members of the same species? 6. Why do the squirrels on opposite sides of the Grand Canyon look different? 7. How is artificial selection different from natural selection? 8. What, other than physical isolation, could cause a species to split into two different directions of evolution? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Yeh, Jennifer, Modern Synthesis (From Animal Sciences). - Darwin, Charles, Origin of the Species, Broadview Press (Sixth Edition), 1859. - Ridley, Matt, The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature, Perennial Books, 2003. - Ridley, Matt, Genome, Harper Collins, 2000. - Sagan, Carl, Cosmos, Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 2006. - Carroll, Sean B., The Making of the Fittest: DNA and the Ultimate Forensic Record of Evolution, Norton, 2006. - Dawkins, Richard, The Blind Watchmaker, W.W. Norton & Company, 1996. - Dawkins, Richard, The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press, 1989. - Diamond, Jared, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal, HarperCollins, 2006. - Mayr, Ernst, What Evolution Is, Basic Books. 2001. - Zimmer, Carl, Smithsonian Intimate Guide to Human Origins, Smithsonian Press, 2008. - [http://en.wikipedia.org/](http://en.wikipedia.org/) Vocabulary allopatric speciation Speciation that occurs when groups from the same species are geographically isolated physically for long periods. artificial selection Occurs when humans select which plants or animals to breed to pass specific traits on to the next generation. behavioral isolation The separation of a population from the rest of its species due to some behavioral barrier, such as having different mating seasons. evolutionary tree Diagram used to represent the relationships between different species and their common ancestors. genotype The genes that make up an individual. geographic isolation The separation of a population from the rest of its species due to some physical barrier, such as a mountain range, an ocean, or great distance. macroevolution Big evolutionary changes that result in new species. microevolution Small changes in inherited traits; does not lead to the creation of a new species. natural selection Causes beneficial heritable traits to become more common in a population, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common. primate A group of related mammal species that have binocular vision, specialized hands and feet for grasping, and enlarged and differentiated brains; includes humans, chimpanzees, the apes, monkeys, and lemurs. reproductive isolation allopatric and sympatric speciation; isolation due to geography or behavior, resulting in the inability to reproduce. speciation The creation of a new species; either by natural or artificial selection. sympatric speciation Speciation that occurs when groups from the same species stop interbreeding, because of something other than physical separation, such as behavior. temporal isolation Isolation due to different mating seasons. Points to Consider - How long do you think humans have been around? - How long do you think Earth existed before life formed? - For how much of Earth’s history have humans existed? 7.4 Lesson 7.4: History of Life on Earth Lesson Objectives - Know that geologists and paleontologists use evidence to determine the history of Earth and life on Earth. - Know that geologists and paleontologists measure the radioactivity in certain rocks to determine the age of the earth and fossils. - Know that the earth is between four and five billion years old. - Know that scientists need to know what the environment (what chemicals were around, the temperature, etc.) was like on Earth billions of years ago to know how life formed. Check Your Understanding - What are fossils? - How does the fossil record contribute to the evidence of evolution? Introduction It is no surprise that people have wondered about the age of the earth, how it was formed, and how life began on Earth for hundreds, even thousands, of years. Try to imagine how ancient philosophers tried to explain the history of the earth and life. Many people used mythology or cultural beliefs to explain elaborate stories about how and when the earth formed. The past two to three hundred years has been an exciting time for geologists, paleontologists and other scientists who are trying to trace the history of the earth. What was once a hobby, studying land forms and fossils has become a science that is revealing the history of the earth and life on Earth. Age of Earth During the 1800s, geologists, paleontologists and naturalists found several forms of physical evidence that confirmed that the earth is very old, far older than the 6,000 years that some leaders had claimed. Their evidence included: - Fossils of ancient sea life on dry land far from oceans: This supported the idea that the earth changed over time and that some dry land today was once covered by oceans. - The many layers of rock: When people realized that rock layers represent the order in which rocks and fossils appeared, they were able to start to trace the history of the earth and life on Earth. - Indications that volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and erosion that happened long ago shaped much of the earth’s surface. This supported the idea of an older Earth. Radiometric Dating During the past one hundred years, geologists and paleontologists have been able to delve even deeper into the earth’s history with new tools of science. The most convincing method, called radiometric dating, was developed more than one hundred years ago. Rocks are made up of minerals. Scientists found that they could measure the age of rocks by measuring the radioactivity of certain minerals in rocks. Geologists and paleontologists still use variations of radiometric dating to determine the age of fossils and rocks today (Figure 7.31). The most reliable way to figure out the earth’s age is to measure the radioactivity of certain minerals found in rocks (called radiometric dating). This mass spectrophotometer can also be used to measure age of fossils from the level of radiation in minerals surrounding the fossil. Over 4 Billion Years The earth is at least as old as its oldest rocks. The oldest rock minerals found on Earth so far are zircon crystals that are at least 4.404 billion years old. These tiny crystals were found in the Jack Hills of Western Australia. Since the earth is at least as old as the oldest minerals found on Earth, geologists estimate that the minimum age of the earth is 4.404 billion years. Likewise, the earth cannot be any older than the solar system. The oldest possible age of the earth is 4.57 billion years old, the age of the solar system. Geologists and geophysicists based the age of the universe on the age of materials within meteorites that are formed within the solar system. Origin of Life on Earth There is good evidence that life has probably existed on Earth for most of Earth’s history. Some of the oldest fossils of life forms on Earth are at least 3.5 billion year old fossils of blue green algae found in Australia (Figure 7.32). The next step is to determine exactly how life formed billions of years ago. First, scientists need to know what the environment was like 3.5 to 4 billion years ago; they need to know Figure 7.32: Some of the oldest fossils on earth are stromolites, made of algae and a kind of bacteria, found along the coast of Australia. (11) what kinds of materials were available then that could have been involved in the creation of life. Scientists believe the early earth contained no oxygen gas, but did contain other gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor, hydrogen sulfide and probably a few others. Life from Random Reactions Today, we have evidence that life on Earth came from random reactions between chemical compounds that formed molecules; in a series of random steps, these molecules created proteins and nucleic acids (RNA or DNA), and then cells. We know that the ingredients for life (the building blocks of life), were present at the beginning of Earth’s history. Some chemicals were in water and volcanic gases. Other chemicals would have come from meteorites in space. Energy to drive chemical reactions was provided by volcanic eruptions and lightening. Keep in mind that this process may have taken as much as 1 billion years. Our understanding of how life originated on Earth is developing gradually (Figure 7.33). ![Image](image) Figure 7.33: Some clues to the origins of life on Earth come from studying the early life forms that developed in hot springs, such as the Grand Prismatic Spring at Yellowstone National Park. This spring is approximately 250 feet by 300 feet wide. (38) Geologic Time Scale Geologists and other earth scientists use geologic time scales to describe when events occurred throughout the history of Earth. The time scales can be used to illustrate when both geologic events and events affecting plant and animal life occurred. All of the earth events we see happening today, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and erosion, have happened throughout history. Past catastrophic events, such as asteroids and comets also hit the earth long before humans evolved. The geologic time scale in Figure 7.34 illustrates the timing of events such as: - earthquakes - volcanic eruptions - major erosion - meteorites hitting Earth - the first signs of life forms - mass extinctions Figure 7.34: The geological time scale of Earth’s past is organized according to events which took place during different periods on the time scale. Geologic time is the same as the age of the earth: between 4.04 and 4.57 billion years. Look closely for such events as the extinction of dinosaurs and many marine animals. (10) Evolution of Major Life Forms Life on Earth began about 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. The first life forms were single cell organisms, prokaryotic organisms, similar to bacteria. The first multicellular organisms did not appear until about 610 million years ago in the oceans. These of course would be eukaryotic organisms. Some of the first multicellular forms included sponges, brown algae, and slime molds. Many of the modern types of organisms we know today evolved during the next ten million years in an event called the Cambrian explosion. This sudden burst of evolution may have been triggered by some environmental changes that made the environment more suitable for a wider variety of life forms. Plants and fungi did not appear until roughly 500 million years ago. They were soon followed by arthropods (insects and spiders). Next came the amphibians about 300 million years ago, followed by mammals around 200 million years ago and birds around 100 million years ago. Even though large life forms have been very successful on Earth, most of the life forms on Earth today are still prokaryotes – small, single celled organisms. Fossils indicate that many organisms that lived long ago are extinct. Extinction of species is common; in fact, it is estimated that 99% of the species that have lived on the earth no longer exist. The basic timeline of Earth is a 4.6 billion year old Earth, with (very approximately): - about 3.5 - 3.8 billion years of simple cells (prokaryotes) - 3 billion years of photosynthesis - 2 billion years of complex cells (eukaryotes) - 1 billion years of multicellular life - 600 million years of simple animals - 570 million years of arthropods (ancestors of insects, arachnids and crustaceans) - 550 million years of complex animals - 500 million years of fish and proto-amphibians - 475 million years of land plants - 400 million years of insects and seeds - 360 million years of amphibians - 300 million years of reptiles - 200 million years of mammals - 150 million years of birds - 130 million years of flowers - 65 million years since the non-avian dinosaurs died out - 2.5 million years since the appearance of Homo - 200,000 years since humans started looking like they do today - 25,000 years since Neanderthals died out Mass Extinctions Extinctions are part of natural selection. Species often go extinct when their environment changes and they do not have the traits they need to survive. Only those individuals with the traits needed to live in a changed environment survive (Figure 7.35). Mass extinctions, such as the extinction of dinosaurs and many marine mammals, happened after major catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions and major earthquakes changed the Humans have caused many extinctions by introducing species to new places. For example, many of New Zealand’s birds have adapted to nesting on the ground. This was possible because there were no land mammals in New Zealand until Europeans arrived and brought cats, fox and other predators with them. Several of New Zealand’s ground nesting birds, such as this flightless kiwi, are now extinct or threatened because of these predators. (28) environment. Scientists have been looking for evidence of why dinosaurs went extinct over fairly short periods. Many scientists are examining the theory that a major cataclysmic events, such as an asteroid colliding with Earth, may have caused the extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago (Figure 7.36). ![Fossil of Tarbosaurus](image) Figure 7.36: The fossil of Tarbosaurus, one of the land dinosaurs that went extinct during one of the mass extinctions. (21) Since life began on Earth, there have been several major mass extinctions. If you look closely at the geological time scale, you will find that at least five major massive extinctions have occurred in the past 540 million years. In each mass extinction, over 50% of animal species died. The total number of extinctions could be as high as 20 mass extinctions during this period. The fossil record tells the story of these mass extinctions: millions of species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants, and fungi populated the seas and covered the Earth - as continents crashed together and broke apart, glaciers advanced and retreated, and meteors struck, causing massive extinctions. Two specific extinctions occurred at the end of the Permian period and when the dinosaurs went extinct. At the end of the Permian, an estimated 99.5% of individual organisms perished. Several factors may have contributed, and one factor relates again to the supercontinent Pangaea. Marine biodiversity is greatest in shallow coastal areas. A single continent has a much smaller shoreline than multiple continents of the same size. Perhaps this smaller shoreline contributed to the dramatic loss of species, for up to 95% of marine species perished, compared to “only” 70% of land species. Although the exact cause remains unknown, fossils clearly document the fact of Earth’s most devastating extinction. Figure 7.37: The supercontinent Pangaea encompassed all of today’s continents in a single land mass. This configuration limited shallow coastal areas which harbor marine species, and may have contributed to the dramatic event which ended the Permian - the most massive extinction ever recorded. (16) The dramatic extinction of all dinosaurs (except those which led to birds) marked the end of the Cretaceous period. A worldwide iridium-rich layer, dated at 65.5 million years ago, provides evidence for a dramatic cause for their ultimate extinction. Iridium is rare in the Earth’s crust, but common in comets and asteroids. Scientists associate this layer with a huge crater in the Yucatan and Gulf of Mexico. A collision/explosion between the Earth and a comet or asteroid could have spread debris which set off tsunamis, altered the climate (including acid rain), and reduced sunlight 10-20%. A consequent reduction in photosynthesis would have caused a drastic decrease in food chains, leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs. The fossil record obviously depicts the presence of dinosaurs on Earth, and the absence of dinosaur fossils after this extinction event demonstrates the relationship between the fossil record and evolution. Figure 7.38: The fossil record demonstrates the presence of dinosaurs, which went extinct over 65 million years ago. (39) After each mass extinction, open ecological niches are quickly filled by other species. This is well documented in the fossil record. This episodic speciation following an event such as a mass extinction also shows the relationship between evolution and the fossil record. Lesson Summary - During the 1800s, geologists, paleontologists and naturalists found several forms of physical evidence that confirmed that the earth is very old. Figure 7.39: Mammals and birds quickly invaded ecological niches formerly occupied by the dinosaurs. Mammals included monotremes (A), marsupials, and hoofed placentals (B). Modern sharks (C) patrolled the seas. Birds included the giant flightless Gastornis (D). - Fossils of ancient sea life on dry land far from oceans supported the idea that the earth changed over time and that some dry land today was once covered by oceans. - The many layers of rock represent the order in which rocks and fossils appeared. - Indications that volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and erosion that happened long ago shaped much of the earth’s surface. - Radiometric dating allows scientists to measure the age of rocks by measuring the radioactivity of certain minerals in rocks. - The oldest rock minerals found on Earth so far are zircon crystals that are at least 4.404 billion years old. - Some of the oldest fossils of life forms on Earth are at least 3.5 billion year old fossils of blue green algae found in Australia. - Scientists believe the early earth contained no oxygen gas, but did contain other gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor, hydrogen sulfide and probably a few others. - Geologists and other earth scientists use geologic time scales to describe when events occurred throughout the history of Earth. - The geological time scale of Earth’s past is organized according to events which took place during different periods on the time scale. - Life on Earth began about 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. - The first life forms were single cell organisms, prokaryotic organisms, similar to bacteria. - The first multicellular organisms did not appear until about 610 million years ago in the oceans. Some of the first multicellular forms included sponges, brown algae, and slime molds. - Plants and fungi appeared roughly 500 million years ago. They were soon followed by arthropods (insects and spiders). - Amphibians evolved about 300 million years ago, followed by mammals around 200 million years ago and birds around 100 million years ago. - Extinction of species is common; in fact, it is estimated that 99% of the species that have lived on the earth no longer exist. - Mass extinctions, such as the extinction of dinosaurs and many marine mammals, happened after major catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions and major earthquakes changed the environment. - There have been at least five major massive extinctions have occurred in the past 540 million years. - In each mass extinction, over 50% of animal species died. Review Questions 1. How do scientists determine the age of a rock or fossil today? 2. How do we know the maximum possible age of the Earth? 3. How do we know the minimum possible age of the Earth? 4. How old is the Earth, based on current evidence? 5. Why is it difficult to determine how life started on Earth? 6. How long ago did life start on Earth? 7. When did mammals first appear on Earth? 8. What kinds of events are recorded on a geological time scale? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Stein, Sara, The Evolution Book, Workman, N.Y., 1986. - Yeh, Jennifer, Modern Synthesis, (From Animal Sciences). - Darwin, Charles, Origin of the Species, Broadview Press (Sixth Edition), 1859. - Ridley, Matt, The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature, Perennial Books, 2003. - Ridley, Matt, Genome, Harper Collins, 2000. - Sagan, Carl, Cosmos, Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 2006. - Carroll, Sean B., The Making of the Fittest: DNA and the Ultimate Forensic Record of Evolution, Norton, 2006. - Dawkins, Richard, The Blind Watchmaker, W.W. Norton & Company, 1996. - Dawkins, Richard, The Selfish Ge Oxford University Press, 1989. - Diamond, Jared, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal, HarperCollins, 2006. Mayr, Ernst, What Evolution Is, Basic Books, 2001. Zimmer, Carl, Smithsonian Intimate Guide to Human Origins, Smithsonian Press, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/ Vocabulary Cambrian explosion A sudden burst of evolution that may have been triggered by some environmental changes that made the environment more suitable for a wider variety of life forms. extinct Something that does not exist anymore; a group of organisms that has died out without leaving any living representatives. mass extinction An extinction when many species go extinct during a relatively short period of time. radiometric dating A method to determine the age of rocks and fossils in each layer of rock; measures the decay rate of radioactive materials in each rock layer. stromolites Fossils made of algae and a kind of bacteria; some of the oldest fossils on Earth. Points to Consider The next chapter focuses on prokaryotic organisms. Remember, prokaryotes lived on this planet for two billion years before eukaryotic cells even existed. - Discuss with your class what you think are some of the characteristics, and some of the differences, of prokaryotic organisms. Image Sources (1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isotope_ratio_ms.jpg. Public Domain. (2) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Huxley_-_Mans_Place_in_Nature.jpg. Public Domain. (3) http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/HorseEvolution.gif. (4) NASA. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earlobes_free_attached.jpg. Public Domain. (5) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg. Public Domain. (6) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Evolution_pl.png. CC-BY-SA. (7) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Voyage_of_the_Beagle.jpg. GNU-FDL. (8) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IMG013biglittledogFX_wb.jpg. GNU-FDL. (9) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isotope_ratio_ms.jpg. Public Domain. (10) USGS. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Geologica_time_USGS.png. Public Domain. (11) http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Sect20/A12.html. (12) http://texasturtle.files.wordpress.com/2008/08/lonesome-george.jpg. (13) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png. Public Domain. (14) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Insects_in_baltic_amber.jpg. GNU-FDL. (15) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:11-Honkers-web.jpg. Creative Commons. (16) Kieff. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pangaea_continents.png. GNU-FDL. (17) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ginkgo_biloba_MacAbee_BC.jpg. GNU-FDL. (18) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Charles_Darwin_by_G._Richmond.jpg. Public Domain. (19) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stavenn_Sciurus_aberti_kaibabensis_00.jpg. GNU-FDL. (20) User: The Prophet Tiresias. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Selection_Chart.png. Public Domain. (21) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tarbosaurus_museum_Muenster.jpg. GNU-FDL. (22) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Blindmaus-drawing.jpg. Public Domain. (23) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog. (24) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DNA_Overview.png. GNU-FDL. (25) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Darwins_tree_of_life_1859.gif. Public Domain. (26) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:SCIURUS_ABERTI.jpg. Public Domain. (27) USFWS. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Arctic_Hare.jpg. Public Domain. (28) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Apteryx_owenii_0.jpg. Public Domain. (29) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Origin_of_Species_title_page.jpg. Public Domain. (30) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gal%C3%A1pagos_Giant_Tortoise.JPG. GNU-FDL. (31) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Darwin%27s_finches.jpeg. Public Domain. (32) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Galapagos_iguana.jpg. Public Domain. (33) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:6_weeks_pregnant.pn. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (34) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Mesonyx.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C._amblyrynchus.JPG http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Gastornis.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Dixi-Diatryma.png. (a)GNU-FDL (b)Public Domain (c)Public Domain (d)GNU-FDL (e)Public Domain. (35) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Galapagos-satellite-esislandnames.jpg. Public Domain. (36) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Haeckel_drawings.jpg. Public Domain. (37) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Autorecessive.svg. Wikimedia Commons. (38) NPS. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Grand_prismatic_spring.jp. Public Domain. (39) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Giganotosaurus_AustMus_email.jpg. GNU-FDL, Public Domain. Chapter 8 Prokaryotes 8.1 Lesson 8.1: Bacteria Lesson Objectives - Describe the cellular features of bacteria. - Explain the ways in which bacteria can obtain energy. - Explain how bacteria reproduce themselves. - Identify some ways in which bacteria can be helpful. - Identify some ways in which bacteria can be harmful. Check Your Understanding - How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ? Answer: Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus while prokaryotes do not. - What are some components of all cells, including bacteria? Answer: cell membrane, cytoplasm, etc. Introduction About 3.5 billion years ago, long before the first plants, people, or other animals appeared, prokaryotes were the first life forms on Earth. Recall that prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus, and that the prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea. For at least a billion years, Bacteria and Archaea ruled the Earth as the only existing organisms. Even though life is much more diverse on Earth today, bacteria (singular: bacterium) are still the most abundant organisms on Earth. You probably know bacteria as “germs” that cause disease, but as you will see, they can also do many helpful things for the environment and humankind. Characteristics of Bacteria Bacteria are so small that they can only be visualized with a microscope. When viewed under the microscope, they have three distinct shapes. These three shapes allow bacteria to be classified by their shape. The bacilli are rod-shaped, the cocci are sphere-shaped, and the spirilli are spiral-shaped (Figures 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3). ![Bacteria Shapes](image) Figure 8.1: Bacteria come in many different shapes. Some of the most common shapes are bacilli (rods), cocci (spheres), and spirilli (spirals). Bacteria can be identified and classified by their shape. (7) Bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall consisting of peptidoglycan, a complex molecule consisting of sugars and amino acids. The cell wall is important for protecting the bacteria. In fact the cell wall is so important that some antibiotics, such as penicillin, work to kill bacteria by preventing the proper synthesis of the cell wall. In parasitic bacteria, which depend on a host organism for energy and nutrients, capsules or slime layers surround the cell wall help defend against the host’s defenses. Recall that all prokaryotes, including the bacteria, lack the membrane-bound organelles and nucleus of eukaryotic cells (Figure 8.4). Like eukaryotic cells, however, prokaryotic cells do have cytoplasm, the fluid inside the cell; a plasma membrane, which acts as another barrier; and ribosomes, where proteins are assembled. The DNA of bacteria is mostly contained in a large circular strand, forming a single chromosome, that is compacted into a structure called the nucleoid. Many bacteria also have additional small rings of DNA known as plasmids. Some bacteria also have tail-like structures called flagella (Figure 8.5). The flagella assist the bacteria with movement. As the flagella rotate, they spin the bacteria and propel them... Figure 8.2: Escherichia coli is an example of bacteria that are rod-shaped, or bacilli. (2) Figure 8.3: Staphylococcus aureus is an example of bacteria that are sphere-shaped, or cocci. (3) Figure 8.4: The structure of a bacterial cell is distinctive from the eukaryotic cell because of features such as an outer cell wall and the circular DNA of the nucleoid, and the lack of membrane-bound organelles. (5) forward. Figure 8.5: The flagella facilitate movement in bacteria. Bacteria may have one, two, or many flagella - or none at all. (6) Obtaining Food and Energy Bacteria obtain energy and nutrients from a variety of different methods. Bacteria known as decomposers break down wastes and dead organisms into smaller molecules to obtain nutrients and energy. Photosynthetic bacteria use the energy of the sun, together with carbon dioxide, to make their own food (discussed in the Cell Functions chapter). Briefly, in the presence of sunlight, carbon dioxide and water is converted into glucose and oxygen. The glucose is then converted into usable energy. Glucose is, in essence, the "food" of the bacteria. An example of photosynthetic bacteria is cyanobacteria, as seen in Figure 8.6. ![Cyanobacteria](image) Figure 8.6: Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic bacteria. These bacteria carry out all the reactions of photosynthesis within the cell membrane and in the cytoplasm; they do not need chloroplasts. (10) Bacteria can also be chemotrophs. Chemotrophs obtain energy by breaking down chemical compounds in their environment, such as nitrogen-containing ammonia. They do not use the energy from the sun. This process is important, for example, for the cycling of nitrogen through the environment. As nitrogen cannot be made by living organisms, it must be continually recycled. Organisms need nitrogen to make organic compounds, such as DNA. Some bacteria depend on other organisms for survival. For example, mutualistic bacteria live in the root nodules of legumes, such as pea plants, and make nitrogen available to the plants; in this relationship both the bacteria and the plant benefit. Other bacteria are parasitic and can cause illness. In a bacterial parasitic relationship, the bacteria benefit and the other organism is harmed. Harmful bacteria will be discussed later in the lesson. Reproduction in Bacteria Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission. During binary fission the chromosome copies itself (replicates), forming two genetically identical copies, then the cell enlarges and divides into two new daughter cells. The two daughter cells are identical to the parent cell (Figure 8.7). Binary fission can happen very rapidly. Some species of bacteria have been shown to double their populations in less than ten minutes! (Figure 8.8) ![Diagram showing binary fission](image) Figure 8.7: Bacteria cells reproduce by binary fission, resulting in two daughter cells identical to the parent cell. (11) Sexual reproduction does not occur in bacteria, but genetic recombination, the combining and exchange of DNA, does happen in bacteria through three different methods: conjugation, transformation, and transduction. In conjugation, DNA passes through the sex pilus, a hairlike extension on the surface of many bacteria, that temporarily joins two bacteria. In transformation, bacteria pick up pieces of DNA from their environment. In transduction, bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria, carry DNA from one bacteria to another. Helpful Bacteria Bacteria are crucial in nature since they are common decomposers, organisms that break down dead materials and waste products. This decomposition of dead organisms is necessary so that the nutrients in their bodies can be recycled back into the environment. This recycling of nutrients, such as nitrogen, is essential for living organisms; organisms cannot produce Figure 8.8: Bacteria can divide rapidly. This image is of a growing colony of E. coli bacteria. In the right environment the growth and division of two E. coli can form a colony of hundreds of bacteria in just a few hours. (12) nutrients, so they must come from other sources. We get them from the food we eat; plants get them from the soil. How do these nutrients get into the soil? One way is from the actions of decomposers. So without decomposers, we would eventually run out of materials essential for our survival. We also depend on bacteria to decompose our wastes in sewage treatment plants. Bacteria also help you digest your food. Several species of bacteria, such as E. coli, are found in large amounts in your digestive tract. In fact, bacteria cells outnumber your own cells in your gut! Bacteria are involved in producing some foods. Yogurt is made by using bacteria to ferment milk, and cheese can also be made from milk with the help of bacteria (Figure 8.9). Furthermore, fermenting cabbage with bacteria produces sauerkraut. ![Yogurt](image) Figure 8.9: Yogurt is made from milk fermented with bacteria. The bacteria ingest natural milk sugars and release lactic acid as a waste product, which causes proteins in the milk to form into a solid mass, which becomes the yogurt. (1) In the laboratory, bacteria can be altered to provide us with a variety of useful materials. Bacteria can be used as tiny factories to produce desired chemicals and medicines. For example, insulin, which is necessary to treat people with diabetes, can be produced from bacteria. Through the process of transformation, the human gene for insulin is placed into bacteria. The bacteria then turn that gene into a protein. The protein can be isolated and used to treat patients. The mass production of insulin by bacteria made this medicine more affordable for patients. Harmful Bacteria There are also ways that bacteria can be harmful to humans and other animals. Various species of bacteria are responsible for many types of human illness, including strep throat, tuberculosis, pneumonia, leprosy, and Lyme disease. The Black Death (also known as Plague), which killed at least one third of Europe’s population in the 1300’s, is believed to have been caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Bacterial contamination can also lead to outbreaks of food poisoning. Raw eggs and undercooked meats can contain bacteria that can cause digestive tract problems. Foodborne infection can be prevented by cooking meat thoroughly and washing surfaces that have been in contact with raw meat. Washing of hands before and after handling food is also important. Some bacteria also have the potential to be used as biological weapons by terrorists. An example is anthrax, a disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Since inhaling the spores of this bacterium can lead to a fatal infection, it is a dangerous weapon. In 2001, an act of terrorism in the United States involved B. anthracis spores sent in letters through the mail. Lesson Summary - Bacteria contain a cell wall containing peptidoglycan and a single chromosome contained in the nucleoid. - Bacteria can obtain energy through several means including photosynthesis, decomposition, and parasitism, symbiosis, and chemosynthesis. - Bacteria reproduce through binary fission. - Bacteria are important decomposers in the environment and aid in digestion. - Some bacteria can be harmful when they contribute to disease, food poisoning, or biological warfare. Review Questions 1. What are prokaryotes? 2. What are the possible shapes that bacteria can have? 3. What is the purpose of the flagella? 4. Describe the DNA of bacteria. 5. How do bacteria reproduce? 6. How do bacteria assure genetic recombination? 7. What is a chemoautotroph? 8. How do cyanobacteria obtain energy? 9. How are bacteria important in nature? 10. How can you avoid becoming sick from the bacteria that cause food poisoning? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/anthrax - http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/plague/index.htm - http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/dfbmd/disease_listing/salmonellosis_gi.html - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria/bacteria.html - http://commtechlab.msu.edu/sites/dlc-me/zoo - http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/bactcell.htm - http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/bacteria - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary bacilli Rod-shaped bacteria or archaea. binary fission Type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells. cocci Sphere-shaped bacteria or archaea. chemotrophs Organisms that obtain energy by oxidizing compounds in their environment. conjugation The transfer of genetic material between two bacteria. cyanobacteria Photosynthetic bacteria. decomposers Organisms that break down wastes and dead organisms and recycle their nutrients back into the environment. flagella Long, tail-like appendages that allow movement. nucleoid The prokaryotic DNA consisting of a condensed single chromosome. peptidoglycan Complex molecule consisting of sugars and amino acids that makes up the bacterial cell wall. plasmid Ring of accessory DNA in bacteria. prokaryotes Organisms that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; bacteria and archaea. transduction Transfer of DNA between two bacteria with the aid of a bacteriophage. transformation Changing phenotypes due to the incorporation ("taking up") of foreign DNA from the environment. spirilli Spiral-shaped bacteria or archaea. Points to Consider - In the next section we will discuss the Archaea. “Archae” shares the same root word as “archives” and “archaic,” so what do you think it means? - What do you think the earliest life forms on Earth looked like? - How do you think these early life forms obtained energy? 8.2 Lesson 8.2: Archaea Lesson Objectives - Identify the differences between archaea and bacteria. - Explain how the archaea can obtain energy. - Explain how the archaea reproduce. - Discuss the unique habitats of the archaea. Check Your Understanding - What are the three shapes of bacteria? Answer: The bacilli are rod-shaped, the cocci are sphere-shaped, and the spirilli are spiral-shaped. - How do bacteria reproduce? Answer: Through binary fission, producing genetically identical organisms. - How can bacteria be harmful? Answer: Bacteria can cause diseases such as strep throat. They can also be involved with food poisoning and biological warfare. Introduction For many years, archaea were classified as bacteria. However, when modern techniques allowed scientists to compare the DNA of the two prokaryotes, they found that there were two distinct types of prokaryotes, which they named archaea and bacteria. Even though the two groups might seem similar, archaea have many features that distinguish them from bacteria. 1. The cell walls of archaea are distinct from those of bacteria. In most archaea the cell wall is assembled from surface-layer proteins, providing both chemical and physical protection. The cell wall acts as a barrier, preventing macromolecules from coming into contact with the cell membrane. In contrast to bacteria, most archaea lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls. 2. The plasma membranes of the archaea also are made up of lipids that are distinct from those in other organisms. 3. Furthermore, the ribosomal proteins of the archaea resemble those of eukaryotic cells; the ribosomal proteins of archaea are different from those found in bacteria. Although archaea and bacteria share some fundamental differences, they are still similar in many ways. 1. They both are unicellular, microscopic organisms that can come in a variety of shapes (Figure 8.10). 2. Both archaea and bacteria have a single circular chromosome of DNA and lack membrane-bound organelles. 3. Like bacteria, the archaea can have flagella to assist with movement. Obtaining Food and Energy Most archaea are chemotrophs and derive their energy and nutrients from breaking down molecules from their environment. A few species of archaea are photosynthetic and capture the energy of sunlight; chemotrophs do not capture the energy from sunlight. Unlike bacteria, which can be parasites and are known to cause a variety of diseases, there are no known archaea that act as parasites. Some archaea do live within other organisms, however, but form mutualistic relationships with their host, where both the archaea and host benefit. In other words, they actually assist the host in some way, for example by helping to digest food. Reproduction Like bacteria, reproduction in archaea is asexual. Archaea can reproduce through binary fission, where a parent cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. Archaea can Figure 8.10: Archaea shapes can vary widely, but some are bacilli, or rod-shaped. (4) also reproduce asexually through budding and fragmentation, where pieces of the cell break off and form a new cell, also producing genetically identical organisms. Types of Archaea The first archaea described were unique in that they could survive in extremely harsh environments where no other organisms could survive. For example, the halophiles, which means "salt-loving," live in environments with high levels of salt (Figure 8.11). They have been identified in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and in the Dead Sea between Israel and Jordan, which have salt concentrations several times that of the oceans. ![Halobacterium](image) Figure 8.11: Halophiles, like the Halobacterium shown here, require high salt concentrations. (8) The thermophiles live in extremely hot environments (Figure 8.12). For example, they can grow in hot springs, geysers, and near volcanoes. Unlike other organisms, they can thrive in temperatures near $100^\circ\text{C}$, the boiling point of water! Methanogens can also live in some strange places, such as swamps, and inside the guts of cows and termites. They help these animals break down cellulose, a tough carbohydrate made by plants (Figure 8.13). This would be an example of a mutualistic relationship. Methanogens are named for their waste product, methane, which they make as they use hydrogen gas to reduce carbon dioxide and gain energy. Methane is a greenhouse gas and Figure 8.12: Thermophiles can thrive in hot springs and geysers, such as this one, the Excelsior Geyser in the Midway Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. (13) therefore contributes to global warming (see the Environmental Problems chapter). Therefore, the rate of methane released in swamps is of interest to scientists studying climate change. ![Cows grazing](image) Figure 8.13: Cows are able to digest grass with the help of the methanogens in their gut. (9) Although archaea are known for living in unusual environments, like the Dead Sea, inside hot springs, and in the guts of cows, they also live in more common environments. For example, new research shows that archaea are abundant in the soil and among the plankton in the ocean. Therefore, scientists are just beginning to discover some of the important roles that archaea have in the environment. Lesson Summary - Archaea are prokaryotes that differ from bacteria somewhat in their DNA and biochemistry. - Most archaea are chemotrophs but some are photosynthetic or form mutualistic relationships. - Archaea reproduce asexually through binary fission, fragmentation, or budding. - Archaea are known for living in extreme environments. Review Questions 1. What domains include the prokaryotes? 2. How are the cell walls of archaea different from those of bacteria? 3. How do archaea obtain energy? 4. How do archaea reproduce? 5. Where do halophiles live? 6. Where do thermophiles live? 7. How did methanogens get their name? 8. Name an example of a mutualistic relationship with archaea. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/archaea.html - http://www.microbeworld.org/microbes/archaea - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2112744?dopt=Abstract - http://www.popsci.com/environment/article/2008-07/they-came-underseas - http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/06/060605191500.htm - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea Vocabulary archaea Single-celled, prokaryotic organisms that are distinct from bacteria. halophiles Organisms that live and thrive in very salty environments. methanogens Organisms that live in swamps or in the guts of cows and termites and release methane gas. thermophiles Organisms that live in very hot environments, such as near volcanoes and in geysers. Points to Consider - In the next chapter we will move on to the protists and fungi. How do you think they are different from archaea and bacteria? - Can you think of some ways that fungi can be helpful? - Can you think of some ways that fungi can be harmful? Image Sources (1) Mom the Barbarian. http://www.flickr.com/photos/momthebarbarian/2441500/. CC-BY 2.0. (2) NIAID, NIH. \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg}. Public Domain. (3) CDC. \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Staphylococcus_aureus_01.jpg}. Public Domain. (4) \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Arkea.jpg} GNU-FDL. (5) \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg}. Public Domain. (6) Yutaka Tsutsumi. \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EMpylori.jpg}. The photographer of this work allows anyone to use it for any purpose including unrestricted redistribution, commercial use, and modification.. (7) \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bacteria_morphologic_forms_simplified.svg}. Public Domain. (8) NASA. \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Halobacteria.jpg}. Public Domain. (9) Stuart Chalmers. \url{http://www.flickr.com/photos/gertcha/858758122/}. CC-BY 2.0. (10) NOAA. \url{Bluegreen_algae.jpg}. Public Domain. (11) \url{Bacilli_division_diagram.png}. GNU-FDL. (12) \url{Growing_colony_of_E._coli.jpg}. GNU-FDL. (13) NPS. \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Excelsior_geyser.jpg}. Public Domain. Chapter 9 Protists and Fungi 9.1 Lesson 9.1: Protists Lesson Objectives - Explain why protists cannot be classified as plants, animals, or fungi. - List the similarities that exist between most protists. - Identify the three subdivisions of the organisms in the kingdom Protista. Check Your Understanding - What are some basic differences between a eukaryotic cell and a prokaryotic cell? - List some characteristics that all cells have. Introduction So what’s a protist? Is it an animal or plant? Protists are organisms that belong to the kingdom Protista. These organisms, all eukaryotes and mostly unicellular, do not fit neatly into any of the other kingdoms. You can think about protists as all eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, nor plants, nor fungi. Even among themselves, they have very little in common – very simple structural organization and a lack of specialized structures are all that unify them as a group. Although the term protista was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866, the kingdom Protista was not an accepted classification in the scientific world until the 1960s. What are Protists? These unique and varied organisms demonstrate such unbelievable differences that they are sometimes called the “junk drawer kingdom”. This kingdom contains the eukaryotes that cannot be classified into any other kingdom. Most protists, such as the ones shown in (Figure 9.1), are so tiny that they can be seen only with a microscope. Protists are mostly unicellular eukaryotes that exist as independent cells. However, a few protists are multicellular and surprisingly large. The protists that do form colonies (are multicellular) do not, however, show cellular specialization or differentiation into tissues. Cellular specialization is a major feature of multicellular organisms absent in these protists. For example, kelp is a multicellular protist and is over 100-meters long. A few characteristics unify the protists: 1. they are eukaryotic which means they have a nucleus 2. most have mitochondria 3. many are parasites 4. they all prefer aquatic or at least moist environments. For classification, the protists are divided into three groups: animal-like protists, plant-like protists, and fungi-like protists. But remember they are not animals or plants or fungi, they are protists ((Figure 9.2)). As there are many different types of protists, the classification of protists can be difficult. Recently, molecular analysis has been used to confirm evolutionary relationships among protists. These molecular studies compare DNA sequences. Protists with higher amounts of common DNA sequences are evolutionarily closer related to each other. Protists are widely used in industry and in medicine. Protists Obtain Food Protists need to perform the necessary cellular functions to stay alive. These include the need to grow and reproduce, the need to maintain homeostasis, and the need for energy. So they need to obtain food to provide the energy to enable these functions. So how are animal-like, plant-like, and fungi-like protists distinguished from each other? Mainly through how they get their carbon. Of course, carbon is essential in the formation of organic compounds: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. You get it from eating, as do other animals. For such simple organisms, protists get their food in a complicated process. Although there are many photosynthetic protists (such as the algae discussed in the Plant-like Protists section below) that get their energy from sunlight, many others still must swallow their food through a process like endocytosis. Endocytosis was discussed in the Cell Functions chapter. Figure 9.1: Protists come in many different shapes. (11) Figure 9.2: This slime mold is a protist. Slime molds had previously been classified as fungi but are now placed in the kingdom Protista. Slime molds live on decaying plant life and in the soil. (7) When a protist is ready to eat, it will wrap its cell wall and cell membrane around its prey, which is usually bacteria. In doing so, it creates a food vacuole or a sort of “food storage compartment.” Next the protist produces toxins which paralyze its prospective dinner. Once paralyzed, the food material simply moves by force of gravity through the vacuole and into the cytoplasm of the hungry protist. Other protists are parasitic, and absorb nutrients meant for their host, harming the host in the process. Animal-like Protists Animal-like protists are called protozoa. Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotes that share certain traits with organisms in the animal kingdom. Those traits are mobility and heterotrophy. Animal-like protists are heterotrophs which mean they get their carbon from outside sources—in other words, they eat organic materials. Animal-like protists are very tiny measuring only about 0.01–0.5mm. Animal like protists include the zooflagellates, ciliates, and the sporozoans (Figure 9.3). ![Euglena](image) Figure 9.3: Euglena are animal-like protists. Over 1000 species of Euglena exist and are used in industry in the treatment of sewage. (5) Although most protists obtain nutrition through pinocytosis, some protists literally “eat with their tails”. The tail of a protist is a flagellum and these protists are called flagellates. Flagellates acquire oxygen and nitrogen by constantly whipping the flagellum back and forth in a process of filter-feeding. The whipping of the flagellum creates a current that brings food into the protist. A flagellum (plural: flagella), is a tail-like structure that projects from the cell body of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and it usually functions in helping the cell move. A flagellum is a cellular structure and not an organelle. Prokaryotic cells may also have flagella. Different Kinds of Animal-like Protists Are there different types of animal-like protists? How are they distinguished? You can distinguish one from the other based on how they get around or rather, by their method of locomotion. For example, flagellates have long flagella or tails. Flagella rotate in a propeller-like fashion. An example of a flagellate is the Trypanosoma, which causes African sleeping sickness. Other protists have what is called a “transient pseudopodia” or a moving fake foot. Here’s how it works. The cell surface extends out a membrane and the force of this membrane propels the cell forward. An example of a protist with a pseudopod is the amoeba. Another way to move if you are a protist is by the movement of cilia. The paramecium has cilia that propel it. Cilia are thin, tail-like projections that extend about 5–10 micrometers outwards from the cell body. Cilia beat back and forth, propelling the protist along. A few protists are non-mobile such as the toxoplasma. Protists such as the toxoplasma form spores and are known as sporozoans; these protists but do not have any mobility themselves. Plant-like Protists Plant-like protists are autotrophs. This means that they produce complex organic compounds from simple inorganic molecules using a source of energy such as sunlight. Plant-like protists live in soil, in seawater, on the outer covering of plants, in ponds and lakes (Figure 9.4). Protists like these can be unicellular, or multicellular. Some protists, such as kelp live in huge colonies in the ocean. Plant-like protists are essential to the environment; they produce oxygen (a product of photosynthesis) which sustains other organisms and they play an essential role in aquatic food chains. Plant-like protists are classified into a number of basic groups (Table 9.1). \| Phylum \| Description \| Number (approximate) \| Example \| \|-----------------\|--------------------------------------------------\|----------------------\|-----------------\| \| Chlorophyta \| green algae - related to higher plants \| 7,500 \| Chlamydomnas, Ulva, Volvox \| \| Rhodophyta \| red algae \| 5,000 \| Porphyra \| \| Phaeophyta \| brown algae \| 1,500 \| Macrocystis \| \| Chrysophyta \| diatoms, golden-brown algae, yellow-green algae \| 12,000 \| Cyclotella \| \| Pyrrophyta \| dinoflagellates \| 4,000 \| Gonyaulax \| \| Phylum \| Description \| Number (approximate) \| Example \| \|-------------\|--------------\|----------------------\|-----------\| \| Euglenophyta\| euglenoids \| 1,000 \| Euglena \| Figure 9.4: Red algae are a very large group of protists making up about 5,000–6,000 species. They are mostly multicellular, live in the ocean. Many red algae are seaweeds and help create coral reefs. (1) Fungus-like Protists Fungus-like protists are heterotrophs that have cell walls and reproduce by forming spores. Fungus-like protists mostly immobile but some develop movement at some point in their lives. There are essentially three types of fungus-like protists: water molds, downy mildews, and slime molds (Table (9.2)). Slime molds represent the characteristics of the fungus-like protists. Most slime mold measure about one or two centimeters, but a few slime molds are as big as several meters. They are often bright colors such as a vibrant yellow. Others are brown or white. Stemonitis is a kind of slime mold which forms small brown bunches on the outside of rotting logs. Physarum polycephalum lives inside rotting logs and is a gooey mesh of yellow “threads” that are a several centimeters long. Fuligo, sometimes called “vomit mold,” is a yellow slime mold found in decaying wood. \| Protist \| Source of Carbon \| Environment \| Characteristics \| \|-------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Oomycetes: water molds (Figure 9.6) \| decompose remains, parasites of plants and animals \| most live in water \| Causes a range of diseases in plants; common problem in greenhouses where the organism kills newly emerged seedlings; have been employed as biocontrol agents; includes the downy mildews, which are easily identifiable by the appearance of white "mildew" on leaf surfaces. \| \| Mycetozoa: slime molds (Figure 9.5) \| dispose of dead plant material, feed on bacteria \| common in soil, on lawns, and in the forest commonly on deciduous logs \| Includes the cellular slime mold, which involves numerous individual cells attached to each other, forming one large "supercell," essentially a bag of cytoplasm containing thousands of individual nuclei. The plasmodial slime molds spend most of their lives as individual unicellular protists, but when a chemical signal is secreted, they assemble into a cluster that acts as one organism. \| Figure 9.5: An example of a slime mold. (6) Figure 9.6: An aquatic insect nymph attacked by water mold. (2) Importance of Protists Earth would be uninhabitable if it were not for the 80 different groups of organisms called protists. Protists produce almost one-half of the oxygen on the planet, decompose and recycle nutrients that humans need to live, and make up a huge portion of the food chain. Many protists are commonly used in medical research. For example, medicines made from protists are used in treatment of high blood pressure, digestion problems, ulcers, and arthritis. Other protists are used in molecular biology and genetics studies. Slime molds are used to analyze the chemical signals used in directing cellular activities. Protists are also valuable in industry. Carrageenan, extracted from red algae, is used as a gel to solidify puddings, ice cream, and candy. Chemicals from other kinds of algae are used in the production of many kinds of plastics. Lesson Summary - Protists are highly diverse organisms that belong to the kingdom Protista. - Protists are divided into three subgroups: animal-like protists, plant-like protists, fungus-like protists. - Animal-like protists are unicellular eukaryotes that share certain traits with organisms in the animal kingdom such as mobility and heterotrophy. - Plant-like protists are unicellular or multicellular autotrophs that live in soil, in seawater, on the outer covering of plants, in ponds and lakes. - Fungus-like protists, such as water molds, downy mildews, and slime molds, are heterotrophs that reproduce by forming spores. Review Questions 1. List the unifying characteristics of protists? 2. List two ways that protists obtain food. 3. Describe the characteristics of an animal-like protist. 4. Describe the characteristics of a plant-like protist. 5. Describe the characteristics of a fungi-like protist. 6. Name three kinds of fungi-like protists. 7. Write a convincing essay demonstrating the importance of protists to life on Earth. 8. Imagine that you are a scientist delivering a paper called “Protists: the Junk-Drawer Kingdom” What would you say in your paper to explain your choice of title? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - King, Katie and Ball, Jacqueline, Protists and Fungi. 2003 Gareth Stevens Publishing. • Margulis, L., Corliss, J.O., Melkonian, M., and Chapman, D.J. (Editors) 1990. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett, Boston. • Jahn, T.L., Bovee, E.C. & Jahn, F.F. 1979 How to Know the Protozoa. 2nd ed. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Div. of McGraw Hill, Dubuque, Iowa. • Patterson, D.J. 1996. Free-Living Freshwater Protozoa: A Colour Guide. John Wiley & Sons, NY. • Streble H., Krauter D. 1988. Life in a waterdrop. Microscopic freshwater flora and fauna. An identification book. • [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/eukaryotasy.html](http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/eukaryotasy.html) • [http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/protists/entrance.htm](http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/protists/entrance.htm) • [http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutorials/pev/main.html](http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutorials/pev/main.html) • [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary autotroph Organism that produces complex organic compounds from simple inorganic molecules using a source of energy such as sunlight. cilia Thin, tail-like projections that extend about 5–10 micrometers outwards from the cell body; beat back and forth, propelling the protist along. filter-feeding Characteristic of flagellates; acquire oxygen and nitrogen by constantly whipping the flagellum back and forth; creates a current that brings food into the protist. flagellum A tail-like structure that projects from the cell body of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and it usually functions in helping the cell move. heterotroph Organism which obtains carbon from outside sources. protist Eukaryotic organism that belongs to the kingdom Protista; not a plant, animal or fungi. protozoa Animal-like protists transient pseudopodia A moving fake foot; the cell surface extends out a membrane and the force of this membrane propels the cell forward. Points to Consider - Fungi comprise one of the eukaryotic kingdoms. Think about what might distinguish a fungi-like protist from a true fungus? - Given the vast differences between the protists discussed in this lesson, think about the possibilities of dividing this kingdom into additional kingdoms. How might that division be accomplished? Is that a good idea or would it just lead to confusion? 9.2 Lesson 9.2: Fungi Lesson Objectives - Describe the characteristics of fungi. - Identify structures that distinguish fungi from plants and animals. - Explain how fungi can be used in industry. Check Your Understanding - What is a significant difference between a protist and other eukaryotic organisms? - What are some of the distinguishing characteristics of fungus-like protists? Introduction Ever notice blue-green mold growing on a loaf of bread? Do you like your pizza with mushrooms? Has a physician ever prescribed an antibiotic for you? If so, then you have encountered fungi. Fungi are organisms that belong to the kingdom Fungi (Figure 9.7). Our ecosystem needs fungi. Fungi help decompose matter and make nutritious food for other organisms. Fungi are all around us and are useful in many ways to the natural world and to humans in industry. What are Fungi? If you had to guess, would you say fungus is a plant or animal? Scientists used to debate about which kingdom to place fungi in. Finally they decided that fungi were plants. But they were wrong. Now scientists know that fungi are not plants at all. Fungi are very different from plants. Fungi belong to their own kingdom called the kingdom Fungi. Plants are autotrophs, meaning that they make their own "food" using the energy from sunlight. Fungi are heterotrophs, which means that they obtain their "food" from outside of themselves. In other words, they must “eat” or ingest their food like animals or many bacteria do. Yeasts, molds, and mushrooms are all different kinds of fungi (Figure 9.8). There may be as many as 1.5 million species of fungi. You can easily see bread mold and mushrooms without a microscope, but most fungi you cannot see. Fungi is either too small to be seen without a microscope or it lives where you cannot see it easily such as deep in the soil, or under decaying logs, or inside plants or animals. Some fungi even live in or on top of other fungi. Figure 9.8: The blue in this blue cheese is actually mold. (12) Fungi and Symbiotic Relationships If it were not for fungi, many plants would go hungry. In the soil fungi grow closely around the roots of plants. Then as they form that close relationship, the plant and the fungus “feed” one another. The plant provides glucose and sucrose to the fungus that the plant makes through photosynthesis which the fungus cannot do. The fungi then provides minerals and water to the roots of the plant. This form of helping each other out is called mycorrhizal symbiosis. Mycorrhizal means “roots” and symbiosis means “relationship” between organisms (Figure 9.9). ![Mushroom and tree in symbiosis](image) Figure 9.9: This mushroom and tree live in symbiosis with each other. (3) Lichens Have you ever seen an organism called a lichen? Lichens are crusty, hard growths that you might find on trees, logs, walls, and rocks. Although lichens may not be the prettiest organisms in nature, they are unique. A lichen is really two organisms that live very closely together—a fungus and a bacteria or algae. The cells from the algae or bacteria live inside the fungi. Each organism provides nutrients for the other. Consequently, a lichen is the result of the symbiosis between a fungus and an another organism. The earliest scientist to study lichens was Beatrix Potter. You might have heard of her as the author and illustrator of the Peter Rabbit stories. Before Beatrix Potter became a famous author, she was a botanist and studied hundreds of different kinds of fungi. She was the first person to explain the symbiotic relationship between bacteria and fungi. She even presented a scientific paper to the British scientific community in 1897. Fungi and Insects Many insects have a symbiotic relationship with certain types of fungi. For example, ants and termites grow fungi in underground “fungus gardens” that they create. Then when the ants or termites have eaten a big meal of wood or leaves, they eat some fungus from their gardens. The fungus helps them digest the cellulose in the wood or leaves. The two species are actually dependent on each other for survival. Ambrosia beetles live in the bark of trees. Like ants and termites, they grow fungi inside the bark of trees where they live and use it to help digest their food. Fungi as Parasites Although lots of symbiotic relationships help both organisms, sometimes one of the organisms is harmed. When that happens, the organism that benefits and is not harmed is called a parasite. Have you ever heard of Dutch elm disease? In the late 1960s elm trees in the United States began to die. Since then much of the species has been eliminated. The disease was caused by a fungus that acted as a parasite. The fungus that killed the trees was carried by beetles that inoculated the tree with the fungus. The tree tried to stop the growth of the fungus by blocking its own ability to gain water. However, without water the tree soon dies. Some parasitic fungi cause human diseases such as athlete’s foot and ringworm. These fungi feed on the outer layer of warm, moist skin. Fungi as Predators It might seem that fungi growing on a tree trunk or a mushroom in your yard are passive and participating in very little activity, but did you know that some fungi are actually hunters? Some fungi trap nematodes. A nematode is a kind of a worm and is often dinner to fungi. These hungry fungi live deep in the soil where they set traps for unsuspecting nematodes by making a circle with their hyphae. Hyphae are sort of the “arms and legs” of a fungus; they look like cobwebs and can be sticky. Fungi set out circular rings of hyphae with a lure inside which brings the nematode inside the fungus (Figure 9.10). Fungi are Good Eaters Fungi can grow fast because they are such good eaters. Fungi have lots of surface area and this large surface area “eats.” Surface area is how much exposed area an organism has compared to their overall volume, and in the mushroom for example, most of that surface area is actually underground. They also have special enzymes that they can squirt into their environment which helps them digest large organic molecules. Sort of like how you might cut up your meat or vegetables before eating, fungi “cut up” large molecules such as sugars, proteins, and lipids into smaller molecules. Then the fungi absorb the nutrients into their cells. Fungi Body Parts Fungi have a cell wall, hyphae, and specialized structures for reproduction. The hyphae are thread-like structures which interconnect and bunch up into mycelium. Ever see mold on a damp wall or on old bread? The thing that you are seeing is really mycelia. The hyphae and mycelium help the fungi absorb nutrients from living hosts. Other specialized structures are used in sexual reproduction. One example is a fruiting body. A mushroom is a fruiting body, which is the part of the fungus that produces the spores. Spores are the basic reproductive units of fungi. Fungi Reproduction Reproduction of fungi is different for different fungi. Many fungi reproduce both sexually or asexually, while some reproduce only sexually and some only asexually. Asexual reproduction takes only one parent and sexual reproduction takes two parents. Asexual Reproduction Fungi reproduce asexually through three methods: spores, budding, and mycelial fragmentation. Asexual spores are formed by the fungi and released to create new fungi. Have you ever seen a puffball? A puffball is a kind of fungus that has thousands of spores in a giant ball. Eventually the puffball bursts and releases the spores in a huge “puff”. In budding, the fungus grows part of its body which eventually breaks off. The broken-off piece becomes a “new” organism. Many fungi can reproduce by mycelial fragmentation or splitting off of the mycelia. A fragmented piece of mycelia can eventually produce a new colony of fungi. Asexual reproduction is faster and produces more fungi than sexual reproduction. For some species of fungi, asexual reproduction is the only way possible to reproduce. Asexual reproduction is controlled by many different factors, including environmental conditions such as the amount of sunlight and CO\textsubscript{2} the fungus receives, as well as the availability of food. Sexual Reproduction Almost all fungi can reproduce with meiosis. Meiosis is a type of cell division where haploid cells are produced (discussed in chapter titled Cell Division, Reproduction and DNA). But meiosis in fungi is really different from sexual reproduction in plants or animals. Meiosis occurs in diploid cells and is a process that produces haploid cells. A diploid cell is a cell with two sets of chromosomes—one from each parent. A haploid cell has one set of chromosomes. In meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate once, and then after two more divisions, four haploid cells are produced. Each haploid cell has half the chromosome number of the parent cell. However, in fungi, meiosis occurs right after two haploid cells fuse, producing four haploid cells. Mitosis then produces a haploid multicellular “adult” organism or haploid unicellular organisms. Mitosis is cell division that results in two genetically identical offspring cells. Other Sexual Processes Some species of fungi exchange genetic material by parasexual processes. This means that some haploid nuclei in the fungi cells may fuse and form diploid nuclei. These nuclei rarely exist and are usually very unstable. Chromosomes are lost during later mitotic divisions which sometimes makes the offspring fungus genetically different from the parents. Classification of Fungi Scientists used to think that fungi were members of the Plant kingdom. They thought this because fungi had several similarities to plants. For example, fungi and plants are usually sessile with a leaf or flower that is attached to a stem. Also: - Both fungi and plants have similar morphology or structure. - Plants and fungi live in the same kinds of habitats, such as growing in soil. - Plants and fungi both possess a cell wall; animals cells do not have a cell wall. But scientists now know that fungi are their own separate kingdom — the kingdom Fungi. And that they separated nearly one billion years ago. Physiological and Morphological Traits There are a number of characteristics that distinguish fungi from other eukaryotic organisms. 1. Fungi cannot make their own food like plants can since they do not have any of the right equipment for photosynthesis. Fungi are more like animals and some bacteria in that they have to obtain their food from outside sources. 2. The cell walls in lots of species of fungi is chitin. Chitin is a nitrogen-containing material that you find in the shells of animals such as beetles and lobsters. But the cell wall of a plant is not made of chitin but rather a carbohydrate called cellulose. 3. Unlike many plants, most fungi do not have a good vascular system. A vascular system is the way that an organism transports fluids such as water and nutrients. In all plant the vascular system is made up of structures called xylem and phloem. But fungi do not have xylem or phloem. This lack of vascular structures distinguishes fungi from plants. 4. However, one characteristic is entirely unique to fungi and does not exist at all in animals or plants. That characteristic is hyphae which combine in groups called mycelium, as described above. The Evolution of Fungi Fungi appeared during the Paleozoic Era, a geologic time period lasting from about 570 million to 248 million years ago, and the time when fish, insects, amphibians, reptiles, and land plants appeared. The first fungi were most likely aquatic, and had flagellum that released spores. The first land fungi probably appeared in the Silurian period (443 million years ago to about 416 million years ago), a geologic period during which land plants also appeared. Roles of Fungi Fungi are found all over the globe in many different kinds of habitats. Fungi even thrive in deserts. Most fungi however are found on land rather than in the ocean, but some species live only in marine habitats. Fungi are extremely important to these ecosystems because they are one of the major decomposers of organic material in most terrestrial ecosystems. Scientists have estimated that there are nearly 1.5 million species of fungi. Importance of Fungi for Human Use Humans use fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes. For example, yeasts are required for fermentation of beer, wine and bread (Figure 9.11). Some fungi are used in the production of soy sauce and tempeh, a stable source of protein, like tofu, found in South East Asia. Mushrooms are used in the diet of people all over the globe. Other fungi are producers of antibiotics, such as penicillin. The chitin in the cell walls of fungi, have wound healing properties. ![Baker’s yeast](image) Figure 9.11: Baker’s yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-cell fungus, is used in the baking of bread and in making wine and beer through fermentation. (8) ### Edible and Poisonous Fungi Some of the best known types of fungi are mushrooms—both edible and poisonous (Figure 9.12). Many species are grown commercially, but others must be harvested from the wild. When you order a pizza with mushrooms or add them to your salad, you are most likely eating Agaricus bisporus, the most commonly eaten species. Other mushroom species are gathered from the wild for people to eat or for commercial sale. Have you ever eaten blue cheese? Do you know what makes it blue? You guessed it. Fungus. For certain types of cheeses, producers inoculate milk curds with fungal spores to promote the growth of mold which makes the cheese blue. Molds used in cheese production are safe for humans to eat. Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans—some mushrooms will simply give you a stomach ache while others may kill you. Some mushrooms you can eat when they are cooked but are poisonous when raw. Figure 9.12: Some of the best known types of fungi are the edible and the poisonous mushrooms. (10) Fungi in the Biological Control of Pests Some fungi work as natural pesticides. For example in agriculture, some fungi may be used to limit or kill harmful organisms like mites, pest insects, certain weeds, worms, and other fungi that harm or even kill crops. Lesson Summary - Fungi are in their own kingdom based on their structures, ways of obtaining food, and on their means of reproduction. - Fungi live with other organisms in symbiotic relationships. - Fungi reproduce asexually, sexually and parosexually. - Fungi appeared during the Paleozoic Era. - Fungi are widely used in industry and medicine. Review Questions 1. What two characteristics distinguish fungi from plants? 2. How many species of fungi exist? 3. Define mycorrhizal symbiosis. 4. Describe the symbiotic relationship of a lichen. 5. How was Beatrix Potter important to the scientific world? 6. Describe the relationship between the ambrosia beetle and fungi? 7. Name two human diseases caused by fungus. 8. When you see mold what body part of the fungus are you observing? 9. Describe asexual reproduction in fungi. 10. Describe sexual reproduction in fungi. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Money, Nicholas, The Triumph of Fungi: A Rotten History. Oxford University Press, 2006. - Webster, Robert and Weber, Roland, Introduction to Fungi. Cambridge University Press, 2007. - Moore-Landecker, Elizabeth, Fundamentals of Fungi. Benjamin Cummings, 1996. - [http://www.tolweb.org/Fungi](http://www.tolweb.org/Fungi) - [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungi.html](http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungi.html) - [http://www.perspective.com/nature/fungi](http://www.perspective.com/nature/fungi) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DecayingPeachSmall.gif](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DecayingPeachSmall.gif) Vocabulary asexual reproduction Reproduction involving only one parent; fungi reproduce asexually through three methods: spores, budding, and mycelial fragmentation. budding Asexual reproduction in which the fungus grows part of its body which eventually breaks off; the broken-off piece becomes a new organism. chitin A nitrogen-containing material found in the cell wall of fungi; also found in the shells of animals such as beetles and lobsters. fruiting body Specialized structure used in sexual reproduction; part of the fungus that produces the spores. heterotroph Organism which obtains carbon (“food”) from outside of themselves. hyphae Thread-like structures which interconnect and bunch up into mycelium; helps bring food, such as a worm, inside the fungus; the “arms and legs” of a fungus. lichen A symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a bacteria or algae; each organism provides nutrients for the other. meiosis A type of cell division where haploid (one set of chromosomes) cells are produced. mycelial fragmentation Asexual reproduction involving splitting off of the mycelia; a fragmented piece of mycelia can eventually produce a new colony of fungi. mycelium Help the fungi absorb nutrients from living hosts; composed of hyphae. mycorrhizal symbiosis A relationship between fungi and the roots of plants where both benefit; the plant provides glucose and sucrose to the fungus that the plant makes through photosynthesis; the fungi provides minerals and water to the roots of the plant. parasite The organism that benefits in a relationship between two organisms in which one is harmed. spores The basic reproductive units of fungi. Points to Consider - Plants are fascinating organisms and are widely diverse. Although scientists used to think that fungi were plants, we now know that plants are fungi are separate. In this lesson we have discussed fungi. Now think about what sets plants apart from fungi? Image Sources (1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laurencia.jpg. GNU-FD. (2) An aquatic insect nymph attacked by water mold.. GNU-FDL. (3) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oudemansiella_nocturnum.JPG. Public Domain. (4) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fungi_collage.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (5) EPA. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Euglena_EPA.jpg. Public Domain. (6) An example of a slime mold.. Public Domain. (7) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Slime_mold.jpg. GNU-FDL. (8) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg. GNU-FDL. (9) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Penicillium.jpg. GNU-FDL. (10) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Asian_mushrooms.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (11) Protists come in many different shapes.. GNU-FDL. (12) The blue in this blue cheese is actually mold.. GNU-FDL. Chapter 10 Plants 10.1 Lesson 10.1: Introduction to Plants Lesson Objectives - Describe the major characteristics that distinguish the Plant Kingdom. - Describe plants’ major adaptations for life on land. - Explain plants’ reproductive cycle. - Explain how plants are classified. Check Your Understanding - What are the major differences between a plant cell and an animal cell? - What is photosynthesis? Introduction Plants have adapted to a variety of environments, from the desert to the tropical rain forest to our lakes and oceans. In each environment, plants have become crucial to supporting animal life. First, plants provide animals with food. In a forest, for example, caterpillars munch on leaves while birds eat berries and deer eat grass. Furthermore, plants make the atmosphere friendly for animals. Plants absorb animals’ “waste” gas, carbon dioxide, and release the oxygen all animals need for cellular respiration. Finally, plants provide cover and shelter for animals. A bird can take refuge from predators in a shrub and use twigs to make a nest high in a tree (Figure 10.1). Without plants, animals would not be able to survive. Figure 10.1: These bird eggs are benefiting from the cover of a plant; plant materials make up the nest, and when the eggs hatch, the young birds will eat plant products like seeds and berries. (33) What Are Plants? From tiny mosses to extremely large trees (Figure 10.2), the organisms classified into the Plant Kingdom have three main distinguishable features. They are all: - eukaryotic - photosynthetic - multicellular Recall that eukaryotic organisms also include animals, protists, and fungi; eukaryotic cells have true nuclei that contain DNA and membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria. As discussed in the Cell Functions chapter, photosynthesis is the process by which plants capture the energy of sunlight and use carbon dioxide from the air to make their own food. Lastly, plants must be multicellular. Recall that some protists, like diatoms, are eukaryotic and photosynthetic; however, diatoms are not considered plants. Diatoms are a major group of algae, and are mostly unicellular. Figure 10.2: There is great diversity in the plant kingdom, from tiny mosses to huge trees. (12) Adaptations For Life On Land Much evidence suggests that plants evolved from freshwater green algae (Figure 10.3). For example, green algae and plants both have the carbohydrate cellulose in their cell walls and they share many of the same pigments. (For a review of plant cells, see the Cells and Their Structures chapter.) So what separates green algae, which are protists, from green plants? ![Image](image) Figure 10.3: The ancestor of plants is green algae. This picture shows a close up of algae on the beach. ([11](#)) One of the main features that distinguishes plants from algae is the retention of the embryo during development. In plants, the embryo develops and is nourished in the female reproductive structure after fertilization. Algae do not retain the embryo. This was the first feature to evolve that separated the plants from the green algae. Plant reproduction will be discussed in the following section. Although the retention of the embryo is the only adaptation shared by all plants, over time other adaptations for living on land also evolved. In early plants, a waxy layer called a cuticle evolved to help seal water in the plant and prevent water loss. However, the cuticle also prevents gases from entering and leaving the plant easily. Recall that the exchange of gasses - taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen - occurs during the process of photosynthesis. Therefore, along with the cuticle, small pores in the leaves called stomata also evolved (Figure 10.4). The stomata can open and close depending on weather conditions; when it’s hot and dry the stomata can stay closed to conserve water. The stomata can open again to permit gas exchange when the weather cools down. A later adaption for life on land was the evolution of vascular tissue. Vascular tissue is specialized tissue that transports water, nutrients, and food in plants. In algae, vascular tissue is not necessary since the entire body is in contact with the water. But on land, water may only be present deep in the ground. Vascular tissue delivers water and nutrients from the ground up and food down into the rest of the plant. The two vascular tissues are xylem and phloem. Xylem is responsible for the transport of water and mineral nutrients from the roots throughout the plant. It is also used to replace water lost during transpiration and photosynthesis. Phloem mainly carries the sugars made during photosynthesis to the parts of the plant where it is needed. ### Plant Reproduction and Life Cycle Alteration of generations describes the lifecycle of a plant (Figure 10.5). In alternation of generations, the plant alternates between a sporophyte that has two sets of chromosomes (diploid) and a gametophyte that has one set of chromosomes (haploid). Briefly, alternation of generations can be summarized in the following four steps: follow along in Figure 10.5 as you read through the steps. 1. The gametophyte produces the gametes, sperm and egg, by mitosis. Remember, gametes are haploid. 2. Then the sperm fertilizes the egg, producing a diploid zygote that develops into the sporophyte. 3. The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. 4. The haploid spores undergo mitosis, developing into the gametophyte. As we will see in the following lessons, the generation in which the plant spends most of its lifecycle differs between various plants. In the plants that first evolved, the gametophyte takes up the majority of the lifecycle of the plant. During the course of evolution, the sporophyte became the major stage of the lifecycle of the plant. In flowering plants, the female gametophyte is retained within the sporophyte and the male gametophyte is the pollen. ![Alternation of Generations in Ferns](image) Figure 10.5: In ferns, the sporophyte is dominant and produces spores that germinate into a gametophyte; after fertilization the sporophyte is produced. Ferns will be discussed in further detail in the next lesson. (2) ### Classification of Plants The Plant Kingdom is formally divided into 12 phyla, and these phyla are subdivided into four groups: 1. nonvascular plants 2. seedless vascular plants 3. nonflowering plants 4. flowering plants Portrayed in Figure 10.6 are some of the rich diversity of this kingdom. These four groups are based on the evolutionary history of significant features in plants. The first significant feature to evolve in the Plant Kingdom, after the retention of the embryo, was vascular tissue. Vascular tissue allowed the transport of water and food throughout the plant. The phyla that were around before the evolution of the vascular tissue are known as the nonvascular plants (without vascular tissue to move water, nutrients and food). The next significant step in the evolutionary history of plants was the development of the seed. Plants that evolved vascular tissue but do not have seeds are the seedless vascular plants. The final major evolutionary event in the Plant Kingdom was the evolution of flowers and fruits. Plants with vascular tissue and seeds but without flowers are the gymnosperms. The plants that have all these features and also fruits and flowers are the angiosperms. These four groups are the focus of the next two lessons. Figure 10.6: The plant kingdom contains a diversity of organisms. Note that Volvox in the upper left is a protist, not a plant. (9) Lesson Summary - Plants are multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotes that evolved from green algae. - Plants have several adaptive features for living on land, including a cuticle, stomata, and vascular tissue. - Plants are informally divided into four groups: the nonvascular plants, the seedless vascular plants, the nonflowering plants (gymnosperms) and the flowering plants (angiosperms). Review Questions 1. How are plants necessary for animal life? 2. Compare and contrast a typical plant to a photosynthetic protist like a diatom. 3. Plants evolved from green algae. How are they different from green algae? 4. What strategies have plants evolved for life on land? 5. What is the purpose of the stomata? 6. What term describes the plant life cycle? 7. What is the diploid stage of the alternation of generations? 8. Which generation of the alternation of generations is dominant in early plants? 9. What is the term for plants that lack vascular tissue? 10. What is the term for plants that have flowers and bear fruit? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/plantae.html - http://www.bioedonline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?q=%22Plantae%22 - http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objID=BIO804 - http://www.perspective.com/nature/plantae - http://plants.usda.gov - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary alteration of generations The plant lifecycle, which alternates between a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte. angiosperms Plants that flower and bear fruit. cuticle Waxy layer that aids water retention in plants. gamete Haploid sex cell; egg or sperm gametophyte Haploid generation of the alteration of generations life cycle; produces gametes. gymnosperms Seed plant where seeds are not enclosed by a fruit. nonvascular plants Plants that do not have vascular tissue to conduct food and water. sporophyte Diploid generation of the alteration of generations; produces haploid spores. stomata Small pores on the underside of leaves that can regulate the passage of gasses and moisture. vascular tissue Tissues that conduct food, water, and nutrients in plants. Points to Consider - Can you think of examples of plants that do not have seeds? - If a plant does not have seeds, how can it reproduce? 10.2 Lesson 10.2: Seedless Plants Lesson Objectives - Name examples of nonvascular seedless plants. - Name examples of vascular seedless plants. - Explain the reproduction strategies of seedless plants. - Describe the ways seedless plants impact humankind. Check Your Understanding - What is a plant? - How are plants classified? Introduction What might you think a forest would have looked like millions of years ago? Or tens of millions of years ago? Or hundreds of millions of years ago? Probably very different than today. In this lesson the focus will be on the very first and most ancient plants: the nonvascular seedless plants and the vascular seedless plants. These plants have had a great impact on all our lives. Over 300 million years ago, during the Carboniferous period, forests looked very different than they do today. Seedless plants grew as tall as today’s trees in vast swampy forests (Figure 10.7). The remains of these forests formed the fossil fuel coal that we depend on today. Although most of these giant seedless plants are now extinct, smaller relatives still remain. ![Image](image) Figure 10.7: Seedless plants were dominant during the Carboniferous period, as illustrated by this drawing. (30) ### Nonvascular Seedless Plants Since the nonvascular seedless plants lack vascular tissue, they also do not have true roots, stems, or leaves. Remember that vascular tissue moves water, food and nutrients throughout the plant. By definition, roots, stems and leaves must contain vascular tissue. However, nonvascular plants do often have a “leafy” appearance and can have stem-like and root-like structures. These plants must also remain very short in stature due to their lack of ability to conduct nutrients and water up a stem. The appearances of the nonvascular plants vary, however, and they are classified into three phyla: the mosses, the hornworts, and the liverworts. The mosses, phylum Bryophyta, are most often recognized as the green “fuzz” on damp rocks and trees in a forest. If you look closely, you will see that most mosses have tiny stem-like and leaf-like structures. This is the gametophyte stage. Remember from lesson 1 that the gametophyte is haploid. The gametophyte produces the gametes that, after fertilization, develop into the diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte forms a distinctive capsule, called the sporangium, which releases spores (Figure 10.8). ![Moss Gametophytes](image) Figure 10.8: Sporophytes sprout up on stalks from this bed of moss gametophytes. Notice that both the sporophytes and gametophytes exist at the same time. (31) The hornworts, phylum Anthocerophyta, get their name from their distinctive hornlike sporophytes, and “wort” which comes from the Anglo-Saxon word for herb. The hornlike sporophytes grow from a base of flattened lobes, which are the gametophytes (Figure 10.9). They tend to grow in moist and humid areas. Liverworts, phylum Hepatophyta, have two distinct appearances- they can either be leafy like mosses or flattened and ribbon-like. Liverworts get their name from the type with the flattened bodies which can resemble a liver (Figure 10.10). Liverworts can often be found along stream beds. ### Vascular Seedless Plants As their name implies, vascular seedless plants have vascular tissue but do not have seeds. Vascular tissue is specialized tissues which conduct water and nutrients throughout the plant. Vascular tissue allowed these plants to grow much taller than nonvascular plants, forming the ancient swamp forests mentioned previously. Most of these large vascular seedless plants Figure 10.9: In hornworts, the “horns”, the sporophytes are rise up from the leaflike gametophyte. (5) Figure 10.10: Liverworts with a flattened, ribbon-like body are called thallose liverworts. (8) are now extinct, but their smaller relatives still remain. Seedless vascular plants include the club mosses, the ferns, the horsetails, and the whisk ferns. Club mosses, in the phylum Lycophyta, are so named because they can look similar to mosses (Figure 10.11). Club mosses are not true mosses, though, because they have vascular tissue. The “club” part of the name comes from club-like clusters of sporangia in some types of club mosses. The resurrection plant is also a club moss. It shrivels and turns brown when it dries out, but then quickly recovers and turns green when watered again. ![Club mosses](image) Figure 10.11: Club mosses can superficially resemble mosses, but they have vascular tissue. (29) Ferns, in the phylum Pterophyta, are the most common seedless vascular plants (Figure 10.12). They typically have large divided leaves called fronds. In most ferns, fronds develop from a curled-up formation called a fiddlehead (Figure 10.13). The fiddlehead resembles the curled decoration on the end of a stringed instrument, such as a fiddle. Leaves unroll as the fiddleheads grow and expand. Ferns grow in a variety of habitats, ranging in size from tiny aquatic species to giant tropical plants. The horsetails, the phylum Sphenophyta, have hollow, ribbed stems and are often found in marshes (Figure 10.14). Whorls of tiny leaves around the stem make the plant look like a horse’s tail, but these soon fall off and leave the photosynthetic hollow stem. The stems are rigid and rough to the touch as they are coated with abrasive silicates. Because of their scratchy texture, these plants were once used as scouring pads for cleaning dishes. The whisk ferns, the phylum Psilophyta, have green branching stems with no leaves, so they resemble a whisk broom (Figure 10.15). Another striking feature of the whisk ferns is their spherical yellow sporangia. Figure 10.12: Ferns are common in the understory of the tropical rainforest. (14) Figure 10.13: The first leaves of most ferns appear curled up into fiddleheads. (23) Figure 10.14: Horsetails are common in marshes. (20) Figure 10.15: Whisk ferns have no leaves and bear yellow sporangia. (21) Reproduction of Seedless Plants Seedless plants can reproduce asexually or sexually. Some seedless plants, like hornworts and liverworts, can reproduce asexually through fragmentation. When a small fragment of the plant is broken off, it can form a new plant. Like all plants, nonvascular plants have an alternation of generations lifecycle. In the life-cycle of the nonvascular seedless plants, the gametophyte is dominant. The gametophyte is photosynthetic and normally described as the plant. The male gametophyte produces flagellated sperm that must swim to the egg formed by the female gametophyte. For this reason, sexual reproduction must happen in the presence of water; hence the nonvascular plants tend to live in moist environments. Following fertilization, the sporophyte forms. The sporophyte is connected to and dependent on the gametophyte. The purpose of the sporophyte is to produce spores that will develop into gametophytes and start the cycle over again. For the seedless vascular plants, the sporophyte tends to be dominant. For example, in ferns the gametophyte is a tiny heart-shaped structure, and the leafy plant we recognize as a fern is the sporophyte (as shown in Figure 10.5). The sporangia of ferns are often on the underside of the fronds (Figure 10.16). Like the nonvascular plants, ferns also have flagellated sperm that must swim to the egg. But unlike the nonvascular plants, once fertilization takes place, the gametophyte will die and the sporophyte will thrive independently. ![Fern producing spores](image) Figure 10.16: This fern is producing spores underneath its fronds. (17) Why Seedless Plants Are Important The greatest influence of seedless plants on human society was in the formation of the fossil fuel coal millions of years ago. Coal is burned to provide energy. But some seedless plants still have uses in society today. Sphagnum, also called peat moss, is commonly used by gardeners to improve soils since it has a great ability to absorb and hold water (Figure 10.17). Ferns are also a familiar fixture in many gardens. Besides being prized for their ornamental value, the fiddleheads of certain species of ferns are used in gourmet food. Some species of ferns, like the maidenhair fern, are believed by some people to have medicinal qualities. ![Image](image) Figure 10.17: Sphagnum, or peat moss, is commonly added to soil to aid water retention. (3) Lesson Summary - Nonvascular seedless plants include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. - Vascular seedless plants include club mosses, ferns, whisk ferns, and horsetails. - Nonvascular seedless plants tend to have a dominant gametophyte while vascular seedless plants tend to have a dominant sporophyte. - Mosses and ferns are used commonly in gardening. Review Questions 1. What is vascular tissue? 2. What is an example of a nonvascular seedless plant? 3. What is an example of a vascular seedless plant? 4. Compare and contrast the fern gametophyte and sporophyte. 5. Compare and contrast the whisk fern (Psilophyta) and the ferns (Pterophyta). 6. Compare and contrast mosses and club mosses. 7. What are some uses of the seedless plants to gardeners? 8. What are some of the distinguishing features of horsetails? 9. What does the sporophyte of the hornwort look like? 10. Explain reproduction by fragmentation. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/FPAS/bcs/bl14apl/bryo1.htm - http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html - http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artjul98/jpmoss.html - http://www.biologycorner.com/bio2/notes_plants.html - http://forestencyclopedia.com/p/p1893 - http://www.hiddenforest.co.nz/plants/clubmosses/clubmosses.htm - http://www.washjeff.edu/greenhouse/Pnudum http://amerfernsoc.org/; http://www.washjeff.edu/greenhouse/Pnudum - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary club mosses Seedless vascular plants that resemble mosses. ferns Seedless vascular plants that have large, divided fronds. hornworts Seedless nonvascular plants with hornlike sporophytes. horsetails Seedless vascular plants with hollow, rigid stems. liverworts Seedless nonvascular plants that can have flattened bodies resembling a liver. mosses Seedless nonvascular plants with tiny stem-like and stem-like structures. whisk ferns Seedless vascular plants that have branching stems and yellow globular sporangium. Points to Consider - Can you think of examples of plants that have seeds? - Can you think of a plant that has seeds but no flowers or fruits? - Why do you think having flowers is beneficial to a plant? 10.3 Lesson 10.3: Seed Plants Lesson Objectives - Describe the importance of the seed. - Explain the ways in which seeds are dispersed. - Define and give examples of Gymnosperms. - Define and give examples of Angiosperms. - Explain some uses of seed plants. Check Your Understanding - What are the two types of seedless plants? - How do seedless plants reproduce? Introduction If you’ve ever seen a plant grow from a tiny seed, then you might realize that seeds are rather amazing structures. The seed allows a plant embryo to survive droughts, harsh winters, and other conditions that would kill an adult plant. The tiny plant embryo can simply stay dormant, in a resting state, and wait for the perfect conditions for growth before it sprouts. In fact, some seeds can stay dormant for hundreds of years! Another impressive feature of the seed is that it provides stored food for the seedling after it sprouts. This greatly increases the chances that the tiny plant will survive. So being able to produce a seed is a very beneficial adaptation, and as a result, seed plants have been very successful. Although the seedless plants were here on Earth first, today there are many more seed plants than seedless plants. Recall that there are two different groups of seed plants: the Gymnosperms, which do not have flowers or fruits, and Angiosperms, which do have flowers and fruits. Seeds and Seed Dispersal For a seed plant species to be successful, the seeds must be dispersed, or scattered out in various directions. If the seed are distributed in a variety of areas, there is a better chance that some of the seeds will find suitable conditions for growth. Furthermore, for plants to establish themselves in new areas, such as areas formed after a glacier retreat, the seeds must somehow reach that new site. To aid with seed dispersal, some plants have evolved special features to encourage their seeds to move long distances. One such strategy is to allow the wind to carry the seeds. With special adaptations in the seeds, the seeds can be carried long distances by the wind. For example, you might have noticed how the “fluff” of a dandelion moves swiftly in the breeze. Each piece of fluff carries a seed to a new location. Or if you look under the scales of pine cone, you would see tiny seeds with “wings” that allow these seeds to be carried away by the wind. Maple trees also have specialized fruits with wing-like extensions that aid in seed dispersal, as shown in Figure 10.18. ![Maple seeds](image) Figure 10.18: Maple trees have fruits with “wings” that help the wind disperse the seeds. (13) Another common seed dispersal strategy that some flowering plants utilize is to produce a fleshy fruit around the seeds. Animals that eat the seeds aid in the dispersal of the seeds inside. Berries, citrus fruits, cherries, apples, and a variety of other types of fruits are all adapted to be attractive to animals (Figure 10.19). Some seeds can pass through an animal’s digestive tract unharmed and germinate after they are passed out with the feces. Some non-fleshy fruits are especially adapted for animals to carry them on their fur. You might have returned from a walk in the woods to find burrs stuck to your socks. These burs are actually specialized fruits that carry seeds to a new location. Gymnosperms Plants with “naked” seeds, meaning they are not enclosed by a fruit, are called Gymnosperms. Instead, the seeds of Gymnosperms are usually found in cones. There are four phyla of gymnosperms: 1. Coniferophyta, common name conifers 2. Cycadophyta, common name cycads 3. Ginkgophyta, Ginkgo trees 4. Gnetophyta, common name gnetophytes The Conifers, members of the phylum Coniferophyta, are probably the gymnosperms that are most familiar to you. The conifers include pines, firs, spruces, cedars, and the coastal redwoods in California that are tallest living vascular plants. The name of this group signifies that the plants bear their reproductive structures in cones, but this is not a characteristic unique to this phylum (Figure 10.20). Conifer pollen cones are usually very small, while the seed cones are larger. Pollen contains gametophytes that produce the male gamete of seed plants. The pollen, which is a fine to coarse powder-like material, is carried by the wind to fertilize the seed cones (Figure 10.21). The Conifers are important to humankind since they have many uses. They are important sources of lumber and are also used to make paper. Resins, the sticky substance you might see oozing out of a wound on a pine tree, are collected from conifers to make a variety of products, such as the solvent turpentine and the rosin used by musicians and baseball players. The sticky rosin improves the pitcher's hold on the ball or increases the friction between the bow and the strings to help create music from a violin or other stringed instrument. The Cycads, in the phylum Cycadophyta, are also Gymnosperms. They have large, finely-divided leaves and grow as short shrubs and trees in tropical regions. Like the conifers, they produce cones, but the seed cones and pollen cones are always on separate plants (Figure 10.22). One type of cycad, the sago palm, is a popular landscape plant. During the Age of Figure 10.20: A red pine, which bears seeds in cones, is an example of a conifer. (18) Figure 10.21: The end of a pine tree branch bears the male cones that produce the pollen. (4) the Dinosaurs (about 65 to 200 million years ago) the cycads were the dominant plants. So you can imagine dinosaurs grazing on cycad seeds and roaming through cycad forests. ![Cycads](image) Figure 10.22: Cycads bear their pollen and seeds in cones on separate plants. (28) Ginkgo trees, in the phylum Ginkgophyta, are unique because they are the only species left in the phylum, although there are many other species in the fossil record that have gone extinct (Figure 10.23). Therefore, the Ginkgo tree is sometimes considered a “living fossil”. The Ginkgo tree survived as it was widely cultivated in China, especially around Buddhist temples. The Ginkgo tree is also a popular landscape tree today in American cities because it is very tolerant of pollution. The Ginkgo tree, like the cycads, has separate female and male plants. The male trees are usually preferred for landscaping because the seeds produced by the female plants smell rather foul as they ripen. The Gnetophytes, in the phylum Gnetophyta, are a very small and unusual group of plants. Ephedra is an important member of this group since this desert shrub produces the ephedrine used to treat asthma and other conditions. Welwitschia produces extremely long leaves and is found in the deserts of southwestern Africa (Figure 10.24). Overall, there are about 70 different species in this very diverse phylum. ### Angiosperms Angiosperms, in the phylum Anthophyta, are the most successful phylum of plants and vastly outnumber the individuals in other phyla (Figure 10.25). The feature that distinguishes the angiosperms is the evolution of the flower, so they are also called the flowering plants. Angiosperms inhabit a variety of environments; a water lily, an oak tree, and a barrel cactus are all angiosperms. Figure 10.23: Ginkgo trees are gymnosperms with broad leaves. (10) Figure 10.24: One type of gnetophyte is Welwitschia. (7) Even though flowers may differ widely in their appearance, they do have some structures in common. The outermost structure is the sepals, collectively known as the calyx, which are usually green and protect the flower before it opens. The petals, collectively known as the corolla, are often bright and colorful to attract a particular pollinator, an animal that carries pollen from one flower to another. The next structure is the stamens, consisting of the stalk-like filament that holds up the anther, or the pollen sacs. The pollen is the male gametophyte. At the very center is the carpel, which is divided into three different regions: the sticky, knob-like stigma where the pollen lands, the slender tube of the style, and the enlarge base known as the ovary. The ovary is where the ovules, the female gametophytes, are found. When the ovules are fertilized, the ovule becomes the seed and the ovary becomes the fruit. Some flowers have all these parts and are known as complete flowers (Figure 10.26), while others may be missing one or more of these parts and are known as incomplete flowers. Table 10.1: \| Flower part \| Definition \| \|-------------\|------------\| \| sepals \| Outermost layer of the flower that is usually leaf-like and green. \| \| calyx \| The sepals collectively; outermost layer of the flower. \| \| corolla \| The petals of a flower collectively. \| \| stamens \| The part of the flower consisting of a filament and an anther that produces pollen. \| \| Flower part \| Definition \| \|-------------\|------------\| \| filament \| Stalk that holds up the anther. \| \| anther \| The pollen-containing structure in a flower. \| \| carpel \| “Female” portion of the flower; consists of stigma, style, and ovary. \| \| stigma \| The knob-like section of the carpel where the pollen must land for fertilization to occur. \| \| style \| Slender tube that makes up part of the carpel. \| \| ovary \| Enlarged part of the carpel where the ovules are contained. \| (Source: Jessica Harwood, License: CC-BY-SA) Many plants can self-pollinate, meaning that pollen falls on the stigma of the same flower. Cross-fertilization is often favored and occurs when the pollen from an anther is transferred to a stigma of another flower on another plant. This can be accomplished two ways, by wind or by animals. Flowers that are pollinated by animals such as birds, butterflies, or bees are often colorful and provide nectar, a sugary reward, for their animal pollinators. Angiosperms are important to humankind in many ways, but the most significant role of angiosperms is as food. Wheat, rye, corn, and other grains are all harvested from flowering plants. Starchy foods, such as potatoes, and legumes, such as beans, are also angiosperms. And as mentioned previously, fruits are a product of angiosperms to increase seed dispersal and are also nutritious foods. There are also many non-food uses of angiosperms that are important to society; for example, cotton and other plants are used make cloth, and hardwood trees to make lumber. The flowering plants are dominant in the environment and are important resources for humans and all animals. Lesson Summary - Seeds consist of a dormant plant embryo and stored food. - Seeds can be dispersed by wind or by animals that eat fleshy fruits. - Gymnosperms, seed plants without flowers, include the Conifers, the Cycads, the Gingko tree, and the Gnetophytes. - Angiosperms are flowering plants. - Seed plants provide many foods and products for humans. Review Questions 1. Why are seeds an adaptive feature for seed plants? 2. What is the purpose of a plant developing a fruit? 3. What are two ways that plants disperse their seeds? 4. How do Gymnosperms and Angiosperms differ? 5. What are some examples of Gymnosperms? 6. What are some uses that seed plants have for humans? 7. Firs, spruces, and pines belong to what group of Gymnosperms? 8. Why is the Ginkgo tree considered a “living fossil”? 9. Where is the pollen stored in a flower? 10. How are plants pollinated? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://home.manhattan.edu/~frances.cardillo/plants/intro/plantmen.html - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/seedplants/seedplants.html - http://hcs.osu.edu/hcs300/gymno.htm - http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio106/gymnospr.htm - http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e02/02d.htm - http://home.manhattan.edu/~frances.cardillo/plants/intro/plantmen.html - http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookflowers.html - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary angiosperms Another name for flowering plants. anther The pollen-containing structure in a flower. calyx The sepals collectively; outermost layer of the flower. carpel “Female” portion of the flower; consists of stigma, style, and ovary. complete flowers Flowers that contain all four structures: sepals, petals, stamens, and one or more carpels. conifers Group of gymnosperms that bear cones; includes spruces, pine, and fir trees. corolla The petals of a flower collectively are known as the corolla. dormant Halting growth and development temporarily. ginkgo Tree known as the “living fossil” because it is the only species left in the phylum Ginkgophyta. gnetophytes Diverse group of gymnosperms that includes Ephedra and Welwitschia. gymnosperms Seed plants in which the seeds are not encased in a fruit. incomplete flowers Flowers that are missing one or more structures: sepals, petals, stamens, or carpels. ovary Enlarged part of the carpel where the ovules are contained. sepals Outermost layer of the flower that is usually leaf-like and green. stamens The part of the flower consisting of a filament and an anther that produces pollen. stigma The knoblike section of the carpel where the pollen must land for fertilization to occur. Points to Consider - Do you think plants can sense their environment? Why or why not? - Can you think of an example of a hormone? - Do you think that plants have hormones? - How do you think trees know when it’s time to lose their leaves? 10.4 Lesson 10.4: Plant Responses Lesson Objectives - List the major types of plant hormones and the main functions of each. - Define tropism and explain examples of tropisms. - Explain how plants detect the change of seasons. Check Your Understanding - Why do plants need sunlight? Introduction Plants may not move, but that does not mean they don’t respond to their environment. Plants are constantly responding to their surroundings. Plants detect and respond to stimuli such as gravity, light, touch, and seasonal changes. For example, you might have noticed how a house plant bends towards a bright window. Plants must be able to detect and respond to changes in the direction of light. You probably also have noticed that some trees lose their leaves in the autumn, so plants must be able to detect the time of year. Plants are able to respond to stimuli through the help of special chemical messengers, called hormones. The various ways that plants respond to their environment and the hormones that control these responses will be the focus of this section. Plant Hormones In order for plants to respond to the environment, their cells must be able to communicate with other cells. The chemical signals that travel through cells to help them communicate are called hormones. You might be familiar with the term hormones since animals, including humans, also depend on hormones, such as testosterone or estrogen, to carry messages from cell to cell. Animal hormones will be discussed in the Controlling the Body chapter. In both plants and animals, hormones travel from cell to cell in response to a stimulus and also activate a specific response. Table 10.2: Each plant hormone has a specific function. \| Hormone \| Function \| \|-------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| Ethylene \| Fruit ripening and abscission \| \| Gibberellins\| Break the dormancy of seeds and buds; promote growth \| \| Hormone \| Function \| \|--------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| Cytokinins \| Promote cell division; prevent senescence \| \| Abscisic Acid\| Close the stomata; maintain dormancy \| \| Auxins \| Involved in tropisms and apical dominance \| (Source: Jessica Harwood, License: CC-BY-SA) Ethylene is the plant hormone involved in ripening fruit and with abscission, the dropping of leaves, fruits and flowers. When a flower is done blooming or a fruit is ripe and ready to be eaten, ethylene stimulates the production of enzymes that allow the petals or fruit to separate from the plant (Figures 10.27 and 10.28). Ethylene is an unusual plant hormone because it is a gas. That means it can move through the air, and a ripening apple can cause another to ripen, or even over-ripen. That’s why one rotten apple spoils the whole barrel! ![Tomatoes](image) Figure 10.27: The hormone ethylene is signaling these tomatoes to ripen. (25) Gibberellins are growth-promoting hormones. When gibberellins are applied artificially to plants, the stems grow longer. Therefore, gibberellins can be used in horticulture to increase the growth of ornamental plants, whereas dwarf plants have low concentrations of gibberellins (Figure 10.29). Another function of gibberellins is to break the dormancy of... seeds and buds. Gibberellins signal that it’s time for a seed to germinate or for a bud to open. Cytokinins are hormones that promote cell division. Cytokinins were discovered from attempts to grow plant tissue in artificial media (Figure 10.30). Cytokinins also prevent senescence, the programmed aging process. As a result, florists sometimes apply cytokinins to cut flowers. ![Image](image) Figure 10.30: Cytokinins promote cell division and are necessary for growing plants in tissue culture; a small piece of a plant is placed in sterile conditions to regenerate a new plant. (15) Abscisic Acid is misnamed because it was once believed to play a role in abscission (the dropping of leaves, fruits and flowers), but we now know abscission is regulated by ethylene. The actual role of abscisic acid is to close the stomata and maintain dormancy. When a plant is stressed due to lack of water, abscisic acid signals the stomata to close. This prevents excess water loss through the stomata. When conditions are not ideal for a seed to germinate or for a winter bud to put out its leaves, abscisic acid signals for dormancy to continue. When conditions improve, the levels of abscisic acid drop and the levels of gibberellins increase, signaling that it is time to break dormancy (Figure 10.31). Auxins are hormones that influence many different processes in plants. Auxins produced at the tip of the plant are involved in apical dominance, preventing the growth of side branches. In apical dominance the main central stem of the plant is dominant over other side stems; the main stem grows more strongly than other stems and branches. When the tip of the plant is removed, the auxins are no longer present and the side branches begin to grow. This is why pruning generally will help produce a fuller plant with more branches. Auxins are also involved in tropisms, which will be discussed in the next section. Tropisms Plants may not be able to move, but they are able to change their growth in response to a stimulus. Growth toward or away from a stimulus is known as a tropism. The ability of a plant to curve its growth in one direction is achieved with the signaling of auxin. The auxin moves to one side of the stem, where it starts a chain of events that elongate the cells on Figure 10.31: A reduction in levels of abscisic acid allows these buds to break dormancy and put out leaves. (27) Figure 10.32: These seedlings bending toward the sun are displaying phototropism. (6) just that one side of the stem. With one side of the stem growing faster than the other, the plant begins to bend. You might have noticed that plants tend to bend towards the light. This is an example of a tropism where light is the stimulus, known as phototropism (Figure 10.32). To obtain more light for photosynthesis, it’s advantageous for leaves and stems to grow towards the light. On the other hand, roots are either insensitive to light or actually grow away from light. This is advantageous for the roots since their purpose is to obtain water and nutrients from deep within the ground. A seed often starts out underground in the dark, yet the roots always grow downwards into the earth and not toward the surface. How do the roots know which way is up? Gravitropism is a growth towards or away from the pull of gravity. Shoots also exhibit gravitropism, but in the opposite direction. If you place a plant on its side, the stem and new leaves will curve upwards. Again, the hormone auxin is involved in this response. Auxin builds up on the lower side of the stem, elongating this side of the stem and causing it to bend upwards over time. Plants also have a touch response, called thigmotropism. If you have ever seen a morning glory or the tendrils of a bean plant twist around a pole, then you know that plants must be able to detect the pole. Thigmotropism works much like the other tropisms. The plant grows straight until it comes in contact with the pole. Then the side of the stem in contact with the pole grows slower than the opposite side of the stem. This causes the stem to bend around the pole. Table 10.3: Tropisms \| Type of Tropism \| Stimulus \| \|-----------------\|----------\| \| Phototropism \| light \| \| Gravitropism \| gravity \| \| Thigmotropism \| touch \| Seasonal Changes Along with detecting differences in light or gravity, plants also are able to detect the seasons. Leaves change color and drop each autumn in temperate climates (Figure 10.33). Certain flowers, like poinsettias, only bloom during the winter. And in the spring, the winter buds on the trees break open and the leaves start to grow. How do plants detect time of year? Although you might detect the change of seasons by the change in temperature, this is not the primary way by which plants detect the change of seasons. Plants determine the time of year by the length of the day. Because of the tilt of the Earth, during winter days there are less hours of light than during summer days. That’s why during the winter it may start getting dark very early during the evening and even stay dark while you’re getting ready for school the next morning. But in the summer it will be bright early in the morning and the sun may not set until late that night. Plants can detect the differences in day length and respond accordingly. For example, in the fall when the days start to get shorter, the trees sense it is time to begin the process of shedding their leaves. Lesson Summary - Plant hormones are chemical signals that regulate a variety of processes in plants. - A plant tropism is growth towards or away from a stimulus such as light or gravity. - Many plants undergo seasonal changes after detecting differences in day length. Review Questions 1. What is the term for dropping fruits, flowers, or leaves? 2. What hormone is involved with fruit ripening? 3. How are hormones involved in seed germination? 4. What hormone is involved in tropisms? 5. What hormones promote cell division? 6. What hormone causes stems to elongate? 7. What is phototropism? 8. How does a tendril wind around a pole? 9. How do plants detect the change in seasons? 10. What are some seasonal responses in plants? Further Reading / Supplemental Links www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/reprint/116/1/329.pdf - http://plantphys.info/apical/apical.html - http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/nscort/outreach_exp_gravitrop.html - http://biology.kenyon.edu/edwards/project/steffan/b45sv.htm - http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/greenplantsasorganisms/2plantgrowthrev1.shtml - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary abscisic acid Plant hormone involved in maintaining dormancy and closing the stomata. abscission The shedding of leaves, fruits, or flowers. apical dominance Suppressing the growth of the side branches of a plant. auxin Plant hormone involved in tropisms and apical dominance. cytokinins Plant hormone involved in cell division. ethylene Plant hormone involved in fruit ripening and abscission. gibberellins Plant hormone involved in seed germination and stem elongation. gravitropism Plant growth towards or away from the pull of gravity. hormones Chemical messengers that signal responses to stimuli. phototropism Plant growth towards or away from light. senescence The programmed process of aging and eventual death. thigmotropism Differential plant growth in response to contact with an object. tropism Plant growth response towards or away from a stimulus. Points to Consider In the next chapter we will turn our attention to animals. - List some ways animals are different from plants. - What characteristics do you think define an animal? - Can you think of examples of animals that do not have hard skeletons? Image Sources (1) Arabidopsis-epiderm-stomata2.jpg. GNU-FDL. (2) Alternation_of_generations_in_ferns.png. GNU-FDL. (3) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Schultz_Sphagnum_Peat_Moss.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Schultz_Sphagnum_Peat_Moss.jpg). CC-BY-SA 3.0. (4) John Haslam. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/foxypar4/2036547013/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/foxypar4/2036547013/). CC-BY 2.0. (5) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Anthoceros_levis.jpg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Anthoceros_levis.jpg). GNU-FDL. (6) Russell Neches. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/rneches/2081938105/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/rneches/2081938105/). CC-BY 2.0. (7) One type of gnetophyte is Welwitschia. CC-Attribution. (8) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Liverwort.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Liverwort.jpg). GNU-FDL. (9) Diversity_of_plants_image_version_3.png. GNU-FDL. (10) PaRAnOid AnDRoiD ARG. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/paranoid-android_arg/2225719000/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/paranoid-android_arg/2225719000/). CC-BY 2.0. (11) solarshakti. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/73109955@N00/172202630/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/73109955@N00/172202630/). CC-BY 2.0. (12) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/gnaharro/2170397378/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/gnaharro/2170397378/). CC-Attribution. (13) Imajilon. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/imajilon/2681470706/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/imajilon/2681470706/). CC-BY 2.0. (14) Kathryn Lymburner. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/kats_pics/186991752/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/kats_pics/186991752/). CC-BY 2.0. (15) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/ricephotos/367696112/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/ricephotos/367696112/). CC-SA. (16) reebs. Angiosperms are the flowering plants.. CC-BY 2.0. (17) Paige Filler. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/theequinest/2514581801/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/theequinest/2514581801/). CC-BY 2.0. (18) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/odalaigh/2456681765/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/odalaigh/2456681765/). CC-Attribution. (19) Leesa0502. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/wandererwoman/21801215/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/wandererwoman/21801215/). CC-BY 2.0. (20) backpackphotography. Horsetails are common in marshes.. CC-BY 2.0. (21) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Psilotum.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Psilotum.jpg). GNU-FDL. (22) Sheila Thomson. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/sheilaellen/113416073/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/sheilaellen/113416073/). CC-BY 2.0. (23) David Sim. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/victoriapeckham/493717420/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/victoriapeckham/493717420/). CC-BY 2.0. (24) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/sararah/2516062323](http://www.flickr.com/photos/sararah/2516062323). CC-BY-SA. (25) Todd Petit. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/starmist1/794903253/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/starmist1/794903253/). CC-BY 2.0. (26) heydrienne. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/heydrienne/22080973/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/heydrienne/22080973/). CC-BY 2.0. (27) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/martinlabar/529695331/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/martinlabar/529695331/). CC-Attribution. (28) Glenn Fleishman. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/glennf/20342176/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/glennf/20342176/). CC-BY 2.0. (29) Benny Mazur. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/benimoto/2447130740/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/benimoto/2447130740/). CC-BY 2.0. (30) Meyers_b15_s0272b.jpg. Public Domain. (31) Elroy Serrao. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/enygmatic/39281344/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/enygmatic/39281344/). CC-BY-SA 2.0. (32) Mature_flower_diagram.svg. Public Domain. (33) Jarosław Pocztarski. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/j-pocztarski/2495538130/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/j-pocztarski/2495538130/). CC-BY 2.0. Chapter 11 Introduction to Invertebrates 11.1 Lesson 11.1: Overview of Animals Lesson Objectives - List the characteristics that define the animal kingdom. - Define and give examples of the invertebrates. Check Your Understanding - What are the main differences between an animal cell and a plant cell? - How do animals get their energy? Introduction How are animals different from other forms of life? Recall that all animals are eukaryotic, meaning that they have cells with true nuclei and membrane-bound organelles. Another feature that distinguishes animals from animal-like protists is that animals are multicellular, while protists are often unicellular. Because animals are multicellular, animal cells can be organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems. Finally, animals are heterotrophic, meaning they must ingest some type of organic matter for nutrition and energy (Figure 11.1). Eukaryotic, multicellular, and heterotrophic are features shared by all the millions of diverse types of animals on earth, from tiny ants and snails to giant whales and grizzly bears. In this chapter we will just focus on the invertebrates, the animals that do not have a backbone of bone or cartilage. Classification of Animals Recall that each kingdom of life, including the animal kingdom, is divided into smaller groups called phyla based on their shared characteristics. For example, the phylum Mollusca largely consists of animals with shells like snails and clams. Although modern classification is also based on looking at molecular data, such as DNA sequencing, animals have long been classified in their current phyla largely by their physical characteristics. One example of a physical characteristic used to classify animals is body symmetry. In radially symmetrical organisms, such as sea stars, the body is organized like a circle (Figure 11.2). Therefore, any cut through the center of the animal results in two identical halves. Other animals, such as humans and worms, are bilaterally symmetrical, meaning their left and right sides are mirror images. Animals are also often classified by their body structure. For example, segmentation, the repetition of body parts, defines one phylum of worms (Figure 11.3). Animals that have a true body cavity, defined as a fluid-filled space, and internal organs are also classified in separate phyla from those animals that do not have a true body cavity. Finally, the structure of the digestive system of animals can also be used as a characteristic for classification. Animals with incomplete digestive tracts have only one opening in their digestive tracts, while animals with complete digestive tract have two openings, the mouth and anus. Figure 11.2: Sea stars are radially symmetrical. (3) Figure 11.3: A segmented body plan defines the phylum that includes the earthworms. (7) What Are Invertebrates? Besides being classified into phyla, animals are also often characterized as being invertebrates or vertebrates. This is an informal classification term based on the skeletons of the animals. Vertebrates have a backbone of bone or cartilage, while invertebrates have no backbone. All vertebrate organisms are in the phylum Chordata, while invertebrates make up several diverse phyla. As seen in Figure 11.4, the invertebrates include the insects, the earthworms, the jellyfish, the star fish, and a variety of other animals. In the next lessons we will discuss some of phyla within the animal kingdom that contain invertebrates. ![Snail](image) Figure 11.4: Snails are an example of invertebrates, animals without a backbone. (18) \| Phylum \| Examples \| \|-----------------\|---------------------------\| \| Porifera \| Sponges \| \| Cnidaria \| Jellyfish, corals \| \| Platyhelminthes \| Flatworms, tapeworms \| \| Nematoda \| Nematodes, heartworm \| \| Mollusca \| Snails, clams \| \| Annelida \| Earthworms, leeches \| \| Arthropoda \| Insects, crabs \| \| Echinodermata \| Sea stars, sea urchins \| Lesson Summary - Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs. Animals can be classified by both molecular data and physical characteristics such as symmetry. Invertebrates are animals without a backbone. Review Questions* 1. What are some key features that define the animal kingdom? 2. What does heterotrophic mean? 3. What defines the invertebrates? 4. What are some examples of invertebrates? 5. What is the difference between radially and bilaterally symmetrical animals? 6. What’s an example of a bilaterally symmetrical animal? 7. What are some examples of a radially symmetrical animal? 8. What is a body cavity? 9. What is the difference between an incomplete and complete digestive system? 10. What is segmentation? Further Reading - [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/index.html](http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/index.html) - [http://doe.sd.gov/octa/ddn4learning/themeunits/animals](http://doe.sd.gov/octa/ddn4learning/themeunits/animals) - [http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates.html](http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates.html) - [http://en.wikipedia.com](http://en.wikipedia.com) Vocabulary bilaterally symmetrical Body plan in which the left and right side are mirror images. complete digestive tract A digestive tract that has two openings, the mouth and the anus. heterotroph Organism that cannot make its own food, so it must ingest some type of organic matter. invertebrates Animals without a backbone. incomplete digestive tract A digestive tract that has only one opening. radially symmetrical A body plan in which any cut through the center results in two identical halves. segmentation Repetition of body parts or segments. Points to Consider - What do you think that jellyfishes and corals have in common? - Think of some examples of animals that are bilaterally symmetrical, where the left side is a mirror image of the right? 11.2 Lesson 11.2: Sponges and Cnidarians Lesson Objectives - Describe the key features of the Sponges. - Describe the key features of the Cnidarians. - List examples of the Cnidarians. Check Your Understanding - How are animals classified? - What is an invertebrate? Introduction The ocean is home to a variety of organisms. Phytoplankton, tiny photosynthetic organisms that float in the water, make their own food from the energy of the sun. Small aquatic animals, known as zooplankton, and larger animals, such as fish, use phytoplankton as a food source. These animals can in turn be eaten by larger aquatic animals, such as larger fish and sharks. Among the various types of animals that live in the ocean, the sponges and cnidarians are important invertebrates. The Sponges are believed to be one of the most ancient forms of animal life on earth. The cnidarians, which include the jellyfish, also are among the oldest and most unusual animals on earth. In this lesson we will discuss the features that make these two types of invertebrates unique from other types of animals. Sponges Sponges are classified in the phylum Porifera, which derives its name from Latin words meaning “pore bearing.” These pores allow the movement of water into the sponges’ sac-like bodies (Figure 11.5). Sponges pump water through their bodies because they are sessile filter feeders, meaning they cannot move and must filter organic matter and tiny organisms out of the water to obtain food. Sponges are relatively primitive animals and do not have brains, stomachs, or other organs. In fact, sponges do not even have true tissues. Instead, their bodies are made up of specialized cells that each has specific functions. For example, the collar cells are flagellated and encourage water movement, while other types of cells regulate the water flow by increasing or decreasing the size of the pores. Cnidarians The cnidarians, in the phylum Cnidaria, include organisms such as the jellyfish (Figure 11.6) and sea anemones (Figures 11.7 and 11.8) that are found in shallow ocean water. You might recognize that these animals can give you a painful sting if you step on them. That’s because cnidarians have stinging cells known as nematocysts. When touched, the nematocysts unleash long, hollow threads that are intended to trap prey, and sometimes toxins are also injected through these threads to paralyze the prey. The body plan of cnidarians is unique because these organisms are radially symmetrical, meaning that they have a circular body plan so that any cut through the center of the animal leaves two equal halves. The cnidarians have two basic body forms, polyp and medusa. The polyp is a cup-shaped body with the mouth directed upward, such as a sea anemone (Figure 11.8). The medusa is a bell-shaped body with the mouth and tentacles directed downward, such as a jellyfish (Figure 11.7). Unlike the sponges, the cnidarians are made up of true tissues. The inner tissue layer secretes digestive enzymes into the gastrovascular cavity, a large cavity that has both digestive and circulatory functions. The cnidarians also have nerve tissue organized into a net-like structure. Cnidarians do not have true organs, however. ![Jellyfish](image) Figure 11.6: Jellyfish have bell-shaped bodies with tentacles. (8) ### Cnidarian Colonies Some types of cnidarians are also known to form colonies. For example, the Portuguese man-of-war looks like a single organism but is actually a colony of polyps (Figure 11.9). One polyp is filled with air to help the colony float, while several feeding polyps hang below with tentacles full of nematocysts. Consequently, the Portuguese man-of-war is known to cause extremely painful stings to swimmers and surfers who accidentally brush up against these creatures in the water. Figure 11.7: Sea anemones can sting and trap fish with their tentacles. (15) Figure 11.8: One type of sea anemone is home to the clownfish. (6) Coral reefs are built from colonial cnidarians called corals (Figure 11.10). The corals are sessile polyps that can extend their tentacles to feed on ocean creatures that pass by. Their skeletons are made up of calcium carbonate, which is also known as limestone. Over long periods of time, their skeletons can accumulate to produce massive structures known as coral reefs. Coral reefs are important habitats for diverse types of ocean life. Lesson Summary - Sponges are sessile filter feeders without true tissues. - The cnidarians, such as jellyfish, are radially symmetrical with true tissues. - Colonial cnidarians include the Portuguese man-of-war and corals. Review Questions 1. What is the only animal to lack true tissues? 2. In what phylum are the sponges? 3. How do sponges gain nutrition? 4. Cnidarians are radially symmetrical. What does this mean? 5. What are some examples of cnidarians? 6. How do cnidarians sting their prey? 7. Describe the nervous system of the cnidarians. 8. How is a jellyfish different from a Portuguese man-o-war? 9. How are coral reefs built? 10. Where are most cnidarians found? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/porifera.html - http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu - http://www.pbs.org/kcet/shapeoflife/animals/cnidaria.html - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cnidaria.html - http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Cnidaria&contgroup=Animals - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cnidaria.html - http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Porifera.html - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria Vocabulary corals Cnidarians that live on ocean reefs in colonies. cnidarians Invertebrates that have radial symmetry and include the jellyfish. filter feeders An organism that feeds by filtering organic matter out of water. gastrovascular cavity A large cavity having both digestive and circulatory functions. medusa Cnidarian with a bell-shaped body directed downward. nematocysts Specialized cells in cnidarians that can release a small thread-like structure and toxins to capture prey. porifera Filter-feeders with sac-like bodies; known as the sponges. polyp Cnidarian with a cup-shaped body directed upward. sessile Permanently attached and not freely moving. Points to Consider - How do you think that worms are different from sponges and cnidarians? - How do you think that worms might be similar to sponges and cnidarians? 11.3 Lesson 11.3: Worms Lesson Objectives - Describe the major features of the flatworms. - Describe the major features of the roundworms. - Describe the major features of the segmented worms. Check Your Understanding - In terms of body structure, what does segmentation refer to? - What is a body cavity? Introduction Calling an animal a worm is an informal, non-scientific classification for animals that have long bodies with no appendages. Worms are bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that the right side of their bodies is a mirror of the left. Worms live in a variety of environments, including in the ocean, in fresh water, on land, and as parasites of plants and animals. In this chapter we will discuss three types of worms: the flatworms, the roundworms, and the segmented worms. These worms are distinguished from each other by their body plan. The flatworms have flat ribbon-like bodies with no body cavity. The roundworms have a body cavity but no segments. The segmented worms have both a body cavity and segmented bodies. Flatworms Worms in the phylum Platyhelminthes are called flatworms because they have flattened bodies. Some species of flatworms are free live-living organisms that feed on small organisms and decaying matter. These types of flatworms include marine flatworms and fresh-water flatworms such as Dugesia (Figures 11.11 and 11.12). Other types of flatworms are parasitic and rely on a host organism for energy. For example, tapeworms have a modified head region with tiny hooks that help the worm attach to the intestines of an animal host (Figures 11.13 and 11.14). ![Image](image) Figure 11.11: Dugesia is a type of flatworm with a head region and eyespots. (14) Flatworms have no true body cavity and an incomplete digestive system, meaning that the digestive tract has only one opening. Flatworms do not have a respiratory system, so gas exchange occurs at the surface of their bodies. Furthermore, there are no blood vessels or true circulatory system in the flatworms. Their gastrovascular cavity serves for both digestion and to distribute nutrients. The flatworms do have a ladder-like nervous system with a distinct head region with a concentration of nerve cells and sensory organs such as eyespots (Figure 11.11). The development of a head region, called cephalization, arose with the development of bilateral symmetry in animals. Roundworms The phylum Nematoda includes non-segmented worms known as nematodes or roundworms (Figure 11.15). Unlike the flatworms, the roundworms have a body cavity with internal Figure 11.12: Marine flatworms can be brightly colored. (2) Figure 11.13: Tapeworms are parasitic flatworms that live in the intestines of their hosts. (17) organs. A roundworm’s complete digestive tract, meaning the digestive tract includes both a mouth and anus, includes a large digestive organ known as the gut. Roundworms also have a simple nervous system with a primitive brain. Both their anterior and posterior ends have specialized sensory nerves. These nerves are connected with a ventral and dorsal nerve cord that run the length of the body. Roundworms can be free-living organisms, but they are probably best known for their role as significant plant and animal parasites. The heartworms, which cause serious disease in dogs while living in the heart and blood vessels, are a type of roundworm. Round worms can also cause disease in humans. Elephantiasis, a disease characterized by the extreme swelling of the limbs, is caused by infection with a type of roundworm (Figure 11.16). Segmented Worms The phylum Annelida includes the segmented worms such as the common earthworm, some marine worms, and leeches (Figures 11.17 and 11.18). These worms are known as the segmented worms because their bodies are segmented, or separated into repeating units. Most segmented worms feed on dead organic matter, while leeches can live in freshwater and suck blood from host organisms. Leeches can also be used medicinally to remove excess blood. Segmented worms have a well-developed body cavity filled with fluid, which serves as a hydroskeleton, a supportive structure that aids in muscle contraction. Segmented worms also tend to have organ systems that are more developed than the roundworms or flatworms. Earthworms, for example, have a complete digestive tract including an esophagus. Figure 11.15: Nematodes can be parasites of plants and animals. (10) Figure 11.16: One roundworm parasite causes elephantiasis, a disease characterized by the swelling of the limbs. (1) Figure 11.17: Earthworms are segmented worms. (5) Figure 11.18: Leeches are parasitic segmented worms. (16) and intestines. The circulatory system consists of paired hearts and blood vessels, while the nervous system consists of the brain and a ventral nerve cord. Table 11.2: \| Type of Worm \| Body Cavity \| Segmented \| Digestive System \| Example \| \|--------------\|-------------\|-----------\|------------------\|-----------\| \| Flatworm \| No \| No \| Incomplete \| Tapeworm \| \| Roundworm \| Yes \| No \| Complete \| Heartworm \| \| Segmented \| Yes \| Yes \| Complete \| Earthworm \| (Source: Jessica Harwood, License: CC-BY-SA) Lesson Summary - The flatworms have no true body cavity and include free-living Dugesia and parasitic tapeworms. - The roundworms, which can also be parasitic or free-living, are non-segmented worms with a complete digestive tract and a primitive brain. - The segmented worms include the common earthworm and leeches. Review Questions 1. Are all worms classified into a single phylum? 2. Describe the respiratory system of the flatworms. 3. What is cephalization? 4. Name a parasitic flatworm. 5. How does the body plan of the roundworms differ from that of the flatworms? 6. Describe the digestive system of roundworms. 7. What features distinguish Phylum Annelida from the other worms? 8. Describe the skeletal system of a segmented worm. 9. Name a parasitic segmented worm. 10. Earthworms are in what phylum? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Annelida.html](http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Annelida.html) - [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nematoda.html](http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nematoda.html) Vocabulary annelida Invertebrate worms that have segmented bodies, such as earthworms. cephalization Having a head region with a concentration of sensory organs and central nervous system. complete digestive tract A digestive tract with two openings, a mouth and anus. gastrovascular cavity A large cavity having both digestive and circulatory functions. hydroskeleton Fluid-filled body cavity that provides support for muscle contraction. incomplete digestive system A digestive tract with only one opening. nematoda Invertebrate worms that include the roundworms. platyhelmenthes Invertebrate worms that include the flatworms and tapeworms. segmentation A body plan that has repeated units or segments. tapeworms Intestinal parasites in the phylum Platyhelmenthes. Points to Consider - How might the vertebrates be different from the invertebrates? - Can you think of some examples of animals with a backbone? Lab Survey of Some Invertebrates In this lab you will observe some examples of the invertebrates, those animals that do not have a backbone. The hydras are in the phylum Cnidaria. The Dugesia are in the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. The earthworm is in the phylum Annelida. Materials: - compound and dissecting microscopes - slides and cover slips - pipettes - watch glass - culture of living hydra - Dugesia - construction paper - preserved earthworms - dissection kits Procedure: 1. Hydra (a) With a pipette, pull up some of the material from the bottom of the culture dish. Then squeeze a couple drops onto a clean slide and cover with a cover slip. Observe your hydra under the microscope and sketch one below. 2. Dugesia (a) With a pipette, place a couple Dugesia on a clean watch glass. Observe under the dissecting microscope. Sketch below, labeling the eyespots, auricles, and gastrovascular cavity. (b) With a dark piece of paper, cover half the watch glass. Do the Dugesia seem to prefer the shade or the light? Movement in response to light is called phytotaxis. 3. Earthworm (a) Find the clitellum. What is its function? (b) Touch the ventral side of the worm to feel the setae. What are their function? (c) Lay the worm on the dissecting tray with the dorsal side up. Using the forceps and the scissors, carefully cut open the worm along a straight line from the clitellum to the mouth. Make sure to just cut the skin so you do not damage the internal organs. Sketch your worm below and label the following: aortic arches, crop, gizzard, pharynx, dorsal blood vessel, intestine, ventral nerve cord, and seminal vesicles. Image Sources (1) prep4md. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/27920559@N05/2778292954/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/27920559@N05/2778292954/). CC-BY 2.0. (2) Steve Childs. Marine flatworms can be brightly colored. CC-BY 2.0. (3) Sea stars are radially symmetrical. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (4) Laszlo Ilyes. Corals are colonial cnidarians. CC-BY 2.0. (5) Squeezyboy. Earthworms are segmented worms. CC-BY 2.0. (6) Samuel Chow. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/cybersam/1004710143/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/cybersam/1004710143/). CC-BY 2.0. (7) Fabian Bromann. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/rastafabi/747108603/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/rastafabi/747108603/). CC-BY 2.0. (8) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/pierreyves0/2438937060/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/pierreyves0/2438937060/). CC_Attribution. (9) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turdus_migratorius_4480.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turdus_migratorius_4480.jpg). GNU-FDL. (10) ARS. Nematodes can be parasites of plants and animals. Public Domain. (11) icelight. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/icelight/208857632/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/icelight/208857632/). CC-BY 2.0. (12) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Tenia_solium_scolex.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Tenia_solium_scolex.jpg). Public Domain. (13) winston & michelle. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/wimi/378691686/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/wimi/378691686/). CC-BY 2.0. (14) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Planariafull.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Planariafull.jpg). Public Domain. (15) [http://www.flickr.com/photos/pierreyves0/2438937060/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/pierreyves0/2438937060/). CC_Attribution. (16) Rob and Stephanie Levy. Leeches are parasitic segmented worms. CC-BY 2.0. (17) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Taenia_saginata_adult_5260_lores.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Taenia_saginata_adult_5260_lores.jpg). Public Domain. (18) suika2009. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/14376024@N00/178810773/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/14376024@N00/178810773/). CC-BY 2.0. www.ck12.org 342 Chapter 12 Other Invertebrates 12.1 Lesson 12.1: Mollusks Lesson Objectives - Discuss what characteristics define mollusks. - Describe the different types of mollusks. - Explain why mollusks are important. Check Your Understanding - What is an invertebrate? - How are animals classified? Introduction Perhaps the best example of a wide variety of attainable mollusks is along a walk on the beach (Figure 12.1). There you can find the calcified shells of many different types of mollusks, most typically clams, mussels, scallops, oysters, and snails. Another reminder of the treasures that mollusks yield up may be as close as a jewelry collection (Figure 12.2). There glossy pearls, mother of pearl (Figure 12.3), and abalone shells reveal some of the unique features of mollusks (Figure 12.4). As you learn about the different types of mollusks and their characteristics, consider how these features help adapt the mollusks to their living conditions. Then also admire their features and see how people’s ingenuity has used the mollusk’s design and beauty for practical and decorative purposes. Figure 12.1: The beach yields a wide variety of mollusks. (13) Figure 12.2: Pearls being removed from oysters. (16) Figure 12.3: The inside of a bivalve, one of the mollusk classes described in “Types of Mollusks,” showing mother of pearl. (35) Figure 12.4: Shells of marine mollusks, including abalone. (26) What are Mollusks? Mollusks belong to the phylum Mollusca. The mollusk body is often divided into a head with eyes or tentacles, a muscular foot, and a mass housing the organs. In most species, the muscular foot is used for locomotion. Mollusks also have a mantle, a fold of the outer skin lining the shell, which in most mollusks secretes a calcium carbonate external shell, just like the ones you find on the beach. The majority of marine mollusks have a gill or gills to absorb oxygen from the water. All species have a complete digestive tract that begins at the mouth and runs to the anus. Many have a feeding structure, the radula, found only in mollusks. The radula is composed mostly of chitin, a tough, semitransparent substance that is the main component of the shells of crustaceans and the outer coverings of insects. Radulae range from structures used to scrape algae off rocks to the beaks of squid and octopuses. Larval development suggests a close relationship between the mollusks and other groups, notably the annelids, any of various worms or worm-like animals, including the earthworm and leech, characterized by a cylindrical, elongated, and segmented body. Unlike the annelids, however, mollusks lack body segmentation and their body shape is usually quite different, as well. The giant squid (Figure 12.5), which until recently had not been observed alive in its adult form, is one of the largest invertebrates. However, the colossal squid is even larger and can grow up to 46 ft. (14 m) long. The smallest mollusks are snails that are microscopic in size. ![Figure 12.5: The colossal squid, one of the largest invertebrates, here measuring 30 ft (9 m) in length.](image-url) Types of Mollusks Within the phylum Mollusca, there are approximately 160,000 living species and an estimated 70,000 extinct species. Mollusks are typically divided into ten classes, of which two are extinct. Which classes are you most familiar with? Table 12.1: Living Molluscan Classes \| Molluscan Class \| Number of Species \| Habitat \| Features of Class/Examples \| \|---------------------\|-------------------\|----------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Caudofoveata \| 70 \| Deep ocean \| Worm-like organisms \| \| Aplacophora \| 250 \| Deep ocean \| Worm-like organisms \| \| Polyplacophora \| 600 \| Rocky marine shorelines \| Chitons (Figure 12.6) \| \| Monoplacophora \| 11 \| Deep ocean \| Limpet-like organisms \| \| Gastropoda \| 150,000 (80% of living molluscan diversity) \| Marine (some limpets live in deep ocean around hot hydrothermal vents), freshwater, and terrestrial \| Abalone, limpets, conch, nudibranchs, sea hares, sea butterfly, snails, and slugs (Figure 12.7.) \| \| Cephalopoda \| 786 \| Marine \| Most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates; include squid, octopus, cuttlefish, and nautilus (Figure 12.8). \| \| Molluscan Class \| Number of Species \| Habitat \| Features of Class/Examples \| \|-----------------\|-------------------\|---------\|----------------------------\| \| Bivalvia \| 8,000 \| Marine (some clams live in deep ocean around hot hydrothermal vents) and freshwater. \| Most bivalves are filter feeders (mechanism whereby suspended matter and food particles are strained from the water, typically by passing the water over a specialized filtering structure); bivalves include clams, oysters, scallops, and mussels. \| \| Scaphopoda \| 350 \| Marine \| Tusk shells \| Figure 12.6: A chiton and sea anemones at a tide pool. (31) As you can see, the majority of mollusk species live in marine environments, and many of them are found intertidally in the shallow subtidal zone and on the continental shelf. Freshwater species are represented in the bivalves and gastropods, and some gastropods, like land snails, and slugs, live on land. Figure 12.7: An example of a gastropod species, the ostrich foot. (10) Figure 12.8: A Caribbean reef squid, an example of a cephalopod. (3) Importance of Mollusks Mollusks are important in a variety of ways, including as food, for decoration, in jewelry, and in scientific studies. They are even used as roadbed material and in calcium supplements. Edible species of mollusks include numerous species of clams, mussels, oysters, scallops, marine and land snails, squid, and octopus. Many species of mollusks, such as oysters, are farmed in order to provide additional food sources (Figure 12.9). ![An oyster harvest in France](image) Figure 12.9:* An oyster harvest in France. (14) Two natural products of mollusks used for decorations and jewelry are pearls and nacre, or mother of pearl. A pearl is the hard, round object produced within the mantle of a living shelled mollusk. Fine quality natural pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many centuries. The most desirable pearls are produced by oysters and river mussels. Nacre is an iridescent inner shell layer produced by some bivalves, some gastropods, and some cephalopods, and has been used in sheets on floors, walls, counter tops, doors, and ceilings. It is also inserted into furniture; it can be found in buttons, watch faces, knives, guns, and jewelry; and is used as decorations on various musical instruments. Several mollusks are ideal subjects for scientific investigation, especially in the area of neurobiology. The giant squid has a sophisticated nervous system and a complex brain for study. The California sea slug, also called the California sea hare, is used in studies of learning and memory, since it has a simple nervous system, consisting of just a few thousand large, easily identified neurons, but also a variety of learning tasks. Lesson Summary - The mollusk body often has a head with eyes or tentacles, a muscular foot, a mass housing the organs, and a mantle, which secretes the external shell. - Other mollusk structures include a gill or gills for absorbing oxygen, a complete digestive tract, and a radula. - Mollusks are divided into ten living classes, including the familiar gastropods, cephalopods, and bivalves. - Mollusks live in marine and freshwater habitats, as well as on land. - Mollusks are important as food, for decoration, and in scientific studies. Review Questions 1. What are the main characteristics of mollusks? 2. What evidence shows that mollusks and annelids are related? How are they different? 3. What habitats do marine mollusks live in? 4. What makes the California sea slug ideal for studies of learning and memory? 5. Oysters, one of the bivalve filter feeders, filter up to five liters of water per hour. Sediment, nutrients, and algae can cause problems in local waters, but oysters filter these pollutants and either eat them or shape them into small packets that are deposited on the bottom where they are harmless. When there is a high concentration of bacteria in the water from sewage run-off, this can make filter feeders, like clams and mussels, risky to eat. What do you think happens to the pollutants in this case? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.centerofweb.com/scitech/bio_mollusks.htm - http://www.manandmollusc.net/links_educational.html - http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/wonders/mollusk.html - http://www.manandmollusc.net/links_medicine.html - http://en.wikipedia.org Vocabulary chitin A tough, semitransparent substance that is the main component of the radula. filter feeders A mechanism whereby suspended matter and food particles are strained from the water, typically by passing the water over a specialized filtering structure. mollusca The phylum containing ten living classes of mollusks. nacre The iridescent inner shell layer produced by some bivalves, some gastropods, and some cephalopods; also known as mother of pearl. pearl The hard, round object produced within the mantle of a living shelled mollusk. radula A molluscan feeding structure, composed mostly of chitin. Points to Consider - Many mollusks demonstrate bilateral symmetry. How do you think this differs from the radial symmetry evident in echinoderms, in the next lesson? - As we have seen, some species of mollusks live in the deep ocean around hot hydrothermal vents. In the next lesson we will learn that many echinoderms also live in the deep sea. What adaptations do you think both groups might have for living in such a unique environment? - Mollusks have an exoskeleton, which is primarily external and composed of calcium carbonate. As a result many of these are preserved in the fossil record. How do you think this compares to the type of skeleton that an echinoderm has and to its fossil record? 12.2 Lesson 12.2: Echinoderms Lesson Objectives - Discuss the traits of echinoderms. - List the types of echinoderms. - Explain the roles echinoderms play. Check Your Understanding - What is meant by body symmetry? - What is radial symmetry? - What is bilateral symmetry? Introduction We’re all familiar with starfish (Figure 12.10), and also maybe sea urchins (Figure 12.11) and sand dollars (Figure 12.12). The radial symmetry is what hits us right away, a symmetry in which the body is arranged in five parts around a central axis. Much of the perceived beauty of this group resides in that design. Later in this lesson, learn how symmetry takes advantage of the animal’s habitat. Figure 12.10: A starfish, showing the radial symmetry, characteristic of the echinoderms. (8) Figure 12.11: Another echinoderm. a sea urchin, showing its calcareous spines. (33) The other things that stand out, quite literally, are the calcareous (containing calcium carbonate) spines of the sea urchin. If you’ve gone snorkeling or walked on a sandy beach you’ve learned to most likely watch out for those sharp spines. Think about how this adaptation might benefit the sea urchin in terms of predation and colonization by other organisms. Can you think of another use of these structures? These and other adaptations will be explored in more detail as we examine this most fascinating group of invertebrates. Next time you take a walk on the beach, you’ll have appreciation for these organisms and how they are adapted for their environment. What are Echinoderms? Echinoderms belong to the phylum Echinodermata, which contains marine animals living at all ocean depths. It consists of about 7,000 living species, the largest phylum without freshwater or terrestrial members. Also, few other groups are so abundant in the deep ocean as well as the shallower seas. As mentioned earlier, echinoderms are radially symmetric. In spite of their appearance, they do not have an external skeleton. Instead, a thin outermost skin covers an internal endoskeleton made of tiny calcified plates and spines, contained within tissues of the organism, and which forms a rigid support. Some groups, such as the sea urchins (Figure 12.13), have calcareous spines, referred to earlier, which protect the organism from predation and colonization by encrusting (covering or coating) organisms. The sea cucumbers also use these spines for locomotion. Echinoderms have a unique water vascular system, a network of fluid-filled canals, which function in gas exchange, feeding, and also in locomotion. This system allows them to function without gill slits found in other organisms. Echinoderms possess a very simple digestive system, often leading directly from mouth to anus. They also possess an open and reduced circulatory system, but no heart. Their nervous system consists of a modified nerve net (interconnected neurons with no central brain). In most species, eggs and sperm cells are released into open water, where fertilization takes place. The release of sperm and eggs is coordinated temporally (to occur at the same time) in some species and spatially (to occur within the same location) in others. Internal fertilization takes place in a few species. Some species even have parental care! Many echinoderms have amazing powers of regeneration. Some sea stars are capable of regenerating lost arms, and in some cases, lost arms have been observed to regenerate a second complete sea star! Sea cucumbers often discharge parts of their internal organs if they perceive danger. The discharged organs and tissues are then quickly regenerated. Feeding strategies vary greatly among the different groups of echinoderms. Some are passive filter-feeders, absorbing suspended particles from passing water; others are grazers; others are deposit feeders, which feed on particles of organic matter, usually in the top layer of soil, and still others are active hunters. Types of Echinoderms The echinoderms are subdivided into two major groups, the Eleutherozoa, which contains the more familiar, motile classes, and the Pelmatozoa, which contains the sessile (permanently attached and not freely moving) crinoids, including the feather stars (Figure 12.14), which have secondarily developed a free-living lifestyle. The following table summarizes the four main classes of echinoderms present in the Eleutherozoa Group: \| Echinoderm Class \| Representative Organisms \| \|------------------\|--------------------------\| \| Asteroidea \| Starfish and sea daisies \| \| Ophiuroidea \| Brittle stars (Figure 12.15) \| \| Echinoidea \| Sea urchins and sand dollars \| \| Holothuroidea \| Sea cucumbers \| Echinoderms are distributed all over the world at almost all depths, latitudes, and environments in the ocean. They are in highest diversity in reefs but are also widespread on shallow shores, around the poles (where crinoids are at their most abundant) and throughout the deep ocean, where bottom dwelling and burrowing sea cucumbers are common, sometimes forming dense aggregations. dollar and sea cucumber burrowing provides more oxygen at greater depths of the sea floor, thus allowing a more complex ecological community to develop. In addition, starfish and brittle stars prevent the growth of algal mats on coral reefs, so that the coral can more effectively filter-feed. Echinoderms are also the staple diet of many organisms, including the otter. Many sea cucumbers provide a habitat for parasites, including crabs, worms, and snails. The extinction of large quantities of echinoderms appears to have caused a subsequent overrunning of ecosystems by seaweed, causing the destruction of entire reefs. Economically, in some countries echinoderms are regarded as delicacies. Around 50,000 tons of sea urchins are captured each year, and certain parts are consumed mostly in Japan, Peru, and France. Sea cucumbers are considered a delicacy in some southeastern Asian countries. Some sea cucumber toxins slow down the growth rate of tumor cells, so there is an interest in using these in cancer research. The calcareous external covering of echinoderms is used as a source of lime by farmers in some areas where limestone is unavailable and 4,000 tons of the animals are used each year for this purpose. Lesson Summary - Echinoderms belong to the phylum Echinodermata, the largest phylum without freshwater or terrestrial members. - Echinoderms are radially symmetric, they have an endoskeleton, some have calcareous spines they have a unique water vascular system, a simple digestive system, an open and reduced circulatory system and a modified nerve net. - Fertilization is generally external; regeneration is fairly common among echinoderms; feeding strategies vary greatly. - Echinoderms consist of two main subdivisions, the motile Eleutherozoa and the sessile Pelmatazooa. - Echinoderms are distributed all over the world at almost all depths, latitudes, and marine environments. - Echinoderms play an important role in the ecological community. Economically, they are eaten as delicacies in different countries, they play a role in cancer research, and they are used as a source of lime. Review Questions 1. What are the characteristic features of echinoderms? 2. What feeding strategies are represented in the echinoderms? 3. What protection do echinoderms have against predation? 4. Chemical elements within the skeleton makes it stronger and more resistant. How could this be an advantage in grazing echinoderms? 5. The larvae of many echinoderms, especially starfish and sea urchins, are pelagic (of or pertaining to the open ocean). How does this relate to the fact that echinoderms are distributed globally? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://dictionary.reference.com - http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/wonders/echinoderm.html - http://www.junglewalk.com/info/echinoderm-information.htm - http://invertebrates.si.edu/echinoderm/http://en.wikipedia.org Vocabulary echinodermata The phylum of the echinoderms; contains about 7,000 living species, the largest phylum without freshwater or terrestrial members. nerve net Interconnected neurons that send signals in all directions. pelagic Of, or pertaining to, the open ocean. sessile Permanently attached and not freely moving. water vascular system A network of fluid-filled canals; functions in gas exchange, feeding, and also in locomotion. Points to Consider - Echinoderms’ water vascular system functions in gas exchange via a network of fluid-filled canals. Terrestrial arthropods have internal surfaces that are specialized for gas exchange, via air sacs. How might these systems compare and differ? - Echinoderms possess an open and reduced circulatory system, consisting of a central ring and five radial vessels but no heart. Arthropods also have an open circulatory system but the blood is propelled by a series of hearts into the body cavity where it comes in direct contact with the tissues. Why might there be an advantage to having a heart as part of the circulatory system? 12.3 Lesson 12.3: Arthropods Lesson Objectives - Explain what arthropods are. - Describe the features of crustaceans. - Describe the characteristics of centipedes and millipedes. - List the features of arachnids. - Describe why arthropods are important. Check Your Understanding - What is an invertebrate? - What do mollusks and echinoderms have in common? Introduction With over a million described species in the phylum containing arthropods, chances are you encounter one of these organisms every day, even without leaving your house. As much as we would like to eliminate all insect pests from our dwellings, for example, there is a great probability you will see an ant, a spider, a fly, or a moth inside. Even if you don’t, you will most likely see such creatures in your yard or on a walk around your neighborhood. Wherever you observe these animals, you will see a tremendous amount of diversity and adaptations. You will also learn, despite how you feel about how annoying some of these organisms may be, how beneficial in fact they are both ecologically and economically. What are Arthropods? Arthropods belong to the phylum Arthropoda, which means “jointed feet,” and includes four living subphyla. These are chelicerates, including spiders (Figure 12.16), mites, scorpions (Figure 12.17) and related organisms; myriapods, comprising centipedes (Figure 12.18) and millipedes (Figure 12.19) and their relatives, who are hexapods, including insects and three small orders of insect-like animals; and crustaceans, including lobsters (Figure 12.20), crabs (Figure 12.21), barnacles (Figure 12.22), crayfish (Figure 12.23), and shrimp. Arthropods are characterized by the possession of a segmented body with appendages on at least one segment. Arthropod appendages are used for feeding, sensory reception, defense, and locomotion. Their heart is on the dorsal side and the nervous system on the ventral. They are covered by a hard exoskeleton made of chitin, which provides physical protection and among terrestrial species resistance to drying out. In order to grow, arthropods shed Figure 12.16: A species of spider in its web. (7) Figure 12.17: A species of scorpion. (4) Figure 12.18: A centipede, from the subphyla of myriapods. (34) Figure 12.19: A species of millipede found in Hawaii. (1) Figure 12.20: The blue American lobster illustrates the segmented body plan of the arthropods. (22) Figure 12.21: Giant spider crabs. (25) Figure 12.22: The sessile barnacles shown here feeding. (32) Figure 12.23: A crayfish. (27) this covering in a process called molting. It is the largest phylum in the Animal Kingdom with more than a million described species making up more than 80% of all described living species. They are found commonly throughout marine, freshwater, terrestrial, and even aerial environments, in addition to various forms that are parasitic and symbiotic. They range in size from microscopic plankton (approximately $ \frac{1}{4} $ mm) up to the largest living arthropod, the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 12 feet (3.5 m). Aquatic arthropods use gills to exchange gases. These gills have an extensive surface area in contact with the surrounding water. Terrestrial arthropods have internal surfaces that are specialized for gas exchange. Insects and most other terrestrial species have a tracheal system, where air sacs lead into the body from pores in the exoskeleton, for oxygen exchange. Others use book lungs, or gills modified for breathing air, as seen in species like the coconut crab. Some areas of the legs of soldier crabs are covered with an oxygen absorbing membrane. Terrestrial crabs sometimes have two different structures: one that is gilled, which is used for breathing underwater, and another adapted to take up oxygen from the air. Arthropods have an open circulatory system with haemolymph, a blood-like fluid, which is propelled by a series of hearts into the body cavity where it comes in direct contact with the tissues. Arthropods have a complete digestive system with a mouth and anus. Crustaceans The crustaceans are a large group of arthropods, consisting of almost 52,000 species. The majority of them are aquatic, living in either marine or freshwater habitats. A few groups have adapted to living on land, such as terrestrial crabs, terrestrial hermit crabs, and woodlice (Figure 12.24). Crustaceans are among the most successful animals and are as abundant in the oceans as insects are on land. The majority of crustaceans are motile, although a few groups are parasitic and live attached to their hosts. Adult barnacles live a sessile life, where they are attached headfirst to the substrate and cannot move independently. Various parts of the crustacean exoskeleton may be fused together, such as in the carapace, the thick dorsal shield seen in many crustaceans that often forms a protective chamber for the gills. The main body cavity is an expanded circulatory system, through which blood is pumped by a heart located near the dorsal surface. The digestive system consists of a straight tube that often has a gizzard-like gastric mill for grinding food and a pair of digestive glands that absorb food. Structures that function as kidneys are located near the antennae. A brain exists in the form of ganglia (connections between nerve cells) close to the antennae and a collection of major ganglia below the gut. Most crustaceans have separate sexes. Many terrestrial crustaceans, such as the Christmas Island red crab, mate seasonally and return to the sea to release the eggs. Others, such as woodlice, lay their eggs on land, although in damp conditions. In other crustaceans, the females keep the eggs until they hatch into free-swimming larvae. Six classes of crustaceans are generally recognized: Table 12.3: \| Class \| Information \| \|----------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Branchiopoda \| Includes brine shrimp \| \| Remipedia \| A small class restricted to deep caves connected to salt water \| \| Cephalocarida \| The horseshoe shrimp \| \| Maxillopoda \| Includes barnacles and copepods \| \| Ostracoda \| Small animals with bivalve shells \| \| Malacostraca \| The largest class, with the largest and most familiar animals: crabs, lobsters, shrimp, krill, and woodlice \| Centipedes and Millipedes Centipedes and millipedes belong to the subphylum Myriapoda, which contains 13,000 species, all of which are terrestrial, and which are divided among four classes. They range from having over 750 legs (a species of millipede) to having fewer than ten legs. They have a single pair of antennae and simple eyes. They are most abundant in moist forests, where they help to break down decaying plant material, although a few live in grasslands, semi-arid habitats, or even deserts. The majority are herbivores, but centipedes are chiefly nocturnal predators. Although not generally considered dangerous to humans, many from this group produce noxious secretions, which can cause temporary blistering and discoloration of the skin. Centipedes are fast, predatory, and venomous. There are around 3,300 describe species, ranging from 1 mm to 30 cm in length. Arachnids Arachnids are a class of joint-legged invertebrates in the subphylum Chelicerata. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also found in freshwater and in all marine environments, except for the open ocean. They comprise over 100,000 named species, including spiders (Figure 12.25), scorpions (Figure 12.26), daddy-long-legs, ticks, and mites (Figure 12.27) and there may be up to 600,000 species in total, including unknown ones. ![A daddy-long-legs with a captured woodlouse.](image) Figure 12.25: A daddy-long-legs with a captured woodlouse. (24) It is commonly understood that arachnids have four pairs of legs and that they may be easily distinguished from insects on this basis (insects have three pairs of legs). Arachnids also have two additional pairs of appendages, the first pair, the chelicerae, serve in feeding and defense. The next pair, the pedipalps, are adapted for feeding, locomotion, and/or reproductive functions. Arachnids are further distinguished by the fact they have no antennae and no wings. Their body is organized into the cephalothorax, derived from the fusion of the head and thorax, and the abdomen. Arachnids are also well adapted for a terrestrial existence. They have internal respiratory surfaces in the form of trachea or a book lung. They also have appendages modified for more efficient locomotion on land, internal fertilization, special sensory organs, and structures for water conservation, such as more efficient excretory structures and a waxy layer covering the outer layer of the exoskeleton. Arachnids are mostly carnivorous, feeding on the pre-digested bodies of insects and other small animals. Several groups are largely venomous and they secrete venom from specialized glands to kill prey or enemies. Several mites are parasitic and some of those are carriers of disease. Arachnids usually lay eggs, which hatch into immature arachnids that resemble the adults. Scorpions, however, bear live young. Figure 12.26: Various diseases are caused by species of bacteria that are spread to humans by “hard” ticks, like the one shown here. (12) Figure 12.27: A female crab spider sharing its flower with velvet mites. (6) The arachnids are divided into eleven subgroups. Table (12.4) shows the four most familiar subgroups, with a description of each. \| Subgroup of Arachnid \| Representative Organisms \| Approximate Number of Species \| Description \| \|----------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Araneae \| Spiders \| 40,000 \| Found all over the world, ranging from tropics to the Arctic, some in extreme environments; All produce silk, used for many functions, including trapping insects in webs, aiding in climbing, forming smooth walls for burrows, producing egg sacs, and wrapping prey Nearly all spiders inject venom to protect themselves or to kill prey; only about 200 species have bites that can be harmful to humans \| \| Subgroup of Arachnid \| Representative Organisms \| Approximate Number of Species \| Description \| \|----------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Opiliones \| Daddy-long-legs \| 6,300 \| Known for exceptionally long walking legs; no silk nor poison glands. Many are omnivores, eating small insects, plant material and fungi; some are scavengers, eating decaying animal and other matter. Mostly nocturnal, colored in hues of brown; a number of diurnal species have vivid patterns of yellow, green, and black. \| \| Subgroup of Arachnid \| Representative Organisms \| Approximate Number of Species \| Description \| \|----------------------\|--------------------------\|------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Scorpiones \| Scorpions \| 2,000 \| Characterized by a tail with six segments, the last bearing a pair of venom glands and a venom-injecting barb. Predators of small arthropods and insects, they use pincers to catch prey, then either crush it or inject it with a fast-acting venom, which is used to kill or paralyze the prey; only a few species are harmful to humans. Nocturnal; during the day find shelter in holes or under rocks. Unlike the majority of arachnids, scorpions produce live young, which are carried about on the mother’s back until they have molted at least once; they reach an age of between four to 25 years. \| \| Subgroup of Arachnid \| Representative Organisms \| Approximate Number of Species \| Description \| \|----------------------\|--------------------------\|------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Acarina \| Mites and ticks \| 30,000 \| Most are minute to small (no more than 1.0 mm in length), but some ticks and one species of mite may reach lengths of 10-20 mm. Live in nearly every habitat, including aquatic and terrestrial. Many are parasitic, affecting both invertebrates and vertebrates, and may be vectors of human and other mammalian disease; those that feed on plants may damage crops. \| Why Arthropods are Important Many species of crustaceans, especially the familiar crabs, lobsters, shrimp, prawn, and crayfish, are consumed by humans, and nearly 10,000,000 tons were produced in 2005. Over 70% by weight of all crustaceans caught for consumption are shrimp and prawns, and over 80% is produced in Asia, with China producing nearly half the world’s total. Some mites prey on undesirable arthropods and are used in pest control, while others control weed growth. Populations of whip scorpions are valuable in controlling populations of cockroaches and crickets. Finally, an unquantified, but major positive contribution of the mites and ticks, as well as the centipedes and millipedes, is their role in ecosystems, especially their roles as decomposers and the resulting enriching of the soil due to the release of the nutrients during decomposition. In the next lesson, we will discuss the diversity of insects. As we will see, insects, also arthropods are beneficial in many ways, both to the ecosystems of which they are part, as well as to humans. Lesson Summary - The phylum Arthropoda includes four living subphyla; chelicerates, including spiders, mites, and scorpions; myriapods, including centipedes and millipedes; hexapods, including insects; and crustaceans. Arthropods are characterized by a segmented body; appendages used for feeding, sensory structures, defense, and locomotion; a dorsal heart and a ventral nervous system; and a hard exoskeleton. Arthropods are the largest phylum in the Animal Kingdom with more than a million described species; they are found in all environments. There are a variety of respiratory systems in arthropods, including gills, tracheal system, book lungs, and oxygen absorbing membranes; arthropods have an open circulatory system and a complete digestive system. - Crustaceans consist of almost 52,000 species, the majority of which are aquatic; they are among the most successful animals. There are six classes of crustaceans, including brine shrimp, barnacles and copepods, and the malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, and shrimp. Centipedes and millipedes belong to the myriapods, where they occur most abundantly in moist forests; they are chiefly nocturnal predators. - Arachnids are mainly terrestrial and comprise over 100,000 named species; adaptations for a terrestrial existence include specialized respiratory structures, appendages modified for locomotion on land, internal fertilization, special sensory organs, and structures for water conservation. Arachnids are divided into eleven subgroups, the most familiar being spiders; spiders produce silk, which is used in a variety of ways. Many species of crustaceans are used for food; some species of mites are used in pest control and for controlling weeds; and centipedes, millipedes, and the acarines play a valuable role as decomposers, enriching the soil as a result. Review Questions 1. What are arthropod appendages used for? 2. What respiratory systems do terrestrial arthropods use? 3. Arachnids have several adaptations for living on land. For each adaptation you list, explain how it is beneficial for a terrestrial existence. 4. How does the scorpions’ method of producing young differ from most other arachnids? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://cybersleuth-kids.com/sleuth/Science/Animals/Arthropods/index.htm - http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/wonders/arthropods.htm - http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Crustacea - http://www.nps.gov/archive/yell/kidstuff/Alphabet/a.htm Vocabulary acarina The group of arachnids containing the mites and ticks. araneae The arachnid group containing the spiders. arthropoda The phylum meaning “jointed feet;” includes four living subphyla of arthropods. book lungs Gills modified for breathing air. carapace The thick dorsal shield seen in many crustaceans; often forms a protective chamber for the gills. cephalothorax The anterior part of the arachnid body, derived from the fusion of the head and thorax. chelicerae The first pair of arachnid appendages; used in feeding and defense. chelicerata An arthropod subphylum containing the arachnids. ganglia A compact group of nerve cells having a specific function. gastric mill A gizzard-like structure for grinding food. haemolymph A blood-like fluid, which is propelled by a series of hearts into the body cavity, where it comes in direct contact with the tissues. molting The process by which arthropods shed their hard exoskeleton in order to grow. myriapoda An arthropod subphylum containing the centipedes and millipedes. opiliones The arachnid group containing daddy-long-legs. parasitic Living on or in an organism of another species; harmful to the host species. pedipalps The second pair of arachnid appendages used for feeding, locomotion, and/or reproductive functions. scorpiones The group of arachnids containing the scorpions. silk A thin, strong, protein strand extruded from the spinnerets; most commonly found on the end of the abdomen of spiders. symbiotic The living together of two dissimilar organisms. Points to Consider - Arthropods are characterized by the possession of a segmented body with appendages on at least one segment and they are covered by a hard exoskeleton made of chitin. How is the general arthropod body plan specialized in the insects? - Insects are the only group of invertebrates to have developed flight. Compare this mode of locomotion to those discussed in the groups of arthropods already discussed. What advantages might there be to using flight for a method of locomotion? 12.4 Lesson 12.4: Insects Lesson Objectives - Describe the characteristics of insects. - Explain how insects obtain food. - Describe reproduction and the life cycle of insects. - Explain how insects are important. - Describe how insect pests are controlled. Check Your Understanding - What is an arthropod? - Is a spider an insect? Why or why not? Introduction Insects, with over a million described species, are the most diverse group of animals on Earth. They may be found in nearly all environments on the planet. That would explain that no matter where you travel, you are bound to see representatives from this group and probably lots of different kinds as well. Even if you were not partial to bees, wasps, and ants perhaps, it would be difficult to not admire the beauty of a butterfly, moth, or even a dragonfly! As you learn about the amazing diversity within this group and some of the fascinating behaviors, you may begin to look upon some of the insects you come upon with a bit more interest! Perhaps you will even learn to appreciate some of the species you may dislike now, such as bees and wasps, when you realize how beneficial they are to humans and especially necessary for the continued presence of some of the beautiful flowers or delicious fruits that may grace your yard or nearby park. What Are Insects? Insects are a major group of arthropods and the most diverse group of animals on the planet, with over a million described species and more than half of all known living organisms. They are found in nearly all environments on Earth, although only a few species occur in the oceans. Adults range in size from a minuscule fairy fly to a 21.9 in (55.5 cm) long stick insect (Figure 12.28). ![A stick insect, showing how well it blends in to its environment.](image) Figure 12.28: A stick insect, showing how well it blends in to its environment. (29) Insects have segmented bodies with an exoskeleton. The outer layer of the exoskeleton, the cuticle, is made up of two layers, a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer (the exocuticle), and an inner, much thicker layer. The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft-bodied insects and especially in larval stages, such as caterpillars (Figure 12.29). The segments of the body are organized into three distinctive but joined units: a head, a thorax, and an abdomen (Figure 12.30). Figure 12.29: Caterpillars feeding on a host plant. (23) Figure 12.30: A diagram of a human and an insect, comparing the three main body parts: head, thorax, and abdomen. (2) Table 12.5: shows the structures present in each body segment. \| Head \| Thorax \| Abdomen \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| A pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, one to three simple eyes, and three sets of variously modified appendages that form the mouthparts \| Six segmented legs and two or four wings \| Has most of the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive structures \| The nervous system is divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. Air is taken in through the spiracles, openings on the sides of the abdomen. Insect respiration occurs without lungs, with a system of internal tubes and sacs through which oxygen is delivered directly to the adjoining body tissues. Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is therefore greatly reduced and consists of only a single dorsal tube with openings. The tube pulses and circulates blood-like fluids inside the body cavity. Insect locomotion includes flight, walking, and swimming. Insects are the only invertebrates to have developed flight and this has played an important role in their success. Insect flight is not very well understood. Primitive insect groups use muscles that act directly on the wing structure. More advanced groups have foldable wings and their muscles act on the wall of the thorax and give power to the wings indirectly. These muscles are able to contract multiple times for each single nerve impulse, allowing the wings to beat faster than would ordinarily happen. Many adult insects use six legs for walking and have adopted a gait that uses the legs in alternate triangles touching the ground. This gait allows for rapid walking at the same time as having a stable stance. A few insects have evolved to walk on the surface of the water, especially the water striders (Figure 12.31). A large number of insects live either parts of or their whole lives underwater. Water beetles and water bugs have legs adapted to paddle in the water. Dragonfly young use jet propulsion, forcibly expelling water out of the rectal chamber. Insects use a wide variety of senses for both communicating and receiving information. Many insects have very sensitive and/or specialized sensory organs. Table (12.6) summarizes five types of communication that are used by various insects and sometimes for different purposes. Figure 12.31: A pair of water striders mating, showing how water surface tension allows for them to stand on the water. (17) Table 12.6: Insect Communication \| Types of Communication \| Representative Organisms \| Description \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------\| \| Visual \| Bees \| Perceive ultraviolet wavelengths \| \| Ultraviolet wavelengths \| Bees Fireflies \| Detect polarized light Reproduction and Predation \| \| Polarized light \| \| \| \| Bioluminescence \| \| Some species produce flashes to attract mates; other species to lure prey. \| \| Types of Communication \| Representative Organisms \| Description \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------\| \| Sound Production \| Cicadas \| Loudest sounds among insects; have special modifications of body and musculature to produce and amplify sounds. \| \| Mostly by mechanical action of appendages \| Moths \| Predation \| \| Ultrasound clicks \| Some predatory and parasitic insects \| Produced mostly by unpalatable moths to warn bats; other moths make similar sounds in order to mimic distasteful moths so they will be avoided by bats as well. \| \| Hearing \| \| Predation \| \| \| \| Some nocturnal species can hear the ultrasonic emissions of bats, which help them avoid predation. Can detect sounds made by prey or hosts. \| \| Types of Communication \| Representative Organisms \| Description \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------\| \| Chemical \| Moths \| Antennae of males can detect pheromones (chemicals secreted by animals, especially insects, that influence the behavior or development of others within the same species) of female moths over distances of many kilometers (Figure 12.32). \| \| \| \| Wide range of insects have evolved chemical communication; chemicals often derived from plant metabolites and are used to attract, repel, or provide other kinds of information; chemicals may be targeted at individuals of same or different species; use of scents is especially well developed in social insects. \| \| Infrared \| Blood-sucking insects \| Have specialized sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions in order to find their hosts. \| \| Types of Communication \| Representative Organisms \| Description \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------\| \| “Dance Language” – a system of abstract symbolic communication \| Honey bees \| Thought that various species of honey bees are only invertebrates to have evolved this type of communication; angle at which bee dances represents direction relative to sun, length of dance represents distance to be flown. \| Figure 12.32: A yellow-collared scape moth, showing the feathery antennae. (37) Social insects, such as the termites (Figure 12.33), ants, and many bees and wasps (Figure 12.34), are the most familiar social species. They live together in large well-organized colonies. Only those insects which live in nests or colonies show any true capacity for homing. This allows an insect to return to a single hole among a mass of thousands of apparently identical holes, after a trip of up to several kilometers and as long as a year after last seeing the area, as when an insect hibernates. A few insects migrate, but this is a larger-scale form of navigation and involves only a large general region, such as the overwintering of the monarch butterfly (Figure 12.35). ![Image](image1.png) Figure 12.33: Damage to this nest, brings the workers and soldiers of this social insect, the termite, to repair it. (5) ![Image](image2.png) Figure 12.34: A wasp building its nest. (30) Insects are divided into two major groups, the wingless and the winged insects. The wingless consists of two orders: the bristle tails and the silverfish. The winged orders of insects include the mayflies; dragonflies and damselflies; stoneflies; webspinners; angel insects; earwigs; grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids; stick insects; ice-crawlers and gladiators; cockroaches and termites; mantids; lice; thrips; true bugs, aphids, and cicadas; wasps, bees, and ants; beetles; twisted-winged parasites; snakeflies; alderflies and dobsonflies; lacewings and antlions; Scorpions and hangingflies (including fleas); true flies; caddisflies; and butterflies, moths, and skippers. How Insects Obtain Food Insects have a wide variety of appendages adapted for capturing and feeding on prey. In addition, as already discussed, they have sensory capabilities, which help them detect prey. Insects have a wide range of mouthparts used for feeding. Specialized parts are mostly for piercing and sucking, as in mosquitoes and aphids. A number of insect orders have mouthparts that pierce food items to enable sucking of internal fluids. Some are herbivorous, like aphids and leafhoppers, while others are insectivorous, like assassin bugs and mosquitoes (females only). Examples of chewing insects include dragonflies, grasshoppers, and beetles. Some larvae have chewing mouthparts, as in moths and butterflies. Some insects use siphoning, as if sucking through a straw, as in moths and butterflies, where some of the mouthparts are adapted into an elongated sucking tube. You have probably seen a butterfly or moth poised at a flower while it siphons the nectar of the flower. Some moths, however, have no mouthparts at all. Some insects are capable of sponging, as in the housefly. One of the mouthparts is specialized for this function, where liquid food is channeled to the esophagus. The housefly is able to eat solid food by secreting saliva and dabbing it over the food item. As the saliva dissolves the food, the sponging mouthpart absorbs the liquid food. Reproduction and Life Cycle of Insects Most insects have a high reproductive rate and can rapidly reproduce within a short period of time. With a short generation time, they evolve faster and can adjust to environmental changes faster. Although there are many forms of reproductive organs in insects, there is a basic design and function for each reproductive part. These parts may vary in shape (gonads), position, and number (glands), with different insect groups. Most insects reproduce via sexual reproduction. The female produces eggs, which are fertilized by the male, and then the eggs are usually deposited in a precise microhabitat at or near the required food. Most insects are oviviparous, where the young hatch after the eggs have been laid. In some insects, there is asexual reproduction and in the most common type, the offspring are essentially identical to the mother. This is most often seen in aphids and scale insects. An insect can have one of three types of metamorphosis and life cycle: \| Type of Metamorphosis \| None \| Incomplete \| Complete \| \|-----------------------\|------\|------------\|----------\| \| Characteristics \| Only difference between adult and larvae is size \| Young, called nymphs (Figure 12.36), usually similar to adult, wings then appear as buds on nymphs or early forms; when last molt is completed wings expand to full adult size \| Insects have different forms in immature and adult stages, have different behaviors, and live in different habitats; immature form is called larvae and remains similar in form but increases in size; they usually have chewing mouthparts even if adult mouthparts are sucking ones; at last larval stage of development insect forms into pupa (Figure 12.37), doesn’t feed and is inactive; here wing development is initiated, and adult emerges \| \| Example \| Silverfish \| Dragonflies \| Butterflies and Moths \| Importance of Insects Many insects are considered to be pests by humans. In spite of this, insects are also very important. In the environment, some insects pollinate flowering plants, as in wasps, bees, butterflies, and ants. Many insects, especially beetles, are scavengers, feeding on dead animals and fallen trees, and insects are responsible for much of the process by which topsoil is created. Insects also produce useful substances as honey, wax, lacquer, and silk. Honeybees have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey. The silkworm has greatly affected Figure 12.36: Heteroptera nymphs and egg cases. (15) Figure 12.37: The chrysalis (pupal stage) of a monarch butterfly. (19) human history, as silk-driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the world. Fly larvae (maggots) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene, as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Adult insects such as crickets, and insect larvae of various kinds, are also commonly used as fishing bait. In some parts of the world, insects are used for human food, while being a taboo in other places. Some people support this idea to provide a source of protein in human nutrition. Insects also have a role in controlling insect pests, as we will see in the next section. Controlling Insect Pests Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic (mosquitoes, lice, bed bugs), transmit diseases (mosquitoes, flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural products (locusts, weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control, often using insecticides, but more and more relying on methods of biocontrol. Biological control of pests in agriculture is a method of controlling pests that relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms. Insect predators, such as lady beetles and lacewings, are mainly free-living species that consume a large number of prey during their lifetime. Parasitoids are species whose immature stage develops on or within a single insect host, ultimately killing the host. Most have a very narrow host range. Many species of wasps and some flies are parasitoids. Both of these types of predators and parasitoids are used to control insect pests. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, which kill or debilitate their host and are specific to certain insect groups. Most of the insecticides now applied are long-lasting synthetic compounds that affect the nervous system of insects on contact. Agricultural pesticides prevent a monetary loss of about $9 billion each year in the U.S. These benefits, however, must be weighed against the costs to society of using pesticides, which include human poisonings, fish kills, honeybee poisonings, and the contamination of livestock products. Lesson Summary - Insects are the most diverse group of animals on Earth; they are found in nearly all environments. They have segmented bodies with an exoskeleton; the nervous, respiratory, and circulatory systems are fairly simple. Insects are the only invertebrates to have developed flight. Insects have very sensitive and/or specialized organs of perception, including visual, chemical, heat-sensitive, and auditory. Some insects, like termites, ants, and many bees and wasps, are social and live together in large well-organized • Insect locomotion includes flight, walking, and swimming. There are two major groups of insects, the wingless and the winged, and these are further subdivided into various orders. Insects obtain food with the use of specialized appendages for capturing and eating the prey. Most insects have a high reproductive rate and can rapidly reproduce within a short period of time. An insect can have one of three types of metamorphosis and life cycle. Insects are beneficial both environmentally and economically. Insect pests can be controlled with chemical or with natural means, some of which are insects themselves; even though agricultural pesticides prevent a major monetary loss, they have major drawbacks, too. Review Questions 1. What are the main characteristics of insects? 2. Why is the insect’s circulatory system greatly reduced? 3. Give an example of mimicry in insects. 4. How do female accessory glands aid in the development of eggs? 5. What makes parasitoids especially effective against pests? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/explore/bugs.htm](http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/explore/bugs.htm) - [http://rusinsects.com/links/view.php?id=20](http://rusinsects.com/links/view.php?id=20) - [http://www.kidsolr.com/science/page18.html](http://www.kidsolr.com/science/page18.html) - [http://pestworldforkids.org/learninggames.html](http://pestworldforkids.org/learninggames.html) Vocabulary cuticle The outer layer of the exoskeleton. exocuticle The thin and waxy water resistant outer layer of the cuticle. nymphs A developmental stage of insects, where the young is usually similar to the adult. oviviparous A method of reproduction where the young hatch after the eggs have been laid. parasitoids Species whose immature stages develop on or within a single insect host, ultimately killing the host. pheromones Chemicals secreted by animals, especially insects, that influence the behavior or development of others within the same species. spiracles Openings on the sides of the insect abdomen, through which air is taken in. Points to Consider - Some of the adaptations that insects have evolved for a terrestrial existence are also displayed in amphibians and reptiles. What could be some of these? How are they similar and different? - Insects have some very specialized sensory capabilities. How do you think these compare to those found in fish, amphibians, and reptiles? Image Sources (1) Eric Guinther. A species of millipede found in Hawaii. GNU-FDL. (2) Pearson Scott Foresman. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thorax_(PSF).png](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thorax_(PSF).png). Public Domain. (3) Jan Derk. A Caribbean reef squid, an example of a cephalopod. Public Domain. (4) A species of scorpion. GNU-FDL. (5) ARS. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Nest_of_Formosan_subterranean_termites.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Nest_of_Formosan_subterranean_termites.jpg). (6) Alvesgaspar. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Spider_and_mites_May_2008-1.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Spider_and_mites_May_2008-1.jpg). CC-BY-SA 3.0. (7) A species of spider in its web. GNU-FDL. (8) Dr. McVey. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Reef0296.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Reef0296.jpg). Public Domain. (9) pfly. An echinoderm, the giant California sea cucumber. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (10) Graham Bould. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Struthiolaria_papulosa_(ostrich_foot).JPG](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Struthiolaria_papulosa_(ostrich_foot).JPG). Public Domain. (11) Mila Zinkova. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Monarch_butterflies_cluster_in_SC_3.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Monarch_butterflies_cluster_in_SC_3.jpg). GNU-FDL. (12) André Karwath. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Tick_2_(aka).jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (13) Alessio Sbarbaro. The beach yields a wide variety of mollusks. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (14) Alan Hughes. An oyster harvest in France. GNU-FDL. (15) Bohringer Friedrich. Heteroptera nymphs and egg cases. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (16) Keith Pomakis. Pearls being removed from oysters. CCA-BY-SA 2.5. (17) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wasserl%C3%A4ufer_bei_der_Paarung_crop.jpg. GNU-FDL. (18) Sharon Mooney. An echinoderm, the keyhole sand dollar. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (19) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Monarch_Butterfly_Chrysalis.JPG. GNU-FDL. (20) Ross Angus. A terrestrial arthropod, a species of woodlice. CC-BY 2.0. (21) Benjamindancer. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Colossal_Squid.JPG. CC-BY-SA 3.0. (22) Steven Johnson. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Blue-lobster.jpg. GNU-FDL. (23) Engeser. Caterpillars feeding on a host plant. GNU-FDL. (24) Daniel Ullrich. A daddy-long-legs with a captured woodlouse. GNU-FDL. (25) Chris Gladis. close.jpg Giant spider crabs. CC-BY 2.0. (26) Mila Zinkova. Shells of marine mollusks, including abalone. GNU-FDL. (27) A crayfish. GNU-FDL. (28) NOAA. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Giant_red_brittlestar.jpg. Public Domain. (29) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Ctenomorpha_chronus.jpg. GNU-FDL. (30) Florian Siebeck. A wasp building its nest. CC-BY-SA 2.0 Germany. (31) Mila Zinkova. A chiton and sea anemones at a tide pool. GNU-FDL. (32) Kim Hansen. The sessile barnacles shown here feeding. GNU-FDL. (33) Tomasz Sienicki. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Woda-3_ubt.jpeg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (34) Eric Guinther. A centipede, from the subphyla of myriapods.. GNU-FDL. (35) Tom Meijer. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Margaritifera_margaritifera-binnen1.jpg. GNU-FDL. (36) Richard Ling. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ptilometra_australis_Passion_Flower_feather_star.jpg. GNU-FDL. (37) Benny Mazur. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Yellow-collared_Scape_Moth_2.jpg. CC-BY 2.0. www.ck12.org 392 Chapter 13 Fishes, Amphibians, and Reptiles 13.1 Lesson 13.1: Introduction to Vertebrates Lesson Objectives - Describe the general features of chordates. - List the three groups of chordates with their characteristics. - List the general features of vertebrates. - Describe the classification of vertebrates. Check Your Understanding - What is the function of the notochord in lower vertebrates? - What happens to the notochord in higher vertebrates? Introduction It is hard to believe that some of the organisms that are chordates are closely related to us and vertebrates like us - everything from fish to amphibians and reptiles, to birds and mammals. Chordates are a group of animals that includes the vertebrates, as well as several closely related invertebrates. Some chordates, as we will soon see, appear to be nothing more than animals resembling marine invertebrates, like the tunicates in Figure 13.1. Chordates also include the lancelets, which appear as mostly featureless and simplified swimming animals (Figure 13.2). What these all have in common, though, are certain characteristics appearing either in the larval or adult forms, and which we will explore further in the first section. Vertebrates all have backbones or spinal columns as well as some other defining characterChordates Chordates (phylum Chordata), including the vertebrates and several closely related invertebrates, are united by having, at some time in their life cycle, a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord; pharyngeal slits (vertical slits in the pharynx wall, which help to filter out food particles); an endostyle (ciliated groove or grooves located in the pharynx), and a post-anal tail. The phylum is broken down into three subphyla: Urochordata (represented by tunicates), Cephalochordata (represented by lancelets) and Vertebrata (the vertebrates). Urochordates have a notochord and nerve cord only during the larval stage and cephalochordates have a notochord and nerve cord but no vertebrae (bones in the backbone). In all vertebrates, except for hagfish, the notochord is generally reduced and the dorsal hollow nerve cord is surrounded with cartilaginous (made of cartilage, not bone) or bony vertebrae. The urochordates consist of 3,000 species of tunicates (sessile (permanently attached) marine animals, with saclike bodies having thick membranes and siphons for water movement) and the cephalochordates consist of 30 species of lancelets (burrowing marine animals). The vertebrates encompass 57,739 species, including jawless and jawed vertebrates. The origin of chordates is currently unknown. The first clearly identifiable chordates appear in the Cambrian Period (about 542 - 488 million years ago) as lancelet-like specimens. Figure 13.1: Tunicate colonies of Botrylloides violaceus (subphylum urochordata), showing oral tentacles at openings of oral siphons, which take in food and water, and expel waste and water. (14) Figure 13.2: Pikaia gracilens (subphylum cephalochordates), perhaps the oldest known ancestor of modern vertebrates, resembled a living chordate, known as a lancelet, and perhaps swam much like an eel. Pikaia is thought to have had a very primitive, proto-notochord. Its “tentacles” may be related to those in present-day hagfish, a jawless chordate. (29) What are Vertebrates? Vertebrates, belonging to the subphylum Vertebrata, are chordates with a backbone or spinal column. Other characteristics are a braincase, or cranium, and an internal skeleton (the latter feature is present in all vertebrates except for lampreys). All vertebrates are most easily distinguished from all other chordates by having a defined head with pronounced cephalization. Cephalization is the concentration of nervous tissue towards one end of the organism. Vertebrates have sensory organs, especially eyes, concentrated at the front (anterior) end of the body. How do you think this type of body design is an advantage? Typical vertebrate traits include: - a backbone or spinal column - braincase - internal skeleton - defined head with pronounced cephalization - sensory organs, especially eyes The vertebrate muscular system mostly consists of paired masses, as well as a central nervous system, partly located inside the backbone, when a backbone is present. Extant (living) vertebrates range in size from a carp species (Figure 13.3), at as little as 7.9 mm (0.3 in), to the blue whale, as large as 110 ft (Figure 13.4). Figure 13.3: A species of carp, carp bream (Abramis brama). (10) Figure 13.4: An image of the blue whale, the largest living vertebrate, reaching up to 33 m (110 ft) long. Shown below it is the smallest whale species, Hector’s dolphin (about 1.4 m (5 ft) in length), and beside it, a human. (24) Classification of Vertebrates Vertebrates consist of both jawless and jawed vertebrates. The jawless vertebrates consist of more than 100 species including 65 species of hagfish, the conodonts, and the lampreys. The jawed vertebrates include over 900 species of cartilaginous fish, over 30,000 species of bony fish and over 18,000 species of tetrapods, or four-legged (or leg-like) vertebrates. The bony fish are further divided into ray-finned and lobe-finned fish. The tetrapods consist of amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammal-like reptiles, and mammals. Table 13.1: Species of the Main Groups of Tetrapods \| Type of Tetrapod \| Number of Species \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Amphibians \| 6,000 \| \| Reptiles \| 8,225 \| \| Birds \| 10,000 \| \| Mammal-like Reptiles \| 4,500 \| \| Mammals \| 5,800 \| Lesson Summary - Chordates are characterized by a notochord, pharyngeal slits, an endostyle, and a post-anal tail. - There are three main groups of chordates, including tunicates, lancelets and vertebrates. - Vertebrates are distinguished by having a backbone or spinal column. - Vertebrates are classified into two major groups: those without jaws and those with jaws. Review Questions 1. What features characterize the chordates? 2. What are the main features of vertebrates? 3. The first clearly-identifiable chordates are lancelet-like (small, burrowing marine animals with a lancet shape) specimens. List three ways in which these first chordates could have evolved into a swimming-like animal. 4. Which two structures that all chordates possess sometime during their life cycle are used for food gathering, and how are these structures used? 5. Why, do you think, cephalization is not necessary in urochordates and cephalochordates? Explain how this is illustrated in tunicates. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chordata/Chordata.html - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/vertintro.html - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary cephalization The placement of important sensory organs near or in the head. cephalochordates A group of chordates with a notochord and nerve cord but no vertebrae. chordata The phylum of chordates, containing the vertebrates and several closely related invertebrates. cranium The braincase or skull. endostyle A groove or pair of grooves having cilia; located in the pharynx; functions are to gather food particles and transport them along the digestive tract. notochord A hollow dorsal nerve cord. urochordates A group of chordates having a notochord and nerve cord present only during the larval stage. vertebrata The subphylum of vertebrates, distinguished by having backbones or spinal columns. Points to Consider - The notochord’s stiffness in many chordates may have evolved to facilitate the effectiveness of swimming in S-shaped movements. Think about the advantages this may have for water-living vertebrates. - Unlike chordates with cephalization, cephalochordates (lancelets) have a mouth, but not a well-developed head, and have light-sensitive areas along their entire back, instead of at the anterior end of the body. - How do you think cephalization could be an advantage in movement and feeding in fish? 13.2 Lesson 13.2: Fishes Lesson Objectives - List the general traits of fish. - Describe the features of jawless fish. - List the general features of the cartilaginous fish. - Describe the features of bony fish and the significance of this superclass. - List some of the reasons why fish are important. Check Your Understanding - What are the unique characteristics of vertebrates? - What are the two main groups of vertebrates? Introduction So what exactly is a fish? You probably think the answer is obvious. You may say that a fish is an animal that swims in the ocean or a lake. But there is lots more to fish than that. Fish are aquatic vertebrates, which through evolution became a dominant form of sea life and eventually branched to create land vertebrates. They have a number of characteristic traits and are classified into two major groups: jawless and jawed fish. Jawed fish are further divided into those with bones and those with just cartilage. Fish, in general, are important in many ways to humans - economically, recreationally and culturally. Perhaps you can think of some of these ways? Characteristics of Fish Fish are vertebrates that are typically ectothermic, are covered with scales, have jaws and have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. A typical fish has a streamlined body that allows it to swim rapidly, extracts oxygen from the water using gills or an accessory breathing organ to enable it to breathe atmospheric oxygen, and lays eggs that are fertilized internally or externally (Figure 13.5). Fish range in size from the 16 m (51 ft) whale shark to the 8 mm (just over ¼ of an inch) stout infantfish. Traits of a typical fish include: - Vertebrate - Ectothermic - Scales • Jaws • Two sets of paired fins • Several unpaired fins • Streamlined body • Gills or an accessory breathing organ • Lays eggs that are fertilized internally or externally Figure 13.5: The humphead or Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulates), showing some of the general traits of fish, including scales, fins and a streamlined body. (23) There are exceptions to many of these traits. For example, tuna, swordfish, and some species of sharks show some warm-blooded adaptations, and are able to raise their body temperature significantly above that of the water around them. Some species of fish have a slower, but more maneuverable, swimming style, like eels and rays (Figure 13.6). Body shape and the arrangement of fins are highly variable, and the surface of the skin may be naked, as in moray eels, or covered with scales. Scales can be of a variety of different types. Although most fish live in aquatic habitats, such as the ocean, lakes, and rivers, there are some that spend considerable time out of water. Mudskippers, for example, feed and interact with each other on mudflats for up to several days at a time and only go underwater when occupying burrows (Figure 13.7). They breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin, similar to what frogs do. Agnatha: Jawless Fishes Agnatha is a superclass of jawless fish belonging to the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata (agnath means jawless). There are two extant (living) groups of jawless fish, the lampreys and the hagfish, with about 100 species in total. Although hagfish belong to the subphylum Vertebrata, they do not technically have vertebrae. Figure 13.6: One of the cartilaginous fish, a stingray, showing very flexible pectoral fins connected to the head. (21) Figure 13.7: A mudskipper, shown on the mudflats, where it spends time feeding and interacting with other individuals. (4) In addition to the absence of jaws, Agnatha are characterized by absence of paired fins, the presence of a notochord both in larvae and adults, and seven or more paired gill pouches. The branchial arches (a series of arches that support the gills of aquatic amphibians and fishes) lie close to the body surface. Agnatha have a light sensitive pineal eye (an eye-like structure that develops in some cold-blooded vertebrates) and do not have an identifiable stomach. They reproduce using external fertilization. They are ectothermic, have a cartilaginous skeleton, and a heart with two chambers. Many agnathans from the fossil record were armored with heavy bony-spiky plates. The first armored agnathans - the Ostracoderms – were precursors to the bony fish and hence to the tetrapods, including humans. What advantages would the advent of jaws have for fish? Such an adaptation would allow fish to eat a much wider variety of food, including plants and other organisms. In the next two sections you will be introduced to two groups of fish with jaws: those with a cartilaginous skeleton and those with a bony skeleton. Cartilaginous Fishes The cartilaginous fishes, or Chondrichthyes, are jawed fish with paired fins, paired nostrils, scales, two-chambered hearts, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. The approximate 1,000 species are subdivided into two subclasses: Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays and skates) and Holocephali (chimaera, sometimes called ghost sharks). Fish from this group range in size from the dwarf lanternshark, at 16 cm (6.3 in), to the whale shark, up to sizes of 13.6 m (45 ft) (Figure 13.8). Figure 13.8: One of two male whale sharks at the Georgia Aquarium. Whale sharks are the largest cartilaginous fish. (5) Animals from this group generally have ratio of brain weight to body size that is close to that of mammals, and about ten times that of bony fishes. One of the explanations for their relatively large brains is that the density of nerve cells is much lower than in the brains of bony fishes, making the brain less energy demanding and allowing it to be bigger. Since they do not have bone marrow (as they have no bones), red blood cells are produced in the spleen, in special tissue around the gonads, and in an organ called Leydig’s Organ, only found in cartilaginous fishes. The tough skin of this group is covered with dermal teeth, or placoid scales, although they are mostly lost in adult Holocephali, making it feel like sandpaper. It is assumed that their oral teeth evolved from these dermal teeth, which migrated into the mouth. The sharks, rays and skates are further broken into two superorders, one containing the rays and skates, and the other containing the sharks (Figure 13.9). There are eight orders of sharks within the superorder. They are distinguished by such features as: - Number of gill slits - Numbers and types of fins - Type of teeth - Body shape - The sawsharks, with an elongate, toothed snout used for slashing the fish that they eat. - The bullhead sharks, with teeth used for grasping and crushing shellfish. - Carpet sharks with barbels - Nocturnal habits - The groundsharks, with an elongated snout. - The mackerel sharks, with large jaws and ovoviviparous reproduction, where the eggs develop inside the mother’s body after internal fertilization, and the young are born alive. ![A spotted Wobbegong shark](image) Figure 13.9: A spotted Wobbegong shark (Orectolobus maculatus), at Shelly Beach, Sydney, Australia, showing skin flaps around the mouth and cryptic coloration. (1) Bony Fishes The Osteichthyes, or bony fish, contain almost 27,000 species, which are divided into two classes: the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) and the lobe finned fish (Sarcopterygii). Most Figure 13.10: One of the only eight living species of lobe finned fish, the lungfish. (30) Figure 13.11: One of the eight living species of lobe finned fish, the coelacanth. (26) bony-fish belong to the Actinopterygii; there are only eight living species of lobe finned fish, including the lungfish (Figure 13.10) and coelacanths (Figure 13.11). The vast majority of fish are osteichthyes, and this group is the most various of vertebrates, making them the largest group of vertebrates in existence today. They are characterized by a relatively stable pattern of cranial bones, and the head and pectoral girdles (arches supporting the forelimbs) are covered with large dermal bones (bones derived from the skin). They have a lung or swim bladder, which helps the body create a neutral balance between sinking and floating, by either filling up with or emitting such gases as oxygen; have bone fin rays (jointed, segmented rods) supporting the fins; have an operculum (a cover over the gill), which helps them to breathe without having to swim; and are able to see in color, unlike most other fish. One of the best-known innovations of this group is the ability to produce endochondral or “replacement” bone, by replacing cartilage from within, with bone. This is in addition to the production of perichondral or “spongy bone.” The effect is to create a relatively lightweight, flexible, “spongy” bone interior, surrounded by an outline of dense bone. This is still much heavier and less flexible than cartilage. The ocean sunfish is the most massive bony fish in the world, up to 3.33 m (11 ft) in length and weighing up to 2,300 kg (5,070 lb) (Figure 13.12). Other very large bony fish include the Atlantic blue marlin, the black marlin, some sturgeon species, the giant grouper and the goliath grouper. In contrast, the dwarf pygmy goby measures only 1.5 cm (0.6 in). Figure 13.12: An ocean sunfish, the most massive bony fish in the world, up to 11 ft in length and 5,070 lb in weight! (16) Why Fish are Important Now that you have some understanding of the general features of fish, you might come up with some ways in how fish are important. Of course, what comes to mind right away is their use for food (Figure 13.13). In fact, people from around the world either fish them from the wild or farm them in much the same way as cattle or chickens (aquaculture). Fish are also exploited for recreation, through angling and fishkeeping, and are commonly exhibited in public aquaria. ![Workers harvesting catfish](image) Figure 13.13: Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farms in Mississippi. (25) Fish also have an important role in many cultures and art through the ages, ranging as widely as deities and religious symbols to subjects of books and popular movies (Figure 13.14). For example, such deities that take the form of a fish are Ikee-Roa of the Polynesians, Dagon of various ancient Semitic peoples, and Matsya of the Dravidas of India. Fish have been used figuratively in many different ways, for example the ichthys used by early Christians to identify themselves and the fish as a symbol of fertility among Bengalis. In literature, legends of half-human, half-fish mermaids are featured in stories of Hans Christian Anderson and fish feature prominently in The Old Man and the Sea. Fish and other fanciful fish also play a major role in such movies as Splash, Jaws, Shark Tale, and Finding Nemo. Lesson Summary - The general traits of fish help adapt them for living in an aquatic environment, mostly for swimming, and also for extracting oxygen. - Fish are typically ectothermic, although some show warm-blooded adaptations. - Jawless fish, the Agnatha, also have some other common features. - Fish with jaws comprise both the cartilaginous fish and the bony fish. - The cartilaginous fishes, or Chondrichthyes, include the sharks, rays, skates and chimaera. - The bony fish, or Osteichthyes, is the largest group of vertebrates in existence today and have certain traits in common. - Fish are important economically, recreationally and culturally. Review Questions 1. What are the general traits of fish? 2. What are some exceptions to the general traits of fish? 3. Mudskippers are an example of a fish species that must absorb oxygen across the skin, instead of via gills, since they spend much of their time out of water. Describe an environmental situation in which air breathing would be of great use to a fish species. 4. What are the characteristics of jawless fish? 5. What is one structure only found in cartilaginous fishes and what is its function? 6. What are some reasons why it would be an advantage for fish to be endothermic? 7. List some ways that fish are important. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals - http://www.fws.gov/educators/students.html - http://www.igfa.org/kidshome.asp - http://www.pbs.org/emptyoceans/educators/activities/fish-youre-eating.html - http://en.wikipedia.org Vocabulary agnatha A superclass of jawless fish, belonging to the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata. aquaculture The raising of aquatic plants and animals, especially seaweed, shellfish and other fish, in environments either natural or with controlled freshwater or marine conditions. barbels A thin structure on the external part of the head, such as the jaw, mouth or nostrils, of certain fishes. chondrichthyes The group of cartilaginous fishes, containing sharks, rays, skates and chimaeras. ectothermic Cold-blooded osteichthyes Contains all the bony fish, divided into the ray-finned and lobe finned fish. ovoviviparous reproduction The eggs develop inside the mother’s body after internal fertilization, and depend on the yolk for most of the nutrition; the young are born alive. placoid Plate-like, as in the scales of sharks. Points to Consider - Juvenile bichirs, a type of fish, have external gills, a very primitive feature that they hold in common with larval amphibians. Think about how the external gills could be a transition between internal gills and lungs? - Lungfish and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must rise to the water’s surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out though the gills. Discuss how lungfish could be similar to and different from tetrapods in the way they breathe? - The structure, the pineal body, located in the brain, performs many different functions including detecting light, maintaining circadian rhythms and controlling color changes. What structures could perform similar functions in amphibians, as a result of living on land? 13.3 Lesson 13.3: Amphibians Lesson Objectives - Describe amphibian traits. - List the features of salamanders. - Compare and contrast frogs and toads with other amphibians. - Describe the roles of amphibians. Check Your Understanding - What are some adaptations that amphibians, like fish, have for living in the water? - What are the characteristics that amphibians share with all other vertebrates? Introduction What group of animals begins its life in the water, but then spends most of its life on land? You were right, if you guessed amphibians. Amphibians are a group of vertebrates that has adaptations for both aquatic and terrestrial lifestyles. Evolutionarily, their ancestors made the transition from the sea to land. They comprise approximately 6,000 species of various body types, physiology, and habitats, ranging from tropical to subarctic regions. Characteristics of Amphibian Amphibians are ectothermic vertebrates, belonging to the class Amphibia and consist of three orders: Urodela, containing the salamanders and newts; Manure, consisting of frogs and toads; and Apoda, containing the caecilians. The larvae are typically aquatic and breathe using gills. The adults are typically semiterrestrial and breathe both through moist skin and by lungs. For the purposes of reproduction, most amphibians are bound to fresh water. Although there are no true seawater amphibians, a few tolerate brackish (slightly salty) water. Some species do not need any water whatsoever, and several species have also adapted to arid and semi-arid environments, but most still need water to lay their eggs. In general, the life cycle of amphibians begins with a shell-less egg stage, usually laid the previous winter in a pond. A larval stage follows in which the organism is legless, fully aquatic and breathes with exterior gills. After hatching, the larvae start to transform gradually (metamorphosis) into the adult’s appearance, including loss of gills, growth of four legs, and the ability to live in a terrestrial environment. Adaptations for living in a terrestrial environment include replacement of gills with another respiratory organ, such as lungs; a development of glandular (containing cells, a group of cells, or an organ producing a secretion) skin to avoid dehydration, and the development of eyelids and adaptation to vision outside the water. An eardrum also develops that separates the external ear from the middle ear and, in frogs and toads, the tail disappears. Salamanders This is a group of approximately 500 species of amphibians, typically characterized by slender bodies, short legs, and long tails, and most closely related to the caecilians, little known legless amphibians (Figure 13.16). Having moist skin, salamanders (Figure 13.15) rely on habitats in or near water or under some protection on moist ground, often in a swamp. Some species are aquatic throughout life, some are aquatic intermittently and some are entirely terrestrial as adults. Respiration varies among the different species of salamanders; in those that retain lungs, respiration occurs through the gills as water passes over the gill slits. Some terrestrial species have lungs that are used in respiration in a similar way as in mammals. Other terrestrial salamanders lack both lungs and gills and exchange gases through their skin. This is known as valarian respiration, in which the capillary beds are spread throughout the epidermis. Hunting prey is another unique aspect of salamanders. Muscles surrounding the hyoid bone contract to create pressure and “shoot” the hyoid bone out of the mouth along with the tongue. The tip of the tongue has mucus which creates a sticky end to which the prey is attached and captured. Muscles in the pelvic region are then used to bring the tongue and hyoid back to their original positions. Another trait, unique among vertebrates, is the Figure 13.15: The marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, shows the typical salamander body plan: slender body, short legs, long tail and moist skin. (27) Figure 13.16: A species of African caecilian, Boulengerula taitanus, a legless amphibian, most closely related to the salamanders. (13) ability to regenerate lost limbs, as well as other body parts, in a process known as ecdysis. Salamanders are found in most moist or arid habitats in the northern hemisphere. They are generally small, but some can reach 30 cm (a foot) or more, as in the mudpuppy of North America. In Japan and China, the giant salamander reaches 1.8 m (6 ft) and weighs up to 30 kg (66 lb) (Figure 13.17). ![Pacific giant salamander](image) Figure 13.17: The Pacific giant salamander can reach up to 6 ft in length and 66 lb in weight. The order Urodela, containing the salamanders and newts, is divided into three suborders. These consist of the giant salamanders (including the hellbender and Asiatic salamanders), advanced salamanders (including lungless salamanders, mudpuppies, and newts), and sirens. ### Frogs and Toads Frogs and toads (Figure 13.18) are amphibians in the order Anura. A distinction is often made between frogs and toads on the basis of their appearance, caused by the convergent adaptation among so-called toads to dry environments (leathery skin for better water retention and brown coloration for camouflage), but this distinction has no taxonomic basis. One family, Bufonidae, is exclusively given the common name “toad,” but many species from other families are also called “toads.” Frogs are distributed from the tropics to subarctic regions, but most species are found in tropical rainforests. Consisting of more than 5,000 species (about 88% of amphibian species are frogs), they are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates. Frogs range in size from 10 mm (less than $ \frac{1}{2} $ in) in species in Brazil and Cuba to the 300 mm (1 ft) goliath frog of... Figure 13.18: A species of toad, showing typical characteristics of leathery and warty skin, and brown coloration. (9) Cameroon. Adult frogs are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits, protruding eyes and no tail. They also have a three-chambered heart, which they share with all tetrapods except birds and mammals. Most frogs have a semi-aquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes, and their larvae, or tadpoles, have gills and develop in water. The reliance of frogs on an aquatic environment for the egg and tadpole stages gives rise to a variety of mating behaviors that include the calls used by the males of most species to attract females to the bodies of water chosen for breeding. Frogs are most noticeable by these calls, which can occur during the day or night. Frogs are usually well suited to jumping with long hind legs and elongated ankle bones. They have a short vertebral column, with no more than ten free vertebrae, followed by a fused tailbone. Skin hangs loosely on the body because of the lack of loose connective tissue (tissue that surrounds, supports, or connects organs, other tissues, etc.). Skin texture varies, either smooth, warty or folded. Frogs have three eyelid membranes: one is transparent to protect the eyes underwater, and two vary from translucent to opaque. Frogs have a tympanum, involved in hearing, on each side of the head, and in some species, is covered by skin. Adult frogs are carnivorous and eat mostly arthropods, annelids and gastropods. Adults have a ridge of very small cone teeth, called maxillary teeth, around the upper edge of the jaw and they have what are called vomerine teeth on the roof of the mouth. Since they don’t have teeth on their lower jaw, frogs usually swallow their food whole, and use the teeth they do have to hold the prey in place. Toads do not have any teeth, and so they must swallow Roles of Amphibians Frogs are raised commercially as a food source (frog legs are a delicacy in China, France, the Philippines, northern Greece and the American south, especially Louisiana). They are used in cloning research and other branches of embryology, because they lack egg shells, and therefore facilitate observations of early development. The African clawed frog or platanna (Xenopus laevis) is used as a model organism (a species that is extensively studied to understand certain biological phenomena) in developmental biology, because it is easy to raise in captivity and has a large and easily manipulated embryo. Many Xenopus genes have been identified, isolated, and cloned as a result. Many environmental scientists believe that amphibians, including frogs, are excellent biological indicators of broader ecosystem health because of their intermediate position in food webs, their permeable skins, and typically biphasic life (aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults). Amphibians also figure prominently in folklore, fairy tales and popular culture. Numerous legends have developed over the centuries around the salamander (its name originates from the Persian, for “fire” and “within”), many related to fire. This connection likely originates from the tendency of many salamanders to dwell inside rotting logs. When placed into the fire, salamanders would escape from the logs, lending to the belief that the salamander was created from flames. Associations of the salamander with fire appear in the Talmud (a collection of Jewish law and tradition) and the Hadith (a traditional account of things said or done by Muhammad or his companions), as well as in the writings of Conrad Lycosthenes (a sixteenth century humanist and encyclopedist), Benvenuto Cellini (a sixteenth century Italian goldsmith, painter, sculptor, musician, and soldier), science fiction authors Ray Bradbury and David Weber, Paracelsus (a fifteenth century alchemist, physician, and astrologer) and Leonardo da Vinci. In other representations in popular culture, salamanders are known as minor snake demons according to some folklore; they, and frogs, appear as some characters in video games; salamanders appear in anime series, and they were even the focus of a dance craze (the Salamander Homp) in the early 1980’s. Frogs tend to be portrayed as benign, ugly, and clumsy, but with hidden talents. Examples include Michigan J. Frog, The Frog Prince, and Kermit the Frog. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped animals and often depicted frogs and toads in their art. The toad also appears as symbol and in story in Vietnamese culture. Lesson Summary - Amphibians have adaptations for both aquatic, including gills, and terrestrial, including lungs and moist skin, lifestyles. - Most amphibians are bound to water for reproduction. - Development includes a shell-less egg, larval stage and adult. - Salamanders have some unique features, including the use of the hyoid bone in hunting prey, and the process of ecdysis. - Adult frogs and toads have features for living in the water (such as webbed digits) and for living on the land (such as long hind legs for jumping). - Frogs are well known for their mating calls, which are used to attract females to aquatic breeding grounds. - Amphibians play a role economically as a food source; are used in various types of biological research, can serve as indicators of ecosystem health, and figure prominently in folklore and popular culture. Review Questions 1. Describe the general traits of amphibians. 2. Describe the life cycle of amphibians. 3. What are some adaptations of amphibians for living in a terrestrial environment? 4. A frog’s skin must remain moist at all times in order for oxygen to pass through the skin and into the blood. Why does this fact make frogs susceptible to many toxins in the environment? 5. The permeability of a frog’s skin can result in water loss. What adaptations would benefit a frog by counteracting this water loss? 6. Name how one feature of frog development lends itself to research applications. 7. Amphibians have a number of adaptations which make it easy for them to avoid predation. Describe some of these. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki - http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals - http://amphibiaweb.org - http://helpafrog.org - http://www.amphibianark.org/yearofthefrog.htm - http://www.epa.gov/gmpo/education/photo/amphibians.html Vocabulary convergent adaptation The appearance of similar traits in groups of animals that are evolutionarily unrelated to each other. ecdysis The ability to regenerate lost limbs, as well as other body parts. hyoid bone A U-shaped bone at the root of the tongue; in salamanders it is used to help catch prey. tympanum Equivalent to the middle ear; used in hearing. valarian respiration Respiration in which the capillary beds are spread throughout the epidermis, so that gases can be exchanged through the skin. Points to Consider - Future studies of molecular genetics should soon provide further insights to the evolutionary relationships among frog families. These studies will also clarify relationships among families belonging to the rest of vertebrates as well. - Toxins obtained from some frog species may have potential as therapeutic drugs. The alkaloid epibatidine, a painkiller 200 times more potent than morphine, is found in some species of poison dart frogs. Other chemicals isolated from frog skin may offer resistance to HIV infection. As we will see in the next lesson, reptiles also possess chemicals and unique genes that are useful for medical purposes. - Although care of offspring is poorly understood in frogs, it is estimated that up to 20% of amphibian species care for their young, and that there is a great diversity of parental behaviors. As you begin to examine the reproductive system of reptiles in the next lesson, think about what kinds of parental behaviors reptiles might have and how they compare to that of amphibians. 13.4 Lesson 13.4: Reptiles Lesson Objectives - List reptile traits. - Describe the general features of lizards and snakes. - List the characteristics of alligators and crocodiles. - Describe the traits of turtles. - Explain the importance of reptiles. Check Your Understanding - What are some adaptations for living on land that are present in the amphibians? - What features present in amphibians are also useful to reptiles for an aquatic lifestyle? Introduction While some types of reptiles, like snakes, alligators, and crocodiles, often have a bad reputation due to their venom, as in snakes, or their aggressive behavior, as in all three groups, reptiles are important both ecologically and economically, as we will see later in this lesson. They also possess some unique traits and interesting behaviors, which we will also explore in greater detail. Reptiles are tetrapods and amniotes, whose embryos are surrounded by an amniotic membrane. Modern reptiles inhabit every continent with the exception of Antarctica, and are represented by four living orders: Squamata (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenids or “worm-lizards”), Crocodilia (crocodiles, gharials (Figure 13.19), caimans, and alligators) Testudines (turtles and tortoises) and Sphenodontia (tuatara) (Figure 13.20). ![An Indian gharial crocodile](image) Figure 13.19: An Indian gharial crocodile. (3) Traits of Reptiles Reptiles are air-breathing, cold-blooded vertebrates that have skin covered in scales. The majority of species are oviparous (egg-laying) although certain species of squamates are capable of giving birth to live young. This is achieved, either by ooviviparity (egg retention within the female until birth), or viviparity (offspring born without use of calcified eggs). Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta, similar to those of mammals, with some providing initial care for their hatchlings. The degree of viviparity varies: some species simply retain the eggs until just before hatching, others provide maternal nourishment to supplement the yolk, while still others lack any yolk and provide all nutrients via a placenta. All reproductive activity occurs with the cloaca, the single exit/entrance at the base of the tail, where waste is also eliminated. Most reptiles lay amniotic eggs covered with leathery or calcareous shells. An amnion (the innermost of the embryonic membranes), chorion (the outermost of the membranes surrounding the embryo) and allantois (a vascular embryonic membrane) are present during embryonic life. There are no larval stages of development. Most reptiles reproduce sexually, although six families of lizards and one snake are capable of asexual reproduction. In some species of squamates, a population of females is able to produce a nonsexual diploid clone of the mother. This asexual reproduction called parthenogenesis occurs in several species of gecko, and is particularly widespread in the teiids and lacertids. Extant reptiles range in size from the newly-discovered Jaragua Sphaero, at 1.6 cm (0.6 in), to the saltwater crocodile, at up to 7 m (23 ft). Most reptiles have a closed circulatory system with a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria and one ventricle. All reptiles breathe using lungs, although aquatic turtles have developed more permeable skin, and some species have modified their cloacas to increase the area for gas exchange. Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. The reptilian brain is similar to that of amphibians, except the cerebrum and cerebellum are slightly larger. Most typical sense organs are well developed with certain exceptions most notably the snakes lack of external ears (middle and inner ears are present). All reptilians have advanced visual depth perception compared to other animals. Lizards and Snakes Lizards and snakes belong to the largest recent order of reptiles (Squamata). Members of the order are distinguished by their skin, which bears horny scales or shields. They also possess movable quadrate bones, making it possible to move the upper jaw relative to the braincase. This is particularly visible in snakes, which are able to open their mouths very widely to accommodate comparatively large prey (Figure 13.21). ![A corn snake swallowing a mouse](image) Figure 13.21: A corn snake swallowing a mouse. (20) Lizards are a large and widespread group of reptiles, with nearly 5,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica. Most lizards have four limbs, external ears, movable eyelids, a short neck, a long tail, and are insectivores. Many can shed their tails in order to escape from predators. Vision, including color vision, is particularly well developed in lizards, and most communicate with body language, bright colors, or pheromones. Adults range from a few cm (1 in) in length (some Caribbean geckos) to nearly 3 m (10 ft) (Figure 13.22), although most species are less than 220 g (0.5 lb). Encompassing 40 families, there is tremendous variety in color, appearance and size of lizards. Most lizards are oviparous, although a few species are viviparous. Many are also capable of regeneration of lost limbs or tails. Almost all lizards are carnivorous, although most are so small that insects are their primary prey. A few species are omnivorous or herbivorous, and others have reached sizes where they can prey on other vertebrates, such as birds and mammals. Many lizards are good climbers or fast sprinters. Some can run bipedally, such as the collared lizard, and some, like the basilisk, can even run across the surface of water to escape. Many lizards can change color in response to their environments or in times of stress (Figure 13.23). The most familiar example is the chameleon, but more subtle color changes occur in other lizard species, such as the anole, as well. Some lizard species, including the glass lizard and flap-footed lizards, have lost their legs or reduced them to the point they are non-functional. However, some vestigial structures remain. While some legless lizards, like flap-footed lizards, are similar in appearance to snakes, they can be distinguished by such features as their external ears. All snakes are carnivorous and can be distinguished from legless lizards by lack of eyelids, limbs, external ears, and vestiges of forelimbs. The 2,700+ species of snakes occur in every continent except Antarctica and range in size from the tiny, 10 cm (4 in) long thread snake to pythons and anacondas over 5 m (17 ft) long (Figure 13.24). In order to accommodate snakes’ narrow bodies, paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side. While venomous snakes comprise a minority of the species, some possess potent venom capable of causing painful injury or death to humans. However, snake venom is primarily for killing and subduing prey rather than for self-defense. All snakes are strictly carnivorous, eating small animals including lizards, other snakes, small mammals, birds, eggs, fish, snails or insects. Figure 13.23: A species of lizard, showing general body form and camouflage against background. (8) Figure 13.24: A species of anaconda, one of the largest snakes, getting as long as 17 ft. (7) Because snakes cannot bite or tear their food to pieces, prey must be swallowed whole. The body size of a snake has a major influence on its eating habits. The snake’s jaw is one of the most unique jaws in the animal kingdom. Snakes have a very flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and numerous other joints in their skull, allowing them to open their mouths wide enough to swallow their prey whole. Some snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before eating it; others kill their prey by constriction, and still others swallow their prey whole and alive. After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of digestion takes place. The process is highly efficient, with the snake’s digestive enzymes dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey’s hair and claws. Most snakes use specialized belly scales to travel, gripping surfaces. The body scales may be smooth, keeled or granular (Figure 13.25). Snakes’ eyelids are transparent “spectacle” scales which remain permanently closed. In the shedding of scales, or molting, the complete outer layer of skin is shed in one layer (Figure 13.26). Molting replaces old and worn skin, allows the snake to grow and helps it get rid of parasites such as mites and ticks. ![Snake Scales](image) Figure 13.25: A close up of snake scales of a banded krait, Bungarus fasciatus, showing Black and yellow alternating bands and spaces between scales. (6) Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snakes, all snakes employ internal fertilization, accomplished by means of paired, forked hemipenes, which are stored inverted in the male’s tail. Most species of snakes lay eggs and most species abandon them shortly after laying. Alligators and Crocodiles Crocodilia, containing both alligators and crocodiles, is an order of large reptiles. Reptiles belonging to Crocodilia are the closest living relatives of birds, as the two groups are the only known living descendants of the Archosauria, a subclass of reptiles, including the dinosaurs. The basic crocodilian body plan (Figure 13.27) is a very successful one that has changed little over time; modern species closely resemble their Cretaceous ancestors of 84 million years ago. Crocodilians have a flexible semi-erect (semi-sprawled) posture. They can walk in low, sprawled “belly walk,” or hold their legs more directly underneath them to perform the “high walk.” Most other reptiles can only walk in a sprawled position. All crocodilians have, like humans, thecodont dentition, (teeth set in bony sockets), but unlike mammals, they replace their teeth throughout life. Crocodilians also have a secondary bony palate that enables them to breathe when partially submerged, even if the mouth is full of water. Their internal nostrils open in the back of their throat, where a special part of the tongue called the “palatal valve” closes off their respiratory system when they are underwater, allowing them to breathe when submerged. Crocodiles and gharials (large crocodilians having elongated jaws) have modified salivary glands on their tongue (salt glands), which are used for excreting excess salt ions from their bodies. Crocodilians are often seen lying with their mouths open, a behavior called gaping. One of its functions is probably to cool them down, but it may also have a social function. Like mammals and birds and unlike other reptiles, crocodiles have a four-chambered heart; however, unlike mammals, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood can be mixed. Crocodilians are known to swallow stones, known as gastroliths, which act as a ballast in addition to aiding post-digestion processing of their prey. The crocodilian stomach is divided into two chambers, the first is powerful and muscular, like a bird gizzard, where the gastroliths are found. The other stomach has the most acidic digestive system of any animal and can digest mostly everything from their prey: bones, feathers and horns. The sex of developing crocodilians is determined by the incubation temperature of the eggs. This means crocodilians do not have genetic sex determination, but instead have a form of environmental sex determination, which is based on the temperature that embryos are subjected to early in their development. Like all reptiles, crocodilians have a relatively small brain, but the crocodilian brain is more advanced than those of other reptiles. As in many other aquatic or amphibian tetrapods, the eyes, ears, and nostrils are all located on the same plane. They see well during the day and may even have color vision, plus the eyes have a vertical, cat-like pupil, which gives them excellent night vision. A third transparent eyelid, the nictitating membrane, protects their eyes underwater. While birds and most reptiles have a ring of bones around each eye which supports the eyeball (the sclerotic ring), the crocodiles lack these bones, just like mammals and snakes. The eardrums are located behind the eyes and are covered by a movable flap of skin. This flap closes, along with the nostrils and eyes, when they dive, preventing water from entering their external head openings. The middle ear cavity has a complex of bony air-filled passages and a branching Eustachian tube. Eustachian tubes will be discussed in the chapter titled Controlling the Body. The upper and lower jaws are covered with sensory pits, which encase bundles of nerve fibers that respond to the slightest disturbance in surface water. Thus they can detect vibrations and small pressure changes in water, making it possible for them to detect prey, danger and intruders even in total darkness. Turtles Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudines, most of whose body is shielded by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs. About 300 species are alive today and some are highly endangered. Turtles cannot breathe in water, but can hold their breath for various periods of time. Like other reptiles, turtles are poikilothermic (or “of varying temperature”). Like other amniotes, they breathe air and don’t lay eggs underwater, although many species live in or around water. The largest chelonian (all living species) is the great leatherback sea turtle (Figure 13.28), which reaches a shell length of 200 cm (7 ft) and can reach a weight of over 900 kg (2,000 lb). Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle, has been reported up to 200 cm (7 ft). The only surviving giant tortoises are on the Seychelles and Galapagos Islands and can grow to over 130 cm (4 ft) in length and weigh about 300 kg (670 lb) (Figure 13.29). ![Image](image) Figure 13.28: The largest living chelonian, the leatherback turtle, which can reach up to 7 ft in length and over 2,000 lb. ([15](#)) The smallest turtle is the speckled padloper tortoise of South Africa, measuring no more than 8 cm (3 in) in length, and weighing about 140 g (5 oz). Turtles are broken down into two groups, according to how they evolved a solution to the problem of withdrawing their neck into the shell: the Cryptodira, which can draw their neck in while contracting it under their spine, and the Pleurodira, which contract their neck to the side. Most turtles that spend most of their life on land have their eyes looking down at objects in front of them. Some aquatic turtles, such as snapping turtles and soft-shelled turtles, have eyes closer to the top of the head. These species of turtles can hide from predators in shallow water where they lie entirely submerged except for their eyes and nostrils. Sea turtles (Figure 13.30) possess glands near their eyes that produce salty tears that rid their body of excess salt taken in from the water they drink. Turtles are thought to have exceptional night vision due to the unusually large number of rod cells in their retinas. Turtles have color vision with a wealth of cone subtypes with sensitivities ranging from the near ultraviolet to red. (For a description of rods and cones, see chapter titled Controlling the Body). Turtles have a rigid beak and use their jaws to cut and chew food. Instead of teeth, the upper and lower jaws of the turtle are covered by horny ridges. Carnivorous turtles usually have knife-sharp ridges for slicing through their prey. Herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges that help them cut through tough plants. Although many turtles spend large amounts of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. They can also spend much of their lives on dry land. Turtles lay eggs, like other reptiles, and which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. In some species, temperature determines whether an egg develops into a male or female. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves. When the turtles hatch, they squirm their way to the surface and head toward the water. Importance of Reptiles The chief impact of reptiles, such as lizards, on humans is positive as they are significant predators of pest species. Snakes are also very useful rat exterminators, for example, in the Irula villages of India. Reptiles can be important as food sources: green iguanas are eaten in Central America, the tribals of “Irulas” from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India are known to eat some of the snakes they catch, Cantonese snake soup is consumed by local people in the fall to prevent colds, cooked rattlesnake meat is commonly consumed in parts of the Midwestern United States, and turtle soup is widely consumed. Reptiles also make good pets. Numerous lizard species are prominent in the pet trade. In the Western world, some snakes, especially docile species such as the ball python and corn snake, are kept as pets. Turtles, particularly small terrestrial and freshwater turtles, are also commonly kept as pets. Among the most popular are the Russian tortoises, Greek spur-thighed tortoises and red-ear sliders (or terrapin). For medical and scientific research, snake venom collected by the “Irulas” is used for producing life-saving antivenin and for other medicinal products. Observations about turtle longevity (the liver, lungs and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are virtually indistinguishable from those of its immature counterpart) have inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes. Finally, reptiles play a significant role in folklore, religion and popular culture. Lizard symbology plays important, though rarely predominant roles in some cultures (e.g. Tarrotarro in Australian mythology). The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted lizards in their art. Crocodilians have starred in several science fiction movies such as Lake Placid and DinoCroc. There are also many cultural depictions of turtles and Snakes or serpents (the latter usually referring to a mythic or symbolic snake) are associated with healing in the Bible (the account of the brass serpent of Moses) as well as with the devil (the Biblical account of Adam and Eve). The periodic renewal, as in the shedding of snake skin, has led to the snake being a symbol of healing and medicine, as pictured in the Rod of Asclepius (Figure 13.31). In Egyptian history, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra adorning the crown of the pharaoh in ancient times. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes, such as murder of the adversary and ritual suicide by the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Snakes also play a role in Greek mythology, in Indian tradition and religion, and in other religions and customs. Lesson Summary - Reptiles are air-breathing, cold-blooded vertebrates characterized by a scaly skin. - Reptiles have a variety of reproductive systems, with different strategies for providing nutrition to developing young. - Lizards and snakes are distinguished by a unique type of scaly skin and movable quadrate bones. - There is a tremendous variety in color, appearance and size of lizards, and they have some unique adaptations, including regeneration of lost limbs or tails and changing color. - Snakes are distinguished by lack of eyelids, limbs, external ears and vestiges of forelimbs. - Snakes have various adaptations for killing and eating their prey. - Crocodilia have a flexible semi-erect posture, thecodont dentition, replacement of teeth, and a secondary bony palate. - The sex of developing crocodilians is determined by the incubation temperature of the eggs. - Other crocodilian traits, such as salt glands, nictitating membranes, ear flaps and sensory pits, are adaptations for aquatic living. - Turtles are characterized by a special bony or cartilaginous shell; have specialized adaptations for aquatic living, such as eye placement and salt glands, and adaptations for terrestrial living as well (placement of eyes and protection of eggs). - Reptiles play important roles as predators of pest species, food sources, pets, in medical and scientific research, and in folklore, religion and popular culture. Review Questions 1. Describe the general traits of reptiles. 2. Describe the different types of reproduction in reptiles. 3. How are snakes distinguished from legless lizards? Figure 13.31: The Rod of Asclepius, where the snake is a symbol of healing and medicine. (31) 4. Pit vipers, pythons and some boas have infrared-sensitive receptors in deep grooves between the nostril and eye. What role might such receptors play? 5. Name two adaptations of a crocodilian stomach which help it in digestion. 6. The shape and structure of a turtle’s shell can give its inhabitant advantages for avoiding predators, aid in swimming and diving, and for walking on land. Given what you know about a turtle’s shell, explain how the structure and shape could help the turtle in the above situations. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - http://en.wikipedia.org - http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals - http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/lizards - http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/explorations/lizards/index.htm - http://www.turtles.org - http://www.gma.org/turtles - http://www.kidskonnect.com/content/view/54/27 - http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd.html - http://home.cfl.rr.com/gatorhole Vocabulary amniotes Vertebrates whose embryos are surrounded by an amniotic membrane. nictitating membrane A third transparent eyelid. oviparous Reproduction involving the laying of eggs. parthenogenesis A form of asexual reproduction, where the egg develops without fertilization. pheromones Chemicals released by an animal that influence the behavior or physiology of other individuals of the same species. poikilothermic Cold-blooded; without the ability to independently warm the blood. the codont Where teeth are set in bony sockets. Points to Consider - Some lizards have a dewlap, a brightly colored patch of skin on the throat, which is used in displays. What colorful displays do you think are used for courtship in birds and mammals? - Lizards and snakes use smell to track their prey, using the Jacobson’s or vomeronasal organ in the mouth, as well as a forked tongue. How do you think this compares to the sense of smell in birds and mammals and the structures used for smelling in these groups? - Like the scales comprising the shell of a turtle, or the cross-section of a tree trunk, crocodile osteoderms (small plates of bone under the scales) have annual growth rings, and by counting them it is possible to tell their age. Can we determine age in the same way in either birds or mammals? Image Sources (1) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wobbegong.jpg. GNU-FDL. (2) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nerodia_sipedon_shedding.JPG. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (3) Jonathan Zander. An Indian gharial crocodile.. GNU-FDL. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Periophthalmus_modestus.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (5) Christian Bier. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Male_whale_shark_at_Georgia_Aquarium.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (6) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AB_053_Banded_Krait.JPG. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anaconda_jaune_34.JPG. The photographer of this work allows anyone to use it for any purpose including unrestricted redistribution, commercial use, and modification.. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lizard_on_a_rock_on_Park_Avenue_in_Arches_NP2.jpeg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (9) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Toad15.jpg. Public Domain. (10) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Braxen,_Iduns_kokbok.jpg. Public Domain. (11) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NileCrocodile.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (12) Mat Honan. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pacific_Giant_Salamander.jpg. CC-BY 2.0. (13) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Boulengerula_taitanus_2.jpg. GNU-FDL. (14) USGS. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Botrylloides_violaceus.jpg. Public Domain. (15) NOAA. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LeatherbackTurtle.jpg. Public Domain. (16) Fred Hsu. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mola_mola_ocean_sunfish_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium_2.jpg. GNU-FDL. (17) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Johannes_Fabritius_-_Still_life_of_fish,_eels,_and_fishing_nets.jpg. Public Domain. (18) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Galapagos_giant_tortoise_Geochelone_elephantopus.jpg. GNU-FDL. (19) A tuatara.. Public Domain. (20) Bachrach44. A corn snake swallowing a mouse.. Public Domain. (21) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stingray_underwater.jpg. CC-BY 2.0. (22) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sea_Turtle.jpg. Public Domain. (23) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cheilinus_undulatus_1.jpg. GNU-FDL. (24) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Image-Blue_Whale_and_Hector_Dolphine_Colored.jpg. Public Domain. (25) USDA, Ken Hammond. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Delta_Pride_Catfish_farm_harvest.jpg. Public Domain. (26) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Latimeria_menadoensis.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (27) USGS. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_opacum_USGS.jpg. Public Domain. (28) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Varanus_komodoensis1.jpg. GNU-FDL. (29) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pikaia_BW.jpg. GNU-FDL. (30) Chris Stubbs. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VancouverZooEel.JPG. GNU-FDL. (31) DdcfnC. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rod_of_asclepius.png. GNU-FDL. www.ck12.org 434 Chapter 14 Birds and Mammals 14.1 Lesson 14.1: Birds Lesson Objectives - List and describe general traits of birds. - Explain how birds are adapted for flight. - List different breeding systems in birds and describe nesting, incubation and parental care. - Illustrate the diversity of birds with examples of some of the varied groups. - Explain how birds are important, both economically and ecologically. Check Your Understanding - Birds and reptiles have some traits in common. For example, birds are egg-layers and most reptiles are also oviparous. What do the eggs of both groups have in common? - What traits are there in birds as a result of them being warm-blooded? Introduction We all think we know what a bird is. It seems fairly obvious. But if you were to really stop and think about birds, you would be amazed at the diversity of these organisms. From hummingbirds to ostriches, and countless varieties in between, birds are amazing creatures. It is pretty easy to be aware of birds all around us. From pet birds in our houses to those seen flying and perching in the out-of-doors, birds constantly remind us of their diversity in both appearance and habits. Birds have special adaptations for flight, including feathers and a lightweight skeleton. They also have a wide variety of reproductive strategies among the different types of birds. Let us examine some of their principle traits so we can get a better appreciation of what birds can do. Characteristics of Birds Birds (class Aves) are warm-blooded, vertebrate animals with two legs (bipedal), who lay eggs. They range in size from the tiny 2 in (5 cm) Bee Hummingbird to the 9 ft (2.7 m) ostrich (Figure 14.1). With approximately 10,000 living species, birds are the most numerous vertebrates with four limbs (tetrapod). They occur in diverse habitats across the globe, ranging from the Arctic to the Antarctic. ![Ostriches and chicks](image) Figure 14.1: The ostrich can reach a height of 9 feet! Pictured here are ostriches with young in Namibia, Africa. (4) Defining characteristics of modern birds include: - feathers - high metabolism - a four-chambered heart - a beak with no teeth - a lightweight but strong skeleton - production of hard-shelled eggs The digestive system of birds is unique, with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Birds have forelimbs modified as wings and nearly all can fly. Which of the above traits do you think might be of importance to flight? Adaptations for Flight In comparing birds with other vertebrates, what do you think distinguishes them the most? Of course, in most birds flight is the most obvious difference (Figure 14.2), and birds have adapted their body plan for this function. Their skeleton is especially lightweight, with large pneumatic (air-filled) cavities connecting to the respiratory system. Cervical, or neck, vertebrae are especially flexible and in birds with flight the sternum has a keel, or longitudinal ridge, for the attachment of two large flight muscles: the pectoralis, which encompasses 15% of the bird’s total mass, and the supracoracoideus, the primary upstroke muscle for flight. What other traits do you think might be important for flight? Of course, feathers are lightweight too and a forelimb modified as a wing serves as an aerofoil. This surface is designed to aid in lifting or controlling by making use of the air currents through which it moves. A bird’s wing shape and size will determine how a species flies. For example, many birds have powered, flapping flight at certain times, while at other times they soar, using up less energy. ![Figure 14.2: One bird’s flight, as seen in a tern species.](image) About 60 living bird species are flightless, such as penguins, as were many extinct birds. Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators. Reproduction in Birds How do birds reproduce? We are all familiar with the classic chicken egg. So what is involved in the process of a bird laying an egg? It all starts with courtship. Courtship involves some type of courtship display, usually performed by the male, leading up to the breeding. Most displays involve a type of song and some displays are very elaborate and may include dancing, aerial flights, or wing or tail drumming. One of the most distinguishing features of bird reproduction is internal fertilization and the laying of eggs. The hard-shelled eggs have a fluid-filled amnion, a thin membrane forming a closed sac around the embryo. Eggs are usually laid in a nest. How do you think where a bird lays an egg might influence the egg color? If an egg is hidden in a hole or burrow, away from predators, then the eggs are most often pale or white. Nests in the open have eggs that are camouflaged, thus giving protection against predation (Figure 14.3). However, some species like the ground-nesting nightjars, have pale eggs, but the birds themselves provide the camouflage with their feathers. ![Nest and eggs of the common moorhen](image) Figure 14.3: Nest and eggs of the common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), showing camouflaged eggs. (30) The shape of birds’ nests varies quite a lot too. Most create somewhat elaborate nests, consisting of such structures as cups, domes, plates, mounds or burrows. The albatross, however, makes a nest that is simply a scrape on the ground. Still others, like the common guillemot, do not use nests, instead they lay their eggs on bare cliffs. The male emperor penguins are even more elaborate in the care of their eggs: they incubate the eggs between their body and feet. How else might a bird help protect its young from predators? Most species locate their nests in areas that are hidden, in order to avoid predators. Other birds that are large or nest in colonies may build nests in the open, since they are more capable of defending their young. Young Birds and Parental Care Parent birds usually incubate their eggs after the last one has been laid. In the 95% of species which are monogamous, (the species pair for the duration of the breeding season or sometimes for a few years or until one mate dies) the parents take turns incubating. In polygamous species, where there is more than one mate, one parent does all the incubating. Brood parasitism, in which an egg-layer leaves her eggs in another individual’s nest, is more common among birds than any other type of animal. The host bird often accepts and raises the parasite’s eggs, at the expense of the host’s own offspring. Some precocial chicks, like those of the Ancient Murrelet (Synthliboramphus antiquus), follow their parents out to sea the night after they hatch, in order to avoid land predators. In most species, however, the young leave the nest just before, or right after, they can fly, sometimes making it necessary for them to walk until they have mastered flying. The length and type of parental care varies widely amongst different species of birds. At one extreme in a group of birds called the magapodes, parental care ends in hatching. In this case, the newly-hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental help and can take care of itself right away. At the other extreme, many seabirds care for their young for extended periods of time, the longest being that of the Great Frigatebird, whose chicks take up to six months to fledge (getting parental care until they are ready to fly) and then an additional 14 months of being fed by the parents (Figure 14.4). Although male parental care is rare among most groups of animals, in birds it is quite common, more so than in any other class of vertebrates. Often, the tasks of defense of territory and nest site, incubation, and feeding of chicks are shared between the parents; sometimes one parent undertakes all or most of a particular duty. Given all the information so far about birds, what would you say is true about bird diversity? Diversity of Birds If you guessed that there is a lot of diversity in birds, you guessed correctly. About 10,000 bird species belong to 29 different orders, or groups, within the class Aves. They live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents. The greatest biodiversity of birds occurs in the tropics. There is enormous diversity and a wide range of adaptations of various body parts, such as beaks and feet, to the specific habitats of the birds. There is also enormous diversity in the feeding habits of birds. The feeding habits of birds is related to the beak shape and size, as well as the foot shape. Birds can be carnivores, insectivores, or generalists, which feed on a variety of foods. Some feed on nectar, such as hummingbirds. Can you think of some examples of beak shape and size that are adapted to the type of food a bird eats? Beaks For example, parrots and their allies have down-curved, hooked bills, which are well-adapted for cracking seeds and nuts, and eating the meat inside (Figure 14.5). Hummingbirds, on the other hand, have long, thin and pointed bills, which are ideal for probing tubular flowers for nectar (Figure 14.6). Can you also think of some different types of bird feet, which might be adapted for different types of habitats? Feet Webbed feet used for swimming or floating, as in waterfowl or gulls and terns, may come to mind (Figure 14.7). Other birds, for example, herons, gallinules and rails have four long spreading toes, which are ideal for walking delicately in the wetland in which they live (Figure 14.8). You can now see that you could come up with your own ideas for how a particular bird trait is adapted to a specific habitat, food, or other specialized requirement. That might even make going out for an outdoor hike more of an adventure! Figure 14.5: The down-curved, hooked bill of a scarlet macaw, a large colorful parrot (Ara macao). (1) Figure 14.6: A long, thin and pointed bill of the Swallow-tailed Hummingbird (Eupetomena macroura). (6) Figure 14.7: The webbed feet of a great black-backed gull (Larus marinus). (33) Figure 14.8: The long spreading toes of an American purple gallinule (Porphyrio martinica). (8) Why Birds are Important Now that you have some general knowledge about birds, you may want to make a list yourself of how you think birds are important. Just think about your daily living and how birds play a role. Do you eat chicken or turkey at meals? Do you have pet birds? Do you enjoy going out in your backyard or for a walk and listen to the beauty of birdsong or see the iridescent plumage of a bird in the sun? What are some other economic uses of birds? One is the harvesting of guano (droppings) for use as fertilizer. Another is the use of chickens as an early warning system of diseases, such as West Nile Virus, that affect humans. In the latter example, mosquitoes carry the West Nile Virus, bite young chickens and other birds, and infect them with the virus. The first human cases of the virus usually follow the first appearance of infected birds within three months. Blood samples from young chickens can be tested for the presence of antibodies to the virus, and if detected, then this is an early warning that human infection can follow. What about how birds can be important ecologically? For example, some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, and many frugivores, or fruit-eating birds, help disperse seeds. Birds are often important to island ecology, since they can easily reach islands. In New Zealand, the Kereru and Kokako are important browsers (animals that eat or nibble on leaves, tender young shoots, or other vegetation) and seabirds enrich the soil and water with their production of guano (Figures 14.9 and 14.10). ![Kereru](image) Figure 14.9: The Kereru is an important browser species in New Zealand. (15) Finally, let’s not forget that birds have had a relationship with humans since the dawn of humanity. Sometimes, as in the cooperative honey-gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana, these relationships are mutualistic, where both benefit. Birds also play prominent and diverse roles in folklore, religion, and popular culture, and Figure 14.10: The Kokako, another important browser species of New Zealand. (14) have been featured in art since prehistoric times, as in early cave paintings. Perhaps their beauty and diversity will always capture the imagination of humans. Lesson Summary - Most of birds’ traits are related to their being warm-blooded or their adaptations for flight. - Adaptations for flight involve features that are lightweight, flexible, strong and that take advantage of air currents. - The components of reproduction usually involve a courtship display, nest production, egg-laying, incubation and parental care. There is much diversity demonstrated in adaptations for predator avoidance. - With 10,000 bird species there is a lot of diversity. Specialized structures are adapted for specific habitats or living requirements. - Birds are important economically, ecologically and in human culture. Review Questions 1. List five traits which are important for flight. 2. Describe how a bird’s breeding system can be adapted to avoid predation. 3. Explain how the absence of land predators on islands would result in flightlessness in birds. 4. You detect the presence of antibodies to the West Nile Virus in young chickens. How did the chickens get the virus? When would the first human cases of the virus most likely occur? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Department of Health, Florida. Available on the web at: www.doh.state.fl.us. - Oliver L. Austin, Birds of the World. Western Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1961. - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Nile_virus](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Nile_virus) - [http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/studying](http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/studying) - [http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals](http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals) - [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/birdintro.html](http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/birdintro.html) - [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/h/j/hjs130/aves.html](http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/h/j/hjs130/aves.html) - [http://www.fs.fed.us/global/wings/birds.htm](http://www.fs.fed.us/global/wings/birds.htm) Vocabulary aerofoil A surface which is designed to aid in lifting or controlling by making use of the air currents through which it moves. altricial A reproductive system in birds in which the newly hatched young are small, naked, immobile and blind. monogamous A mating system in birds where the couple pair for the duration of the breeding season or sometimes for a few years or until one mate dies. polygamous A mating system in birds where there is more than one mate. precocial A reproductive system in birds in which the newly hatched young are feathered and mobile. Points to Consider - Birds and mammals are the only warm-blooded vertebrates. As in birds, mammals also have lots of diversity and live in varied habitats. Based on what you know about adaptations in birds, how do you think mammalian limbs are adapted for locomotion in different habitats? - Mammals also have specialized diets, as in birds. Instead of beaks, mammals have different kinds of teeth. How do you think different kinds of teeth in mammals are adapted for different kinds of diets in this group? 14.2 Lesson 14.2: Mammals Lesson Objectives - List and describe general traits of mammals. - Compare reproduction in monotremes, marsupials and placental mammals. - Describe how mammals can be grouped according to their anatomy and their habitats. - Explain how non-human mammals can benefit people and how they play an ecological role. Check Your Understanding - What traits are there in mammals as a result of them being warm-blooded? Answer: They have fur to decrease heat loss; their diets contain high energy foods and methods of feeding help to maintain a high metabolism; and they conserve energy both by being inactive at certain times of day and sometimes by hibernation. - Describe courtship displays in birds. As you learn about mammals, think about how their courtship is similar or different to that of birds. Answer: Males usually perform courtship displays in birds. Most displays involve a type of song and some displays are very elaborate and may include dancing, aerial flights, or wing or tail drumming. Introduction What’s a mammal? It is easy to forget about the biodiversity of mammals, but these animals range from bats and cats and rats to dogs and monkeys and whales. They walk and run and swim and fly. They live in the ocean, they fly in the sky, they walk on the prairies and run in the savannah. What allows them to live in such diverse environments? Well, mammals have some specialized traits which no other group of animals has. There is a tremendous amount of diversity within the group in terms of reproduction, habitat, and adaptation for living in their different habitats. It is because of some of their traits that mammals have been of benefit to people and also play an important ecological role. Characteristics of Mammals Mammals (class Mammalia) are warm-blooded, vertebrate animals with a number of unique characteristics. In most mammals, these include: - The presence of hair - Sweat glands - Glands specialized to produce milk (mammary glands) - Three middle ear bones - A neocortex region in the brain - Specialized teeth - A four-chambered heart All mammals, except for the monotremes (the most primitive order of mammals, with certain birdlike and reptilian characteristics, such as laying eggs, and a single opening for the urinary, genital, and digestive organs), produce live young (known as vivipary) instead of laying eggs. There are approximately 5,400 mammalian species, ranging in size from the tiny 1-2 in (30-40mm) bumblebee bat to the 1,083ft (330m) blue whale. These are distributed in about 1,200 genera, 153 families and 29 orders. (see http://users.tamuk.edu/kfjab02/Biology/mammalogy/mammal_classification.htm). Reproduction in Mammals Keep in mind what you have learned about reptiles and birds and see how mammals might be both similar and different to these groups. The egg-laying monotremes, such as echidnas (Figure 14.11) and platypuses (Figure 14.12), use one opening, the cloacae, to urinate, defecate and reproduce, just as lizards and birds do. They lay leathery eggs, similar to those of lizards, turtles and crocodilians. Monochromes feed their young by “sweating” milk from patches on their bellies, since they lack nipples, unlike other mammals. ![Echidna](image) Figure 14.11: The echidna is a member of the monotremes, the most primitive order of mammals. (25) All other mammals give birth to live young and are either marsupial or placental. The females of most marsupials have an abdominal pouch or skin fold within which are mammary glands and a place for raising the young (Figure 14.13). Placental mammals have a placenta that nourishes the fetus and removes waste products. Some mammals are solitary except for brief periods when the female comes into estrus, the optimal time for a female to get pregnant. Others form social groups where a pronounced difference between sexes (sexual dimorphism) is frequently extreme. Dominant males are often those that are largest or best-armed. These males usually have an advantage in mating or may exclude other males from access to females within a group, such as in elephant seals (Figure 14.14). This group of females forms a harem. Think back to what you learned about courtship displays in birds. How are such systems in mammals similar or different? Another monotreme, the platypus, like other mammals in this order, lays eggs and has a single opening for the urinary, genital, and digestive organs. Groups of Mammals Mammal groups, as is true for most animal groups, can be characterized a number of ways. They can be characterized according to their anatomy, the habitats in which they live, and their feeding habits. Most mammals belong to the placental group. Within this group are several subgroups including lagomorphs (i.e. hares and rabbits) and rodents (rats, mice and other small, gnawing mammals); carnivores (cats, dogs, bears and other mammals that are primarily meat eaters) (Figure 14.15); insectivores (including moles and shrews) (Figure 14.16); a group including bats and primates; and ungulates (hoofed animals, including deer, sheep, goats, buffalo and elephants, and also whales and manatees) (Figure 14.17). Why do you think the above groups of animals are placed together? Can you think of some examples of tooth type that are adapted for a mammals’ diet and types of limbs that are adapted for living in different types of habitats? Mammals can also be grouped according to the habitat they live in and with adaptations for living in that habitat. Terrestrial mammals with saltatory (leaping) locomotion, as in some marsupials and in lagomorphs, is typically found in mammals living in open habitats. Other terrestrial mammals are adapted for running, such as dogs or horses. Still others, such as elephants, hippopotamuses and rhinoceroses, have a cumbersome (and hefty) mode of locomotion known as “graviportal.” Other mammals are adapted for living in trees (arboreal), such as many New World monkeys (Figure 14.18). Others are fully aquatic, such as manatees, whales, dolphins and seals, and others are adapted for flight, as are bats, or gliding (some marsupials and rodents). Figure 14.13: A marsupial mammal, this Eastern grey kangaroo has a joey (young kangaroo) in its abdominal pouch. (28) Figure 14.14: A mating system with a harem of many females and one male, as seen in the seal species, Callorhinus ursinus. (18) Figure 14.15: A Caracal, hunting in the Serengeti. (11) Figure 14.16: One of the subgroups of placental mammals is the insectivores, including moles and shrews. Pictured here is the Northern short-tailed shrew. (10) Figure 14.17: The ungulates (hoofed animals) like the giraffe here, is another of the subgroups belonging to the placental mammals. (20) Significance of Mammals Mammals are thought to be significant both in terms of how they benefit people and also of their importance ecologically. Given what you know about mammals so far, how do you think they may be important to people? Just examining our daily lives we see examples of mammals (other than people!) serving our needs everywhere. We have pets that are mammals, most commonly dogs and cats; if we live in rural areas or visit another country we will probably see lots of examples of mammals used for transport (horses, donkeys, mules and even camels), being raised for food (cows and goats), and used for work (dogs (Figure 14.19), horses, and elephants). The special capabilities of some mammal species have been used in practical situations and also to increase our knowledge. Can you think of how they have been used? For example, the United State and Russian militaries have trained and employed oceanic dolphins to rescue lost divers or to locate underwater mines. Mammals’ more highly developed brain has made them ideal for use by scientists in studying such things as learning, as seen in maze studies of mice and rats. The ability of young mammals to learn from the experience of their elders has allowed a behavioral plasticity unknown in any other group of organisms and has been a primary reason for the evolutionary success of mammals. See if you can come up with some other examples. Mammals have also played a significant role in different cultures’ folklore and religion. For example, the grace and power of the cougar have been widely admired in the cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The Inca city of Cusco is reported to have been designed in the shape of a cougar and the sky and thunder god of the Inca, Viracocha, has been associated with the animal. In North America, mythological descriptions of the cougar have appeared in stories of a number of Native American tribes. Ecologically, nectar-feeding and fruit-eating bats (Figure 14.20) play an important role in plant pollination and seed dispersal, respectively. Can you think of a type of bird that has a similar ecological role? Mammals are also the only animal group that has made a complete transition to aquatic habitats. Some, such as cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) have undergone profound adaptations for swimming and life, even reproduction, in the water. Cetaceans depend on water for mechanical support and thermal insulation. Because they are buoyed by their aquatic environment, whales have evolved into the largest mammals and the largest animals ever recorded. Micro-Lab: Matching Adaptations of Teeth and Limbs in Mammals with their respective Diets and Habitats Estimated time: 15 minutes Materials: 1. Tray of actual, or illustrations of, various mammal teeth, numbered, and Pictures of animals eating: - Incisors – cutting and nipping (herbivores, like cows, have well-developed incisors for cutting grass) Figure 14.20: Bats, like this Egyptian fruit bat, belong to another subgroup of placental mammals. Ecologically, fruit bats play an important role in seed dispersal. (24) - Premolars – shearing and grinding (herbivores, like cows, have flat premolars and molars for grinding vegetation) - Canines – piercing (carnivores, like lions, have long and strong canines.) 2. Tray of actual, or illustrations of, various mammalian limbs, numbered (for feet, could also show cast of track, to see if students can match the track with the actual foot type) and pictures of habitats or actual animals, lettered: - Toe ending in claws – tiger (climbing and running) - Toes with hooves – horses and cows (running) - Fins – aquatic mammals (swimming) - Wings – bats (flying) - Highly mobile limbs – monkeys (climbing in trees) 3. Answer sheets, listing numbered mammal teeth and limbs Directions: One group of students examines the tray of mammal teeth and pictures of diets and indicates on the answer sheet the correct matches. The other group of students examines the tray of mammal limbs and pictures of habitats and similarly matches these up with the correct answers. Links to websites with pictures of mammal teeth and/or limbs: Teeth: Lesson Summary - The class Mammalia is distinguished by the presence of hair, sweat glands, three middle ear bones and a neocortex area in the brain. - There is a lot of variation in mammalian reproductive systems. Mammals consist of both the egg-laying monotremes and those that are viviparous. The latter group includes marsupial and placental mammals. Diversity can also be found in mammalian mating systems. - The 5,400 species of mammals can be grouped according to anatomical features as well as the type of habitat found in. Mammals have specific adaptations for living on land, in trees, in water and for flight. - Non-primate mammals have an important relationship with people as well as fulfilling necessary ecological functions. Review Questions 1. What are two ways in which monotremes differ from viviparous mammals? 2. With respect to characteristics of feet, limbs and tails, what features would you expect mammals to have for (a) jumping? (b) living in trees? 3. Give examples of three different adaptations of limbs for locomotion in mammals, naming a mammal species, a structure and how it is adapted. 4. Instead of beaks, as in birds, mammals have different kinds of teeth. Incisors are specialized for cutting and nipping, premolars for shearing and grinding, and canines for piercing. Based on what you know of diets in mammals, name two mammal species, the kind of diet they eat, and one type of specialized teeth that would be best adapted for the diet. 5. In order to maintain a high constant body temperature, mammals need a nutritious and plentiful diet. What are some ways that mammals have adapted to meet their dietary requirements? How might size determine diet type, and why? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - http://en.wikipedia.org - http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals - http://kids.yahoo.com/animals/mammals - http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/SmallMammals/ForKids - http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/mammal.html - http://www.americazoo.com/goto/index/mammals/classification.htm Vocabulary estrus A period of time when the female has maximum sexual receptivity. harem A group of females followed or accompanied by a fertile male; this male excludes other males access to the group. mammary glands Specialized sweat glands that produce milk. marsupial A type of mammal where the female has an abdominal pouch or skin fold within which are mammary glands and a place for raising the young. monotremes A group of mammals that lays eggs and feeds their young by “sweating” milk from patches on their bellies. neocortex Site of the cerebral cortex where most of higher brain functions occur. placental A type of mammal that has a placenta that nourishes the fetus and removes waste products. vivipary A reproductive system in most mammals and some reptiles and fish, in which living young are produced rather than eggs laid. Points to Consider - Rats are considered to be highly intelligent as they can learn and perform new tasks, an ability that may be important when they first colonize a fresh habitat. Think about what kind of increased learning takes place with an increased brain size, as we will see in primates. - Think of some significant similarities between the mammals you read about in this lesson with those in the next lesson, particularly human beings. - What are some significant adaptations in the evolution of primates? 14.3 Lesson 14.3: Primates and Humans Lesson Objectives - List and describe general traits of primates. - Summarize mating systems of primates. - Review the types of habitats primates can be found in. - Describe the three main groupings of primates. - List the traits of the hominids, their diet, reproduction and social system. Check Your Understanding - What are general traits of mammals? - Describe the mating systems in mammals. Introduction If primates are mammals, what makes them seem so different? Primates, including humans, have several unique features only belonging to this group of mammals. Some of these adaptations are obvious, others not so obvious. Some of these features give primates advantages such that allow them to live in certain habitats, such as arboreal habitats, such as trees. Other features have allowed them to adapt to complex and new social and cultural situations. What are Primates? The biological order Primates, mostly omnivorous (eating both plant and animal material) mammals, contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs (Figure 14.21), monkeys (Figure 14.22) and apes ((Figure 14.23), the latter including humans ((Figure 14.24). All primates have five fingers (pentadactyl), a generalized dental pattern, a primitive (nonspecialized) body plan and certain eye orbit characteristics, such as a postorbital bar (a bone, which runs around the eye socket). While an opposable thumb (the only digit on the hand able to turn back against the other four fingers, thereby refining the grip in order to hold objects) are a characteristic feature of this group, other orders, such as opossums, also have this feature. In intelligent mammals, such as primates, the cerebrum is larger relative to the rest of the brain. Indications of intelligence in primates include the ability to learn and complex behavioral flexibility, involving much social interaction, such as fighting and play. Old World species (apes and some monkeys as seen in Figure 14.25) tend to have signifiFigure 14.21: A ring tailed lemur and twins. Lemurs belong to the prosimian group of primates. (22) Figure 14.22: One of the New World monkeys, a squirrel monkey. (2) cant sexual dimorphism, characterized mostly as size differences, with males being slightly more than twice as heavy as females. This dimorphism may be a result of a polygamous mating system where males attract and defend multiple females. New World species (including tamarins (Figure 14.26) and marmosets (Figure 14.27)) form pair bonds, which is a partnership between a mating pair that lasts at least one season. The pair cooperatively raise the young, and thus generally do not show significant size difference between the sexes. Non-human primates occur mostly in Central and South America, Africa and South Asia. Since primates evolved from arboreal animals, many modern species live mostly in trees. Other species are partially terrestrial, such as baboons (Figure 14.28) and the Patas monkey. Only a few species are fully terrestrial, for example, the gelada and humans. Primates live in a diverse number of forested habitats, including rain forests, mangrove forests and mountain forests to altitudes of over 9,800 ft (3,000 m). The combination of opposable thumbs, short fingernails and long, inward-closing fingers has, in part, allowed some species to develop brachiation, locomotion of swinging by arms from one branch to another (Figure 14.29). Another feature for climbing – expanded digits – as in tarsiers improves grasping (Figure 14.30). A few species, such as the proboscis monkey, De Brazza’s monkey and Allen’s swamp monkey, the latter having small webbing between its fingers, are fine swimmers and occur in swamps and other aquatic habitats. Some species, such as the rhesus macaque and the Hanuman langur, can exploit human-altered environments and even live in cities. Figure 14.24: Reconstruction of a Neanderthal man, belonging to an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens, humans, who are part of the great apes. This subspecies lived in Europe and western and central Asia from about 100,000 – 40,000 B.C. (26) Figure 14.25: An Old World monkey, a species of macaque, in Malaysia. (21) Figure 14.26: A New World species of monkey, a tamarin. (13) Figure 14.27: Another New World species of monkey, the common marmoset. (3) Figure 14.28: Baboons are partially terrestrial. Pictured here is a mother baboon and her young, in Tanzania. (19) Figure 14.29: A gibbon shows how its limbs are modified for hanging from trees. (5) Figure 14.30: A species of tarsier, with expanded digits used for grasping branches. (31) Primate Classification The primate order is divided informally into three main groupings: prosimians, New World monkeys, and Old World monkeys and the apes. The prosimians are species whose bodies most closely resemble that of the early proto-primates, the earliest examples of primates (Figure 14.31). Prosimians include the lemurs, located in Madagascar and to a lesser extent on the Comoro Islands, a group of islands in the Indian Ocean. ![Image](image) Figure 14.31: One of the prosimians, a greater bush baby, Kenya. (23) The New World monkeys include the capuchin, howler and squirrel monkeys, who live exclusively in the Americas. The Old World monkeys and the apes (all except for humans, who inhabit the entire earth) inhabit Africa and southern and central Asia. A few new species of primates are discovered each year and the evaluation of current populations varies as to the number of species; estimates over the last several years range from 350 to 405 species. In New World monkeys alone there are thought to be 128 species; of Old World monkeys, 135 species; of gibbons or “lesser apes,” 13 species and of humans and other great apes, seven species. But there is only one species of humans, which will be discussed below. The Human Family The great apes are the members of the biological family Hominidae, which includes seven species, making up humans, two species each of chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. Hominids are large, tailless primates, ranging in size from the pygmy chimpanzee, at 66-88 lbs (30-40 kg) in weight, to the gorilla, at 309-397 lbs (140-180 kg) (Figure 14.32). In all species, the males are, on average, larger and stronger than the females, although the degree of sexual dimorphism varies greatly. Most living species are predominantly quadrupedal (four-footed), but all are able to use their hands for gathering food or nesting materials, and in some cases, for using tools, such as gorillas using sticks to gauge the depth of water and chimpanzees sharpening sticks to use as spears in hunting and using sticks to gather food and to “fish” for termites (Figure 14.33). ![Gorilla mother and baby](image) Figure 14.32: A gorilla mother and baby, members of the great apes, at Volcans National Park, Rwanda. The gorilla is the largest of the hominids, getting up to 309-397 lbs. (29) Most species are omnivorous (eat both plants and meat), but fruit is the preferred food among all but humans. In contrast, humans consume a large proportion of highly processed, low fiber foods, unusual proportions of grains and vertebrate meat, as well as a wide variety of other foodstuffs. Human teeth and jaws are markedly smaller for our size than those of other apes, perhaps as adaptations to eating cooked food. Humans may have been eating cooked food for possibly as long as a million years or more. Gestation lasts 8-9 months and usually results in the birth of a single offspring. The young are born helpless, and thus they need parental care for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a long adolescence and become fully mature not until 8-13 years in most species (longer in humans). Thus, females typically give birth only once every few years. Gorillas and chimpanzees live in family groups of approximately five to ten individuals, although larger groups are sometimes observed. The groups include at least one dominant male, and females leave the group at maturity. Orangutans, however, are generally solitary. Human social structure is complex and highly variable. Can you think of any that are similar to those of other great apes? Gorillas, chimpanzees and humans are all lumped together in the subfamily, the Homininae, because they generally share more than 97% of their DNA with each other, and exhibit a capacity for language or for simple culture beyond the family or band, a group of animals functioning together. A proposed theory including such faculties as empathy is a controversial criterion distinguishing the adult human alone among the hominids. Can you think of other human attributes that are unique to humans? Lesson Summary - Primates are characterized by pentadactyly, a generalized dental pattern, a non-specialized body plan and certain eye orbit features. Primates also have opposable thumbs and a large cerebrum relative to the rest of the brain. - Old World species tend to have significant sexual dimorphism, whereas New World species generally do not show significant sexual differences. - Many primates live in a variety of forested habitats, whereas others are partially terrestrial, and some, like the gelada and humans, are fully terrestrial. A few species are adapted for living in aquatic habitats. - There are three subgroups within the primates order: prosimians, including the lemurs; New World monkeys, and the Old World monkeys and the apes. There are estimated to be somewhere between 350 to 405 species of primates. - The great apes, consisting of seven species, are large, tailless primates, with sexual dimorphism. Most species are quadrupedal, but all are able to use their hands. - Most great apes are omnivorous, but fruit is the preferred food among all species but • The great apes have unique reproductive and parental care features, especially when compared with most other mammals. There is a variety of social structure among the great apes. • Gorillas, chimpanzees and humans share some common characteristics. Review Questions 1. What characteristics distinguish the biological order Primates? 2. What theory might explain why human teeth and jaws are markedly smaller for our size than those of other apes? 3. Opposable thumbs are a characteristic primate feature. List two ways in which non-human primates might use opposable thumbs. 4. Various hybrid monkeys are produced in captivity when different species or subspecies are housed together. In what situation in the wild would hybrids be produced? 5. Primates are thought to have developed several of their traits and habits initially while living in trees. What primate features might be an advantage in an arboreal habitat? 6. Gorillas and chimpanzees live in family groups of around five to 10 individuals. What are two possible strategies for feeding, when fruit is hard to find? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - [http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals](http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals) - [http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/Primates](http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/Primates) - [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/eutheria/primates.html](http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/eutheria/primates.html) - [http://pslc.ws/macrog/paul/lemurs.htm](http://pslc.ws/macrog/paul/lemurs.htm) - [http://www.wikipedia.org](http://www.wikipedia.org) Vocabulary hybrid The offspring of different species, genera, varieties or breeds. omnivorous Eating both plant and animal material. pentadactyl Having five fingers or toes. quadrupedal Four-footed sexual dimorphism A condition in which the males and females of a species are different in form and structure. Points to Consider - Forward-facing color binocular vision was useful for human ancestors who swung by their arms from one branch to another. Recent studies suggest this type of vision was more useful in courtship. What other groups of animals might vision also be important in courtship? - Thousands of primates are used every year around the world in scientific experiments because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans. What kinds of behavioral experiments do you think might be conducted in primates? Image Sources (1) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Ara_macao%2C_costa_rica.jpg. GNU-FDL. (2) Linda de Volder. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Squirrel_monkey_2.JPG. GNU-FDL. (3) Raimond Spekking. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wei%C3%9Fb%C3%BCschelaffe_(Callithrix_jacchus).jpg. GNU-FDL. (4) Susann Eurich. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Struthio_camelus.jpg. GNU-FDL. (5) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Weisshandgibbon_tierpark_berlin.jpg. GNU-FDL. (6) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Eupetomena_macroura1.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Platypus.jpg. GNU-FDL. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:American_Purple_Gallinule_walking.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (9) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Bugio-006_0003.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0 Brazil. (10) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Blarina_brevicauda.jpg. CC-BY 2.0. (11) A Caracal, hunting in the Serengeti.. GNU-FDL. (12) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Frigatebird_chick_begging.JPG. Public Domain. (13) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Springtamarin.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0 Germany. (14) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:K%C5%8Dkako.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (15) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Kereru_maunga.jpg. Public Domain. (16) Mike R.. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BonoboFishing05.jpeg. GNU-FDL. (17) Raymond Shobe. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Labrador_Retriever_assistance_dog.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (18) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Callorhinus_ursinus_and_harem.jpg. Public Domain. (19) Charles J. Sharp. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Baboons_on_rock.jpg. GNU-FDL. (20) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Giraf.jpg. GNU-FDL. (21) Luxo. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Langschwanzmakak_in_tioman.jpg. GNU-FDL. (22) Sannse. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Ring_tailed_lemur_and_twins.jpg. GNU-FDL. (23) Buecherfresser. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Greater_Bush_Baby.jpg. GNU-FDL. (24) Adrian Pingstone. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egyptian.fruitbat.arp.jpg. Public Domain. (25) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Echidna_-_melbourne_zoo.jpg. GNU-FDL. (26) Stefan Scheer. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Neandertaler_reconst.jpg. GNU-FDL. (27) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chimps.jpg. CC-BY 2.5. (28) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kangaroo_and Joey05.jpg. GNU-FDL. (29) Sarel Kromer. \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Gorilla_mother_and_baby_at_Volcans_National_Park.jpg}. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (30) Ori. \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Waterhoennest.JPG}. Public Domain. (31) \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:koboldmaki-drawing.jpg}. Public Domain. (32) \textit{One bird’s flight, as seen in a tern species.} CC-BY-SA 2.0 Germany. (33) \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Mewa_siodlata_1.jpg}. GNU-FDL. www.ck12.org 472 Chapter 15 Behavior of Animals 15.1 Lesson 15.1: Understanding Animal Behavior Lesson Objectives - Give examples of animal behavior. - Explain why animal behavior is important. - Describe innate behavior and how it evolves. - List ways that behavior can be learned. Check Your Understanding - What is an animal? - Give examples of a wide variety of animals. Do you have a dog or a cat? If you don’t, you probably know someone that does. Think about how these animals act. Does the dog bark when it’s excited? Does the cat purr when it’s happy? Do they both play with toys? Examples of Animal Behavior Barking, purring, and playing are just some of the ways that dogs and cats behave. These are examples of animal behavior. Animal behavior is any way that animals act, either alone or with other animals. Can you think of other examples of animal behavior? What about insects and birds? How do they behave? The pictures in Figures 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4, 15.5, 15.6 and 15.7 show some of the ways that these and other animals act. Look at the pictures and read about the behaviors. All of the animals pictured in the Figures here are busy doing something important. Read about what each animal is doing. Think about why the animal is behaving that way. These are just a few of the many ways that animals behave. ![Cat stalking mouse](image) Figure 15.1: This cat is stalking a mouse. It is a hunter by nature. (16) Importance of Animal Behavior Why do animals behave in these ways? The answer to this question depends on what the behavior is. A cat chases a mouse to catch it. A spider spins its sticky web to trap insects. A mother dog nurses her puppies to feed them. All of these behaviors have the same purpose: getting or providing food. All animals need food for energy. They need energy to move around. In fact, they need energy just to stay alive. Baby animals also need energy to grow and develop. Birds and wasps build nests to have a safe place to store their eggs and raise their young. Many other animals build nests for the same reason. Animals protect their young in other Figure 15.2: This spider is busy spinning a web. If you have ever walked into a spider web, you know how sticky a spider web can be. Why do spiders spin webs? (4) Figure 15.3: This mother dog is nursing her puppies. In what other ways do mother dogs care for their puppies? (7) Figure 15.4: This bird is using its beak to add more grass to its nest. What will the bird use its nest for? (5) Figure 15.5: This wasp is starting to build a nest. Have you seen nests like this on buildings where you live? Why do wasps build nests? (14) Figure 15.6: This rabbit is running away from a fox. Did you ever see a rabbit run? Do you think you could run that fast? (20) Figure 15.7: This lizard is perched on a rock in the sun. Lizards like to lie on rocks and “sun” themselves. Do you know why? (24) ways, as well. For example, a mother dog not only nurses her puppies. She also washes them with her tongue and protects them from strange people or other animals. All of these behaviors help the young survive and grow up to be adults. Rabbits run away from foxes and other predators to stay alive. Their speed is their best defense. Lizards sun themselves on rocks to get warm because they cannot produce their own body heat. When they are warmer, they can move faster and be more alert. This helps them escape from predators, as well as find food. All of these animal behaviors are important. They help the animals get food for energy, make sure their young survive, or ensure that they survive themselves. Behaviors that help animals or their young survive increase the animals’ fitness. You read about fitness in the Evolution chapter. Animals with higher fitness have a better chance of passing their genes to the next generation. If behaviors that increase fitness are controlled by genes, the behaviors become more common in the species. This is called evolution by natural selection. Innate Behavior All of the behaviors shown in Figures 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4, 15.5, 15.6 and 15.7 are ways that animals act naturally. They don’t have to learn how to behave in these ways. Cats are natural-born hunters. They don’t need to learn how to hunt. Spiders spin their complex webs without learning how to do it from other spiders. Birds and wasps know how to build nests without being taught. Behaviors such as these are called innate. An innate behavior is any behavior that occurs naturally in all animals of a given species. An innate behavior is also called an instinct. The first time an animal performs an innate behavior, the animal does it well. The animal does not have to practice the behavior in order to get it right or become better at it. Innate behaviors are also predictable. All members of a species perform an innate behavior in the same way. From the examples described above, you can probably tell that innate behaviors usually involve important actions, like eating and caring for the young. There are many other examples of innate behaviors. For example, did you know that honey bees dance? The honey bee in Figure 15.8 has found a source of food. When the bee returns to its hive, it will do a dance, called the waggle dance. The way the bee moves during its dance tells other bees in the hive where to find the food. Honey bees can do the waggle dance without learning it from other bees, so it is an innate behavior. Besides building nests, birds have other innate behaviors. One example occurs in gulls. A mother gull and two of her chicks is shown in Figure 15.9. One of the chicks is pecking at a red spot on the mother’s beak. This innate behavior causes the mother to feed the chick. In many other species of birds, the chicks open their mouths wide whenever the mother returns to the nest. This is what the baby birds in Figure 15.10 are doing. This innate behavior, called gaping, causes the mother to feed them. Figure 15.8: When this honey bee goes back to its hive, it will do a dance to tell the other bees in the hive where it found food. (27) Figure 15.9: This mother gull will feed her chick after it pecks at a red spot on her beak. Both pecking and feeding behaviors are innate. (2) Another example of innate behavior in birds is egg rolling. It happens in some species of water birds, like the graylag goose shown in Figure 15.11. Graylag geese make nests on the ground. If an egg rolls out of the nest, a mother goose uses her bill to push it back into the nest. Returning the egg to the nest helps ensure that the egg will hatch. Drawback of Innate Behavior Innate behaviors such as these usually help animals or their offspring survive. Therefore, they increase fitness. This is why the behaviors evolved. However, innate behaviors have a drawback. The trouble with innate behaviors is that they are not flexible. An innate behavior is always performed exactly the same way. The example of the graylag goose shows how this can be a problem. The sight of any nearby egg-shaped object will cause a graylag goose to push the object into her nest. She will push the object even if it isn’t an egg. For example, if the mother goose sees a golf ball nearby, she will push it into her nest. This wastes time and energy that could be spent on the real eggs. From this example, you can see that innate behavior is not always helpful. It does not always increase fitness. Figure 15.11: This female graylag goose is a ground-nesting water bird. Behind her are two of her young chicks. Before the chicks hatch, the mother protects the eggs. She will use her bill to push eggs back into the nest if they roll out. This is an example of an innate behavior. How could this behavior increase the mother goose’s fitness? (8) Innate Behavior in Human Beings All animals have innate behaviors, even human beings. Can you think of human behaviors that do not have to be learned? Chances are, you will have a hard time thinking of any. The only truly innate behaviors in humans are called reflex behaviors. They occur mainly in babies. Like innate behaviors in other animals, reflex behaviors in human babies may help them survive. An example of a reflex behavior in babies is the sucking reflex. Newborns instinctively suck on a nipple that is placed in their mouth. It is easy to see how this behavior evolved. It increases the chances of a baby feeding and surviving. Another example of a reflex behavior in babies is the grasp reflex. This behavior is shown in Figure 15.12. Babies instinctively grasp an object placed in the palm of their hand. Their grip may be surprisingly strong. How do you think this behavior might increase a baby’s chances of surviving? Learned Behavior Just about all other human behaviors are learned and not innate. Learned behavior is behavior that occurs only after experience or practice. Learned behavior has an advantage over innate behavior. It is more flexible. Learned behavior can be changed if conditions change. For example, you probably know the route from your house to your school. Assume that you moved to a new house in a different place, so you had to take a different route to school. What if following the old route was an innate behavior? You would not be able to adapt. Fortunately, it is a learned behavior. You could learn the new route just as you learned the old one. Although most animals can learn, animals with greater intelligence are better at learning and have more learned behaviors. Humans are the most intelligent animals. They depend on learned behaviors more than any other species. Other highly intelligent species include the apes, our closest relatives in the animal kingdom. You read about apes in the previous chapter. They include chimpanzees and gorillas. Both are also very good at learning behaviors. You may have heard of a gorilla named Kook. Koko was raised by the psychologist Dr. Francine Patterson. Dr. Patterson wanted to find out if gorillas could learn human language. Starting when Koko was just one year old, Dr. Patterson taught her to use sign language. Koko learned to use and understand more than 1,000 signs. Koko showed how much gorillas can learn. Think about some of the behaviors you have learned. They might include riding a bicycle, using a computer, and playing a musical instrument or sport. You probably did not learn all of these behaviors in the same way. Perhaps you learned some behaviors on your own, just by practicing. Other behaviors you may learned from other people. Humans and other Figure 15.12: One of the few innate behaviors in human beings is the grasp reflex. It occurs only in babies. (10) animals can learn behaviors in several different ways. Some common ways of learning are habituation, observational learning, conditioning, play, and insight learning. Habituation Habituation is learning to get used to something after being exposed to it for awhile. Habituation usually involves getting used to something that is annoying or frightening but not dangerous. Habituation is one of the simplest ways of learning. It occurs in just about every species of animal. You have probably learned through habituation many times. For example, maybe you were reading a book when someone turned on a television in the same room. At first, the sound of the television may have been annoying. After awhile, you may no longer have noticed it. If so, you had become habituated to the sound. Another example of habituation is shown in Figure 15.13. Crows and most other birds are usually afraid of people. They avoid coming close to people, or they fly away when people come near them. The crows landing on this scarecrow have gotten used to a “human” in this place. They have learned that the scarecrow poses no danger. They are no longer afraid to come close. They have become habituated to the scarecrow. Can you see why habituation is useful? It lets animals ignore things that will not harm them. Without habituation, animals might waste time and energy trying to escape from things that are not really dangerous. Observational Learning Observational learning is learning by watching and copying the behavior of someone else. Human children learn many behaviors this way. When you were a young child, you may have learned how to tie your shoes by watching your dad tie his shoes. More recently, you may have learned how to dance by watching a pop star dancing on TV. Most likely you have learned how to do math problems by watching your teachers do problems on the board at school. Can you think of other behaviors you have learned by watching and copying other people? Other animals also learn through observational learning. For example, young wolves learn to be better hunters by watching and copying the skills of older wolves in their pack. Another example of observational learning is how some monkeys have learned how to wash their food in the ocean. They learned by watching and copying the behavior of other monkeys. Figure 15.13: This scarecrow is no longer scary to these crows. They have gotten used to it being in this spot and learned that it is not dangerous. This is an example of habituation. (11) Conditioning Conditioning is a way of learning that involves a reward or punishment. Did you ever train a dog to fetch a ball or stick by rewarding it with treats? If you did, you were using conditioning. Another example of conditioning is shown in Figure 15.14. This lab rat has been taught to “play basketball” by being rewarded with food pellets. Conditioning also occurs in wild animals. For example, bees learn to find nectar in certain types of flowers because they have found nectar in those flowers before. Figure 15.14: This rat has been taught to put the ball through the hoop by being rewarded with food for the behavior. This is an example of conditioning. What do you think would happen if the rat was no longer rewarded for the behavior? (28) Humans learn behaviors through conditioning, as well. A young child might learn to put away his toys by being rewarded with a bedtime story. An older child might learn to study for tests in school by being rewarded with better grades. Can you think of behaviors you learned by being rewarded for them? Did you ever hear the saying, “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks?” Don’t believe it. Older dogs—like older people—are capable of learning new behaviors. They may learn more slowly, but they can still learn to behave in new ways. Conditioning does not always involve a reward. It can involve a punishment instead. A toddler might be punished with a time-out each time he grabs a toy from his baby brother. After several time-outs, he may learn to stop taking his brother’s toys. A dog might be scolded each time she jumps up on the sofa. After repeated scolding, she may learn to stay off the sofa. A bird might become ill after eating a poisonous insect. The bird may learn from this “punishment” to avoid eating the same kind of insect in the future. Learning by Playing Most young mammals—including humans—like to play. Play is one way they learn skills they will need as adults. Think about how kittens play. They pounce on toys and chase each other. This helps them learn how to be better predators when they are older. Big cats also play. The lion cubs in Figure 15.15 are playing and practicing their hunting skills at the same time. The dogs in Figure 15.16 are playing tug-of-war with a toy. What do you think they are learning by playing together this way? Other young animals play in different ways. For example, young deer play by running and kicking up their hooves. This helps them learn how to escape from predators. Human children learn by playing, as well. For example, playing games and sports can help them learn to follow rules and work with others. The baby in Figure 15.17 is playing in the sand. She is learning about the world through play. What do you think she might be learning? Insight Learning Insight learning is learning from past experiences and reasoning. It usually involves coming up with new ways to solve problems. Insight learning generally happens quickly. An animal has a sudden flash of insight. Insight learning requires relatively great intelligence. Human beings use insight learning more than any other species. They have used their intelligence to solve problems ranging from inventing the wheel to flying rockets into space. Think about problems you have solved. Maybe you figured out how to solve a new type of math problem or how to get to the next level of a video game. If you relied on your past experiences and reasoning to do it, then Figure 15.15: These two lion cubs are playing. They are not only having fun. They are also learning how to be better hunters. (31) Figure 15.16: They are really playing. This play fighting can help them learn how to be better predators. (1) you were using insight learning. One type of insight learning is making tools to solve problems. Scientists used to think that humans were the only animals intelligent enough to make tools. In fact, being able to make tools was thought to be one of the most important human traits. Tool making was believed to set humans apart from all other animals. Then, in 1960, chimpanzee expert Jane Goodall discovered that chimpanzees also make tools. She saw a chimpanzee strip leaves from a twig. Then he poked the twig into a hole in a termite mound. After termites climbed onto the twig, he pulled the twig out of the hole and ate the insects clinging to it (Figure 15.18). The chimpanzee had made a tool to “fish” for termites. He had used insight to solve a problem. Since then, chimpanzees have been seen making several different types of tools. For example, they sharpen sticks and use them as spears for hunting. They use stones as hammers to crack open nuts. Scientists have also observed other species of animals making tools to solve problems. A crow was seen bending a piece of wire into a hook. Then the crow used the hook to pull food out of a tube. An example of a gorilla using a walking stick is shown in Figure 15.19. Behaviors such as these show that other species of animals—not just humans—can use their experience and reasoning to solve problems. They can learn through insight. Figure 15.19: This gorilla is using a branch as a tool. She is leaning on it to keep her balance while she reaches down into swampy water to catch a fish. (17) Lesson Summary - Animal behavior is any way that animals act, either alone or with other animals. - Behaviors that increase fitness can evolve through natural selection. - Innate behavior is behavior that occurs naturally in all members of a species. - Learned behavior is behavior that occurs only after experience or practice. Review Questions Knowledge and Comprehension 1. Give two examples of animal behavior. 2. Define innate behavior. 3. Identify one drawback of innate behavior. 4. What is learned behavior? 5. State three ways that behavior can be learned. Critical Thinking 1. Explain how egg rolling by graylag geese is likely to have evolved. 2. Describe how the grasp reflex might help a baby survive. 3. Explain how you could use conditioning to teach a dog to sit. 4. Why is play important for baby animals? 5. A crow was seen dropping nuts on a rock to crack the shells and then eating the nut meats. No other crows in the flock were ever observed cracking nuts in this way. What type of learning could explain the behavior of this crow? Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK-12 Foundation. High School Biology, Chapter 34, “Animal Behavior.” - Melvin Berger. Dogs Bring Newspapers but Cats Bring Mice: and Other Fascinating Facts about Animal Behavior. Scholastic, 2004. - Paolo Casale and Gian Paolo Faescini. Animal Behavior: Instinct, Learning, Cooperation. Barrons Juveniles, 1999. - [http://asci.uvm.edu/course/asci001/behavior.html](http://asci.uvm.edu/course/asci001/behavior.html) - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2178920.stm](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2178920.stm) - [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/10/1025_051025_gorillas_tools.html](http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/10/1025_051025_gorillas_tools.html) - [http://school.discoveryeducation.com/lessonplans/programs/animalinstincts/](http://school.discoveryeducation.com/lessonplans/programs/animalinstincts/) Vocabulary animal behavior Any way that animals act, either alone or with other animals. innate behavior Any behavior that occurs naturally in all animals of a given species. instinct Another term for an innate behavior. reflex behaviors The only truly innate behaviors in humans, occurring mainly in babies. learned behavior Behavior that occurs only after experience or practice. habituation Learning to get used to something that is not dangerous after being exposed to it for awhile. observational learning Learning by watching and copying the behavior of someone else. conditioning Way of learning that involves a reward or punishment. insight learning Learning from past experiences and reasoning. Points to Consider Did you ever watch a long line of ants marching away from their ant hill? What were they doing? How were they able to work together? What explains group behaviors such as this? 15.2 Lesson 15.2: Types of Animal Behavior Lesson Objectives - List ways that animals communicate. - Describe social behavior in animals. - Explain the purpose of mating behavior. - Describe how animals defend their territory. - Identify animal behaviors that occur in cycles. Check Your Understanding - What is an animal? - Give examples of a wide variety of animals. - List some “behaviors” animals, such as spiders and rabbits, have in common. Introduction What is reproduction? (Reproduction is the production of offspring. Animals reproduce asexually or sexually. Reproduction is related to fitness because fitness depends in part on the ability to reproduce. Do all animals talk to each other? Probably not, but many do communicate. Like human beings, many other animals live together in groups. Some insects, including ants and bees, are well known for living in groups. In order for animals to live together in groups, they must be able to communicate with each other. Animal communication, like most other animal behaviors, increases fitness. Fitness is the ability to survive and have offspring. Communication increases fitness by helping animals find food, defend themselves from predators, mate, and care for offspring. Communication What does the word communication make you think of? Talking on a cell phone? Texting? Writing? Those are just a few of the ways that human beings communicate. Most other animals also communicate. Communication is any way that animals share information, and they do this in many different ways. Ways That Animals Communicate Some animals communicate with sound. Most birds communicate this way. Birds use different calls to warn other birds of danger or to tell them to flock together. Many other animals also use sound to communicate. For example, monkeys use warning cries to tell other monkeys in their troop that a predator is near. Frogs croak to attract female frogs as mates. Gibbons use calls to tell other gibbons to stay away from their area. Another way some animals communicate is with sight. By moving in certain ways or “making faces,” they show other animals what they mean. Most primates communicate in this way. For example, a male chimpanzee may raise his arms and stare at another male chimpanzee. This warns the other chimpanzee to keep his distance. The chimpanzee in Figure 15.20 may look like he is smiling. However, he is really showing fear. He is communicating to other chimpanzees that he will not challenge them. Look at the peacock in Figure 15.21. Why is he raising his beautiful tail feathers? He is also communicating. He is showing females of his species that he would be a good mate. All of the animals pictured here are busy doing something important. Read about what each animal is doing then think about why the animal is behaving that way. These are just a few of the many ways that animals behave. Some animals communicate with scent. They secrete chemicals that other animals of their species can smell or detect in some other way. Ants secrete many different chemicals. Other ants detect the chemicals with their antennae. This explains how ants are able to work together. The different chemicals that ants secrete have different meanings. Some of the chemicals signal all the ants in a group to come together. Other chemicals warn of danger. Still other chemicals mark trails to food sources. When an ant finds food, it marks the trail... Figure 15.21: This peacock is using his tail feathers to communicate. What is he “saying”? (3) back to the nest by secreting a chemical on the ground. Other ants follow the chemical trail to the food. Many other animals also use chemicals to communicate. You have probably seen male dogs raise their leg to urinate on a fire hydrant or other object. Did you know that the dogs were communicating? They were marking their area with a chemical in their urine. Other dogs can smell the chemical. The scent of the chemical tells other dogs to stay away. Human Communication Like other animals, humans communicate with one another. They mainly use sound and sight to share information. The most important way that humans communicate is with language. Language is the use of symbols to communicate. In human languages, the symbols are words. They stand for many different things. Words stand for things, people, actions, feelings, or ideas. Think of several common words. What does each word stand for? Another important way that humans communicate is with facial expressions. Look at the faces of the young children in Figure 15.22. Can you tell from their faces what the children are feeling? Humans also use gestures to communicate. What are people communicating when they shrug their shoulders? When they shake their head? These are just a few examples of the ways that humans share information without using words. Social Behavior Why is animal communication important? Without it, animals would not be able to live together in groups. Animals that live in groups with other members of their species are called social animals. Social animals include many species of insects, birds, and mammals. Specific examples of social animals are ants, bees, crows, wolves, and humans. To live together with one another, these animals must be able to share information. Highly Social Animals Some species of animals are very social. In these species, members of the group depend completely on one another. Different animals within the group have different jobs. Therefore, group members must work together for the good of all. Most species of ants and bees are highly social animals. Ants, like those in Figure 15.23, live together in large groups called colonies. A colony may have millions of ants. All of the ants in the colony work together as a single unit. Each ant has a specific job. Most of the ants are workers. Their job is to build and repair the colony’s nest. Worker ants also leave the nest to find food for themselves and other colony members. The workers care for the young, as well. Other ants in the colony are soldiers. They defend Figure 15.22: What does this girl’s face say about how she is feeling? (18) the colony against predators. Each colony also has a queen. Her only job is to lay eggs. She may lay millions of eggs each month. A few ants in the colony are called drones. They are the only male ants in the colony. Their job is to mate with the queen. ![Ants](image) Figure 15.23: The ants in this picture belong to the same colony. They have left the colony’s nest to search for food. (21) Honeybees and bumblebees also live in colonies. A colony of honeybees is shown in Figure 15.24. Each bee in the colony has a particular job. Most of the bees are workers. Young worker bees clean the colony’s hive and feed the young. Older worker bees build the waxy honey comb or guard the hive. The oldest workers leave the hive to find food. Each colony usually has one queen that lays eggs. The colony also has a small number of male drones. They mate with the queen. Cooperation Ants, bees, and other social animals must cooperate. Cooperation means working together with others. Members of the group may cooperate by sharing food. They may also cooperate by defending each other. Look at the ants in Figure 15.25. They show clearly why cooperation is important. A single ant would not be able to carry this large insect back to the nest to feed the other ants. With cooperation, the job is easy. Animals in many other species cooperate. For example, lions live in groups called prides. A lion pride is shown in Figure 15.26. All the lions in the pride cooperate. Male lions work together to defend the other lions in the pride. Female lions work together to hunt. Then they share the meat with other pride members. Meerkats are small mammals that live in Africa. They also live in groups and cooperate with one another. For example, young female meerkats act as babysitters. They take care Figure 15.24: All the honeybees in this colony work together. Each bee has a certain job to perform. The bees are gathered together to fly to a new home. How do you think they knew it was time to gather together? (26) Figure 15.25: These ants are cooperating. By working together, they are able to move this much larger insect prey back to their nest. At the nest, they will share the insect with other ants that do not leave the nest. (6) Figure 15.26: Members of this lion pride work together. Males cooperate by defending the pride. Females cooperate by hunting and sharing the food. (13) Mating Behavior Some of the most important animal behaviors involve mating. Mating is the pairing of an adult male and female to produce young. Adults that are most successful at attracting a mate are most likely to have offspring. Traits that help animals attract a mate and have offspring increase their fitness. If the traits are controlled by genes, they will become more common in the species through natural selection. Courtship Behaviors In many species, females choose the male they will mate with. For their part, males try to be chosen as mates. They show females that they would be a better mate than the other males. To be chosen as a mate, males may perform courtship behaviors. These are special behaviors that help attract a mate. Male courtship behaviors get the attention of females and show off a male’s traits. Different species have different courtship behaviors. Remember the peacock raising his tail feathers in Figure 1b? This is an example of courtship behavior. The peacock is trying to impress females of his species with his beautiful feathers. Another example of courtship behavior in birds is shown in Figure 15.27. This bird is called a blue-footed booby. He is doing a dance to attract a female for mating. During the dance, he spreads out his wings and stamps his feet on the ground. You can watch a video of a blue-footed booby doing his courtship dance at: http://www.travelpod.com/travel-photo/harryandnorah/the_other_way/1199840760/blue-footed-booby-courting-dance.avi/tpod.html. Courtship behaviors occur in many other species. For example, males in some species of whales have special mating songs to attract females as mates. Frogs croak for the same reason. Male deer clash antlers to court females. Male jumping spiders jump from side to side to attract mates. To see a video of a jumping spider courting a mate, go to: http://video.aol.com/video-detail/courtship-and-mating-of-the-jumping-spider-lyssomanes-viridis-araneae-2837652909. Courtship behaviors are one type of display behavior. A display behavior is a fixed set of actions that carries a specific message. Although many display behaviors are used to attract mates, some display behaviors have other purposes. For example, display behaviors may be used to warn other animals to stay away, as you will read below. Figure 15.27: This blue-footed booby is a species of sea bird. The male pictured here is doing a courtship “dance.” He is trying to attract a female for mating. (12) Caring for the Young In most species of birds and mammals, one or both parents care for their offspring. Caring for the young may include making a nest or other shelter. It may also include feeding the young and protecting them from predators. Caring for offspring increases their chances of surviving. When parents help their young survive, they increase their own fitness. Birds called killdeers have an interesting way to protect their chicks. When a predator gets too close to her nest, a mother killdeer pretends to have a broken wing. The mother walks away from the nest holding her wing as though it is injured. This is what the killdeer in Figure 15.28 is doing. The predator thinks she is injured and will be easy prey. The mother leads the predator away from the nest and then flies away. In most species of mammals, parents also teach their offspring important skills. For example, meerkat parents teach their pups how to eat scorpions without being stung. A scorpion sting can be deadly, so this is a very important skill. Teaching the young important skills makes it more likely that they will survive. Defending Territory Some species of animals are territorial. This means that they defend their area. The area they defend usually contains their nest and enough food for themselves and their offspring. A species is more likely to be territorial if there is not very much food in their area. Animals generally do not defend their territory by fighting. Instead, they are more likely to use display behavior. The behavior tells other animals to stay away. It gets the message across without the need for fighting. Display behavior is generally safer and uses less energy than fighting. Male gorillas use display behavior to defend their territory. They pound on their chests and thump the ground with their hands to warn other male gorillas to keep away from their area. The robin in Figure 15.29 is also using display behavior to defend his territory. He is displaying his red breast to warn other robins to stay away. Some animals deposit chemicals to mark the boundary of their territory. This is why dogs urinate on fire hydrants and other objects. Cats may also mark their territory by depositing chemicals. They have scent glands in their face. They deposit chemicals by rubbing their face against objects. Cycles of Behavior Many animal behaviors change in a regular way. They go through cycles. Some cycles of behavior repeat each year. Other cycles of behavior repeat every day. Yearly Cycles An example of a behavior with a yearly cycle is hibernation. Hibernation is a state in which an animal's body processes are slower than usual and its body temperature falls. An Figure 15.29: The red breast of this male robin is easy to see. The robin displays his bright red chest to defend his territory. It warns other robins to keep out of his area. (19) animal uses less energy than usual during hibernation. This helps the animal survive during a time of year when food is scarce. Hibernation may last for weeks or months. Animals that hibernate include species of bats, squirrels, and snakes. Most people think that bears hibernate. In fact, bears do not go into true hibernation. In the winter, they go into a deep sleep. However, their body processes do not slow down very much. Their body temperature also remains about the same as usual. Bears can be awakened easily from their winter sleep. Another example of a behavior with a yearly cycle is migration. Migration is the movement of animals from one place to another. Migration is an innate behavior that is triggered by changes in the environment. For example, animals may migrate when the days get shorter in the fall. Migration is most common in birds, fish, and insects. In the Northern Hemisphere, many species of birds, including robins and geese, travel south for the winter. They migrate to areas where it is warmer and where there is more food. They return north in the spring. A flock of migrating geese is shown in Figure 15.30. ![Figure 15.30: These geese are flying south for the winter. Flocks of geese migrate in V-shaped formations.](image) Some animals migrate very long distances. The map in Figure 15.31 shows the migration route of a species of hawk called Swainson’s hawk. About how many kilometers do the hawks travel from start to finish? Are you surprised that birds migrate that far? Some species of birds migrate even farther. Birds and other migrating animals follow the same routes each year. How do they know where to go? It depends on the species. Some animals follow landmarks, such as rivers or coastlines. Other animals are guided by the position of the sun, the usual direction of the wind, or other clues in the environment. Figure 15.31: The migration route of Swainson’s hawk starts in North America and ends in South America. Scientists learned their migration route by attaching tiny tracking devices to the birds. The birds were then tracked by satellite. On the migration south, the hawks travel about 8,000 kilometers from start to finish. (25) Daily Cycles Many animal behaviors change at certain times of day, day after day. For example, most animals go to sleep when the sun sets and wake up when the sun rises. Animals that are active during the daytime are called diurnal. Some animals do the opposite. They sleep all day and are active during the night. These animals are called nocturnal. Animals may eat and drink at certain times of day, as well. Humans have daily cycles of behavior, too. Most people start to get sleepy after dark and have a hard time sleeping when it is light outside. Daily cycles of behavior are called circadian rhythms. In many species, including humans, circadian rhythms are controlled by a tiny structure called the biological clock. This structure is located in a gland at the base of the brain. The biological clock sends signals to the body. The signals cause regular changes in behavior and body processes. The amount of light entering the eyes controls the biological clock. That’s why the clock causes changes that repeat every 24 hours. Lesson Summary - Communication is any way that animals share information. - Social animals live together in groups and cooperate with one another. - Some of the most important animal behaviors involve attracting mates and caring for offspring. - Some animals defend the area where they live from other animals. - Many animal behaviors occur in cycles that repeat yearly or daily. Review Questions 1. List two ways that animals communicate. 2. Describe how ants in a colony cooperate. 3. What is courtship behavior? 4. Why do male dogs urinate on fire hydrants and other objects? 5. Give an example of a circadian rhythm. 6. How do ants use chemicals to communicate? 7. Explain how courtship behaviors could evolve. 8. How do adult animals increase their own fitness by teaching skills to their young? 9. What is the advantage of animals using display behavior instead of fighting to defend their territory? 10. What is migration, and why do animals migrate? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Bernard Stonehouse and Esther Bertram. The Truth about Animal Communications. Tangerine Press, 2003. - Betty Tatham. How Animals Communicate. Franklin Watts. 2004. - Etta Kaner. Animal Groups (Animal Behavior). Tandem Library, 2004. - Pamela Hickman. Animals and Their Mates: How Animals Attract, Fight for, and Protect Each Other. Kids Can Press, Ltd., 2004. - Susan Glass. Staying Alive: Regulation and Behavior. Perfection Learning, 2005. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556353_3/Ant.html http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0709_030709_socialanimals.html http://www.arts.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/108779/peacock_info.pdf http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brain_basics/understanding_sleep.htm http://www.saczoo.com/3_kids/13_tales/_morecommunication_facial.htm http://www.usatoday.com/news/science/aaas/2002-04-05-coop-behavior.htm http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~mnkylab/media/vervetcalls.html http://en.wikibooks.org Vocabulary biological clock Tiny structure in the brain that controls circadian rhythms. circadian rhythms An organism’s daily cycles of behavior. communication Any way that animals share information. cooperation Working together with others. courtship behaviors Special behaviors that help attract a mate. display behavior Fixed set of actions that carries a specific message. hibernation State in which an animal’s body processes are slower than usual. language Use of symbols (or sounds) to communicate. mating Pairing of an adult male and female to produce young. migration Movement of animals from one place to another; often seasonal. social animals Animals that live in groups with other members of their species. Points to Consider - The biological clock located just below the human brain controls behaviors such as the sleep-wake cycle. - The brain is part of the nervous system. What other body system are found in humans? - Which body system includes the bones? Which system includes the muscles? What do bones and muscles do? Image Sources (1) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dogs_playing.JPG. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Larus_Dominicanus_with_young.jpg. CC-BY 2.5. (3) Peacock_front02__melbourne_zoo.jpg. GNU-FDL. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pajeczyna2.jpg. GNU-FDL. (5) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Nest_bird.jpg. Public Domain. (6) http://www.wettropics.gov.au/st/rainforest_explorer/Resources/Images/animals/invertebrate/greenTreeAnt.jpg. Public Domain. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Breeding.jpg. GNU-FDL. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Husa_velk%C3%A1.jpg. GNU-FDL. (9) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (10) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Greifreflex.JPG. Public Domain. (11) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scarecrow1.jpg. GNU-FDL. (12) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Blue-footed_Booby_%28Sula_nebouxii%29_-_displaying.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (13) Pride_of_lions.JPG. Public Domain. (14) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Wasp_starting_nest.jpg. CC-BY-SA 3.0. (15) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Bird_nest.jpg. CC-BY-SA 3.0. (16) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hunting_cat.jpg. CC-BY 1.0. (17) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gorrila_tool_use-Efi.jpg. CC-BY 2.5. (18) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Asian_girl_with_dimples.jpg. CC-BY 2.0. (19) American_Robin_2006.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (20) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Wild_rabbit.jpg. GNU-FDL. (21) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:A_Texas_Ant_Colony.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (22) . (23) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:CrhSand.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (24) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:LagartoDestaque.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (25) USGS, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Swainson%27s_hawk_migration_route.jpg. Public Domain. (26) Bee_swarm_on_fallen_tree03.jpg. GNU-FDL. (27) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bee_on_Geraldton_Wax_Flower.JPG. Public Domain. (28) http://www.cosi.org/files/Image/photos/press/RatBasketball01.jpg. Used by permission – COSI Columbus, COSI.org. (29) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Young_male_chimp.png. CC-BY 2.5. (30) http://farm1.static.flickr.com/223/490628352_5c686bfe60.jpg?v=0. Unknown; information not provided on Web site. (31) David Dennis. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Lion_cubs_Serengeti.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. Chapter 16 Skin, Bones, and Muscles 16.1 Lesson 16.1: Organization of Your Body Lesson Objectives - List the levels of organization in the human body. - Identify the four types of tissues that make up the body. - Identify 12 organ systems. - Describe how organs and organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis. Check Your Understanding - What is a cell? - What are some of the differences between a prokaryotic cell and an eukaryotic cell? - What are some of the basic functions of animal cells? Introduction The men in Figure 16.1 have just jumped into freezing icy water. They are having fun, but imagine how cold they must feel! One minute their bodies were wrapped in warm clothes, the next, they were dunked in freezing water. Their bodies are now working hard to adapt to the sudden great change in temperature. The ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment in the response to change is called homeostasis. Homeostasis allows your body to adapt to change, such as jumping into cold water, running in hot weather, or not getting enough food when you are hungry. Homeostasis is an important characteristic of living things. Cells, Tissues, and Organs Cells are the most basic units of life in your body. They must do many jobs to maintain homeostasis, but each cell does not have to do every job. Cells have specific jobs to maintain homeostasis. For example, nerve cells move electrical messages around the body, and white blood cells patrol the body and attack invading bacteria. There are many additional different types of cells. Other cells include red blood cells, skin cells, cells that line the inside of your stomach, and muscle cells. Groups of Cells Form Tissues Cells are grouped together to carry out specific functions. A group of cells that work together is called a tissue. Your body has four main types of tissues, as do the bodies of other animals. These tissues make up all structures and contents of your body. An example of each tissue type is shown in Figure 16.2. - Epithelial tissue is made up of layers of tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of the body. Examples of epithelial tissue include the skin, the lining of the mouth and nose, and the lining of the digestive system. - Connective tissue is made up of many different types of cells that are all involved in structure and support of the body. Examples include blood, cartilage, and bone. Figure 16.2: Your body has four main types of tissue; nervous tissue, epithelial tissue, connective tissue, and muscle tissue. They are found throughout your body. (17) • Muscle tissue is made up of cells that have filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. There are three types of muscle tissue: smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle. • Nervous tissue is made up of the nerve cells that together form the nervous system. Nervous tissue is found in nerves, the spinal cord, and the brain. ### Groups of Tissues Form Organs A single tissue alone cannot do all the jobs that are needed to keep you alive and healthy. Two or more tissues working together can do a lot more. An organ is a structure made of two or more tissues that work together. The heart, shown in Figure 16.3, is made up of four types of tissues. ![Heart with labels](image) Figure 16.3: The four different tissue types work together in the heart as they do in the other organs. (27) ### Groups of Organs Form Organ Systems Your heart pumps blood around your body. However, your heart needs to be able to get blood to and from every cell in your body in order to do its job. So, your heart is connected to blood vessels such as veins and arteries. Organs that work together form an organ system. Together, your heart, blood, and blood vessels form your cardiovascular system. Organ Systems Work Together Your body’s 12 organ systems are shown in Table 16.1. Your organ systems do not work alone in your body. They must all be able to work together to maintain homeostasis. For example, when the men in Figure 16.1 jumped into the cold water, their integumentary systems (skin, hair, nails), cardiovascular systems, muscular systems, and nervous systems work quickly together to ensure the icy-cold water did not cause harm to their bodies. The nervous system sent nerve messages from the skin to tell the cardiovascular system to reduce the blood flow to the skin. Blood flow is then increased to the internal organs and large muscles to help keep them warm and supply them with oxygen. The nervous system also sent messages to the respiratory system to breathe faster. This allows for more oxygen to be delivered by the blood to the muscular system which is shivering and moving about to keep the body warm. Feedback loops in the nervous and endocrine systems regulate conditions in the body. A feedback loop is a path that leads from the initial generation of the signal to the subsequent modification of the initial event. For example, the men that jumped into the cold water do not need to continue to breathe faster and faster. Feedback loops return the respiratory system to “normal.” One of the most important functions of organ systems is to provide cells with oxygen and nutrients and removes toxic waste products such as carbon dioxide. A number of organ systems, including the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, work together to do this. \| Organ System \| Major Tissues and Organs \| Function \| Example \| \|--------------\|--------------------------\|----------\|---------\| \| Cardiovascular \| Heart; blood vessels; blood \| Transports oxygen, hormones and nutrients to the body cells, and wastes and carbon dioxide away from cells \| ![Image](image_url) \| \| Organ System \| Major Tissues and Organs \| Function \| Example \| \|--------------\|--------------------------\|----------\|---------\| \| Lymphatic \| Lymph nodes; lymph vessels \| Defense against infection and disease, transfer of lymph between tissues and the bloodstream \| ![Lymphatic System](image) \| \| Digestive \| Esophagus; stomach; small intestine; large intestine \| Processing of foods and absorption of nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water \| ![Digestive System](image) \| \| Endocrine \| Pituitary gland, hypothalamus; adrenal glands; Islet of Langerhans; ovaries; testes \| Communication within the body with hormones; directing long-term change over other organ systems to maintain homeostasis \| ![Endocrine System](image) \| \| Organ System \| Major Tissues and Organs \| Function \| Example \| \|--------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------\| \| Integumentary\| Skin, hair, nails \| Protection from injury and fluid loss; physical defense against infection by microorganisms; temperature control \| \| \| Muscular \| Cardiac (heart) muscle; skeletal muscle; smooth muscle; tendons \| Movement, support, heat production \| \| \| Nervous \| Brain, spinal cord; nerves \| Collecting, transferring and processing information; directing short-term change over other organ systems in order to maintain homeostasis \| \| \| Reproductive \| Female: uterus; vagina; fallopian tubes; ovaries Male: penis; testes; seminal vesicles \| Production of gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones; production of offspring \| \| \| Organ System \| Major Tissues and Organs \| Function \| Example \| \|--------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------\| \| Respiratory \| Trachea, larynx, pharynx, lungs \| Delivery of air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the blood and cells (around body) or blood and air (lungs) \| \| \| Skeletal \| Bones, cartilage; ligaments \| Support and protection of soft tissues of body; movement at joints; production of blood cells; mineral storage \| \| \| Urinary \| Kidneys; urinary bladder \| Removal of excess water, salts, and waste products from blood and body; control of pH; regulates water and electrolyte balance \| \| \| Organ System \| Major Tissues and Organs \| Function \| Example \| \|--------------\|--------------------------\|----------\|---------\| \| Immune \| Skin; bone marrow; spleen; white blood cells \| Defending against microbial pathogens (disease-causing agents) and other diseases \| \| Figures in table above: Each body system works together to maintain homeostasis of other systems and of the entire organism. No system of the body works alone, and your well-being depends upon the well-being of all the body systems. A problem in one system usually affects other body systems. ### Homeostasis and Feedback Regulation Homeostasis refers to stability, balance, or equilibrium within a cell or the body. It is an organism’s ability to keep a constant internal environment. Homeostasis is an important characteristic of living things. Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments as conditions change inside and outside the cell. Because the internal and external environments of a cell are constantly changing, adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the set point (the normal level or range). The endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis because hormones, which are the messengers of the endocrine system, regulate the activity of body cells. The release of hormones into the blood is controlled by a stimulus, or signal. For example, the stimulus either causes an increase or a decrease in the amount of hormone released. Then, the response to the signal changes the internal conditions and may itself become a new stimulus. This self-adjusting mechanism is called feedback regulation. Feedback regulation occurs when the response to a stimulus has an effect of some kind on the original stimulus. The type of response determines what the feedback is called. Negative feedback occurs when the response to a stimulus reduces the original stimulus. Positive feedback occurs when the response to a stimulus increases the original stimulus. ### Thermoregulation: A Negative Feedback Loop Negative feedback is the most common feedback loop in the body. The system acts to reverse the direction of change, keeping things constant. For instance, when the concentration of carbon dioxide in the human body increases, the lungs are signaled to increase their activity. and exhale more carbon dioxide, so your breathing rate increases. Thermoregulation is another example of negative feedback. When body temperature rises, receptors in the skin and the brain sense the temperature change. The temperature change (signal) triggers a command from the brain. This command, causes a response (the skin makes sweat and blood vessels near the skin surface dilate), which helps decrease body temperature. Figure 16.4 shows how the response to a stimulus reduces the original stimulus in another of the body’s negative feedback mechanisms. ![Diagram](image) Figure 16.4: Control of blood glucose level is an example of negative feedback. Blood glucose concentration rises after a meal (the stimulus). The hormone insulin is released by the pancreas, and it speeds up the transport of glucose from the blood and into selected tissues (the response). Blood glucose concentrations then decrease, which then decreases the original stimulus. The secretion of insulin into the blood is then decreased. (24) Positive feedback is less common in biological systems. Positive feedback acts to speed up the direction of change. An example of positive feedback is lactation (milk production). As the baby drinks its mother’s milk, nerve messages from the mammary glands cause a hormone, prolactin, to be released. The more the baby suckles, the more prolactin is released, which stimulates further milk production. Not many feedback mechanisms in the body are based on positive feedback. Positive feedback speeds up the direction of change, which leads to increasing hormone concentration, a state that moves further away from homeostasis. Lesson Summary - The levels of organization in the human body include: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. A tissue is a group of cells that work together. An organ is made of two or more tissues that work together. Organs that work together make up organ systems. - There are four tissue types in the body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. There are 12 major organ systems in the body. Organs and organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis. Review Questions 1. What is homeostasis? 2. What are the four levels of organization in an organism? 3. What is the difference between a tissue and an organ? 4. List the four types of tissues that make up the human body. 5. A classmate says that all four tissue types are never found together in an organ. 6. Why do you think an organ is able to do many more jobs than a single tissue can? 7. Identify the organ system to which the following organs belong: skin, stomach, brain, lungs, and heart. 8. Give an example of how two organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_%28biology%29](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_%28biology%29) Vocabulary cardiovascular system The body system that includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels. connective tissue Tissue that is made up of different types of cells that are involved in structure and support of the body; includes blood, bone, and cartilage. epithelial tissue A tissue that is composed of layers of tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of the body; examples of epithelial tissue include the skin, the lining of the mouth and nose, and the lining of the digestive system. homeostasis The ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment in the response to external changes. muscular tissue Tissue that is composed of cells that have filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. There are three types of muscle tissue: smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle. nervous tissue Composed of nerve cells and related cells. organ A structure made of two or more tissues that work together. organ system A group of organs that work together. tissue SA group of cells that work together for a common purpose. Points to Consider - What are the levels of organization of the integumentary system? - What other body systems does the integumentary system work with to maintain homeostasis? 16.2 Lesson 16.2: Integumentary System Lesson Objectives - List the functions of skin. - Describe the structure of skin. - Describe the structure of hair and nails. - Identify two types of skin problems. - Describe two ways to take care of your skin. Check Your Understanding - What is homeostasis? - What is epithelial tissue? Introduction Did you know that you see the largest organ in your body every day? You wash it, dry it, cover it up to stay warm or uncover it to cool off. In fact, you see it so often it is easy to forget the important role your skin plays in keeping you healthy. Your skin is part of your integumentary system (Figure 16.5), which is the outer covering of your body. The integumentary system is made up of your skin, hair, and nails. ![Image](image) Figure 16.5: Skin acts as a barrier that stops water and other things, like soap and dirt, from getting into your body. (6) Your Skin and Homeostasis Your integumentary system has many roles in homeostasis, including protection, the sense of touch, and regulating body temperature. Keeping water out of the body is an important role for your integumentary system. If this were not so, the man in Figure 1 would not be able to bathe. All of your body systems work together to maintain stable internal conditions. Each of the parts that make up your integumentary system has a special role in maintaining homeostasis which we will explore a little later. Functions of Skin Your skin covers the entire outside of your body. Your skin is your body’s largest organ yet it is only about 2 mm thick. It has many important functions, some of these include: - It acts as a barrier. It keeps organisms that could harm the body out. It stops water from leaving the body, and stops water from getting into the body. - It helps regulate body temperature. It does this by making sweat, a watery substance which cools the body when it evaporates. - It helps you to gather information about your environment. Special nerve endings in your skin sense heat, pressure, cold and pain. - It helps the body get rid of some types of waste, which are removed in sweat. - It acts as a sun block. A chemical called melanin is made by certain skin cells when they are exposed to sunlight. Melanin blocks sun light from getting to deeper layers of skin cells, which are easily damaged by sun light. Structure of Skin Your skin is always exposed to your external environment so it gets cut, scratched, and worn down. You also naturally shed many skin cells every day. Your body replaces damaged or missing skin cells by growing more of them. The layer of skin that you can see is actually dead. The dead cells are filled with a tough, waterproof protein called keratin. As the dead cells are shed or are removed from the upper layer, they are replaced by the skin cells below them. As you can see in Figure 16.6, two different layers make up the skin. These layers are the epidermis and the dermis. A fatty layer, called subcutaneous tissue, lies under the dermis, but it is not part of your skin. The layers that make up your skin are shown in Figure 16.6. The color, thickness and texture of skin vary over the body. There are two general types of skin; thin and hairy, which is the most common type on the body, and thick and hairless, which is found on parts of the body that experience a lot of friction, such as the palms of the hands or the soles of the feet. Epidermis Epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body’s surface and is made up of many layers of epithelial cells (discussed in lesson 1). The epidermis is divided into several layers where epithelial cells are formed by mitosis in the lowest layer. The epithelial cells move up through the layers of the epidermis, changing shape and composition as they divide and become filled with keratin. The skin cells at the Figure 16.6: Skin is made up of two layers, the epidermis on top, and the dermis below. The tissue below the dermis is called the hypodermis, but it is not part of the skin. (20) surface of the epidermis form a thin layer of flattened, dead cells. Although the top layer of epidermis is only about as thick as a sheet of paper, it is made up of 25 to 30 layers of cells. The epidermis also contains cells that produce melanin. Melanin is the brownish pigment that gives skin and hair their color. Melanin-producing cells are found in the bottom layer of the epidermis. The epidermis does not have any blood vessels. The lower part of the epidermis is fed by diffusion from the blood vessels of the dermis. Dermis The dermis is the layer of skin directly under the epidermis. It is made of a tough connective tissue that contains the protein collagen. Collagen is a long, fiber-like protein that is very strong. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by a membrane made of collagen fibers. As you can see in Figure 16.6, the dermis contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, oil glands, and blood vessels. It also holds many nerve endings that give you your sense of touch, pressure, heat, and pain. Tiny muscles in the dermis pull on hair follicles which cause hair to stand up. This can happen when you are cold or afraid. The resulting little “bumps” in the skin are commonly called goosebumps, shown in Figure 16.7. ![Goose bumps](image) Figure 16.7: Goose bumps are caused by tiny muscles in the dermis that pull on hair follicles, which causes the hairs to stand up straight. (23) Oil Glands and Sweat Glands Glands and follicles open out into the epidermis, but they start in the dermis. Oil glands secrete an oily substance, called sebum, into the hair follicle. An oil gland is shown in Figure 16.6. Sebum “waterproofs” hair and the skin surface to prevent them from drying out. It can also stop the growth of bacteria on the skin. Sebum is the cause of the oily appearance of skin and hair. It is odorless, but the breakdown of sebum by bacteria can cause odors. If an oil gland becomes plugged and infected, it develops into a pimple, also called acne. Sweat glands open to the skin surface through skin pores. They are found all over the body. Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface helps to lower the skin temperature, which in turn helps to control body temperature. The skin also releases excess water, salts, and other wastes in sweat. A sweat gland is shown in Figure 16.6. Nails and Hair Nails and hair are made of the same types of cells that make up skin. Hair and nails contain the tough protein keratin. Both hair and nails are important parts of your integumentary system. Fingernails and toenails both grow from nail beds. A nailbed is thickened to form a lunula (or little moon), which you can see in Figure 16.8. Cells forming the nail bed are linked together to form the nail. As the nail grows more cells are added at the nail bed. Older cells get pushed away from the nail bed and the nail grows longer. There are no nerve endings in the nail, which is a good thing, otherwise cutting your nails would hurt a lot! Nails act as protective plates over the fingertips and toes. Fingernails also help in sensing the environment. The area under your nail has many nerve endings, which allow you to receive more information about objects you touch. Nails are made up of many different parts, as shown in Figure 16.8. Hair sticks out from the epidermis, although it grows from hair follicles deep in the dermis, as shown in Figure 16.9. Hair is made of keratin, the same protein that makes up skin and nails. Hair grows from inside the hair follicle. New cells grow in the bottom part of the hair, called the bulb. Older cells get pushed up, and the hair grows longer. Similar to nails and skin, the cells that make up the hair strand are dead and filled with keratin. Hair color is the result of different types of melanin in the hair cells. In general, the more melanin in the cells, the darker the hair color; the less melanin, the lighter the hair color. Hair helps to keep the body warm. When you feel cold, your skin gets a little bumpy. These bumps are caused by tiny muscles that pull on the hair, causing the hair to stick out. The erect hairs help to trap a thin layer of air that is warmed by body heat. In mammals that have much more hair than humans, the hair traps a layer of warm air near the skin and acts like a warm blanket. Hair also protects the skin from ultraviolet radiation (UV radiation) from the sun. Hair also acts as a filter. Nose hair helps to trap particles in the air that may Figure 16.8: The structure of fingernails is similar to toenails. The free edge is the part of the nail that extends past the finger, beyond the nail plate. The nail plate is what we think of when we say “nail,” the hard portion made of the tough protein keratin. The lunula is the crescent shaped whitish area of the nail bed. The cuticle is the fold of skin at the end of the nail. (16) Figure 16.9: Hair, hair follicle, and oil glands. The oil, called sebum, helps to prevent water loss from the skin. (14) otherwise travel to the lungs. Eyelashes shield eyes from dust and sunlight. Eyebrows stop salty sweat and rain from flowing into the eye. Keeping Skin Healthy Some sunlight is good for health. Vitamin D is made in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight. But, getting too much sun can be unhealthy. A sunburn is a burn to the skin that is caused by overexposure to UV radiation from the sun’s rays or tanning beds. Light-skinned people, like the girl in Figure 16.10, get sunburned more quickly than people with darker skin do. This is because melanin in the skin acts as a natural sunblock that helps to protect the body from UV radiation. When exposed to UV radiation, certain skin cells make melanin, which causes skin to tan. Children and teens who have gotten sunburned are at a greater risk of developing skin cancer later in life than children and teens who have not. Long-term exposure to UV radiation is the leading cause of skin cancer. About 90 percent of skin cancers are linked to sun exposure. UV radiation damages the genetic material of skin cells. This damage can cause the skin cells to grow out of control and form a tumor. Some of these tumors are very difficult to cure. For this reason you should always wear sunscreen with a high sun protection factor (SPF), a hat, and clothing when out in the sun. As people age, their skin gets wrinkled. Wrinkles are caused mainly by UV radiation and by the loosening of the connective tissue in the dermis due to age. ![Figure 16.10: Sunburn is caused by overexposure to UV rays. Getting sunburned as a child or a teen, especially sunburn that causes blistering, increases the risk of developing skin cancer later in life.](29) Because some types of skin cancer are easy to cure, the dangers of too much sunlight are not always taken seriously by people. It is important to remember that a more serious form of skin cancer, called melanoma, is also associated with long-term sun exposure. Melanomas are difficult to treat, and potentially deadly tumors. The best way to avoid skin cancer is to cover up when outside in the sun, and to wear sunscreen. Bathing and Skin Hygiene During the day, your skin can collect many different things. Sweat, oil, dirt, dust, and dead skin cells can build up on the skin surface. If not washed away, the mix of sweat, oil, dirt, and dead skin cells can encourage the excess growth of bacteria. These bacteria feed on these substances and cause a smell that is commonly called body odor. Dirty skin is also more prone to infection. Bathing every day helps to remove dirt, sweat and extra skin cells, and helps to keep your skin clean and healthy. Acne Hormones can affect your skin. Certain hormones cause oil glands in the skin to make an oil called sebum. When too much sebum is made by oil glands, it can cause the hair follicles to get blocked with dead skin cells. Within these blocked pores bacteria and yeast begin to multiply. In response to the growth of the bacteria and yeast, the skin inflames. This skin inflammation produces the red bumps that are called acne. Up to 85% of teenagers get acne. Acne usually goes away by adulthood. Frequent washing can help reduce the amount of sebum and dead skin cells on the skin. But washing cannot prevent the excessive sebum production that leads to acne. Injury Your skin can heal itself even after a large cut. Cells that are damaged or cut away are replaced by cells that grow in the bottom layer of the epidermis and the dermis. These new cells will eventually replace the damaged tissues. When an injury is deep enough through the epidermis into the dermis, bleeding occurs. A blood clot and scab soon forms. After the scab is formed, cells in the base of the epidermis begin to divide by and move to the edges of the scab. A few days after the injury, the edges of the wound are pulled together. If the cut is large enough, the production of new skin cells will not be able to heal the wound. Stitching the edges of the injured skin together can help the skin to repair itself. The person in Figure 16.11 had a large cut that needed to be stitched together. When the damaged cells and tissues are replaced, the stitches will be removed. Lesson Summary - Skin acts as a barrier that keeps particles and water out of the body. Figure 16.11: Sewing the edges of a large cut together allows the body to repair the damaged cells and tissues, and heal the tear in the skin. (9) • The skin helps to cool the body in hot temperatures, and keep the body warm in cool temperatures. It also helps you to sense your surroundings. • Skin is made up of two layers, the epidermis and the dermis. Hair and nails are made of the same type of protein as skin is. • Nails grow from nail beds and hairs grow from hair follicles in the skin. • Acne is a skin problem that happens when the skin makes too much sebum. • Skin cancer can be caused by excess exposure to ultraviolet light from the sun or tanning beds. • Bathing frequently helps keep the skin clean and healthy. • Wearing sunblock and a hat when outdoors can help prevent skin cancer. Review Questions 1. Identify two functions of skin. 2. How does the integumentary system help maintain homeostasis? 3. Describe the structure of skin. 4. Identify the layer of skin from which hair grows. 5. In what way are hairs and nails similar to skin? 6. Name two functions of nails. 7. Name two functions of hair. 8. What type of skin problem happens when the skin makes too much sebum? 9. The World Health Organization recommends that no person younger than 18 years old use a tanning bed. Why do you think using a tanning bed is not recommended? 10. How does washing your skin help to keep you healthy? 11. Why are stitches sometimes needed if a person gets a deep or long cut in their skin? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5540a9.htm - http://www.cdc.gov/Features/SkinCancer - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary body odor Smell that is produced by the breakdown of sweat by bacteria that live on the skin. dermis The layer of skin directly under the epidermis; made of a tough connective tissue that contains the protein collagen. epidermis The outermost layer of the skin; forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body’s surface; made up of many layers of epithelial cells. integumentary system The outer covering of the body; made up of the skin, hair, and nails. keratin Tough, waterproof protein that is found in epidermal skin cells, nail, and hair. melanin The brownish pigment that gives skin and hair their color. melanocyte Melanin-producing cells; found in the bottom layer of the epidermis. melanoma Cancer of melanin-containing cells (melanocytes); mostly linked to long-term exposure to UV radiation. oil gland Skin organ that secretes an oily substance, called sebum, into the hair follicle. subcutaneous tissue Fatty layer of tissue that lies under the dermis, but is not part of the skin. sunburn A burn to the skin that is caused by overexposure to UV radiation from the sun’s rays or tanning beds. sweat gland Gland that opens to the skin surface through skin pores; found all over the body; secretes sweat. Points to Consider - How might what you eat affect your bones? - What do you think is the most important function of your skeletal system? 16.3 Lesson 16.3: Skeletal System Lesson Objectives - Identify the main tissues and organs of the skeletal system. - List four functions of the skeletal system. - Describe three movable joints. - Identify two nutrients that are important for a healthy skeletal system. - Describe two skeletal system injuries. Check Your Understanding - What is an organ system? - What is connective tissue? Introduction How important is your skeleton? Can you imagine your body without it? You would be a wobbly pile of muscle and internal organs, and you would not be able to move around much. You will learn about these functions in this lesson. Your skeleton is important for many different things. Bones are the main organs of the skeletal system. They are made up of living tissue. If you think you have broken a bone it’s important to visit a healthcare professional. A broken bone may not heal properly by itself. A sprain can be bandaged up properly to reduce swelling and discomfort. A doctor or other healthcare professional can also give you advice on how to manage such an injury at home. Your Skeleton Humans are vertebrates, which are animals that have a backbone. The sturdy scaffolding of bones and cartilage that is found inside vertebrates is called a skeleton. The adult human skeleton has about 206 bones, some of which are named in Figure 16.12. The skeletons of babies and children have many more bones and more cartilage than adults have. As a child grows, these “extra” bones grow into each other, and cartilage gradually hardens to become bone tissue. You may think that bones are dry and lifeless, but they are very much alive. The white, hard bones that you might see in a museum or science book, are only the hard mineral remains of the bone tissue. Living bones are full of life. They contain many different types of tissues. Cartilage is found at the end of bones and is made of tough protein fibers called collagen. Cartilage creates smooth surfaces for the movement of bones that are next to each other, like the bones of the knee. Ligaments are made of tough protein fibers and connect bones to each other. Your bones, cartilage, and ligaments make up your skeletal system. Functions of Bones Your skeletal system gives shape and form to your body, but it is also important in other homeostatic functions. The main functions of the skeletal system are: - Support The skeleton supports the body against the pull of gravity. The large bones of the lower limbs support the trunk when standing. The skeletal system is made up of bones, cartilage, and ligaments. The skeletal system has many important functions in your body. (3) • Protection The skeleton provides a framework that supports and protects the soft organs of the body. For example, the skull surrounds the brain to protect it from injury. The bones of the rib cage help protect the heart and lungs. • Movement Bones work together with muscles as simple mechanical lever systems to move the body. • Making Blood Cells Blood cells are made mostly inside certain types of bones. • Storage Bones store calcium. They contain more calcium than any other organ does. Calcium is released by the bones when blood levels of calcium drop too low. The mineral phosphorus is also stored in bones. ### Structure of Bones Bones are organs. Recall that organs are made up of two or more types of tissues. Bones come in many different shapes and sizes, but they are all made of the same materials. The two main types of bone tissue are compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone makes up the dense outer layer of bones. Spongy bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone, and is found toward the center of the bone. The tough, shiny, white membrane that covers all surfaces of bones is called the periosteum. Many bones also contain a soft connective tissue called bone marrow. There are two types of bone marrow: red marrow and yellow marrow. Red marrow makes red blood cells, platelets, and most of the white blood cells for the body (discussed in the Diseases and the Body’s Defenses chapter). Yellow marrow makes white blood cells. The bones of newborn babies contain only red marrow. As children get older, their red marrow is replaced by yellow marrow. In adults, red marrow is found mostly in the bones of the skull, the ribs, and pelvic bones. Bone come in four main shapes. They can be long, short, flat, or irregular. Identifying a bone as long, short, flat, or irregular is based on the shape of the bone not the size of the bone. For example, both small and large bones can be classified as long bones. The small bones in your fingers and the largest bone in your body, the femur, are long bones. The structure of a long bone is shown in Figure 16.13. ### How Bones Develop and Grow Your skeleton began growing very early in your development. After only eight weeks of growth from a fertilized egg, your skeleton was formed by cartilage and other connective tissues. At this point your skeleton was quite bendy and flexible. After a few more weeks of growth, the cells that form hard bone began growing in the cartilage, and your skeleton began to harden. However, not all of the cartilage is replaced by bone. Cartilage remains in many places in your body including your joints, your rib cage, your ears, and the tip of your nose. A baby is born with zones of cartilage in its bones that allow growth of the bones. These Figure 16.13: Bones are made up of different types of tissues. (12) areas, called growth plates, allow the bones to grow longer as the child grows. When the child reaches an age of about 18 to 25 years, all of the cartilage in the growth plate is replaced by bone. This stops the bone from growing any longer. Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they can continue to increase in thickness throughout life. This thickening can be in response to stress from increased muscle activity or to weight-bearing exercise. Joints and How They Move A joint is a point at which two or more bones meet. There are three types of joints in the body: fixed, partly movable, and movable. Fixed joints do not allow any bone movement. Many of the joints in your skull are fixed (Figure 16.14). Partly movable joints allow only a little movement. Your backbone has partly movable joints between the vertebrae (Figure 16.15). Movable joints allow movement and provide mechanical support for the body. Joints are a type of lever, which is a rigid object that is used to increase the mechanical force that can be applied to another object. Can openers and scissors are examples of levers. Joints reduce the amount of energy that is spent moving the body around. Just imagine how difficult it would be to walk about if you did not have knees! ![Skull with Fused Joints](image) Figure 16.14: The skull has fused joints. Fused joints do not allow any movement of the bones, which protects the brain from injury. (8) Movable Joints Movable joints are the most mobile joints of all. They are also the most common type of joint in your body. Your fingers, toes, hips, elbows, and knees all have movable joints. The surfaces of bones at movable joints are covered with a smooth layer of cartilage. The space Figure 16.15: The joints between your vertebrae (b) are partially movable. (1) between the bones in a movable joint is filled with a liquid called synovial fluid. Synovial fluid is a thick, stringy fluid that looks a lot like egg white. The fluid lubricates and cushions the bones when they move at the joint. There are many different types of movable joints, and many different examples. Four types of movable joints are shown in Figures 16.16, 16.17 and 16.18. In a ball and socket joint the ball-shaped surface of one bone fits into the cup-like shape of another. Examples of a ball and socket joint include the hip, shown in Figure 16.16, and the shoulder. ![Figure 16.16: Your hip joint is a ball and socket joint. The “ball” end of one bone fits into the “socket” of another bone. These joints can move in many different directions. (13)](image) In a hinge joint, the ends of the bones are shaped in a way that allows motion only in two directions, forward and backward. Examples of hinge joints are the knees and elbows. A knee joint is shown in Figure 16.17. The pivot joint is formed by a process that rotates within a ring, the ring being formed partly of bone, and partly of ligament. An example of a pivot joint is the joint between the radius and ulna that allows you to turn the palm of your hand up and down. A pivot joint is shown in Figure 16.18. A gliding joint is a joint which allows only gliding movement. The gliding joint allows one bone to slide over the other. The gliding joint in your wrist allows you to flex your wrist. It also allows you to make very small side-to-side motions. There are also gliding joints in your ankles. ### Keeping Bones and Joints Healthy Just like a houseplant depends on you taking good care of it by watering it and giving it plant food, so too does your body depend on you! You can help keep your bones and skeletal system healthy by eating well and getting enough exercise. Weight-bearing exercises help keep bones strong. Weight-bearing exercises work against gravity; such activities include basketball, tennis, gymnastics, karate, running, and walking. When the body is exercised Figure 16.17: The knee joint is a hinge joint. Like a door hinge, a hinge joint allows backward and forward movement. (25) Figure 16.18: Pivot Joint The joint at which the radius and ulna meet is a pivot joint. Movement at this joint allows you to flip your palm over without moving your elbow joint. (28) regularly by doing a weight-bearing activity, bones respond by adding more bone cells making the bones denser. Eating Well Did you know that what you eat now, as a teenager, can affect how healthy your skeletal system will be in 30, 40, and even 50 years from now? Calcium and vitamin D are two of the most important nutrients for a healthy skeletal system. Your bones need calcium to grow properly. If you do not get enough calcium in your diet as a teenager, your bones may become weak and break easily later in life. Osteoporosis is a disease in which bones become lighter and more porous than they should be. Light and porous bones are more likely to break, which can cause pain and prevent a person from walking. Being immobile can cause more bone loss which can make the disease worse. Older women are most likely to develop osteoporosis because it is linked to the decrease in production of sex hormones. However, poor nutrition, especially diets that are low in calcium and vitamin D, increase the risk of osteoporosis in later life. Not doing regular weight-bearing exercises is also linked to having thinner, weaker bones. Two of the easiest ways to prevent osteoporosis is to eat a healthful diet that has the right amount of calcium and vitamin D, and to do weight-bearing exercise day. Foods that are a good source of calcium include: milk, yogurt, and cheese. Non-dairy sources of calcium include Chinese cabbage, kale, and broccoli. Many fruit juices, fruit drinks, tofu, and cereals have calcium added into them. These foods are also an important source of calcium. Teenagers are recommended to get 1300 mg of calcium every day. One cup of milk provides about 300 mg of calcium, which about 30% of your daily requirement for calcium. Other sources of calcium are shown in Figure 16.19. ![Figure 16.19](image) Figure 16.19: There are many different sources of calcium. Getting enough calcium in your daily diet is important for good bone health. How many ounces of cheddar cheese would provide your recommended daily intake of calcium? (2) Your skin makes vitamin D when exposed to sunlight. The pigment melanin in the skin acts like a filter that can prevent the skin from making vitamin D. As a result, people with darker skin need more time in the sun than people with lighter skin to make the same amount of vitamin D. Fish is naturally rich in vitamin D. Vitamin D is added to other foods including milk, soy milk and breakfast cereals. Teenagers are recommended to get 5 micrograms (200 IU/day) of vitamin D every day. A 3 ½ ounce portion of cooked salmon provides 360 IU of vitamin D. Lack of vitamin D, or deficiency, can be caused by two different things: not enough sunlight exposure, and lack of vitamin D in the diet. Vitamin D deficiency results in problems with bone growth and hardening. This leads to bone softening diseases such as rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Osteomalacia is a bone disease in which the bones do not harden properly and they can break easily. Rickets is a type of osteomalacia. An X-ray of a child that has rickets is shown in Figure 16.20. Lack of vitamin D may also be related to osteoporosis. Bone Fractures Even though they are very strong, bones can fracture, or break. Fractures can happen at different places on a bone. They are usually due to excess bending stress on the bone. Bending stress is what causes a pencil to break if you were to bend it too far. Soon after a fracture, the body begins to repair the break. The area becomes swollen and sore. Within a few days bone cells travel to the break site and begin to rebuild the bone. It takes about 2 to 3 months before compact and spongy bone form at the break site. Sometimes the body needs extra help in repairing a broken bone. In such a case a surgeon will piece a broken bone together with metal pins. Moving the broken pieces together will help keep the bone from moving, and give the body a chance to repair the break. A broken ulna has been repaired with pins in Figure 16.21. Cartilage Injuries Osteoarthritis is a condition in which the cartilage at the ends of the bones breaks down. The break down of the cartilage leads to pain and stiffness in the joint. Decreased movement of the joint because of the pain may lead to muscles that are attached to the joint to become weaker, and ligaments may become looser. Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis. It has many causes, some of the more common causes include old age, sport injuries to the joint, bone fractures, and overweight and obesity. Total hip replacement is a common treatment for osteoarthritis. Figure 16.20: Rickets is a softening of the bones in children that may cause fractures and bending of the bones, especially of the legs. The bones have not hardened properly because of lack of vitamin D, and bend under the weight of the body. (7) Figure 16.21: The upper part of the ulna, at the elbow is broken, as you can see in the X-ray at left. The x-ray at right was taken after a surgeon inserted pins into the joint to keep the two pieces of the ulna together. The two pieces of bone were reattached with metal pins. The line of staples is closing the skin wound. (21) Ligament Injuries Recall that a ligament is a short band of tough connective tissue that connects bones together to form a joint. Ligaments can get injured when a joint gets twisted or bends too far. The protein fibers that make up a ligament can get strained or torn, causing swelling and pain. Injuries to ligaments are called sprains. Ankle sprains are a common type of sprain. A small ligament in the knee, called the anterior cruciform ligament (ACL), is a common site of injury in athletes. Ligament injuries can take a long time to heal. Treatment of the injury includes rest and special exercises that are developed by a physical therapist. Preventing Injuries Preventing injuries to your bones and ligaments is easier and much less painful than treating an injury. Wearing the correct safety equipment when doing activities that require safety equipment can help prevent many common injuries. For example, wearing a bicycle helmet can help prevent a skull injury if you fall. Warming up and cooling down properly can help prevent ligament and muscle injuries. Torn ligaments and fractured bones are common sport injuries. Such injuries need to be treated by a doctor. Overuse injuries such as ligament strains and tears are common injuries for teenage athletes. Correct conditioning and enough rest can help prevent overuse injuries. Stretching after activity may help prevent injuries. Regular stretching improves the flexibility of muscles and tendons. It also improves the range of mobility of your joints. Stretching can also improve your posture, and may help prevent some aches and pains caused by tight muscles. Lesson Summary - Bones, cartilage, and ligaments make up the skeletal system. The skeleton supports the body against the pull of gravity. The skeleton provides a framework that supports and protects the soft organs of the body. Bones work together with muscles as simple mechanical lever systems to move the body. Blood cells are made mostly inside the bone marrow. Bones store calcium. - There are three types of joints in the body: fixed, partly movable, and movable. Fixed joints do not allow any bone movement. Partly movable joints allow only a little movement. Movable joints allow movement and provide mechanical support for the body. Joints are a type of lever, which is a rigid object that is used to increase the mechanical force that can be applied to another object. Joints reduce the amount of energy that is spent moving the body around. Calcium and vitamin D are two of the most important nutrients for a healthy skeletal system. - Bones need calcium to grow properly. Vitamin D deficiency results in problems with bone growth and hardening. Osteoporosis is a disease in which bones become lighter and more porous than they should be. Light and porous bones are more likely to break than dense bones. Osteomalacia is a bone disease in which the bones do not harden properly and they can break easily. Osteoarthritis is a condition in which the cartilage at the ends of the bones breaks down. The breakdown of the cartilage leads to pain and stiffness in the joint. A sprain is an injury to a ligament. A fracture is a break or crack in a bone. Review Questions 1. What are the organs of the skeletal system? 2. Name one tissue of the skeletal system. 3. List four functions of the skeletal system. 4. Name three types of movable joints. 5. “All joints in the body are movable.” Do you agree with this statement? Explain why or why not. (Intermediate) 6. How are the joints in your body similar to levers? 7. Why is calcium important for a healthy skeletal system? 8. The recommended daily amount of calcium for teenagers is 1300 mg. If a person gets only 1000 mg a day, what percentage of the recommended daily amount are they getting? 9. Name two things you can do to keep your skeletal system healthy. 10. What part of the skeletal system does osteoarthritis affect? 11. Why might a doctor need to insert pins into a broken bone? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://www.girlshealth.gov/bones](http://www.girlshealth.gov/bones) - [http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone/basics/calcium.htm](http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone/basics/calcium.htm) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary ball and socket joint Joint structure in which the ball-shaped surface of one bone fits into the cuplike depression in another bone; examples include the shoulder and hip joints. bone marrow Soft connective tissue found inside many bones; site of blood cell formation. cartilage Smooth covering found at the end of bones; made of tough collagen protein fibers; creates smooth surfaces for the easy movement of bones against each other. compact bone The dense, hard outer layer of a bone. fracture Bone injury, often called a "break;" usually caused by excess bending stress on bone. gliding joint Joint structure that allows one bone to slide over the other; examples include the joints in the wrists and ankles. hinge joint Joint structure in which the ends of bones are shaped in a way that allows motion in two directions only (forward and backward); examples include the knees and elbows. joint Point at which two or more bones meet. ligaments Fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones; made of tough collagen fibers. movable joint Most mobile type of joint; the most common type of joint in the body. osteoarthritis A condition in which the cartilage at the ends of the bones breaks down. osteoporosis Disease in which bones become lighter and more porous than normal. periosteum Tough, shiny, white membrane that covers all surfaces of bones. pivot joint Joint structure in which the end on one bone rotates within a ring-type structure which can be made partly of bone and partly of ligament; example includes the joint between the radius and ulna. skeletal system Body system that is made up of bones, cartilage, and ligaments. skeleton Sturdy scaffolding of bones and cartilage that is found inside vertebrates. spongy bone Lighter and less dense than compact bone; found toward the center of the bone. sprain A ligament injury; usually caused by the sudden overstretching of a joint which causes tearing. Points to Consider - How does your skeletal system interact with your muscular system? - How might a broken bone affect the functioning of the muscular system? - How do tendons differ from ligaments? How are they similar? 16.4 Lesson 16.4: The Muscular System Lesson Objectives - Identify the three muscle types in the body. - Describe how skeletal muscles and bones work together to move the body. - Describe how exercise affects the muscular system. - Identify two types of injuries to the muscular system. Check Your Understanding - What is muscle tissue? - What is the function of the muscular system? Introduction The muscular system is the body system that allows us to move. You depend on many muscles to keep you alive. Your heart, which is mostly muscle, pumps blood around your body. Muscles are always moving in your body. Certain muscle movements happen without you thinking about them, while you can control other muscle movements. In this lesson you will learn about the different types of muscles in your body and how your muscular system works with the other body systems to keep you alive and healthy. You will also learn how and why regular physical activity is important for good health. Types of Muscles Each muscle in the body is made up of cells called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers are long, thin cells that can do something that other cells cannot do—they are able to get shorter. Shortening of muscle fibers is called contraction. Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction. You are aware of and can control certain muscle movements. Other muscle movements you are not aware of and cannot control. Muscles that you can control are called voluntary muscles. Muscles that you cannot control are called involuntary muscles. There are three different types of muscles in the body (Figure 16.22): skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle. Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are involuntary muscles. - Skeletal muscle is usually attached to the skeleton. Skeletal muscles move the body. They usually contract voluntarily, but they can contract involuntarily by reflexes. For example, you can choose to move your arms, but your arm would move automatically if you were to burn your finger on a stove top. - Smooth muscle is found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is involuntary muscle which means it is not under your control. - Cardiac muscle is also an involuntary muscle but is a specialized kind of muscle found only in the heart. Figure 16.22: There are three types of muscles in the body: cardiac, skeletal, and smooth. Everyone has the same three types of muscle tissue, no matter their age. (15) Muscles, Bones, and Movement Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton by tendons. A tendon is a tough band of connective tissue that connects a muscle to a bone. Tendons are similar to ligaments except that ligaments join bone to each other. Muscles move the body by contracting against the skeleton. When muscles contract they get shorter, when they relax, they get longer. By contracting and relaxing, muscles pull on bones and allow the body to move. Muscles work together in pairs. Each muscle in the pair works against the other to move bones at the joints of the body. The muscle that contracts to cause a joint to bend is called the flexor. The muscle that contracts to cause the joint to straighten is called the extensor. For example, the biceps and triceps muscles work together to allow you to bend and straighten your elbow. Your biceps muscle, shown in Figure 16.23, contracts, and at the same time the triceps muscle relaxes. The contracting biceps pull on the radius bone and the elbow bends. To straighten the arm, the biceps muscle relaxes and the triceps on the opposite side of the elbow joint contracts. The biceps is the flexor and the triceps is the extensor of your elbow joint. In this way the joints of your body act like levers. This lever action of your joints reduces the amount of energy you have to spend to make large body movements. Muscles and the Nervous System Muscles are controlled by the nervous system (see the Controlling the Body chapter). Nerves send messages to the muscular system from the brain. Nerves also send messages to the brain from the muscles. Remember that smooth and cardiac muscles are involuntary muscles. This means that you cannot control the nerve messages that get sent to and from these muscles. Figure 16.23: The biceps and triceps act against one another to bend and straighten the elbow joint. To bend the elbow, the biceps contract and the triceps relax. To straighten the elbow, the triceps contract and the biceps relax. (30) For example, you cannot make your heart muscle stop beating. Likewise, you cannot make food stop moving through your intestines. You can however control the movement of your skeletal muscle. When you want to move your foot, electrical messages called impulses move along nerve cells from your brain to the muscles of your foot. At the point at which the nerve cell and muscle cells meet, the electrical message is converted to a chemical message. The muscle cells receive the chemical message, which causes tiny protein fibers inside the muscle cells to get shorter. The muscles contract, pulling on the bones, and your foot moves. Contraction A muscle contraction occurs when a muscle fiber, which is a muscle cell, generates tension through the movement of actin and myosin, two of the proteins involved in this process (see below). Each muscle fiber contains cellular proteins and hundreds or thousands of myofibrils. Each myofibril is a long, cylindrical organelle that is made up of two types of protein filaments: actin and myosin. The actin filament is thin and threadlike, while the myosin filament is thicker. Myosin has a “head” region that uses energy from ATP to “walk” along the actin thin filament (Figure 16.24). The overlapping arrangement of actin and myosin filaments gives skeletal muscle its striated appearance. The actin and myosin filaments are organized into repeating units called sarcomeres, which can be seen in Figure 16.24. The sarcomeres stretch from one Z-line to the next, with thin actin filaments anchored to these Z lines. When each end of the myosin thick filament moves along the actin filament, the two actin filaments at opposite sides of the sacromere are drawn closer together and the sarcomere shortens, as shown in Figure 16.25. When a muscle fiber contracts, all sarcomeres contract at the same time, which pulls on the fiber ends. The Sliding Filament Theory The widely accepted theory of how muscles contract is called the sliding-filament model (also known as the sliding filament theory), which is shown in Figure 16.26. The presence of calcium ions (Ca$^{2+}$) allows for the interaction of actin and myosin. In the resting state, these two proteins are prevented from coming into contact. Two other proteins, troponin and tropomyosin, act as a barrier between the actin and myosin, preventing contact between them. When Ca$^{2+}$ binds to the actin filament, the shape of the troponin-tropomyosin complex changes, allowing actin and myosin to contact with each other. Below is an outline of the sliding filament theory. 1. Once an action potential (see the Controlling the Body chapter) reaches a muscle fiber, the action potential spreads through the muscle fiber’s network, activating specialized storage sites throughout the muscle, called the sarcoplasmic reticulum, to release Figure 16.24: The components of muscle contraction. The sacromere is the functional unit of muscle contraction; it reaches from one Z-line to the next (labeled Z-disk in Figure 16.25). In a relaxed muscle, the actin (thin filament) and myosin (thick filament) overlap. In a muscle contraction, the filaments slide past each other, shortening the sacromere. This model of contraction is called the sliding filament model. (4) calcium ions (Ca$^{++}$). The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a special type of smooth endoplasmic reticulum found in smooth and skeletal muscle that contains large amounts of Ca$^{++}$. 2. The calcium ions bind to actin filaments of the myofibrils and activate the actin for attachment by the myosin heads filaments. 3. Activated myosin binds strongly to the actin filament. Upon strong binding, myosin rotates at the myosin-actin junction, which bends a region in the “neck” of the myosin “head,” as shown in the Figure below. 4. Shortening of the muscle fiber occurs when the bending neck of the myosin region pulls the actin and myosin filaments across each other. Meanwhile, the myosin heads remain attached to the actin filament, as shown in Figure 16.26. 5. The binding of ATP allows the myosin heads to detach from actin. While detached, ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate and an inorganic phosphate (ADP + Pi). The breaking of the chemical bond in ATP gives energy to the myosin head, allowing it to bind to actin again. 6. Steps 4 and 5 repeat as long as ATP is available and Ca$^{++}$ is present on the actin filament. The collective bending of numerous myosin heads (all in the same direction) moves the actin filament relative to the myosin filament which causes a shortening of the sacromere. Overall, this process results in muscle contraction. The sarcoplasmic reticulum actively pumps Ca$^{++}$ back into itself. Muscle contraction stops when Ca$^{++}$ is removed from the immediate environment of the myofilaments. The process of actin and myosin sliding past one another is called crossbridge cycling, and it occurs in all muscle types. Myosin is a molecular motor that moves along the passive actin. Each thick myosin filament has little extensions or “heads,” that “walk” along the thin actin filaments during contraction. In this way the thick filament slides over thin filament. The actin filaments transmit the force generated by myosin to the ends of the muscle, which causes the muscle to shorten. Muscles and Exercise Your muscles are important for carrying out everyday activities. The ability of your body to carry out your daily activities without getting out of breath, sore, or overly tired is called physical fitness. Physical fitness also describes the body’s ability to respond to emergencies and to avoid getting sick. A person can have a good level of physical fitness or a poor level of fitness. For example, a person who becomes breathless and tired after climbing a flight of stairs is not physically fit. Physical exercise is any activity that maintains or improves physical fitness and overall health. Regular physical exercise is important in preventing lifestyle diseases such as heart disease, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, and obesity. Regular exercise improves the health of the muscular system. Muscles that are exercised are bigger and stronger than muscles that are not exercised. Exercise improves both muscular strength and muscular endurance. Muscular strength is the ability of a muscle to exert force during a contraction. Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle to continue to contract over a long time without getting tired. Two types of exercises help improve the fitness of muscles, anaerobic exercise and aerobic exercise. Exercises are grouped into three types depending on the effect they have on the body: - Aerobic exercises such as cycling, walking, and running, increase muscular endurance. - Anaerobic exercises such as weight training, or sprinting increase muscle strength. - Flexibility exercises such as stretching, improve the range of motion of muscles and joints. Regular stretching helps avoid activity-related injuries. Anaerobic Exercise and Muscular Strength Anaerobic exercises cause muscles to get bigger and stronger. Anaerobic exercises use a resistance against which the muscle has to work to lift or push away. The resistance can be a weight or a person’s own body weight, as shown in Figure 16.27. As a result of repeated muscle contractions, muscle fibers build up larger energy stores and the muscle tissue gets bigger. The larger a muscle is the greater the force it can apply to lift a weight or move a body joint. The muscles of weight lifters are large, and are therefore strong. ![Figure 16.27: Anaerobic exercises involve the muscles working against resistance. In this case the resistance is the person’s own body weight.](image) Aerobic Exercise and Muscular Endurance Aerobic exercises are exercises that cause your heart to beat faster and allow your muscles to use oxygen to contract. Aerobic exercise causes many different changes in skeletal muscle. Muscle energy stores are increased, the ability to use oxygen improves, and more capillaries surround the muscle fibers. These changes result in the ability of the muscle to avoid getting tired, and to use oxygen and food more efficiently. Aerobic exercise also helps improve cardiac muscle. It results in the heart being able to pump a larger volume of blood with each beat due to an increase in the size of the heart’s ventricles. Examples of an aerobic exercise are shown in Figure 16.28. Both aerobic and anaerobic exercises also improve the ability of the heart to pump blood around the body. Aerobic exercise causes the heart to get bigger, and anaerobic exercise causes the walls of the heart to get thicker. These changes allow the heart to push more blood throughout the body with every heartbeat. Keeping Muscles Healthy Being physically active for 60 minutes a day for at least five days a week improves your physical fitness. Being physically active can also help you to reduce your risk of developing diseases such as cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, obesity, and certain forms of cancer. Being physically active does not mean you have to do boring workouts. You do not have to join a gym or be in a sports team to be physically active. Physical activities can include everyday things such as walking your dog, vacuuming or sweeping, cycling to school, skating, or climbing a flight of stairs (Figure 16.29). Figure 16.29: Adding more physical activity in your daily life does not mean boring or expensive activities, it can be fun! Local and community pools often run swim classes that do not cost a lot, and are designed for beginners. (19) Muscle Injuries Sometimes muscles and tendons get injured when a person starts doing an activity before they have warmed up properly. A warm up is a slow increase in the intensity of a physical activity that prepares muscles for an activity. Warming up increases the blood flow to the muscles and increases the heart rate. Warmed-up muscles and tendons are less likely to get injured. For example, before running or playing soccer, a person might jog slowly to warm muscles and increase their heart rate. It is important that warm ups prepare the muscles that are to be used in the activity. Even elite athletes need to warm up, as shown in Figure 16.30. Some injuries are caused by overuse. An overuse injury happens if the muscle or joint is not rested enough between activities. A strain is an injury to a muscle in which the muscle fibers tear because the muscle contracts too much or contracts before the muscle is warmed up. Strains are also known as pulled muscles. Overuse injuries often involve tendons. Overuse of tendons can cause tiny tears within the protein fibers of the tendon, which gradually weakens the tissue. These tiny tears lead to swelling, pain, and stiffness; a condition called tendinitis. Tendinitis can affect any tendon that is overused. Strains and tendinitis are usually treated with rest, cold compresses, and stretching exercises that a physical therapist designs for each patient. Figure 16.30: Warming up before the game helps the players avoid injuries. Some warm-ups may include stretching exercises. Some researchers believe stretching before activities may help prevent injury. (18) Proper rest and recovery are also as important to health as exercise is. If you do not get enough rest, your body will become injured and will not improve or react well to exercise. It is important to remember to allow enough recovery time for muscles and tendons to rest between exercise sessions. You can rest muscles by doing a different activity to what you normally do. For example, if you run, you can rest your running muscles and joints by swimming. This type of rest is called active rest. Anabolic steroids are hormones that cause the body to build up more protein in its cells. Muscle cells, which contain a lot of protein, get bigger when exposed to anabolic steroids. Your body naturally makes small amounts of anabolic steroids. They help your body repair from injury, and help to build bones and muscles. Anabolic steroids are used as medicines to treat people that have illnesses that affect muscle and bone growth. However, some people who do not need anabolic steroid as medicine try to increase their muscle size by taking these steroids. When taken in this way, anabolic steroids can have long-term affects other body systems. They can damage the person’s kidneys, heart, liver, and reproductive system. If taken by adolescents, anabolic steroids can cause bones to stop growing, resulting in stunted growth. ### Lesson Summary - The body has three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Muscles move the body by contracting against the skeleton. Muscles are controlled by the nervous system. - Nerves send messages to the muscular system from the brain. Nerves also send messages to the brain from the muscles. Regular exercise improves the health of the muscular system. Muscles that are exercised are bigger and stronger than muscles that are not exercised. - Exercise improves both muscular strength and muscular endurance. Muscular strength is the ability of a muscle to exert force during a contraction. Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle to continue to contract over a long time without getting tired. Identify two types of injuries to the muscular system. - A strain is an injury to a muscle in which the muscle fibers tear because the muscle contracts too much or contracts before the muscle is warmed up. Tiny tears and swelling in a tendon results in tendinitis. ### Review Questions 1. Name the three types of muscle tissue in the body. 2. Which of the three types of muscles in the body are voluntary? 3. What is another name for muscle cells? 4. Describe how skeletal muscles and bones work together to move the body. 5. What is a tendon? 6. How does aerobic exercise affect the heart? 7. How does aerobic exercise affect skeletal muscle? 8. How does anaerobic exercise affect skeletal muscle? 9. What is a muscle strain? 10. Why is warming up before exercise a good idea? 11. Why are taking anabolic steroids a dangerous way to try to build up muscles? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.hmc.psu.edu/healthinfo/m/musclestrain.htm - http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/physical/everyone/index.htm - http://en.wiki.org Vocabulary aerobic exercises Types of exercises that cause the heart to beat faster and allow the muscles to obtain energy to contract by using oxygen. anabolic steroids Hormones that cause the body to build up more protein in its cells. anaerobic exercise Types of exercises that involve short bursts of high-intensity activity; forces the muscles to obtain energy to contract without using oxygen. cardiac muscle An involuntary and specialized kind of muscle found only in the heart. contraction Shortening of muscle fibers. extensor The muscle that contracts to cause a joint to straighten. flexibility exercises Stretching exercises that improve the range of motion of muscles and joints. flexor The muscle that contracts to cause a joint to bend. involuntary muscle A muscle that a person cannot consciously control; cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are involuntary. muscle cells Long, thin cells that can contract; also called muscle fibers. muscle fibers Long, thin cells that can contract; also called muscle cells. muscular endurance The ability of a muscle to continue to contract over a long time without getting tired. muscular strength The ability of a muscle to exert force during a contraction. muscular system The body system that allows movement. physical exercise Any activity that maintains or improves physical fitness and overall health. physical fitness The ability of your body to carry out your daily activities without getting out of breath, sore, or overly tired. skeletal muscle The muscle that is usually attached to the skeleton. smooth muscle Involuntary muscle found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. strain An injury to a muscle in which the muscle fibers tear because the muscle contracts too much or contracts before the muscle is warmed up. tendinitis A condition in which tiny tears form in the protein fibers of the tendon and gradually weaken the tissue. tendon A tough band of connective tissue that connects a muscle to a bone. voluntary muscle A muscle that a person can consciously control; skeletal muscle is voluntary. warm-up A slow increase in the intensity of a physical activity that prepares muscles for an activity. Points to Consider - How does your muscular system depend on your digestive system? - How does what you choose to eat affect your muscular system and your skeletal system? Image Sources (1) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_vertebral_column.jpg. Public Domain. (2) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Broccoli_in_a_dish_1.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2006_sardines_can_open.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Bravo_Cheeddar.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Orange_juice_1.jpg. (c)GNU-FDL (e)Public Domain. (3) Mariana Ruiz Villarreal. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Human_skeleton_front.svg. Public Domain. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Skeletal_muscle.jpg. CC-BY-SA. (5) Ch. Baltes. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ice_swimming_46.jpg. GNU-FDL. (6) Dan Kamminga. http://www.flickr.com/photos/dankamminga/1238276965/. CC-By-SA 2.0. 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Chapter 17 Food and the Digestive System 17.1 Lesson 17.1: Food and Nutrients Lesson Objectives - Explain why the body needs food. - Identify the roles of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. - Give examples of vitamins and minerals, and state their functions. - Explain why water is a nutrient. Check Your Understanding - What are the four types of organic compounds? - What do all cells need in order to function? - What are muscles made of? Introduction Did you ever hear the old saying “An apple a day keeps the doctor away”? Do apples really prevent you from getting sick? Probably not, but eating apples and other fresh fruits can help keep you healthy. The girl shown in Figure 17.1 is eating fresh vegetables as part of a healthy meal. Why do you need foods like these for good health? What roles does food have in the body? Figure 17.1: This girl is eating a salad of tomatoes and leafy green vegetables. Fresh vegetables such as these are excellent food choices for good health. (14) Why We Need Food Your body needs food for three reasons: - Food gives your body energy. You need energy for everything you do. - Food provides building materials for your body. Your body needs building materials so it can grow and repair itself. - Food contains substances that help control body processes. Your body processes must be kept in balance for good health. For example, your body needs the right balance of water and salts. For all these reasons, you must have a steady supply of nutrients. Nutrients are chemicals in food that your body needs. There are six types of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and water. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids give your body energy. Proteins provide building materials. Proteins, vitamins, and minerals help control body processes. Nutrients that Provide Energy Molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids contain energy. When your body digests food, it breaks down the molecules of these nutrients. This releases the energy so your body can use it. The energy in food is measured in units called Calories. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are nutrients that include sugars, starches, and fiber. How many grams of carbohydrates you need each day are shown in Figure 17.2. It also shows some foods that are good sources of carbohydrates. Figure 17.2: Up to the age of 13 years, you need about 130 grams of carbohydrates a day. Most of the carbohydrates should be complex. They are broken down by the body more slowly than simple carbohydrates. Therefore, they provide energy longer and more steadily. What other foods do you think are good sources of complex carbohydrates? (6) Sugars are small, simple carbohydrates that are found in foods such as fruits and milk. The sugar found in fruits is called fructose. The sugar found in milk is called lactose. These sugars are broken down by the body to form glucose, the simplest sugar of all. Glucose is used by cells for energy. Remember the discussion of cellular respiration in the Cell Functions chapter? Cellular respiration turns glucose into the usable form of chemical energy, ATP. One gram of sugar provides your body with four Calories of energy. Some people cannot digest lactose, the sugar in milk. This condition is called lactose intolerance. If people with this condition drink milk, they may have cramping, bloating, and gas. To avoid these symptoms, they should not drink milk, or else they should drink special, lactose-free milk. Starches are large, complex carbohydrates. They are found in foods such as vegetables and grains. Starches are broken down by the body into sugars that provide energy. Like sugar, one gram of starch provides your body with four Calories of energy. Fiber is another type of large, complex carbohydrate. Unlike sugars and starches, fiber does not provide energy. However, it has other important roles in the body. There are two types of fiber found in food: soluble fiber and insoluble fiber. Each type has a different role. - Soluble fiber dissolves in water. It helps keep sugar and fat at normal levels in the blood. - Insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water. As it moves through the large intestine, it absorbs water. This helps keep food waste moist so it can pass easily out of the body. Eating foods high in fiber helps fill you up without providing too many Calories. Most fruits and vegetables are high in fiber. Some examples are shown in Figure 17.3. Proteins Proteins are nutrients made up of smaller molecules called amino acids. As discussed in the Introduction to Living Things chapter, the amino acids are arranged like "beads on a string." These amino acid chains then fold up into a three-dimensional molecule. Proteins have several important roles in the body. For example, proteins: - Make up muscles. - Help control body processes. - Help the body fight off bacteria and other "foreign invaders." - Carry substances in the blood. If you eat more proteins than you need for these purposes, the extra proteins are used for energy. One gram of protein provides four Calories of energy. This is the same amount as one gram of sugar or starch. How many grams of proteins you need each day are shown in Figure 17.4. It also shows some foods that are good sources of proteins. There are many different amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, but your body needs only 20 of them. Your body can make ten of these amino acids from simpler substances. The other ten amino acids must come from the proteins in foods. These ten are called essential amino acids. Only animal foods, such as milk and meat, contain all ten essential amino acids in a single food. Plant foods are missing one or more essential amino acids. However, by eating a combination of plant foods, such as beans and rice, you can get all ten essential amino acids. Figure 17.3: Between the ages of 9 and 13 years, girls need about 26 grams of fiber a day, and boys need about 31 grams of fiber a day. Do you know other foods that are high in fiber? (10) Figure 17.4: Between the ages of 9 and 13 years, you need about 34 grams of proteins a day. What other foods do you think are good sources of proteins? (5) Lipids Lipids are nutrients such as fats that store energy. The heart and skeletal muscles rely mainly on lipids for energy. One gram of lipids provides nine Calories of energy. This is more than twice the amount provided by carbohydrates or proteins. Lipids have several other roles in the body. For example, lipids: - Protect nerves. - Help control blood pressure. - Help blood to clot. - Make up the membranes that surround cells. Fats are one type of lipid. Fat is the main form in which the body stores energy. Stored fat gives your body an energy reserve. It’s like having money in a savings account. It’s there in case you need it. Stored fat also cushions and protects internal organs. In addition, it insulates the body. It helps keep you warm in cold weather. Fats and other lipids are necessary for life. However, they can be harmful if you eat too much of them, or the wrong type of fats. Fats can build up in the blood and damage blood vessels. This increases the risk of heart disease. There are two types of lipids: saturated lipids and unsaturated lipids. - Saturated lipids are harmful even in very small amounts. They should be avoided as much as possible. Saturated fats are found mainly in animal foods, such as meats, whole milk, and eggs. Saturated fats increase cholesterol levels in the blood. Cholesterol is a fatty substance that is found naturally in the body. Too much cholesterol in the blood can lead to heart disease. It is best to limit the amount of saturated fats in your diet. - Unsaturated lipids are found mainly in plant foods, such as vegetable oil, olive oil, and nuts. Unsaturated lipids are also found in fish such as salmon. Unsaturated lipids are needed in small amounts for good health because your body cannot make them. Most lipids and fats in your diet should be unsaturated. Another type of lipid is called trans fat. Trans fat is manufactured and added to certain foods to keep them fresher for longer. Foods that contain trans fats include cakes, cookies, fried foods, and margarine. Eating foods that contain trans fats increases the risk of heart disease. You should do your best to eat fewer foods that contain it. Beginning in 2010, California will ban trans fats from restaurant products, and, beginning in 2011, from all retail baked goods. Vitamins and Minerals Vitamins and minerals are also nutrients. They do not provide energy. However, they are needed for good health. Vitamins Vitamins are substances that the body needs in small amounts to function properly. Humans need 13 different vitamins. Some of them are listed in Table (17.1). The table also shows how much of each vitamin you need each day. Vitamins have many roles in the body. For example, Vitamin A helps maintain good vision. Vitamin B\textsubscript{9} helps form red blood cells. Vitamin K is needed for blood to clot when you have a cut or other wound. Table 17.1: Vitamins Needed For Good Health \| Vitamin \| One Reason You Need It \| Some Foods that Have It \| How Much of It You Need Each Day (at ages 9–13 years) \| \|-----------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------\| \| Vitamin A \| Needed for good vision \| Carrots, spinach, milk, eggs \| 600 g (1 g = 1 x $10^{-6}$ g) \| \| Vitamin B\textsubscript{1} \| Needed for healthy nerves \| Whole wheat, peas, meat, beans, fish, peanuts \| 0.9 mg (1 mg = 1 x $10^{-3}$ g) \| \| Vitamin B\textsubscript{3} \| Needed for healthy skin and nerves \| Beets, liver, pork, turkey, fish, peanuts \| 12 mg \| \| Vitamin B\textsubscript{9} \| Needed to make red blood cells \| Liver, peas, dried beans, green leafy vegetables \| 300 g \| \| Vitamin B\textsubscript{12} \| Needed for healthy nerves \| Meat, liver, milk, shellfish, eggs \| 1.8 g \| \| Vitamin C \| Needed for growth and repair of tissues \| Oranges, grapefruits, red peppers, broccoli \| 45 mg \| \| Vitamin D \| Needed for healthy bones and teeth \| Milk, salmon, tuna, eggs \| 5 g \| \| Vitamin K \| Needed for blood to clot \| Spinach, Brussels sprouts, milk, eggs \| 60 g \| Some vitamins are produced in the body. For example, vitamin D is made in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight. Vitamins B\textsubscript{12} and K are produced by bacteria that normally live inside the body. Most other vitamins must come from foods. Foods that are good sources of vitamins are listed in Table 1. They include whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and milk. Not getting enough vitamins can cause health problems. For example, too little vitamin C causes a disease called scurvy. People with scurvy have bleeding gums, nosebleeds, and other symptoms. Getting too much of some vitamins can also cause health problems. The vitamins to watch out for are vitamins A, D, E, and K. These vitamins are stored by the body, so they can build up to high levels. Very high levels of these vitamins can even cause Minerals Minerals are chemical elements that are needed for body processes. Minerals that you need in relatively large amounts are listed in Table (17.2). Minerals that you need in smaller amounts include iodine, iron, and zinc. Minerals have many important roles in the body. For example, calcium and phosphorus are needed for strong bones and teeth. Potassium and sodium are needed for muscles and nerves to work normally. Table 17.2: Minerals Needed For Good Health. \| Mineral \| One Reason You Need It \| Some Foods that Have It \| How Much of It You Need Each Day (at ages 9-13 years) \| \|-----------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------\| \| Calcium \| Needed for strong bones and teeth \| Milk, soy milk, green leafy vegetables \| 1,300 mg \| \| Chloride \| Needed for proper balance of water and salts in body \| Table salt, most packaged foods \| 2.3 g \| \| Magnesium \| Needed for strong bones \| Whole grains, green leafy vegetables, nuts \| 240 mg \| \| Phosphorus\| Needed for strong bones and teeth \| Meat, poultry, whole grains \| 1,250 mg \| \| Potassium \| Needed for muscles and nerves to work normally \| Meats, grains, bananas, orange juice \| 4.5 g \| \| Sodium \| Needed for muscles and nerves to work normally \| Table salt, most packaged foods \| 1.5 g \| Your body cannot produce any of the minerals that it needs. Instead, you must get minerals from the foods you eat. Good sources of minerals are listed in Table (17.2). They include milk, green leafy vegetables, and whole grains. Not getting enough minerals can cause health problems. For example, too little calcium may cause osteoporosis. This is a disease in which bones become soft and break easily. Getting too much of some minerals can also cause health problems. Many people get too much sodium. Sodium is added to most packaged foods. People often add more sodium to their food by using table salt (sodium chloride). Too much sodium causes high blood pressure in some people. Water Did you know that water is also a nutrient? By weight, your cells are about two-thirds water, so you cannot live without it. In fact, you can survive for only a few days without water. You lose water in each breath you exhale. You also lose water in sweat and urine. If you do not take in enough water to replace the water that you lose, you may develop dehydration. Symptoms of dehydration include dry mouth, headaches, and feeling dizzy. Dehydration can be very serious. Severe dehydration can even cause death. When you exercise, especially on a hot day, you lose more water in sweat than you usually do. You need to drink extra water before, during, and after exercise. The children in Figure 17.5 are drinking water while playing outside on a warm day. They need to drink water to avoid dehydration. Getting too much water can also be dangerous. Excessive water may cause a condition called hyponatremia. In this condition, water collects in the brain and causes it to swell. Hyponatremia can cause death. It requires emergency medical care. Lesson Summary - The body needs food for energy, building materials, and substances that help control body processes. - Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids provide energy and have other important roles in the body. - Vitamins and minerals do not provide energy but are needed in small amounts for the body to function properly. - The body must have water to survive. Review Questions 1. What are three reasons that your body needs food? 2. Which nutrients can be used for energy? 3. Name two types of fiber and state the role of each type of fiber in the body. 4. What are some foods that are good sources of vitamin C? 5. What are two minerals that are needed for strong bones and teeth? 6. List some of the functions of proteins in the body. Based on your list, predict health problems people might have if they do not get enough proteins in foods. 7. Your body needs 20 different amino acids. Why do you need to get only ten of these amino acids from food? Name foods you can eat to get these ten amino acids. 8. Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated lipids. 9. Identify three vitamins that are produced in the body. How are they produced? 10. Why do you need to drink extra water when you exercise on a hot day? What might happen if you did not drink extra water? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Alexandra Powe Allred. Nutrition. Perfection Learning, 2005. - Ann Douglas and Julie Douglas. Body Talk: The Straight Facts on Fitness, Nutrition, and Feeling Great about Yourself! Maple Tree Press, 2006. - DK Publishing. Food. DK Children, 2005. - Donna Shryer. Body Fuel: A Guide to Good Nutrition. Marshall Cavendish Children’s Books, 2007. - Linda Bickerstaff. Nutrition Sense. Rosen Central, 2008. CK–12. High School Biology. Chapter 38, Lesson 1. - [http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf](http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf) Vocabulary calories Units used to measure the energy in food. carbohydrates Nutrients that include sugars, starches, and fiber; give your body energy; organic compound. essential amino acids Amino acids that must come from the proteins in foods; you cannot make these amino acids. insoluble fiber Large, complex carbohydrate; does not dissolve in water; moves through the large intestine and helps keep food waste moist so it can pass easily out of the body. lipids Nutrients such as fats that are rich in energy; organic compound. minerals Chemical elements that are needed for body processes. nutrients Chemicals in food that your body needs. proteins Nutrients made up of smaller molecules called amino acids; give your body energy; help control body processes; organic compound. saturated fats Found mainly in animal foods, such as meats, whole milk, and eggs; increase cholesterol levels in the blood. soluble fiber Large, complex carbohydrate; dissolves in water; helps keep sugar and fat at normal levels in the blood. starch Large, complex carbohydrate; found in foods such as vegetables and grains; broken down by the body into sugars that provide energy. trans fat Manufactured and added to certain foods to keep them fresher for longer. Foods that contain trans fats include cakes, cookies, fried foods, and margarine. unsaturated lipids Found mainly in plant foods, such as vegetable oil, olive oil, and nuts; also found in fish such as salmon. vitamins Substances that the body needs in small amounts to function properly. Points to Consider - Think about how you can be sure you are getting enough nutrients? - Do you think knowing the nutrients in the foods you eat are important? - Do you have to keep track of all the nutrients you eat, or is there an easier way to choose foods that provide the nutrients you need? 17.2 Lesson 17.2: Choosing Healthy Foods Lesson Objectives - State how to use MyPyramid to get the proper balance of nutrients. - Describe how to read food labels to choose foods wisely. - Explain how to balance food with exercise. Check Your Understanding - What is a nutrient? - Why do you need extra energy when you exercise? Introduction Foods such as whole grain breads, fresh fruits, and fish provide nutrients you need for good health. However, various foods provide different nutrients. You also need different amounts of each nutrient. How can you choose the right mix of foods to get the proper balance of nutrients? Two tools can help you choose foods wisely: MyPyramid and food labels. MyPyramid MyPyramid is a diagram that shows how much you should eat each day of foods from six different food groups. It recommends the amount of nutrients you need based on your age, your sex, and your levels of activity. MyPyramid is shown in Figure 17.6. The six food groups in MyPyramid are: - Grains—such as bread, rice, pasta, and cereal. - Vegetables—such as spinach, broccoli, carrots, and sweet potatoes. - Fruits—such as oranges, apples, bananas, and strawberries. - Oils—such as vegetable oil, canola oil, olive oil, and peanut oil. - Milk—such as milk, yogurt, cottage cheese, and other cheeses. • Meat and beans—such as chicken, fish, soybeans, and kidney beans. Figure 17.6: MyPyramid can help you choose foods wisely for good health. Each colored band represents a different food group. The key shows which food group each color represents. Which colored band of MyPyramid is widest? Which food group does it represent? (3) Using MyPyramid In MyPyramid, each food group is represented by a band of a different color. For example, grains are represented by an orange band, and vegetables are represented by a green band. The wider the band, the more foods you should choose from that food group each day. The orange band in MyPyramid is the widest band. This means that you should choose more foods from the grain group than from any other single food group. The green, blue, and red bands are also relatively wide. Therefore, you should choose plenty of foods from the vegetable, milk, and fruit groups, as well. You should choose the fewest foods from the food group with the narrowest band. Which band is narrowest? Which food group does it represent? Healthy Eating Guidelines Did you ever hear the saying, “variety is the spice of life”? Variety is also the basis of a healthy eating plan. When you choose foods based on MyPyramid, you should choose a variety of different foods. Follow these guidelines to make the wisest food choices for good health. Keep in mind that nutritional guidelines may change throughout life. As food provides energy and nutrients for growth and development, nutritional requirements may vary with body weight, age, sex, activity, and body functioning. - Make at least half your daily grain choices whole grains. Examples of whole grains are whole wheat bread, whole wheat pasta, and brown rice. - Choose a variety of different vegetables each day. Be sure to include both dark green vegetables, such as spinach and broccoli, and orange vegetables, such as carrots and sweet potatoes. - Choose a variety of different fruits each day. Select mainly fresh fruits rather than canned fruits and whole fruits instead of fruit juices. - When choosing oils, go for unsaturated oils, such as olive oil, canola oil, or vegetable oil. - Choose low-fat or fat-free milk and other dairy products. For example, select fat-free yogurt and low-fat cheese. - For meats, choose fish, chicken, and lean cuts of beef. Also, be sure to include beans, nuts, and seeds. What about Ice Cream, Cookies, and Potato Chips? Are you wondering where foods like ice cream, cookies, and potato chips fit into MyPyramid? The white tip of MyPyramid represents foods such as these. These are foods that should be eaten only in very small amounts and not very often. Such foods contain very few nutrients, and are called nutrient-poor. Instead, they are high in fats, sugars, and sodium, but low in other nutrients. Fats, sugars, and sodium are nutrients that you should limit in a healthy eating plan. Ice cream, cookies, and potato chips are also high in Calories. Eating too much of them may lead to unhealthy weight gain. Food Labels In the United States, packaged foods are required by law to have nutrition facts labels. A nutrition facts label shows the nutrients in a food. Packaged foods are also required to list their ingredients. An ingredient is a specific item that a food contains. Using Nutrition Facts Labels An example of a nutrition facts label is shown in Figure 17.7. The information listed at the right of the label tells you what to look for. At the top of the label, look for the serving size. The serving size tells you how much of the food you should eat to get the nutrients listed on the label. A cup of food from the label in Figure 17.7 is a serving. The Calories in one serving are listed next. In this food, there are 250 Calories per serving. Figure 17.7: Reading nutrition facts labels can help you choose healthy foods. Look at the nutrition facts label shown here. Do you think this food is a good choice for a healthy eating plan? Why or why not? (1) Next on the nutrition facts label, look for the percent daily values (% DV) of nutrients. A food is low in a nutrient if the percent daily value of the nutrient is 5% or less. The healthiest foods are low in nutrients such as fats and sodium. A food is high in a nutrient if the percent daily value of the nutrient is 20% or more. The healthiest foods are high in nutrients such as fiber and proteins. Look at the percent daily values on the food label in Figure 17.7. Which nutrients have values of 5% or less? These are the nutrients that are low in this food. They include fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, and iron. Which nutrients have values of 20% or more? These are the nutrients that are high in this food. They include sodium, potassium, and calcium. Using Ingredients Lists The food label in Figure 17.8 includes the list of ingredients in a different food. The ingredients on food labels are always listed in descending order. This means that the main ingredient is listed first. The main ingredient is the ingredient that is present in the food in the greatest amount. As you go down the list, the ingredients are present in smaller and smaller amounts. ![Nutrition Facts](image) Ingredients: Enriched wheat flour (wheat flour, iron, Vitamin B₁, folic acid), high-fructose corn syrup, vegetable oil (canola and soybean oil, partially hydrogenated palm kernel oil), sugar, salt, raisins, cornstarch, whole grain oats, baking soda, artificial flavor, caramel color Figure 17.8: This food label includes the list of ingredients in the food. The main ingredient is enriched wheat flour, followed by high-fructose corn syrup. Why should you avoid foods with ingredients such as these at the top of the ingredients list? (15) Reading the ingredients lists on food labels can help you choose the healthiest foods. At the top of the list, look for ingredients such as whole grains, vegetables, milk, and fruits. These are the ingredients you need in the greatest amounts for balanced eating. Avoid foods that list fats, oils, sugar, or salt at the top of the list. For good health, you should avoid getting too much of these ingredients. Be aware that ingredients such as corn syrup are sugars. You should also use moderation when eating foods that contain ingredients such as white flour or white rice. These ingredients have been processed, and processing removes nutrients. The word "enriched" is a clue that an ingredient has been processed. Ingredients are enriched with added nutrients to replace those lost during processing. However, enriched ingredients are still likely to have fewer nutrients than unprocessed ingredients. Balancing Food with Exercise Look at MyPyramid in Figure 17.6. Note the person walking up the side of the pyramid. This shows that exercise is important for balanced eating. Exercise helps you use any extra energy in the foods you eat. The more active you are, the more energy you use. You should try to get at least an hour of physical activity just about every day. Figure 17.9 shows some activities that can help you use extra energy. Any unused energy in food is stored in the body as fat. This is true whether the extra energy comes from carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids. What happens if you take in more energy than you use, day after day? You will store more and more fat and become overweight. Eventually, you may become obese. Obesity is having a very high percentage of body fat. Obese people are at least 20 percent heavier than their healthy weight range. The excess body fat of obesity is linked to many diseases. Obese people often have serious health problems, such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol. They are also more likely to develop arthritis and some types of cancer. People that remain obese throughout adulthood usually do not live as long as people that stay within a healthy weight range. The current generation of children and teens is the first generation in our history that may have a shorter life than their parents. The reason is their high rate of obesity and the health problems associated with obesity. You can avoid gaining weight and becoming obese. The choice is yours. Choose healthy foods by using MyPyramid and reading food labels. Then get plenty of exercise to balance the energy in the foods you eat. Lesson Summary - MyPyramid shows how much you should eat each day of foods from six different food groups. - Reading food labels can help you choose the healthiest foods. - Regular exercise helps you use extra energy and avoid unhealthy weight gain. Figure 17.9: All of these activities are good ways to exercise and use extra energy. The Calories given for each activity are the number of Calories used in an hour by a person that weighs 100 pounds. Which of these activities uses the most Calories? Which of the activities do you enjoy? (2) Review Questions 1. List the six food groups represented by MyPyramid. 2. Which food group contains soybeans, kidney beans, and fish? 3. What guideline should you follow in choosing foods from the grains food group? 4. Which ingredient is always listed first on a food label? 5. What happens if you take in more energy than you use, day after day? 6. Explain how you can use MyPyramid to choose foods that provide the proper balance of nutrients. 7. Why should you limit foods like ice cream and potato chips in a healthy eating plan? 8. Explain how you can use food labels to choose foods that are high in fiber. 9. Why should you try to avoid foods with processed ingredients? What are some examples of processed ingredients? 10. How does physical activity help prevent obesity? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Eric Schlosser and Charles Wilson. Chew on This: Everything You Don’t Want to Know about Fast Food. Houghton Mifflin, 2006. - John Burstein. The Shape of Good Nutrition: The Food Pyramid. Crabtree Publishing Company, 2008. - Rose McCarthy. Food Labels: Using Nutrition Information to Create a Healthy Diet. Rosen Publishing Group, 2008. - Sandra Giddens. Making Smart Choices about Food, Nutrition, and Lifestyle. Rosen Central, 2008. CK–12. High School Biology. Chapter 38, Lesson 1. - [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~acrobat/nutfacts.pdf](http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~acrobat/nutfacts.pdf) - [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/foodlab.html](http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/foodlab.html) - [http://www.fns.usda.gov/tn/parents/nutritionlabel.html](http://www.fns.usda.gov/tn/parents/nutritionlabel.html) - [http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/pdf/DGA2005.pdf](http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/pdf/DGA2005.pdf) - [http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf](http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf) - [http://www.mypyramid.gov](http://www.mypyramid.gov) - [http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/537296](http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/537296) - [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002459.htm](http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002459.htm) - [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/exerciseforchildren.html](http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/exerciseforchildren.html) - [http://www.prb.org/Articles/2005/WillRisingChildhoodObesityDecreaseUSLifeExpectancy.aspx](http://www.prb.org/Articles/2005/WillRisingChildhoodObesityDecreaseUSLifeExpectancy.aspx) - [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/307/5716/1716](http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/307/5716/1716) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary enriched Term used for an ingredient that has been processed; ingredients are enriched with added nutrients to replace those lost during processing; likely to have fewer nutrients than unprocessed ingredients. ingredient A specific item that a food contains. main ingredient The ingredient that is present in the food in the greatest amount. MyPyramid Diagram that shows how much you should eat each day of foods from six different food groups. nutrition facts label The label on packaged food that shows the nutrients in the food. obesity Having a very high percentage of body fat; obese people are at least 20 percent heavier than their healthy weight range. serving size Tells you how much of the food you should eat to get the nutrients listed on the label. Points to Consider - Discuss how foods may be broken down into nutrients that your body can use? For example, how do you think an apple becomes simple sugars that your body can use for energy? Or how might a piece of cheese become proteins that your body can use for building materials? 17.3 Lesson 17.3: The Digestive System Lesson Objectives - State the functions of the digestive system. - Explain the role of enzymes in digestion. - Describe the digestive organs and their functions. - Explain the roles of helpful bacteria in the digestive system. - List ways to help keep your digestive system healthy. Check Your Understanding - What is a chemical reaction? - What is an enzyme? - What are bacteria? Introduction Nutrients in the foods you eat are needed by the cells of your body. How do the nutrients in foods get to your body cells? What organs and processes break down the foods and make the nutrients available to cells? The organs are those of the digestive system. The processes are digestion and absorption. What Does the Digestive System Do? The digestive system is the body system that breaks down food and absorbs nutrients. It also gets rid of solid food waste. The main organs of the digestive system are shown in Figure 17.10. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into nutrients. There are two types of digestion: mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. In mechanical digestion, large chunks of food are broken down into small pieces. This is a physical process. In chemical digestion, large food molecules are broken down into small nutrient molecules. This is a chemical process. Absorption is the process in which substances are taken up by the blood. After food is broken down into small nutrient molecules, the molecules are absorbed by the blood. Then the nutrient molecules travel in the bloodstream to cells throughout the body. Some substances in food cannot be broken down into nutrients. They remain behind in the digestive system after the nutrients are absorbed. Any substances in food that cannot be digested and absorbed pass out of the body as solid waste. The process of passing solid food waste out of the body is called elimination. The Role of Enzymes in Digestion Chemical digestion could not take place without the help of digestive enzymes. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. Digestive enzymes speed up chemical reactions that break down large food molecules into small nutrient molecules. Did you ever use a wrench, like the one in Figure 17.11, to tighten a bolt? You could tighten a bolt with your fingers, but it would be difficult and slow. If you use a wrench, you can tighten a bolt much more easily and quickly. Enzymes are like wrenches. They make it Figure 17.10: This drawing shows the major organs of the digestive system. Trace the path of food through the organs of the digestive system as you read about them in this lesson. (11) much easier and quicker for chemical reactions to take place. Like a wrench, enzymes can also be used over and over again. But you need the appropriate size and shape of the wrench to efficiently tighten the bolt, just like each enzyme is specific for the reaction it helps. Figure 17.11: Turning a bolt with a wrench is easier and quicker than trying to turn a bolt with your fingers. How is a wrench like an enzyme? (13) Digestive enzymes are secreted by the organs of the digestive system. Examples of digestive enzymes are: - Amylase is produced by the mouth. It helps break down large starches molecules into smaller sugar molecules. - Pepsin is produced by the stomach. Pepsin is a protease; it helps break down proteins into amino acids. - Trypsin is produced in the pancreas. Trypsin is a protease; it cleaves peptide chains. - Pancreatic lipase is secreted by the pancreas. It is a lipase, used to break apart fats. - Deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease are nucleases secreted by the pancreas. They are enzymes that break bonds in nucleic acid backbones. Bile salts are bile acids whose main function is to facilitate the processing of dietary fat. Bile acids are made in the liver. Upon eating a meal, the contents of the gallbladder are secreted into the intestine, where bile acids break down dietary fats. Bile acids serve other functions, including eliminating cholesterol from the body. Digestive Organs and Their Roles The mouth and stomach are just two of the organs of the digestive system. Other digestive system organs are the esophagus, small intestine, and large intestine. From Figure 17.10, you can see that the digestive organs form a long tube. In adults, this tube is about 9 meters (30 feet) long! At one end of the tube is the mouth. At the other end is the anus. Food enters the mouth and then passes through the rest of the digestive system. Food waste leaves the body through the anus. The organs of the digestive system are lined with muscles. The muscles contract, or tighten, to push food through the system. This is shown in Figure 17.12. The muscles contract in waves. The waves pass through the digestive system like waves through a Slinky®. This movement of muscle contractions is called peristalsis. Without peristalsis, food would not be able to move through the digestive system. Peristalsis is an involuntary process, which means that it occurs without your conscious control. ![Diagram showing how muscles push food through the digestive system](image) Figure 17.12: This diagram shows how muscles push food through the digestive system. Muscle contractions travel through the system in waves, pushing the food ahead of them. This is called peristalsis. (9) The liver, gall bladder, and pancreas are also organs of the digestive system. They are shown in Figure 17.13. Food does not pass through these three organs. However, these organs are important for digestion. They secrete or store enzymes or other chemicals that are needed to help digest food chemically. Figure 17.13: This drawing shows the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. These organs are part of the digestive system. Food does not pass through them, but they secrete substances needed for chemical digestion. (12) Mouth, Esophagus, and Stomach The mouth is the first organ that food enters. However, digestion may start even before you put the first bite of food into your mouth. Just seeing or smelling food can cause the release of saliva and digestive enzymes in your mouth. Once you start eating, saliva wets the food, which makes it easier to break up and swallow. Digestive enzymes, including amylase, start breaking down starches into sugars. Your tongue helps mix the food with the saliva and enzymes. Your teeth also help digest food. Your front teeth are sharp. They cut and tear food when you bite into it. Your back teeth are broad and flat. They grind food into smaller pieces when you chew. Chewing is part of mechanical digestion. Your tongue pushes the food to the back of your mouth so you can swallow it. When you swallow, the lump of chewed food passes down your throat to your esophagus. The esophagus is a narrow tube that carries food from the throat to the stomach. Food moves through the esophagus because of peristalsis. At the lower end of the esophagus, a circular muscle controls the opening to the stomach. The muscle relaxes to let food pass into the stomach. Then the muscle contracts again to prevent food from passing back into the esophagus. Some people think that gravity moves food through the esophagus. If that were true, food would move through the esophagus only when you are sitting or standing upright. In fact, because of peristalsis, food can move through the esophagus no matter what position you are in—even upside down. Just don’t try to swallow food when you are upside down! You could choke if you try to swallow when you are not upright. The stomach is a sac-like organ at the end of the esophagus. It has thick muscular walls. The muscles alternately contract and relax. This churns the food and helps break it into smaller pieces. The churning also mixes the food with the enzyme pepsin and other chemicals that are secreted by the stomach. The pepsin and other chemicals help digest proteins chemically. Water, salt, and simple sugars can be absorbed into the blood from the stomach. Most other substances are broken down further in the small intestine before they are absorbed. The stomach stores food until the small intestine is ready to receive it. A circular muscle controls the opening between the stomach and small intestine. When the small intestine is empty, the muscle relaxes. This lets food pass from the stomach into the small intestine. Small Intestine The small intestine is a narrow tube that starts at the stomach and ends at the large intestine (see Figure 17.10). In adults, the small intestine is about 7 meters (23 feet) long. It is made up of three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Each part has different functions. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. This is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many enzymes and other chemicals are secreted here. Some are secreted by the duodenum itself. Others are secreted by the pancreas or liver. The jejunum is the second part of the small intestine. This is where most nutrients are absorbed into the blood. The jejunum is lined with tiny “fingers” called villi. A magnified picture of villi is shown in Figure 17.14. Villi contain microscopic blood vessels. Nutrients are absorbed into the blood through these tiny vessels. There are millions of villi, so altogether there is a very large area for absorption to take place. In fact, villi make the inner surface area of the small intestine 1,000 times larger than it would be without them. The entire inner surface area of the small intestine is about as big as a basketball court! ![Villi](image) Figure 17.14: This is what the villi lining the small intestine look like when magnified. Each one is actually only about 1 millimeter long. Villi are just barely visible with the unaided eye. (7) The ileum is the third part of the small intestine. Like the jejunum, the ileum is covered with villi. A few remaining nutrients are absorbed in the ileum. From the ileum, any remaining food waste passes into the large intestine. The small intestine is much longer than the large intestine. So why is it called “small”? If you compare the small and large intestines in Figure 17.10, you will see why. The small intestine is smaller in width that the large intestine. Large Intestine The large intestine is a relatively wide tube that connects the small intestine with the anus. In adults, it is about 1.5 meters (5 feet) long. Waste enters the large intestine from the small intestine in a liquid state. As the waste moves through the large intestine, excess water is absorbed from it. After the excess water is absorbed, the remaining solid waste is called feces. Circular muscles control the anus. They relax to let the feces pass out of the body through the anus. After feces pass out of the body, they are called stool. The excretion of stool is referred to as a bowel movement. Liver The liver has a wide range of functions, a few of which are blood detoxification, maintaining glucose balance, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion. The liver is necessary for survival; there is currently no way to compensate for the absence of liver function. The liver is one of the most important organs in the body when it comes to detoxifying or getting rid of foreign substances or toxins, especially from the gut. The liver filters blood from the intestine. This filtering process can remove a wide range of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites from the blood. Almost 2 quarts of blood pass through the liver every minute. The liver also has several roles in maintaining glucose levels, including gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from certain amino acids, lactate or glycerol), glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen into glucose), and glycogenesis (the formation of glycogen from glucose). Bacteria in the Digestive System The large intestine provides a home for trillions of bacteria. Most of these bacteria are helpful. They have several roles in the body. For example, intestinal bacteria: - Produce vitamins B\textsubscript{12} and K. - Control the growth of harmful bacteria. - Break down poisons in the large intestine. - Break down some substances in food that cannot be digested, such as fiber and some starches and sugars. Keeping Your Digestive System Healthy Most of the time, you probably aren’t aware of your digestive system. It works well without causing any problems. However, most people have problems with their digestive system at least once in awhile. Did you ever eat something that didn’t “agree” with you? Maybe you had a stomachache or felt sick to your stomach. Maybe you had diarrhea. These could be symptoms of foodborne illness. Foodborne Illness Harmful bacteria can enter your digestive system in food and make you sick. This is called foodborne illness. The bacteria, or the toxins they produce, may cause vomiting or cramping, in addition to the symptoms mentioned above. You can help prevent foodborne illness by following a few simple rules: - Keep hot foods hot and cold foods cold. This helps prevent any bacteria in the foods from multiplying. - Wash your hands before you prepare or eat food. This helps prevent bacteria on your hands from getting on the food. - Wash your hands after you touch raw foods such as meats, poultry, fish, or eggs. These foods often contain bacteria that your hands could transfer to your mouth. - Cook meats, poultry, fish, and eggs thoroughly before eating them. The heat of cooking kills any bacteria the foods may contain so they cannot make you sick. Food Allergies Food allergies are like other allergies. They occur when the immune system reacts to harmless substances as though they were harmful. Almost 10 percent of children have food allergies. Some of the foods most likely to cause allergies are shown in Figure 17.15. Eating foods you are allergic to may cause vomiting, diarrhea, or skin rashes. Some people are very allergic to certain foods. Eating even tiny amounts of the foods causes them to have serious symptoms, such as difficulty breathing. If they eat the foods by accident, they may need emergency medical treatment. If you think you may have food allergies, a doctor can test you to find out for sure. The tests will identify which foods you are allergic to. Then you can avoid eating these foods. This is the best way to prevent the symptoms of food allergies. To avoid the foods you are allergic to, you may have to read food labels carefully. This is especially likely if you are allergic to common food ingredients, such as soybeans, wheat, or peanuts. A food intolerance, or food sensitivity, is different to a food allergy. A food intolerance happens when the digestive system is unable to break down a certain type of food. This can result in stomach cramping, diarrhea, tiredness, and weight loss. Food intolerances are often mistakenly called allergies. Lactose intolerance is a food intolerance. A person who is lactose intolerant does not make enough lactase, the enzyme that breaks down the milk sugar lactose. About 75 percent of the world’s population is lactose intolerant. Constipation Constipation means that a person has three bowel movement or less each week. The stools may also be hard and dry. Sometimes the stools are difficult or painful to pass. The person Foods that Commonly Cause Allergies Nuts Fish Eggs Milk Shellfish Figure 17.15: Some of the foods that commonly cause allergies are shown here. They include nuts, eggs, fish, milk, and shellfish. Are you allergic to any of these foods? (4) may feel “draggy” and full. Some people think they should have a bowel movement every day. This is not necessarily true. There is no “right” number of bowel movements. What is normal for one person may not be normal for another. It depends on the foods they eat, how much they exercise, and other factors. At one time or another, almost everyone has constipation. In most cases, it lasts for a short time and isn’t serious. However, constipation can be very uncomfortable. You can follow these tips to help prevent it: - Eat enough high-fiber foods, including vegetables, fruits, beans, and whole grains. - Drink plenty of water and other liquids. - Exercise regularly. - Don’t ignore the urge to have a bowel movement. Following these tips will help keep your digestive system working properly. It will help you feel good and stay healthy. Lesson Summary - The digestive system breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and gets rid of food wastes. - Digestive enzymes speed up the reactions of chemical digestion. - The main organs of the digestive system are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. - Bacteria in the large intestine produce vitamins and have other roles in the body. - You can follow simple tips to help keep your digestive system healthy. Review Questions 1. What are three functions of the digestive system? 2. Describe the roles of the mouth in digestion. 3. In which organs of the digestive system does absorption of nutrients take place? 4. Identify two roles of helpful bacteria in the large intestine. 5. List two rules that can help prevent foodborne illness. 6. Explain the role of enzymes in digestion. Give examples to illustrate your answer. 7. Describe peristalsis, and explain why it is necessary for digestion. 8. How can the inner surface area of the small intestine be as big as a basketball court? How does this help the small intestine absorb nutrients? 9. Assume a person has an illness that prevents the large intestine from doing its normal job. Why might the person have diarrhea? 10. Explain why eating high-fiber foods can help prevent constipation. Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK–12, High School Biology, Chapter 38, Lesson 2. - Carol Ballard. The Digestive System. Heinemann Library, 2003. - Robert J. Sullivan. Digestion and Nutrition. Chelsea House Publications, 2004. - Sherri Mabry Gordon. Peanut Butter, Milk, and Other Deadly Threats: What You Should Know about Food Allergies. Enslow Publishers, 2006. - Steve Parker. Break It Down: The Digestive System. Raintree, 2006. - [http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/bacteria](http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/bacteria) - [http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/constipation_ez](http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/constipation_ez) - [http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/AnneMarieThomasino.shtml](http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/AnneMarieThomasino.shtml) - [http://kalishresearch.com/a_gluten.html](http://kalishresearch.com/a_gluten.html) - [http://physiowiki.wetpaint.com/page/Chapter+4:+Enzymes+and+Energy?t=anon](http://physiowiki.wetpaint.com/page/Chapter+4:+Enzymes+and+Energy?t=anon) - [http://www.biologyinmotion.com/minilec/wrench.html](http://www.biologyinmotion.com/minilec/wrench.html) - [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/a2z-b.html](http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/a2z-b.html) - [http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Factsheets/Cleanliness_Helps_Prevent_Foodborne_Illness/index.asp](http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Factsheets/Cleanliness_Helps_Prevent_Foodborne_Illness/index.asp) - [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/food-allergies/AA00057](http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/food-allergies/AA00057) - [http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/normalflora.html](http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/normalflora.html) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach) Vocabulary absorption Process in which substances are taken up by the blood; after food is broken down into small nutrient molecules, the molecules are absorbed by the blood. chemical digestion Digestion in which large food molecules are broken down into small nutrient molecules. constipation Having three or less bowel movements each week. digestion Process of breaking down food into nutrients. digestive system Body system that breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and gets rid of solid food waste. duodenum The first part of the small intestine; where most chemical digestion takes place. elimination The process in which solid food waste passes out of the body. enzyme A substance, usually a protein, that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. esophagus The narrow tube that carries food from the throat to the stomach. food allergies A condition in which the immune system reacts to harmless substances in food as though they were harmful. foodborne illness An illness caused by harmful bacteria that enter the digestive system in food. food intolerance Occurs when the digestive system is unable to break down a certain type of food. ileum The third part of the small intestine; covered with villi; the few remaining nutrients are absorbed in the ileum. jejunum The second part of the small intestine; where most nutrients are absorbed into the blood; lined with tiny “fingers” called villi. large intestine The relatively wide tube between the small intestine and anus where excess water is absorbed from food waste. mechanical digestion Digestion in which large chunks of food are broken down into small pieces. peristalsis Involuntary muscle contractions which push food through the digestive system. small intestine The narrow tube between the stomach and large intestine where most chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients take place. stomach The sac-like organ at the end of the esophagus where proteins are digested. villi Contain microscopic blood vessels; nutrients are absorbed into the blood through these tiny vessels; located on the jejunum and the ileum. Points to Consider - After nutrients are absorbed into the blood, think about how the blood could carry them to all the cells of the body. How does the blood travel? What keeps the blood moving? Image Sources (1) HHS. http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/healthieryou/images/img_tips_food_label.gif. Public Domain. (2) http://www.hud.gov/local/ny/news/2005-06-27.cfm http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Walking.jpg http://whatscookingamerica.net/Information/CalorieBurnChart.htm http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/growthcharts/set1clinical/cj41l022.pdf http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/growthcharts/set2/chart%2003.pdf http://www.self.com/health/activity/calculators/soccer_basketball. (a)GNU Free Documentation (b)Public Domain (c)CC-BY-SA 2.0 (d)Public Domain. (3) CK-12 Foundation. http://www.mypyramid.gov/. Public Domain. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eggs_in_carton.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Rainbow_Trout.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Milk_glass.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Garnelen_im_Verkauf_fcm.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Shellfish.jpg. (a)Public Domain (b)CC-BY-SA (c)Public Domain (d)CC-BY-SA (e)Public Domain (f)CC-BY-SA. (5) CK-12 Foundation. http://www.kikkomanusa.com/_images/uploaded_images/420C6A.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:DarkRedKidney.jpg http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf http://www.youngwomenshealth.org/protein.html. (a)GNU-FDL (b)GNU Free Documentation (c)Public Domain. (6) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Mixed_bread_loaves.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Acornsgquash.jpg http://whatscookingamerica.net/NutritionalChart.htm http://www.annecollins.com/dietary-carbs/carbs-in-veggies.htm http://www.carbohydrate-counter.org/ http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf. (a)Public Domain (b)CC-BY-SA 2.0 (c)Public Domain. (7) http://kalishresearch.com/a_gluten.html. GNU-FDL. (8) http://www.water.ca.gov/swp/images/geography/Kids.jpg. Public Domain. (9) http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Peristalis.jpg&filetimestamp=20071126004402. CC-BY. (10) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Green_peas.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:PearPhoto.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avocado.jpeg http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art49482.asp http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/high-fiber-foods/NU00582. (a) Public Domain (b) GNU-FDL (c) GNU-FDL (d) Public Domain. (11) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Digestivetract.gif. Public Domain. (12) CK-12 Foundation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:BauchOrgane_wn.png. GNU-FDL. (13) http://images1.comstock.com/Imagewarehouse/RF/SITECS/NLWMCompingVersions/0003000/3500-3999/KS3516.jpg. GNU Free Documentation. (14) http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2006/114-2/saladgirl.jpg. Public Domain. (15) Jean Brainard. . CC-BY-SA. Chapter 18 Cardiovascular System 18.1 Lesson 18.1: Introduction to the Cardiovascular System Lesson Objectives - Identify the main structures of the cardiovascular system. - Identify three types of blood vessels. - Describe the differences between the pulmonary and the systemic circulations. - Identify the main structures of the lymphatic system. - Outline how the cardiovascular and the lymphatic systems work together. Check Your Understanding - What is an organ system? - What are the three types of muscles found in the human body? Introduction Your cardiovascular system has many jobs. It acts as a message delivery service, a pump, a heating system, and a protector of the body against infection. Every cell in your body depends on your cardiovascular system. In this chapter, you will learn how your cardiovascular system works and how it helps to maintain homeostasis. Functions of the Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system shown in Figure 18.1 is the organ system that is made up of the heart, the blood vessels, and the blood. Your cardiovascular system has many important roles in maintaining homeostasis. It moves nutrients, hormones, gases (such as oxygen) and wastes (such as carbon dioxide) to and from your body cells. It also helps to keep you warm by moving warm blood around your body. To do these tasks, your cardiovascular system works with other body systems such as the respiratory, endocrine, and nervous systems. The Movement of Gases It could be said that the movement of gases, especially oxygen and the waste product of cellular respiration, carbon dioxide, is one of the most important aspects of the cardiovascular system. But the cardiovascular system cannot do this alone. It must work with other organ systems, especially the respiratory system (discussed in a later chapter), to move these gases throughout your body. Oxygen is needed by every cell in your body as it is the final electron acceptor during aerobic cellular respiration. You breath oxygen in and carbon dioxide out through your respiratory system. Once oxygen enters your lungs, it must diffuse into your blood stream for transport around your body. Oxygen is transported in your blood by attaching to the hemoglobin protein. The oxygen diffuses from the blood into the tissues, while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction. Carbon dioxide is transported back to the lungs, where it diffuses out of the blood and into your lungs for release from your body. Parts of the Cardiovascular System Your heart pushes the blood around your body through the blood vessels. The heart, shown in Figure 18.2, is made of cardiac muscle (refer to the Skin, Bones, and Muscles chapter). The heart is connected to many blood vessels that bring blood all around the body. The cardiac muscle contracts and pumps blood through the heart and blood vessels. Blood Vessels The job of these blood vessels is to channel the blood around the body. There are three main types of blood vessels in the body; arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Arteries have thick walls that have a layer of smooth muscle, as shown in Figure 18.3. Arteries usually carry oxygen-rich blood around the body. The blood that is in arteries is under pressure. The contractions Figure 18.1: The cardiovascular system moves nutrients and other substances through cells. (25) of the heart muscle causes blood to exert force on the walls of the arteries. This force is referred to as blood pressure. Blood pressure is highest in the arteries and decreases as the blood moves into smaller blood vessels. Thick walls help prevent arteries from bursting from the pressure of blood. Artery Wall ![Artery Wall Diagram](image) Figure 18.3: Arteries are thick-walled vessels with many layers, including a layer of smooth muscle. (11) Every cell in the body needs oxygen, but arteries are too large to bring oxygen and nutrients to single cells. Further from the heart, arteries form smaller arteries. These smaller arteries branch into smaller vessels. The smaller blood vessels help to bring nutrients and oxygen and take away waste from body tissues. The tiniest blood vessels in the body are called capillaries. The walls of capillaries are only a single layer of cells thick. Capillaries connect arteries and veins together, as shown in Figure 18.4. Capillaries also allow the delivery of water, oxygen and other substances to body cells. They also collect carbon dioxide and other wastes from cells and tissues. Capillaries are so narrow that blood cells must move in single file through them. A capillary bed is the network of capillaries that supply an organ with blood. The more metabolically active a tissue or organ is, the more capillaries it needs to get nutrients and Blood is carried back to the heart in blood vessels called veins. Veins have thinner walls than arteries do, as you can see in Figure 18.5. The blood in veins is not under pressure. Veins have valves that stop blood from moving backward. Blood is moved forward in veins when the surrounding skeletal muscles squeeze the veins. Blood that is carried by veins is usually low in oxygen. The exception is the pulmonary veins that return oxygen-rich blood to the heart from the lungs. Blood is a body fluid that is a type of connective tissue. Blood is made of blood cells, and a fluid called plasma. The main types of cells found in blood are red blood cells and white blood cells. Red blood cells are the cells that carry oxygen. Oxygen-rich blood is bright red and oxygen-poor blood is dark red. You will learn more about blood in a later lesson in this chapter. The cardiovascular system of humans is closed. That means the blood never leaves the large loop of blood vessels in which it travels. Other animals such as invertebrates have open circulatory systems, in which their blood can leave the blood vessels. Two Blood Circulation Systems The blood is pumped around in two large “loops” within the body. One loop moves blood around the body—to the head, limbs, and internal organs. The other loop moves blood to and from the lungs where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is picked up by the blood. A simple version of these two “loops” is shown in Figure 18.6. Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. The pulmonary circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-poor blood away from the heart to the lungs, and returns oxygen-rich blood back to the heart. This oxygen-rich blood then gets pumped around the body in the systemic circulation. These two circulations will be further discussed in Lesson 2. ![Double Circulatory System](image) Figure 18.6: The double circulatory system; blood in one circuit has to go through the heart to enter the other circuit. (19) The Lymphatic System The lymphatic system is a network of vessels and tissues that carry a clear fluid called lymph. The lymphatic system, shown in Figure 18.7, extends all around the body. Lymph tissues include lymph nodes, lymph ducts, and lymph vessels. Lymph vessels are tube-shaped just like blood vessels. The lymphatic system works with the cardiovascular system to return body fluids to the blood. The lymphatic system and the cardiovascular system are often called the body’s two circulatory systems. The lymphatic system has two main jobs: Figure 18.7: The lymphatic system helps return fluid that leaks from the blood vessels back to the cardiovascular system. (5) • Removing excess fluids from body tissues. • Making certain types of white blood cells. Role of the Lymphatic System in Circulation The lymphatic system collects and returns fluid to the cardiovascular system. A small amount of fluid leaks from the blood vessels when blood is pumped around your body. This fluid collects in the spaces between cells and tissues. Some of the fluid returns to the cardiovascular system, and the rest is collected by the lymph vessels of the lymphatic system, which are shown in Figure 18.8. The fluid that collects in the lymph vessels is called lymph. The lymphatic system then returns the lymph to the cardiovascular system. Unlike the blood system, the lymphatic system is not closed and has no central pump. Lymph moves slowly in lymph vessels. It is moved along in the lymph vessels by the squeezing action of smooth muscles and skeletal muscles. ![Lymph Capillaries in the Tissue Spaces](image) Figure 18.8: Lymph capillaries collect fluid that leaks out from blood capillaries. (3) Role of the Lymphatic System in the Body’s Defenses The lymphatic system also plays an important role in the immune system. The lymphatic system makes certain blood cells, and also filters, or traps foreign particles. The lymphatic system contains white blood cells to protect the body from infection. Organs of the Lymphatic System Along with the lymph vessels, lymph ducts, and lymph nodes, the lymphatic system also includes many organs. The tonsils, thymus, and spleen, which are shown Figure 18.7, each have a role in the defense of the body against infection. Many of these organs are also part of the immune system. Tonsils The tonsils are areas of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat. The term tonsils refers most often to the tonsils in the back of the throat as shown in Figure 18.9. But, there are tonsils in the nasal cavity and behind the tongue too. Like other organs of the lymphatic system, the tonsils are also part of the immune system. The immune system helps protect the body against infection. The tonsils are believed to help fight off nose and throat and other upper respiratory tract infections such as colds. Tonsils tend to reach their largest size near puberty, after which they get smaller. Tonsillitis is an infection of the tonsils that can cause a sore throat and fever. ![Diagram of the throat with labeled parts: Soft palate, Tonsils, Uvula, Tongue](image) Figure 18.9: The term tonsils refers most often to the tonsils in the back of the throat, but there are tonsils in the nasal cavity and behind the tongue too. (9) Bone Marrow Bone marrow is the tissue found in the middle of bones. The marrow in the large bones of adults makes new blood cells. Certain white blood cells, called T-cells, are made in the bone marrow and move to the thymus to mature. Other white blood cells called B-cells, move from the bone marrow to the spleen after they have matured. Thymus The thymus is found in the upper chest. Chemicals made by the thymus help the production of certain infection-fighting cells. The thymus is where certain white blood cells called lymphocytes mature. These cells move from the bone marrow to the thymus to finish growing. The thymus grows to its largest size near puberty, and gets smaller as a person ages. If a person’s thymus is surgically removed or damaged by disease while they are young, the person will be very prone to infections. Spleen The spleen is in the abdomen, as shown in Figure 18.10. In an area of the spleen called red pulp, materials are filtered from the blood, including old and dead red blood cells. The spleen also makes red blood cells. Areas called white pulp help fight infections by making white blood cells. If a person’s spleen is surgically removed, or does not work properly, the person is prone to certain infections. You can learn more about the roles of the lymphatic system and white blood cells in the Diseases and the Body’s Defenses chapter. Table 18.1: Structures and Functions of the Cardiovascular and Lymphatic Systems \| System \| Structure (organs and tissues) \| Function \| \|--------------\|--------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Lymphatic \| Lymph vessels \| Transports fluid (lymph) from between body cells back to blood \| \| \| Lymph nodes \| Traps invading microbes, foreign particles, cancerous cells \| \| \| Spleen, tonsils, and adenoids \| Traps invading microbes and foreign particles \| \| \| Thymus \| Site of white blood cell (lymphocyte) maturation \| \| Cardiovascular \| Blood vessels \| Transports blood around the body \| \| \| Blood \| Transport of oxygen and nutrients; transports white blood cells to sites of infection and inflammation \| \| \| Heart \| Pumps blood around the body \| Spleen Figure 18.10: In the spleen, the white pulp makes white blood cells, and the red pulp acts like a filter that removes dead and dying cells from the blood. (16) Lesson Summary - The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, the blood vessels, and the blood. There are three main types of blood vessels in the body; arteries, veins, and capillaries. - The systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system, which carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. The pulmonary circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system, which carries oxygen-poor blood away from the heart to the lungs, and returns oxygen-rich blood back to the heart. Lymph tissues include lymph nodes, lymph ducts, and lymph vessels. Organs of the lymphatic system include the tonsils, thymus, and spleen. The lymphatic system works with the cardiovascular system to return body fluids to the blood. The two systems together are often called the body’s two circulatory systems. Review Questions 1. Identify the main structures of the cardiovascular system. 2. Identify three types of blood vessels found in the body. 3. Which blood vessels bring blood away from the heart? 4. What are the smallest blood vessels in the body called? 5. What blood vessels bring blood back to the heart? 6. Where does blood in the pulmonary system go once it leaves the heart? 7. Where does blood in the systemic circulation go once it leaves the heart? 8. What does blood that leaves the heart in the systemic circulation have that body cells need? 9. Identify the main tissues and organs of the lymphatic system. 10. Outline how the cardiovascular and the lymphatic systems work together. 11. What is lymph, and where does it come from? 12. Identify one function of tonsils. 13. What might happen if a person did not have a spleen? 14. Name the two circulatory systems of the body. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart) Vocabulary arteries Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. blood A body fluid that is a type of connective tissue; moves oxygen and other compounds throughout the body. capillaries The smallest and narrowest blood vessels in the body. cardiovascular system The organ system that is made up of the heart, the blood vessels, and the blood. lymphatic system A network of vessels and tissues that carry a clear fluid called lymph; includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts, and lymph vessels. plasma The straw-colored fluid in blood. pulmonary circulation The part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-poor blood away from the heart to the lungs, and returns oxygen-rich blood back to the heart. systemic circulation The portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to the body, and returns oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. veins Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart. Points to Consider - Consider how the structure of the heart helps to maintain the systemic and pulmonary circulations. - Consider how problems with the coronary circulation can affect the entire body. - How would a hole in the heart muscle that allowed blood in the two ventricles to mix affect the rest of the body? 18.2 Lesson 18.2: Heart and Blood Vessels Lesson Objectives - Describe the structure of the heart. - Outline how blood moves through the heart. - Describe the importance of valves in the heart. - Describe the coronary circulation. Check Your Understanding - What is the role of the cardiovascular system? - What is the main function of the heart? Introduction The heart is divided into four chambers, the left and right atria and the left and right ventricles. An atrium is one of the two small, thin-walled chambers on the top of the heart. that blood first enters. A ventricle is one of the two muscular V-shaped chambers that pump blood out of the heart. The four chambers of the heart are shown in Figure 18.11. The atria receive the blood, and the ventricles pump the blood out of the heart. Each of the four chambers of the heart have a specific job, these are: - The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body. - The right ventricle pumps oxygen-poor blood toward the lungs. - The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs. - The left ventricle pumps oxygen-rich blood out of the heart to the rest of the body. The heart is usually found in the left to middle of the chest with the largest part of the heart slightly to the left. The heart is usually felt to be on the left side because the left ventricle is bigger and stronger than the right ventricle. The heart is surrounded by the lungs. ![Diagram of the heart](image) Figure 18.11: The atria receive blood and the ventricles pump blood out of the heart. (18) Blood Flow Through the Heart Blood flows through the heart in two separate loops; you could think of them as a “left side loop” and a “right side loop”. The right side and left side of the heart refer to your heart as it sits inside your chest. Its left side is your left side and, its right side is your right side. The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it into the lungs where it releases carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The left-side carries the oxygenated blood back from the lungs, into the left side of the heart which then pumps the oxygenated blood throughout the rest of the body. The Heartbeat To move blood through the heart, the cardiac muscle needs to contract in an organized way. Blood first enters the atria, as shown in Figure 18.12. When the atria contract blood is pushed into the ventricles. After the ventricles fill with blood, they contract and blood is pushed out of the heart. Valves in the heart keep the blood flowing in one direction. You can see some of the valves in Figure 18.12. The valves do this by opening and closing in one direction only. Blood moves only forward through the heart. The valves stop the blood from flowing backward. There are four valves of the heart: - The two atrioventricular (AV) valves stop blood from moving from the ventricles to the atria. - The two semilunar (SL) valves are found in the arteries leaving the heart, and they prevent blood flowing back from the arteries into the ventricles. The “lub-dub” sound of the heartbeat is caused by the closing of the AV valves (lub), and SL valves (dub), after blood has passed through them. ![Figure 18.12: Blood flows in only one direction in the heart; blood enters the atria, contracting and pushing blood into the ventricles, the atria relax, the ventricles fill with blood, contract, and push blood around the body.](image) Control of the Heartbeat The heart is made up of cardiac muscle cells. Cardiac cells are able to contract by themselves. They do not need help from the nervous system. This is different than skeletal muscle, which needs messages from nerve to contract. But the contractions of cardiac muscle still need to be coordinated to make sure the cells contract as a group. The contraction rate of cardiac muscle is controlled by two small groups of cardiac muscle cells called the sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodes. The SA node is found in the wall of the right atrium. It starts the contraction of muscle cells in the atria. The contracting cells send electrical messages called impulses to other muscle cells. The impulses then reach the AV node. The AV node is found in the lower part of the right atrium. The AV node conducts the impulses that come from the SA node through the atria to the ventricles. The impulses then spread around the ventricles and they contract. The frequency of the heart’s contractions, called the heart rate, can be changed by nervous or hormonal signals. Activities such as exercise or getting frightened can make the heart rate increase. After the exercise is over, or the fright has passed, the heart rate returns to normal. Blood Circulation and Blood Vessels There are actually two separate circulation systems within the heart. Both of these together make up the complete circulatory system of humans and other animals. Neither system can work alone. These are the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation. The human heart is made up of two separate pumps, the right side which pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulation, and the left side which pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation. Blood in one circuit has to go through the heart to enter the other circuit. The blood vessels are an important part of the cardiovascular system. They connect the heart (the pump), to every cell in the body. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins return blood to the heart. The main arteries and veins of the heart are shown in Figure 18.13. The veins that return oxygen-poor blood to the heart are the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The pulmonary veins return oxygen-rich blood to the heart. The pulmonary veins are the only veins that carry oxygen-rich blood all other veins carry oxygen-poor blood. The pulmonary arteries carry oxygen-poor blood away from the heart to the lungs. These are the only arteries that carry oxygen-poor blood. The aorta is the largest artery in the body. It carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart. Further away from the heart, the aorta branches into smaller arteries. Pulmonary Circulation The pulmonary circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-poor blood away from the heart and brings it to the lungs. Oxygen-poor blood returns to the heart from the body and leaves the right ventricle through the pulmonary arteries, which carry the blood to each lung. Once at the lungs, the red blood cells release carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen during respiration. The oxygen-rich blood then leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins which return it to the left side of the heart. This completes the pulmonary cycle. The oxygenated blood is then pumped to the body through the systemic circulation before returning again to the pulmonary circulation. Systemic Circulation The systemic circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. Oxygen-rich blood leaves the left ventricle through the aorta, from where it goes to the body’s organs and tissues. The blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to organs and tissues are much smaller than the vessels that leave the heart. Recall that capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. The tissues and organs absorb the oxygen, through the capillaries. Oxygen-poor blood is collected from the tissues and organs by tiny veins, which then flow into bigger veins. The inferior and superior vena cavae, are the large veins that return oxygen-poor blood to the right side of the heart. This completes the systemic cycle. The blood released carbon dioxide and gets more oxygen in the pulmonary circulation before returning to the systemic circulation. Coronary Circulation Just like every other organ in the body, the heart needs its own blood supply. It gets this blood in the coronary circulation. Although blood fills the chambers of the heart, the heart muscle tissue is so thick that it needs its own blood vessels to deliver oxygen and nutrients into the muscle. The coronary circulation is part of the systemic circulation. The vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle are called coronary arteries. The coronary arteries branch directly from the aorta, just above the heart, as shown in Figure 18.14. The vessels that remove the deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle are known as cardiac veins. Problems with the coronary circulation are often referred to as heart disease. ![Diagram of Coronary Circulation](image) Figure 18.14: In coronary circulation, the arteries that bring oxygen to the cardiac cells branch off the aorta; heart attacks are caused by blockages of the coronary arteries and blockages in the coronary arteries stop oxygen from getting to the heart muscle. (8) The circulation of blood around the body has been studied by people for a long time. The roles of the organs of the circulatory system were a mystery for many hundreds of years. For example, it was once believed that the left ventricle and arteries were filled with air, and the liver made blood. The pulmonary circulation was first discovered by a Syrian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, in 1242. Ibn al-Nafis was the first person to describe the coronary circulation. However, credit for the first description of blood circulation is given to an English physician... William Harvey. In 1616, Harvey first described the pulmonary and systemic circulation systems in detail. Lesson Summary - The heart is divided into four chambers, the left and right atria and the left and right ventricles. The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it into the lungs where it releases carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The left-side carries the oxygenated blood back from the lungs, into the left side of the heart which then pumps the oxygenated blood throughout the rest of the body. - The valves in the heart prevent blood from flowing backward into the heart. The contraction rate of cardiac muscle is controlled by two small groups of cardiac muscle cells called the sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodes. - The heart has its own blood supply, which is called the coronary circulation. The heart is fed oxygen-rich blood by coronary arteries. Oxygen-poor blood is collected by coronary veins. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harvey](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harvey) - [http://thevirtualheart.org/anatomyindex.html](http://thevirtualheart.org/anatomyindex.html) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_cycle](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_cycle) Review Questions 1. Name the four chambers of the heart. 2. Where does oxygen-poor blood first enter the heart? 3. Do ventricles pump blood out of the heart or do they pump blood into the atria? 4. What is the purpose of the valves in the heart? 5. What do the AV valves do? 6. Does the vena cava carry oxygen-poor or oxygen-rich blood? 7. Why can the heart be considered to be two separate pumps? 8. How might a hole in the heart wall between the two ventricles affect the circulation of blood? 9. To what organ or organs does the coronary circulation bring blood? 10. To what organ or organs does the pulmonary circulation bring blood? Vocabulary atrioventricular (AV) valves Valves that stop blood from moving from the ventricles back into the atria. atrium One of the two small, thin-walled chambers on the top of the heart that blood first enters. coronary circulation The blood supply that feeds the heart. semilunar (SL) valves Found in the arteries leaving the heart; prevents blood flowing back from the arteries into the ventricles. ventricle One of the two muscular V-shaped chambers that pump blood out of the heart. Points to Consider - Identify how the different components of the blood have very different roles in the cardiovascular system. - Consider how diet can affect the oxygen-carrying ability of blood. 18.3 Lesson 18.3: Blood Lesson Objectives - List the components of blood. - Identify three functions of blood. - Name the oxygen-carrying protein found in red blood cells. - Identify the main function of white blood cells. - Describe the importance of the ABO blood system. - Identify three blood disorders or diseases. Check Your Understanding - What is the main function of the blood? - What is the role of oxygen in aerobic (cellular) respiration? Introduction Did you know that blood is a tissue? Blood is a fluid connective tissue that is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. It moves around the body through the blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. Oxygen rich blood carried in arteries brings oxygen and nutrient to all the body’s cells. Oxygen-poor blood carries carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes away from the cells. As well as the transport of gases, nutrients, and wastes, blood has many other functions that are important to homeostasis. You will learn more about these functions in this lesson. Components of Blood Blood is a colloidal solution. A colloidal solution it is made up of particles that are suspended in a fluid. The cells in blood are suspended in plasma, the liquid part of blood. The cells that make up the blood are shown in Figure 18.15. The different components of blood have different roles. Some of the roles of blood include: - The defense of the body against infection by microorganisms or parasites. - The transport of chemical messages, such as hormones and hormone-like substances. - The control of body temperature. - The repair of damage to body tissues. Plasma If you were to filter out all the cells in blood, plasma is what would be left over. Plasma is the golden-yellow liquid part of the blood. Plasma is about 90 percent water and about 10 percent dissolved proteins, glucose, ions, hormones, and gases. Blood is made up of mostly plasma. The blood cells make up the rest of the volume. Red Blood Cells Red blood cells (RBCs) are flattened disk-shaped cells that carry oxygen. They are the most common blood cell in the blood. There are about 4 to 6 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood. Each RBC has 200 million molecules of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the protein that carries oxygen. Hemoglobin also gives the RBCs their red color. Red blood cells are made in the red marrow of long bones, ribs, skull, and vertebrae. Each red blood cell lives for only 120 days (about three months). After this time, they are destroyed in liver and spleen. Red blood cells are shown in Figure 18.16. Mature RBCs do not have a nucleus or other organelles. Figure 18.15: A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of human blood cells; red blood cells are the flat, bowl-shaped cells, the tiny disc-shaped pieces are platelets and white blood cells are the round cells visible in the center. (10) Figure 18.16: The flattened shape of RBCs helps them to carry more oxygen than if they were rounded. (13) White Blood Cells White blood cells (WBCs) are usually larger than red blood cells. They have a nucleus but do not have hemoglobin. White blood cells make up less than one percent of the blood’s volume. Most WBCs are made in the bone marrow, some mature in the lymphatic system. WBCs defend the body against infection by bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. Each WBC type has a specific defense job. Three of the most common white blood cells in the body are listed here. - Neutrophils can squeeze through capillary walls and swallow particles such as bacteria and parasites. - Macrophages can also swallow and destroy old and dying cells, bacteria, or viruses. In Figure 18.17 a macrophage is attacking and swallowing two particles, possibly pathogens. Macrophages also release chemical messages that cause the number of WBC to increase. - Lymphocytes fight infections by viruses and bacteria. Some lymphocytes attack and kill cancer cells. Other lymphocytes attack cells that are infected by viruses. Lymphocytes called B-cells make antibodies. Antibodies are chemicals that identify pathogens or other substances as being harmful, or they can destroy the pathogen. To learn more about the role of WBCs in protecting the body from infection, go to the Diseases and the Body’s Defenses chapter. ![A type of WBC, called a macrophage, is attacking and about to swallow two particles.](23) Figure 18.17: A type of WBC, called a macrophage, is attacking and about to swallow two particles. Platelets Platelets are very small, but they are very important in blood clotting. Platelets are not cells; they are sticky little pieces of larger cells. They bud off large cells that stay in the bone marrow. A platelet sits between a RBC and a WBC in Figure 18.18. Platelets carry chemicals that are important for proper blood clotting. When a blood vessel gets cut, platelets stick to the injured areas. They release chemicals called clotting factors which cause a web of protein fibers to form. This web catches RBCs and forms a clot. This clot stops more blood from leaving the body through the cut blood vessel. The clot also stops bacteria from entering the body. Platelets survive in the blood for 10 days before they are removed by the liver and spleen. ![A platelet lies between a RBC, at left, and a WBC at right; platelets are little pieces of larger cells, called megakaryocytes, which are found in the bone marrow.](image) Figure 18.18: A platelet lies between a RBC, at left, and a WBC at right; platelets are little pieces of larger cells, called megakaryocytes, which are found in the bone marrow. (20) Transport of Chemical Messages The blood also acts as a messenger delivery service. Chemical messages called hormones are carried and delivered by the blood to cells around the body. Hormones are released into the blood by the cells that make them and are delivered by the blood to the cells the hormones are made for. An example of a hormone transported in the blood is insulin, which regulates the concentration of glucose in the blood. Control of Body Temperature Your blood system does more than deliver oxygen and nutrients to your body cells. Your blood also moves heat (thermal energy) around your body. When your brain senses that your body temperature is increasing, it sends messages to the blood vessels in the skin to increase in diameter. Increasing the diameter of the blood vessels increases the amount of blood and heat that moves near the skin surface. The heat is then released from the skin. Blood Clotting Blood clotting is a complex process by which blood forms solid clots. As discussed above, clotting is important to stop bleeding and begin repair of damaged blood vessels. Blood clotting disorders can lead to an increased risk of bleeding or clotting inside a blood vessel. Platelets are important for the proper clotting of blood. Clotting is started almost immediately when an injury damages the inside lining of a blood vessel. Platelets clump together, forming a plug at the site of injury. Then, proteins in the plasma cause a series of chemical reactions that form a tough protein called fibrin. The fibrin strands form a web across the platelet plug, trapping red blood cells before they can leave through the wound site. This mass of platelets, fibrin, and red blood cells forms a clot that hardens into a scab. Certain nutrients are needed for the clotting system to work properly. Two of these are calcium and vitamin K. Bacteria that live in your intestines make enough vitamin K so you do not need to eat extra vitamin K in your food. Blood Types Blood type is determined by the presence or absence of certain molecules, called antigens, on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). There are four blood types; A, B, AB, and O. Type A blood has type A antigens on the RBCs in the blood. Type AB blood has A and B antigens on the RBCs. Type B has B antigens on the RBCs. Type O does not have any antigens (neither A nor B). The blood types may also have antibodies for other blood types in their plasma. For example, a person with type A blood may have anti-B antibodies (against B antigens), and a person with type O blood can have anti-A and anti-B antibodies in their blood. The blood type of a person can be worked out by testing a drop of a person’s blood using anti-A or anti-B antibodies. The ABO blood group system is most important if a person needs a blood transfusion. A blood transfusion is the process of putting blood or blood products from one person into the circulatory system of another person. If a person with type O blood received type A blood, the anti-A antibodies in the person’s blood would attack the A antigens on the RBCs in the donor blood, as shown in Figure 18.19. The antibodies would cause the RBCs to clump together, and the clumps could block a blood vessel. Such a reaction could be fatal. ![Figure 18.19: A person with type O blood has A and B antibodies in their plasma; if the person was to get type A blood instead of type O, Their A antibodies would attach to the antigens on the RBCs and cause them to clump together.](image) The Rhesus System The second most important blood group system in human blood is the Rhesus (Rh) system. The Rh blood group system currently consists of 50 blood group antigens, including the 5 antigens D, C, c, E, and e. The commonly used terms Rh factor, Rh positive and Rh negative refer to the D antigen only. A person either has, or does not have the Rh(D) antigen on the surface of their RBCs; written as $Rh(D)$ positive (does have the RhD antigen) or $Rh(D)$ negative (does not have the antigen). Blood Donors Recall that people with type O blood do not have any antigens on their RBCs. As a result, type O blood can be given to people with blood types A, B, or AB. If there are no antigens on the RBCs, there cannot be an antibody reaction to the blood. People with type O blood are often called universal donors. The blood plasma of AB blood does not contain any anti-A or anti-B antibodies. People with type AB blood can receive any ABO blood type. People with type AB positive blood are called universal recipients. The antigens and antibodies that define blood type are listed in Table (18.2). In April 2007 researchers discovered a way to convert blood types A, B, and AB to O. The researchers used enzymes to remove the antigens on the surface of the RBCs. This discovery could lead to producing or modifying blood cells that can be used as donors to people with all blood types. Table 18.2: Blood Types, Antigens, and Antibodies \| Blood type \| Antigen type \| Plasma antibodies \| Can receive from blood types \| Can donate to blood types \| \|------------\|--------------\|-------------------\|------------------------------\|---------------------------\| \| A \| A \| anti-B \| A, O \| A, AB \| \| B \| B \| anti-A \| B, O \| B, AB \| \| AB \| A and B \| none \| AB, A, B, O \| AB \| \| O \| none \| anti-A, anti-B \| O \| AB, A, B, O \| (Source: Niamh Gray-Wilson) Blood Diseases Problems can occur with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other parts of the blood. Many blood disorders are genetic, they are inherited from a parent. Some blood diseases are caused by not getting enough of a certain nutrient, while others are cancers of the blood. Sickle-Cell Disease Sickle cell disease is a blood disease that is caused by abnormally-shaped blood protein hemoglobin. Many of the RBCs of a person with sickle cell disease are long and curved (sickle-shaped), as shown in Figure 18.20. The long, sickle-shaped RBCs can have damaged cell membranes, which can cause them to burst. The long shape of the cells can cause them to get stuck in narrow blood vessels. This clotting causes oxygen starvation in tissues, which causes pain and may cause damage such as stroke or heart attack. People with sickle-cell disease are most often well, but can on occasion have painful attacks. The disease is not curable, but can be treated with medicines. Heterozygous individuals have an advantage; they are resistant to severe malaria. See the Genetics chapter for further discussion. Anemia Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying molecule found inside RBCs. Anemia results when there is not enough hemoglobin in the blood to carry oxygen to body cells. Hemoglobin normally carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Anemia leads to a lack of oxygen in organs. Anemia is usually caused by one of three things: - A loss of blood volume through a bleeding wound or a slow leak of blood. - The destruction of RBCs. Figure 18.20: The RBCs of a person with sickle cell disease (left) are long and pointed rather than straight like normal cells (right); the abnormal cells cannot carry oxygen properly and can get stuck in capillaries. (15) - Lack of RBC production. Anemia may not have any symptoms. Some people with anemia feel weak or tired in general or during exercise. They also may have poor concentration. People with more severe anemia often get short of breath during activity. Iron-deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia. It occurs when the dietary intake or absorption of iron is less than what is needed by the body. As a result, hemoglobin, which contains iron, cannot be made. In the United States, 20 percent of all women of childbearing age have iron deficiency anemia, compared with only 2 percent of adult men. The most common cause of iron deficiency anemia in young women is blood lost during menstruation. Iron deficiency anemia can be avoided by getting the recommended amount of iron in the diet. Anemia is often treated or prevented by taking iron supplements. Boys and girls aged between the ages of 9 and 13 should get 9 mg of iron every day. Girls between the ages of 14 and 18 should get 15 mg of iron every day. Boys aged between the ages of 14 and 18 should get 11 mg of iron every day. Pregnant women need the most iron—27 mg daily. Good sources of iron include shellfish such as clams and oysters. Red meat such as beef is also a good source of iron. Non-animal sources of iron include seeds, nuts, and legumes. Breakfast cereals often have iron added to them in a process called fortification. Some good sources of iron are listed in Table (18.3). Eating vitamin C along with the iron-containing food increases the amount of iron that the body can absorb. Table 18.3: \| Food \| Milligrams (mg) of Iron \| \|-------------------------------------------\|-------------------------\| \| Canned clams, drained, 3 oz \| 23.8 \| \| Fortified dry cereals, about 1 oz \| 1.8 to 21.1 \| \| Roasted pumpkin and squash seeds, 1 oz \| 4.2 \| \| Cooked lentils, ½ cup \| 3.3 \| \| Cooked fresh spinach, ½ cup \| 3.2 \| \| Cooked ground beef, 3 oz \| 2.2 \| \| Cooked sirloin beef, 3 oz \| 2.0 \| (Created by: Niamh Gray-Wilson. Information Source: Centers of Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone/iron_deficiency/#Iron%20Sources) Leukemia Leukemia is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow. It is characterized by an abnormal production of blood cells, usually white blood cells. Lymphoma is a type of cancer in white blood cells called lymphocytes. There are many types of lymphoma. Hemophilia Hemophilia is the name of a group of sex-linked (X-linked) hereditary diseases that affect the body’s ability to control blood clotting (see the Genetics chapter). Hemophilia is caused by a lack of clotting factors in the blood. Clotting factors are needed for the normal clotting of blood. A person who has hemophilia is initially able to make a clot to stop the bleeding, but because fibrin is not produced, the body is unable to keep a clot at an injury site. The risk of internal bleeding is also increased in hemophilia, especially into muscles, joints, or bleeding into closed spaces. Lesson Summary - Blood is a colloidal solution that contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The cells are suspended in plasma. The red blood cells give blood its red color. Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to body cells and carries wastes away. It also helps to maintain body temperature and to carry chemical messages called hormones around the body. - Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying protein that is found in red blood cells. White blood cells defend the body against infection by bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. Some WBCs swallow pathogens, and others produce antibodies that attack and destroy pathogens. - Blood type is determined by the presence or absence of certain molecules, called antigens, on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). There are four blood types; A, B, AB, and O. - If a person receives the wrong blood type, antibodies in the person’s blood would attack the antigens on the RBCs in the donor blood. The antibodies would cause the RBCs to clump together, and the clumps could block a blood vessel. - Sickle cell disease is a blood disease that is caused by abnormally-shaped blood protein hemoglobin. - Anemia is a disorder in which there is not enough hemoglobin in the blood to carry oxygen to body cells. Review Questions 1. What types of cells are found in blood? 2. What is the liquid part of blood called? 3. What is the function of platelets? 4. Identify two functions of blood other than bringing oxygen to body cells. 5. What is the oxygen-carrying protein found in red blood cells? 6. Identify two ways that white blood cells defend the body from infection. 7. How are the red blood cells of the different blood groups different? 8. They have different antigens on the surface of the cells. 9. Why are people with type O blood called universal donors? 10. Why are people with type AB blood called universal recipients? 11. Problem \| question=Identify three blood disorders or diseases. \|difficulty=Beginning \| solution= Problem \| question=How can the shape of the hemoglobin protein in a person with sickle-cell disease affect other body systems? \|difficulty=Challenging \| solution= 12. What is a common cause of anemia in young people? 13. Identify two good sources of iron in the diet. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary ABO blood type system Blood group system that is determined by the presence or absence of certain molecules, called antigens, on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs); there are four blood types in the ABO system: A, B, AB, and O. anemia The condition of not having enough hemoglobin in the blood to carry oxygen to body cells. antibodies Proteins that identify pathogens or other substances as being harmful; flow in blood; can destroy pathogens by attaching to the cell membrane of the pathogen. blood clotting The complex process by which blood forms solid clots. blood transfusion The process of putting blood or blood products from one person into the circulatory system of another person. fibrin A tough protein that forms strands during the blood clotting process. hemophilia A group of hereditary diseases that affect the body’s ability to control blood clotting. iron-deficiency anemia Occurs when the dietary intake or absorption of iron is less than what is needed by the body. As a result, hemoglobin, which contains iron, cannot be made. leukemia Cancer of the blood or bone marrow; characterized by an abnormal production of blood cells, usually white blood cells. lymphoma Cancer of white blood cells called lymphocytes. plasma The golden-yellow liquid part of the blood. platelets Fragments of larger cells that are important in blood clotting. red blood cells (RBCs) Flattened disk-shaped cells that carry oxygen, the most common blood cell in the blood. Mature red blood cells do not have a nucleus. rhesus (Rh) system The second most important blood group system in human blood transfusion. A person either has, or does not have the Rh(D) antigen on the surface of their RBCs; written as $Rh(D)$ positive (does have the RhD antigen) or $Rh(D)$ negative (does not have the antigen). sickle cell disease A blood disease that is caused by abnormally-shaped blood protein hemoglobin. universal donor A person with type O positive blood; type O RBC do not have any antigens on their membranes and so would not cause an immune reaction in the body of a recipient. universal recipient A person with type AB positive blood; the blood plasma of AB blood does not contain any anti-A or anti-B antibodies. People with type AB blood can receive any ABO blood type. white blood cells Nucleated blood cells that are usually larger than red blood cells; defend the body against infection by bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. Points to Consider - Why is the blood in veins not under pressure? - How can your diet affect the cardiovascular system? 18.4 Lesson 18.4: Health of the Cardiovascular System Lesson Objectives - Outline the cause of blood pressure in arteries. - Identify the healthy range for blood pressure. - Describe three types of cardiovascular disease. - Identify things you can do to avoid cardiovascular disease. Check Your Understanding - What is the role of the cardiovascular system? Introduction The health of your whole body depends on the good health of your cardiovascular system. The health of the cardiovascular system (CV system) can be overlooked because damage to the CV system often does not have any symptoms. In this lesson you will learn about common health problems with the CV system, and how you can work toward having a healthy CV system. Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. The contracting ventricles push blood out of the heart under force. The force of the contractions put the blood under pressure. The pressure causes the walls of the arteries to move in a rhythmic fashion. Blood in arteries is under the greatest amount of pressure. A person’s pulse is the throbbing of their arteries that results from the heart beat. The pressure of the circulating blood gradually decreases as blood moves from the arteries, and into the smaller blood vessels. Blood that is in veins is not under pressure. The term blood pressure generally refers to the pressure in the larger arteries that take blood away from the heart. Arterial pressure results from the force that is applied to blood by the contracting heart, where the blood “presses” against the walls of the arteries. The systolic arterial pressure is the highest pressure in the arteries. The diastolic arterial pressure is the lowest pressure. Arterial pressure is most commonly measured by an instrument called a sphygmomanometer, shown in Figure 18.21. The height of a column of mercury indicates the pressure of the circulating blood. Many modern blood pressure devices no longer use mercury, but values are still reported in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). Figure 18.21: A digital sphygmomanometer is made of an inflatable cuff and a pressure meter to measure blood pressure. (22) Healthy Blood Pressure Ranges In the United States, the healthy ranges for arterial pressure are: • Systolic: less than 120 mm Hg • Diastolic: less than 80 mm Hg Blood pressure is usually written as systolic/diastolic mm Hg. For example, a reading of 120/80 mm Hg, is said as "one twenty over eighty." These measures of arterial pressure are not static, they change with each heartbeat and during the day. Factors such as age, gender and race also influence blood pressure values. Pressure also varies with exercise, emotions, sleep, stress, nutrition, drugs, or disease. Studies have shown that people whose systolic pressure is around 115 mm Hg rather than 120 mm Hg have fewer health problems. Clinical trials have shown that people who have arterial pressures at the low end of these ranges have much better long term cardiovascular health. Hypertension which is also called high blood pressure, is a condition in which a person’s blood pressure is always high. Hypertension is said to be present when a person’s systolic blood pressure is always 140 mm Hg or higher, and/or their diastolic blood pressure is always 90 mm Hg or higher. Having hypertension increases a person’s chance for developing heart disease, having a stroke, and other serious cardiovascular diseases. Hypertension often does not have any symptoms, so a person may not know they have high blood pressure. For this reason hypertension is often called the silent killer. However, hypertension can be easily diagnosed and is usually treatable. Treatments for hypertension include diet changes, exercise, and medication. Atherosclerosis and Other Cardiovascular Diseases A cardiovascular disease (CVD) is any disease that affects the cardiovascular system. But, the term is usually used to describe diseases that are linked to atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammation of the walls of arteries that causes swelling and a buildup of material called plaque. Plaque is made of cell pieces, fatty substances, calcium, and connective tissue that build up around the area of inflammation. As a plaque grows it stiffens and narrows the artery, which reduces the flow of blood through the artery, shown in Figure 18.22. Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis normally begins in later childhood, and is usually found in most major arteries. It does not usually have any early symptoms. Causes of atherosclerosis include a high-fat diet, high cholesterol, smoking, obesity, and diabetes. Atherosclerosis becomes a threat to health when the plaque buildup interferes with the blood circulation in the heart or the brain. A blockage in the blood vessels of the heart can cause a heart attack. Blockage of the Figure 18.22: Atherosclerosis is sometimes referred to as hardening of the arteries; plaque build-up reduces the blood flow through the artery. (24) circulation in the brain can cause a stroke. According to the American Heart Association, atherosclerosis is a leading cause of CVD. Coronary Heart Disease Cardiac muscle cells are fed by the coronary arteries. Blocked flow in a coronary artery can result in a lack of oxygen and the death of heart muscle. Coronary heart disease is the end result of the buildup of plaques within the walls of the coronary arteries. Coronary heart disease often does not have any symptoms. A symptom of coronary heart disease is chest pain. Occasional chest pain, called angina can happen during times of stress or physical activity. The pain of angina means the heart muscle fibers need more oxygen than they are getting. Most people with coronary heart disease often have no symptoms for many years until they have a heart attack. A heart attack happens when the blood supply to a part of the heart is blocked. The cardiac muscle that depends on the blood supply from the blocked artery does not get any oxygen. Cardiac muscle fibers that is starved of oxygen for more than about five minutes will die. Cardiac muscle does not divide, so dead cardiac muscle cells are not replaced. Coronary heart disease is the leading causes of death of adults in the United States. How a blocked coronary artery can cause a heart attack, and cause part of the heart muscle to die is shown in Figure 18.23. Injured cardiac muscle does not contract as well as healthy tissue, so the heart will not work as well as it used to. Figure 18.23: A blockage in a coronary artery stops oxygen getting to part of the heart muscle; areas of the heart that depend on the blood flow from the blocked artery are starved of oxygen. (4) Stroke Atherosclerosis in the arteries of the brain can lead to a stroke. A stroke is a loss of brain function due to a blockage of the blood supply to the brain. It can be caused by a blood clot, a free-floating object that gets caught in a blood vessel, or by a bleeding blood vessel. Risk factors for stroke include advanced age, high blood pressure, having a previous stroke, diabetes, high cholesterol, and cigarette smoking. Reducing blood pressure is the most important controllable risk factor of stroke. However, many other risk factors, such as avoiding tobacco or quitting tobacco smoking are also important. Keeping Your Cardiovascular System Healthy There are many risk factors that can cause a person to develop CVD. A risk factor is anything that is linked to an increased chance of developing a disease or an infection. Some of the risk factors for CVD you cannot control, but there are many risk factors you can control. Risk factors you cannot control include: - Age The older a person is, the greater their chance of developing a cardiovascular disease. - Gender Men under age 64 are much more likely to die of coronary heart disease than women, although the gender difference declines with age. Genetics Family history of cardiovascular disease increases a person’s chance of developing heart disease. Risk factors you can control include: - Tobacco Smoking Giving up smoking or never starting to smoke is the single most effective way of reducing the risk of heart disease. - Diabetes Having diabetes can cause changes (such as high cholesterol levels) which in themselves are risk factors. - High Cholesterol Levels High amounts of low density lipids in the blood, also called bad cholesterol, are a significant risk factor. - Obesity Being obese, especially if the fat is deposited mostly in the torso, rather than the hips and thighs, increases risk significantly. - High Blood Pressure Hypertension can cause atherosclerosis. - Lack of Physical Activity Aerobic activities, such as the one shown in Figure 18.24, help keep your heart healthy. To reduce the risk of disease, you should be active for at least 60 minutes a day, five days a week (or most days of the week). - Poor Eating Habits Eating mostly foods that are nutrient poor (do not have many nutrients other than fat or carbohydrate) leads to high cholesterol levels and overweight, among other things. ![Figure 18.24: Thirty minutes a day of vigorous aerobic activity, such as basketball, is enough to help keep your cardiovascular system healthy.](image-url) Although there are uncontrollable risk factors, a person whose family has a history of CVD does not have to develop heart disease. There are many things a person can do to help prevent CVD, even if CVD is in their family. A person who is physically active every day, eats healthfully, and avoids tobacco can lower their chances of developing a CVD. Men have a higher rate of cardiovascular disease than women do, but it is the number one health problem for women in industrialized countries. The risk for older women (in late adulthood) is almost equal that of older men. Cardiovascular Disease Awareness: What You Can Do Being active every day and eating healthfully are two of the most important things you can do to maintain a healthy cardiovascular system. Avoiding tobacco is also very important. You do not need to be on a sports team or join a gym to be physically active. For example, shooting hoops at your school or local basketball courts can help keep your heart healthy. Aerobic activities are activities that cause your heart to beat faster and allow your muscles to use oxygen to get energy to contract. When done regularly, aerobic activities increase the size of the heart so it pumps blood around the body more efficiently. Aerobic activities also help to keep blood vessels healthy. To stay healthy, teens and children should be active for at least 60 minutes most days of the week. Limiting the amount of saturated fat in your diet can also keep your heart healthy. Saturated fats are found in dairy foods, meats, cookies, pies, some chocolates, and ice cream. Saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature. Fat gives food flavor and texture. Saturated fats occur naturally in foods that come from animals, such as meat and milk, but they are often added to baked products such as cookies, shown in Figure 18.25, to give the foods flavor and texture. Not all fats are harmful to the cardiovascular system. Fats called monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are needed by the body, and should make up most of the fats that you eat in your diet. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are found in plants and fish, and are usually liquid at room temperature. To learn more about the importance of fats in your diet, read the Choosing Healthful Foods lesson of the Food and the Digestive System chapter. Cardiovascular diseases are called lifestyle diseases because they are caused mostly by everyday choices that people make, such as what to eat for dinner, or what to do during their free time. For example, watching TV with your dog does not involve much moving around so it does not exercise the body, whereas bringing the dog for a walk outside exercises both of you. Decisions that you make today and everyday - those of developing healthy lifelong habits - will affect your cardiovascular health many years from now. Many studies have shown that plaque build-up starts in the teen years. However, teens are more concerned about risks such as HIV, accidents, and cancer than cardiovascular disease. One in three people will die from complications due to atherosclerosis. For this reason there is an emphasis on the prevention of CVD through risk reduction. For example, healthy eating, regular physical activity, and avoidance of smoking can greatly decrease a person’s chance of developing a CVD. Lesson Summary - Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. The force of the contractions put the blood under pressure. Blood pressure is measured by an instrument called a sphygmomanometer. - In the United States the healthy ranges for systolic pressure is less than 120 mm Hg and a diastolic pressure of less than 80 mm Hg. Hypertension is a condition in which a person’s blood pressure is always high. - A cardiovascular disease (CVD) is any disease that affects the cardiovascular system. Atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, and stroke are examples of CVDs. - Cardiovascular diseases are lifestyle diseases, they are mostly caused by lifestyle choices that people make. Having a poor diet and not getting enough exercise are two major causes of CVD. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://mypyramid.gov; http://www.presidentschallenge.org/; http://mypyramid.gov - http://www.cdc.gov/youthcampaign/marketing/tweens/yellowball/index.htm - http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/physical/everyone/recommendations/index.htm - http://www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_exercise; http://www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure Review Questions 1. What is the cause of blood pressure? 2. How is the pulse related to blood pressure? 3. Is the blood in veins under pressure? Explain your answer. 4. What is the healthy range for blood pressure? 5. When is a person considered to have hypertension? 6. Why is hypertension called a silent killer? 7. A stroke is often called a brain attack, in a similar way to a heart attack. How are these two things similar? 8. What is atherosclerosis? 9. What is a risk factor? 10. What is the difference between a controllable risk factor and an uncontrollable risk factor? 11. Why are cardiovascular diseases called lifestyle diseases? 12. Identify three things a person could do to reduce their chances of developing a CVD. Vocabulary angina Chest pain caused by the lack of oxygen to the heart muscle; can happen during times of stress or physical activity. atherosclerosis A chronic inflammation of the walls of arteries that causes swelling and a buildup of material called plaque. blood pressure The force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. cardiovascular disease (CVD) Any disease that affects the cardiovascular system, although the term is usually used to describe diseases that are linked to atherosclerosis. coronary heart disease The end result of the buildup of plaques within the walls of the coronary arteries. heart attack Event that occurs when the blood supply to a part of the heart is blocked. hypertension Also called high blood pressure; a condition in which a person’s blood pressure is always high; the systolic blood pressure is always 140 mm Hg or higher, and/or their diastolic blood pressure is always 90 mm Hg or higher. plaque Cell pieces made up of fatty substances, calcium, and connective tissue that build up around the area of inflammation; builds up on the lining of blood vessels. risk factor Anything that is linked to an increased chance of developing a disease or an infection. stroke A loss of brain function due to a blockage of the blood supply to the brain. Points to Consider • Do you think there is a relationship between the cardiovascular system and the respiratory system? What could it be? • Do you think hypertension affects the ability of the blood to release carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen in the lungs? Why? Image Sources (1) Capillaries connect arteries and veins.. Public Domain-gov. (2) Keksbaggern. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Christmas_Cookies.jpg. CC-BY. (3) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_lymph_capillary.png. Public Domain. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Heart_attack_diagram.png. Public Domain. (5) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_lymphatic_system.jpg. Public Domain. (6) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Humhrt2.jpg. (a)CC-BY. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diagram_of_the_human_heart.svg. GNU-FDL. (8) Patrick J. Lynch, C. Carl Jaffe, M.D.. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Heart_left_anterior_oblique_diagrams.svg. CC-BY. (9) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tonsils_diagram.jpg. Public Domain. (10) Bruce Wetzel, Harry Schaefer. http://visualsonline.cancer.gov/details.cfm?imageid=2129. Public Domain. (11) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_artery.jpg. Public Domain. (12) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basket_sky.JPG. Public Domain. (13) NIH. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redbloodcells.jpg. Public Domain. (14) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coombs_test_schematic.png. GNU-FDL. (15) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sicklecells.jpg. Public Domain. (16) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Illu_spleen.jpg. Public Domain. (17) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_vein.jpg. Public Domain. (18) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aorta.jpg. Public Domain. (19) Joshuajohnlee. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f6/Double_circulatory_system.jpg. Public Domain. (20) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red_White_Blood_cells.jpg. Public Domain. (21) K-12 Foundation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Heart_systole.svg. (b)GNU-FDL. (22) Julo. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BloodPressure.jpg. Public Domain. (23) Obli. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Macrophage.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (24) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atherosclerosis,_aorta,_gross_pathology_PHL_846_lores.jpg. (a)CC-BY (b)Public Domain. (25) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Blutkreislauf.png. CC-BY-SA 2.5. Chapter 19 Respiratory and Excretory Systems 19.1 Lesson 19.1: Respiratory System Lesson Objectives - Identify the parts of the respiratory system. - Identify the main function of the respiratory system. - Describe how breathing works. - Outline how the respiratory system and the cardiovascular system work together. - Identify how breathing and cellular respiration are connected. Check Your Understanding - What is an organ system? - What is the role of the circulatory system? - How does your blood get oxygen? Introduction You breathe mostly without thinking about it. But, do you remember how uncomfortable you felt the last time you had a cold or a cough? You usually do not think about your respiratory system or how it works until there is a problem with it. Every cell in your body depends on your respiratory system. In this lesson, you will learn how your respiratory system works with your cardiovascular system to bring oxygen to every cell in your body. Roles of the Respiratory System Your respiratory system is made up of the tissues and organs that allow oxygen to enter and carbon dioxide to leave your body. These structures include your nose, mouth, larynx, pharynx, lungs, and diaphragm. These structures are shown in Figure 19.1. The main function of the respiratory system is to bring oxygen into the body and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Figure 19.1: The respiratory system; air moves in through the nose and mouth, and down the trachea which is a long straight tube in the chest. (14) Parts of the Respiratory System Figure 1 shows many of the structures of the respiratory system. Each of the parts has a specific job. The parts of the respiratory system include: The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that extends across the bottom of the rib cage. It performs an important function in respiration. When the diaphragm contracts the chest volume gets larger and the lungs take in air. When the diaphragm relaxes, the chest volume gets smaller and air is pushed out of the lungs. The nose and nasal cavity filters, warms, and moistens the inhaled air. The nose hairs and mucus produced by the cells that line the nose catch airborne particles and prevent them from reaching the lungs. Behind the nasal cavity, air next passes through the pharynx, a long tube that is shared with the digestive system. Both food and air pass through the pharynx. A flap of connective tissue called the epiglottis closes over the trachea when food is swallowed to prevent choking or inhaling food. The larynx, also called the voicebox, is found just below the point at which the pharynx splits into the trachea and the esophagus. Your voice comes from your larynx. Air from the lungs passes across thin membranes in the larynx and produces sound. The trachea, or wind pipe, is a long tube that leads down to the chest where it divides into the right and left bronchi in the lungs. The bronchi branch out into smaller bronchioles in each lung. The bronchioles lead to the alveoli. Alveoli are the little sacs at the end of the bronchioles. They look like little bunches of grapes at the end of the bronchioles, as shown in Figure 19.2. Most of the gas exchange occurs in the alveoli. Gas exchange is the movement of oxygen across a membrane and into the blood and the movement of carbon dioxide out of the blood. How We Breathe Most of the time, you breathe without thinking of it. Breathing is mostly an involuntary action that is controlled by a part of your brain that also controls your heart beat. If you swim, do yoga, or sing, you know you can also control your breathing. Taking air into the body through the nose and mouth is called inhalation. Pushing air out of the body through the nose or mouth is called exhalation. The man in Figure 19.3 is exhaling before he surfaces in the pool water. The lungs cannot move by themselves. As mentioned above, air moves into and out of the lungs by the movement of muscles. The diaphragm and rib muscles contract and relax to move air in to and out of the lungs. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward. The rib muscles contract Figure 19.2: The alveoli are the tiny grape-like structures in the lungs and the sites of gas exchange. (11) Figure 19.3: Being able to control breathing is important for many activities, such as swimming. The man in the photograph is exhaling before he surfaces the water. (10) and cause the ribs to move outward. This causes the chest volume to increase. Because the chest volume is larger, the air pressure inside the lungs is less than the air pressure outside. This difference in air pressures causes air to be sucked into the lungs. When the diaphragm and rib muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs. Exhalation is normally a passive process, similar to letting the air out of a balloon. The walls of the alveoli are very thin and are permeable to gases. The alveoli are lined with capillaries, the walls of which are also thin enough to allow gas exchange. These capillaries are shown in Figure 19.4. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli. At the same time, carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from capillary blood to the alveoli. At this point, the pulmonary blood is oxygen-rich, and the lungs are holding carbon dioxide. Exhalation follows, thereby ridding the body of the carbon dioxide and completing the cycle of respiration. ![Figure 19.4: The bronchi and alveoli; during respiration, oxygen gets pulled into the lungs and enters the blood by passing across the thin alveoli membranes and into the capillaries.](image) Breathing and Respiration When you breathe in, oxygen is drawn in through the mouth and down into the lungs. The oxygen then passes across the thin lining of the capillaries and into the blood. The oxygen molecules are carried to the body cells by the blood. Carbon dioxide from the body cells is carried by the blood to the lungs where it is released into the air. The process of getting oxygen into the body and releasing carbon dioxide is called respiration. Sometimes breathing is called respiration. But, there is much more to respiration than just breathing. There are actually two parts to respiration. The movement of oxygen into the body and carbon dioxide out of the body is called external respiration. The exchange of gases between the blood and the cells of the body is called internal respiration. The Journey of a Breath of Air Breathing is only part of the process of delivering oxygen to where it is needed in the body. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli by passive diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries of the lungs. The passive diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide is shown in Figure 19.5. Recall that diffusion is the movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. The difference between the high concentration of oxygen ($O_2$) in the alveoli and the low $O_2$ concentration of the blood in the capillaries is enough to cause $O_2$ molecules to diffuse across the thin walls of the alveoli and capillaries and into the blood. Carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) moves out of the blood and into the alveoli in a similar way. After leaving the lungs, the oxygenated blood returns to the heart to be pumped through the aorta and around the body. The oxygenated blood travels through the aorta, to the smaller arteries and finally to the capillaries where gas exchange occurs. The oxygen molecules move out of the capillaries and into the body cells. While oxygen diffuses from the capillaries and into body cells, carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the capillaries. ![Gas Exchange Diagram](image) Figure 19.5: Gas exchange is the movement of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood. (17) Breathing and Cellular Respiration The oxygen that arrives at the cells from the lungs is used by the cells to release the energy stored in molecules of sugar. Cellular respiration is the process of breaking down glucose to release energy (see the Cell Functions chapter). The waste products of cellular respiration include carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide molecules move out of the cells and into the capillaries that surround the cells. The carbon dioxide is removed from the body by the lungs. Lesson Summary - Your respiratory system is made up of the tissues and organs that allow oxygen to enter and carbon dioxide to leave your body. These structures include your nose, mouth, larynx, pharynx, lungs, and diaphragm. The main function of the respiratory system is to bring oxygen into the body and releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward. The rib muscles contract and cause the ribs to move outward, causing the chest volume to increase. Air pressure inside the lungs is less than the air pressure outside so air is sucked into the lungs. When the diaphragm and rib muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs. Exhalation is normally a passive process. - Oxygen enters the lungs, passes through the alveoli and into the blood. The oxygen is carried around the body in blood vessels. In a similar way, carbon dioxide, a waste product, moves into the blood capillaries by passive diffusion and is brought to the lungs in the pulmonary circulation. The carbon dioxide is released into the air during exhalation. The oxygen that arrives from the lungs is used by the cells during cellular respiration to release the energy stored in molecules of sugar. A waste product of cellular respiration, carbon dioxide, is removed from the body by exhalation. Review Questions 1. Name the parts of the respiratory system. 2. What is the main function of the respiratory system? 3. A classmate says that the lung muscles cause the lungs to move during breathing. Do you agree with your classmate? 4. How do the respiratory system and the cardiovascular system work together? 5. Breathing is an involuntary action. Does this mean that you cannot control your breathing? 6. In what part of the lung does gas exchange occur? 7. What is the difference between breathing and respiration? 8. Identify how breathing and cellular respiration are connected. 9. What is the important gas that is carried into the lungs during inhalation? 10. What is the name of the waste gas that is released during exhalation? 11. If a disease caused the alveoli to collapse, how might this affect a person’s health? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary alveoli Little “sacs” at the end of the bronchioles where most of the gas exchange occurs. diaphragm A sheet of muscle that extends across the bottom of the rib cage. When the diaphragm contracts the chest volume gets larger and the lungs take in air; when the diaphragm relaxes, the chest volume gets smaller and air is pushed out of the lungs. epiglottis A flap of connective tissue that closes over the trachea when food is swallowed to prevent choking or inhaling food. exhalation Pushing air out of the body through the nose or mouth. external respiration The movement of oxygen into the body and carbon dioxide out of the body. gas exchange The movement of oxygen across a membrane and into the blood and the movement of carbon dioxide out of the blood. inhalation Taking air into the body through the nose and mouth. internal respiration The exchange of gases between the blood and the cells of the body. larynx Found just below the point at which the pharynx splits into the trachea and the esophagus. Your voice comes from your larynx; air from the lungs passes across thin membranes in the larynx and produces sound; also called the voicebox. pharynx A long tube that is shared with the digestive system; both food and air pass through the pharynx. respiration The process of getting oxygen into the body and releasing carbon dioxide. trachea A long tube that leads down to the chest where it divides into the right and left bronchi in the lungs; also called the windpipe. Points to Consider - How do you think the health of your respiratory system might affect the health of other body systems? 19.2 Lesson 19.2: Health of the Respiratory System Lesson Objectives - Identify the organs affected by a respiratory disease. - Identify how a respiratory disease can affect the rest of the body. - Describe how asthma affects breathing. - Outline how smoking affects the respiratory system. - Identify what you can do to keep your respiratory system healthy. Check Your Understanding - What is the role of the respiratory system? - What are some of the organs of the respiratory system? Introduction Most of the time your respiratory system works well, and you don’t notice it doing its job. But your respiratory system can sometimes be knocked out of homeostasis. Recall that homeostasis is the balancing act your body performs that keeps conditions in your body stable. Anything that disrupts the respiratory system from doing its job disrupts homeostasis. When homeostasis no longer exists, there is disease. There are many causes of respiratory diseases, and many ways to treat such diseases. In this lesson you will learn about some of the most common respiratory diseases, and what you can do to help avoid them. You will also learn how the use of tobacco disrupts homeostasis, which leads to some of the most serious respiratory diseases. Respiratory System Disease In general, diseases that last a short time are called acute diseases. Other diseases can last for a long time, perhaps years. Diseases that last for a long time are called chronic diseases. Both acute and chronic diseases affect the respiratory system. Respiratory diseases are diseases of the lungs, bronchial tubes, trachea, nose, and throat (Figure 19.6). These diseases can range from a mild cold to a severe case of bacterial pneumonia. Respiratory diseases are common and may cause illness or death. Some respiratory diseases are caused by bacteria while others are caused by viruses, environmental pollutants such as tobacco smoke, or are hereditary. Figure 19.6: This boy is suffering from whooping cough (also known as pertussis) which gets its name from the loud whooping sound that is made when the person inhales during a coughing fit. (4) Bronchitis Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchi. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viruses or bacteria and may last several days or weeks. It is characterized by a cough that produces phlegm (mucus). Symptoms include shortness of breath and wheezing, which are related to the inflammation of the airways. Acute bronchitis is usually treated with antibiotics. Chronic bronchitis may not be caused by a bacterium or a virus. Chronic bronchitis is defined as having a cough that produces phlegm, for at least three months in a two-year period. Tobacco smoking is the most common cause of chronic bronchitis, but it can be caused by environmental pollution such as smog and dust. It is generally part of a syndrome called chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which we will learn about later. Treatments for bronchitis include antibiotics and steroid drugs to reduce inflammation. Asthma Asthma is a chronic illness in which the bronchioles are inflamed and become narrow, as shown in Figure 19.7. The muscles around the bronchioles contract which narrows the airways further. Large amounts of mucus are also made by the cells that line the lungs. A person with asthma has difficulty breathing. Their chest feels tight and they wheeze. Asthma can be caused by different things such as exposure to an allergen. An allergen is any antigen that is not an infectious organism. Allergens can cause allergic reactions. Common allergens that cause asthma are mold, dust, or pet hair. Asthma can also be caused by cold air, warm air, moist air, exercise, or stress. The most common asthma triggers are viral illnesses such as the common cold. The symptoms of asthma can usually be controlled with medicine. Bronchodilators are drugs that reduce inflammation of the bronchioles allowing air through. Asthma is not contagious and cannot be passed onto other people. Sometimes people with asthma are afraid that being active could cause them to have an asthma attack. Having asthma does not mean that you have to miss out on being active. Many teens that have asthma are active every day. Asthma cannot be cured, but is treatable with medicines. Children and adolescents who have asthma can still lead active lives if they control their asthma. Asthma can be controlled by taking medication and by avoiding contact with environmental triggers for asthma. Pneumonia Pneumonia is an illness in which the alveoli become inflamed and flooded with fluid. Pneumonia is a restrictive respiratory disease. Gas exchange cannot happen properly across the alveoli membranes. Pneumonia can be caused by many things. Infection by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites can cause pneumonia. An injury caused by chemicals or a physical injury to the lungs can also cause pneumonia. Symptoms of pneumonia include cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty in breathing. Treatment depends on the cause of pneumonia. Bacterial pneumonia is treated with antibiotics. Pneumonia is a common illness which occurs in all age groups, and is a leading cause of death among the elderly and people who are chronically and terminally ill. Vaccines to prevent certain types of pneumonia are available. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is a common and often deadly infectious disease caused by a type of bacterium called mycobacterium. Tuberculosis most commonly attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body. Mycobacteria in the alveoli cause an immune reaction in the body that damages the alveoli. TB is a chronic disease, but most people who become infected do not develop the full disease. The TB mycobacteria are spread in the air when people who have the disease cough, sneeze or spit. To help prevent the spread of the disease, public health notices, such as the one in Figure 19.8, reminded people how to stop the spread of the disease. Currently, drug resistant forms of TB are creating a new challenge for health professionals. Cancer Lung cancer is a disease where the cells that line the lungs grow out of control. The growing mass of cells pushes into nearby tissues and can affect how these tissues work. Lung cancer, which is the most common cause of cancer-related death in men and the second most common in women, is responsible for 1.3 million deaths worldwide every year. The most common symptoms are shortness of breath, coughing (including coughing up blood), and weight loss. The most common cause of lung cancer is exposure to tobacco smoke. Figure 19.8: A public health notice from the early 20th century reminded people that TB could be spread very easily. (9) Emphysema Emphysema is a chronic lung disease caused by loss of elasticity of the lung tissue. The surfaces of healthy alveoli are springy and elastic. They stretch out a little when full of air and relax when air leaves them. But the breakdown of the tissues that support the alveoli and the capillaries that feed the alveoli cause the alveoli to become hard and stiff. Eventually the walls of the alveoli break down and the alveoli become larger. When alveoli become larger, the amount of oxygen that can enter the blood with each breath is reduced. Much of the oxygen that gets into the large alveoli cannot be absorbed across the alveoli walls into the blood. Symptoms of emphysema include shortness of breath on exertion (usually when climbing stairs or a hill). Damage to the alveoli, which can be seen in Figure 19.9, is not curable. Smoking is a leading cause of emphysema. Figure 19.9: The lung of a smoker who had emphysema (left); the black areas are enlarged alveoli and tar, a sticky, black substance found in tobacco smoke is evident, and (right) COPD (Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), a tobacco-related disease that is characterized by emphysema. (18) Causes of Respiratory Diseases Pathogens Many respiratory diseases are caused by pathogens. A pathogen is an organism that causes disease in another organism. Certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi are pathogens of the respiratory system. The common cold and flu are caused by viruses. The influenza virus that causes the flu is shown in Figure 19.10. Tuberculosis, whooping cough, and acute bronchitis are caused by bacteria. The pathogens that cause colds, flu, and TB can be passed from person to person by coughing, sneezing, and by spitting. Pollution Air quality is related to several respiratory diseases. Asthma, heart and lung diseases, allergies, and several types of cancers are all linked to air quality. Air pollution can be caused by outdoor pollution or indoor pollution. Outdoor air pollution can be caused by car exhaust fumes, smoke from factories and forest fires, volcanoes, and animal feces. Some of the pollutants of concern include particulates, carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, and lead. These pollutants contain tiny particles that can get “stuck” in the lining of the respiratory system and irritate the lungs. Indoor air pollution can be caused by tobacco smoke, dust, mold, insects, rodents, and cleaning chemicals. Lifestyle Choices Smoking is the major cause of chronic respiratory disease as well as cardiovascular disease and cancer. Exposure to tobacco smoke, by smoking or by breathing air that contains tobacco smoke is the leading cause of preventable death in the U.S. Regular smokers die about 10 years earlier than nonsmokers do. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide." Dangers of Smoking Tobacco use, particularly cigarette smoking, is the single most preventable cause of death in the United States. Cigarette smoking alone is directly responsible for approximately 30 percent of all cancer deaths annually in the United States. The main health risks of using tobacco are linked to diseases of the cardiovascular system and respiratory system. Cardiovascular diseases caused by smoking include heart disease and stroke. Diseases of the respiratory system that are caused by exposure to tobacco smoke include emphysema, lung cancer, and cancers of the larynx and mouth. Cigarette smoking causes 87 percent of lung cancer deaths. Smoking and using tobacco is also linked to the risk of developing other types of cancer such as pancreatic and stomach cancer. Cigarettes, like the ones shown in Figure 19.11, are a major source of indoor air pollution. Cigarette smoke contains about 4,000 substances, including over 60 cancer-causing chemicals. Many of these substances, such as carbon monoxide, tar, arsenic, and lead, are toxic to the body. Non-smokers can also be affected by tobacco smoke. Exposure to secondhand smoke, also known as environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), greatly increases the risk of lung cancer and heart disease in nonsmokers. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a disease of the lungs in which the airways become narrowed. This leads to a limitation of the flow of air to and from the lungs causing shortness of breath. The limitation of airflow usually gets worse over time. COPD is most commonly caused by smoking. Gases and particles in tobacco smoke trigger an abnormal inflammatory response in the lung. The inflammatory response in the larger airways is known as chronic bronchitis. In the alveoli, the inflammatory response causes the breakdown of the tissues in the lungs, leading to emphysema. Figure 19.11: Tobacco use, particularly cigarette smoking, is the single most preventable cause of death in the United States. (7) Keeping Your Respiratory System Healthy Many of the diseases related to smoking are called lifestyle diseases, diseases that are caused by choices that people make in their daily lives. For example, the choice to smoke can lead to cancer in later life. But, there are many things you can do to help keep your respiratory system healthy. Some of these are listed here: Avoid Smoking Never smoking or quitting now are the most effective ways to reduce your risk of developing chronic respiratory diseases such as cancer. Eat Well, Exercise Regularly, and Get Rest Eating a healthful diet, getting enough sleep, and being active every day can help keep your immune system strong. Wash Your Hands Washing your hands often, and after sneezing, coughing or blowing your nose help to protect you and others from diseases. Washing your hands for 20 seconds with soap and warm water can help prevent colds and flu. Some viruses and bacteria can live from 20 minutes up to 2 hours or more on surfaces like cafeteria tables, doorknobs, and desks. A public health notice that shows people how to prevent the spread of respiratory diseases is shown in Figure 19.12. Avoid Contact with Others When Sick Do not go to school or to other public places when you are sick. You risk spreading your illness to other people and getting sicker if you catch something else. Visit Your Doctor Getting the recommended vaccinations can help prevent diseases such as whooping cough and flu. Seeking medical help for diseases such as asthma can help control the severity of the disease. Figure 19.12: Cover your Cough; Clean your Hands is a public health campaign that reminds people of the quickest and easiest ways to avoid spreading respiratory diseases such as colds and the flu. (5) Lesson Summary • Respiratory diseases are diseases that affect the lungs, bronchial tubes, trachea, nose, and throat. Respiratory diseases can reduce the amount of oxygen that gets into the blood. Asthma is an illness in which the bronchioles are inflamed and become narrow. The muscles around the bronchioles contract which narrows the airways further. • Difficulty in breathing happens because of the inflammation, contraction of the muscles, and the production of mucus by the cells that line the bronchioles. Diseases of the respiratory system that are caused by exposure to tobacco smoke include emphysema, lung cancer and cancers of the larynx and mouth. • Cigarette smoking causes 87 percent of lung cancer deaths. Smoking and using tobacco is also linked to the risk of developing other types of cancer. Avoiding smoking, getting enough exercise, and washing your hands often are three things you can do to help protect your respiratory system from illness. Further Reading / Supplemental Links • http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd-vac/pertussis/default.htm • http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/youth_data/youth_tobacco.htm • http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/children.htm; http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/globalhealth/projects/airpollution.htm; http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/children.htm • http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/328/7455/1519; http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a2.htm; http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/328/7455/1519 • http://www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/keyfacts.htm; http://www.cdc.gov/germstopper/home_work_school.htm; http://www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/keyfacts.htm • http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Tobacco/cancer; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarette_smoking; http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Tobacco/cancer • http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Tobacco/cancer • http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/sgr_2004/sgranimation/html/welcome.html • http://www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/covercough.htm Review Questions 1. Identify the organs that are affected by a respiratory disease. 2. How might a respiratory disease affect the rest of the body? 3. How does asthma affects the bronchioles? 4. Medicines called bronchodilators are used to treat the symptoms of asthma. What 4. What action do you think these drugs have on the lungs? 5. What lifestyle activity has the largest health impact on the respiratory system? 6. Identify three diseases are linked to tobacco smoking. 7. Identify three things that can cause a respiratory disease. 8. What are two things you can do to keep your respiratory system healthy? 9. Pneumonia is a disease in which the alveoli fill up with fluid. How might this affect the lungs’ ability to absorb oxygen? 10. How can washing your hands help prevent you from catching a cold? Vocabulary acute disease A disease that lasts a short time. allergen Any antigen that is not an infectious organism, such as mold, dust, or pet hair. asthma A chronic illness in which the bronchioles are inflamed and become narrow. bronchodilators Drugs that reduce inflammation of the bronchioles allowing air through. bronchitis An inflammation of the bronchi. chronic bronchitis Having a cough that produces phlegm, for at least three months in a two-year period. chronic disease A disease that lasts for a long time, perhaps a few years or longer. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) A disease of the lungs in which the airways become narrowed; leads to a limitation of the flow of air to and from the lungs causing shortness of breath. emphysema A chronic lung disease caused by loss of elasticity of the lung tissue. environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) Secondhand smoke, which greatly increases the risk of lung cancer and heart disease in nonsmokers. lifestyle disease A disease that is caused by choices that people make in their daily lives. lung cancer A disease where the cells that line the lungs grow out of control; the growing mass of cells pushes into nearby tissues and can affect how these tissues work. pathogen An organism that causes disease in another organism; certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi are pathogens of the respiratory system. pertussis Whooping cough; gets its name from the loud whooping sound that is made when the person inhales during a coughing fit. pneumonia An illness in which the alveoli become inflamed and flooded with fluid. respiratory disease A disease of the lungs, bronchial tubes, trachea, nose, and/or throat. tuberculosis (TB) A common and often deadly infectious disease caused by a type of bacterium called mycobacterium. Points to Consider - The respiratory system gets rid of a certain type of wastes. What type of wastes do you think are removed by your respiratory system? ### 19.3 Lesson 19.3: Excretory System Lesson Objectives - Identify the functions of the excretory system. - List the organs of the excretory system. - Describe the parts of urinary system. - Outline how the kidneys filter blood. - Identify three disorders of the urinary system. Check Your Understanding - What are some “wastes” that must be removed from your body? - Do your circulatory and respiratory systems remove “waste?” Introduction One of the most important homeostatic jobs your body does it to keep the right amount of water and salts inside your body. Too much water and your cells would swell and burst. Too little water and your cells would shrivel up like an old apple. Either extreme would cause illness and death of cells, tissues, and organs. The organs of your excretory system help to keep the correct balance of water and salts within your body. Your body also needs to remove the wastes that build up from the metabolic activity of cells and digestion. These wastes include carbon dioxide, urea, and certain plant materials. If these wastes were not removed, your cells would stop working and you would get very sick. In this lesson you will learn how waste is removed from the body, and how the kidneys filter waste from the blood. The Excretory System The excretory system is the organ system that maintains homeostasis by keeping the correct balance of water and salts in your body. It also helps to release wastes from the body. Excretion is the process of removing wastes from the body. The organs of the excretory system are also parts of other organ systems. For example, your lungs are part of the respiratory system. Your lungs remove carbon dioxide from your body so they are also part of the excretory system. More organs of the excretory system, and the other organs systems of which they are part are listed in Table (19.1). Table 1: Organs of the Excretory System \| Organ(s) \| Function \| Other Organ System of which it is Part \| \|----------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------\| \| Lungs \| Remove carbon dioxide \| Respiratory system \| \| Skin \| Sweat glands remove water, salts, and other wastes \| Integumentary system \| \| Large intestine\| Removes solid waste and some water in the form of feces \| Digestive system \| \| Kidneys \| Remove urea, salts, and excess water from the blood \| Urinary system \| Functions of the Excretory System The excretory system controls the chemical make-up of body fluids. The organs of the excretory system remove metabolic wastes. They also maintain the proper concentrations of water, salts, and nutrients in the body. In this way the excretory system has an important homeostatic job. Your body takes nutrients from food and uses them for energy, growth, and repair. After your body has taken what it needs from the food, waste products are left behind in the blood and in the large intestine. These waste products need to be removed from the body. The kidneys work with the lungs, skin, and intestines to keep the correct balance of nutrients, salts and water in your body. The Urinary System Sometimes and confusingly, the urinary system is called the excretory system. But, the urinary system is only a part of the excretory system. Recall that the excretory system is made up of the skin, lungs, and large intestine as well as the kidneys. The urinary system is the organ system that makes, stores, and gets rid of urine. It includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. The urinary system is shown in Figure 19.13. ![Components of the Urinary System](image) Figure 19.13: The kidneys filter the blood that passes through them and the urinary bladder stores the urine until it is released from the body. (8) Organs of the Urinary System As you can see from Figure 1, the kidneys are two bean-shaped organs. The kidneys filter and clean the blood and form urine. They are about the size of your fists and are found near the middle of the back, just below your rib cage. The ureters are tube-shaped structures that bring urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular, and elastic-walled organ. It is shaped a little like a balloon. It is the organ that collects urine which comes from the kidneys. Urine leaves the body through the urethra. What is Urine? Urine is a liquid that is formed by the kidneys when they filter wastes from the blood. Urine contains mostly water and also dissolved salts and nitrogen-containing molecules. The amount of urine excreted from the body depends on many things. Some of these include the amounts of fluid and food a person consumes and how much fluid they have lost in sweat and breathing. Urine is can range from colorless to dark yellow, but is usually a pale yellow color. Dilute urine is light yellow in color. Concentrated urine is dark yellow or may be brown. The darker the urine, the less water it contains. The urinary system removes a type of waste called urea from your blood. Urea is a nitrogen-containing molecule that is made when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea and other wastes are carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys where they are removed and form urine. How the Kidneys Filter Wastes The kidneys are important organs in maintaining homeostasis. Kidneys perform a number of homeostatic functions: - Maintain the volume of body fluids - Maintain the balance of salt ions in body fluids - Excrete harmful nitrogenous wastes (metabolic by-products) such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid There are many blood vessels in the kidneys, as you can see in Figure 19.14. The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Nephrons are tiny, tube-shaped structures found inside each kidney. A nephron is shown in Figure 19.15. Each kidney has up to a million nephrons. Each nephron collects a small amount of fluid and waste products from a small group of capillaries. If the body is in need of more water, water is removed from the fluid inside the nephron and is returned to the blood. The fluid within nephrons is carried out into a larger tube in the kidney called a ureter which you can see in Figure 19.14. Urea, together with water and other wastes, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and the kidney. Figure 19.14: Structures of the kidney; fluid leaks from the capillaries and into the nephrons where the fluid forms urine then moves to the ureter and on to the bladder. (1) Figure 19.15: The location of nephrons in the kidney; the glomerulus is the network of blood vessels that filter liquid into the nephron, collects in the nephron tubules, and moves to the bladder through the ureter. (13) Formation of Urine The process of urine formation is as follows: 1. Blood flows into the kidney through the renal artery, shown in Figure 2. The renal artery branches into capillaries inside the kidney. Capillaries and the nephrons lie very close to each other in the kidney. 2. The blood pressure within the capillaries causes water and solutes such as salts, sugars, and urea to leave the capillaries and move into the nephron. 3. The water and solutes move along through the tube-shaped nephron to a lower part of the nephron. At this point most of the water and solutes are returned to the capillaries that surround the nephron. 4. The fluid that remains in the nephron at this point is called urine. 5. The blood that leaves the kidney in the renal vein has much less waste than the blood that entered the kidney. 6. The urine is collected in the ureters and is moved to the urinary bladder where it is stored. Nephrons filter 125 ml (about $ \frac{1}{4} $ cup) of body fluid per minute. In a 24-hour period nephrons produce about 180 liters of filtrate, of which 178.5 liters are reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters of fluid forms urine. Urine enters the bladder through the ureters. Similar to a balloon, the walls of the bladder are stretchy. The stretchy walls allow the bladder to hold a large amount of urine. The bladder can hold about 400 to 620 mL (about 1$ \frac{1}{2} $ to 2$ \frac{1}{2} $ cups) of urine, but may also hold more if the urine cannot be released immediately. Urination is the process of releasing urine from the body. Urine leaves the body through the urethra. Nerves in the bladder tell you when it is time to urinate. As the bladder first fills with urine, you may notice a feeling that you need to urinate. The urge to urinate becomes stronger as the bladder continues to fill up. Brain Control The kidneys never stop filtering waste products from the blood, so they are always producing urine. The amount of urine your kidneys produce is dependent on the amount of fluid in your body. Your body loses water through sweating, breathing, and urination. The water and other fluids you drink every day help to replace the lost water. This water ends up circulating in the blood because blood plasma is mostly water. The kidneys will normally adjust to the level of water a person drinks. For example, if a person suddenly increases their water intake, the kidneys will produce more diluted (watery) urine. If a person drinks much less fluid than they usually do, their urine will be more concentrated (contain much less water). The filtering action of the kidneys is controlled by the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is about the size of a pea and is found below the brain, as shown in Figure 19.16. The pituitary gland is also part of the endocrine system. The pituitary gland releases hormones which affect the ability of the kidneys to filter water from the blood. The absorption of water back into blood is controlled by a hormone called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is released from the pituitary gland in the brain. One of the most important roles of ADH is to control the body’s ability to hold onto water. If a person does not drink enough water, ADH is released and it causes the kidneys to remove more water from the urine. The urine is more concentrated and is less in volume. When too much fluid is present in the blood, the amount of ADH in the blood is reduced. This increases the amount of water that filters into the nephrons. The kidneys then produce a large volume of more dilute urine. ![Figure 19.16: The pituitary gland is found directly below the brain and releases hormones that control the production of urine.](image) Excretory System Problems The urinary system controls the amount of water in the body, and removes wastes, so any problem with the urinary system can badly affect many other body systems. Some common urinary system problems are described here. Kidney Stones In some cases, certain mineral wastes in urine crystallize and form kidney stones like the one shown in Figure 19.17. Stones form in the kidneys and may be found anywhere in the urinary system. They vary in size. Some stones cause great pain while others cause very little pain. Some stones may need to be removed by surgery or ultrasound treatments. ![Figure 19.17: A kidney stone; the stones can form anywhere in the urinary system.](image) Kidney failure Kidney failure results when the kidneys are not able to regulate water and chemicals in the body or remove waste products from the blood. If the kidneys are unable to filter wastes from the blood, the wastes build up in the body. Homeostasis is disrupted because the ions and fluids in the body are out of balance. Kidney failure can be caused by an accident that injures the kidneys, the loss of a lot of blood, or it can be caused by some drugs or poisons. Kidney failure may lead to permanent loss of kidney function. But if the kidneys are not seriously damaged, they may recover. Chronic kidney disease is the gradual reduction of kidney function that may lead to permanent kidney failure. A person who has lost kidney function may need to undergo kidney dialysis. Kidney dialysis is the process of artificially filtering the blood of wastes. A dialysis machine (also called a hemodialyzer) filters the blood of waste by pumping it through a semipermeable membrane. The cleansed blood is then returned to the patient’s body. A dialysis machine is shown in Figure 19.18. ![Hemodialysis Machine Diagram](image) Figure 19.18: During hemodialysis, a patient’s blood is sent through a filter that removes waste products and the clean blood is returned to the body. (3) Urinary tract infections (UTIs) Urinary tract infections are bacterial infections of any part of the urinary tract. When bacteria get into the bladder or kidney and multiply in the urine, they cause a UTI. The most common type of UTI is a bladder infection. Women get UTIs more often than men. UTIs are often treated with antibiotics. Lesson Summary - The excretory system controls the chemical make-up of body fluids. The organs of the excretory system remove metabolic wastes. They also maintain the proper concentrations of water, salts, and nutrients in the body. The lungs, skin, kidneys, and large intestine are all part of the excretory system. The urinary system is made up of the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. The filtering structures of the kidneys are the nephrons. Water and waste molecules move out of the blood capillaries and into the nephrons. Most of the water returns to the blood. Urine collects in the nephron and moves to the urinary bladder through the ureters. The filtering action of the kidneys is controlled by the pituitary gland. ADH is the hormone that controls the uptake of water from the kidneys. Disorders of the urinary system include kidney stones, kidney disease and urinary tract infections. Review Questions 1. What are the functions of the excretory system? 2. List the organs that make up the excretory system. 3. What is the difference between the urinary system and the excretory system? 4. What is urine made up of? 5. Outline how the kidneys filter blood. 6. What is the purpose of the urinary bladder? 7. The walls of the urinary bladder are stretchy, what do you think is the advantage to having these stretchy walls? 8. What connects the kidneys to the urinary bladder? 9. What does antidiuretic hormone do? 10. What is a urinary tract infection? 11. Why is kidney failure such a serious health problem? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - [http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookEXCRETE](http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookEXCRETE) - [http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys](http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Hormone that controls the absorption of water back into blood. excretion The process of removing wastes from the body. excretory system The organ system that maintains homeostasis by keeping the correct balance of water and salts in your body; also helps to release wastes from the body. homeostasis The ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes. kidney Organ that filters and cleans the blood and forms urine; also maintains the volume of body fluids, maintains the balance of salt ions in body fluids, and excretes harmful metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid. kidney dialysis The process of artificially filtering the blood of wastes; a patient’s blood is sent through a filter that removes waste products and the clean blood is returned to the body. kidney failure When the kidneys are not able to regulate water and chemicals in the body or remove waste products from the blood. kidney stone “Stones” formed when certain mineral wastes in urine crystallize; may be found anywhere in the urinary system. nephron Tiny, tube-shaped filtering unit found inside each kidney. urea A nitrogen-containing molecule that is made when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. ureter Tube-shaped structure that brings urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. urethra Structure through which urine leaves the body. urinary bladder Organ that collects the urine which comes from the kidneys. urinary system The organ system that makes, stores, and gets rid of urine. urinary tract infection (UTI) Bacterial infections of any part of the urinary tract. urination The process of releasing urine from the body. urine A liquid that is formed by the kidneys when they filter wastes from the blood; contains mostly water and also dissolved salts and nitrogen-containing molecules. Points to Consider - Next we turn our attention to the nervous system. What do you think the nervous system is? What do you think it does? Image Sources (1) Piotr Michał Jaworski. PioM.png. GNU-FDL. (2) J.C. Rojas. [http://www.flickr.com/photos/jcrojas/523383835/](http://www.flickr.com/photos/jcrojas/523383835/). CC-BY-SA 2.5. (3) [http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys/](http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys/). National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse encourages users of this publication to duplicate and distribute as many copies as desired. (4) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pertussis.jpg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pertussis.jpg). Public Domain. (5) [http://www.cdc.gov/flu/images/CoverCgh-Sch-view.gif](http://www.cdc.gov/flu/images/CoverCgh-Sch-view.gif). (b)Public Domain. (6) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Asthma_before-after.png](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Asthma_before-after.png). Public Domain. (7) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spitkid.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spitkid.jpg). Public Domain. (8) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_urinary_system.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_urinary_system.jpg). Public Domain. (9) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TB_poster.jpg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TB_poster.jpg). Public Domain. (10) David Shankbone. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Air_bubbles_in_a_pool_as_a_man_surfaces_for_air.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Air_bubbles_in_a_pool_as_a_man_surfaces_for_air.jpg). CC-BY-SA 3.0. (11) [http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/respiratory/passages/bronchi.html](http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/respiratory/passages/bronchi.html). (12) Patrick J. Lynch and C. Carl Jaffe, M.D.. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bronchial_anatomy.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bronchial_anatomy.jpg). CC-BY-SA 2.0. (13) NIH. [http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys/](http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys/). Public Domain. (14) Theresa Knott. system.svg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (15) Robert R. Wal. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nefrolit.jpg](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nefrolit.jpg). Public Domain. (16) [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Influenza_virus_particle_color.jpg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Influenza_virus_particle_color.jpg). Public Domain. (17) Mr TS88 Duel. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alveoli.svg](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alveoli.svg). GNU-FDL, CC-BY-2.5. (18) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Centrilobular_emphysema_865_lores.jpg. (b) Public Domain, COPD. Chapter 20 Controlling the Body 20.1 Lesson 20.1: Nervous System Lesson Objectives - Identify the functions of the nervous system. - Describe neurons and explain how they carry nerve impulses. - Describe the structures of the central nervous system. - Outline the divisions of the peripheral nervous system. Check Your Understanding - If groups of cells are called tissues and groups of tissues are called organs, what are groups of organs called? - What are examples of human organ systems? - Which organ system controls all the others? Introduction Groups of organs called organ systems. Examples of human organ systems are skeletal, digestive, and respiratory systems. The nervous system controls all the others. Michael was riding his scooter when he hit a hole in the sidewalk and started to lose control. He thought he would fall, but in the blink of an eye, he shifted his weight and regained his balance. His heart was pounding, but at least he didn’t get hurt. How was he able to react so quickly? Michael can thank his nervous system for that (Figure 20.1). What Does the Nervous System Do? The nervous system is the body system that controls all the other systems of the body. Controlling muscles and maintaining balance are just two of its roles. The nervous system also lets you: - Senses your surroundings with your eyes and other sense organs. - Senses your internal environment, including temperature and pH. - Controls your internal body systems and keeps them in balance. - Prepares your body to fight or flee in emergency situations. - Thinks, learns, remembers, and uses language. The nervous system works by sending and receiving electrical messages. The messages are carried by nerves throughout the body. For example, when Michael started to fall off his scooter, his nervous system sensed that he was losing his balance. It responded by sending messages to muscles throughout his body. Some muscles tightened while others relaxed. As a result, Michael’s body became balanced again. How did his nervous system do all that in just a split second? To answer this question, you need to know how the nervous system carries messages. Neurons and Nerve Impulses The nervous system is made up of nerves. A nerve is a bundle of individual nerve cells. A nerve cell that carries messages is called a neuron (Figure 20.2). The messages carried by neurons are referred to as nerve impulses. Nerve impulses are able to travel very quickly because they are electrical impulses. Think about flipping on a light switch when you enter a room. When you flip the switch, it closes an electrical circuit. With the circuit closed, electricity can flow to the light through wires inside the walls. The electricity may have to travel many meters to reach the light, but the light still comes on as soon as you flip the switch. Nerve impulses travel equally fast through the network of nerves inside the body. Structure of a Typical Neuron ![Diagram of a neuron](image) Figure 20.2: The axons of many neurons, like the one shown here, are covered with a fatty layer called myelin sheath that insulates the axon like the plastic covering on an electrical wire, and allowing nerve impulses to travel faster along the axon. (19) What Does a Neuron Look Like? A neuron has a special shape that lets it pass signals from one cell to another. As shown in Figure 2, a neuron has three main parts: cell body, dendrites, and axons. The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles. Dendrites and axons project from the cell body. Dendrites receive nerve impulses from other cells, and axons pass the nerve impulses on to other cells. A single neuron may have thousands of dendrites and axons, so it can communicate with thousands of other cells. Types of Neurons Neurons are usually classified based on the role they play in the body. Two types of neurons are sensory neurons and motor neurons. - Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from sense organs and internal organs to the central nervous system (see below). Motor neurons carry nerve impulses from the central nervous system to internal organs, glands, and muscles. Both types of neurons work together. Sensory neurons carry information about conditions inside or outside the body to the central nervous system. The central nervous system processes the information and sends messages through motor neurons telling the body how to respond to the information. The Synapse The place where the axon of one neuron meets the dendrite of another is called a synapse. Synapses are also found between neurons and other types of cells, such as muscle cells. The axon of the sending neuron doesn’t actually touch the dendrite of the receiving neuron. There is a tiny gap between them, as shown in Figure 20.3. ![Synapse Diagram](image) Figure 20.3: This diagram shows a synapse between neurons; when a nerve impulse arrives at the tip of the axon, neurotransmitters are released and travel to the receiving dendrite, carrying the nerve impulse from one neuron to the next. (11) When a nerve impulse reaches the tip of an axon, the axon releases chemicals called neurotransmitters. These chemicals travel across the gap between the axon and the dendrite of the next neuron. They bind to the membrane of the dendrite. This triggers a nerve impulse in the receiving neuron. Did you ever watch a relay race? After the first runner races, she passes the baton to the next runner, who takes over. Neurons are a little like relay runners. Instead of a baton, they pass neurotransmitters to the next neuron. Examples of neurotransmitters include serotonin, dopamine, and adrenaline. You can watch an animation of nerve impulses and neurotransmitters at: [http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/neurons_intro/neurons_intro.php](http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/neurons_intro/neurons_intro.php) Some people have low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in their brain. Scientists think that this is one cause of depression. Medications called antidepressants help bring serotonin levels back to normal. For many people with depression, antidepressants control the symptoms of their depression and help them lead happy, productive lives. Central Nervous System The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system. As shown in Figure 20.4, it includes the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is protected within the bony skull. The spinal cord is protected within the bones of the spine, which are called vertebrae. ![Diagram of the central nervous system](image) Figure 20.4: The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. (26) The Brain What weighs about 3 pounds (1.5 kilograms) and contains up to 100 billion cells? The answer is the human brain. The brain is the control center of the nervous system. It’s like the pilot of a plane. It tells other parts of the nervous system what to do. The brain is also the most complex organ in the body. Each of its 100 billion neurons has synapses connecting it with thousands of other neurons. All those neurons use a lot of energy. In fact, the adult brain uses almost a quarter of the total energy used by the body. The developing brain of a baby uses an even greater percentage of the body’s total energy. ![Figure 20.5](image) Figure 20.5: Side view of the brain; find the location of the three major parts of the brain, noting that the cerebrum is divided into four lobes at the upper portion of the brain: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Left). Top view of the brain and cerebrum; divided from front to back into two halves, these are the right and left hemispheres (Right). (30) The brain is the organ that lets us interpret what we see, hear, or sense in other ways. It also allows us to learn, think, remember, and use language. The brain controls all of our internal body processes and external movements, as well. As shown in Figure 20.5, the brain consists of three main parts: - The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It lies on top of the brainstem (discussed below). The cerebrum controls functions that we are aware of, such as problem-solving and speech. It also controls voluntary movements, like waving to a friend. Whether you are doing your homework or jumping hurdles, you are using your cerebrum. - The cerebellum is the next largest part of the brain. It lies under the cerebrum and behind the brain stem. The cerebellum controls body position, coordination, and balance. Whether you are riding a bicycle or writing with a pen, you are using your cerebellum. - The brain stem is the smallest of the three main parts of the brain. It lies directly under the cerebrum. The brain stem controls basic body functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion. The brain stem also carries information back and forth between the cerebrum and spinal cord. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left half, as shown in Figure 20.5. Each half of the cerebrum is called a hemisphere. The two hemispheres are connected by a thick bundle of axons called the corpus callosum. It lies deep inside the brain and carries messages back and forth between the two hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body. This would be impossible without the corpus callosum. Dr. Jill Bolte Taylor is a brain scientist. At the age of 37, she suffered massive brain damage when blood vessels burst inside her brain. It took Dr. Taylor almost ten years to recover from the damage to her brain. She had to relearn even basic skills, like walking and talking. To share her story of recovery with others, Dr. Taylor wrote a popular book describing what she went through. Her story gave other people so much inspiration that Time Magazine named her one of the world’s 100 most influential people in 2008. Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into four parts called lobes. The four lobes are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Figure 20.5). Each lobe has different functions. Some of the functions are listed in Table (20.1). \| Lobe \| Main Function(s) \| \|----------\|---------------------------\| \| Frontal \| Speech, thinking, touch \| \| Parietal \| Speech, taste, reading \| \| Temporal \| Hearing, smell \| \| Occipital\| Sight \| The Spinal Cord The spinal cord is a long, tube-shaped bundle of neurons. It runs from the brain stem to the lower back. The main job of the spinal cord is to carry nerve impulses back and forth between the body and brain. The spinal cord is like a two-way highway. Messages about the body, both inside and out, pass through the spinal cord to the brain. Messages from the brain instructing the body how to respond pass through the spinal cord to the body. Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nerves of the body that lie outside the central nervous system. The network of nerves that make up the peripheral system is shown in Figure 20.6. They include nerves of the hands, arms, feet, legs, and trunk. They also include nerves of the scalp, neck, and face. Nerves that supply the internal organs and glands are part of the peripheral nervous system, as well. ![Diagram of the human nervous system](image) Figure 20.6: The blue lines in this drawing represent nerves of the peripheral nervous system; every peripheral nerve is connected directly or indirectly to the spinal cord. (39) The peripheral nervous system is divided into two parts: the sensory division and the motor division. How these divisions of the peripheral nervous system are related to the rest of the nervous system is shown in Figure 20.7. Refer to the figure as you read more about the The central nervous system interprets messages from sense organs and internal organs and the motor division sends messages to internal organs, glands, and muscles. The sensory division carries messages from sense organs and internal organs to the central nervous system. Human beings have several senses. They include sight, hearing, balance, touch, taste, and smell. We have special sense organs for each of these senses. Sensory neurons in each sense organ detect a certain type of stimulus, or input. For example, sensory neurons in the eyes detect light, and sensory neurons in the skin detect touch. Other animals have senses that humans don’t have. For example, sharks and some other fish can detect weak electric currents. Many animals can detect magnetism. Detecting magnetism is like having an internal compass. It helps the animals find their way from place to place. For example, birds use their sense of magnetism to guide their seasonal migrations. Our sense organs detect sensations, but they don’t tell us what we are sensing. For example, when you inhale chemicals given off by baking cookies, your nose doesn’t tell you that you are smelling cookies. That’s your brain’s job. The sense organs send messages about sights, smells, and other stimuli to the brain (Figure 20.8). The brain then interprets the messages. A particular area of the brain interprets information from each sense organ (Figure 20.5). For example, information from the nose is interpreted by the temporal lobe of the cerebrum. ![Raspberries](image) Figure 20.8: Remember which lobes of the cerebrum interpret messages from each of the senses; decide which senses would be stimulated by these raspberries or look back at Table (20.1) for clues. (28) The motor division of the peripheral system carries messages from the central nervous system to internal organs and muscles. As shown in Figure 20.7, the motor division is also divided into two parts: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system carries messages that control body movements. It’s responsible for activities that are under your control, such as waving your hand or kicking a ball. The girl in Figure 20.9 is using her somatic nervous system to control the muscles needed to play the violin. Her brain sends commands to motor neurons that move her hands so she can play. Without the commands from her brain, she wouldn’t be able to move her hands and play the violin. ![Girl playing violin](image) Figure 20.9: This girl’s central nervous is controlling the movements of her hands and arms as she plays the violin; her brain is sending commands to her somatic nervous system, which controls the muscles of her hands and arms. (2) The autonomic nervous system carries nerve impulses to internal organs. It is responsible for activities that are not under your control, such as sweating and digesting food. The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: - The sympathetic division controls internal organs and glands during emergencies. It prepares the body for fight or flight (Figure 20.10). For example, it increases the heart rate and the flow of blood to the legs. - The parasympathetic division controls internal organs and glands the rest of the time. It manages routine functions such as digestion, heartbeat, and breathing under normal conditions. Remember Michael on his scooter at the start of this lesson? Why was his heart pounding after he regained his balance? The answer is his autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic Figure 20.10: The woman pictured here is just pretending to be frightened, but assuming that she really was scared, think of which division of the autonomic nervous system would prepare her body for an emergency. (40) division prepared him to deal with the emergency by increasing his heart rate. The fact that this happened in the blink of an eye shows how amazing the nervous system is. Lesson Summary - The nervous system controls all the other systems of the body. - Neurons are nerve cells that carry nerve impulses. The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. - The peripheral nervous system consists of all the rest of the nerves in the body. Review Questions 1. List three functions of the nervous system. 2. Describe a neuron and identify its three main parts. 3. What structures make up the central nervous system? 4. Name the lobes of the cerebrum and state one function of each lobe. 5. What are the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system? (Beginning 6. Explain how one neuron transmits a nerve impulse to another neuron. (Intermediate) 7. Compare and contrast the three main parts of the brain. 8. Why is the spinal cord like a two-way highway? 9. A baby girl sees a toy and reaches out to grab it. Describe the path of messages through the baby’s nervous system, from her eyes to her hand. 10. Assume you are so startled by a sudden loud noise that your heart starts pounding fast. Explain what controls your reaction to the loud sound. Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK12 High School Biology, Chapter 35 [http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio105/nervous.htm](http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio105/nervous.htm). Body Atlas. Nerves, Brain and Senses. Ticktock Media Ltd., 2004. Chris Hawkes. The Human Body: Uncovering Science. Firefly Books, 2006. F. Fay Evans-Martin. The Nervous System. Chelsea House Publications, 2004. H.P. Newquist. The Great Brain Book: An Inside Look at the Inside of Your Head. Scholastic Nonfiction, 2005. Treays, Rebecca. Understanding Your Brain. Usborne Books, 2004. - [http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit5_1_nerve_functions.html](http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit5_1_nerve_functions.html) - [http://www.pelagic.org/overview/articles/sixsense.html](http://www.pelagic.org/overview/articles/sixsense.html); [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/magnetic/animals.html](http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/magnetic/animals.html); [http://www.pelagic.org/overview/articles/sixsense.html](http://www.pelagic.org/overview/articles/sixsense.html) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_stem](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_stem); [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system); [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_stem](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_stem) Vocabulary autonomic nervous system Part of the motor division that carries nerve impulses to internal organs and glands. axon Part of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from the cell body and passes them on to other cells. brain Control center of the nervous system that is located inside the skull. brain stem Part of the brain that controls basic body functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion. cell body Part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles. central nervous system Part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord. cerebellum Part of the brain that controls body position, coordination, and balance. cerebrum Part of the brain that controls awareness and voluntary movements. dendrite Part of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from other cells and passes them on to the cell body. hemisphere One of the two halves of the cerebrum. motor division Division of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages from the central nervous system to internal organs, glands, and muscles. motor neuron Neuron that carries nerve impulses from the central nervous system to internal organs, glands, or muscles. nerve Bundle of individual nerve cells. nerve impulse Electrical signal that is transmitted by neurons. nervous system Body system that controls all the other systems of the body. neuron Nerve cell that carries electrical messages. neurotransmitter Chemical that carries nerve impulses from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of the next neuron. parasympathetic division Division of the autonomic nervous system that controls body processes under nonemergency conditions. peripheral nervous system All the nerves of the body that lie outside the central nervous system. sensory division Division of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages from the sense organs and internal organs to the central nervous system. sensory neuron Neuron that carries nerve impulses from sense organs or internal organs to the central nervous system. somatic nervous system Part of the motor division that carries nerve impulses to muscles that control voluntary body movements. spinal cord Long, tube-shaped bundle of neurons that carry nerve impulses back and forth between the body and brain. sympathetic division Division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for fight or flight in emergencies. synapse Place where the axon of one neuron meets the dendrite of another neuron. Points to Consider - The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system carries messages from sense organs to the central nervous system. What are some examples of sense organs? - Do you know how sense organs work? For example, do you know how your eyes sense light? 20.2 Lesson 20.2: Eyes and Vision Lesson Objectives - Describe how humans see and explain why vision is important. - Explain how the eye works to produce images. - Describe the nature of light. - Explain how lenses correct vision problems. Check Your Understanding - What are some ways that people use their eyes? - Which part of the nervous system carries messages from the eyes to the central nervous system? - Which part of the brain interprets messages from the eyes? Introduction Think about all the ways that students use their sense of sight during a typical school day. As soon as they open their eyes in the morning, they may look at the clock to see what time it is. Then, they might look out the window to see what the weather is like. They probably look in a mirror to comb their hair. In school, they use their eyes to read the board, their textbooks, and the expressions on their friend’s faces. After school, they may keep their eye on the ball while playing basketball (Figure 20.11). Then they might read their homework assignment and the text messages from their friends. If you aren’t visually impaired, you probably use your sense of sight in all of these ways, as well. In fact, you may depend on your sight so much that you have a hard time thinking of anything you do without it, except sleep. Why is sight so important? ![Basketball game](image) Figure 20.11: All eyes are on the ball in this basketball game; think about how we use the sense of sight in other games. (15) The Nature of Human Vision Sight, or vision, is the ability to see light. It depends on the eyes detecting light and forming images. It also depends on the brain making sense of the images, so we know what we are seeing. Human beings—and other primates—depend on vision more than many other animals. It’s not surprising, then, that we have a better sense of vision than many other animals. Not only can we normally see both distant and close-up objects clearly. We can also see in three dimensions and in color. Seeing in Three Dimensions Did you ever use 3-D glasses to watch a movie, like the boy in Figure 20.12? If you did, then you know that the glasses make people and objects in the movie appear to jump out of the screen. They make images on the flat movie screen seem more realistic because they give them depth. That’s the difference between seeing things in two dimensions and three dimensions. ![Figure 20.12: This boy is wearing 3-D glasses; when you look at objects and people in the real world, your eyes automatically see in three dimensions.](image) We are able to see in three dimensions because we have two eyes facing the same direction but a few inches apart. As a result, we see objects and people with both eyes at the same time, but from slightly different angles. Hold up a finger a few inches away from your face, and look at it first with one eye and then with the other. You’ll notice that your finger appears to move against the background. Now hold up your finger at arm’s length, and look at it with one eye and then the other. Your finger seems to move less against the background than it did when it was closer. Although you aren’t aware of it, your brain constantly uses such differences to determine the distance of objects. Seeing in Color For animals like us that see in color, it may be hard to imagine a world that appears to be mainly shades of gray. You can get an idea of how many other animals see the world by looking at a black-and-white picture of colorful objects. For example, look at the apples on the tree Figure 20.13. In the top picture, they appear in color, the way you would normally see them. In the bottom picture they appear without color, in shades of gray (Figure 20.14). Figure 20.13: Humans with color vision see the apples on this tree; the bright red color of the apples stands out clearly from the green background of leaves. (4) Figure 20.14: Dogs and cats would see the green and red colors as shades of gray; they are able to see blue, but red and green appear the same to them. (24) Evolution and Primate Vision Why do you think primates, which include humans, evolved the ability to see in three dimensions and in color? To answer that question, you need to know a little about primate evolution. Millions of years ago, primate ancestors lived in trees. To move about in the trees, they needed to be able to judge how far away the next branch was. Otherwise, they might have a dangerous fall. Being able to see in depth was important. It was an adaptation that would help tree-living primates survive. Primate ancestors also mainly ate fruit. They needed to be able to spot colored fruits among the dense leafy background of the trees (Figure 20.15). They also had to be able to judge which fruits were ripe and which were still green. Ripe fruits are usually red, orange, yellow, or purple. Being able to see in color was important for finding food. It was an adaptation that would help fruit-eating primates survive. ![Cherries](image) Figure 20.15: With color vision, you can tell which cherries in this picture are ripe, because cherries turn red as they ripen. (12) Knowing about primate evolution helps explain why we see the way we do. However, it doesn’t explain how we see as we do. What allows us to see in three dimensions and in color? To answer that question, you need to know how the eye works. How the Eye Works The function of the eye is to focus light. The parts of the eye, shown in Figure 20.16, suit it for that function. Follow the path of light through the eye as you read about it below. Vision involves detecting and focusing light from people and objects. First, light passes through the cornea of the eye. The cornea is a clear, protective covering on the outside of the eye. Next, light passes through the pupil. The pupil is a black opening in the eye that lets light enter the eye. Surrounding the pupil is the iris, more commonly brown, blue, grey, or green. After passing into the eye through the pupil, light passes next through the lens. Like a hand lens, the lens of the eye is a clear, curved structure. Along with the cornea, the lens helps focus light at the back of the eye. This is shown in Figure 20.17. The lens must bend light from nearby objects more than it bends light from distant objects. The lens changes shape to bend the light by just the right amount to bring objects into focus. The lens focuses light on the retina, which covers the back of the inside of the eye. The retina consists of light-sensing cells called rods and cones. Rods let us see in dim light. Cones let us detect light of different colors. When light strikes rods and cones, it causes chemical changes. The chemical changes start nerve impulses. The nerve impulses travel to the brain through the optic nerve (Figure 20.16). The brain interprets the nerve impulses and tells you what you are seeing. You know that the eyes sense light. But do know what light is? You need to understand the nature of light to fully understand vision. The Nature of Light Visible light is a type of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. It’s the only type of EM radiation that can be detected by the human eye. To be visible to humans, EM radiation has to travel in waves of certain wavelengths. Wavelength is the distance from any point on one wave to the same point on the next wave. The different types of electromagnetic radiation are shown in Figure 20.18. Just a small part of the full range of EM radiation is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic Radiation Figure 20.18: This diagram shows the wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, from shortest (extreme left) to longest (extreme right); the human eye can detect only visible light, which falls in a narrow range of wavelengths, but the eyes of some animals can detect radiation of different wavelengths; bees can see ultraviolet radiation. (16) Colors of Light Visible light from the sun is colorless. However, if you bend visible light by passing it through a prism, it produces a “rainbow” of light of different colors (Figure 20.19). Why does this happen? Different colors of visible light have slightly different wavelengths. Light of different wavelengths bends by different degrees when it passes through a prism. This separates visible light into all of its colors. ![A prism bends white light to create a “rainbow” of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet light.](image) Figure 20.19: A prism bends white light to create a “rainbow” of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet light. (31) Light and Vision Except for objects that give off their own light, we don’t see things just because light strikes them. We see things because light strikes them and then reflects, or bounces back, from their surface. What we see is the reflected light. Some things reflect all the light that strikes them. These things appear white. Some things do not reflect any light. Instead, they absorb all the light that strikes them. These things appear black. Other things, like the beads in Figure 20.20, reflect just one wavelength of light. Whatever wavelength they reflect is the color we see. For example, beads that reflect only red light look red to us. Lenses and Vision Correction You probably know people that need eyeglasses or contact lenses to see clearly. Maybe you need them yourself. Lenses are used to correct vision problems. Two of the most common vision problems are myopia and hyperopia. To watch an animation that shows how these two vision problems occur and how they can be corrected, go to http://pennhealth.com/health_info/animationplayer/seeing.html. Myopia Myopia is also called nearsightedness. It affects about one third of people. People with myopia can see nearby objects clearly, but distant objects appear blurry. How a person with myopia might see two boys that are a few meters away is shown in Figure 20.21. Figure 20.21: This is how a person with normal vision sees the two boys (Left) Normal Vision (Right) Myopia. (8) In myopia, the eye is too long. As shown in Figure 20.22, this results in images being focused in front of the retina. Myopia is corrected with a concave lens, which curves inward like the inside of a bowl. The lens changes the focus so images fall on the retina as they should. ![Diagram showing normal vision and myopia](image) Figure 20.22: The eye of a person with myopia is longer than normal and as a result, images are focused in front of the retina (top); concave lens is used to correct myopia to help focus images on the retina (bottom). (Left) Normal Vision (Right) Myopia. (7) Hyperopia Hyperopia is also called farsightedness. It affects about one fourth of people. People with hyperopia can see distant objects clearly, but nearby objects appear blurry. In hyperopia, the eye is too short. As shown in Figure 11b, this results in images being focused in back of the retina. Hyperopia is corrected with a convex lens, which curves outward like the outside of a bowl. The lens changes the focus so images fall on the retina as they should. In addition to lenses, many cases of myopia and hyperopia can be corrected with surgery. For example, a procedure called LASIK uses a laser to permanently change the shape of the cornea so light is correctly focused on the retina. Lesson Summary - Humans can normally see both distant and close-up objects clearly, and we also see in three dimensions and color. - Light entering the eye is focused by the lens on the retina, which sends messages to the brain through the optic nerve. - Visible light is electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye. - Vision problems such as myopia and hyperopia can be corrected with lenses that help focus light on the retina. Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK12 High School Biology, Chapter 35 [http://www.fda.gov/CDRH/LASIK](http://www.fda.gov/CDRH/LASIK) - Body Atlas. Nerves, Brain and Senses. Ticktock Media Ltd., 2004. - Donald B. Light. The Senses. Chelsea House Publications, 2004. - Christopher Sloan. The Human Story: Our Evolution from Prehistoric Ancestors to Today. National Geographic Children’s Books, 2004. - [http://www.veterinaryvision.com/See.htm](http://www.veterinaryvision.com/See.htm) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Review Questions 1. What is vision? 2. Describe the lens of the eye and what it does. 3. What happens when light is focused on the retina of the eye? 4. Describe visible light. 5. What is hyperopia? 6. Explain how humans can see in three dimensions. 7. Why were depth perception and color vision important for early primates? 8. Black is sometimes defined as the absence of light. Why? 9. Assume you see a bright red apple. Why does the apple look red? 10. What causes myopia, and what type of lens corrects it? Vocabulary cornea Clear, protective covering on the outside of the eye that helps focus light. hyperopia Vision problem in which distant objects are clear but nearby objects look blurry; also called farsightedness. iris Colored structure at the front of the eye. lens Clear, curved structure in the eye that focuses light on the retina. myopia Vision problem in which nearby objects are clear but distant objects look blurry; also called nearsightedness. pupil Black opening in the iris that lets light enter the eye. retina Layer of light-sensing cells that covers the back of the eye. visible light Electromagnetic radiation that humans can detect with their eyes. vision Ability to see light. Points to Consider - The sense of sight is important to humans and other animals, but other senses may be equally important. What are some of our other senses? - Why are these other senses important to us? For example, what are some ways we depend on our sense of hearing? 20.3 Lesson 20.3: Other Senses Lesson Objectives - Explain how the ears hear and help maintain balance. - Outline how we sense pressure, temperature, and pain. - Describe how we identify different tastes and smells. - Explain why hearing, balance, touch, taste, and smell are important. Check Your Understanding - What is the role of the nervous system? - How do signals ("messages") get from one area of the body to the brain? Introduction Imagine walking through the fruit market shown in Figure 20.23. Your sense of sight would be stimulated by all the brightly colored fruits. But your other senses would be stimulated, too. You would hear the noisy bustle of the market. As you checked to see if a piece of fruit was firm, you would feel its smooth skin. If you tried a sample of the fruit, you would taste its juicy sweetness and smell its appetizing aroma. Clearly, a market like this is a feast for all of the senses. In this lesson, you will read how your nervous system senses the sound, feel, taste, and smell of a market like this—and of everything else around you. Hearing and Balance What do listening to music and riding a bike have in common? It might surprise you to learn that both activities depend on your ears. The ears are sense organs that detect sound. They also sense the position of the body and help maintain balance. Hearing Hearing is the ability to sense sound. Sound travels through the air in waves, much like the waves you see in the water in Figure 20.24 and the light waves described in Lesson 2. Sound waves in air cause vibrations inside the ears. The ears detect the vibrations. Figure 20.24: Sound waves travel through the air in all directions away from a sound like waves traveling through water away from where a pebble was dropped. (13) What the human ear looks like is shown in Figure 20.25. As you read about it below, trace the path of sound waves through the ear. You can also see an animation of the ear sensing sound at http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/sound-transduction.html. Assume a car horn blows in the distance. Sound waves spread through the air from the horn. Some of the sound waves reach your ear. The steps below show what happens next. They explain how your ears sense the sound. Each numbered step refers to a structure with the same number in Figure 20.25 and Table (20.2). Figure 20.25: Read the names of the parts of the ear in the key (Table 20.2), then find each of the parts in the diagram, referring to the diagram as you read about the parts of the ear. (36) \| Number in diagram \| Part of the ear \| \|-------------------\|----------------------\| \| 1 \| pinna \| \| 2 \| ear canal \| \| 3 \| eardrum \| \| 4 \| hammer \| \| 5 \| anvil \| \| 6 \| stirrup \| \| 7 \| oval window \| \| 8 \| cochlea \| \| 9 \| auditory nerve \| \| 10 \| semicircular canals \| 1. The sound waves are gathered by the pinna, or outer ear. This is the part of the ear you can see. 2. The sound waves are channeled into the ear canal. This is a tube-shaped opening in 3. At the end of the ear canal, the sound waves strike the eardrum. This is a thin membrane that vibrates like the head of a drum when sound waves hit it. 4. The vibrations pass from the eardrum to the hammer. This is the first of three tiny bones that pass vibrations through the ear. 5. The hammer passes the vibrations to the anvil, the second tiny bone that passes vibrations through the ear. 6. The anvil passes the vibrations to the stirrup, the third tiny bone that passes vibrations. 7. From the stirrup, the vibrations pass to the oval window. This is another membrane like the eardrum. 8. The oval window passes the vibrations to the cochlea. The cochlea is filled with liquid that moves when the vibrations pass through, like the waves in water when you drop a pebble into a pond. Tiny hair cells line the cochlea and bend when the liquid moves. When the hair cells bend, they release neurotransmitters. 9. The neurotransmitters trigger nerve impulses that travel to the brain through the auditory nerve. The brain interprets the sound and “tells” you what you are hearing. No doubt you’ve been warned that listening to loud music or other loud sounds can damage your hearing. It’s true. In fact, repeated exposure to loud sounds is the most common cause of hearing loss. The reason? Very loud sounds can kill the tiny hair cells lining the cochlea. The hair cells do not generally grow back once they are destroyed, so this type of hearing loss is permanent. You can protect your hearing by avoiding loud sounds or wearing earplugs or other ear protectors. Balance Did you ever try to stand on one foot with your eyes closed? Try it and see what happens, but be careful! It’s harder to keep your balance when you can’t see. Your eyes obviously play a role in balance. However, your ears play an even bigger role. The gymnast in Figure 20.26 may not realize it, but her ears—along with her cerebellum—are primarily responsible for her ability to perform on the balance beam. The parts of the ears involved in balance are the semicircular canals. In Figure 20.25, the semicircular canals are the structures numbered 10. The canals contain liquid, and are like the bottle of water in Figure 20.27. When the bottle tips, the water surface moves up and down the sides of the bottle. When the body tips, the liquid in the semicircular canals moves up and down the sides of the canals. Tiny hair cells line the semicircular canals. Movement of the liquid inside the canals triggers the hair cells to send nerve impulses. The nerve impulses travel to the cerebellum in the brain. In response, the cerebellum sends commands to muscles to contract or relax so the body stays balanced. Figure 20.26: This gymnast is using the semicircular canals in her ears, along with the cerebellum in her brain, to help keep her balance on the balance beam. (29) Figure 20.27: This bottle of water models the semicircular canals in your ears; when you tip the bottle, the water moves up or down the sides of the bottle; when you tip your head, the liquid inside the semicircular canals moves up and down the sides of the canals; tiny hair cells lining the canals detect the movement of liquid and send messages to the brain. (21) Touch When you look at the prickly cactus in Figure 20.28, does the word ouch come to mind? Touching the cactus would no doubt be painful. Touch is the sense of pain, pressure, or temperature. It depends on sensory neurons in the skin. The skin on the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and face has the most sensory neurons and is especially sensitive to touch. The tongue and lips are very sensitive to touch, as well. Neurons that sense pain are also found inside the body in muscles, joints, and organs. If you have a stomach ache or pain from a sprained ankle, it’s because of these internal sensory neurons. ![Cactus](image) Figure 20.28: The spines on this cactus are like needles, they help keep away animals that might want to eat the cactus. (18) The following example shows how messages about touch travel from sensory neurons to the brain, as well as how the brain responds to the messages. Suppose you wanted to test the temperature of the water in a lake before jumping in. You might stick one bare foot in the water. Neurons in the skin on your foot would sense the temperature of the water and send a message about it to your central nervous system. The frontal lobe of the cerebrum would process the information. It might decide that the water is really cold and send a message to your muscles to pull your foot out of the water. In some cases, messages about pain or temperature don’t travel all the way to and from the brain. Instead, they travel only as far as the spinal cord, and the spinal cord responds to the messages by giving orders to the muscles. When messages bypass the brain in this way, it forms a reflex arc, like the ones shown in Figures 20.29, 20.30 and 20.31. First image: Second image: Third Image Taste and Smell Your sense of taste is controlled by sensory neurons on your tongue that detect chemicals in food. The neurons are grouped in bundles within taste buds (Figure 20.32). There are five different types of taste neurons on the tongue. Each type detects a different taste. The tastes are sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami, which is a meaty taste. When taste neurons detect chemicals, they send messages to the brain about them. The brain, in turn, decides what tastes you are sensing. Your sense of smell also involves sensory neurons that detect chemicals. The neurons are found in the nose, and they detect chemicals in the air. Unlike taste neurons, which can detect only five different tastes, the sensory neurons in the nose can detect thousands of different odors. Have you ever noticed that you lose your sense of taste when your nose is stuffed up? That’s because your sense of smell contributes greatly to your ability to taste of food. As you eat, airborne molecules of food chemicals enter your nose. You experience the taste and smell at the same time. Being able to smell as well as taste food greatly increases the number of different tastes you are able to sense. For example, you can use your sense of taste alone to learn that a food is sweet, but you have to use your sense of smell as well to learn that the food tastes like strawberry cheesecake. Why These Senses Matter The senses of hearing, balance, touch, taste, and smell enrich our lives each day. The sense of hearing lets us listen to our favorite music. The sense of balance helps us play the sports we like. The sense of touch allows us to use a keyboard to text our friends. The senses of Figure 20.29: Reflex Arc: When you touch something hot, you may jerk your hand away without even thinking about it; the nerve impulse from your hand travels to the spinal cord and the spinal cord sends a message to your muscles to pull back your hand. (23) Figure 20.30: Reflex Arc: When you touch something hot, you may jerk your hand away without even thinking about it; the nerve impulse from your hand travels to the spinal cord and the spinal cord sends a message to your muscles to pull back your hand. (5) Figure 20.31: Reflex Arc: When you touch something hot, you may jerk your hand away without even thinking about it; the nerve impulse from your hand travels to the spinal cord and the spinal cord sends a message to your muscles to pull back your hand. (14) Figure 20.32: Tiny bumps that cover the tongue contain taste buds, bundles of sensory neurons that allow you to detect different types of tastes, such as sweet and salty tastes. (32) taste and smell allow us to enjoy the flavor and aroma of our favorite foods. These five senses not only enrich our life. They also help us sense danger. For example, being able to stay balanced on a icy sidewalk might prevent a nasty fall. Being able to hear a fire alarm could alert us to flee from a burning building. Being able to taste and smell might warn us that food that is spoiled and could make us sick. The sense of smell could also warn us of dangers such as fires and gas leaks. Being able to feel pain is especially important for preventing injury. It might not seem that pain is a good thing—until you think about what might happen if you couldn’t feel pain. For example, what if you couldn’t feel a hot iron? You might be badly burned before you realized you were touching it. What if you couldn’t feel the pain of a sprained ankle? You might keep using the ankle and make the injury worse. Lesson Summary - The ears detect sound waves and help maintain balance. The skin senses pain, pressure, and temperature. - Sensory cells on the tongue and in the nose detect tastes and smells. - The senses of hearing, balance, touch, taste, and smell enrich our life and help keep us safe. Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK12 High School Biology, Chapter 35. Autumn Libal. The Ocean Inside: Youth Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing. Mason Crest Publishers, 2007. Body Atlas. Nerves, Brain and Senses. Ticktock Media Ltd., 2004. Donald B. Light. The Senses. Chelsea House Publications, 2004. Elaine Landau. The Sense of Touch. Children’s Press, 2008. - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taste_buds](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taste_buds) Review Questions 1. What are the two main functions of the ears? 2. Which structure in the ear changes sound waves in air to vibrations? 3. What happens after the oval window in the ear passes vibrations to the cochlea? 4. Which parts of the ear sense changes in the body’s position? 5. What are the five tastes sensed by neurons on the tongue? 6. Why does death of hair cells in the cochlea cause hearing loss? 7. Explain the statement, “You listen with your ears, but you hear with your brain.” 8. How and why do reflex arcs occur? 9. Why is your sense of taste affected when you have a stuffy nose? 10. How could the ability to feel pain help prevent serious injury? Give an example. Vocabulary anvil Second of three tiny bones that pass vibrations through the ear. auditory nerve Nerve that carries nerve impulses generated by sound waves from the ear to the brain. cochlea Liquid-filled structure in the ear that senses vibrations and generates nerve impulses in response. ear Sense organ that detects sound. ear canal Tube-shaped opening in the ear that carries sound waves to the eardrum. eardrum Membrane in the ear that vibrates when sound waves hit it. hammer First of three tiny bones that pass vibrations through the ear. hearing Ability to sense sound. oval window Membrane in the ear that passes vibrations from the stirrup to the cochlea. pinna Outer part of the ear that gathers sound waves. reflex arc Path of nerve impulses that bypass the brain for a quicker response. semicircular canals Liquid-filled part of the ear that senses changes in position and generates nerve impulses in response. stirrup Last of three tiny bones that pass vibrations through the ear. taste buds Tiny bumps on the tongue that contain taste neurons. touch Sense of pain, pressure, or temperature. Points to Consider - Our senses, along with the rest of our nervous system, help us stay safe. At least they do if our nervous system is healthy. But what if the nervous system itself becomes ill or injured? What do you think would happen then? How do you think nervous system problems affect the rest of the body? 20.4 Lesson 20.4: Health of the Nervous System Lesson Objectives - Describe diseases of the nervous system. - Explain how the nervous system can be injured. - Identify the dangers of alcohol and other drugs. - List ways to keep the nervous system healthy. Check Your Understanding - What is the role of the nervous system? - What are some of the components of the nervous system? Introduction The nervous system controls sensing, feeling, and thinking. It also controls movement and just about every other body function. That’s why problems with the nervous system can affect the entire body. Nervous system problems include diseases and injuries. Most nervous system diseases cannot be prevented. However, you can take steps to reduce your risk of nervous system injuries. Nervous System Diseases Diseases of the nervous system include brain and spinal cord infections. Other problems of the nervous system range from very serious diseases, such as tumors, to less serious problems, such as tension headaches. Some diseases are present at birth. Others begin during childhood or adulthood. Central Nervous System Infections When you think of infections, you probably think of an ear infection or strep throat. You probably don’t think of a brain or spinal cord infection. However, bacteria and viruses can infect these organs as well as other parts of the body. Infections of the brain and spinal cord are not very common. But when they happen, they can be very serious. That’s why it’s important to know their symptoms. Encephalitis is a brain infection. If you have encephalitis, you are likely to have a fever and headache or feel drowsy and confused. The disease is most often caused by viruses, and the immune system tries to fight off a brain infection, just as it tries to fight off other infections. However, this can do more harm than good. The immune system’s response may cause swelling in the brain. With no room to expand, the brain pushes against the skull. This may injure the brain and even cause death. Medicines can help fight some viral infections of the brain. Others just have to run their course. Meningitis is an infection of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. If you have meningitis, you are likely to have a fever and headache. Another telltale symptom is a stiff neck. Meningitis can be caused by viruses or bacteria. Viral meningitis often clears up on its own after a few days. Bacterial meningitis is much more serious (Figure 20.33). It may cause brain damage and death. People with bacterial meningitis need emergency medical treatment. They are usually given antibiotics to kill the bacteria. ![Image](image_url) Figure 20.33: These bacteria—shown at more than 1,000 times their actual size—are the cause of bacterial meningitis; despite their tiny size, they can cause very serious illness. (10) A vaccine to prevent meningitis recently became available. It can be given to children as young as 2 years old. Many doctors recommend that children receive the vaccine no later than age 12 or 13, or before they begin high school. A condition called Reye’s syndrome can occur in young people that take aspirin when they have a viral infection. The syndrome causes swelling of the brain and may be fatal. Fortunately, Reye’s syndrome is very rare. The best way to prevent it is by not taking aspirin when you have a viral infection. Products like cold medicines often contain aspirin. Therefore, it’s important to read labels carefully when taking any medicines (Figure 20.34). Warning: Children and teenagers should not use this medicine for chicken pox or flu symptoms before a doctor is consulted about Reye’s syndrome, a rare but serious illness reported to be associated with aspirin. Figure 20.34: Since 1988, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has required that all aspirin and aspirin-containing products carry this warning label. (38) ### Other Nervous System Diseases Like other parts of the body, the nervous system may develop tumors. A tumor is a mass of cells that grow out of control. A tumor in the brain may press on normal brain tissues. This can cause headaches, difficulty speaking, or other problems, depending on where the tumor is located. Pressure from a tumor can even cause permanent brain damage. In many cases, brain tumors can be removed with surgery. In other cases, tumors can’t be removed without damaging the brain even more. In those cases, other types of treatments may be needed. Cerebral palsy is a disease caused by injury to the developing brain. The injury occurs before, during, or shortly after birth. Cerebral palsy is more common in babies that have a low weight at birth. However, the cause of the brain injury is not often known for certain. The parts of the brain that control body movements are usually affected. Symptoms range from weak muscles in mild cases, to trouble walking and talking in more severe cases. There is no known cure for cerebral palsy. Epilepsy is a disease in which seizures occur. A seizure is a period of lost consciousness that may include violent muscle contractions. It is caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain. The underlying cause of epilepsy may be an infection, brain injury, or tumor. The seizures of epilepsy can often be controlled with medicine. There is no known cure for the disease, but children with epilepsy may outgrow it by adulthood. A headache is a very common nervous system problem. Headaches may be a symptom of serious diseases such as brain tumors or encephalitis. More commonly, they are due to muscle tension. A tension headache occurs when muscles in the shoulders, neck, and head become too tense. This often happens when people are “stressed out.” Just trying to relax may help relieve this type of headache (Figure 20.35). Mild pain relievers such as ibuprofen may also help. ![Image](image) Figure 20.35: Sometimes relaxation is the best “medicine” for a tension headache, and to help muscles get rid of pain. (6) A migraine is a more severe type of headache. It occurs when blood vessels in the head dilate, or expand. This may be triggered by certain foods, bright lights, weather changes, or other factors. People with migraines may also have nausea or other symptoms. Fortunately, migraines can often be relieved with prescription drugs. There are many other nervous system diseases. They include multiple sclerosis, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. However, these diseases rarely, if ever, occur in young people. Their causes and symptoms are listed in Table (20.3). The diseases have no known cure, but medicines may help control their symptoms. \| Disease \| Cause \| Symptoms \| \|-----------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Multiple Sclerosis \| The immune system attacks and damages the central nervous system so neurons cannot function normally. \| Muscle weakness, difficulty moving, problems with coordination, difficulty keeping the body balanced \| \| Huntington’s Disease \| An inherited defective gene codes for an abnormal protein that causes the death of neurons. \| Uncontrolled jerky movements, loss of muscle control, problems with memory and learning \| \| Disease \| Cause \| Symptoms \| \|-------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Parkinson’s Disease \| An abnormally low level of a neurotransmitter affects the part of the brain that controls movement. \| Rigid muscles, uncontrolled shaking, slowed movements, problems with speaking \| \| Alzheimer’s Disease \| Abnormal changes in the brain cause the gradual loss of most normal brain functions. \| Memory loss, confusion, mood swings, gradual loss of control over mental and physical abilities \| Injuries to the Central Nervous System Injuries to the central nervous system may damage tissues of the brain or spinal cord. If an injury is mild, a person may have a full recovery. If an injury is severe, it may cause permanent disability or even death. Brain and spinal cord injuries most commonly occur because of car crashes or sports accidents. The best way to deal with such injuries is to try to prevent them. Brain Injuries The mildest and most common type of brain injury is a concussion. This is a bruise on the surface of the brain. It may cause temporary problems such as headache, drowsiness, and confusion. Most concussions in young people occur when they are playing sports, especially contact sports like football. A concussion normally heals on its own in a few days. A single concussion is unlikely to cause permanent damage. However, repeated concussions may lead to lasting problems. People that have had two or more concussions may have life-long difficulties with memory, learning, speech, or balance. You can see an animation of how a concussion occurs by visiting [http://pennhealth.com/health_info/animation-player/concussion.html](http://pennhealth.com/health_info/animation-player/concussion.html). A person with a serious brain injury usually suffers permanent brain damage. As a result, the person may have trouble talking or controlling body movements. Symptoms depend on what part of the brain was injured. Serious brain injuries can also cause personality changes and problems with mental abilities such as memory. Medicines, counseling, and other treatments may help people with serious brain injuries recover from—or at least learn to cope with—their disabilities. Spinal Cord Injuries Spinal cord injuries interrupt messages between the brain and body. They may cause a person to lose the ability to feel or move parts of the body. This is called paralysis. Whether paralysis occurs—and what parts of the body are affected if it does—depend on the location and seriousness of the injury. In addition to car crashes and sports injuries, diving accidents are a common cause of spinal cord injuries. Some people recover from spinal cord injuries. However, many people are paralyzed for life. Thanks to the work of Christopher Reeve (Figure 20.36), more research is being done on spinal cord injuries now than ever before. For example, scientists are trying to discover ways to regrow damaged spinal cord neurons. ![Christopher Reeve](image) Figure 20.36: Former Superman star, Christopher Reeve, was paralyzed from the neck down in a fall from a horse; the injury crushed his spinal cord so his brain could no longer communicate with his body. (35) Dangers of Alcohol and Other Drugs A drug is any chemical substance that affects the body or brain. Some drugs are medicines (Figure 20.37). Although these drugs are helpful when used properly, they can be misused like any other drugs. Drugs that aren’t medicines include both legal and illegal drugs. Examples of legal drugs are alcohol and caffeine. Although these drugs can be used legally by adults, they can still do harm. Examples of illegal drugs include marijuana and cocaine. Drugs that are prescribed by a doctor can be misused just like illegal drugs. (33) Types of Psychoactive Drugs Drugs like alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine affect the brain. Drugs that affect the brain are called psychoactive drugs. They influence how a person feels, thinks, or acts. You can watch animations of psychoactive drugs and the brain at http://www.pbs.org/wnet/closetohome/science/html/animations.html. If you think you have never used a psychoactive drug, think again. Do you drink soft drinks, such as colas? Most of them contain caffeine, which is a psychoactive drug. Caffeine is also found in coffee and chocolate (Figure 20.38). ![Coffee cup](image1) ![Chocolate bar](image2) ![Cola can](image3) Figure 20.38: All three of these popular products contain the stimulant drug caffeine. (1) Caffeine is an example of a class of psychoactive drugs called stimulant drugs. Other classes of psychoactive drugs are depressant drugs and hallucinogenic drugs. Drugs are classified based on how they affect the nervous system. - A stimulant drug is a psychoactive drug that speeds up the nervous system. This type of drug may make people feel more alert. Stimulants also increase heart rate and blood pressure. High doses of stimulant drugs can be dangerous. They can even cause death. Other stimulant drugs include nicotine (in tobacco) and cocaine. - A depressant drug is psychoactive drug that slows down the nervous system. This type of drug may make people feel calm and drowsy. It also decreases heart rate and the rate of breathing. High doses of depressant drugs can be dangerous. They may slow down the nervous system so much that heartbeat and breathing stop. Examples of depressant drugs include alcohol and morphine. - An hallucinogenic drug is a psychoactive drug that can cause strange sensations, perceptions, and thoughts. Examples of hallucinogenic drugs include marijuana and LSD. Drug Abuse Psychoactive drugs, both legal and illegal, are often abused. Drug abuse is the use of a drug without the advice of a doctor or for reasons other than those for which the drug was intended. Drug abuse may lead to physical dependence on the drug. This occurs when drug abusers need a drug to feel well physically. If they stop using the drug, they may experience symptoms like vomiting, diarrhea, or depression. This is called withdrawal. Drug abuse may also lead to psychological dependence. This occurs when drug abusers need a drug to feel well emotionally and mentally. For some drug abusers, a drug takes over their life. Their thoughts and activities revolve around getting and using the drug. No matter what the consequences, they keep using the drug. Even if they want to stop using the drug, they can’t. When drug abuse reaches this state, it’s called drug addiction. Alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine are all highly addictive drugs. People that are addicted to a drug may need to take more of the drug to feel the same effects as when they first started using the drug. This is called tolerance. People that develop tolerance are at risk of a drug overdose. A drug overdose occurs when someone takes so much of a drug that it causes serious illness or death. ### Keeping the Nervous System Healthy There are many choices you can make to keep your nervous system healthy. One obvious choice is to avoid using alcohol or other drugs. Not only will you avoid the injury that drugs themselves can cause. You will also be less likely to get involved in other risky behaviors that could harm your nervous system. Another way to keep the nervous system healthy is to eat a variety of healthy foods. The minerals calcium and potassium and vitamins B\textsubscript{1} and B\textsubscript{12} are important for a healthy nervous system. Some foods that are good sources for these minerals and vitamins are shown Figure 20.39. ![Beef Steak](image1) ![Milk](image2) ![Whole Grains](image3) ![Kidney Beans](image4) Figure 20.39: These foods are sources of nutrients needed for a healthy nervous system. (22) Daily physical activity is also important for nervous system health. Regular exercise makes your heart more efficient at pumping blood to your brain. As a result, your brain gets more The saying “use it or lose it” applies to your brain as well as your body. This means that mental activity, not just physical activity, is important for nervous system health. Doing crossword puzzles, reading, and playing a musical instrument are just a few ways you can keep your brain active. You can also choose to practice safe behaviors to protect your nervous system from injury. To keep your nervous system safe, choose to - Wear safety goggles or sunglasses when needed to protect your eyes from injury. - Wear hearing protectors such as ear plugs to protect your ears from loud sounds. - Wear a safety helmet for activities like bike riding and skating (Figure 20.40). - Wear a safety belt every time you ride in a motor vehicle. - Avoid unnecessary risks, such as performing dangerous stunts on your bike. - Never dive into water that is not approved for diving. If the water is too shallow, you could seriously injure your brain or spinal cord. A few minutes of fun could turn into a lifetime in a wheelchair. Figure 20.40: Bicycle helmets help protect from head injuries; making healthy choices like this can help prevent nervous system injuries that could cause lifelong disability. (27) Lesson Summary - The nervous system can be affected by infections, tumors, and other diseases. - Brain or spinal cord injuries may cause permanent disability or even death. • The use of psychoactive drugs can lead to drug abuse or addiction. • You can make choices that will help keep your nervous system healthy and safe. Review Questions 1. What is encephalitis? 2. What causes muscle weakness in cerebral palsy? 3. List symptoms of a concussion. 4. Define psychoactive drug and name two examples. 5. List three choices you can make to keep your nervous system healthy. 6. Explain why young people should not take aspirin when they have the flu, which is caused by viruses. 7. Compare and contrast tension headaches and migraine headaches. 8. Explain what causes paralysis. 9. Which type of psychoactive drug is caffeine? How does caffeine affect the nervous system? 10. How is drug tolerance related to drug overdose? Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK12 High School Biology, Chapter 35. Connie Goldsmith. Meningitis. Twenty First Century Books, 2007. David Aretha. On the Rocks: Teens and Alcohol. Franklin Watts, 2007. Roopal Karia. The Why and What of Epilepsy: A Book for Children and Teens. PublishAmerica, 2008. Terry Trueman. Stuck in Neutral. HarperTeen, 2001. - [http://kidshealth.org/kid/htbw/brain.html](http://kidshealth.org/kid/htbw/brain.html) - [http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/brain_nervous_system.html](http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/brain_nervous_system.html) - [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/migraine-headache/DS00120/DSECTION=causes](http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/migraine-headache/DS00120/DSECTION=causes) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary cerebral palsy Disease caused by injury to the developing brain early in life that affects the control of body movements. concussion Bruise on the surface of the brain; the mildest and most common type of brain injury. depressant drug Psychoactive drug that slows down the nervous system. drug Any chemical substance that affects the body or brain. drug abuse Use of a drug without the advice of a doctor or for reasons other than those for which the drug was intended. drug addiction Condition in which a drug takes over people’s lives and they cannot stop using the drug even if they want to. drug overdose Taking so much of a drug that it causes serious illness or death. encephalitis Infection of the brain that is usually caused by viruses. epilepsy Disease in which seizures occur. hallucinogenic drug Psychoactive drug that can cause strange sensations, perceptions, and thoughts. meningitis Viral or bacterial infection of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. migraine Severe type of headache that occurs when blood vessels in the head dilate. paralysis Inability to feel or move parts of the body. physical dependence Condition in which drug abusers need a drug to feel well physically. psychoactive drug Drug that affects the brain and influences how a person feels, thinks, or acts. psychological dependence Condition in which drug abusers need a drug to feel well emotionally. Reye’s Syndrome Rare, potentially fatal condition associated with aspirin use in young people with viral infections. seizure Period of lost consciousness that may include violent muscle contractions. stimulant drug Psychoactive drug that speeds up the nervous system. tension headache Headache that occurs when muscles in shoulders, neck, and head become too tense. tolerance Condition in which people need to take more of a drug to feel the same effects as when they first started using the drug. tumor Mass of cells that grow out of control; associated with cancer. withdrawal Symptoms like vomiting, diarrhea, or depression that can occur when people stop using a drug. Points to Consider • Although the nervous system controls the body, it doesn’t do it alone. It gets help from another body system, called the endocrine system. This is a system of glands that secrete hormones. Hormones are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body. • Think of how hormones can help control body processes? Image Sources (1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chocolate02.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Generic_Cola_Can_Jewel.jpg. (c)CC-BY-SA, GNU-FDL. (2) http://us.fotolia.com/id/6182002. Royalty Free. (3) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plastic_beads1.jpg. CC-BY. (4) . (5) http://www.benet.org/teachers/meraci/ReflexArcWithoutLabels.jpg. (6) [Dreamstime.com ]. Royalty Free. (7) \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hypermetropia.svg} Myopia, Hyperopia. CC-SA. (8) \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fileisnotcorruptedactuallyupload3453405.jpg} Normal Vision, Myopia. (9) Tomasz Trojanowski. Royalty Free. (10) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Neisseria_meningitidis.jpg}. Public Domain. (11) \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Synapse.png}. Public Domain. 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(23) \url{http://www.lmpc.edu.au/resources/Science/research_projects/diag#38;draw/nervereflexarc.gif}. (24) Volker Wille. Royalty Free. (25) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:MooreStreetDublin.jpg. CC-BY-SA. (26) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Central_nervous_system.gif. GNU-FDL. (27) "title Fotolia". Royalty Free. (28) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CDC_raspberry.jpg. Public Domain. (29) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bridget_Sloan_Nationals.JPG. CC-BY-SA. (30) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hemispheres.png. Public Domain. (31) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Dispersion_prism.jpg. CC-SA. (32) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tongue.agr.jpg. GNU-FDL. (33) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ritalin-SR-20mg-1000x1000.jpg. GNU-FDL. (34). (a)Public Domain (b)CC-BY-SA (c)GNU-FDL (d)Public Domain (e)CC-BY-SA. (35) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christopher_Reeve_MIT.jpg. Public Domain. (36) Ear-anatomy.png. GNU-FDL. (37) Diane Keys. Royalty Free. (38) http://aapnews.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/4/9/2-a. (39) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nervous_system_diagram.png. Public Domain. (40) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Actress-fear-and-panic.jpg. CC-BY-SA. Chapter 21 Diseases and the Body’s Defenses 21.1 Lesson 21.1: Infectious Diseases Lesson Objectives - List common causes of infectious diseases. - Explain how the virus known as HIV causes AIDS. - State how infectious diseases can be prevented. Check Your Understanding - What is a bacteria? - What are the components of blood? Introduction Has this ever happened to you? A student sitting next to you in class has a cold. The other student is coughing and sneezing, but you feel fine. Two days later, you come down with a cold, too. Diseases like colds are contagious, or “catching.” Contagious diseases are also called infectious diseases. An infectious disease is a disease that spreads from person to person. Causes of Infectious Diseases Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens. A pathogen is a living thing or virus that causes disease. Pathogens are commonly called “germs.” They can travel from one person to another. This is why the diseases they cause are “catching.” Types of Pathogens Living things that cause human diseases include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Most infectious diseases caused by these organisms can be cured with medicines. For example, medicines called antibiotics can cure most diseases caused by bacteria. Bacteria are one-celled living things without a nucleus. Although most bacteria are harmless, some cause diseases. Worldwide, the most common disease caused by bacteria is tuberculosis (TB). TB is a serious disease of the lungs. Another common disease caused by bacteria is strep throat. You may have had strep throat yourself. Bacteria that cause strep throat are shown in Figure 21.1. Some types of pneumonia and many cases of food borne illnesses are also caused by bacteria. ![Image](image.png) Figure 21.1: The structures that look like strings of beads are bacteria. They belong to the genus Streptococcus. Bacteria of this genus cause diseases such as strep throat and pneumonia. They are shown here 900 times bigger than their actual size. (4) Fungi are simple organisms that consist of one or more cells. They include mushrooms and yeasts. Human diseases caused by fungi include ringworm and athlete’s foot. Both are skin diseases that are not usually serious. What a ringworm infection looks like is shown in Figure 21.2. A more serious fungus disease is histoplasmosis. It is a lung infection. Protozoa are one-celled eukaryotes (with a nucleus). They cause diseases such as malaria. Malaria is a serious disease that is common in warm climates; the protozoa is transferred to people by a mosquito. More than a million people die of malaria each year. Other protozoa cause diarrhea. An example is Giardia lamblia, which is shown in *Figure 21.3. Figure 21.2: Ringworm isn’t a worm at all. It’s a disease caused by a fungus. The fungus causes a ring-shaped rash on the skin, like the one shown here. (14) Figure 21.3: This picture shows a one-celled organism called Giardia lamblia. It is a protozoan that causes diarrhea. (16) Viruses are nonliving particles that take over living cells in order to multiply. Viruses cause many common diseases. For example, viruses cause colds and flu. Cold sores are caused by the virus Herpes simplex. This virus is shown in Figure 21.4. Antibiotics do not affect viruses. However, medicines called antiviral drugs can treat many diseases caused by viruses. ![Image](image) Figure 21.4: The Herpes simplex virus, which is shown here, causes cold sores on the lips. Viruses are extremely small particles. This one is greatly magnified. (1) ### How Pathogens Spread Different pathogens spread in different ways. Some pathogens spread through food. They cause food borne illnesses. These illnesses were discussed in the Food and Digestive System chapter. Some pathogens spread through water. Giardia lamblia is one example. Water can be boiled or purified in other ways to kill Giardia and most other pathogens. Several pathogens spread through sexual contact. HIV is one example. It is a virus you will read about below. Other pathogens that spread through sexual contact are discussed in the Reproductive Systems and Life Stages chapter. Many pathogens that cause respiratory diseases spread by droplets in the air. Droplets are released when a person sneezes or coughs. Thousands of tiny droplets are released when a person sneezes is shown in Figure 21.5. Each droplet can contain thousands of pathogens. Examples of pathogens spread in this way are the viruses that cause colds and flu. You may get sick if you breathe in the pathogens. Figure 21.5: As this picture shows, thousands of tiny droplets are released into the air when a person sneezes. Each droplet may carry thousands of pathogens. You can’t normally see the droplets from a sneeze because they are so small. However, you can breathe them in, along with any pathogens they carry. This is how many diseases of the respiratory system are spread. (17) Other pathogens spread when they get on objects or surfaces. A fungus may spread in this way. For example, you can pick up the fungus that causes athlete’s foot by wearing shoes an infected person has worn. You can also pick up this fungus from the floor of a public shower. After acne, athlete’s foot is the most common skin disease in the United States. Therefore, the chance of coming in contact with the fungus in one of these ways is fairly high. Bacteria that cause the skin disease impetigo can spread when people share towels or clothes. The bacteria can also spread through direct skin contact in sports like wrestling. Still other pathogens are spread by vectors. A vector is an organism that carries pathogens from one person or animal to another. Most vectors are insects, such as ticks and mosquitoes. When an insect bites an infected person or animal, it picks up the pathogen. Then it transfers the pathogen to the next person or animal it bites. Ticks carry the bacteria that cause Lyme disease. Mosquitoes, like the one in Figure 21.6, carry West Nile virus. Both pathogens cause fever, headache, and tiredness. If the diseases are not treated, more serious symptoms may develop. The first case of West Nile virus in North America occurred in 1999. Within just a few years, the virus had spread throughout most of the United States. Birds as well as humans can be infected with the virus. Birds often fly long distances. This is one reason why West Nile virus spread so quickly. Some diseases are spread by insects. The type of mosquito shown here can spread West Nile virus. The virus doesn’t make the mosquito sick. The mosquito just carries the virus from one person or animal to another. HIV Infection and AIDS HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus, causes AIDS. AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. It is a fatal condition with no known cure. AIDS usually develops 10 to 15 years after a person is first infected with HIV. How HIV Spreads HIV spreads through direct contact of mucous membranes or the bloodstream with an infected person’s body fluids. Body fluids that may contain HIV include blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk. The virus can spread through sexual contact or shared drug needles. It can also spread from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth or breastfeeding. Some people think they can become infected with HIV by donating blood or receiving donated blood. This is not true. The needles used to draw blood for donations are always new. Therefore, they cannot spread the virus. Donated blood is also tested to make sure it is free of HIV. HIV and the Immune System How does an HIV infection develop into AIDS? HIV destroys white blood cells called helper T cells. The cells are produced by the immune system. This is the body system that fights infections and other diseases. You will read more about the immune system in Lesson 4. HIV invades helper T cells and uses them to reproduce. This is shown in Figure 21.7. Then the virus kills the helper T cells. As the number of viruses in the blood rises, the number of helper T cells falls. Without helper T cells, the immune system is unable to protect the body. As a result, the infected person cannot fight infections and other diseases. Figure 21.7: In this picture, the large structure on the left is a helper T cell. It is infected with HIV. The many small circles on the right are new HIV viruses being shed by the T cell. (24) Medications can slow down the increase of viruses in the blood. However, the medications cannot rid the body of all the viruses. At present, there is no cure for HIV infection. AIDS AIDS is not really a single disease. It is a set of symptoms and other diseases. It results from years of damage to the immune system by HIV. AIDS occurs when helper T cells fall to a very low level and the person develops infections or cancers that people with a healthy immune system can easily resist. These diseases are usually the cause of death of people with AIDS. The first known cases of AIDS occurred in 1981. Since then, AIDS has led to the deaths of more than 25 million people worldwide. Many of them were children. The greatest number of deaths occurred in Africa. This is probably where HIV first arose. It is also where medications to control HIV are least available. There are currently more people infected with HIV in Africa than any other part of the world. Preventing Infectious Diseases What can you do to avoid infectious diseases? Eating right and getting plenty of sleep are a good start. These habits will help keep your immune system healthy. With a healthy immune system, you will be able to fight off many pathogens. You can also take steps to avoid pathogens in the first place. The single most important way to avoid pathogens is to wash your hands often. You should wash your hands after using the bathroom or handling raw meat or fish. You should also wash your hands before eating or preparing food. In addition, you should wash your hands after being around sick people. The correct way to wash your hands is demonstrated in Figure 21.8. If soap and water aren’t available, use a hand sanitizer. A hand sanitizer that contains at least 60 percent alcohol will kill most germs on your hands. The best way to prevent diseases spread by vectors is to avoid contact with the vectors. For example, you can wear long sleeves and long pants to avoid tick and mosquito bites. Using insect repellent can also reduce your risk of insect bites. Many infectious diseases can be prevented with vaccinations. You will read more about vaccinations in Lesson 4. Vaccinations can help prevent measles, mumps, chicken pox, and several other diseases. If you do develop an infectious disease, try to avoid infecting others. Stay home from school until you are well. Also, take steps to keep your germs to yourself. Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you sneeze or cough, and wash your hands often to avoid spreading pathogens to other people. Figure 21.8: This picture shows the proper way to wash your hands. Frequent hand washing helps prevent the spread of pathogens. (22) Lesson Summary - Infectious diseases are caused by living things or viruses that can travel from one person to another. - HIV causes AIDS by destroying disease-fighting cells produced by the immune system. - A healthy lifestyle and frequent hand washing can help reduce your risk of infectious diseases. Review Questions 1. Name two examples of infectious diseases. 2. What is a pathogen? 3. List three ways that pathogens can spread. 4. What is HIV? 5. What is the single most important way to avoid pathogens? 6. Why do antibiotics not cure the common cold? 7. Explain why covering your mouth when you cough helps prevent the spread of germs. 8. What role do vectors play in the spread of infectious diseases? 9. How does an HIV infection develop into AIDS? 10. Why might using insect repellent reduce your risk of Lyme disease? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Jenna Bush. Ana’s Story: A Journey of Hope. Harper Collins, 2007. - Scientific American. Germ Wars: Battling Killer Bacteria and Microbes. Rosen Publishing Group, 2008. - [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile.htm](http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile.htm) - [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/germs/ID00002](http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/germs/ID00002) [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no03/05-0955.htm](http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no03/05-0955.htm); [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/germs/ID00002](http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/germs/ID00002) - [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch188/ch188a.html](http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch188/ch188a.html) [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/infectious-disease/ID00004](http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/infectious-disease/ID00004); [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch188/ch188a.html](http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch188/ch188a.html) - [http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/healthscience/healthtopics/microbes/PDF/microbesbook.pdf](http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/healthscience/healthtopics/microbes/PDF/microbesbook.pdf) - [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/index.html](http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/index.html) [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/infectiousdiseases.html](http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/infectiousdiseases.html); [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/index.html](http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/index.html) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_nile_virus](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_nile_virus) {Todo\|Fix incorrect formatting of links\|10} Vocabulary AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, which is a fatal condition caused by HIV. HIV The human immunodeficiency virus, which causes AIDS. infectious disease A disease that spreads from person to person. pathogen A living organism or virus that causes disease. vector An organism that carries pathogens from one person or animal to another. Points to Consider - What do you think causes allergies? - Do you know of other diseases that are not caused by pathogens? - Do you think these diseases are contagious? 21.2 Lesson 21.2: Noninfectious Diseases Lesson Objectives - List causes of noninfectious diseases. - Describe causes and treatments of cancer. - Explain why diabetes occurs. - Describe autoimmune diseases and allergies. - State how noninfectious diseases can be prevented. Check Your Understanding - What is an infectious disease? - Discuss the stages of the cell cycle. Introduction Not all diseases spread from person to person. A disease that does not spread from person to person is called a noninfectious disease. Examples are cancer and diabetes. These diseases may or may not be caused by pathogens. Causes of Noninfectious Diseases Most noninfectious diseases have more than one cause. The causes may include genes and an unhealthy lifestyle. Genes may increase the chances that people will have certain diseases. However, other factors may determine whether the diseases actually develop. For example, what people eat or whether they smoke may also play a role. Several noninfectious diseases are discussed in other chapters. For example, heart disease is discussed in Cardiovascular System chapter. In this lesson, the focus is on cancer, diabetes, and diseases of the immune system. Cancer Cancer is a disease in which abnormal cells divide out of control. Normally, the body has safeguards that prevent abnormal cells from dividing. In cancer, these safeguards fail. What Causes Cancer? Cancer is usually caused by mutations. From the Cell Division, Reproduction, and DNA chapter, you know that mutations are random errors in genes. Mutations that lead to cancer (usually multiple mutations in the same cell) usually occur in genes that control the cell cycle. Due to the mutations, abnormal cells divide uncontrollably. This often leads to a tumor. A tumor is a mass of abnormal tissue. As a tumor grows, it may harm normal tissues around it. Anything that can cause cancer is called a carcinogen. Carcinogens may be pathogens, chemicals, or radiation. Figure 1 gives examples of carcinogens of each type. Causes of Cancer Pathogens Pathogens that cause cancer include the human papilloma virus (HPV) and the hepatitis B virus. HPV is spread through sexual contact. It can cause cancer of the reproductive system in females. The hepatitis B virus is spread through sexual contact or contact with blood containing the virus. It can cause cancer of the liver (Figures 21.9 and 21.10). Chemicals Many different chemical substances cause cancer. Dozens of chemicals in tobacco smoke, including nicotine, have been shown to cause cancer. In fact, tobacco smoke is one of the main sources of chemical carcinogens. Smoking tobacco increases the risk of cancer of the lung, mouth, throat, and bladder. Using smokeless tobacco can also cause cancer. Figure 21.9: The mutations that cause cancer may occur when people are exposed to pathogens, chemicals, or radiation. Some common causes of cancer are shown here. (23) Figure 21.10: The mutations that cause cancer may occur when people are exposed to pathogens, chemicals, or radiation. Some common causes of cancer are shown here. (6) Radiation Forms of radiation that cause cancer include ultraviolet (UV) radiation and radon. UV radiation is part of sunlight. It is the leading cause of skin cancer. Radon is a natural radioactive gas that seeps into buildings from the ground. It can cause lung cancer (Figure 21.11). ![Ultraviolet radiation](image) Figure 21.11: The mutations that cause cancer may occur when people are exposed to pathogens, chemicals, or radiation. Some common causes of cancer are shown here. (9) Sometimes cancer cells break away from a tumor. If they enter the bloodstream, they are carried throughout the body. Then, the cells may start growing in other tissues. This is usually how cancer spreads from one part of the body to another. Once this happens, cancer is very hard to control. Common Types of Cancer Cancer occurs mainly in adults, especially in adults over age 50, as more mutations accumulate in cells over time. The most common type of cancer in adult males is cancer of the prostate gland. The prostate gland is part of the male reproductive system. Prostate cancer makes up about one third of all cancers in men. The most common type of cancer in adult females is breast cancer. It makes up about one third of all cancers in women. In both men and women, lung cancer is the second most common type of cancer. Most cases of lung cancer occur in smokers. Cancer can also occur in children. However, childhood cancer is rare. Leukemia is the main type of cancer in children. It makes up about one third of all childhood cancers. It occurs when the body makes abnormal white blood cells. Treating Cancer If leukemia is treated early, it usually can be cured. In fact, many cancers can be cured if treated early. Treatment of cancer often involves removing a tumor with surgery. This may be followed by other types of treatments. These may include drugs and radiation, which kill cancer cells. The sooner cancer is treated, the greater the chances of a cure. This is why it is important to know the warning signs of cancer. Having warning signs does not mean that you have cancer. However, you should see a doctor to be sure. Everyone should know the warning signs of cancer. Detecting and treating cancer early can often lead to a cure. Warning Signs of Cancer - Change in bowel or bladder habits - Sore that doesn’t heal - Unusual bleeding or discharge - Lump in the breast or elsewhere - Chronic indigestion - Difficulty swallowing - Obvious changes in a wart or mole - Persistent cough or hoarseness (Source: http://www.uihealthcare.com/topics/cancer/canc4280.html, Courtesy: University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics) Diabetes Another noninfectious disease is diabetes. Diabetes is a disease in which the pancreas cannot make enough insulin. From the Controlling the Body chapter, you know that insulin is a hormone that helps cells take up sugar from the blood. Without enough insulin, the blood contains too much sugar. This can damage blood vessels and other cells throughout the body. The kidneys work hard to filter out and excrete some of the excess sugar. This leads to frequent urination and excessive thirst. Doctor Rosalyn Yalow is an American scientist that played a major role in our knowledge of diabetes. She helped discover a way to measure tiny amounts of insulin in the blood. She won a Nobel Prize for her discovery in 1977. There are two main type of diabetes: type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes makes up about 5 to 10 percent of all cases of diabetes in the United States. Type 2 diabetes accounts for most of the other cases. Both types of diabetes are more likely in people that have certain genes. Therefore, having a family member with diabetes increases the risk of developing the disease. Either type of diabetes can increase the chances of having other health problems, as well. For example, people with diabetes are more likely to develop heart disease and kidney disease. Type 1 and type 2 diabetes are similar in these ways. However, the two types of diabetes have different causes. Type 1 Diabetes Type 1 diabetes occurs when the immune system attacks normal cells of the pancreas. As a result, the pancreas can no longer produce insulin. Something in the environment triggers the immune system to attack the pancreas. Scientists think that the trigger may be a virus. Type 1 diabetes usually develops in childhood or adolescence. People with type 1 diabetes must frequently check the sugar in their blood. They use a meter like the one shown in Figure 21.12. Whenever their blood sugar starts to get too high, they need a shot of insulin. The insulin brings their blood sugar back to normal. There is no cure for type 1 diabetes. Therefore, insulin shots must be continued for life. Most people with this type of diabetes learn how to give themselves insulin shots. Type 2 Diabetes Type 2 diabetes occurs when body cells no longer respond to insulin. The pancreas may still produce insulin, but the cells of the body cannot use it. Being overweight and having high blood pressure increase the chances of developing this type of diabetes. Type 2 diabetes usually develops in adulthood. However, it is becoming more common in teens and children. This is because more young people are overweight now than ever before. Some cases of type 2 diabetes can be cured with weight loss. However, most people with the disease need to take medicine to control their blood sugar. Regular exercise and balanced eating also help. Like people with type 1 diabetes, people with type 2 diabetes must frequently check their blood sugar. Diseases of the Immune System The immune system usually protects you from pathogens and other causes of disease. In Lesson 4, you will read more about how the immune system works. When the immune system is working properly, it keeps you from getting sick. However, the immune system is like any other system of the body. It can break down or develop diseases. In the last lesson you read about AIDS. AIDS is an infectious disease of the immune system caused by a virus. Some diseases of the immune system are noninfectious. They include autoimmune diseases and allergies. Figure 21.12: This is one type of meter used by people with diabetes to measure their blood sugar. Modern meters like this one need only a drop of blood and take less than a minute to use. (25) Autoimmune Diseases An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks the body’s own cells. One example is type 1 diabetes. In this disease, the immune system attacks cells of the pancreas. Other examples are multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. In multiple sclerosis, the immune system attacks nerve cells. This causes weakness and pain. In rheumatoid arthritis, the immune system attacks the cells of joints. This causes joint damage and pain. These diseases cannot be cured. However, they can be helped with medicines that weaken the immune system’s attack on normal cells. Allergies An allergy occurs when the immune system attacks a harmless foreign substance. A substance that triggers an allergy is called an allergen. It is the response of the immune system, not the allergen, which causes the symptoms of an allergy. Did you ever hear of hay fever? It’s not really a fever at all. It’s an allergy to plant pollens. People with this type of allergy have symptoms such as watery eyes, sneezing, and a runny nose. A common cause of hay fever is the pollen of ragweed. A ragweed plant is shown in Figure 21.13. Many people are allergic to poison ivy. A poison ivy plant is shown in Figure 21.14. Skin contact with poison ivy leads to an itchy rash in people that are allergic to the plant. As you have read, some people are allergic to certain foods. Nuts and shellfish are common causes of food allergies. Other common causes of allergies include: - drugs such as penicillin - mold - dust - dog and cat dander (dead skin cells) - stings of wasps and bees To learn more about allergies and their causes, go to http://aafa.al.healthology.com/allergies/focusarea.htm. You can watch a video about allergies at this Web site. Most allergies can be treated with medicines. Medicines used to treat allergies include antihistamines and steroids. These medicines help control the immune system’s response. Sometimes, allergies cause severe symptoms. For example, they may cause the throat to swell so it is hard to breathe. Severe allergies may be life threatening. They require emergency medical care. Figure 21.13: Ragweed is a common roadside weed found throughout the United States. Many people are allergic to its pollen. (28) Figure 21.14: Poison ivy plants are wild vines with leaves in groups of three. They grow in wooded areas in most of the United States. Contact with poison ivy may cause a rash in a person allergic to the plant. (21) Preventing Noninfectious Diseases Most allergies can be prevented by avoiding the substances that cause them. For example, you can avoid pollens by staying indoors as much as possible. You can learn to recognize plants like poison ivy and not touch them. A good way to remember how to avoid poison ivy is “Leaves of three, let it be.” Some people receive allergy shots to help prevent allergic reactions. The shots contain tiny amounts of allergens. After many months or years of shots, the immune system gets used to the allergens and no longer responds to them. Type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune diseases cannot be prevented. However, choosing a healthy lifestyle can help prevent type 2 diabetes. Getting plenty of exercise, avoiding high-fat foods, and staying at a healthy weight can reduce the risk of developing this type of diabetes. This is especially important for people that have family members with the disease. Making these healthy lifestyle choices can also help prevent some types of cancer. In addition, you can reduce the risk of cancer by avoiding carcinogens. For example, you can reduce your risk of lung cancer by not smoking. You can reduce your risk of skin cancer by using sunscreen. How to choose a sunscreen that offers the most protection is explained in Figure 21.15. Some people think that tanning beds are a safe way to get a tan. This is a myth. Tanning beds expose the skin to UV radiation. Any exposure to UV radiation increases in the risk of skin cancer. It doesn’t matter whether the radiation comes from tanning lamps When you choose a sunscreen, select one with an SPF of 30 or higher. Also, choose a sunscreen that protects against both UVB and UVA radiation. (12) Lesson Summary - Causes of noninfectious diseases may include genes and an unhealthy lifestyle. - Cancer is caused by mutations and treated with surgery, drugs, and radiation. - Diabetes is a disease in which the pancreas cannot make enough insulin or use the insulin properly. - Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks normal body cells. - Allergies occur when the immune system attacks harmless foreign substances. - A healthy lifestyle can help reduce your risk of developing many noninfectious diseases. Review Questions 1. What is a noninfectious disease? 2. List three carcinogens. 3. What other health problems are more likely in people with diabetes? 4. What causes rheumatoid arthritis? 5. How can you reduce your risk of developing skin cancer? 6. Explain how mutations can lead to cancer. 7. Why are frequent urination and excessive thirst symptoms of diabetes? 8. Compare and contrast type 1 and type 2 diabetes. 9. Some allergies occur during certain seasons, while others occur year-round. Give examples of allergens that you would expect to cause each type of allergy. 10. Why is maintaining a healthy weight especially important for people that have family members with type 2 diabetes? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Amy M. Mareck. Fighting for My Life: Growing up with Cancer. Fairview Press, 2005. - Jillian Powell. Allergies. Cherrytree Books, 2008. - Marlene Targ Birll. Diabetes. Twenty-First Century Books, 2007. - [http://www.cancerindex.org/ccw/guide2c.htm](http://www.cancerindex.org/ccw/guide2c.htm) [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/immunesystem; http://www.cancerindex.org/ccw/guide2c.htm](http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/immunesystem; http://www.cancerindex.org/ccw/guide2c.htm) - [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/allergy/AA99999](http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/allergy/AA99999) [http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/az/; http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/allergy/AA99999](http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/az/; http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/allergy/AA99999) - [http://www.4women.gov/FAQ/autoimmune.htm](http://www.4women.gov/FAQ/autoimmune.htm) [http://www.uihealthcare.com/topics/cancer/canc4280.html; http://www.4women.gov/FAQ/autoimmune.htm](http://www.uihealthcare.com/topics/cancer/canc4280.html; http://www.4women.gov/FAQ/autoimmune.htm) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary allergen A substance that triggers an allergy. allergy A condition that occurs when the immune system attacks a harmless foreign substance. autoimmune disease A disease that occurs when the immune system attacks the body’s own cells. cancer A disease in which abnormal cells divide out of control. carcinogen Anything that can cause cancer. diabetes A disease in which the pancreas cannot make enough insulin. noninfectious disease Disease that does not spread from person to person. tumor A mass of abnormal tissue. type 1 diabetes The type of diabetes that occurs when the immune system attacks normal cells of the pancreas. type 2 diabetes Type of diabetes that occurs when body cells no longer respond to insulin. Points to Consider - How do you think the body fights diseases like colds? - How do you think it protects you from pathogens and other causes of disease? 21.3 Lesson 21.3: First Two Lines of Defense Lesson Objectives - Describe your body’s first line of defense against pathogens. - Explain how inflammation helps protect you from pathogens. Check Your Understanding - What are some of the functions of your skin? - What is a pathogen? Give some examples. Introduction Your body has many ways to protect you from pathogens. Your body’s defenses are like a castle of old. The outside of a castle was protected by a moat and high walls. Inside the castle, soldiers were ready to fight off any enemies that made it across the moat and over the walls. Like a castle, your body has a series of defenses. Only pathogens that get through all the defenses can harm you. First Line of Defense Your body’s first line of defense is like a castle’s moat and walls. It keeps most pathogens out of your body. The first line of defense includes different types of barriers. Skin and Mucous Membranes The skin is a very important barrier to pathogens. The skin is the body’s largest organ. In adults, it covers an area of 1.5 to 2 square meters (about 16 to 22 square feet)! The skin is also the body’s single most important defense. It forms a physical barrier between the body and the outside world. As shown in Figure 21.16, the skin has several layers. The outer layer is tough and waterproof. It is very difficult for pathogens to get through this layer of skin. The mouth and nose are not lined with skin. Instead, they are lined with mucous membranes. Other organs that are exposed to the outside world, including the lungs and stomach, are also lined with mucous membranes. Mucous membranes are not tough like skin. However, they have other defenses. One defense of mucous membranes is the mucus they secrete. Mucus is a sticky, moist substance that coats mucous membranes. Most pathogens get stuck in the mucus before they can do harm to the body. Many mucous membranes also have cilia. Cilia in the lungs are shown in Figure 21.17. Cilia are like tiny fingers. They move in waves and sweep mucus and trapped pathogens toward body openings. When you clear your throat or blow your nose, you rid your body of the mucus and pathogens. Figure 21.16: This drawing shows that the skin has many layers. The outer layer is so tough that it keeps out most pathogens. (8) Figure 21.17: This is what the cilia lining the lungs look like when they are magnified. Their movements constantly sweep mucus and pathogens out of the lungs. Do they remind you of brushes? (15) Chemicals Most body secretions contain chemicals that kill pathogens. For example, mucus, sweat, tears, and saliva contain enzymes that kill pathogens. The enzymes are called lysozymes. They break down the cell walls of bacteria. The stomach secretes a very strong acid, called hydrochloric acid. This acid kills most pathogens that enter the stomach in food or water. Urine is also acidic, so few pathogens can grow in it. Helpful Bacteria You are not aware of them, but your skin is covered by millions (or more!) of bacteria. Millions more live inside your body. From the Food and Digestive System chapter, you know that many bacteria live inside your large intestine. Most of these bacteria help defend your body from pathogens. How do they do it? They compete with harmful bacteria for food and space. This prevents the harmful bacteria from multiplying and making you sick. Second Line of Defense The little girl in Figure 21.18 has a scraped knee. A scrape is a break in the skin that may let pathogens enter the body. If bacteria enter through the scrape, they could cause an infection. These bacteria would then face the body’s second line of defense. Inflammation If bacteria enter the skin through a scrape, the area may become red, warm, and painful. These are signs of inflammation. Inflammation is one way the body reacts to infections or injuries. Inflammation is triggered by chemicals that are released when skin or other tissues are damaged. The chemicals cause nearby blood vessels to dilate, or expand. This increases blood flow to the damaged area. The chemicals also attract white blood cells to the wound and cause them to leak out of blood vessels into the damaged tissue. You can watch a video animation of this process at http://biology-animations.blogspot.com/search/label/inflammatory%20response%20animation. White Blood Cells After white blood cells leave a blood vessel at the site of inflammation, they start “eating” pathogens. From the Cardiovascular System chapter, you know that white blood cells are one type of cells that make up the blood. The main role of white blood cells is to fight pathogens in the body. There are actually several different kinds of white blood cells. Some Figure 21.18: This little girl just got her first scraped knee. It doesn’t seem to hurt, but the break in her skin could let pathogens enter her body. That’s why scrapes should be kept clean and protected until they heal. (10) white blood cells are very specialized. They attack only certain pathogens. You will read about these white blood cells in Lesson 4. Other white blood cells attack any pathogens they find. These white blood cells travel to sites of inflammation. They are called phagocytes, which means “eating cells.” In addition to pathogens, phagocytes “eat” dead cells and other debris. They engulf the pathogens or debris and destroy them. This process is called phagocytosis. How phagocytosis occurs is shown in Figure 21.19. You can watch a video of an actual phagocyte gobbling up and destroying a pathogen at http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com/category/phagocytosis/. ![Phagocytosis](image) Figure 21.19: These drawings show phagocytosis. In this process, a phagocyte engulfs and breaks down a pathogen. (2) White blood cells also produce chemicals that cause a fever. A fever is a higher-than-normal body temperature. Normal human body temperature is 98.6° F (37° C). Most bacteria and viruses that infect people multiply fastest at this temperature. When the temperature is higher, the pathogens cannot multiply as fast. A fever also triggers the immune system to make more white blood cells. In these ways, a fever helps the body fight infection. Lesson Summary - Your body’s first line of defense includes the skin and other barriers that keep pathogens out of your body. - If pathogens enter your body, inflammation occurs, and phagocytes come to the body’s defense. Review Questions 1. How does your skin protect you from pathogens? 2. What is mucus? 3. Define inflammation. 4. What are phagocytes? 5. What is a fever? 6. Explain how cilia help rid your body of pathogens. 7. How do helpful bacteria defend your body? 8. How does inflammation help fight pathogens? 9. Why is phagocytosis called a general body defense? 10. A fever is a sign of infection. Why might it be considered a good sign? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Rebecca L. Johnson and Jack Desrocher. Daring Cell Defenders. Millbrook Press, 2007. - Susan Heinrichs Gray. The Skin. Child’s World, 2005. - [http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/IgorFridman.shtml](http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/IgorFridman.shtml) - [http://www.biocarta.com/pathfiles/h_inflamPathway.asp](http://www.biocarta.com/pathfiles/h_inflamPathway.asp) - [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003090.htm](http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003090.htm) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary cilia Finger-like projects from the cells of the mucous membranes. fever Higher than normal body temperature. inflammation Reaction causing redness, warmth, and pain that occurs at the site of an infection or injury. mucus Sticky, moist substance that coats mucous membranes. phagocytes A type of white blood cells that travel to sites of inflammation and destroy pathogens and debris. phagocytosis The process in which phagocytes engulf and destroy pathogens or debris. Points to Consider - How do you think pathogens can be recognized? - Why do you think the body needs specific defenses as well as general ones? 21.4 Lesson 21.4: Immune System Defenses Lesson Objectives - Describe the immune system. - Explain how lymphocytes respond to pathogens. - Define immunity and vaccination. Check Your Understanding - What are the first two lines of defense? - Give examples of pathogens. Introduction If pathogens manage to get through the body’s first two lines of defense, a third line of defense takes over. This third line of defense involves the immune system. It is called an immune response. The immune system has a special response for each type of pathogen. What Is the Immune System? The immune system is also called the lymphatic system. It is named for lymphocytes, which are the type of white blood cells involved in an immune response. The parts of the immune system are shown in Figure 21.20. They include several lymph organs, lymph vessels, lymph, and lymph nodes (Figure 21.21). Lymph Organs The lymph organs are the red bone marrow, thymus gland, spleen, and tonsils. Each organ has a different function in the immune system. They are described in Figure 21.24. Figure 21.20: This diagram shows the parts of the immune system. The immune system includes several organs and a system of vessels that carry lymph. Lymph nodes are located along the lymph vessels. (7) Figure 21.21: (20) Figure 21.22: (13) Red Bone Marrow Red bone marrow is found inside many bones, including the femur shown here. Red bone marrow produces lymphocytes. Thymus Gland The thymus gland is in the chest behind the breast bone. It stores lymphocytes while they mature (Figure 21.23). Spleen The spleen is in the abdomen below the lungs. Its job is to filter the blood. Any pathogens that are filtered out of the blood are destroyed by lymphocytes in the spleen (Figure 21.24). Tonsils The tonsils are in the throat. They trap pathogens that enter the body through the mouth or nose. Lymphocytes in the tonsils destroy the trapped pathogens (Figure 21.25). Lymph and Lymph Vessels Lymph vessels make up a circulatory system that is similar to the cardiovascular system, which you read about in the Cardiovascular System chapter. Lymph vessels are like blood vessels, except they circulate lymph instead of blood. Lymph is a yellowish fluid that leaks out of tiny blood vessels into spaces between cells in tissues. At sites of inflammation, there is usually more lymph in tissues. This lymph may contain many pathogens. The lymph that collects in tissues gradually passes into tiny lymph vessels. It then travels from smaller to larger lymph vessels. Lymph is not pumped through lymph vessels like blood is pumped through blood vessels by the heart. Instead, muscles surrounding the lymph vessels contract and squeeze the lymph through the vessels. The lymph vessels themselves Figure 21.24: (19) also contract to help move the lymph along. The lymph finally reaches the main lymph vessels in the chest. Here, the lymph drains into two large veins. This is how the lymph returns to the bloodstream. Before lymph reaches the bloodstream, pathogens are removed from it at lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are small, oval structures located along the lymph vessels. They act like filters. Any pathogens filtered out of the lymph at lymph nodes are destroyed by lymphocytes in the nodes. Lymphocytes Lymphocytes are the key cells of an immune response. A photograph of a lymphocyte is shown in Figure 21.26. The lymphocyte shown in the figure is greatly magnified. There are trillions of lymphocytes in the human body. They make up about one quarter of all white blood cells. Usually, fewer than half of the body’s lymphocytes are in the blood. The rest are in the lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph organs. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells. Both types of lymphocytes are produced in the red bone marrow. They are named for the sites where they mature. The B in B cells stands for “bone.” B cells mature in red bone marrow. The T in T cells stands for “thymus.” T cells mature in the thymus gland. B and T cells must be “switched on” in order to fight a specific pathogen. Once this happens, they multiply and produce an army of cells ready to fight that particular pathogen. How can B and T cells recognize specific pathogens? Pathogens have proteins that are foreign Figure 21.26: This image of a lymphocyte was made with an electron microscope. The lymphocyte is shown 10,000 times its actual size. (26) to the body. These proteins are called antigens. An antigen is any protein that triggers an immune response because it is unlike any protein that the body makes. Antigens are found on bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. They are also found on other foreign cells that enter the body and on cancer cells. Immune Responses There are two different types of immune responses. One type involves B cells. The other type involves T cells. You can watch a video of both types of immune responses at [http://www.dnatube.com/view_video2.php?viewkey=5ff68e3e25b9114205d4](http://www.dnatube.com/view_video2.php?viewkey=5ff68e3e25b9114205d4). B Cell Response B cells respond to pathogens and other foreign cells in the blood and lymph. Most B cells fight infections by producing antibodies. An antibody is a large, Y-shaped protein that binds with an antigen. Each antibody can bind with just one specific type of antigen. A diagram of an antibody binding with an antigen is shown in Figure 21.27. They fit together like a lock and key. Antibodies travel through the blood and lymph, binding with any matching antigens they run into. Once an antigen and antibody bind together, they are destroyed by a phagocyte. T Cell Response There are different types of T cells, including killer T cells and helper T cells. Killer T cells destroy infected, damaged, or cancerous body cells. How a killer T cell destroys an infected cell is illustrated in Figure 21.28. When the killer T cell comes into contact with the infected cell, it releases poisons. The poisons make tiny holes in the cell membrane of the infected cell. This causes the cell to burst open. Both the infected cell and the viruses inside it are destroyed. Helper T cells do not destroy infected or damaged body cells. However, they are still necessary for an immune response. They help by secreting chemicals that control other lymphocytes. The chemicals secreted by helper T cells “switch on” both B cells and killer T cells so they can recognize and fight specific pathogens. Immunity and Vaccination Most B and T cells die after an infection has been brought under control. However, some of them survive for many years. They may even survive for a person’s lifetime. These long-lasting B and T cells are called memory cells. They allow the immune system to “remember” the pathogen after the infection is over. If the pathogen tries to invade the body again, the Figure 21.27: This diagram shows how an antibody binds with an antigen. The antibody was produced by a B cell. It binds with just one type of antigen. Antibodies produced by different B cells bind with other types of antigens. (3) Figure 21.28: In this diagram, a killer T cell recognizes a body cell infected with a virus. After the killer T cell makes contact with the infected cell, it releases poisons that cause the infected cell to burst. This kills both the infected cell and the viruses inside it. (27) memory cells are ready to start multiplying. They will quickly produce a new army of B or T cells to fight the pathogen. They are prepared to launch a faster, stronger attack than the first time the pathogen invaded the body. As a result, the immune system will be able to destroy the pathogen before it can cause an infection. Being able to resist a pathogen in this way is called immunity. Immunity can also come about through vaccination. Vaccination is deliberate exposure to a pathogen in order to bring about immunity without causing disease. In vaccination, the pathogen is usually injected under the skin. However, only part of the pathogen is injected, or a weak or dead pathogen is used. This results in an immune response without causing illness. Diseases you have probably been vaccinated against include measles, mumps, and chicken pox. Lesson Summary - The immune system includes lymph organs, lymph vessels, lymph, and lymph nodes. - B cells produce antibodies against pathogens in the blood and lymph. - Killer T cells destroy body cells infected with pathogens. - Immunity is the ability to resist a particular pathogen. - Vaccination is deliberate exposure to a pathogen in order to bring about immunity. Review Questions 1. What are lymphocytes? 2. Describe lymph. 3. What is an antigen? 4. What organ produces B cells and T cells? 5. Define immunity. 6. Some children with frequent sore throats have an operation to remove their tonsils. Why might removing the tonsils lead to fewer sore throats? 7. How are an antigen and antibody like a lock and key? 8. Explain how killer T cells fight pathogens. 9. Helper T cells do not produce antibodies or destroy infected cells. Why are they necessary for immune responses? 10. If you have been vaccinated against measles, you are unlikely to ever have the disease, even if you are exposed to the measles virus. Why? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Ana Maria Rodriguez. Edward Jenner: Conqueror of Smallpox (Great Minds of Science). Enslow Publishers, 2006. Lorrie Klosterman. Immune System (The Amazing Human Body). Benchmark Books, 2008. Steve Parker. Defend Yourself: The Immune System. Raintree, 2006. http://www.niaid.nih.gov/final/immun/immun.htm http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/lymphatic/index.html; http://www.niaid.nih.gov/final/immun/immun.htm http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/immune/the_immune_system.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary antibody Large, Y-shaped protein that binds with an antigen. antigen Any protein that triggers an immune response; unlike any protein that the body makes. immune response The specific third line of defense against pathogens; involves the immune system. immune system System that protects the body from pathogens and other causes of disease. immunity Ability to resist a pathogen because cells of the immune system "remember" the pathogen from a previous infection or vaccination. lymph Yellowish fluid that leaks out of tiny vessels into spaces between cells in tissues. lymph nodes Small, oval structures located along lymphatic vessels that filter pathogens from lymph. lymphocytes Type of white blood cells involved in an immune response. vaccination Deliberate exposure to a pathogen in order to bring about immunity without causing disease. Points to Consider - What do you think is the role of the reproductive system? - Do you know what organs and other structures make up the reproductive system? - Do you know how they differ between males and females? Image Sources (1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Herpes_simpex_virus.jpg. Public Domain. (2) http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phagocytosis.JPG&filetimestamp=20080115010926. CC-BY-SA. (3) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antibody.svg. Public Domain. (4) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Domain. (5) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:CulexNil.jpg. Public Domain. (6) http://www.nchealthandhealing.com/elements/media/topic-media/4_6_cigarette_warning_label.jpg. No copyright information given at Web site. (7) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_lymphatic_system.jpg. Public Domain. (8) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Skinlayers.png. Public Domain. (9) http://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/RadiationEmittingProductsandProcedures/Tanning/ucm116425.htm. Public Domain. (10) http://bp3.blogger.com/_D0st9OIVwd.jpg. GNU Free Documentation. (11) CK-12 Foundation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_thymus.jpg. (12) Zebulon Rogerson, CK-12 Foundation. http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm049091.htm. Public Domain. (13) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray252.png. (14) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ringworm_on_the_arm,_or_tinea_corporis_due_to_Trichophyton_mentagrophytes_PHL_2938_lores.jpg. Public Domain. (15) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bronchiolar_epithelium_3_-_SEM.jpg. Public Domain. (16) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Giardia_lamblia.jpg. Public Domain. (17) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Aerosol_from_Sneeze.jpg. Public Domain. (18) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Throat_with_Tonsils_0011J.jpeg. GNU Free Documentation. (19) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray1217.png. Public Domain. (20) http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/3DScience_lymphatic_system.jpg. Public Domain. (21) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WEEDS056.jpg. Public Domain. (22) http://www.co.la-crosse.wi.us/Health/Environmental/Images/Handwashing/handwashing%20steps.jpg. Public Domain. (23) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EM_of_pap_virus,_2C_basal_tissue_grafted_to_mouse.jpg. CC-BY-SA. (24) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:HIV_Daughter_Particles.jpg. Public Domain. (25) CK-12 Foundation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Glucose_meters.jpg. Public Domain. (26) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SEM_Lymphocyte.jpg. Public Domain. (27) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cytotoxic_T_cell.jpg. Public Domain. (28) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ambrosia_5977.jpg. GNU Free Documentation. www.ck12.org 774 Chapter 22 Reproductive Systems and Life Stages 22.1 Lesson 22.1: Male Reproductive System Lesson Objectives - State the functions of the male reproductive system. - Identify and describe the male reproductive organs. - Explain what sperm are and how they are produced. Check Your Understanding - How does sexual reproduction occur? - What happens during meiosis? - What are gametes? Introduction Dogs have puppies. Cats have kittens. All organisms reproduce, including humans. Like other mammals, humans have a body system that controls reproduction. It is called the reproductive system. It is the only human body system that is very different in males and females. The male and female reproductive systems have different organs and different functions. Functions of the Male Reproductive System The male reproductive system has two main functions: producing sperm and secreting testosterone. Sperm are male gametes. Gametes were introduced in the Cell Division, Reproduction, and DNA chapter. Gametes are sex cells that may unite to form a new organism. Sperm form when certain cells in the male reproductive system divide by meiosis. Mature males produce millions of sperm each day. Testosterone is the main sex hormone in males. You read about hormones in the Controlling the Body chapter. Hormones are chemicals that control many body processes. Testosterone has two major roles. - During the teen years, testosterone causes the reproductive organs to mature. It also causes other male traits to develop. For example, it causes hair to grow on the face. - During adulthood, testosterone is needed for a man to produce sperm. Testosterone is not the only sex hormone that males secrete. Males also secrete small amounts of estrogen, the main female sex hormone. Scientists think that estrogen is needed for normal sperm production in males. Male Reproductive Organs The male reproductive organs include the penis, testes, and epididymis. These organs are shown in Figure 22.1. The figure also shows other parts of the male reproductive system. The penis is a cylinder-shaped organ. It contains the urethra. The urethra is a tube that carries urine out of the body. The role of the urethra in reproduction is to carry sperm out of the body. The two testes (singular, testis) are egg-shaped organs. They produce sperm and secrete testosterone. The testes are contained in the scrotum. As you can see from Figure 22.1, the scrotum is a sac that hangs down outside the body. The scrotum also contains the epididymis. The epididymis is a tube that is about 6 meters (20 feet) long in adults. It is tightly coiled, so it fits inside the scrotum. It rests on top of the testes. The epididymis is where sperm mature. The epididymis also stores sperm until they leave the body. Other parts of the male reproductive system include the vas deferens and prostate gland. Both of these structures are shown in Figure 22.1. The vas deferens is a tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. The prostate gland secretes a fluid that mixes with sperm to help form semen. Semen is a milky liquid that passes through the urethra and out of the body. Figure 22.1: This drawing shows the organs of the male reproductive system. It shows the organs from the side. Find each organ in the drawing as you read about it in the text. (10) Sperm and Sperm Production Sperm are tiny cells. In fact, they are the smallest cells in the human body. A sperm cell is shown in Figure 22.2. What do you think a sperm cell looks like? Some people think that it looks like a tadpole. Do you agree? ![Image of a sperm] Figure 22.2: This drawing of a sperm shows its main parts. What is the role of each part? How do you think the shape of the sperm might help it to “swim”? (15) Sperm A sperm has three main parts. They are the head, midpiece, and tail. Each part plays an important role in reproduction. - The head of the sperm contains the nucleus. Within the nucleus are the chromosomes. Remember, in humans, the nucleus of the sperm cell contains 23 chromosomes. The head also contains enzymes that help the sperm break through the cell membrane of an egg. You will read more about this process in Lesson 3. - The midpiece of the sperm is packed with mitochondria. Mitochondria are structures in cells that produce energy (discussed in the Cells and Their Structures chapter). Sperm use the energy produced in the midpiece to move. - The tail of the sperm rotates like a propeller. This pushes the sperm forward. A sperm can travel about 0.8 meters (30 inches) per hour. This may not sound very fast, but don’t forget how small a sperm is. For its size, a sperm moves about as fast as you do when you walk briskly. You can see how a sperm’s tail rotates to propel it forward by watching the animation at http://www.stanford.edu/group/Urchin/sperm-1.htm. Sperm Production The process of producing sperm starts in the testes and ends in the epididymis. The entire process takes up to two months. It begins when special cells in the testes undergo mitosis. The special cells make identical copies of themselves that continue to go through the process of sperm formation, while the original cells remain to produce more sperm in the future. The copies of the original cells divide by meiosis, producing cells called spermatids. The spermatids have half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. However, they are still immature and cannot move on their own. The spermatids are transferred from the testes to the epididymis. In the epididymis, they gradually become mature. They grow a tail. They also lose some of the cytoplasm from the head. Once they mature, they are able to “swim.” The mature sperm are stored in the epididymis until it is time for them to leave the body. To watch an animation of all these steps of sperm production, visit http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/animationplayer/sperm_production.html Sperm leave the epididymis through the vas deferens (Figure 22.1). As they travel through the vas deferens, they pass by the prostate and other glands. The sperm mix with fluids from these glands, forming semen. The semen travels through the urethra and leaves the body through the penis. A teaspoon of semen may contain as many as 500 million sperm! Lesson Summary - The main functions of the male reproductive system are to produce sperm and secrete testosterone. - Male reproductive organs include the penis, testes, and epididymis. - Sperm are male gametes that form in the testes and mature in the epididymis. Review Questions Knowledge and Comprehension 1. What are sperm? 2. What is the main sex hormone in males? 3. Which organs produce sperm and secrete testosterone? 4. What is the function of the tail of a sperm? 5. Arrange the following structures in the order that sperm pass through them: urethra, epididymis, vas deferens. 6. Explain what testosterone does in males. 7. Contrast the roles of the testes and penis in reproduction. 8. How do sperm differ from semen? How are the two related? 9. Explain why sperm production is not completed when spermatids have been produced. 10. Why is the epididymis needed for reproduction in males? Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK–12.org, High School Biology, Chapter 40, Lesson 1. Vocabulary epididymis Male reproductive organ where sperm mature and are stored until they leave the body. penis Male reproductive organ that carries urine and sperm out of the body. semen Milky liquid that contains sperm and secretions of glands; passes through the urethra and out of body. sperm Male gametes or sex cells. testosterone Main sex hormone in males. testes Male reproductive organs that produce sperm and secrete testosterone. Points to Consider - The production of sperm by males is just one part of the process of human reproduction. - The production of eggs by females is another part of the process. - Do you know which organs in females produce eggs? Do you know how eggs are produced? - Besides producing eggs, what do you think might be other functions of the female reproductive system? 22.2 Lesson 22.2: Female Reproductive System Lesson Objectives - State the functions of the female reproductive system. - Identify and describe the female reproductive organs. - Explain what eggs are and how they are produced. - Outline the monthly cycle of the female reproductive system. Check Your Understanding - Where is the pituitary gland? - What is its role in the endocrine system? - What are FSH and LH? Introduction Most of the male reproductive organs are outside the body. In contrast, most of the female reproductive organs are inside the body. The male and female organs also look very different. They have different functions, as well. However, two of the functions of the female reproductive system parallel the functions of the male reproductive system. Like the male system, the female system produces gametes and a major sex hormone. Functions of the Female Reproductive System One function of the female reproductive system is to produce eggs. Eggs are female gametes, and they are produced in the ovaries. Mature females release only one egg at a time. Eggs actually form before birth. However, they do not fully develop until later in life. This will be discussed later in this lesson. Another function of the female system is to secrete estrogen. Estrogen is the main sex hormone in females. Estrogen has two major roles. - During the teen years, estrogen causes the reproductive organs to mature. It also causes other female traits to develop. For example, it causes the breasts to grow. - During adulthood, estrogen is needed for a woman to release eggs. The female reproductive system has another important function. It supports a baby as it develops before birth. It also gives birth to the baby at the end of pregnancy. Female Reproductive Organs The female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. These organs are shown in Figure 22.3. The breasts are not shown in this figure. They are not considered reproductive organs. However, they are involved in reproduction. They contain mammary glands that secrete milk to feed a baby. The milk leaves the breast through the nipple when the baby sucks on it. ![Diagram of Female Reproductive System](image) Figure 22.3: This drawing shows the organs of the female reproductive system. It shows the organs from the front. Find each organ in the drawing as you read about it in the text. (17) The vagina is a cylinder-shaped organ. One end of the vagina opens at the surface of the body. The other end joins with the uterus. During sexual intercourse, sperm may deposited in the vagina. The sperm move through the vagina and into the uterus. During birth, a baby passes from the uterus through the vagina to leave the body. The uterus is a hollow organ with muscular walls. The narrow part of the uterus where it connects with the vagina is called the cervix. The uterus is where a baby develops until birth. The walls of the uterus expand as the baby grows. The muscular walls of the uterus push the baby out during birth. The two ovaries are small, oval organs on opposite sides of the uterus. Each ovary contains thousands of eggs. The eggs do not fully develop until a female has gone through puberty. About once a month, an egg completes its development and is released by the ovary. The ovaries also secrete estrogen. The two Fallopian tubes are narrow passages that open off the uterus. Each tube reaches one of the ovaries. However, the tubes are not attached to the ovaries. Notice in Figure 22.3 that the end of each Fallopian tube by the ovary has “fingers.” They sweep an egg into the Fallopian tube. Then the egg passes through the Fallopian tube to the uterus. Eggs and Egg Production When a baby girl is born, her ovaries contain all the eggs they will ever produce. However, the eggs are not fully developed. They develop only after she starts having menstrual periods at about age 12 or 13. Just one egg develops each month. This usually continues until a woman is in her 40s. Eggs Eggs are very big cells. In fact, they are the biggest cells in the human body. An egg is about 30 times as wide as a sperm cell. It is large enough to see without a microscope. Like a sperm cell, the egg contains a nucleus with half the number of chromosomes as other body cells. Unlike a sperm cell, the egg contains a lot of cytoplasm, which is why it is so big. The egg also does not have a tail. Egg Production Egg production takes place in the ovaries. The process occurs in several steps. It begins before a girl is born. Before birth, special cells in the ovaries undergo mitosis. The daughter cells then start to divide by meiosis. However, they only go through the first of the two cell divisions of meiosis at that time. They remain in this state until the female has gone through puberty. In a mature female, an egg develops in an ovary about once a month. The drawing in Figure 22.4 shows how this happens. As you can see from the figure, the egg is enclosed in a nest of cells called a follicle. The follicle and egg grow larger and go through other changes. After a couple of weeks, the egg bursts out of the follicle and through the wall of the ovary. This is called ovulation. The moving fingers of the nearby Fallopian tube sweep the egg into the tube. The empty follicle then changes into a structure called a corpus luteum. KEY: 1. Undeveloped eggs 2. Egg and follicle developing 3. Egg and follicle developing Figure 22.4: This diagram shows how an egg and its follicle develop in an ovary. After it develops, the egg leaves the ovary and enters the Fallopian tube. The empty follicle becomes a structure called a corpus luteum. (8) 4. Ovulation 5. Empty follicle changing into corpus luteum 6. Corpus luteum breaking down If a sperm unites with the egg while it is passing through the Fallopian tube, the egg finally completes meiosis. This results in two daughter cells that are different in size. The smaller cell is called a polar body. It contains very little cytoplasm. It soon breaks down and disappears. The larger cell is the egg. It contains most of the cytoplasm. You can watch an animation of all the steps of egg production at http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/animationplayer/egg_production.html The Monthly Cycle Egg production by the ovary is part of the menstrual cycle. The menstrual cycle is a series of changes in the reproductive system of mature females that repeats every month. It includes events that occur in the uterus as well as the ovary. Menstruation While the egg and follicle are developing in the ovary, tissues are building up inside the uterus. The uterus develops a thick lining that is rich in tiny blood vessels. This prepares the uterus to receive an egg. If a sperm does not unite with the egg in the Fallopian tube, the lining of the uterus breaks down. Blood and other tissues from the lining are shed from the uterus. They pass through the vagina and out of the body. This is called menstruation. Menstruation is also called a menstrual period. It lasts about 4 days, on average. When the menstrual period ends, the cycle repeats. Some people think that the average length of a menstrual period is the same as the “normal” length. They assume that shorter or longer menstrual periods are not normal. In fact, menstrual periods can vary from 1 to 8 days in length. Such variation is usually normal. The length of the overall menstrual cycle can also vary. The average length of the cycle is about 28 days, but there is no “normal” cycle length. Hormones and the Menstrual Cycle Hormones control the events of the menstrual cycle. The hormones are estrogen, progesterone, LH, and FSH. The ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone. The pituitary gland secretes LH and FSH (see the Controlling the Body chapter). The events of the menstrual cycle, including how hormone levels change throughout the cycle, are shown in Figure 22.5. As the figure indicates, a menstrual cycle begins with menstruation. When menstruation ends, the ovaries start secreting more estrogen. Estrogen causes the lining of the uterus to build up, which prepares the uterus to receive an egg. It also causes the pituitary gland to secrete FSH. FSH, in turn, causes an egg and follicle to mature in an ovary. The maturing follicle secretes even more estrogen. When estrogen reaches a certain level, it causes the pituitary gland to release a surge of LH. The LH surge causes ovulation. It also causes the empty follicle to develop into a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone. This hormone maintains the lining of the uterus so it doesn’t break down. What happens next depends on whether a sperm unites with the egg. If it does, the egg secretes a hormone that prevents the corpus luteum from breaking down. The corpus luteum, in turn, keeps secreting progesterone. This maintains the lining of the uterus. What happens if a sperm does not unite with the egg is shown in Figure 22.5. The corpus luteum breaks down and stops secreting progesterone. As a result, the lining of the uterus is no longer maintained. It breaks down and is shed from the uterus. Thus, menstruation begins and the cycle repeats. Dr. JoAnne Richards is a world-famous endocrinologist. An endocrinologist is a scientist that studies hormones. Dr. Richards helped discover how FSH and LH control the growth of follicles and ovulation. She has received many awards and honors for her work, including Figure 22.5: This diagram shows the changes that normally occur in the ovary and uterus during the menstrual cycle. It also shows how hormone levels change during the cycle. The menstrual cycle begins with menstruation. Ovulation occurs about half way through the cycle. (1) Lesson Summary - The functions of the female reproductive system are to produce eggs, secrete estrogen, and support a baby as it develops before birth. - Female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and Fallopian tubes. - Eggs are female gametes that form in the ovaries and are released into the Fallopian tubes. - The menstrual cycle is a monthly cycle of changes in the ovaries and uterus. It includes ovulation and menstruation. Review Questions 1. What are eggs? 2. What is the main sex hormone in females? 3. List the two major roles of estrogen in females. 4. What are the functions of the uterus in female reproduction? 5. Describe ovulation. 6. Compare and contrast eggs and sperm. 7. Explain how an egg develops in an ovary of a mature female. 8. Explain why menstruation occurs if a sperm does not unite with the egg that is released by an ovary. 9. How do LH and FSH control changes in the ovary during the menstrual cycle? 10. Explain why the lining of the uterus breaks down if a sperm does not unite with an egg. What role does progesterone play? Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK–12.org, High School Biology, Chapter 40, Lesson 2. - Kate Pfeifer. American Medical Association’s Girl’s Guide to Becoming a Teen. Jossey-Bass, 2006. - Sophie Waters. The Female Reproductive System (Girl’s Health). Rosen Publishing Group, 2007. - Susan Meredith. What’s Happening to Me?: Girls Edition. Usborne Books, 2006. - [http://www.bcm.edu/mcb/?PMID=7691](http://www.bcm.edu/mcb/?PMID=7691) - [http://www.kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/female_reproductive_system.html](http://www.kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/female_reproductive_system.html) - [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch241/ch241e.html](http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch241/ch241e.html) - [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/12/science/12angi.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/12/science/12angi.html) Vocabulary cervix Narrow part of the uterus where it connects with the vagina. corpus luteum Structure that develops from a follicle after the egg bursts out of the follicle and through the ovary wall during ovulation. eggs Female gametes or sex cells. estrogen Main sex hormone in females. fallopian tubes Female reproductive organs through which eggs pass to reach the uterus and where an egg may unite with a sperm. follicle Nest of cells in an ovary that enclose an egg; protects egg during maturation prior to ovulation. menstrual cycle Monthly cycle of changes that occur in the uterus and ovaries. menstruation Monthly shedding of the lining of the uterus through the vagina; also called a menstrual period. ovaries Female reproductive organs that produce eggs and secrete estrogen. ovulation Release of an egg by an ovary. vagina Female reproductive organ where sperm are deposited and through which a baby passes to leave the mother’s body during birth. uterus Female reproductive organ where a baby develops until birth. Points to Consider • After an egg is released, what must occur in order for reproduction to proceed? Do you know what the next step is called? Do you know where it takes place? 22.3 Lesson 22.3: Reproduction and Life Stages Lesson Objectives - Explain how fertilization occurs. - Identify major events of pregnancy and childbirth. - List important developments of infancy and childhood. - Outline changes that occur during adolescence. - Describe the stages of adulthood. Check Your Understanding - What are sperm and eggs? - How many chromosomes do sperm and eggs have? - What is the role of sex hormones during the teen years? Introduction The sperm and egg pictured in Figure 1 below don’t look anything like a human baby. After these two gametes unite, however, they will develop into a human being. How does a single cell become a complex organism made up of billions of cells? Keep reading to find out. Fertilization and Implantation Sexual reproduction occurs when an egg unites with a sperm. This is called fertilization. Sperm are deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse. They “swim” through the uterus and enter a Fallopian tube. This is where fertilization normally takes place. A sperm that is about to enter an egg is shown in Figure 22.6. If the sperm breaks through the egg’s membrane, it will cause changes in the egg that keep other sperm out. It will also trigger the egg to complete meiosis. Recall that meiosis begins long before an egg is released from an ovary. The sperm and egg each have only half the number of chromosomes as other cells in the body. Therefore, when they unite, they form a cell with the full number of chromosomes. The cell they form is called a zygote. The zygote slowly travels down the Fallopian tube to the uterus. As it travels, it divides by mitosis many times. It forms a hollow ball of cells. After the ball of cells reaches the uterus, it embeds in the lining of the uterus. This is called implantation. It usually occurs about a week after fertilization. Figure 22.6: This sperm is ready to penetrate the membrane of this egg. Notice the difference in size of the sperm and egg. What will happen if the sperm manages to break through the egg’s membrane? (12) Pregnancy and Childbirth Once the ball of cells implants in the uterus, it is called an embryo. The embryo stage lasts until the end of the 8\textsuperscript{th} week after fertilization. After that point until birth, the developing baby is called a fetus. To see how an embryo and fetus grow and develop, go to [http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/animationplayer/fetal_dvlp_tool.html](http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/animationplayer/fetal_dvlp_tool.html) Growth and Development of the Embryo During the embryo stage, the baby grows in size. It also develops different types of cells and organs. Cells of different types start to develop by the 3\textsuperscript{rd} week after fertilization. They form structures that suit them for different roles in the body. Cells that will form muscles and skin, for example, start to develop at this time. In 2004, French scientist Nicole Le Douarin won the first Pearl Meister Greengard Prize in Science. This award has been called the “American Nobel Prize for women scientists.” Dr. Le Douarin received the prize for developing a method to follow the path of individual cells during the development process. This, in turn, has helped scientists discover how different organs develop. During the 4\textsuperscript{th} week after fertilization, body organs begin to form. By the end of the 8th week, all the major organs have started to develop. Figure 2 shows some of the changes that take place during the 4\textsuperscript{th} and 8\textsuperscript{th} weeks. Look closely at the two embryos in the figure. Do you think that the older embryo looks more human? Notice that it has arms and legs and lacks a tail. Its facial features have also started to form. The older embryo is much bigger, as well. The pictures in the Table (22.1) show how a developing baby looks, beginning at 4 weeks after fertilization and ending at 38 weeks after fertilization. The pictures show the baby at the same size at each stage. However, the actual size increases greatly during development. The length of the baby at each stage is given in the figure. Read the information in the boxes to learn what organs and other features have developed by each stage. Table 22.1: Human Embryo \| Image \| Developmental characteristics \| \|-------\|-----------------------------\| \| 4 Weeks Length: 5.0 mm ![Image](image1.png) \| • Facial features are just starting to form. • Tail is present. • Legs have formed, and arm buds have appeared. • Heart is partly formed and begins to beat. • Spinal cord and brain have started to develop. • Most other organs have started to form, including the liver, pancreas, gall bladder, spleen, and lungs. \| \| 8 Weeks Length: 3.2 cm ![Image](image2.png) \| • Facial features are starting to look human, and external ears and eyes are beginning to form. • Tail has disappeared. • Arms have developed; fingers and toes are starting to form. • Heart is well developed. • Digestive system is developing rapidly but does not yet function. • Cartilage and bones have started to form, and muscles are developing. \| \| Image \| Developmental characteristics \| \|-------\|--------------------------------\| \| 18 Weeks Length: 15 cm \| • Internal ears and eyes are developing. • Nails have appeared on fingers and toes. • Reproductive organs have developed into either male or female organs. • Brain is developing rapidly. • Lungs are developing, but breathing is not yet possible. • Fetus is active, and mother may start to feel fetus moving. \| \| 28 Weeks Length: 38 cm \| • Eyes are fully formed. • Eyelashes and eyebrows are present. • Hair has started to grow on the head. • Lungs are almost completely developed but unable to breathe on their own. • Muscles and bones are developing rapidly. • Muscle tone is increasing. \| \| 38 Weeks Length: 50 cm \| • All organs are completely formed and functioning. • Fat is accumulating quickly. • Weight is increasingly rapidly. • Fetus is fully developed and ready to be born. \| Growth and Development of the Fetus Table (22.1) also shows changes that take place after the embryo becomes a fetus. Compare the 18\textsuperscript{th}-week fetus with the 8\textsuperscript{th}-week embryo. Some of the differences between them are obvious. For example, the fetus has ears and eyelids. Its fingers and toes are also fully formed. The fetus even has fingernails and toenails. In addition, the reproductive organs have developed along male or female lines. The brain and lungs are also developing quickly. The fetus has started to move around inside the uterus. This is usually when the mother first feels the fetus moving. By the 28\textsuperscript{th} week, the fetus is starting to look much more like a baby. Eyelashes and eyebrows are present. Hair has started to grow on the head. The body of the fetus is also starting to fill out, as muscles and bones develop. Babies born after the 28\textsuperscript{th} week are usually able to survive. However, they need help breathing because their lungs are not yet fully mature. During the last several weeks of the fetal period, all of the organs become mature. The most obvious change, however, is an increase in body size. The fetus rapidly puts on body fat and gains weight during the last couple of months. Compare the pictures in Table (22.1) of the fetus at 28 weeks and 38 weeks. Do you see how much chubbier the older fetus looks? By the end of the 38\textsuperscript{th} week, all the organs are functioning, and the fetus is ready to be born. This is when birth normally occurs. The Amniotic Sac and Placenta During pregnancy, other structures also develop inside the mother’s uterus. They are the amniotic sac, placenta, and umbilical cord. They are shown in Figure 22.7. The \textbf{amniotic sac} is a membrane that surrounds the fetus. It is filled with water and dissolved substances. Imagine placing a small plastic toy inside a balloon and then filling the balloon with water. The toy would be cushioned and protected by the water. It would also be able to move freely inside the balloon. The amniotic sac and its fluid are like a water-filled balloon. They cushion and protect the fetus. They also let the fetus move freely inside the uterus. The \textbf{placenta} is a spongy mass of blood vessels. Some of the vessels come from the mother. Some come from the fetus. The placenta is attached to the inside of the mother’s uterus. The fetus is connected to the placenta by a tube called the \textbf{umbilical cord}. The cord contains two arteries and a vein. Substances pass back and forth between the mother’s and fetus’s blood through the placenta and cord. Oxygen and nutrients pass from the mother to the fetus. Carbon dioxide passes from the fetus to the mother. It is important for the mother to eat plenty of nutritious food during pregnancy. She must take in enough nutrients for the fetus as well as for herself. She needs extra Calories, proteins, and lipids. She also needs more vitamins and minerals. In addition to eating well, the mother must avoid substances that could harm the embryo or fetus. These include alcohol, illegal Figure 22.7: This fetus is 38 weeks old and ready to be born. Surrounding the fetus is the fluid-filled amniotic sac. The placenta and umbilical cord are also shown here. They provide a connection between the mother’s and fetus’s blood for the transfer of nutrients and gases. (9) drugs, and some medicines. It is especially important for her to avoid these substances during the first eight weeks after fertilization. This is when all the major organs are forming. Exposure to harmful substances during this time could have major effects on the developing body systems. Childbirth During childbirth, a baby passes from the uterus, through the vagina, and out of the mother’s body. Childbirth usually starts with the amniotic sac breaking. Then the muscles of the uterus start contracting. The contractions get stronger and closer together. They may go on for hours. Eventually, the contractions squeeze the baby out of the uterus. Once the baby enters the vagina, the mother starts pushing. She soon pushes the baby through the vagina and out of her body. As soon as the baby is born, the umbilical cord is cut. After the cord is cut, the baby can no longer get rid of carbon dioxide through the cord and placenta. As a result, carbon dioxide builds up in the baby’s blood. This triggers the baby to start breathing. The amniotic sac and placenta pass through the vagina and out of the body shortly after the birth of the baby. Infancy and Childhood The first year after birth is called infancy. Infancy is a period of very fast growth. During infancy, the baby doubles in length and triples in weight. Other important changes also occur during infancy. - The baby teeth start to come in, usually at about six months of age (Figure 22.8). - The baby starts smiling, paying attention to other people, and grabbing toys. - The baby begins making babbling sounds. By the end of the first year, the baby is starting to say a few words, such as “Mama” and “Dada.” - The baby learns to sit, crawl, and stand. By the end of the first year, the baby may be starting to walk. ![Baby](image) Figure 22.8: This baby is six months old, and his baby teeth have started to come in. Babies often chew on toys or other objects when they are getting new teeth. They may even chew on their toes, as this baby is doing. Putting things in their mouth also helps them learn about the world. What do you think this baby might be learning by putting his toes in his mouth? (5) Childhood begins after the baby’s first birthday and continues until the teens. Between one and three years of age, a child is called a toddler. During the toddler stage, growth is still rapid, but not as fast as it was during infancy. A toddler learns many new words. The child even starts putting together words in simple sentences. Motor skills also develop quickly during this stage. By age three, most children can run and climb steps. They can hold crayons and scribble with them. They can also feed themselves. Most children are toilet trained by age three, as well. From age three until the teens, growth is slower. The body also changes shape. The arms and legs get longer relative to the trunk. Children continue to develop new motor skills. For example, many young children learn how to ride a tricycle and then a bicycle. Most also learn how to play games and sports (Figure 22.9). By age six, children start losing their baby teeth. Their permanent teeth begin coming in to replace them. They also start school and learn how to read and write. They develop friendships and become less dependent on their parents. ![Child playing soccer](image) Figure 22.9: Children develop better motor skills as they get older. What motor skills is this child demonstrating by playing soccer? (6) ### Puberty and Adolescence The reproductive organs are present at birth. However, they grow very little during childhood. They do not mature and start functioning until puberty. ### Puberty Puberty is the stage of life when a child becomes sexually mature. Puberty lasts from about 12 to 18 years of age in boys and from about 10 to 16 years of age in girls. The age when puberty begins varies from one child to another. Children that begin puberty much earlier or later than their peers may feel self-conscious. They may also worry that something is wrong with them. Usually, an early or late puberty is perfectly normal. If you have concerns about puberty, tell a parent. Your doctor can check to make sure you are developing normally. In boys, puberty begins when LH from the pituitary gland triggers the testes to secrete testosterone. Testosterone causes the penis and testes to grow. Along with FSH from the pituitary gland, testosterone also causes the testes to start making sperm. Testosterone leads to the growth of pubic and facial hair, as well. In addition, it causes the shoulders to broaden and the voice to deepen. In girls, puberty begins when LH from the pituitary gland triggers the ovaries to secrete estrogen. Estrogen causes the uterus and ovaries to grow. Along with FSH from the pituitary gland, estrogen also causes the ovaries to start releasing eggs. Estrogen causes the menstrual cycle to begin, as well. In addition, it leads to the growth of pubic hair. Estrogen also causes the hips to widen and the breasts to develop. Teen girls that are athletic may develop a condition called the female athlete triad. It occurs when very active girls eat too few Calories to provide all the energy they need. Lack of energy leads to low levels of estrogen. As a result, girls do not begin menstruating or their menstrual periods stop. They also develop osteoporosis. This is a serious disorder in which bones lose minerals and can break easily. The female athlete triad may have lifelong effects on health. It can even be fatal. It requires medical treatment and an increase in Calories in the diet. Boys and girls are close to the same height during childhood. In both boys and girls, growth in height and weight is very fast during puberty. However, boys grow faster than girls during puberty. Their period of rapid growth also lasts longer. As a result, by the end of puberty, boys are an average of 10 centimeters taller than girls. Adolescence Adolescence is the period of life between the start of puberty and the beginning of adulthood. Adolescence includes the physical changes of puberty. It also includes many other changes. During adolescence, - teens develop new thinking abilities. For example, they can think about abstract ideas such as freedom. They are also better at thinking logically. They are usually better at solving problems, as well. - teens try to establish a sense of who they are as individuals. They may try to become more independent from their parents. Most teens also have emotional ups and downs. This is partly due to changing hormone levels. - teens usually spend much more time with peers than family members (Figure 22.10). The opinions of their peers are also very important to them. Most teens feel pressured to dress and act as their peers do in order to be accepted. Adulthood When is a person considered an adult? That depends. Most teens become physically mature by the age of 16 or so. However, they are not adults in a legal sense until they are older. For example, in the U.S., you must be 18 to vote. You must be 21 to sign legal contracts. Once adulthood begins, it can be divided into three stages. The stages are early, middle, and late adulthood. Early Adulthood Early adulthood starts at age 18 or 21. It continues until the mid-30s. During early adulthood, people are at their physical peak. They are also usually in good health. The ability to reproduce is greatest during early adulthood, as well. This is the stage of life when most people complete their education. They are likely to begin a career or take a full time job. Many people also marry and start a family during early adulthood. Middle Adulthood Middle adulthood begins in the mid-30s. It continues until the mid-60s. During middle adulthood, people start to show physical signs of aging. Their hair gradually turns gray. Their skin develops wrinkles. The risk of health problems also increases during middle adulthood. For example, heart disease, cancer, and diabetes become more common during this time. This is the stage of life when people are most likely to achieve career goals. Their children also grow up and may leave home during this stage. Late Adulthood Late adulthood begins in the mid-60s. It continues until death. This is the stage of life when most people retire from work. They are also likely to reflect on their life. They may focus on their grandchildren. During late adulthood, people decline in physical abilities. For example, they usually have less muscle tone and slower reflexes. Their immune system also doesn’t work as well as it did. As a result, they have a harder time fighting diseases like flu. The risk of developing diseases such as heart disease and cancer continues to rise. Another health problem that is common in late adulthood is osteoporosis. Arthritis is also common. In arthritis, joints wear out and become stiff and painful. As many as one in four late adults may develop Alzheimer’s disease. In this disease, brain changes cause mental abilities to decline steadily. Exercising the body and brain, and maintaining social connections can alleviate some of these effects. The various stages of adulthood discussed are pictured in Figure 22.11. Despite problems such as these, many people remain healthy and active into their 80s or even 90s. Do you want to be one of them? Then adopt a healthy lifestyle now and follow it for life. Doing so will increase your chances of staying healthy and active to an old age. Lesson Summary - Fertilization occurs when an egg unites with a sperm to form a zygote. - A zygote develops into an embryo and then a fetus. This occurs as cells divide, different types of cells develop, and organs form. - An individual grows rapidly and develops new abilities during infancy and childhood. - A child becomes sexually mature and changes in many other ways during adolescence. - Adulthood is divided into the stages of early, middle, and late adulthood. Each stage is associated with different traits and concerns. Review Questions 1. What is fertilization? 2. Define embryo and fetus. 3. At about how many weeks after fertilization is a fetus usually ready to be born? 4. Describe an embryo at the end of the 8th week after fertilization. 5. How does a fetus change during the last two months before birth? 6. Explain the role of the amniotic sac and placenta during fetal development. Figure 22.11: This family picture shows women in each of the three stages of adulthood. Which stage does each woman represent? What might you infer about each woman from her stage of adulthood? (14) 7. Why doesn’t a doctor wait for a newborn baby to breathe on its own before cutting the umbilical cord? 8. Explain how pituitary hormones control puberty in boys and girls. 9. Compare and contrast puberty and adolescence. 10. Why is it difficult to say when adulthood begins? Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK–12.org, High School Biology, Chapter 40, Lesson 3. - Anita Ganeri. Human Life Cycles. Heinemann Library, 2006. - DK Publishing. Human Body (DK/Google E. Guides). DK Children, 2005. - Jennifer Prior. The Human Life Cycle. Teacher Created Materials, 2008. - Karen Bledsoe. Human Reproduction, Growth, and Development. Perfection Learning, 2007. - Michaela Miller. Exploring the Human Body: Reproduction and Growth. KidHaven Press, 2005. - [http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookREPROD.html](http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookREPROD.html) - [http://runews.rockefeller.edu/index.php?page=engine&id=31](http://runews.rockefeller.edu/index.php?page=engine&id=31) - [http://www.keepkidshealthy.com/growthcharts](http://www.keepkidshealthy.com/growthcharts) - [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch260/ch260b.html](http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch260/ch260b.html) - [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch260/ch260c.html](http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch260/ch260c.html) - [http://www.pregnancy.org/pregnancy/fetaldevelopment1.php](http://www.pregnancy.org/pregnancy/fetaldevelopment1.php) - [http://www.pregnancy.org/pregnancy/fetaldevelopment2.php](http://www.pregnancy.org/pregnancy/fetaldevelopment2.php) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary adolescence Period of life between the start of puberty and the beginning of adulthood. amniotic sac Fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects a fetus within the uterus. childbirth Process through which a baby passes from the uterus, through the vagina, and out of the mother’s body. childhood Period between a baby’s first birthday and puberty. embryo Stage of a developing baby between implantation and the end of the 8th week after fertilization. fertilization Union of a sperm and egg; occurs in a fallopian tube. fetus Stage of a developing baby between the end of the 8th week after fertilization and birth. implantation Process in which the ball of cells that will become an embryo embeds in the lining of the uterus. infancy First year of life after birth. placenta Spongy mass of blood vessels from the mother and fetus that allows substances to pass back and forth between the mother’s blood and the fetus’s blood. puberty Stage of life when a child becomes sexually mature. umbilical cord Tube containing blood vessels that connects a fetus to the placenta. zygote Cell that forms when a sperm and egg unite; the first cell of a new organism. Points to Consider - By early adulthood, most people have become sexually active. Sexual activity puts people at risk of certain diseases. Do you know what the diseases are? Do you know how they can be prevented? What are other ways of keeping the reproductive system healthy? 22.4 Lesson 22.4: Reproductive System Health Lesson Objectives - Describe common sexually transmitted diseases. - Identify other reproductive system disorders. - List ways to keep the reproductive system healthy. Check Your Understanding - What is a pathogen? - What types of organisms can cause disease? - What is cancer? Introduction A healthy reproductive system is important for two reasons. It is important for overall good health. It is also important for reproduction. If the reproductive system is not healthy, a person may be unable to have children. Many health problems can affect the reproductive system. They include sexually transmitted diseases and cancers. The good news is that many reproductive health problems can be prevented or cured. Sexually Transmitted Diseases A sexually transmitted disease (STD) is a disease that spreads through sexual contact. STDs are caused by pathogens. The pathogens enter the body through the reproductive organs. Many STDs also spread through body fluids such as blood. For example, a shared tattoo needle is one way an STD could spread. Some STDs can also spread from a mother to her baby during childbirth. STDs are more common in teens and young adults than in older people. One reason is that young people are more likely to take risks. They often have the attitude, “It can’t happen to me.” They also may not know how STDs spread. They are likely to believe myths about STDs, like the myths in Table (22.2). Table 22.2: Myths and Facts about STDs \| Myth \| Fact \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| If you are sexually active with just one person, you can’t get STDs. \| The only way to avoid the risk of STDs is to practice abstinence from sexual activity. \| \| If you don’t have any symptoms, then you don’t have an STD. \| Many STDs do not cause symptoms, especially in females. \| \| Getting STDs is no big deal, because STDs can be cured with medicine.\| Only some STDs can be cured with medicine; other STDs cannot be cured. \| (Source: http://womenshealth.about.com/od/stds/a/stdmythsvsfacts.htm) Most STDs are caused by bacteria or viruses. STDs caused by bacteria usually can be cured with drugs called antibiotics. However, antibiotics are not effective against viruses. Therefore, viral STDs are not treated with antibiotics. Other drugs may be used to help control the symptoms of viral STDs, but they cannot be cured. Once you are infected with a viral STD, you are usually infected for life. Bacterial STDs In the U.S., Chlamydia is the most common STD caused by bacteria. Females are more likely than males to develop the disease. Rates of Chlamydia among U.S. females in 2006 is given in Figure 22.12. Rates were much higher in teens and young women than in other age groups. Chlamydia may cause a burning feeling during urination. It may also cause a discharge from the vagina or penis. However, in many cases, it causes no symptoms. As a result, people do not know they are infected. Therefore, they don’t go to the doctor for help. If Chlamydia goes untreated, it may cause more serious problems in females. It may cause infections of the uterus, Fallopian tubes, or ovaries. These infections may leave a woman unable to have children. Figure 22.12: This graph shows data on the number of cases of Chlamydia in U.S. females in 2006. Which two age groups had the highest rates of Chlamydia? Why do you think rates were highest in these age groups? (7) Gonorrhea is another common STD. Gonorrhea may cause pain during urination. It may also cause a discharge from the vagina or penis. However, some people with gonorrhea have no symptoms. As a result, they don’t seek treatment. Without treatment, gonorrhea may lead to infection of other reproductive organs. This can happen in males as well as females. Syphilis is a very serious STD. Luckily, it is less common than Chlamydia or gonorrhea. Syphilis usually begins with a small sore on the genitals. This is followed a few months later by a rash and flu-like symptoms. If syphilis is not treated, it may damage the heart, brain, and other organs. It can even cause death. Viral STDs Genital warts are an STD caused by human papilloma virus, or HPV. They are one of the most common STDs in teens. HPV infections cannot be cured. However, a new vaccine called Gardasil® can prevent most HPV infections in females. Many doctors recommend that females between the ages of 9 and 26 years receive the vaccine. Preventing HIV infections in females is important, because HPV can also cause cancer of the cervix. Genital herpes is an STD caused by a virus called herpes. It is another very common STD. You can see how genital herpes is spread at http://www.sexualhealthissues.com/ms/animations/21/main.html. A related herpes virus causes cold sores on the lips (Figure 22.13). Both viruses cause painful blisters. In the case of genital herpes, the blisters are on the penis or membranes around the vaginal opening. The blisters go away on their own. However, the virus remains in the body. It may cause repeated outbreaks of blisters. The outbreaks are more likely when a person is under stress. There is no cure for genital herpes. However, drugs can help prevent or shorten outbreaks. Researchers are trying to find a vaccine to prevent genital herpes. ![Lip blister](image) Figure 22.13: This lip blister, or cold sore, is caused by a herpes virus. The virus is closely related to the virus that causes genital herpes. The genital herpes virus causes similar blisters on the genitals. If you’ve ever had a cold sore, you know how painful they can be. Genital herpes blisters are also painful. (2) Hepatitis B is a disease of the liver. It is caused by a virus called hepatitis B, which can be passed through sexual activity. Hepatitis B causes vomiting. It also causes yellowing of the skin and eyes. The disease goes away on its own in some people. Other people are sick for the rest of their life. In these people, the virus usually damages the liver. It may also lead to liver cancer. Medicines can help prevent liver damage in these people. There is also a vaccine to prevent hepatitis B. HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. It is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV and AIDS are described in the Diseases and the Body’s Defenses chapter. HIV can spread through sexual contact. It can also spread through body fluids such as blood. There is no cure for HIV infection, and AIDS is a fatal disease, although the onset of AIDS can be significantly delayed with proper medication. Researchers are trying to find a vaccine to prevent HIV infection. In Latin America, many women are infected with HIV. They are often treated unfairly just because they have the virus. For example, they may be rejected by their family or fired from their job. A woman from Argentina named Patricia Pérez has been working to change that. She was infected with HIV in the 1980s. Ever since then, she has been fighting for the rights of women with HIV. In 2007, Pérez was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize for her work. Other Reproductive System Disorders Many disorders of the reproductive system are not STDs. They are not caused by pathogens, so they don’t spread from person to person. They develop for other reasons. The disorders differ in males and females. In both genders, the disorders range from causing little more than discomfort to potentially causing death. Disorders in Males Most common disorders of the male reproductive system involve the testes. For example, injuries to the testes are very common. In teens, injuries to the testes most often occur while playing sports. An injury such as a strike or kick to the testes can be very painful. It may also cause bruising and swelling. However, such injuries seldom do lasting harm. Varicocele is also quite common, especially during puberty. A varicocele is a swollen vein in the scrotum (Figure 22.14). A varicocele doesn’t usually cause pain or other symptoms. If it does cause symptoms, it can be treated with surgery. Another disorder of the testes is cancer. Cancer of the testes is most common in males aged 15 to 35. It occurs when cells in the testes grow out of control. The cells form a lump called a tumor. If detected early, cancer of the testes usually can be cured with surgery. Disorders in Females Disorders of the female reproductive system may affect the vagina, uterus, or ovaries. They may also affect the breasts. One of the most common disorders is vaginitis. This is redness and itching of the vagina. It may be due to irritation by soap or bubble bath. Another Figure 22.14: Do you see the wormlike structures under the skin of the scrotum shown here? They are swollen veins, called varicoceles. This condition usually isn’t harmful. (11) possible cause of vaginitis is a yeast infection. Yeast normally grow in the vagina. A yeast infection occurs when the yeast multiply too fast and cause symptoms. A yeast infection can be treated with medication. Endometriosis is a disorder that may affect several organs. It occurs when tissues that normally line the uterus grow elsewhere. The tissues may grow on the uterus, ovaries, or Fallopian tubes (Figure 22.15). The disorder causes pain. It can also cause abnormal bleeding. In some cases, it prevents a woman from becoming pregnant. It is usually treated with hormones or surgery. ![Diagram of endometriosis](image) Figure 22.15: In endometriosis, tissues that normally grow inside the uterus start growing on the outside of the uterus. They may also grow on other reproductive organs. (13) A common disorder of the ovaries is an ovarian cyst. A cyst is a sac filled with fluid or other material (Figure 22.16). An ovarian cyst is usually harmless. However, it may cause pain. Most cysts gradually disappear and do not need treatment. Very large or painful cysts can be removed with surgery. Many teen girls have painful menstrual periods. They typically have cramping in the lower abdomen. Generally, this is nothing to worry about. Taking a warm bath or using a heating pad often helps. Exercise may help, as well. A pain reliever like ibuprofen may also be effective. If the pain is severe, a doctor can prescribe stronger medicine to relieve the pain. The most common type of cancer in females is breast cancer. It occurs when cells of the breast grow out of control and form a tumor. Breast cancer is rare in teens. It becomes more common as women get older. If breast cancer is detected early, it usually can be cured with surgery. Figure 22.16: Ovarian cysts, like this one, are common. They generally do not need to be treated unless they cause symptoms. Most go away without treatment. (4) Keeping the Reproductive System Healthy What can you do to keep your reproductive system healthy? You can start by making the right choices for overall good health. To be as healthy as you can be, you should: - eat a balanced diet that is high in fiber and low in fat. - drink plenty of water. - get regular exercise. - maintain a healthy weight. - get enough sleep. - avoid using tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs. - manage stress in healthy ways. You should also keep the genitals clean. A daily shower or bath is all that it takes. Females do not need to use special feminine hygiene products. In fact, using them may do more harm than good. They can irritate delicate membranes. Abstinence from sexual activity is the best way to prevent STDs. You should also avoid other behaviors that can put you at risk. Risk behavior are those that might lead to contact with another person’s blood or other body fluids. For example, never get a tattoo or piercing unless you are sure that the needles have not been used before. If you are a boy, you should always wear a protective cup when you play contact sports. Contact sports include football, soccer, and hockey. Wearing a cup will help protect the testes from injury. You should also do a monthly self-exam to check for cancer of the testes (Figure 22.17). You can learn how to do the exam at http://www.5min.com/Video/Testicular-self-examination-1353 If you have any questions, ask a health care provider. It may be embarrassing, but it could save your life. ![Figure 22.17: Teen boys should learn how to examine their testes for lumps that could be a sign of cancer.](image) If you are a girl and use tampons, be sure to change them every 4 to 6 hours. Leaving tampons in too long can put you at risk of toxic shock syndrome. This is a serious condition. You should also get in the habit of doing a monthly self-exam to check for breast cancer. Although breast cancer is rare in teens, it’s a good idea to start doing the exam when you are young. It will help you get to know what is normal for you. You can learn how to do the exam at http://freemedicalmovie.blogspot.com/2007/10/breast-self-exam.html Ask a health care provider if you have any questions. Lesson Summary - Sexually transmitted diseases are caused by pathogens. They spread through sexual contact. - In males, other disorders of the reproductive system include varicocele and cancer of the testes. In females, other disorders include vaginitis and breast cancer. - One way to keep the reproductive system healthy is by making the right choices for overall good health. Other ways are keeping the genitals clean and avoiding sexual activity. Review Questions 1. What is a sexually transmitted disease? 2. In the U.S., what is the most common STD caused by bacteria? 3. Which of the following STDs can be prevented with a vaccine? genital warts, Chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepatitis B 4. What is a varicocele? 5. What is the best way to prevent STDs? 6. Explain why bacterial STDs are treated differently than viral STDs. 7. It is especially important for females to be protected from HPV infections. Why is this the case? 8. Why should males start doing self-exams of the testes by age 15? 9. How could a person become infected with an STD without ever being sexually active? 10. Explain how girls can reduce their risk of developing toxic shock syndrome. Further Reading / Supplemental Links CK–12.org, High School Biology, Chapter 40, Lesson 4 - http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/2008/030708/licensing.shtml - Rajasingam S. Jevendran and Megan Hollingsworth. Sex, Sperm, and STDs: What Every Teenage Boy Needs to Know. iUniverse, Inc., 2006. - Robie H. Harris. It’s Perfectly Normal: Changing Bodies, Growing Up, Sex, and Sexual Health. Candlewick, 2004. - Steve Parker. The Reproductive System: Injury, Illness, and Health. Heinemann Library, 2004. - Tricia Kreitman, Fiona Finlay, and Rosemary Jones. The Period Pocketbook: Honest Answers with Advice from Real Girls. Ulysses Press, 2006. - http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/female_reproductive_system.html - http://womenshealth.about.com/od/stds/a/stdmythsvsfacts.htm Vocabulary breast cancer Most common type of cancer in females that occurs when cells of the breast grow out of control and form a tumor. cancer of the testes Type of cancer common in teens and young men that occurs when cells of the testes grow out of control and form a tumor. Chlamydia Most common STD in the U.S. that is caused by bacteria. endometriosis Disorder in which tissues that normally line the uterus grow outside the uterus and cause pain and bleeding. genital herpes Common STD that is caused by a virus called herpes. genital warts Common STD that is caused by a virus called HPV. gonorrhea Common STD that is caused by bacteria. hepatitis B STD that damages the liver and is caused by a virus called hepatitis B. ovarian cyst Sac filled with fluid or other material that develops in an ovary. sexually transmitted disease (STD) Disease that spreads through sexual contact and is caused by a pathogen. syphilis Very serious STD that is caused by bacteria. vaginitis Redness and itching of the vagina that may be due to irritation or a yeast infection. varicocele Swollen vein in the scrotum. Points to Consider • A healthy reproductive system is important if you plan to have children when you are older. The birth of children, in turn, is one of the main factors that affect the growth of a population. We turn our attention next to ecology. • Ecology includes the study of populations. What factors do you think affect population growth? How might a rapidly growing population affect its environment? Image Sources (1) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:MenstrualCycle.png. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (2) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Herpes_labialis.jpg. Public Domain. (3) http://www.sanjoseca.gov/clerk/CommitteeAgenda/ACA/12_08_05docs/120805ACA_ItemA.pdf. San Jose Public Library has a “TeensReach” program in which teens can build leadership, teamwork and community service skills in San José’s neighborhoods.. (4) http://http.www.nucleusinc.com. GNU Free Documentation. (5) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Baby-first_teeth.jpg. GNU Free Documentation. (6) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Kid_playing_soccer.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0. (7) http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats/trends2006.htm. Public Domain. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Order_of_changes_in_ovary.svg. GNU Free Documentation. (9) http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Image:Placenta.jpg. Public Domain. (10) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Male_reproductive_system.png. GNU Free Documentation. (11) http://www.varicoceles.com/images/figure2.jpg. GNU Free Documentation. (12) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sperm-egg.jpg. Public Domain. (13) http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/img/endometriosis_diag.gif. GNU Free Documentation. (14) Ndraka – fotolia.com. http://us.fotolia.com/id/7030858. Royalty Free. (15) [Dreamstime.com; image ID #41640398, Image: AliceHerden/Dreamstime.com]. Royalty Free. (16) http://www.fda.gov/fdac/graphics/1996graphics/selfex.gif. Public Domain. (17) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Scheme_female_reproductive_system-en.svg. Public Domain. Chapter 23 From Populations to the Biosphere 23.1 Lesson 23.1: Introduction to Ecology Lesson Objectives - Define what ecology is. - Explain what organisms and environments are. - Describe how organisms can interact with their environments. - Describe levels of organization in ecology. Check Your Understanding - What is adaptation? - What is the scientific method? Introduction Organisms can be studied at many different levels, from biochemical and molecular, to cells, tissues and organs, to individuals, and finally at the ecological level: populations, communities, ecosystems and to the biosphere as a whole. Because of its focus on the higher levels of the organization of life on earth, ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science. Can you think of what some of these might be? What is Ecology? Ecology is the scientific study of how living organisms interact with each other and with their environment. Because of its broad scope, ecology draws from other branches of science, including geology, soil science, geography, meteorology, genetics, chemistry, and physics. The study of ecology can also be broken down into sub-disciplines. Thus, if you were focusing on, for example, how the physiology of an organism influences the way that organism interacts with the environment, you would be studying the sub-discipline of ecophysiology. Similarly, you could come up with terminology for studying the roles of behavior, populations, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, evolution, and even politics! You could also sub-divide ecology according to the species of interest into fields such as animal ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology, etc., or according to biome, an ecological formation that exists over a large region, such as the Arctic, the tropics, or the desert (Figure 23.1). Perhaps you can come up with some of your own terms for combining some of these specialties, or think of some other specialties yourself! ![Atacama Desert](image) Figure 23.1: An example of a biome, the Atacama Desert, in Chile. (4) Finally, because of the way ecologists study their discipline and because of the number of other fields involved, many methods can be employed to study how organisms interact with each other and their environment. Can you think of what some of these methods might be? One obvious type of research that comes to mind is field studies, since ecologists generally are interested in the world of nature. This involves collecting data in the natural world, as opposed to laboratory settings with controls. One example of this kind of study is determining how many organisms occupy a specific geographical area. This usually involves a technique called sampling, where an area is divided into a certain sized plot, and the number of organisms in that area is counted. Ecological principles can be studied in the laboratory as well. Perhaps you can think of some ways in which some aspects of ecology can be isolated in the lab. Statistical analysis is also used for analyzing both field and laboratory data. Finally, ecologists often use computer simulations to model complex ecological systems and to help predict how future environmental changes can affect a system. Can you think of some possible environmental change in the future that could be studied? Organisms and Environments All organisms have the abilities to grow and reproduce, properties which require materials and energy from the environment. The organism’s environment includes physical properties (abiotic factors), such as sunlight, climate, soil, water and air, and biological properties (biotic factors), which are the other living organisms, both of the same and different species, which share its habitat. In other words, the biotic factors live in the same area. Biotic and abiotic factors will be further discussed in the Ecosystems lesson. An example of how biotic factors influence the environment in which an organism lives can be seen in the primitive atmosphere. The first photosynthesizing organisms on Earth produced oxygen. This led to an oxygen-rich atmosphere, which caused life forms for which oxygen was toxic to die, and other organisms which needed oxygen to evolve. Levels of Organization in Ecology Ecology can be studied at a wide range of levels, from the smallest unit, at the individual level, to the largest, or most inclusive, the biosphere (the portion of the planet occupied by living matter (Figure 23.2)) (Table (23.1)). In between the individual level and the biosphere, from smallest to largest, are the population (organisms belonging to the same species that occupy the same area and interact with one another) level, the community (populations of different species that occupy the same area and interact with one another) level, and the ecosystem (a natural unit composed of all the living forms in an area, functioning together with all the abiotic components of the environment (Figure 23.3)) level. \| Level \| Definition \| \|-------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| population \| organisms belonging to the same species that occupy the same area and interact with one another \| \| community \| populations of different species that occupy the same area and interact with one another \| Ecologists study ecosystems at every level. They can ask different types of questions at each level. Examples of these questions are given in Table (23.2), using zebras as an example. \| Level \| Question \| \|-------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Individual \| How do zebras regulate internal water balance? \| \| Population \| What factors control zebra populations? \| \| Community \| How does a disturbance influence the number of mammal species in African grasslands? \| \| Ecosystem \| How does fire affect nutrient availability in grassland ecosystems? \| \| Biosphere \| What role does concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide play in the regulation of global temperature? \| Lesson Summary - Ecology is the scientific study of how living organisms interact with each other and with their environment. - The study of ecology can be broken down into subdisciplines and can be studied using various methods. - The organism’s environment includes abiotic and biotic factors. - Levels of organization in ecology include the population, community, ecosystem and biosphere. Figure 23.2: The “global biosphere,” which includes all areas that contain life, from the sea to the atmosphere. (1) Figure 23.3: Satellite image of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, an example of a marine ecosystem (11) Review Questions 1. What are three ways of sub-dividing the study of ecology? Give an example of each. 2. Name four types of research studies or methods that ecologists use. 3. Laboratory studies are valuable for studying ecological principles in that certain factors can be isolated and manipulated in a laboratory setting. Give an example of how the effect of an abiotic factor could be evaluated in the laboratory and the response of an organism measured. 4. A question that an ecologist could ask at the population level is “What factors control zebra populations?” Think of two examples in which another species might influence the zebra population. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - http://www.ecokids.ca/pub/index.cfm - http://www.eco-pros.com/ecologykids.htm - http://www.kidsolr.com/science/page12.html - http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/nceas-web/kids - http://www.southplainfield.lib.nj.us/homeworklinks/Ecology.htm - http://www.surfnetkids.com/ecology.htm; - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary abiotic Physical (nonliving) properties of an organism’s environment, such as sunlight, climate, soil, water and air. biome A homogeneous ecological formation that exists over a large region. biosphere The portion of the planet occupied by living organisms. biotic Biological (living) properties of an organism’s environment, which are other living organisms which share its habitat. community Populations of different species that occupy the same area and interact with one another. ecology The scientific study of how living organisms interact with each other and with their environment. ecosystem A natural unit composed of all the living forms in an area, functioning together with all the abiotic components of the environment. population Organisms belonging to the same species that occupy the same area and interact with one another. Points to Consider - How do you think the study of ecology would be applied at the level of the population and what study methods do you think might be used? - What do you think causes populations to grow? 23.2 Lesson 23.2: Populations Lesson Objectives - Explain what a population is. - Describe how births, deaths and migration affect population size. - Explain how populations grow. - Describe how limiting factors affect population growth. - Describe growth of the human population. Check Your Understanding - What is ecology? - How does an organism interact with its environment? Introduction The study of populations is important to better understand the health and stability of a population. Such factors as births, deaths and migration influence population size. Different models explain how populations grow. Limiting factors can help determine how fast a population grows. All of these aspects of population biology can be applied to the study of human population growth. What is a Population? A population is comprised of organisms belonging to the same species, all living in the same area and interacting with each other. Since they live together in one area, members of the same species form an interbreeding unit. Ecologists who study populations determine how healthy or stable they are and how they interact with the environment, by asking specific questions, such as, is a certain population stable, growing, or declining, and what factors affect the stability, growth, or decline of a threatened population? In determining the health of a population, one must first measure its size or the population density, the number of individuals per unit area or volume, such as per acre. Population size or density can also be examined with respect to how individuals are distributed. How individuals are spaced within a population is referred to as dispersion. Some species may show a clumped or clustered distribution (Figure 23.4) within an area, others may show a uniform, or evenly spaced (Figure 23.5), distribution and still others may show a random, or unpredictable, distribution. ![Image](image_url) Figure 23.4: Individuals within this population of the purple loosestrife plant species show a clumped distribution due to local variation in soils. (20) Other factors of importance in the study of populations are age and sex within the population. The proportion of males and females at each age level gives information about birth rate (number of births per individual within the population per unit time) and death rate (number of deaths per individual within the population per unit time), and this age structure may give further information about a population’s health. For example, an age structure with most individuals below reproductive age often indicates a growing population. A stable population would have roughly equal proportions of the population at each age level, and a population with more individuals at or above reproductive age than young members describes a declining population. Another pattern in populations has to do with how they change with time. Survivorship curves – graphing the population numbers over time - allow us to also study how populations grow and change, a topic that will be taken into more detail in subsequent lessons. Births, Deaths, and Migration Births, deaths and migration all affect population density and growth. The population growth rate is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases. Population growth rate depends on birth rate and on death rate. The growth rate then is represented by the equation: \[ \text{growth rate} = \text{birth rate} - \text{death rate}. \] According to this equation, if the birth rate is greater than the death rate, then the population grows; if the death rate is greater, then the population declines. If the birth and death rates are equal, then the population remains stable. Factors which influence a successful reproduction are age at first reproduction, frequency of reproduction, the number of offspring, parental care, reproductive lifespan, and death rate of offspring. In birds, altricial (helpless at birth and requiring much parental care (Figure 23.6)) and precocial (independent at birth or hatching and requiring little parental care (Figure 23.7)) strategies use different reproductive systems to ensure breeding success. Migrations and other movements in and out of populations affect population density as well. Therefore, both birth and immigration (movement of individuals into a population from other areas) rates increase the population growth rate, while death and emigration (movement of individuals out of a population) rates decrease the population rate. The earlier growth rate equation now looks like this: \[ \text{growth rate} = (\text{birth rate} + \text{immigration rate}) - (\text{death rate} + \text{emigration rate}) \] Figure 23.6: A hummingbird nest with young illustrates an altricial reproductive strategy, with a few, small eggs, helpless and naked young, and intensive parental care. (18) Figure 23.7: Canada Goose, Branta Canadensis, adult and young show a precocial reproductive strategy, where they lay a large number of large eggs, producing well-developed young. (13) One type of migration that you are probably pretty familiar with is the direct, often seasonal, movement of a species that results in a predictable change for that population size. Maybe you’ve heard that “birds fly south for the winter.” Examples of this migration are the thousands-of-miles migrations that many birds perform in the fall and then again in the spring when they return to their original habitat (Figure 23.8). Another example of a long-distance migration is the movements of Monarch butterflies from their Mexican wintering grounds to the northern summer habitats (in various regions of the United States) and back again. These types of migrations move entire populations from one set of location and environmental conditions to another. ![A flock of barnacle geese, Branta leucopsis, fly in formation during the autumn migration in Finland.](image) Figure 23.8: A flock of barnacle geese, Branta leucopsis, fly in formation during the autumn migration in Finland. (26) ### Population Growth Under ideal conditions, given unlimited amounts of food, moisture, and oxygen, and suitable temperature and other environmental factors, oxygen-consuming organisms show exponential or geometric growth, where as the population grows larger, the growth rate increases. This is shown as the “J-shaped curve” in Figure 23.9. You can see that the population grows slowly at first, but as time passes, growth occurs more and more rapidly. These ideal conditions are not often found in nature. They occur sometimes when populations move into new or unfilled areas. If ideal conditions were found all the time, what would you expect to happen to populations? In nature, limits occur. One basic requirement for life is energy; growth, survival and reproduction all require this. Do you think energy supplies are limited or unlimited? The answer is they are limited and therefore organisms must use these resources and others wisely. How do you think this affects the way organisms grow and what do you think the growth rate would look like? In nature, under more realistic conditions, at first populations grow exponentially (J-shaped curve), but as populations increase, rates of growth slow and eventually level off. This is shown as an “S-shaped curve” in Figure 23.9. Why do you think this is? You would be right if you said because various factors limit the growth of populations. Can you think of which factors these could be? Limiting Factors Limiting factors that can lower the population growth rate include reduced food supply and reduced space. These can have the effect of lowering birth rates, increasing death rates, or can lead to emigration. This growth model is known as the logistic (S-curve) model, and looks different than the one for exponential growth (Figure 23.9). In this case, the growth rate begins as proportional to the size of the population, but at higher population levels, competition for limited resources leads to lower growth rates. Eventually, the growth rate stops increasing and the population becomes stable. This plateau in growth is known as the carrying capacity, or the maximum population size that can be supported in a particular area without degradation of the habitat. Limiting factors determine what the carrying capacity is. In general, a limiting factor is a living or nonliving property of a population’s environment, which regulates population growth. There are two different types of limiting factors: density-dependent factors and density-independent factors. Density-dependent factors, such as food supply, promote competition between members of the same population for the same resource, as the population increases in size and there is more crowding. Therefore, the population size is limited by such factors. In the example of food supply, when population size is small, there is plenty of food for each individual and birth rates are high. As the population increases, the food supply decreases and birth rates decline, causing the population growth rate to decrease. Food shortages can eventually lead to an increase in death rates or emigration, therefore leading to a negative growth rate and lower population size. With a lower population size, each individual has more food and the population begins to increase again, reaching the carrying capacity. Can you think of some other density-dependent limiting factors? Such factors could include light, water, nutrients or minerals, oxygen, the ability of an ecosystem to recycle nutrients and/or waste, disease and/or parasites, temperature, space, and predation. Can you think of some other factors that limit populations, but seldom regulate them? That means that these factors act irregularly, regardless of how dense the population is. Populations limited by such factors seldom reach carrying capacity. An example of this other kind of factor, a density-independent factor, is weather. For example, an individual agave (century plant) has a lifespan dependent at least in part by erratic rainfall. Rainfall limits reproduction, and which in turn limits growth rate, but because of rainfall’s unpredictability, it cannot regulate Agave populations. Can you think of some other factors like this? Human activities, for example, act in this way. These include use of pesticides, such as DDT, and herbicides, and habitat destruction. See if you can come up with explanations as to why these factors are considered density-independent factors. We will next be examining the growth of human populations. What kind of growth rate do you think humans follow? Growth of the Human Population There are two major schools of thought about human population growth. One group of people, sometimes known as the “Neo-Malthusians,” believes that human population growth cannot continue without dire consequences. Another group, the “Cornucopians,” believes that the Earth can provide an almost limitless amount of natural resources and that technology can solve or overcome low levels of resources and degradation of the environment caused by the increasing population. Which do you think is correct? If we look back again at the growth curves that we examined in the last two sections, we might ask ourselves if human growth resembles the exponential J-shaped model or the logistic S-shaped model? In other words, are we built, as a population, to keep growing and to use up all our resources, and thus become extinct, or will we efficiently use our resources so that the Earth can sustain our growth? We don’t know all the answers yet, but by looking at population growth through history and by examining population growth in different countries we may see some patterns emerge. For example, if we look at worldwide human population growth from 10,000 BCE through today, our growth, overall, resembles exponential growth, increasing very slowly at first, but later growing at an accelerating rate and which does not approach the carrying capacity (Figure 23.10). However, by looking at different countries’ population growth over history, we see more complexity. The history of human population growth can be divided into four stages and we can see snapshot views of these stages in countries today. Human populations pass through these four or five predictable stages of growth (Table 23.3): \| Stage of Human Population Growth \| Description \| \|---------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Stage 1 \| Birth and death rates are high and population growth is stable (i.e. early human history) \| \| Stage 2 \| Significant drop in death rate, resulting in an increasingly rapid rise in population size (exponential growth)(i.e. 18th and 19th century Europe) \| \| Stage 3 \| Population size continues to grow \| \| Stage 4 \| Birth rates equal death rates and populations become stable \| \| Stage 5 \| Total population size may level off \| In looking ahead to the future, projections by the United Nations and the US Census Bureau predict that by 2050, the Earth will be populated by 9.4 billion people. Other estimates predict 10 to 11 billion. The Cornucopians believe that more people are good for technology and innovation. The 5-stage model above predicts that when all countries are industrialized, the human population will eventually reach stability and a carrying capacity of sorts. However, many scientists and other Neo-Malthusians believe that humans have already gone over the Earth’s carrying capacity for resources and habitat, and that this will eventually lead to famine, epidemics, or war, thus causing a population crash or even extinction. Which of the above theories makes sense to you? What ways can you think of that people might use to avoid reaching Earth’s carrying capacity? Lesson Summary - A population is comprised of organisms belonging to the same species, all living in the same area and interacting with each other. - One measure of a population’s health is the dispersion of individuals within a population. - Information about birth rate, death rate, and survivorship curves also show how populations grow and change. - The population growth rate shows how the population size changes per population member per unit of time and depends on birth and death rates and migration. - There are different types of migrations that affect population density. - Under ideal conditions, populations show exponential growth; under more realistic conditions, limiting factors (density-dependent and density-independent factors) cause logistic growth. - There are two major schools of thought about human population growth; the Neo-Malthusians and the cornucopians. Review Questions 1. Name two ways in which ecologists can get an idea of the health of a population. 2. For a secretive or highly mobile species, how might you determine population size? 3. What might cause a clumped or clustered dispersion? 4. In an altricial reproductive strategy used by robins and hummingbirds, the birds hatch helpless and naked. Parents invest little energy in just a few, small eggs. It is important these offspring survive, because there are so few. What strategies might parents use to ensure that their young survive? 5. How does a limiting factor such as food supply limit population size? 6. In human history, major advances in technology caused an increase in carrying capacity. What do you think these major advances were? 7. Name some environmental crises that support the idea that our human population has already grown beyond the carrying capacity resulting in environmental degradation. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.brainpop.com/science/ourfragileenvironment/populationgrowth/preview.weml - http://eelink.net/pages/EE+Activities+-+Population - http://mathforum.org/t2t/faq/census.html - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_ecology Vocabulary altricial Newborn that are helpless at birth and require much parental care. birth rate Number of births per individual within the population per unit time. carrying capacity Maximum population size that can be supported in a particular area without degradation of the habitat. death rate Number of deaths per individual within the population per unit time. density-dependent factors Promote competition between members of the same population for the same resource; food and space are examples. density-independent factors Act irregularly, regardless of how dense the population is; temperature and climate are examples. dispersion Spacing of individuals within a population. emigration Movement of individuals out of a population. immigration Movement of individuals into a population from other areas. limiting factor A living or nonliving property of a population’s environment, which regulates population growth. population growth rate How the population size changes per population member per unit of time. precocial Newborn that are independent at birth or hatching and require little parental care. Points to Consider - Now that you understand what makes up a population, what do you think makes up a community? - You have learned about some of the factors that limit populations. What do you think are some interactions that affect the community? 23.3 Lesson 23.3: Communities Lesson Objectives - Explain what a community is. - Describe community interactions - Explain what competition is and how it affects the community. - Describe predation and how that affects prey density. - Explain what symbiosis is and give examples of different kinds of symbiosis. Check Your Understanding - What is a population? - How do density-dependent factors promote competition between members of the same population? Introduction Now that we have examined the dynamics of a single species at the population level, we are now ready to move to the next higher level. This is the community level, where we look at how populations of different species that occupy the same area interact with each other. As we will see, there are a number of types of interactions, including competition, predation and symbiosis. These interactions in turn affect the species’ interactions with one another. What is a Community? A community is an assemblage within the same area, of populations of different species interacting with one another. The term can be used in various ways with differences in meaning. For example, it may be limited to specific places, at specific times, or certain types of organisms. Thus, one may study the fish community in Lake Ontario or the fish in this lake during a specific period, such as the period before industrialization. A community may also be defined according to the classification of and the geographic distribution of species, as in an oak-hickory forest. On the other hand, a community might be defined according to function and behavior, as in a forest that is moderate in temperature (temperate) and sheds leaves annually (deciduous). Community Interactions Community interactions can be either intraspecific, that is between members of the same species, or interspecific, between members of different species. There are a number of different types of interactions, such as competition, predation, and symbiosis, which can be described as beneficial, detrimental or neutral. For example, competition could be looked at as having negative effects on the competing individuals or species, whereas mutualism, a type of symbiosis, could be determined as positive for individuals involved. As we examine different types of interactions in the next few sections, we will see more specifically why interactions are considered positive, negative, or neutral. We usually look at costs and benefits in terms of fitness, or survival and reproduction. These types of interactions may alter populations, communities, and even ecosystems, and the evolution of interacting species. Competition Competition can be defined as an interaction between organisms of the same or different species, in which the “fitness” of one is lowered by the presence of another. Individuals compete for a limited supply of at least one resource, such as food, water, or territory. Fitness refers to the ability of a species to survive and reproduce. Competition can be described in terms of the mechanisms by which it occurs, either directly or indirectly. For example, competition may occur directly between individuals via aggression or some other means, whereby individuals interfere with survival, foraging or reproduction, or by physically preventing them from occupying an area of the habitat. Indirect competition is when a common limiting resource which acts as an intermediate. For example, use of a specific resource or resources decreases the amount available to others, thereby affecting the others’ fitness, or competition for space results in negatively affecting the fitness of one of the competing individuals. Another type of indirect competition also occurs when two species are both preyed upon by the same predator. If the population size of one species increases, this would cause the predator population to increase, and would result in the other species’ population size decreasing. Intraspecific competition occurs when members of the same species compete for the same resources, like food, nutrients, space, or light. Two organisms competing for the same resource can adapt to such conditions. Thus, if two trees growing close together are competing for light, water, and nutrients, one may out-compete the other by growing taller to get more available light or be developing a larger root system to get more water and nutrients. Such a situation results in survival for the organism that has better adapted to that environment. Interspecific competition occurs when individuals of different species share a limiting resource in the same area, resulting in one of the species having lowered reproductive success, growth, or survival. For example, cheetahs and lions feed on similar prey. If prey is limited, then one species may catch more prey than the other and force the other species to either leave the area or to directly affect its survival. Lions sometimes steal prey killed by cheetahs. This could negatively affect the survival of the cheetahs. According to the competitive exclusion principle, species less suited to compete for resources will either adapt, be excluded from the area, or die out. This is similar to what happens within a species. Evolutionary theory says that competition for resources within and between species plays an important role in natural selection (Table 23.4). In order for two species within the same area to adapt, they may develop different specializations in order to coexist. This is known as character displacement and an example of this is the different feeding adaptations, such as bill structure, that developed in Darwin’s Finches (Figure 23.11). ![Darwin's Finches](image) Figure 23.11: An example of character displacement, showing different bill structures, reflecting different feeding strategies, in Darwin’s or Galapagos Finches. From Darwin’s Journal, 1845, during the voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle. (17) Table 23.4: Main Features of Competition \| Type of Competition \| Description of Competition \| \|---------------------\|----------------------------\| \| Direct Competition \| Occurs directly between individuals via aggression or some other means \| \| Indirect Competition\| Occurs indirectly through a common limiting resource, which acts as an intermediate, and/or occurs between two species which are both preyed upon by the same predator \| \| Intraspecific Competition \| Occurs when members of the same species compete for the same resources, like food, nutrients, space, or light \| \| Interspecific Competition \| Occurs when individuals of different species share a limiting resource in the same area \| Predation Predation is an interaction where a predator organism feeds on another living organism or organisms, known as prey. Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to eating them. The key characteristic of predation is the direct effect of the predator on the prey population. In all classifications of predation, the predator lowers the prey’s fitness, by reducing the prey’s survival, reproduction, or both. Other types of consumption, like detritivory, where dead organic material (detritus) is consumed, have no direct impact on the population of the food item. Predation can be classified in a number of different ways. One way is to classify it functionally, by the extent to which they feed on and interact with their prey. This type includes true predation, grazing, and parasitism. (Parasitism will be discussed later in this lesson.) True predation is a type in which the predator kills and eats its prey. Some predators of this type, such as jaguars, kill large prey and dismember or chew it prior to eating it (Figure 23.12). Others, such as a bottlenose dolphin or snake, may eat its prey whole. In some cases, the prey dies in the mouth or digestive system of the predator. Baleen whales, for example, eat millions of plankton at once, with the prey being digested afterward. Predators of this type may hunt actively for prey, or sit and wait for prey to approach within striking distance. In grazing, the predator eats part of the prey, but rarely kills it. Many of this type of prey species are able to regenerate or regrow the grazed parts, so there is no real effect on the population. For example, most plants can regrow after being grazed upon by livestock. Kelp regrows continuously at the base of the blade to cope with browsing pressure. Starfish, also, can regenerate lost arms when they are grazed on. Parasites feed in a similar way to grazers, but are noted for their close association with their host species, and will be discussed further in the next section on symbiosis. Another way of classifying predators is by degree of specialization. Many predators, such as pandas and the snail kite, specialize in hunting only one species of prey, or certain classes of prey. Others, such as humans, leopards, and dogs, will kill and eat a wide variety of species. Specialists are usually well adapted in capturing their prey, but prey may be equally well adapted in escaping the predator. This helps to keep both populations in equilibrium. Almost all specialists will usually successfully switch to other prey or may resort to scavenging or even a vegetarian diet, if the preferred prey is extremely scarce. Predators play an ecological role, in that they may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant, as in grazers of a grassland. Introduction or removal of these dominant keystone species, or changes in its population density, can have drastic effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the ecosystem. The act of predation can be broken down into four stages: detection of prey, attack, capture, and consumption. At each stage, predator and prey have adaptations for obtaining food and avoiding predation (Table 23.5), respectively. One mechanism to avoid detection is camouflage (Figure 23.14), where species have an appearance (color, shape or pattern) which helps them blend into the background. Mimicry is a related phenomenon where a species uses appearance to copy another species, and which is used by both predators and prey (Figure 23.13). Table 23.5: Main Features of Predation \| Type of Predation \| Description of Predation \| \|----------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| True Predation \| Predator kills and eats its prey \| \| Grazing \| Predator eats part of the prey, but rarely kills it \| \| By degree of Specialization\| Predator specializes in hunting only one species of prey, or certain classes of prey, or predator kills and eats a wide variety of prey species \| Other anti-predator adaptations involve mobbing behavior, where a prey species cooperatively attacks or harasses a predator, as in crows and smaller birds working together to drive away a hawk. Prey may also suggest is is unprofitable to chase, as in the case of a Thomson’s gazelle stotting (jumping into the air with the legs kept straight and stiff, and with a visible white rear) to let predators know not to give chase. This is known as advertisement of unprofitability. Anti-predatory Adaptations - Camouflage Species have an appearance which helps them blend into background - Mimicry Species uses appearance to copy another species, and is used by both predators and prey - Mobbing Behavior A prey species cooperatively attacks or harasses a predator - Advertisement of Unprofitability Prey species advertises in order to let predator know not to give chase Figure 23.14: Camouflage by the dead leaf mantis, Deroplatys desicca, makes it less visible to both its predators and prey. If alarmed, it lies motionless on the rainforest floor of Madagascar, Africa, camouflaged among the actual dead leaves. It eats other animals up to the size of small lizards. (19) Symbiosis The term symbiosis commonly describes close and often long-term interactions between different species, in which at least one species benefits. The symbiotic relationship may be characterized as being mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic. In mutualism, both species benefit; in commensalism, one species benefits while the other is not affected; and in parasitism, the parasitic species benefits, while the host species is harmed. Symbiotic Relationships - Mutualism Both species benefit. - Commensalism One species benefits, while the other is not affected. - Parasitism Parasitic species benefits, while host species is harmed. Mutualistic relationships include the large percentage of herbivores that have gut fauna that help them digest plant matter, coral reefs that have various types of algae living inside, and the relationship between the Ocellaris clownfish and the Ritteri sea anemones. In the latter example, the clownfish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn, the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators (Figure 23.15). Commensal relationships may involve an organism using another for transportation or housing, such as spiders building their webs on trees, or may involve an organism using something another created, after the death of the first. Parasites include those that either live within the host’s body, such as hookworms, or those that live on its surface, such as lice. In addition, parasites may either kill the host they live on, or rely on the host surviving. Parasites are found not only in animals but also in plants and fungi. Figure 23.15: A mutualistic relationship between the Ocellaris clownfish and the Ritteri sea anemone. Myako Island, Japan. The fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish and the anemone protects the clownfish from its predators, with its stinging tentacles. The clownfish has a special mucus which protects it from the tentacles. (22) Lesson Summary - A community is an assemblage within the same area, of populations of different species interacting with one another. - Community interactions include competition, predation, and symbiosis. - Competition can be either direct or indirect. - Intra- and inter-specific competition occur when individuals share a limiting resource in the same area. - The competitive exclusion principle plays an important role in natural selection. - Functional types of predation include true predation, grazing, and parasitism. - Predators can also be classified by degree of specialization. - Prey use different adaptations to avoid detection, attack and capture by predators. - Symbiosis includes mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Review Questions 1. Define competition. 2. If the geographic distributions of two similar species do not overlap, would you expect the two species to have character displacement? Why or why not? 3. Observations of natural populations and manipulative experiments show that two recently evolved species of threespine stickleback fish (Gasterosteus spp.) show two distinct morphologies and feeding strategies in order to co-exist in the post-glacial lakes in which they live in western Canada. Morphologically they differ in the size, shape and the number and length of gill rakers, structures used in their feeding. Name two ways in which these fish species could use different feeding strategies in order to co-exist. 4. How might a predator lower a prey’s fitness? 5. In most types of grazing, does the predator lower a prey’s fitness? Why or why not? 6. A drone fly looks a lot like a bee, yet it is completely harmless as it cannot sting at all. What anti-predator mechanism is the drone fly using? Would you expect predators to always avoid drone flies? 7. In the mutualistic relationship between the Ocellaris clownfish and the Ritteri sea anemones, what benefit does the fish get? 8. Hosts may evolve defenses against their parasites. In turn, parasites evolve in response to these defense mechanisms, including evolving adaptations that are specific to a particular host taxon, even specializing to the point where they infect only a single species. How might such narrow host specificity be costly over evolutionary time? What would help to reduce this cost? Further Reading / Supplemental Links en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis - http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/pages/search.asp - http://www.blm.gov/education/LearningLandscapes/students.html - http://www.nclark.net/CommunitiesBiomes - http://www.ecokidsonline.com/pub/index.cfm Vocabulary camouflage When species have an appearance which helps them blend into the background. character displacement Two or more species within the same area develop different specializations in order to coexist. commensalism A type of symbiosis in which one species benefits while the other is not affected. community An assemblage within the same area, of populations of different species interacting with one another. competition Organisms of the same or different species compete for a limited supply of at least one resource, thereby lowering the fitness of one organism by the presence of the other. competitive exclusion principle Species less suited to compete for resources will either adapt, be excluded from the area, or die out. grazing A type of predation where the predator eats part of the prey, but rarely kills it. keystone species A predator species that plays an important role in the community by controlling the prey population and, thus, the populations of other species in the community as well. mutualism A type of symbiosis in which both species benefit. parasitism A type of symbiosis in which the parasite species benefits, while the host species is harmed. predation An interaction where a predator organism feeds on another living organism or organisms, known as prey. symbiosis Close and often long-term interactions between different species, in which at least one species benefits. true predation A type of predation where the predator kills and eats the prey. Points to Consider - How do you think predation helps a species to survive? 23.4 Lesson 23.4:: Ecosystems Lesson Objectives - Explain what an ecosystem is. - Discuss how biotic and abiotic factors play a role in the ecosystem. - Explain what a niche is and its importance in an ecosystem. - Describe what a habitat is and how an organism is adapted to live in the habitat. Check Your Understanding - What is a community? - What are the different types of community interactions? Introduction Now that you have studied what a community is, you have seen some of the interactions that occur between species. The next level, the ecosystem, includes not only the biological components, but also the abiotic components, all functioning together. You will examine in more depth biotic and abiotic factors, and how the concepts of the niche and habitat play important roles in the ecosystem. What is an Ecosystem? An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all the biotic factors (plants, animals and micro-organisms) functioning together in an area along with all of the abiotic factors (the non-living physical factors of the environment). The concept of an ecosystem can apply to a large body of freshwater, for example, as well as a small piece of dead wood. Other examples of ecosystems include the coral reef, the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, the rainforest, the savanna, the tundra, the desert and the urban ecosystem (Figure 23.16). Ecosystems, like most natural systems, depend on continuous inputs of energy from outside the system, most in the form of sunlight. In addition to energy being transferred within the ecosystem, matter is recycled in ecosystems. Thus, elements such as carbon and nitrogen, and water, all needed by living organisms, are used over and over again. These topics will be discussed in more detail in the Ecosystem Dynamics chapter. Ecosystems can be discussed with respect to humans as well. A system as small as a household, neighborhood, or college, or as large as a nation, may then be suitably discussed as a human ecosystem. While they may be bounded and individually discussed, human ecosystems do not exist independently, but interact in a web of complex human and ecological relationships connecting all human ecosystems. Since humans touch virtually all surfaces of the earth today, all ecosystems can be more accurately considered as human ecosystems. In 2005, the largest assessment ever conducted of the earth’s ecosystems was done by a research team of over 1,000 scientists. The study concluded that in the past 50 years, humans have altered the earth’s ecosystems more than any other time in our history. Biotic and Abiotic Factors Biotic factors of an ecosystem include all living components, from bacteria and fungi, to unicellular and multicellular plants, to unicellular and multicellular animals. Abiotic factors are non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment. The six major abiotic factors are water, sunlight, oxygen, temperature, soil and climate (such as humidity, atmosphere, and wind). Other factors which might also come into play are other atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide, and factors such as physical geography and geology. Abiotic and biotic factors not only interrelate within an ecosystem but also between ecosystems. For example, water may circulate between ecosystems, by the means of a river or ocean current, and some species, such as salmon or freshwater eels, move between marine and freshwater systems. This concept will be explained more fully in the Biomes and the Biosphere lesson. Niche One of the most important ideas associated with ecosystems is the niche concept. A niche refers to the role a species or population plays in the ecosystem, with respect to all the interactions with the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem. A shorthand definition is that a niche is how an organism “makes a living”. Some of the important aspects of a species’ niche are the food it eats, how it obtains the food, nutrient requirements, space, etc. The different dimensions of a niche represent different biotic and abiotic variables. These factors may include descriptions of the organism’s life history, habitat, trophic position (place in the food chain), and geographic range. Different species can hold similar niches in different locations, and the same species may occupy different niches in different locations. Species of the Australian grasslands, although different from those of the Great Plains grasslands, occupy the same niche. Once a niche is left vacant, other organisms can fill in that position. When the tarpan (a small, wild horse, chiefly of southern Russia) became extinct in the early 1900s, the niche it left vacant has been filled by other animals, in particular a small horse breed, the konik (Figure 23.17). ![Konik Horse](image) Figure 23.17: The konik horse, which filled the niche left vacant by the tarpan, a horse that became extinct in the early 1900s in southern Russia. ([16](#)) When plants and animals are introduced, either intentionally or by accident, into a new environment, they can occupy the new niches or niches of native organisms, and sometimes outcompete the native species, and become a serious pest. For example, kudzu, a Japanese vine, was introduced intentionally to the southeastern United States in the 1870s to help control soil erosion. Kudzu had no natural enemies there and was able to outcompete native species of vines and take over their niches (Figure 23.18). ![Kudzu](image) Figure 23.18: Kudzu, a Japanese vine, introduced intentionally to the southeastern United States, has outcompeted the native vegetation. (8) As already discussed in the Communities lesson, the competitive exclusion principle states that if niche overlap occurs, either one species will be excluded, character displacement will occur (as in Darwin’s Finches), or extinction occurs. ### Habitat The habitat is the ecological or environmental area where a particular species lives; the physical environment to which it has become adapted and in which it can survive (Figure 23.19). A habitat is generally described in terms of abiotic factors, such as the average amount of sunlight received each day, the range of annual temperatures, and average yearly rainfall. These and other factors determine the kind of traits an organism must have in order to survive there (Figures 23.20 and 23.21). Habitat destruction is a major factor in causing a species population to decrease, eventually leading to it being endangered or even going extinct. Large scale land clearing usually results in the removal of native vegetation and habitat destruction. Poor fire management, pest and weed invasion, and storm damage can also destroy habitat. National parks, nature reserves, and other protected areas all provide adequate refuge to organisms by preserving habitats. The Environmental Problems chapter will discuss habitat destruction in further detail. Figure 23.19: Santa Cruz, the largest of the northern Channel Islands, has the most diverse of habitats in the sanctuary, including a coastline with steep cliffs, coves, gigantic caves, and sandy beaches. (5) Figure 23.20: Another example of a type of habitat, showing a meadow and representative vegetation. (3) Habitats can also be examined from a human point of view. Thus, it is the environment in which humans live, work, recreate, and move about. Human habitat is the sum total of all factors which constitute the total environment where humans live, work, and perform their essential and day-to-day obligations. Lesson Summary - An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all the biotic and abiotic factors functioning together in an area. - Biotic factors include all living components of an ecosystem and abiotic factors are the non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment. - There are six major abiotic factors. - The niche concept is one of the most important ideas associated with ecosystems. - If niche overlap occurs, then the competitive exclusion principle comes into play. - The habitat is the area where a particular species, species population, or community lives. - Habitat destruction is a major cause of population decrease, leading to possible extinction. - Both the ecosystem and habitat can be looked at from a human point of view. Review Questions 1. Give three examples of ecosystems. 2. List three abiotic components of importance to trees living in a forest. 3. Give an example of an organism filling a vacant niche. 4. Why might an introduced species become a pest? 5. How could separation of breeding periods in frogs result in niche differentiation in the tadpoles? 6. Name three abiotic factors that a habitat is generally described in terms of. 7. Species which travel distances between important areas for their survival, such as breeding and feeding areas may be particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction. How might the creation of multiple national parks or nature reserves help such species? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - [http://www.kidsgeo.com/geography-for-kids/0164-ecosystems.php](http://www.kidsgeo.com/geography-for-kids/0164-ecosystems.php) - [http://www.kids-courier.com/kids-learning/science/science-terrestrial.html](http://www.kids-courier.com/kids-learning/science/science-terrestrial.html) - [http://www.bellmuseum.org/distancelearning/prairie/index.html](http://www.bellmuseum.org/distancelearning/prairie/index.html) - [http://www.epals.com/projects/ducks_unlimited](http://www.epals.com/projects/ducks_unlimited) - [http://www.fws.gov/endangered/kids/index.html](http://www.fws.gov/endangered/kids/index.html) - [http://www.blm.gov/education/LearningLandscapes/students.html](http://www.blm.gov/education/LearningLandscapes/students.html) - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki) Vocabulary abiotic factors All the non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment. biotic factors All the living components of an ecosystem. ecosystem A natural unit consisting of all the biotic factors functioning together in an area along with all of the abiotic factors. habitat Ecological or environmental area where a particular species live. niche A specific role that an organism occupies within an ecosystem. Points to Consider - Now that you understand what makes up an ecosystem, what additional factors do you think might be added to get to the next level, the biome? - How do you think what you have learned about abiotic and biotic factors might be applied to the classification of different biomes? The biosphere is considered to be a global ecological system. Given all you now know about ecology, what do you think the biosphere consists of? 23.5 Lesson 23.5: Biomes and the Biosphere Lesson Objectives - Explain what biomes are. - Describe terrestrial biomes. - Describe aquatic biomes. - Describe the features of the biosphere and list specific systems. Check Your Understanding - What is an Ecosystem? - How can Ecosystems be discussed with respect to Humans? Introduction The concept of biomes and the largest biome of all, the biosphere, is the highest level of organization in ecology, building on everything you have already studied at the population, community, and ecosystem levels. There is a wide variety of biomes, classified into two major groups, terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Because the biosphere integrates all living beings, and can be considered itself a kind of living organism, human activities on one part of Earth can have a major effect on another. In order to better understand all the interactions on Earth, scientists have created various small-scale models. What are Biomes? A biome is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar communities of plants and animals, often referred to as ecosystems. Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation (See the Ecosystem Dynamics chapter). Biome type may also be based on differences of the physical environment (for example, mountain ranges or oceans). Their variation is generally related to the distribution of species according to their ability to tolerate temperature and/or dryness. For example, one may find photosynthetic algae only in the part of the ocean where light penetrates, while conifers are mostly found in mountains. The biodiversity characteristic of each biome, especially the diversity of fauna and sub-dominant plant forms, is a function of abiotic factors and the biomass productivity of the dominant vegetation. Species diversity tends to be higher in terrestrial biomes with higher net primary productivity, moisture availability, and temperature. Biodiversity also generally increases most rapidly near the equator and less rapidly toward the poles, and increases with humidity. The most widely used systems of classifying biomes correspond to latitude (or temperature zoning) and humidity. One scheme, developed by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), identified fourteen biomes, called major habitat types, and further divided the world’s land area into 825 terrestrial ecoregions. This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation. Some of these habitat types are similar to others already discussed, while others include mangroves, flooded grasslands, and savannas. Biomes are often given local names. For example, a temperate grassland or shrubland biome is known as steppe in central Asia, prairie in North America, and pampas in South America. Tropical grasslands are known as savanna or veldt in southern Africa and outback or scrub in Australia. Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial biomes are defined based on factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), and plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna). Climate is also a major factor determining the distribution of terrestrial biomes. Among the important climatic factors are latitude, from the poles towards the equator (Arctic, boreal, temperate, subtropical, tropical); humidity (humid, semi-humid, semi-arid, and arid), with seasonal variation in rainfall; and elevation (increasing elevation causes a distribution of habitat types similar to that of increasing latitude) (Table 23.6). Terrestrial biomes (Figure 23.22) lying within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles are relatively barren of plant and animal life, while most of the more populous biomes lie near the equator (Figure 23.23). \| Characteristics of Terrestrial Biome \| Description of Characteristics \| \|-------------------------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| Plant structures \| Trees, shrubs, grasses \| \| Leaf types \| Broadleaf, needleleaf \| \| Plant spacing \| Forest, woodland, savanna \| \| Latitude from poles towards the equator \| Arctic, boreal, temperate, subtropical, tropical \| \| Humidity \| Humid, semi-humid, semi-arid, arid \| Aquatic Biomes Aquatic biomes (which also can be classified into freshwater and marine biomes) can be defined according to: - size - depth, such as the continental shelf - vegetation, such as a kelp forest - animal communities - other physical characteristics, including pack ice or hydrothermal vents According to the WWF scheme, freshwater biomes can be classified according to: - large lakes - large river deltas - polar freshwaters - montane freshwaters (in mountain areas) - temperate coastal rivers - temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands - temperate upland rivers - tropical and subtropical coastal rivers - tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands - tropical and subtropical upland rivers - xeric (dry habitat) freshwaters and endorheic (interior drainage) basins - oceanic islands The WWF classifies marine biomes according to: - polar habitat types - temperate shelves and seas - temperate upwelling - tropical upwelling - tropical coral Figure 23.22: One of the terrestrial biomes, a taiga, a coniferous evergreen forest of the subarctic, covering extensive areas of northern North America and Eurasia. This taiga is along the Denali Highway in Alaska. The Alaska Range is in the background. (12) Figure 23.23: A terrestrial biome, a tropical rainforest, located in the Amazon basin north of Manaus, Brazil. The image was taken within 30 minutes of a rain event, and a few white ‘clouds’ above the canopy are indicative of rapid evaporation from wet leaves after the rain. (25) Other marine habitat types include: - continental shelf - littoral/intertidal zone - coral reef - kelp forest (Figure 23.24) - pack ice (Figure 23.25) - hydrothermal vents - cold seeps - benthic zone - pelagic zone - neritic zone ![Kelp Forest](image) Figure 23.24: An example of an aquatic marine biome, a kelp forest, located near Santa Cruz Island, Channel Islands. National Park, California. (7) The Biosphere The most inclusive level of organization in ecology is the biosphere. It is the part of the Earth, including air, land, surface rocks, and water, within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or change. It is the global ecological system integrating all life forms and their relationships, including their interactions with the outer layer of the earth: the lithosphere (or sphere of soils and rocks), hydrosphere (or sphere of water) and atmosphere (or sphere of the air). The biosphere occurs in a very thin layer of the planet, extending from about 11,000 meters below sea level to 15,000 meters above sea level and reaches well into the other three spheres. The concept that the biosphere is itself a living organism, either actually or metaphorically, is known as the GAIA hypothesis. The hypothesis explains how biotic and abiotic factors interact in the biosphere. It considers Earth itself a kind of living organism. Its atmosphere, heliosphere, and hydrosphere are cooperating systems that yield a biosphere full of life. Lynn Margulis, a microbiologist, added to the hypothesis, specifically noting the ties between the biosphere and other Earth systems. For example, when carbon dioxide levels increase in the atmosphere, plants grow more quickly. As their growth continues, they remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Many scientists are now devoting their careers to organizing new fields of study, such as geobiology and geomicrobiology, to examine these relationships. For a better understanding of how the biosphere works and various dysfunctions related to human activity, scientists have simulated the biosphere in small-scale models. Biosphere 2 (Figure 23.26) is a laboratory in Arizona which contains 3.15 acres of closed ecosystem BIOS-3 was a closed ecosystem in Siberia; and Biosphere J is located in Japan. Direct human interactions with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry, and other uses of land, have fundamentally altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result, vegetation patterns predicted by conventional biome systems are rarely observed across most of the planet’s land surface. On terms of the human impact on biomes and ecosystems, the study of ecology is now more important than ever. Scientists that study ecology will move us toward an understanding of how best to live in and manage our biosphere. Figure 23.26: Biosphere 2, in Arizona, contains 3.15 acres of closed ecosystem and is a small-scale model of the biosphere. (21) Lesson Summary - A biome is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar communities of plants and animals - Biomes are classified in different ways, sometimes according to patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation, other times according to differences in the physical environment, and in other situations according to latitude and humidity - Biodiversity of each biome is a function of abiotic factors, such as moisture availability and temperature, and the biomass productivity of the dominant vegetation - Terrestrial biomes are defined based on various plant factors and on climate - Aquatic biomes are classified according to various factors and further subdivided into freshwater and marine biomes - The most inclusive level of organization in ecology is the biosphere and it is a global ecological system - The biosphere is itself a living organism, as explained by the GAIA hypothesis - Humans have fundamentally altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes Review Questions 1. Define a biome. 2. Name a type of biome based on the physical environment. 3. Where would you expect to find more biodiversity, in an equatorial rainforest, or in a southwestern desert? Explain why. 4. Which classification scheme is used to define ecoregions as priorities for conservation? 5. As you climb a mountain, you will see the vegetation and habitat type change as you gain elevation. How could you see a similar change of habitat types if you were traveling geographically? 6. Name the aquatic biomes classified according to depth. 7. Water is exchanged between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere in regular cycles. What role do the oceans play in the biosphere? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - [http://www.kidsconnect.com/content/view/62/27](http://www.kidsconnect.com/content/view/62/27) - [http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/ecosystems.htm](http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/ecosystems.htm) - [http://lsb.syr.edu/projects/cyberzoo/biome.html](http://lsb.syr.edu/projects/cyberzoo/biome.html) - [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome](http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome) - [http://www.worldbiomes.com/biomes_map.htm](http://www.worldbiomes.com/biomes_map.htm) - [http://www.mbgnet.net/sets/index.htm](http://www.mbgnet.net/sets/index.htm) - [http://www.mbgnet.net/fresh/index.htm](http://www.mbgnet.net/fresh/index.htm) - [http://www.mbgnet.net/salt/index.htm](http://www.mbgnet.net/salt/index.htm) - [http://www.kidsgeo.com/geography-for-kids/0153-biosphere.php](http://www.kidsgeo.com/geography-for-kids/0153-biosphere.php) - [http://www.geography4kids.com/files/land_intro.html](http://www.geography4kids.com/files/land_intro.html) en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary aquatic biomes Biomes divided into freshwater and marine biomes and defined according to different physical and ecological factors. biome A climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar communities of plants and animals. biosphere The part of the Earth within which life occurs. GAIA hypothesis The concept that the biosphere is itself a living organism. terrestrial biomes Biomes defined based on plant and climatic factors. Points to Consider You now have a general idea of what a biome is and how the diversity of a biome is related to other factors; the next chapter, on ecosystem dynamics, will give you a greater understanding of how energy flow, cycling of matter, and succession vary from one biome to another. - One of the aquatic biomes, the hydrothermal vents, mentioned previously in this chapter, is not dependent on sunlight but on bacteria, which utilize the chemistry of the hot volcanic vents; see if you can guess where these bacteria fit into the flow of energy in an ecosystem. Image Sources (1) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg. Public Domain. (2) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Serengeti_Lion_Running_saturated.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (3) Oliver Herold. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wild-meadow-country.jpg. CC-BY-SA 3.0. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atacamal.jpg. Public Domain. (5) Shane Anderson. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Santacruz_300.jpg. Public Domain – NOAA. (6) Thermos. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Panurus_biarmicus_flock.jpg. GNU-FDL. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kelp_forest_Channel_Islands.JPG. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kudzu_field_horz1.JPG. GNU-FDL. (9) http://commons.wikimedia.org/Image:Population_curve.svg. Public Domain. (10) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sonoran_Desert_Scottsdale_AZ_50351.JPG. CC-BY-SA 2.0 Germany. (11) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GreatBarrierReef-E0.JPG. Public Domain. (12) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg. Public Domain. (13) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Branta_canadensis1.jpg. Public Domain. (14) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Verhulst-Malthus.png. CC-BY-SA. (15) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Baja_California_Desert.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (16) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Konik.jpg. GNU-FDL. (17) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg. Public Domain. (18) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hummingbird_nest_with_two_chicks_in_Santa_Monica,_CA._Photo_taken_June_26,_2006.jpg. Public Domain. (19) Adrian Pingstone. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bristol_zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg. Public Domain. (20) Paul Keleher. http://www.flickr.com/photos/pkeleher/987516260/. CC-BY. (21) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Biosphere2main.jpg. GNU-FDL. (22) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ocellaris_clownfish.JPG. GNU-FDL. (23) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Monarch_Viceroy_Mimicry_Comparison.jpg. GNU-FDL. (24) An example of an aquatic marine biome, pack ice.. GNU-FDL. (25) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amazon_Manaus_forest.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. (26) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.5. www.ck12.org 858 Chapter 24 Ecosystem Dynamics 24.1 Lesson 24.1: Flow of Energy Lesson Objectives - Explain where all the energy in an ecosystem ultimately comes from. - Classify organisms on the basis of how they obtain energy (producers, consumers, and decomposers) and describe examples of each. - Be able to draw and interpret a food web. - Explain the flow of energy through an ecosystem using an energy pyramid. Check Your Understanding - What is photosynthesis? - What are some examples of organisms that can photosynthesize? - What is a community? Introduction Energy is defined as the ability to do work. In organisms, this work can involve not only physical work like walking or jumping, but also carrying out the essential chemical reactions of our bodies. Therefore, all organisms need a supply of energy to stay alive. Some organisms can capture the energy of the sun, while others obtain energy from the bodies of other organisms. Through predator-prey relationships, the energy of one organism is passed on to another. Therefore, energy is constantly flowing through a community. Understanding how this energy moves through the ecosystem is an important part of the study of ecology. Energy and Producers With just a few exceptions, all life on Earth depends on the sun’s energy for survival. The energy of the sun is first captured by producers (Figure 24.1), organisms that can make their own food. Many producers make their own food through the process of photosynthesis. Producers make or “produce” food for the rest of the ecosystem. Therefore the survival of every ecosystem is highly dependent on the stability of the producers. Without producers capturing the energy from the sun and turning it into “food,” an ecosystem could not exist. In addition, there are bacteria that use chemical processes to produce food, getting their energy from sources other than the sun, and these are also considered producers. There are many types of photosynthetic organisms that produce food for ecosystems. On land, plants are the dominant photosynthetic organisms. Algae are common producers in aquatic ecosystems. Single celled algae and tiny multicellular algae that float near the surface of water and that photosynthesize are called phytoplankton. Although producers might look quite different from one another, they are similar in that they make food containing complex organic compounds, such as fats or carbohydrates, from simple inorganic ingredients. Recall that the only required ingredients needed for photosynthesis are sunlight, carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$), and water ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$). From these simple inorganic building blocks, photosynthetic organisms can produce glucose ($\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6$) and other complex organic compounds. Consumers and Decomposers Many types of organisms are not producers and cannot make their own food from sunlight, air, and water. The animals that must consume other organisms to get food for energy are called consumers. The consumers can be placed into several groups. Herbivores are animals that eat photosynthetic organisms to obtain energy. For example, rabbits and deer are herbivores that eat plants. The caterpillar in Figure 24.2 is a herbivore. Animals that eat phytoplankton in aquatic environments are also herbivores. Carnivores feed on animals, either the herbivores or other carnivores. Snakes that eat mice are carnivores, and hawks that eat the snakes are also carnivores. Omnivores eat both producers and consumers. Most people are omnivores since they eat fruits, vegetables, and grains from plants and also meat and dairy products from animals. Dogs, bears, and raccoons are also omnivores. Decomposers (Figure 24.3) obtain nutrients and energy by breaking down dead organisms and animal wastes. Through this process, decomposers release nutrients, such as carbon and nitrogen, back into the ecosystem so that the producers can use them. Through this process these essential nutrients are recycled, an essential role for the survival of every ecosystem. Therefore, as with the producers, the stability of an ecosystem also depends on the actions of the decomposers. Examples of decomposers include mushrooms on a decaying log and bacteria in the soil. Decomposers are essential for the survival of every ecosystem. Imagine Figure 24.1: Producers include plants (a), algae (b), and diatoms, which are unicellular algae (c). (12) Figure 24.2: Examples of consumers are caterpillars (herbivores) and hawks (carnivore). (3) what would happen if there were no decomposers. Wastes and the remains of dead organisms would pile up and the nutrients within the waste and dead organisms would never be released back into the ecosystem! Food Chains and Food Webs Food chains (Figure 24.4) are a visual representation of the eating patterns in an ecosystem, depicting how food energy flows from one organism to another. Arrows are used to indicate the feeding relationship between the animals. For example, an arrow from the leaves to a grasshopper shows that the grasshopper eats the leaves, so energy and nutrients are moving from the leaves to the grasshopper. Next, a mouse might prey on the grasshopper, a snake may eat the mouse, and then a hawk might eat the snake. In an ocean ecosystem, one possible food chain might look like this: phytoplankton -> krill -> fish -> shark. The producers are always at the beginning of the food chain, followed by the herbivores, then the carnivores. In this example, phytoplankton are eaten by krill, which are tiny shrimp-like animals. The krill are in turn eaten by fish, which are then eaten by sharks. Each organism can eat and be eaten by many different other types of organisms, so simple food chains are rare in nature. There are also many different species of fish and sharks. Therefore, many food chains exist in each ecosystem. Since feeding relationships are so complicated, we can combine food chains together to create a more accurate depiction of the flow of energy within an ecosystem. A food web (Figure 24.5) shows the complex feeding relationships between many organisms in an ecosystem. If you expand our original example of a food chain, you might also include that deer also eat clover and foxes that also hunt chipmunks. A food web shows many more arrows but follows the same principle; the arrows depict the flow of energy (Figure 24.6). A complete food web may show hundreds of different feeding relationships. Energy Pyramids When an herbivore eats a plant, the energy that is stored in the plant tissues is used by the herbivore to power its own life processes and to build more body tissues. Only about 10% of the total energy from the plant gets stored in the herbivore’s body as extra body tissue. The rest of the energy is transformed by the herbivore through metabolic activity and released as heat. The next consumer on the food chain that eats the herbivore will only store about 10% of the total energy from the herbivore in its own body. This means the carnivore will store only about 1% of the total energy that was originally in the plant. In other words, only about 10% of energy of one step in a food chain is stored in the next step in the food chain. Every time energy is transferred from one organism to another, there is a net loss of energy. This loss of energy can be shown in an energy pyramid. An example of an energy pyramid Figure 24.3: Examples of decomposers are bacteria (a) and fungi (b). (1) Figure 24.4: Food chain. This figure shows, for example, that the snake gets its energy from the rat, and the rat gets its energy from the insect. (17) Figure 24.5: Food web in the Arctic Ocean. (16) is shown in Figure 6. Due to the energy loss in food chains, it takes many producers to support just a few carnivores in a community. For example, there are far fewer hawks than acorns in this food chain. Each step of the food chain reflected in the ecological pyramid is called a trophic level. Plants or other photosynthetic organisms are found on the first trophic level, at the base of the pyramid. The next level would be the herbivores, then the carnivores that eat the herbivores. The energy pyramid in Figure 24.7 shows only three levels of a food chain, from plants (producers) to hawks (carnivores). Because of the high rate of energy loss in food chains, there are usually only 4 or 5 levels in the chain or energy pyramid. Lesson Summary - Producers, which include photosynthetic organisms like plants and algae, can make their own food from simple inorganic compounds. - Consumers must obtain their nutrients and energy by eating other organisms, while decomposers break down animal remains and wastes to obtain energy. - Food chains and food webs are visual representations of feeding patterns in an ecosystem. - As energy is transferred along a food chain, energy is lost as heat. Review Questions 1. How do decomposers obtain energy? 2. What happens to 90% of the energy that passes from one step in the food chain to the next step? 3. For #’s 3 - 5, Analyze the following food chain: algae -> fish -> herons Figure 24.7: As illustrated by this ecological pyramid, it takes a lot of phytoplankton to support the carnivores of the oceans. (4) 4. What is the producer in the food chain? 5. What is the herbivore in the food chain? 6. What is the carnivore in the food chain? 7. In a food chain, does the prey or predator have a greater biomass? 8. In an ecological pyramid, which level would have the greatest biomass? 9. What is the term for the visual representation of complex feeding interactions in a community? 10. In a forest community, caterpillars eat leaves, and birds eat caterpillars. Draw the food chain. 11. What’s the term for a consumer that eats both plants and animals? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.eelsinc.org/id43.html - http://science-class.net/Ecology/energy_transfer.htm - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_pyramid - http://curriculum.calstatela.edu/courses/builders/lessons/less/biomes/calcpy.html - http://science-class.net/Ecology/energy_transfer.htm - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chain Vocabulary biomass The total dry weight of all the individuals of one type of organism. carnivore An organism that eats other animals. consumer An organism that must eat other organisms to obtain energy and nutrients. decomposer An organism that breaks down animal remains or wastes to gain energy and nutrients. ecological pyramid A visual representation of the energy content or biomass of various levels in a food chain. food chain A visual representation of the flow of energy from producers to consumers in a community. food web A visual representation of the complex eating relationships in a community; a cross-linking of food chains. herbivore A consumer of producers in a community; often organisms that eat plants. omnivore A consumer in a community that eat both producers and consumers; usually eaters of both plants and animals. producer An organism that can absorb the energy of the sun and convert it into food through the process of photosynthesis; i.e. plants and algae. trophic level A level of the food chain reflected in the ecological pyramid. Points to Consider - Animals are carbon-based organisms. When animals decompose, what happens to the carbon? Discuss this with your class. - We need nitrogen to make our DNA. Where does it come from? Where does it go? What would happen to nitrogen released from decaying organisms? - Water is essential for photosynthesis. Water moves through both the living and non-living parts of an ecosystem. How does water move through the living parts of an ecosystem? 24.2 Lesson 24.2: Cycles of Matter Lesson Objectives - Describe the key features of the water cycle. - Describe the key features of the nitrogen cycle. - Describe the key features of the carbon cycle. Check Your Understanding - What types of organisms break down animal remains and wastes to release nutrients? - What are the main chemical elements that are essential for life? Introduction What happens to all the plants and animals that die? Do they pile up and litter ecosystems with dead remains? Or do they decompose? The role of decomposers in the environment often goes unnoticed, but these organisms are absolutely crucial for every ecosystem. Imagine if the decomposers were somehow taken out of an ecosystem. The nutrients, such as carbon and nitrogen, in animal wastes and dead organisms would remain locked in these forms if there was nothing to decompose them. Overtime, almost all the nutrients in the ecosystem would be used up. However, these elements are essential to build the organic compounds necessary for life and so they must be recycled. The decomposition of animal wastes and dead organisms allows these nutrients to be recycled and re-enter the ecosystem, where they can be used by living organisms. The pathways by which chemicals are recycled in an ecosystem are biogeochemical cycles. This recycling process involves both the living parts (biotic) of the ecosystem and the non-living (abiotic) parts of the ecosystem, such as the atmosphere, soil, or water. The same chemicals are constantly being passed through living organisms to non-living matter and back again, over and over. Through biogeochemical cycles, inorganic nutrients that are essential for life are continually recycled and made available again to living organisms. These recycled nutrients contain the elements carbon and nitrogen. Water is obviously an extremely important aspect of every ecosystem. Life could not exist without water. Water is also cycled through the biotic and abiotic factors of an ecosystem. The Water Cycle Since many organisms contain a large amount of water in their bodies, and some even live in water, the water cycle is essential to life on earth. Water is continually moving between living things and non-living things such as clouds, rivers, or oceans. The water cycle is also important because water is a solvent, so it plays an important role in dissolving minerals and gases and carrying them to the ocean. Therefore, the composition of the oceans is also dependent on the water cycle (Figure 24.8). The water cycle does not have a real starting or ending point, since it is an endless circular process; however, we will start with the oceans. Water evaporates from the surface of the oceans, leaving behind salts. As the water vapor rises, it collects and is stored in clouds. As water cools in the clouds, it condenses into precipitation such as rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc. The precipitation allows the water to return again to the Earth's surface. On land, the water can sink into the ground to become part of our underground water reserves, also known as groundwater. Much of this underground water is stored in aquifers, which are porous layers of rock that can hold water. Most precipitation that occurs over land, however, is not absorbed by the soil and is called runoff. This runoff collects in streams and rivers and moves back into the ocean. Water also moves through the living organisms in the ecosystem. Plants are especially significant to the water cycle because they soak up large amounts of water through their roots. The water then moves up the plant and evaporates from the leaves in a process called transpiration. The process of transpiration, like evaporation, returns water back into the atmosphere. The Carbon Cycle Carbon is one of the most abundant elements found in living organisms. Carbon chains form the backbones of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Carbon is constantly cycling between living things and the atmosphere (Figure 24.9). In the atmosphere, water is in the form of carbon dioxide. Producers capture this carbon dioxide and convert it to food through the process of photosynthesis (discussed in the chapter titled Cells and Their Structures). As consumers eat producers or other consumers, they gain the carbon from that organism. Some of this carbon is lost, however, through the process of cellular respiration. When our cells burn food for energy, carbon dioxide is released. We exhale this carbon dioxide and it returns to the atmosphere. Also, carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere as an organism dies and decomposes. Millions of years ago there was so much organic matter that it could not be completely decomposed before it was buried. As this buried organic matter was under pressure for millions of years, it formed into fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. When humans excavate and use fossil fuels, we have an impact on the carbon cycle (Figure 24.10). The burning of fossil fuels releases more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than is used by photosynthesis. Therefore the net amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is rising. Carbon dioxide is known as a greenhouse gas since it lets in light energy but does not let heat escape, much like the panes of a greenhouse. The increase of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere is contributing to a global rise in Earth’s temperature, known as global warming (see the Environmental Problems chapter for additional information). Figure 24.9: The carbon cycle. (10) Figure 24.10: Human activities like burning gasoline in cars are contributing to a global change in our climate. (13) The Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is also one of the most abundant elements in living things. It’s important for constructing both proteins and nucleic acids like DNA. The great irony of the nitrogen cycle is that nitrogen gas (N\textsubscript{2}) comprises the majority of the air we breathe, and yet is not accessible to us or plants in the gaseous form (Figure 24.11). In fact, plants often suffer from nitrogen deficiency even through they are surrounded by plenty of nitrogen gas! In order for plants to make use of nitrogen, it must be converted into compounds with other elements. This can be accomplished several different ways. First, Nitrogen gas can be converted to nitrate (NO\textsubscript{3}^−) through lightning strikes. Alternatively, special nitrogen-fixing bacteria can also convert nitrogen gas into useful forms, a process called \textbf{nitrogen fixation}. These bacteria live in nodules on the roots of plants in the pea family. In aquatic environments, bacteria in the water can fix nitrogen gas into ammonium (NH\textsubscript{4}^+), which can be used by aquatic plants as a source of nitrogen. Nitrogen also is released to the environment through decaying organisms or decaying wastes. These wastes often take on the form of ammonium. Ammonium in the soil can be converted to nitrate by a two-step process completed by two different types of bacteria. In the form of nitrate, it can be used by plants through a process called \textbf{assimilation}. The conversion of nitrate back into nitrogen gas happens through the work of denitrifying bacteria. These bacteria often live in swamps and lakes. The release of nitrogen gas would equal the amount of nitrogen gas taken into living things if human activities did not influence the nitrogen cycle. These human activities include the burning of fossil fuels, which releases nitrogen oxide gasses into the atmosphere, leading to problems like acid rain. Lesson Summary - During the water cycle, water enters the atmosphere through evaporation, and water returns to land through precipitation. - During the carbon cycle, animals add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere through respiration and plants remove carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. - During the nitrogen cycle, gaseous nitrogen is converted into water-soluble forms that can be used by plants, while denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate back to gaseous nitrogen. Review Questions 1. What human activities have thrown the carbon cycle off balance? 2. What biological process “fixes” carbon, removing it from the atmosphere? 3. What is the significance of nitrogen-fixing bacteria? 4. What is the term for the remains of organisms that are burned for energy? Figure 24.11: The nitrogen cycle includes assimilation, or uptake of nitrogen by plants; nitrogen-fixing bacteria that make the nitrogen available to plants in the form of nitrates; decomposers that convert nitrogen in dead organisms into ammonium; nitrifying bacteria that convert ammonium to nitrates; and denitrifying bacteria that convert help convert nitrates to gaseous nitrogen. (14) 5. How does water in the atmosphere return to the ground? 6. What biological process releases carbon back into the atmosphere? 7. What are some examples of fossil fuels? 8. Why is carbon dioxide referred to as a “greenhouse gas”? 9. What must happen for plants to use nitrogen in the atmosphere? 10. What is the significance of denitrifying bacteria? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/CarbonCycle - http://www.cosee-ne.net/resources/documents/OceanLiteracyWorkshopIReport.pdf - http://www.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biokb/BioBookcycles.html - http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/CarbonCycle - http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/watercycle/index.html - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary assimilation The uptake of nitrogen by plants. aquifers Layers of porous rock that can hold water underground. biogeochemical cycles The pathway of elements like carbon and nitrogen through the non-living and living parts of the ecosystem. denitrifying bacteria Bacteria that convert nitrates or nitrites back to nitrogen in the gaseous form. fossil fuels Fuels made from partially decomposed organic matter that has been compressed underground for millions of years; examples are: coal, natural gas, and oil. global warming Global increase in the Earth’s temperature due to human activities that release greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. groundwater Underground water reserves. nitrogen fixation Process by which gaseous nitrogen is converted in chemical forms that can be used by plants. precipitation Water that falls to the earth in the form of rain, snow, sleet, hail. runoff Water that is not absorbed by the soil that eventually returns to streams and rivers. transpiration Process by which water leaves a plant by evaporating from the leaves. Points to Consider - Do ecosystems change over time? Why or why not? - Can you think of an example of an ecosystem changing over time? 24.3 Lesson 24.3: Ecosystem Change Lesson Objectives - Explain the process of ecological succession. - Distinguish between secondary and primary succession. - Describe a climax community. Check Your Understanding - What is a biome? - What is the most abundant element in living things? - How do humans obtain nitrogen? Introduction When you see an established forest, it’s easy to picture that the forest has been there forever. This is not the case, however. Ecosystems are dynamic and change over time. That forest may lie on land that was once covered by an ocean millions of years ago. Or the forest may have been cut down at one point for agricultural use, then abandoned and allowed to re-establish itself over time. During the ice ages, glaciers once covered areas that are tropical rainforests today. Due to both natural forces and the influence of humans, ecosystems are constantly changing. Primary Succession If conditions of an ecosystem change drastically due to natural forces or human impact, the community of plants and animals that live there may be destroyed or be forced to relocate. Over time a new community will be established, and then that community may be replaced by another. You may see several changes in the plant and animal composition of the community over time. Ecological succession is the continual replacement of one community by another that occurs after some disturbance of the ecosystem. But ecological succession must also occur on new land, in an area that has not supported life before. Primary succession (Figure 24.12) is the type of ecological succession that happens in barren lands, such as those created by lava flow or retreating glaciers. Since the land that results from these processes is often completely new land, part of the primary succession process is soil formation. Primary succession always starts with the establishment of a pioneer species, a species that first inhabits the disturbed area. In the case of barren rock, the pioneer species is lichen, a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an algae or cyanobacteria. The fungus is able to absorb minerals and nutrients from the rock, and the algae or cyanobacteria is provides carbohydrates from photosynthesis. Since the lichen can photosynthesize and do not rely on soil, lichen can live in desolate environments. As the lichen grows, it breaks down the rock, which is the first step of soil formation. ![Lichen](image) Figure 24.12: Primary succession on a rock often begins with the growth of lichen. The pioneer species is soon replaced by a series of other communities. Mosses and grasses will be able to grow in the newly created soil. During early succession, plant species like grasses that grow and reproduce quickly will be favored and take over the landscape. Overtime, these plants improve the soil further and a few shrubs can begin to grow. Gradually the shrubs are then replaced by trees. Since trees are more successful competing for resources than shrubs and grasses, a forest will be the end result of primary succession if the climate that supports that type of biome. Secondary Succession Sometimes ecological succession occurs in places where there is already soil, and that has previously supported life. Secondary succession is the type of ecological succession that happens after something destroys the community, but yet soil remains in the area. One event that can lead to secondary succession is the abandonment of a field that was once used for agriculture (Figure 24.13). In this case, the pioneer species would be the grasses that first appear. Gradually the field would return to the natural state and look like it used to look before the influence of man. Another event that results in secondary succession is a forest fire (Figure 24.14 and 24.15). Although the area will look devastated at first, the seeds of new plants are underground and waiting for their chance to grow. Just like primary succession, the burned forest will go through a series of communities, starting with small grasses, then shrubs, and finally mature trees 24.16. An orderly process of succession will always occur, whether a community is destroyed by man or the forces of nature. ![Image](image_url) Figure 24.13: This land was once used for growing crops. Now that the field is abandoned, secondary succession has begun. Pioneer species, such as the grasses, first appear and then shrubs begin to grow (8) Climax Communities Climax communities (Figure 24.17) are the end result of ecological succession. In contrast with the series of changes that occur during ecological succession, the climax community is stable. The climax community will remain in equilibrium unless a disaster strikes and succession would have to start all over again. Figure 24.14: The early stages of succession after a forest fire are shown in these pictures. Taken four years after the fire, they show the charred remains of the original forest as well as the small grasses and shrubs that are beginning to grow back in the area. (2) Figure 24.15: The early stages of succession after a forest fire are shown in these pictures. Taken four years after the fire, they show the charred remains of the original forest as well as the small grasses and shrubs that are beginning to grow back in the area. (11) Figure 24.16: In 1988, a forest fire destroyed much of Yellowstone National Park. This photo, taken 17 years later, shows that the forest is gradually growing back. Small grasses first grew here and are now being replaced by small trees and shrubs. This is an example of the later stages of secondary succession. (5) Depending on the climate of the area, the composition of the climax community is different. In the tropics, the climax community might be a tropical rainforest. At the other extreme, in the northern parts of the world, the climax community might be a coniferous forest. The natural state of the biome defines the climax community. Lesson Summary - Ecological succession is the continual replacement of one community by another that occurs after some disturbance of the ecosystem. - Primary succession occurs in disturbed areas that have no or little soil, while secondary succession occurs in disturbed areas that previously supported life. - Climax communities are the end product of succession, when the ecosystem is again stable. Review Questions 1. What is the term for a continuous replacement of one community by another following a disturbance? 2. What type of succession occurs in areas where there is no soil? 3. What type of succession occurs in areas where soil is present? 4. What is the term for the final stage of succession, when the community becomes stable? Figure 24.17: These ancient redwood trees are part of a climax community, the end result of a series of community replacements during succession. (6) 5. Imagine a forest fire destroyed a forest. The forest will slowly re-establish itself, which is an example of what kind of succession? 6. A glacier slowly melts, leaving bare rock behind it. As life starts establishing itself on the newly available land, what kind of succession is this? 7. Is the climax community look the same in all parts of the world? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - http://www.scribd.com/doc/529104/Ecological-Succession - http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/succession.html - http://ecolibrary.cs.brandeis.edu/general_search.php?id=CS_Succession@Secondary%20succession&page=links - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Vocabulary climax communities A stable community that is the end product of succession. ecological succession The continual replacement of one community by another that occurs after some disturbance of the ecosystem. primary succession Ecological succession that occurs in disturbed areas that have no or little soil, i.e. after a glacier retreats. pioneer species The species that first inhabit a disturbed area. secondary succession Ecological succession that occurs in disturbed areas that have soil to begin with, i.e. after a forest fire. Points to Consider - Think about what would happen if dangerous toxins were illegally dumped near a river? - Discuss why it is important to seek alternative energy sources. - Do we have an infinite supply of fossil fuels, or can we run out some day? Image Sources (1) http://www.flickr.com/photos/takomabibelot/265503235/. CC-BY. (2) http://ecolibrary.cs.brandeis.edu/display.php?id=Succession_four_years_after_forest_fire_2_DP421. CC-BY. (3) http://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/241228030/. CC-BY. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Naringspyramid.jpg. Public Domain. (5) http://www.flickr.com/photos/joebackward/124849565/. CC-BY. (6) http://www.flickr.com/photos/humboldthead/420575250/. CC-BY. (7) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Lichen_on_rock.jpg. GNU-FD. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Secondary_succeesion_cm02.jpg. GNU-FD. (9) Food web in the Arctic Ocean.. (10) The carbon cycle.. Public Domain. (11) http://ecolibrary.cs.brandeis.edu/display.php?id=Succession_four_years_after_forest_fire_3_DP422. CC-BY. (12) http://www.flickr.com/photos/qorize/208015347/ http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Diatoms_PhC_DIC.jpg. CC-BY, CC-BY-SA. (13) http://www.flickr.com/photos/demibrooke/2470222506/. CC-BY. (14) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Nitrogen_Cycle.png. Public Domain. (15) The water cycle.. Public Domain. (16) Food web in the Arctic Ocean.. (17) CK-12 Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:FoodChain.svg. GNU-FD. www.ck12.org 884 Chapter 25 Environmental Problems 25.1 Lesson 25.1: Air Pollution Lesson Objectives - Discuss the types of outdoor pollution and what causes them. - Describe the effects of outdoor pollution on the environment. - Discuss where indoor air pollutants come from and what they are. - Describe the health hazards of both indoor and outdoor pollutants. - Discuss how you can protect yourself from air pollution. Check your Understanding - Describe the five layers of the Earth’s atmosphere (See Figure 25.1). 1. Exosphere: from 300-600 mi up to 6,000 mi 2. Thermosphere: from 265,000 – 285,000 ft to 400+ mi 3. Mesosphere: from about 160,000 ft to the range of 265,000 – 285,000 ft 4. Stratosphere: from 23,000 – 60,000 ft range to about 160,000 ft; contains most of the ozone layer (with relatively high [a few parts per million] concentrations of ozone – the ozone layer is mainly located from approximately 50,000 to 115,000 ft above Earth’s surface) 5. Troposphere: from the Earth’s surface to between 23,000 ft at the poles and 60,000 ft at the equator - Describe the chemical composition of the atmosphere. - Explain the significance of the atmosphere. Figure 25.1: The layers of the atmosphere with altitude. (2) Introduction Air is all around us and is everywhere and its mix of gases is essential for life. Despite the atmosphere’s vastness, human activities, like the emission of chemical substances, particulate matter (smoke and dust), and even biological materials, cause air pollution. This pollution affects entire ecosystems, worldwide. Pollution is also a big problem indoors. Pollution, both the outdoor and indoor varieties, cause many health problems as well as deaths. In spite of all the dangers to human health from pollutants, there are ways for you to protect yourself. Pollution of Outdoor Air Air is so easy to take for granted. In its unpolluted state, it cannot be seen, smelled, tasted, felt, or heard, except when it blows or during cloud formation. Yet its gases are very important for life: nitrogen helps build proteins and nucleic acids, oxygen helps to power life, carbon dioxide provides the carbon to build bodies, and water has many unique properties which most forms of life depend on. Outdoor air pollution consists of either chemical, physical (e.g. particulate matter), or biological agents that modify the natural characteristics of the atmosphere and cause unwanted changes to the environment and to human health. Primary pollutants are added directly to the atmosphere by such processes as fires (Figure 25.2) or combustion of fossil fuels (Figure 25.3), such as oil, coal, or natural gas (Figure 25.4). Secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants interact with sunlight, air, or each other. Both types are equally damaging. ![Wildfires](image) Figure 25.2: Wildfires, either natural- or human-caused, release particulate matter into the air, one of the many causes of air pollution. (20) Most air pollutants can be traced to the burning of fossil fuels. These include the burning Figure 25.3: A major source of air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels from factories, power plants, and motor vehicles. Photo was taken prior to installation of emission controls equipment for removal of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter. (13) Figure 25.4: The majority of air pollutants can be found in the burning of fossil fuels for heat, electricity, industry, waste disposal, and transportation, the latter seen here on a busy highway. (33) of fuels in power plants to generate electricity, in factories to make machinery run, in stoves and furnaces for heating, in various modes of transportation, and in waste facilities to burn waste. Even before the use of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution, wood was burned for heat and cooking in fireplaces and campfires, and vegetation was burned for agriculture and land management. In addition to the burning of fossil fuels, other sources of human-caused (anthropogenic) air pollution are agriculture, such as cattle ranching, fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, and erosion; industry, such as production of solvents, plastics, refrigerants, and aerosols; nuclear power and defense; landfills; mining; and biological warfare. Environmental Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution Many outdoor air pollutants may impair the health of plants and animals (including humans). There are many specific problems caused by the burning of fossil fuels. For example, sulfur oxides from coal-fired power plants and nitrogen oxides from motor vehicle exhaust cause acid rain (Figure 25.5) (precipitation or deposits with a low pH). This has adverse effects on forests, freshwater habitats, and soils, killing insects and aquatic life. ![Forest in the Jizera Mountains](image) Figure 25.5: A forest in the Jizera Mountains of the Czech Republic shows effects attributed to acid rain. At higher altitudes, effects of acid rain on soils combines with increased precipitation and fog to directly affect foliage. (9) Global warming (an increase in the earth’s temperature) is thought to be caused mostly by the increase of greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons) via the greenhouse effect (the atmosphere’s trapping of heat energy radiated from the Earth’s surface). Water vapor causes about 36-70% of the greenhouse effect and carbon dioxide causes 9-26%. Fossil fuel burning has produced approximately three-quarters of the carbon dioxide from human activity over the past 20 years, while most of the rest is due to land-use change, particularly deforestation (Figure 25.6). Methane causes 4-9% of the greenhouse effect and ozone causes 3-7%. Some other naturally occurring gases contribute very little to the greenhouse effect; one of these, nitrous oxide, is increasing in concentration due to an increase in such human activities as agriculture. ![Deforestation](image) Figure 25.6: Deforestation, shown here as a result of burning for agriculture in southern Mexico, has produced significant carbon dioxide production over the past 20 years. (38) The effect of global warming is to increase the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and oceans. This increase in global temperature will cause the sea level to rise and is expected to cause an increase in intensity of extreme weather events and to change the amount and pattern of precipitation. Other effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, trade routes, glacier retreat, and species extinctions. Other environmental problems caused by human-caused air pollution include global dimming (a reduction in the amount of radiation reaching the Earth’s surface) and ozone depletion (the latter being two related declines in stratospheric ozone). Particulate matter from the burning of wood and coal and aerosols (airborne solid particles or liquid droplets) cause global dimming, by absorbing solar energy and reflecting sunlight back into space. Environmental effects of global dimming include less photosynthesis, resulting in less food for all trophic levels; less energy to drive evaporation and the hydrologic cycle; and cooler ocean temperatures, which may lead to changes in rainfall and drought. Ozone is both a benefit and detriment. As a component of the upper atmosphere, it has shielded all life from as much as 97-99% of the lethal solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. However, as a ground-level product of the interaction between pollutants and sunlight, ozone itself is considered a pollutant which is toxic to animals’ respiratory systems. Ozone depletion consists of both losses in the total amount of ozone in the Earth’s stratosphere – about 4% per year from 1980 to 2001, and the much larger loss, the ozone hole, a seasonal decline over Antarctica. A secondary effect of ozone depletion is a decline in stratospheric temperatures. The pollutants that are responsible for ozone depletion are CFCs, from the use of aerosol sprays, refrigerants (Freon), cleaning solvents, and fire extinguishers. Ozone depletion and the resulting increase in levels of UV radiation reaching Earth could result in the reduced abundance of UV-sensitive nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which cause a disruption of nitrogen cycles, and a loss of plankton, causing a disruption of ocean food chains. Pollution of Indoor Air Lack of indoor ventilation and circulation concentrates air pollution in places where people often spend a majority of their time, and allows them to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature. Some of these indoor pollutants include radon gas, released from the Earth in certain locations and then trapped inside buildings; formaldehyde gas, emitted from building materials, such as carpeting and plywood; volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are given off by paint and solvents as they dry; and lead paint, which can degenerate into dust. Other air pollutants are caused by the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can produce significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air. Use of pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors, without proper ventilation, can be another source of indoor pollution. Carbon monoxide (CO) is often released by faulty vents and chimneys, poorly adjusted pilot lights, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Flaws (non-functioning built-in traps) in domestic plumbing can result in emission of sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide. Dry cleaning fluids, such as tetrachloroethylene, can be emitted from clothing, days after dry cleaning. The extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities (Figure 25.7). Biological sources of air pollution, such as gases and airborne particulates, are also found indoors. These are produced from pet dander; dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair; dust mites (which produce enzymes and micrometer-sized fecal droppings) from bedding, carpeting, and furniture; methane from the inhabitants; mold (which generates mycotoxins and spores) from walls, ceilings, and other structures; air conditioning systems, can incubate certain bacteria and mold; and pollen, dust, and mold from houseplants, soil, and surrounding gardens. Figure 25.7: The extensive use of asbestos in industrial (as pictured here, asbestos-covered pipes in an oil-refining plant) and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. (12) Health Hazards of Air Pollution The World Health Organization (WHO) states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly related to air pollution, and 1.5 million of these deaths caused by indoor sources. One study has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution caused by motor vehicles. Worldwide, there are more deaths linked to air pollution per year than to car accidents. Research by WHO also shows that the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles exists in countries with high poverty and population rates, such as Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. Direct causes of air-pollution related deaths include aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that a set of proposed changes in technology of diesel engines could result each year in the U.S. in 12,000 fewer mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer visits to the emergency room by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related admissions to the hospital. Health effects caused by air pollution may range from subtle physiological and biochemical changes to difficulties in breathing, wheezing, coughing, and aggravation of existing cardiac and respiratory conditions. These conditions can result in increased use of medications, visits to the doctor or emergency room, more admissions to the hospital, and premature deaths. Individual reactions to air pollution depends on the type of pollutant, the degree of exposure, and the individual’s medical condition. Certain respiratory conditions can be made worse in people who live closer or in large metropolitan areas. In one study, it was found that such patients had higher levels of pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in the larger cities. In patients with the disease of cystic fibrosis, patients already born with decreased lung function, had worse lung function as a result of such pollutants as smoke emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke, and improper use of indoor heating devices. Some studies have shown that patients in urban areas suffer lower levels of lung function and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Because children are outdoors more they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution. Children living within cities with high exposure to air pollutants are at risk to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections. In addition to respiratory and heart-related ailments, air pollution can also cause an increase in cancer, eye problems, and other conditions. For example, use of certain agricultural herbicides and pesticides, such as DDT (an organic pesticide) and PCBs (poly-chlorinated biphenyls), use of some industrial solvents and plastics, radioactive waste, use of some indoor materials like asbestos, and ozone depletion can all cause cancer. Smog, caused by coal burning, and ground-level ozone produced by motor vehicle exhaust can cause eye irritation, as well as respiratory problems, and ozone depletion can cause an increased incidence of cataracts. Carbon monoxide from motor vehicle exhaust and from faulty vents and chimneys and charcoal burning indoors can cause poisoning and fatalities. Mercury released from coal-fired power plants and from medical waste can cause neurotoxicity (poisoning to nerve tissue). Protecting Yourself from Air Pollution After reading the above sections, you may be confused as to where the air is healthier, outdoors or indoors? While it is not always possible to know what exact steps you should take under any situation, common sense often plays a role. For example, if you hear in the news that the outdoor air quality is particularly bad, then it might make sense to either wear masks outdoors or to stay indoors as much as possible at such times, especially if you already have such respiratory conditions as asthma, for example. Because you have more control over your indoor air quality than the outdoor air quality, there are some simple steps you can take indoors to make sure the air quality is less polluted. Perhaps you could review the section, “Pollution of Indoor Air” above, and come up with some ideas for how you could reduce indoor air pollution. For example, make sure your house is well ventilated and there is circulation of air. Try to avoid use of toxic substances in the home; always read labels to see what warnings about toxic ingredients are listed. If you are not sure about a particular product, use either outdoors or in a well-ventilated room and avoid direct inhalation. Use of medical supply masks is also helpful to protect yourself further. Make sure that vents, chimneys, and vents are working properly and never burn charcoal indoors. Carbon monoxide detectors can be placed in the home, if carbon monoxide emission is of concern. In addition, keeping your home as clean as possible from pet dander, dust, dist mites, and mold, and making sure air conditioning systems are working properly can minimize effects on asthma and other respiratory problems. Are there any other ways you can think of to protect yourself from air pollution? Lesson Summary - Outdoor air pollution consists of either chemical, physical, or biological agents that modify the natural characteristics of the atmosphere and cause unwanted changes to the environment and to human health. - There are two kinds of pollutants: primary and secondary pollutants. - There are many sources of human-caused air pollution, the most common being the burning of fossil fuels. - Outdoor air pollutants cause many environmental effects, among them global warming, global dimming, and ozone depletion. - Indoor air pollutants are either chemical or biological in nature. - Both outdoor and indoor pollutants cause many health problems, ranging from respiratory and cardiac to cancer, eye problems, and poisoning. - While it is not always possible to protect yourself from poor air quality outdoors, there are a number of measures you can take to protect yourself from poor indoor air quality. Review Questions 1. Define outdoor air pollution. 2. Most air pollutants can be traced to the burning of fossil fuels. What were the sources of such pollutants before the Industrial Revolution? 3. Why does deforestation contribute to an increase in global warming? 4. Explain why one of the environmental effects of global dimming may result in less food at all trophic levels. 5. Name two environmental effects of ozone depletion. 6. There is no direct evidence linking ozone depletion to a higher incidence of skin cancer in human beings. Give an explanation for this. Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition, Random House, New York, 1998. - [http://www.epa.gov/region5/students/air.htm](http://www.epa.gov/region5/students/air.htm) - [http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/education/site_students/](http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/education/site_students/) - [http://www.koshlandscience.org/exhibitgcc/index.jsp](http://www.koshlandscience.org/exhibitgcc/index.jsp) Vocabulary acid rain Precipitation or deposits with a low (acidic) pH. aerosols Airborne solid particles or liquid droplets. air The mixture of gases present in the atmosphere. anthropogenic Human-based causes. atmosphere A layer of gases that surrounds the planet; composed of five layers. global dimming A reduction in the amount of radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. global warming The recent increase in the Earth’s temperature. greenhouse effect The atmosphere’s trapping of heat energy radiated from the Earth’s surface. greenhouse gases The cause of global warming by certain gases via the greenhouse effect. outdoor air pollution Chemical, physical, or biological agents that modify the natural characteristics of the atmosphere and cause unwanted changes to the environment and to human health. ozone depletion Reduction in the stratospheric concentration of ozone. ozone hole A seasonal decline of ozone over Antarctica. primary pollutants Substances released directly into the atmosphere by processes such as fire or combustion of fossil fuels. secondary pollutants Substances formed when primary pollutants interact with sunlight, air, or each other. Points to Consider - One of the effects of outdoor air pollution is to cause global warming. Global warming, in turn, has an effect on both land and sea. Think about how the effects of global warming on the amount and pattern of precipitation will have an effect on water pollution. - Environmental effects of global dimming include less energy to drive evaporation and the hydrologic cycle, and cooler ocean temperatures, which may lead to changes in rainfall and drought. Will such changes affect water pollution? - Some outdoor air pollutants have a direct effect on aquatic habitats. For example, acid rain can adversely affect freshwater habitats. 25.2 Lesson 25.2: Water Pollution and Waste Lesson Objectives - Describe water pollution sources. - Explain how water pollution affects living organisms. - Discuss how to prevent water pollution. - Discuss ways you can save water. Check your Understanding Water pollution obviously has to do with water. - What are water resources? - What is the demand for water? - What are the sources of fresh water? Answers - Surface water is water found in rivers, lakes, or freshwater wetlands. It is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to evaporation, discharge to the oceans, and sub-surface (groundwater) seepage. - Groundwater is the water flowing within aquifers (a geological formation that contains or conducts groundwater, especially for supplying water for wells, etc.). The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water and the natural outputs are to springs and seepage to bodies of water. - Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (usually sea water) is converted to fresh water. Only a very small amount of total water use is supplied by desalination. Frozen water found in icebergs has not been found to be a reliable water source. Glacier runoff is a source for surface water. Introduction While water may seem limitless and everywhere – after all, you can turn your faucet and out it comes, without appearing to dry up – in fact, in the United States it is a limited resource, and in many parts of the world, even scarce. Add to this the necessity of having water without pollution and you can see that unpolluted water is even harder to find (Figure 25.8). Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies by contaminants, mostly anthropogenic, and causing a harmful effect on living organisms. As you explore in this lesson how water pollution affects living things, you will see the urgency in preventing water pollution and discover ways to save water. Perhaps you will be inspired to think of how your household, community, and even world can be a model to others to not take clean water for granted! Sources of Water Pollution Although natural phenomena such as storms, algal blooms, volcanoes, and earthquakes can cause major changes in water quality, human-caused contaminants have a much greater impact on the quality of the water supply. Water is considered polluted either when it does not support a human use (like clean drinking water) or undergoes a major change in its ability to support the ecological communities it serves. The primary sources of water pollution can be grouped into two categories, depending on the point of origin: A. Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway or water body through a single site. Examples of this include discharge (also called effluent) of either untreated sewage or wastewater from a sewage treatment plant, industrial effluent, leaking underground tanks, or any other discrete sources of nutrients, toxins, or waste. B. Nonpoint source pollution refers to contamination that does not originate from a single point source, but is often a cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants (such as nutrients, toxins, or wastes) gathered from a large area. Examples of this include runoff in rainwater of soil, fertilizers (nutrients) or pesticides from an agricultural field, soil from forested areas that have been logged, toxins or waste from construction or mining sites, and even fertilizers or pesticides from your own backyard! Specific contaminants causing water pollution include a wide variety of chemicals, and pathogens (disease-causing substances). While many of the chemicals and substances that Water pollution can cause harmful effects to ecology and human health. (1) are regulated may be occurring naturally (iron, manganese, etc.) it is often the concentration of the substance that determines what is a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. In addition to toxic substances and disease-causing ones, alteration of water’s physical chemistry, including acidity, electrical conductivity, and temperature, can also have an effect. Effects of Water Pollution on Living Things Water pollutants can have an effect on both the ecology of aquatic ecosystems as well as on human health. Let’s examine several types of pollution problems and how they affect both the ecology and human health. Pollution Problem: Eutrophication Definition: An increase in chemical nutrients, specifically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. Causes: Frequently a result of nutrient pollution such as the release of sewage effluent and run-off from lawn fertilizers into natural waters, such as rivers or coastal waters. Effect on Ecology: Excessive growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton (or algal bloom) and decay, and a lack of oxygen, the latter causing severe reductions in water quality, fish, and shellfish. Effect on Human Health and Well-Being: - Decreases the resource value of rivers, lakes, and estuaries to adversely affect recreation, fishing, hunting, and aesthetic enjoyment. - If nitrogen is leached into groundwater, drinking water can be affected because nitrogen concentrations are not filtered out. - Biotoxins created during algal blooms are taken up by shellfish, such as mussels or oysters; if humans eat these shellfish, then shellfish poisoning can occur and you can become extremely sick, including paralysis and other neurological conditions. Pollution Problem: Ocean Acidification Definition: A process whereby the oceans’ uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere causes an ongoing decrease in pH of the oceans (see “Points to Consider,” Lesson 25.1: Air Pollution, showing a possible link of air pollutants to water pollution). Causes: Human actions such as land-use changes and the combustion of fossil fuels can lead to an increase in carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, some of which is then absorbed by the oceans. Effect on Ecology: Decrease in pH primarily affects oceanic calcifying organisms, such as corals and shellfish; may also directly affect reproduction or other physiology of marine organisms or indirectly cause negative impacts through their food resources. Effect on Human Health and Well-Being: No likely effects. Pollution Problem: Transformation of Chemicals Definition: Transformation of many chemicals, including chlorinated hydrocarbons (carcinogens), especially over long periods of time in groundwater. Causes: Chemicals are used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing and find their way into the groundwater or other waterways. Effect on Ecology: As they undergo change in groundwater, can lead to new hazardous chemicals. Effect on Human Health and Well-Being: Such contaminated groundwater can poison drinking water and lead to various human health problems, including cancer. Pollution Problem: Aquatic Debris Definition: Aquatic debris (or trash) in fresh and saltwater waterways. Causes: Shipping accidents, landfill erosion, or dumping of trash. Effect on Ecology: Aquatic wildlife swallowing plastic bags, strangulation by plastic six-pack rings, entanglement of wildlife in nets (Figure 25.11). Effect on Human Health and Well-Being: Adversely affects recreation and aesthetic enjoyment. Let’s close this section and look at a few other effects of water pollution on human health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), diarrheal disease is responsible for the deaths of 1.8 million people every year. It was estimated that 88% of that burden is attributed to unsafe water supply, sanitation, and hygiene, and is mostly concentrated in the children of developing countries. Such waterborne diseases can be caused by protozoa, viruses, bacteria, and intestinal parasites. Protozoal infections can be caused by sewage, non-treated drinking water, animal manure, poor disinfection, and groundwater contamination; some viruses and bacteria are water-borne and can be found in drinking water, sewage, contaminated seafood, or unsanitary recreational water; and parasitic infections are usually caused by contaminated drinking water. Figure 25.9: Lake Valencia, Venezuela, showing vivid green algal blooms, resulting from continued influx of untreated wastewater from surrounding urban, agricultural, and industrial land uses. This contributes to ongoing eutrophication, contamination, and salinization of the lake. This pollution impacts the lake’s use as a reservoir for the surrounding urban centers and limits opportunities for tourism and recreational uses as well. (10) Figure 25.10: Marine debris can adversely impact all sorts of aquatic life. Pictured here is a marine turtle entangled in a net. (31) Figure 25.11: Intercepting nonpoint pollution between the source and waterway has been found to be successful. Pictured here, a bioretention cell, or rain garden, in the U.S., is designed to treat polluted storm water runoff from an adjacent parking lot. (4) Preventing Water Pollution In the U.S., concern over water pollution resulted in the enactment of state anti-pollution laws in the latter half of the 1800s, and federal legislation in 1899, which prohibited the disposal of any refuse matter into the nation’s navigable rivers, lakes, streams, and other bodies of water, unless a person first had a permit. In 1948, the Water Pollution Control Act was passed and gave authority to the Surgeon General to reduce water pollution. Growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollutants led to enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, later amended in 1977, to become commonly known as the Clean Water Act. This Act established the basics for regulating discharge of contaminants and established the authority for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to implement standards for wastewater discharge by industry. The Clean Water Act also continued requirements to set water quality standards for all surface water contaminants. More specifically, control of point sources of phosphorus through policy changes have resulted in rapid control of eutrophication. Nonpoint sources, on the other hand, are more difficult to regulate and usually vary with season, precipitation, and other irregular events. Nonpoint sources are especially troublesome because of soil retention, runoff to surface water and leaching to groundwater, and the effect of acid rain (See the Air Pollution lesson). On the hopeful side, though, cleanup measures have been somewhat successful. For example, Finnish removal of phosphorus started in the mid-1970s has targeted rivers and lakes polluted by industrial and municipal discharges. These efforts have had a 90% efficiency in removal. And with nonpoint sources, some efforts, like intercepting pollutants between the source and water, are successful (Figure 25.12). Also, creating buffer zones near farms and roads is another possible way to prevent nutrients from traveling into waterways. In addition, laws regulating the discharge and treatment of sewage have led to dramatic nutrient reductions to aquatic ecosystems, but a policy regulating agricultural use of fertilizer and animal waste must also be imposed. One technique (Soil Nitrogen Testing, or N-Testing) helps farmers optimize the amount of fertilizer applied to crops and at the same time decreases fertilizer application costs, decreases the nitrogen lost to surrounding water resources, and sometimes decreases both. Actions aimed at lessening eutrophication and algal blooms are usually desirable. However, the focus should not necessarily be aimed at eliminating blooms, but towards creating a sustainable balance that maintains or improves ecosystem health. As you will see in the next lesson (25.3): Natural Resources, sustainable use is a useful concept for the use of resources as well. Can you think of some reasons why? Ways to Save Water While we will deal further with this topic in the next Lesson (25.3) on Natural Resources, we will examine here how saving water can also contribute to maximizing clean water for future use. In addition, preventing water pollution is one way of preserving precious water resources. One way to make sure that water is kept clean and conserved is the use of wastewater reuse or cycling systems, including the recycling of wastewater to be purified at a water treatment plant. By that means, many of the waterborne diseases, caused by sewage and non-treated drinking water, can be prevented. There are also various means of water purification, whereby contaminants are removed from a raw water source and at the same time create clean new water. Atmospheric water generation is one technology that can provide high quality drinking water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air and thus condensing the water vapor. Reclaimed water, or recycled water (Figure 25.13) that is treated and allowed to recharge the aquifer, is used for non-drinking purposes, so that potable water is used for drinking. This helps to conserve high quality water. Another way to reduce water pollution and at the same time conserve water is via catchment management. This is used to recharge groundwater supplies, helps in the formation of groundwater wells, and eventually reduces soil erosion, one cause of pollution, due to running water. In addition, both developed and developing countries can increase protection of ecosystems, especially wetlands and riparian zones (areas located on the bank of a waterway, like a river, or sometimes along a lake or tidewater). Not only do these measures conserve biota, but they can also make more effective the natural water cycle flushing and transport that make water systems more healthy for humans. What are some ways you can save water in your own house or community in order to increase the resource of clean water, to be made available to everyone? Lesson Summary - There are two primary sources of water pollution, point source and nonpoint sources. - Specific contaminants causing water pollution include chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes. - Water pollution can affect both ecology and human health. - One effect of water pollution is eutrophication, which can cause detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems as well as on human life, including health. - Water pollution also causes ocean acidification, which impacts oceanic calcifying organisms. - Contaminated groundwater can lead to poisoned drinking water and various health problems, including cancer. - A variety of water pollutants can cause waterborne diseases. - Various legislation has regulated discharge of contaminants into water resources and led to dramatic nutrient reductions, but more can be done, especially in areas such as... the agricultural use of fertilizer and animal waste. - Different ways of saving water can also have an impact on our clean water supply. Review Questions 1. When is water considered polluted? 2. Name some sources of nonpoint source pollution. 3. Lakes often become polluted as a result of point source pollution release of phosphorus from sewage plants. By what process would the release of phosphorus affect a lake’s vegetation growth and how would this in turn affect reductions in water quality and fish and shellfish populations? 4. Name some sources of pollutants that can cause waterborne diseases. 5. Why are nonpoint sources of pollution so difficult to regulate? 6. Why might floating plastic debris be a problem for marine life? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition, Random House, New York, 1998. - [http://www.epa.gov/region5/students/water.htm](http://www.epa.gov/region5/students/water.htm) - [http://www.cdli.ca/CITE/water.htm](http://www.cdli.ca/CITE/water.htm) - [http://www.epa.gov/region5/students/waste.htm](http://www.epa.gov/region5/students/waste.htm) - [http://en.wikipedia.org](http://en.wikipedia.org) Vocabulary algal bloom Excessive growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton as a result of eutrophication. aquifers Geological formations that contain or conduct groundwater. catchment management Method used to recharge groundwater supplies, help in the formation of groundwater wells, and reduce soil erosion. desalination An artificial process by which saline water is converted to fresh water. eutrophication An increase in nutrients, specifically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. frozen water Found in icebergs and glaciers. nonpoint source pollution Contaminants resulting from a cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. ocean acidification Process whereby the oceans’ uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere causes an ongoing decrease in ocean pH. point source pollution Contaminants that enter a waterway or water body through a single site. surface water Water found in rivers, lakes, or freshwater wetlands. waterborne diseases Diseases caused by organisms transmitted via contaminated water. water pollution The contamination of water bodies by substances, mostly anthropogenic, which cause a harmful effect on living organisms. Points to Consider - Even though water is a renewable resource, there is not always availability of clean water. Control of water pollution, such as removal of phosphorus or creating buffer zones near farms, helps to preserve this renewable resource for the future. - Methods such as wastewater reuse, atmospheric water generation, reclaiming water, catchment management, and protection of aquatic systems can all contribute towards the dual goals of keeping water clean and also available for future generations. 25.3 Lesson 25.3: Natural Resources Lesson Objectives - Explain what natural resources are. - Describe renewable resources. - Explain what nonrenewable resources are. - Discuss the use of fossil fuels as an energy source and what energy sources are available as alternatives. - Discuss how reducing, reusing, and recycling can help conserve resources. Check your Understanding - What are our natural resources? - What is the difference between a renewable and nonrenewable resource? Introduction There are many natural resources all about us. Which ones seem the most obvious? Which do you use on a regular basis? Which do you think you could keep using and they would never run out? After thinking about some of these resources, you will see how important an understanding is about what we do use in our daily lives, which of these resources will run out, and what we can do in our daily lives to help prevent them from running out. As we also examine our energy needs, we will see that fossil fuels are only one source of energy. Just because we use these on a daily basis does not make them necessarily the best choice. What are some of the benefits and detriments to using fossil fuels for energy? Can you think of some alternative energy sources that make the most sense, both from an energy point of view, and also economically? Finally, what can you do, in your home, school, and community to reduce unnecessary use of resources, and to reuse and recycle them when possible? What are Natural Resources? A natural resource is a naturally occurring substance which is necessary for the support of life. The value of a natural resource depends on the amount of the material available and the demand put upon it by organisms. What resources do you use on a daily basis? The ones that may come to mind right away are the ones we already looked at in the last two lessons: air and water. What else is absolutely necessary to your survival? The food you eat seems pretty obvious. Could you survive with just air, water, and food? Are other resources, like the land you live on, the house you live in, the gasoline your parents put in the car and the tools you use at home or at school absolutely necessary for survival and if not, should they be considered resources too? As you start thinking about what are natural resources for humans, compare these to what are natural resources for organisms other than humans. Perhaps it might seem a bit clearer as to what are resources for other organisms, since their lives are much simpler than ours and they really use resources for survival rather than for making their lives more desirable. As we will see later in this lesson, of all living organisms, humans have the greatest impact on natural resources. Therefore it is our responsibility to make sure we do everything we can to use resources wisely. Renewable Resources A resource is renewable if it is replenished by natural processes at about the same rate at which humans use it up. Examples of this are sunlight and wind (Figures 25.14 and 25.15), which are very abundant resources and in no danger of being used up. Tides are another example of a resource in unlimited supply, as well as hydropower, which is renewed by the Earth’s hydrologic cycle. Figure 25.14: Solar radiation and wind energy are considered renewable resources because availability of both far exceeds our rate of consumption. 89,000 TW (terawatts) represents the amount of sunlight that falls on the Earth’s surface, 370 TW depicts wind energy available, and 15 TW was the global rate of energy consumption in 2004. (21) Figure 25.15: Wind power, another renewable resource, shown here in a modern wind energy plant. (22) Based on what you learned in the last two lessons, would you say air and water are renewable resources? They may appear to be, but your knowledge about air and water pollution would tell you that clean air and water are not always so accessible. As we think about other resources, like soils, plants and animals, minerals, and energy resources let’s keep in mind about whether these are truly renewable or not. For example, soils are often considered renewable, but because of erosion and mineral depletion, this is not always the case (Figure 25.16). Living things, like forests and fish, are considered renewable because they can reproduce to replace individuals lost to human consumption. However, overexploitation of these resources can lead to extinction. ![Soil (Stagnogley) as a resource, showing a mixture of eroded rock, minerals, ions, partially decomposed organic material, water, air, roots, fungi, animals, and microorganisms, formed over thousands, possibly millions of years.](image) Figure 25.16: Soil (Stagnogley) as a resource, showing a mixture of eroded rock, minerals, ions, partially decomposed organic material, water, air, roots, fungi, animals, and microorganisms, formed over thousands, possibly millions of years. (29) Also think about at what costs resources can be renewed. If something can be renewed, but at great cost economically or ecologically, is that resource still considered renewable? Perhaps a better way to put this is, does it make sense to renew a resource at great cost? If you’re thinking that this discussion is leading up to energy resources, you would be right! For example, energy resources derived from living things, such as ethanol, plant oils, and methane, are considered renewable, but the environmental costs are not always adequately considered. We will be discussing fossil fuels and alternative energy sources further in this lesson. Other renewable materials would include sustainable (at a rate which meets the needs of the present without impairing future generations from meeting their needs) harvesting of wood, cork, and bamboo, as well as sustainable harvesting of crops. Also, metals and other minerals are sometimes considered renewable because they can be recycled, and are not destroyed when they are used. Nonrenewable Resources A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that exists in fixed amounts (relative to our time frame) and can be consumed or used up faster than it can be made by nature. It cannot be regenerated or restored on a time scale compared to its consumption. Two main types of nonrenewable resources are fossil fuels and nuclear power. - Fossil fuels, such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas: 1. Have formed from plant remains (for coal) and phyto- and zoo-plankton remains (for oil) over periods from 50 to 350 million years ago! 2. Has been estimated that 20 metric tons of phytoplankton produce one liter of gasoline! 3. Have been consuming fossil fuels for less than 200 years, yet remaining reserves of oil can supply our needs for only 45 years; of gas, for only 72 years; and of coal, for 252 years - Nuclear power 1. Limited uranium fuel supplies; could last 70 years at current rates of use. 2. Known and unknown reserves are probably much larger. 3. New technologies could make some reserves more useful. Population growth; industrialization, especially in developing countries; and advances in technology place increasing pressures on how fast we consume natural resources. An unequal distribution of wealth, technology, and energy use suggest that developing nations will even further their increase of demands on natural resources (Figure 25.17). ![World energy consumption per capita 2003](image) Figure 25.17: Per capita energy consumption (2003) shows the unequal distribution of wealth, technology, and energy use. (26) That is not to say that all is doom and gloom either. Improvements in technology, conservation of resources, and controls in population growth could all help to lessen the demand on natural resources. Fossil Fuels and Alternative Energy Sources As you learned in the section on nonrenewable resources, fossil fuels, such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, exist in fixed amounts, take millions of years to form naturally, and cannot be replaced as fast as they are consumed. They range from very volatile (explosive) materials like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials like coal. It was estimated in 2005 that 86% of primary energy production in the world came from burning fossil fuels. Concern about fossil fuels is one of the causes of regional and global conflicts, and the production and use of fossil fuels raise concerns about the environment. A global movement toward the generation of alternative energy sources, which are renewable, is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. Some of these, like solar radiation, wind energy, and hydropower, were mentioned briefly in the section on renewable resources. Let’s discuss these and others now in more detail. - Solar power (Figure 25.18) involves using solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity. When sunlight hits solar thermal panels, it is converted to heat water or air. It can also be used to heat water (producing steam) via a parabolic mirror, or it can be used for passive solar heating of a building simply by passing through windows. ![Figure 25.18: An example of solar power, using solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity.](image) - Wind power, the conversion of wind energy into forms such as electricity via wind turbines, is only used for less than 1% of the world’s energy needs. However, growth in harvesting wind energy is rapid, with recent annual increases of more than 30%. Hydropower (Figure 25.19) uses the energy of moving water to turn turbines or water wheels, which drive a mechanical mill or an electric generator. Today, the largest use of hydropower is for electric power generation, which allows low cost energy to be used at long distances from the water source. Electricity can also be generated constantly, as long as sufficient water is available, it produces no primary waste or pollution, and it is a renewable resource. Other alternative energy sources to the burning of fossil fuels include geothermal power; biomass, biofuels; tidal power; nuclear energy; and fusion power. Let’s examine these briefly to see how they compare with the sources of energy we’ve already discussed. Keep in mind as we do so what you think the best alternatives might be. - Geothermal power uses the natural flow of heat from the earth’s core to produce steam, which is used to drive turbines, which, in turn, power electric generators. - Biomass production involves using garbage or other renewable resources such as corn or other vegetation to generate electricity. When garbage decomposes, the methane produced is captured in pipes and burned to produce electricity. Advantages of these types of energy include using organic waste products from agriculture; biomass is abundant and is generally renewable. - Power can be extracted from Moon-gravity-powered tides by locating a water turbine in a tidal current. The turbine can turn an electrical generator, or a gas compressor, which can then store energy until needed (Figure 25.20). - Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to generate energy inside a nuclear reactor. The released heat, heats water to create steam, which spins a turbine generator, producing electricity (Figure 25.21). Now that we have reviewed the pros and cons of fossil fuels and alternative energy sources, what type or types do you think makes the best use of the natural resources available to us? As we move into our last section, also think about how reducing waste and reusing and recycling resources can help us reach our goals for energy production as well. Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle When we think of reducing, we’re talking about reducing our output of waste. That could also mean cutting down on use of natural resources. Reusing and recycling are other ways we can cut down on use of resources. Minimizing of waste may be difficult to achieve for individuals and households, but here are some starting points that you can include in your daily routine: - When you go shopping for items, buy quantities you know you will use without waste; sometimes buying larger may be a better deal, cost-wise, but make sure you will really finish what you buy - To minimize usage of electricity, turn lights off when not using and replace burned out bulbs with ones that are more ecologically efficient - Reduce water use by turning off faucets when not using water; use low-flow shower heads, which save on water and use less energy, since less water is being heated; use low-flush and composting toilets - Purchase water-efficient crops, which require little or no irrigation - Put kitchen and garden waste into a compost pile - In the summer, change filters on your air conditioner and keep your thermostat at a temperature as warm as you can tolerate; in winter, make sure your furnace is working properly, keep the temperature as cold as you can tolerate, and make sure there is enough insulation on windows and doors - Mend broken or worn items, when feasible - Walk or bicycle to destinations, when possible, rather than using an automobile, in order to save on fuel costs and to cut down on emissions - When buying a new vehicle, check into hybrid and semi-hybrid brands (many new ones are coming rapidly onto the market) to cut down on gas mileage - Consider which makes more sense – to spend valuable gas to go further to recycle, for example, or to sometimes use the trash instead of recycling Let’s now look at what we can reuse. Reusing includes using the same item again for the same function and also using an item again for a new function. Reuse can have both economic and environmental benefits. New packaging regulations are helping society to move towards these goals. Some ways of reusing resources (think about ways these might be incorporated into your home) include: - Use of gray water – water which has been used for laundry or washing, for example, can be used to water the garden or flush toilets * At the town level, sewage water can be used for fountains, watering public parks or golf courses, fire fighting, and irrigating crops that will be peeled or boiled before use Catching of runoff, which will also slow nonpoint source pollution and erosion – rain barrels next to buildings, recharge pits to re-fill aquifers Perhaps you can think of some other ways to reuse resources! Now we move on to recycling. Sometimes it may be difficult to understand the differences between reuse and recycling. Recycling differs in that it breaks down the item into raw materials, which are then used to make new items, whereas reusing uses the same item again. Even though recycling requires extra energy, it does often make use of items which are broken, worn out, or otherwise unsuitable for reuse. The things that are commonly recycled include aggregates and concrete, batteries, biodegradable waste, electronics, iron and steel, aluminum, glass, paper, plastic, textiles, timber, industrial breaking of ships, and tires. Each type of recyclable requires a different technique. Perhaps you or your school could arrange for a trip to a recycling plant! Here are some things you can do to recycle in your home, school, or community: - If you have recycling in your community, make sure you separate out your plastics, glass, and paper, according to your local guidelines; have containers set up for easy placement - See if your school recycles; if not perhaps you and some friends could start a recycling, or ecology, club, or organize efforts to better recycling goals In order to judge the environmental and economic benefits of recycling, the cost of this process must be compared to the costs of extracting the original resource. In order for recycling to make economical sense, there usually must be a steady supply of recyclables and constant demand for the reprocessed products. Government legislation can stimulate both of these. As with all environmental issues, individuals can communicate with their representatives to make sure their wishes are heard. The amount that an individual wastes is small in proportion to all waste produced by society. Yet all small contributions, when added up, can make a difference. In addition, influence on policy can be exerted in other areas. Awareness by you and your family, for example, of the impact and power of certain purchasing and recycling decisions can influence manufacturers and distributors to avoid buying products that do not have eco-labeling, are currently not mandatory, or that minimize the use of packaging. Lesson Summary - A natural resource is a naturally occurring substance which is necessary for the support of life. - Resources are either renewable or nonrenewable. - Examples of renewable resources include sunlight, wind tides, and hydropower. • Some resources may seem to be renewable, but may have some limits, as to how accessible a nonpolluted resource is and what effect overexploitation of the resource has. • Some renewable materials include the sustainable harvesting of certain products. • Nonrenewable resources include fossil fuels and nuclear power. • Burning of fossil fuels causes harmful effects in the environment and can lead to regional and global conflicts. • There are a number of renewable energy sources which offer alternatives to the burning of fossil fuels; they include solar radiation; wind energy; hydropower; geothermal power; biomass, biofuels, and vegetable oil; tidal power; nuclear energy; and fusion power. • There are pros and cons to all alternative energy sources. • Reducing waste and the reusing and recycling of resources can help save natural resources as well as help us reach our goals for energy production. • There are many things you can do in your household and community towards the goals of reducing, reusing, and recycling; individual efforts can also add up to make a difference nationally, and even internationally. • Awareness of wise resource use at the consumer level can influence decisions at the manufacturing and distributing levels. • Government legislation is also important to enforce these changes; it is up to individuals to communicate to their representatives the carrying out of wise use of natural resources, and to vote for those leaders who stand for sound ecological practices. Review Questions 1. Under what conditions is a resource renewable? 2. Why must some natural renewable resources, such as geothermal power, fresh water, timber, and biomass be carefully managed? 3. Why is nuclear power considered a nonrenewable resource? 4. With resources that have limited supplies, what human factors put increasing pressure on how fast we consume such resources? 5. What are the main disadvantages to the burning of fossil fuels as an energy source? 6. What two advantages do solar power, wind power, and hydropower all have in common? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition, Random House, New York, 1998. Natural Resources - [http://dnr.state.il.us/lands/education/index.htm](http://dnr.state.il.us/lands/education/index.htm) - [http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/education/squirm/skworm.html](http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/education/squirm/skworm.html) Vocabulary biofuels The production of fuels, such as wood or ethanol, from biomass. biomass Use of garbage or other renewable resources such as corn or other vegetation to generate electricity. erosion Process by which the surface of the Earth is worn away by the action of winds, water, waves, glaciers, etc. fossil fuels Formed from plant or animal remains over periods from 50 to 350 million years ago and used to produce sources of energy, such as petroleum and coal. fusion power The production of atomic energy by the process of nuclear fusion. geothermal power The use of the natural flow of heat from the Earth’s core to produce steam. hydropower Use of power from falling water or other water movement to generate and distribute electricity; also known as hydroelectric power. natural resources Naturally occurring substances necessary for the support of life. nonrenewable resource A natural resource that exists in fixed amounts and can be consumed or used up faster than it can be made by nature. nuclear power A nonrenewable resource, where nuclear fission is used to generate energy. recycling The breaking down of an item into raw materials to make new items. reducing Minimizing the use of resources. renewable resources Resources that are replenished by natural processes at about the same rate at which they are used. solar power The use of solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity. sustainable A rate which meets the needs of the present without impairing future generations from meeting their needs. tidal power Power generated from tidal currents. wind power The conversion of wind energy into electricity via wind turbines. Points to Consider - Minimizing use of some resources helps to preserve habitats; for example, conservation of human water use helps to preserve freshwater habitats for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl. - Habitats are another resource for both humans and other organisms. Now that we have considered conservation of natural resources, we will move on in the next lesson to examining the effects of habitat destruction and how to protect habitats. Why do you think this is an important topic? - Discuss how the protection of natural resources may be important for biodiversity. - Protection of natural resources, including habitats, is also important to avoid dire consequences, such as extinction of species. Discuss why. 25.4 Lesson 25.4: Habitat Destruction and Extinction Lesson Objectives - Discuss what causes destruction of habitats. - Explain why habitat destruction threatens species. - Describe causes of extinction other than habitat destruction. - Explain why biodiversity is important. - Explain why habitat protection is important, including for maintaining biodiversity. Check your Understanding - What is a habitat? - What is habitat destruction? - What is the effect of habitat destruction? - What is biodiversity? (Figures 25.22, 25.23 and 25.24.) Figure 25.22: A sampling of some of the wide diversity of animal species on earth. (35) Figure 25.23: Coral reefs are one of the biomes with the highest biodiversity on earth. (34) Figure 25.24: This tropical rain forest demonstrates another biome having one of the greatest biodiversities on earth. (28) Introduction From a human point of view, a habitat is the environment where you live, go to school, places where you go to have fun, and other places you regularly visit. Maybe if we think of habitat in this way we will have a better sense of other species’ habitats and a better appreciation for how valuable a habitat is to its occupants. When we likewise consider habitat destruction, we might evaluate more carefully human influences such as land clearing (Figure 25.25) and introduction of non-native species of plants and animals and how this can have even catastrophic effects, like extinction of species (Figure 25.26), some of which give us great beauty and some of which have medicinal or other useful qualities! In human terms, how would we feel if someone came in and radically changed our habitat, and either drove us out or worse yet, caused us to eventually die? ![Image](image_url) Figure 25.25: Slash-and-burn agriculture, shown here in southern Mexico, clears land for agriculture. (23) In this lesson, we will also examine other causes of extinction besides habitat destruction and the importance of biodiversity. Finally, we will see, that as our planet becomes more threatened and as we see how this also impacts the human species, human awareness of these issues has led to measures, such as habitat protection, that can help all of the earth’s inhabitants. Figure 25.26: An exotic species, the brown tree snake, hitch-hiked on an aircraft to the Pacific Islands, causing the extinctions of many bird and mammal species which had evolved in the absence of predators. (24) Causes of Habitat Destruction Clearing some habitats of vegetation for purposes of agriculture and development is a major cause of habitat destruction or loss. Within the past 100 years, the area of cultivated land worldwide has increased 74%. Land for the grazing of cattle has increased 113%! Agriculture, alone, has cost the United States 50% of its wetlands (Figure 25.27) and 99% of its tallgrass prairies (Figure 25.28). Native prairie ecosystems, with their thick fertile soils, deep-rooted grasses, diversity of colorful flowers, burrowing prairie dogs and burrowing owls, herds of bison and pronghorn antelope, and other animals, are virtually extinct (Figure 25.29). Another habitat that is being rapidly destroyed is forests, most significantly tropical rainforests, one of the two major ecosystems (or biomes) with the highest biodiversity on earth. The largest cause of deforestation today is slash-and-burn agriculture (Figure 25.25), practiced by over 200 million people in tropical forests throughout the world. Depletion of the thin and nutrient-poor soil (even so, biodiversity here is high – can you guess why?) often results in people abandoning the forest within a few years, and subsequent erosion can lead to desertification (a process leading to production of a desert of formerly productive land [usually at least semi-arid]). Half of the earth’s mature tropical forests are gone. At current rates of deforestation, all tropical forests will be gone by 2090. Poverty, inequitable land distribution, and overpopulation combine in many developing countries to add pressure to habitats which are already stressed. Use of firewood, charcoal and manure for cooking and other energy needs, and waste of crops further degrade environments, threatening biodiversity through habitat loss. Figure 25.27: Wetlands such as this one in Cape May, New Jersey, filter water and protect coastal lands from storms and floods. (18) Figure 25.28: Big bluestem grasses as tall as a human were one of the species of the tallgrass prairie, largely eliminated by agricultural use. (11) Other causes of habitat destruction include poor fire management, invasion of pest and non-native species, overfishing, mining, pollution, and storm damage. Why Habitat Destruction Threatens Species Agriculture, forestry, mining, and urbanization have disturbed over half of the earth’s land. Inevitably, species disappear and biodiversity decreases. Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the most important cause of extinction of species worldwide. The destruction of a species’ habitat may alter the landscape to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur directly, such as the environment becoming toxic, or indirectly by limiting a species’ ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or with a new species. Habitat destruction through pollution can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members by contamination or sterilization. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels, by affecting life span, reproductive capability, or competitiveness. Habitat destruction can also occur physically by elimination of certain niches in a habitat. For example, elimination of dense tropical rainforest and replacement with open pastureland can affect certain species. Thus, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without trees to shelter it. Another example of this is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. Fewer resources or introduction of new competitor species often accompany habitat destruction. Global warming has allowed some species to expand their ranges, sometimes into those of species that previously occupied that area. If these new competitors are predators, they may directly affect prey species, or they may compete with other species for limited resources. If such resources as water and food are limited during habitat destruction, then species can become extinct. Another type of habitat that is being rapidly destroyed is the wetland. By the 1980s, over 80% of all historic wetlands in seven states of the U.S. were filled, at which time Congress acted to create a policy of “no net loss” of wetlands. In Europe, extensive loss of wetlands has resulted in loss of biodiversity. For example, many bogs in Scotland have been drained or developed because of human population expansion. Over half of the Portlethen Moss in Aberdeenshire, for example, has been lost and a number of species, such as the great crested newt, are no longer present. Another example of species loss due to habitat destruction occurred on Madagascar’s central highland plateau. From 1970 to 2000, slash and burn agriculture eliminated about 10% of the country’s total native biomass and converted it to a barren wasteland. Adverse effects included widespread gully erosion that produced heavily silted rivers and eliminated a large amount of usable fresh water. Much of the riverine ecosystems of several large west-flowing rivers were also destroyed, several fish species have been driven to the edge of extinction, and some coral reef formations in the Indian Ocean are effectively lost. Practices such as clear-cutting of old growth forests, strip mining (Figure 25.30), and drift-net fishing can go beyond the harvesting of a single species or resource to degrade entire ecosystems. Overexploitation happens on the level of genes and ecosystems as well as individual species. Forest plantations, fish hatcheries and farms, and intensive agriculture reduce both species diversity and genetic diversity within species. ![Strip coal mining](image) Figure 25.30: Strip coal mining, pictured here, has degraded the entire ecosystem. (6) Other Causes of Extinction One of the primary causes of extinction (already mentioned briefly) is introduction of exotic species (alien or invasive species). Both intentionally and inadvertently, humans have introduced various species into habitats, which already have their own native species. As a result, these invasive species have often had very harmful effects on the native species. As long ago as 3500 BC, ships from Polynesian times brought crop species and domesticated animals as well as stowaway rats and snakes. Recently cargo ships have transported zebra mussels, spiny waterfleas, and ruffe into the Great Lakes via ballast water ((Figure 25.31)). Europeans brought purple loosestrife and European buckthorn to North America to beautify their gardens. ![Image](image) Figure 25.31: These zebra mussels, an introduced species, colonize most man-made and natural surfaces, including native mussels. Here they have infested the walls of the Arthur V. Ormond Lock, on the Arkansas River. They have caused significant damage to American waterways, locks, and power plants. (19) Other invasive species have included the European starling, introduced by Shakespeare enthusiast Eugene Schieffelin to Central Park in the 1890s, because he thought Americans should experience every bird mentioned in the works of Shakespeare. This species is a hole-nesting species and has affected native species where it has been introduced (i.e. Australia, North America) because of competition for nest sites. Other examples of invasive species include the introduction of the cane toad, introduced to control the cane beetle, and the brown tree snake (Figure 25.26). Many of these exotic species, away from the predation or competition of their native habitats, have unexpected and negative effects in the new ecosystems. Introduced species can disrupt food chains, carry disease, prey on native species directly, and as we have already seen, out-compete natives for limited resources. All of these effects can lead to extinctions of the native species. In addition, some introduced species hybridize with native species, resulting in genetic pollution, which weakens natural adaptations. Another major cause of extinction is global climate change. As we have already seen earlier in this chapter, our increasing reliance on fossil fuels in altering the earth’s atmosphere, and as a result, climate. This has many effects, some of which we have already discussed, but on a species level, these other effects, including changing air and water temperatures, rainfall patterns, and salinity threaten species adapted to pre-warming conditions and thus result in a decline of biodiversity globally. Overpopulation (already mentioned previously), along with developments in technology, have added tremendous pressure to resource and land use and add to all of the previously mentioned threats to biodiversity. The highest rates of population growth are often in third world tropical countries where biodiversity is also highest. Therefore pressures from local populations as well as increased pressure from incoming tourists in some areas can produce enormous consequences for the local plant and animal ecosystems. A final major cause of extinction is pollution, and mentioned earlier in this lesson. Pollution adds chemicals, noise, heat, or even light beyond the capacity of the environment to absorb them without major harmful effects on all kinds of organisms. One good example of a toxic chemical affecting a species was the use of the pesticide, DDT. Use of this pesticide in the eastern United States resulted in the effect of biological magnification (where many synthetic chemicals concentrate as they move through the food chain, so that toxic effects are multiplied), with the result of the disappearance of the peregrine falcon from this area. As a result, DDT was banned in the U.S. Pollution continues to contribute to habitat destruction and decreasing biodiversity worldwide, especially in developing countries. Air pollution knows no boundaries and as we have already seen, its effects on acid rain, ozone depletion, and global warming all affect biodiversity. Water pollution especially threatens vital freshwater and marine resources throughout the world. Specifically, industrial and agricultural chemicals, waste, acid rain, and global warming threaten waters, essential for all ecosystems. Finally, soil contamination, mostly from toxic industrial and municipal wastes (Figure 25.32), salts from irrigation, and pesticides from agriculture all degrade soils, the foundation of terrestrial ecosystems and their biodiversity. Outside the developed world, pollution controls often lag far behind those of the U.S. and Europe, and some developing nations, like China, are rapidly increasing their levels of pollution. Many pollution problems are also present in industrialized nations as well; industry and technology add nuclear wastes, oil spills (Figure 25.33), thermal pollution from wastewater, acid rain, and more to the challenges facing the earth’s biodiversity (Figure 25.34). Figure 25.32: Soil contamination caused by underground storage tanks containing tar. (8) Figure 25.33: An oiled bird from an oil spill in San Francisco Bay. About 58,000 gallons of oil spilled from a South Korean-bound container ship when it struck a tower supporting the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge in dense fog, 11/07. (25) Figure 25.34: A highly endangered Macquarie perch specimen was caught on a lure with barbless hooks in a high altitude upland river and was carefully released. This species is now extinct in most of its upland river habitats due to introduced trout species in the same habitats. Siltation from agricultural practices and flow regulation and thermal pollution by dams have also caused the extinction of this species in some upland rivers. (3) Importance of Biodiversity Does it matter if we are losing thousands of species each year, when the earth holds millions and life has been through extinction before? The answer is yes; it matters even if we consider only direct benefits to humans. But there are also lots of indirect benefits, also known as ecosystem services, in addition to benefits to other species as well. Biodiversity is important for a number of reasons. Economically, direct benefits include the potential to diversify our food supply; increase resources for clothing, shelter, energy, and medicines; a wealth of efficient designs which could inspire new technologies; models for medical research; and an early warning system for toxicity. In our food supply, monocultures (large-scale cultivation of single varieties of single species) are very vulnerable to disease. As recently as 1970, blight affected the corn belt where 80% of maize grown in the U.S. was of a single type (Figure 25.35). Contemporary breeders of various crop species increase the genetic diversity by producing hybrids of crop species with wild species adapted to local climate and disease. As many as 40,000 species of fungi, plants, and animals provide us with many varied types of clothing, shelter, and other products. These include poisons, timber, fibers, fragrances, papers, silks, dyes, adhesives, rubber, resins, skins, furs, and more. In addition to these above raw materials for industry, we use animals for energy and transportation, and biomass for heat and other fuels. According to one survey, 57% of the most important prescription drugs come from nature (bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals) (Figure 25.36), yet only a fraction of species Figure 25.35: In order to increase the genetic diversity of corn, these unusually colored and shaped Latin American maize are bred with domestic corn lines. Such hybrids have the potential for increased productivity, nutritional value, adaptation to local climates, and resistance to local diseases. (7) with medicinal properties have been examined. Bionics, also known as biomimetics or biomimicry, uses organisms as models for engineering inspiration. For example, rattlesnake heat-sensing pits suggest infrared sensors and Zimbabwe’s Eastgate Centre (Figure 25.37) was inspired by the air-conditioning efficiency of a termite mound (Figure 25.38). Figure 25.36: Aspirin originates in the bark of the white willow, pictured here. (27) At an ecological level, biodiversity provides ecosystem stability and productivity; the maintenance and renewal of soils, water supplies, and the atmosphere; nitrogen fixation and nutrient recycling; pollination, pest, and disease control; and waste disposal. Other benefits include the cultural, aesthetic, and spiritual values of biodiversity and its importance to many types of recreation. Biodiversity is critically important for us and for the earth, and it is declining at a fast rate. What can you do to help to protect habitats, which are at the crux of biodiversity? Protecting Habitats There are lots of things we can do to protect biodiversity, some of which we’ve touched upon in prior sections of this lesson, including the need to reduce, reuse, and recycle of all resources; not contributing to introduction of invasive species; practicing sustainable management on your own land; adopting and spreading sustainable perspectives and philosophy; learning more about biodiversity; and taking action as a citizen to make sure biodiversity is protected. We are going to focus now on what can be done, or has already been done, to protect habitats, the actual physical spaces, themselves, which, as we have seen, contributes to maintaining and increasing biodiversity. What do you think helps protect habitats and what can you do to help protect them? Perhaps if you’ve taken a trip, or even in your own community, you’ve enjoyed some time Figure 25.38: The air-conditioning efficiency of this termite mound was the inspiration for the Eastgate Centre (Figure 16). (5) exploring and enjoying the outdoors. Think of the areas you might have visited that seemed, even somewhat, undisturbed, in other words, areas where there was little disturbance from human influence. Maybe you were able to enjoy scenic landscape, enjoy some quiet where you could hear the sounds of nature, or maybe see very few people. Sometimes we need to get away from all the noise and pollution and be in a quiet place, not only to enjoy and appreciate the nature around us, but even to experience some quiet within ourselves. If you think back on some of these places, what characteristics of the actual physical location did you observe? Does it require a huge amount of space to protect a habitat, or will even a small space do? From what we know about habitats and species, how much space is enough to ensure species will not become extinct or threatened? There may not be a clear answer to this. It really depends on the species involved and what its requirements are. A large mammal, like a species of big cat, who has a large range, may need more land than a much smaller species, like a snail. Often, if we protect the habitat of a keystone species (See the From Populations to the Biosphere chapter, Lesson on Communities), which usually has a larger habitat than all the other species in that community, then all the other habitats of other species within that community will be protected as well. The kinds of protected areas, we are talking about, that help protect species are usually in the form of national parks, nature reserves, state parks, and even community and town parks. Sometimes it is important to also protect interconnecting corridors between parks or reserves to protect those species that travel from one area to another for purposes of breeding or feeding, for example. Even though many of these protected areas are already in existence, there is much you can do as a citizen to make sure these areas stay protected and to help create other areas that need to be protected. Some of the things you can do are to get involved with your community or town’s efforts to protect local areas. Even if you don’t understand everything that goes on at a town meeting, you might want to attend one sometime to learn about some of the important local environmental issues that are being discussed. Join local groups which monitor ecosystem health, such as Frog Watch, River Watch, or bird counts. Some national organizations have programs, such as National Audubon’s Great Backyard Bird Count and Operation Feeder Watch, and similar programs run by the National Wildlife Foundation, where you can keep track of what you see in your backyard and thereby contribute to a greater understanding of biodiversity. Become aware of some of the habitat issues on a state and national level. Maybe you can write or e-mail your state representatives, for example, to urge them to help protect areas large enough to accommodate migration, flooding, buffer zones, pollution from nearby development, and even people and their activities. It is a challenge to balance the needs of an increasing population with natural resource needs, but we have to remember that people, as well as wildlife, depend on natural resources to flourish and survive! Volunteer with local organizations that protect habitat. Help out at cleanup days in your community, where people gather together to pick up trash and make a habitat more hospitable for its inhabitants. Some of these cleanup days are even advertised through your school. Start an ecology club at your school, if there isn’t one already, and encourage your friends and classmates to join. Think about sustainable management even at the level of your own backyard, even if it is a small yard. What does your household do with organic waste? Do you have a compost pile or would you or your family consider starting one? What kinds of trees and shrubs are planted in your yard? Are they native or introduced species? Drought-tolerant? Research some of the vegetation you can plant that will attract native bird, mammal, and other species. Put out bird feeders, especially in the winter in areas where birds may have trouble finding food, but make sure you keep the feeders well-stocked with food. Similarly, bird baths are useful, especially when temperatures get warm and during dry periods. Use organic or natural pesticides and fertilizers. Remember that in addition to all the actions you can take, even learning about biodiversity and ecology is an important part of valuing and protecting the diversity of life. Pass on what you learn to others. Lesson Summary - There are a number of causes of habitat destruction, including clearing of land, introduction of invasive species, overfishing, mining, pollution, and storm damage. - Habitat destruction threatens species through pollution, eliminations of niches, availability of fewer resources, and introduction of new species. - Some habitats affected by destruction include tropical rainforests, wetlands, and coral reefs. - Introduction of invasive species have caused harmful effects on native species, sometimes resulting in extinction. - Other causes of extinction include pollution, global climate change, and overpopulation. - Biodiversity is important because it directly affects humans as well as ecosystem benefits and benefits to other species. - Economically, biodiversity diversifies our food supply; increases resources for clothing, shelter, and energy, and medicines; inspires new technologies; supplies models for medical research and an early warning system for toxicity. - Because of the importance of biodiversity and habitats, it is vital to do what we can do as citizens to protect habitats; these include continued protection in national parks, reserves, and other green areas; creation of new areas; communicating with representatives about these issues; volunteering with local organizations which have these goals in mind; and practicing sustainable practices, even at the level of your own backyard! Most importantly, educate others about the importance of habitat protection. Review Questions 1. What is the largest cause of deforestation today? 2. How can habitat destruction through pollution kill a species over a long period of time? 3. Why do introduced exotic species have unexpected and negative effects in the new ecosystems? 4. Why are so many exotic species now being introduced either accidentally or intentionally to native habitats? 5. Explain how biological magnification played a role in the disappearance of the peregrine falcon from the eastern U.S. 6. Loss of biodiversity limits our ability to increase the genetic diversity of crops. What is the advantage of producing hybrids of crop species with wild species adapted to local climate and disease? 7. What are some of the things you can do to have a sustainably managed backyard? Further Reading / Supplemental Links - Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1998. - http://www.fws.gov/endangered/kids/index.html - http://www.blm.gov/education/LearningLandscapes/students.html - http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/kids.html - http://www.biodiversityproject.org/biodiversity.htm - http://ology.amnh.org/biodiversity - http://www.biodiversity911.org - http://en.wikipedia.org Vocabulary biodiversity The number of different species or organisms in an ecological unit (i.e. biome or ecosystem). biological magnification The process in which synthetic chemicals concentrate as they move through the food chain, so that toxic effects are multiplied. bionics Engineering which uses the design of biological organisms to develop efficient products. desertification A process leading to production of a desert of formerly productive land. extinction The cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa. genetic pollution Hybridization or mixing of genes of a wild population with a domestic population. habitat The ecological or environmental area where a particular species lives and the physical environment to which it has become adapted and in which it can survive. habitat destruction The process in which a natural habitat is made functionally unable to support the species originally present. invasive species Exotic species, introduced into habitats, which then eliminate or expel the native species. slash-and-burn agriculture A method of agriculture in the tropics in which the forest vegetation is cut down and burned, then crops are grown for a few years, and then the forest is allowed to grow back. tallgrass prairies Native prairie ecosystems with thick fertile soils, deep-rooted grasses, and other characteristic species. wetlands A habitat that has a defined soil with characteristic vegetation and hydrology. Points to Consider - Global warming and climate change are frequently in the news these days, with reports of glaciers melting, and possible effects on species, such as the polar bear. Keep aware of these news trends and learn what you can about what species are becoming threatened. - Our purchasing decisions may affect biodiversity: be more aware of the natural resources used to make and transport any product you buy; Buy recycled products whenever possible; when you buy fish for food, check to be sure that commercial species are not from overharvested areas. Image Sources (1) \url{http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Obvious_water_pollution.jpeg}. CC-BY 2.5. (2) NOAA. \url{http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Atmosphere_layers-en.svg}. NOAA. (3) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Macquarie_perch.jpg. GNU-FDL. (4) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bioretention_cell_rain_garden_US_winter.jpg. Public Domain. (5) Bengt Olof ARADSSON. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Somalia_termitstack_B%C3%85n.jpg. GFDL/CC-BY-2.5. (6) Stephen Codringto. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Strip_coal_mining.jpg. CC-BY 2.5. (7) Keith Weller of the Agricultural Research Service. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:GEM_corn.jpg. Public Domain USDA ARS. (8) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Soilcontam.JPG. CC-BY-SA. (9) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Acid_rain_woods1.JPG. CC-BY-SA. (10) NASA. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Valencia,_Venezuela.jpg. Public Domain. (11) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Andropogon_gerardii.jpg. Public Domain US Government. (12) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Asbestos-Covered_Pipes_CNE-v1-p58-E.jpg. Public Domain. (13) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Air_pollution_1.jpg. Public Domain, US Federal Government. (14) Reservoirhill. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tallgrass_Prairie_Nature_Preserve_in_Osage_County.jpg. Public Domain. (15) Chuck Szmurlo. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg. GNU-FDL. (16) Mihael Simonic. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Solar_cells.jpg. CC-BY-SA-3.0. (17) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sand_mining(1).jpg. GNU-FDL. (18) Anthony Bley. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Wetlands_Cape_May_New_Jersey.jpg. Public Domain US Army USACE. (19) Laurie Driver. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Zebra_mussel_infestation_Ormond_Lock.jpg. Public Domain US Army USACE. (20) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Wildfiretopanga.jpg. Public Domain. (21) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Available_Energy-2.jpg. Public Domain. (22) Wagner Christian. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Windenergy.jpg. CC-BY-SA-2.5. (23) Jami Dwyer. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Lacanja_burn.jpg. Public Domain. (24) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brown_tree_snake_Boiga_irregularis_2_USGS_Photograph.jpg. Public Domain-USGOV-INTERIOR-NPS. (25) Mila Zinkova. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Oiled_bird_3.jpg. CC-BY-SA. (26) User SG. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Energy-consumption-per-capita-2003.png. GFDL. (27) User Willow. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Salix_alba_008.jpg. CC_BY-SA 2.5. (28) Alessandro Cai. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Rain_Forest_of_El_Yunque,_Puerto_Rico.jpg. Public Domain. (29) User HolgerK. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stagnogley.JPG. Public Domain. (30) Damien Farrell. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Harare_secondst.jpg. GFDL/CC-BY-SA. (31) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turtle_entangled_in_marine_debris_(ghost_net).jpg. Public Domain. (32) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Usine_Bret_MG_1643.jpg. Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.0 France. (33) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Air-pollution.jpg. GNU-FDL. (34) James Watt. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Nwhi_-_French_Frigate_Shoals_reef_-_many_fish.jpg. Public Domain US. (35) User Justin. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Animal_diversity_October_2007.jpg. CC-BY-SA-3.0. (36) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:060929_KW_Buchholz_001.jpg. GNU-FDL. (37) User:Dani 7C3. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Rance_tidal_power_plant.jpg. GNU-FDL. (38) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Lacanja_burn.jpg. Public Domain. www.ck12.org 940 Chapter 26 Appendix: Life Science 26.1 Investigation and Experimentation Activities The following activities are based on information provided within this FlexBook or taken directly from the Teacher Edition. The Scientific Method Through this discussion, students will understand scientific tools and technology necessary to perform tests, collect data, analyze relationships, and display data, they will understand sources of unavoidable experimental error and reasons for inconsistent results, and how to formulate explanations by using logic and evidence. The Five-legged Frog Here is an example of a real observation made by students in Minnesota (Figure 26.1). Imagine that you are one of the students who discovered this strange frog. As you go through this discussion, determine the tools necessary to collect and analyze the data. Also take note of potential places for experimental errors. Lastly, develop a fictional set of data based on the experiments proposed in this discussion, analyze the data and present the data to the class. Imagine that you are on a field trip to look at pond life. While collecting water samples, you notice a frog with five legs instead of four. As you start to look around, you discover that many of the frogs have extra limbs, extra eyes or no eyes. One frog even has limbs coming out of its mouth. You look at the water and the plants around the pond to see if there is anything else that is obviously unusual like a source of pollution. The next step is to ask a question about these frogs. For example, you may ask why so many frogs are deformed. You may wonder if there is something in their environment causing these defects. You could ask if deformities are caused by such materials as water pollution, pesticides, or something in the soil nearby. Yet, you do not even know if this large number of deformities is “normal” for frogs. What if many of the frogs found in ponds and lakes all over the world have similar deformities? Before you look for causes, you need to find out if the number and kind of deformities is unusual. So besides finding out why the frogs are deformed, you should also ask: “Is the percentage of deformed frogs in pond A (your pond) greater than the percentage of deformed frogs in other places?” No matter what you observe, you need to find out what is already known about your topic. For example, is anyone else doing research on deformed frogs? If yes, what did they find out? Do you think that you should repeat their research to see if it can be duplicated? During your research, you might learn something that convinces you to alter your question. Construct a Hypothesis A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of an observation. For example, you might hypothesize that a certain pesticide is causing extra legs. If that’s true, then you can predict that the water in a pond of healthy non-deformed frogs will have lower levels of that pesticide. That’s a prediction you can test by measuring pesticide levels in two sets of ponds, those with deformed frogs and those with nothing but healthy frogs. A hypothesis is an explanation that allows you to predict what results you will get in an experiment or survey. The next step is to state the hypothesis formally. A hypothesis must be “testable.” Example: After reading about what other scientists have learned about frog deformities, you predict what you will find in your research. You construct a hypothesis that will help you answer your first question. “The percentage of deformed frogs in five ponds that are heavily polluted with a specific chemical X is higher than the percentage of deformed frogs in five ponds without chemical X.” Test Your Hypothesis The next step is to count the healthy and deformed frogs and measure the amount of chemical X in all the ponds. This study will test the hypothesis. The hypothesis will be either true or false. An example of a hypothesis that is not testable would be: “The frogs are deformed because someone cast a magic spell on them.” You cannot make any predictions based on the deformity being caused by magic, so there is no way to test a magic hypothesis or to measure any results of magic. There is no way to prove that it is not magic, so that hypothesis is untestable and therefore not interesting to a scientist. Analyze Data and Draw a Conclusion If a hypothesis and experiment are well designed, the experiment will produce measurable results that you can collect and analyze. The analysis should tell you if the hypothesis is true or false. Example: Your results show that pesticide levels in the two sets of ponds are statistically different, but the number of deformed frogs is almost the same when you average all the ponds together. Your results demonstrate that your hypothesis is either false or the situation is more complicated than you thought. This gives you new information that will help you decide what to do next. Even if the results supported your hypothesis, you would probably ask a new question to try to better understand what is happening to the frogs and why. When you are satisfied that you have accurate information, you share your results with others. Hypothesis vs. Theory From this activity, students will understand the difference between a hypothesis and a scientific theory. Develop a Research Plan In chapter 1, the example of a plastic vs. wood cutting board is given. Ask students to develop a research plan involving other everyday items. First, students must develop a hypothesis, then formulate a plan to test their hypothesis. They may base their research plan around different brands of medicine (such as Tylenol vs. Advil) or different brands of food (such as soda), or other items they can think of. Develop a list of student hypotheses on the board. Hypothetically, assume all the hypotheses proved true. Have the class develop a scientific theory based on these hypotheses. Discuss with the class the difference between the theory and the individual hypotheses, as well as the limitations of the theory. Evaluation of Fossil Evidence In this activity, students will analyze the time intervals associated with the succession of species in an ecosystem. Have students critique the figure below, describing and evaluating the changes that occur at each evolutionary step depicted. Accumulation of Scientific Evidence In this activity students will understand the cumulative nature of scientific evidence. Evolution is a Scientific Theory Evolution by natural selection is supported by extensive scientific evidence. Have the class view the following video. - PBS Evolution: Library: Isn’t Evolution Just a Theory? [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/11/2/real/e_s_1.html](http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/11/2/real/e_s_1.html) 6 minute RealPlayer video Follow with a class discussion. Point out that no evidence has been found on earth that is not explained by evolution. Discuss how much evidence has been discovered, why evolution is such a widely-held scientific theory, and what future discoveries may show. Evolution as a theory does not simply mean a guess; it has been tested and supported by massive amounts of biological evidence from the fossil record and living species. Evolution can explain all evidence from the past two centuries of searching. In the future, we may find more about new species and their genomes from the fossil record, rainforests, and oceans. Figure 26.2: Evolution of the horse. Fossil evidence, depicted by the skeletal fragments, demonstrates evolutionary milestones in this process. Is it the data or the theory? Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed the idea that evolution occurs, but he did not suggest how it occurs. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection did discuss how evolution occurs. Though Darwin agreed with Lamarck that evolution occurs, he differed with Lamarck on several other points. Lamarck proposed that traits acquired during one’s lifetime could be passed to the next generation. We now know this does not occur. Discuss with the class how some data may not agree with an accepted scientific theory because sometimes the data is mistaken or fraudulent. Other times the theory may be wrong. Science and Society In this activity students will investigate a science-based societal issue by researching the literature, analyzing data, and communicating the findings. Students should incorporate concepts from biology and ecology into their responses. Habitat Destruction - Ask students if they understand that habitat destruction and biodiversity are related. How do they think these concepts might be intertwined? Begin discussion and accept all answers, writing some notes on the board. - Have students research this topic, analyzing available data and presenting their findings to the class. Students may choose to research the consequences of: 1. clearing habitats of vegetation for purposes of agriculture and development 2. habitats destruction by natural causes (lightning, earthquakes, fires, hurricanes, ice storms) 3. habitats destruction by humans 4. within the past 100 years, the significant increase in the area of cultivated land worldwide 5. the destruction of habitats on the species living in the habitats. Science and Math The Hardy-Weinberg Equation Using a hypothetical rabbit population of 100 rabbits (200 alleles), determine allele frequencies for color: • 9 albino rabbits (represented by the alleles bb) and • 91 brown rabbits (49 homozygous [BB] and 42 heterozygous [Bb]). The gene pool contains 140 B alleles \[49 + 49 + 42\] (70%) and 60 b alleles \[9 + 9 + 42\] (30%) – which have gene frequencies of 0.7 and 0.3, respectively. Solution If we assume that alleles sort independently and segregate randomly as sperm and eggs form, and that mating and fertilization are also random, the probability that an offspring will receive a particular allele from the gene pool is identical to the frequency of that allele in the population: - BB: $0.7 \times 0.7 = 0.49$ - Bb: $0.7 \times 0.3 = 0.21$ - bB: $0.3 \times 0.7 = 0.21$ - bb: $0.3 \times 0.3 = 0.09$ If we calculate the frequency of genotypes among the offspring, they are identical to the genotype frequencies of the parents. There are 9% bb albino rabbits and 91% BB and Bb brown rabbits. Allele frequency remains constant as well. The population is stable – at a Hardy-Weinberg genetic equilibrium. A useful equation generalizes the calculations we’ve just completed. Variables include - $p$ = the frequency of one allele (we’ll use allele $B$ here) and - $q$ = the frequency of the second allele ($b$ in this example). We will use only two alleles (so $p + q$ must equal 1), but similar equations can be written for more alleles. Allele frequency equals the chance of any particular gamete receiving that allele. Therefore, when egg and sperm combine, the probability of any genotype is the product of the probabilities of the alleles in that genotype. So: Probability of genotype $BB = p \times p = p^2$ and Probability of genotype $Bb = (p \times q) + (q \times p) = 2pq$ and Probability of genotype $bb = q \times q = q^2$ We have included all possible genotypes, so the probabilities must add to 1.0. In our example $0.49 + 2(0.21) + 0.9 = 1$. Our equation becomes: Science and Statistics Carcinogens are a potential hazard, with one of the most recognizable carcinogens smoking. Have students analyze the graph and following comments and write a paragraph on what this information tells us. Students need to include all statistical data presented, and discuss the importance of these numbers. As a class, discuss the importance of these numbers and the need for controlled experimentation when determining the consequences of cigarette smoke. See the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) web site (http://www.cdc.gov/NCCDPHP/publications/aag/osh.htm) for more information. Tobacco use is the single most preventable cause of disease, disability, and death in the United States. For every person who dies from smoking, about 20 more people suffer from at least one serious tobacco-related illness. The harmful effects of smoking do not end with the smoker. More than 126 million nonsmoking Americans, including children and adults, are regularly exposed to secondhand smoke. Even brief exposure can be dangerous because nonsmokers inhale many of the same carcinogens and toxins in cigarette smoke as smokers. Secondhand smoke exposure causes serious disease and death, including heart disease and lung cancer in nonsmoking adults and sudden infant death syndrome, acute respiratory infections, ear problems, and more frequent and severe asthma attacks in children. Maps and Models - Have students interpret the information shown on the map below. ![West Nile Virus in Humans 2000-2006](image) Figure 26.3: Epidemiologists study how diseases spread. The above map shows where humans contracted West Nile Virus between 2000 and 2006.?) - Have students interpret the data in the model below and make a testable prediction based on the information presented in the model. You use models for many purposes. A volcano model is not the same as a volcano, but it is useful for thinking about real volcanoes. We use street maps to represent where streets are in relation to each other. A model of planets may show the relationship between the positions of planets in space. Biologists use many different kinds of models to simulate real events and processes. Models are often useful to explain observations and to make scientific predictions. 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THE WAY IT WAS GROSSE ILE 1934 - 1952 By Tom Lennox Why I Wrote This The police didn’t come. We weren’t suspended. We didn’t even get detentions back in 1950 when they found out that the loud booms that reverberated off the Canadian shore at lunch time were coming from the cannon a friend and I had built in the school shop and were shooting across the Detroit River. A few years ago, I realized the way kids are growing up nowadays seems a lot different from the way I grew up. It just isn’t the way it used to be. I decided to write down some of my memories before I forget it all. I don’t think that some of my growing up was much different than in other small towns, but there were some things about Grosse Ile that were unique - and I suppose I did some things that were somewhat unusual. Grosse Ile was a small town - population about 2,000. School classes were smaller - about 30 students per grade level. We knew all the kids in the class and their families - and probably had been to most of each others homes. Some of the parents had labor jobs, some were sports personalities, many were engineers or executives in some of the large Detroit companies. I wasn’t aware of any major clicks among the kids. We all did a lot together. I don’t think we were too worried about the times or the state of the world even though our grade school years were during World War II. Most of our class would go on to further education. I wasn’t the best student and I wasn’t the worst. I didn’t join any gangs - I don’t think there were any - or break any bones or get expelled - quite. I wasn’t on the baseball or basketball or football teams, but I could run a pretty good half mile in track. Most of the girls thought I was cute and the boys didn’t and that was fine with me. I’ve tried to remember things as well as I can. I can’t remember a lot of names or dates. I’m sorry if I left anything out that anyone else remembers and thinks should be included, but it was a long time ago. So this is the way I remember it was. Tom Lennox DETROIT RIVER WESTSHORE GOLF & COUNTRY CLUB STABLES BURNED DOWN HOUSE POP STAND PIPELINE PUMP HOUSE ANN’S HOUSE WEST RIVER ROAD ISLAND DRIVE BALMORAL MIAMI BIG HOLE BIG TREE FOREST LANE LAKWOOD JEWELL COLONY THOROFARE RD MERIDIAN ROAD SWAMP THE CANAL JEWELL COLONY & WESTSHORE .... The Way It Was My family included my father, Thomas Smith (Scotty) Lennox, who had moved from Falkirk, Scotland to the US in 1921, my mother, Frances Dorothy Griffing Lennox (always called Billie) who came from the Jackson, MI, area, and my sister, Billie Jean (BJ), who was 4½ when I arrived on Tues., at 8:00am, Sept. 11, 1934. I was born at Wyandotte General Hospital, down river from Detroit, Michigan. They named me Thomas Morton (Morton was my Dad’s mother’s maiden name). I weighed 8 lbs., 1 oz. My mother said that I was born hungry and demanded two bottles right from the time I came home from the hospital - and I still can eat a lot! We lived in Bretton Woods in Trenton, MI, then moved to Grosse Ile 1936 into a small house in the area of the intersection of Thorofare Rd. and Church Rd - none of which I remember. Grosse Ile is an island about 10 ½ miles long and 2 miles across the middle. (See map) Its north end is in the Detroit River and its south end is in Lake Erie. It has area of about 10½ sq. miles and was, before the Europeans arrived, occupied by the Potowatomis, who called it Kitch Minishen. Over time, it was owned by the French, the British and the United States. It was purchased from the Potowatomis by the McComb brothers on July 6, 1776. Two bridges on the west side of the island connect it to mainland Michigan, about a 3rd of a mile away. The northern bridge was built in 1913 and was, until recently, a toll bridge. When I lived there, many people went down to the southern bridge, built in 1931, to avoid the toll even though that meant several more minutes of driving. The main north/south channel for Great Lakes shipping is dredged along the eastern side, which is about a mile from Ontario, Canada, with several small islands in between. (See maps.) These islands were the last link in one branch of the Underground Railway, making a pathway for escaping slaves to cross the river to safety in Amherstburg, Ontario. Several of the houses along East River Rd. have extra rooms in the basement with outside exits. Some have larger than usual tool sheds in the back yard. These facilities supplied a safe resting place for the fugitives until the time was right for the crossing. There is now a museum in Amherstburg telling about the slave trade and the Underground Railway. It’s well worth visiting. From 1871 to 1915 the New York Central Railroad crossed on a bridge from Trenton, ran on tracks parallel to Grosse Ile Parkway and then crossed a bridge to Stony Island, but never made it all the way to Canada. Several of the old supports still remain on Stony Island. There is a 60 ft wide canal, cut in 1895, diagonally northeast to southwest through the top two thirds of Grosse Ile. It is only 3 to 8 feet deep and the water moves quite slowly. It drains the water out of the low center area of the island to keep it from being so swampy. Residents living along the canal use it to get their small boats out of the fast 8 to 10 mile an hour current in the river - and it allows them to park their boats in their back yards. When we lived on the canal, we had a row boat and the “Buccaneer.” (More about that later). When we arrived, a great many of the Grosse Ile breadwinner residents were upscale owners, executives and businessmen from large corporations around Detroit - Charles and William Fisher of Fisher Body, Ransom E. Olds of Oldsmobile, William S. Knudsen of General Motors, Vernor of Vernor’s Ginger Ale as well as men from Ford Motor Company U.S. Steel, Wyandotte Chemicals and many others. Henry Ford and his wife had property but didn’t build a house. There was very little industry on the island, but there were a few local businesses - a grocery store, a drug store, a beauty shop, a barber shop, 2 gas stations, the Post Office, a welding shop, and a channel dredging company. The Navy Base was on the south end - and a chemical waste dump, which produced a great deal of tax money, was on Hennepin Point at the north end of the island. The Coast Guard had a station on the East Side, facing Canada. There was a boat house and a residence for the station keeper. That assignment was good for several years of duty - one officer did everything, customs, river patrol and immigration control. In 1937 we moved into a larger house, which was in Jewell Colony (#1 - see map). Jewell Colony was originated in 1925 by the three Jewell brothers, Wayne, Frank and Henry. It was a very early planned community, about a half a square mile that had once been part of a 9 hole golf course, so most of it had no trees. Only about 18 of the 95 lots were occupied when we arrived, mostly around the perimeter of the colony and only one (#2) in the center section. The colony was crossed by two north/south roads, Miami and Forest Lane. The area east of Forest Lane hadn’t been part of the golf course and was all woods. The area west of Forest Lane, about 2/3rds of the colony, had open fields. The section between Miami and Forest had “The Big Hole” (more farther on) and “The Big Tree,” a large oak tree, probably 3 ft in diameter - which looked gigantic to a kid. If you climbed it, you could look across the “vast” grasslands and see the whole colony. Every couple of years several of the residents got together and had a fall “burning” party. Since that one house in the open field area had a large yard around it, they were able to burn off all of the fields without much problem. This meant that for years small trees never got started and the land always looked the same to us - and the kids had a large field, about 700 ft. x 800 ft., to play in that never had growth more than 3 ft. tall. Several years later when the burning was stopped the trees quickly grew up and took over. By 1938 or 1939, we were in house #10, on Forest Lane and a family named Overesch lived next door in #4. They had three children, Kip and Kay were twins, about BJ’s age and an older sister, Connie. I played with Kip sometimes. He had a large supply of toy guns and he had big trucks with seats on top so that you could ride on them. A hook and ladder truck was given to me and I had it for years. I’m sorry it wasn’t kept for my own children. Mr. Overesch had a large ad agency in Detroit and they entertained a lot. One year Mrs. Overesch was planning a spring garden party in their backyard - a major social event. All the tulips and spring flowers were just beginning to bloom. A friend of mine, Jim Stadler, and I decided to pull up a lot of her plants in the morning of the day before the party. Why? I don’t know. Jim’s Dad was an executive at Chrysler Corporation and my Dad was the manager of the Socony Mobil Grease Plant in Trenton. Having fathers with fancy jobs doesn’t give little kids any more sense than anyone else. My Dad, sent some of the Socony Mobil yard maintenance men over to replant everything that afternoon. In 1939 or 1940, the Rodericks moved into house #9, diagonally behind ours. Mr. Roderick was a chemical engineer at Wyandotte Chemical company, one of several chemical engineers who lived in Jewell Colony. I don’t remember much about them then because the oldest child, Grace, was two years younger than I and Sally was 4 years younger. Lee, Judy, Jim and Connie were yet to arrive. When the Roderick girls got a little older, we became good friends and I spent a lot of time with them - especially after their cousin Kay, who was my age, began to visit them a lot. There seems to be a story that one time I put kerosene in Sally’s hair and told her that I was going to get matches and light it. I don’t remember it. I don’t think I would have done that - especially lighting it - but Sally still remembers being afraid that I would. The Roderick’s back yard had a low spot that in springtime formed a pond, about 50 ft. long, about 30 ft. wide and about a foot deep. Mr. Roderick would run a couple of garden hoses from the pond up over a higher area of land by the house and down into the basement drain and start a syphon to get rid of the water. This sort of thing was a great attraction for me. The only problem was that in playing around with the hoses, I sometimes pulled them up to in the air and they then they lost suction, so when he got home from work he’d have to go into the basement and get the syphon started again. At times like that, I don’t think he was too happy with me. On the south side of Island Drive, just opposite to where Forest Lane connects, there had been a house at one time. It had burned down and about 2/3rds of the basement had been backfilled with dirt - and there were some hills of dirt around the perimeter of the foundation, too. The chimney still stuck up about 3 or 4 feet above ground level and there was also part of an old fireplace. You could get down about half way into the basement level where it hadn’t been completely filled in. It provided the Jewell Colony kids with a fascinating play place. In the summer of 1939, our family went to Scotland to visit my Dad’s parents in Falkirk, about half way between Edinburgh and Glasgow. We went over on a large steamship - the SS Montclair - a 5 or 6 day cruise. Cruise ships were the only reasonable way to go - not much in the way of commercial trans-Atlantic flights at that time - and, besides, cruising was elegant (at least in 1st class) with formal dinners and dances and a lot of entertainment. Mom and Dad had one stateroom and BJ and I had another. There were air conditioning ducts connecting to the rooms. BJ tells me that about 5:00am in the morning I would yell into the vent which woke up several other travelers. They couldn’t tell which room the sound was coming from, but apparently there was discussion around the ship about noisy kids in that area. In Scotland, we stayed with my grandparents at the “Gas House” in Falkirk. It was a 2 story red brick building with apartments that allowed the managers of the gas plant (coal gas) to live on the plant property. My grandfather was the assistant manager. The front of the building faced the road, the back was adjacent to the railroad tracks. The plumbing pipes for the building all ran up and down the back outside wall of the house since there were no freezing temperatures. And there was an area - what we would now call a patio - where there was a separate wash house for doing the laundry. The railroad delivered coal to be baked into coke to produce gas. The gas was stored in tanks for the town to use for heating, cooking and lighting. The coke was sent to the steel mills or sold for use in home heating. While Mom and Dad were out sightseeing at castles and gardens for a few days, our grandparents took care of BJ & me. Knowing that we might find some of the Scottish food different from what we were used to, our parents had brought several cans of some of our favorite foods, particularly canned fruit and Chef Boyardee Spaghetti. We begged our grandmother to open one of the cans of spaghetti for lunch. When she opened it and looked inside, she was horrified and exclaimed, “Ye canna’ eat that - it’s all turned to worms!” and threw the can away, refusing to believe our pleas that it was fine to eat. Obviously she had never seen spaghetti before. We came home sooner than we had planned because things were becoming uneasy in Europe and there was fear that a war (WWII) might soon start. We sailed back in very stormy weather on the Duchess of Athol. My Mom was extremely sea sick and stayed in bed most of the time. I’ve read since that our course was very close to the Queen Mary’s and that passengers on that ship actually had broken bones from being tossed around so much. Billie Jean tells me that on my 5th birthday, which was on the ship coming back, I was presented with a dark brown cake. It was not the chocolate devils food that Mother would have made for us. It was a plum pudding!! BJ said I had the most disgusted expression on my face she’s ever seen. Neither one of us would touch that cake. It was probably the only time on the trip we refused food. Unfortunately I remember nothing of the whole trip - most of my memory doesn’t date back to any earlier than age 8 or 9 - but I have been told about it by my parents and sister - and fortunately I had a chance to visit Scotland and the Gas House again, as an adult in 1981. Another story I heard was that when I was 5 or 6 I left a stuffed panda out in the driveway. My parents had been out for dinner and came home after dark. In the car headlights, the panda looked like a skunk - which just sat there in the driveway and wouldn’t move. It seems that they stayed there in the car for quite a while before they finally realized what the furry creature was. When I was about 7 or 8, I used to sit out on the garage roof, accessible from my bedroom window and offering a much better view of the neighborhood. The roof was made of wooden shingles, which tend to get slippery when damp. One time I slid off, my toes caught in the gutter and a fell onto the gravel driveway, hands and face down. I got a little scraped up. This event I still remember. Maybe that’s why I don’t like heights. There was a horse riding stable on the south side of the colony between Westshore Golf & Country Club and the colony property just west of Waldeck’s (#17). Sometimes the kids in the neighborhood went over and watched the horses when they were exercising them in the outdoor corral. One time someone cracked a whip and a small piece of the leather tip on the end of the whip flew off and hit my right little finger. That knuckle still has a bump on it. After a while the stable went out of business and was vacant. Then it made a great place to play in - dark stalls, haylofts, mysterious rooms, and owls and pigeons flying around inside overhead. It would have been a wonderful place to put on a circus ( - but maybe none of us had seen enough circuses to think of that. I don’t remember anything about going to a circus or anyone I knew going to a circus.) A few years later, the stable burned down. SCHOOL DAYS Helen Virginia Beyster (#8) was a friend of mine even before we started school and we went all through school together. In Sept. 1939 we started kindergarten, along with 9 other kids, at the Grosse Ile grade school. Our class was mostly the same group all the way from early elementary school through high school graduation in 1952. Our kindergarten teacher’s name was Mrs. Harris. The next year, in 1st grade, the teacher was Mrs. Walker. I believe she taught there for 27 years total and was very well liked by all. I can’t remember much of kindergarten through 2nd grade - a few things about a lot of large wooden building blocks, nap rugs, wooden floors and the location of the rooms and that reading was difficult for me all through grade school. The elementary school, built in 1911, had Kindergarten, 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades and the office on the first floor, which was up 4 to 5 steps from the ground level. Lavatories, kitchen and cafeteria were in the basement, down about 4 or 5 steps from ground level. The basement windows had long, low window wells half above the ground, half below so you could see out somewhat - great for hiding in during recess. You had your choice between staying in the classroom with the lunch you brought or going to the cafeteria. I must have taken my lunch all of the time. I remember eating in the classroom - I don’t ever remember eating in the cafeteria. Each classroom had its own attached coatroom with rows of hooks to hang coats and sweaters. Just coats, hats and boots - and leggings for the girls - but no back packs back then. I don’t even remember that we had book bags - I just remember carrying the books. The coatroom had a door to the center hall and a door to the classroom. The floors were well worn varnished hardwood. It was similar in many ways to Center Street School in Mentor that all of my children attended, but it was made of grey block and covered half way up the walls with ivy. K through 3rd used the playground in front of the school with swings, teeter-totter, merry-go-round - and lots of nice bushes that were good to hide in. The playground was about 100' x 150' with a 4' chain link fence around it (no escaping!!). The older classes used the back yard. The 4th, 5th and 6th grades and the library were on the second floor. There were two doors leading into the balcony that overlooked the gymnasium and stage. The second floor classrooms each had a fire escape chute out the side. You got into them through double folding doors about 40" wide and 3 1/2 ft. high. The chutes were about 3 feet in diameter and about 30 ft. long. With a bit of wax paper under you, off you went. We had fire drills now and then - and sliding down the chutes kept them clean. (For some reason, though I remember the fire drills well, I don’t remember any air raid drills.) There were no doors at the bottom of the chutes and in bad weather we’d climb up inside them from the playground to keep dry and to play. In the winter, the wind blew into the classrooms under the fire escape doors. That area was always the coldest spot in the rooms. During those years I was in most of the school music programs held at Thanksgiving, Christmas and in the Spring. I didn’t play an instrument so I was a Song and Dance Man. I even had a solo - I remember it just a little - sitting in a chair in the middle of the stage singing about spring fever and not liking books, which I guess was very appropriate for me. 1940S TO 1950S - SOCIAL LIFE IN GROSSE ILE My parents belonged to the Grosse Ile Golf and Country Club. This was the major social club on the Island. It had a large, fan-shaped swimming pool ringed with 3 ft. high concrete urns filled with flowering plants. The pool had 1 and 3 meter diving boards, with an overflow area of shallow water for little kids. One time they filled the overflow area with sand to make an artificial beach. The golf course was nationally known for pro tournaments. During the summer, on Thursdays, the Club had “Family Night” in the club house dining room. There was a buffet - fairly simple food that the kids and adults would both like - hot dogs, potato salad - picnic type food. The families sat at round tables - all with white linen tablecloths and napkins. Afterwards, the parents retired to the bar or the porch for cocktails and the kids (about 25 to 30 of us) went into the lounge next to the dining room. All the chairs would be turned to face one wall where a movie screen was set up. Someone on the staff would pull the curtains to make it dark and then would show old 16mm cartoons. These were 15 to 20 min, black and white, silent films. Occasionally a color film would show up. The younger kids liked it, but the older kids like my sister often snuck out. They didn’t want to watch the same old cartoons week after week. Sometimes they went to play pool with the kitchen staff. All through the 50s and 60s this was still one of the main social clubs for Grosse Ile and the southern Detroit area. There was a similar club in Grosse Point serving the area north of Detroit. My Mom was one of the Grosse Ile champion women golfers. One year she won the Championship at Grosse Ile Golf and Country Club and was the Runner-up at Westshore Golf and Country Club, which was adjacent to Jewell colony and which was eventually partly owned by my Dad - more later. The week before deer season each year, Dad and some of his friends would take the bartender, Jacques, from Grosse Ile Golf and Country Club (which had curtailed operations for the winter) up to Northern Michigan to act as a cook at a hunting lodge that one of them had in the Traverse City area. Their most important supplies were poker chips, cards and bottles of whiskey. Dad and several others would head for home the day before hunting season opened. Many of them never did any hunting - just dealing and calling. In the spring, the whole group would go back to the lodge to cut wood so they’d have a supply for the next fall. The Martins, who lived on the South Eastern part of Grosse Ile (see map), were quite well to do. They had large green houses and several acres of gardens. There was a tall pine tree in the front yard with buried electric cables running permanently to it. Every year from the 1920s to 1965 they lit it up as a huge outdoor Christmas Tree, except for 4 years during WWII. Our family and others on the Island would stop over before Christmas for the adults to have a drink or so and the Martins would give the kids a large jar of all kinds of hard candy. They were very nice and this was just something they did to be sociable. From what I hear, this custom was discontinued due to some vandalism and Mr. Martin’s death. The garden acreage eventually became a sub-division with lots of houses. For the fourth of July, a lot of the Islanders, went to O’Connor’s house on the NE side of the island on the edge of the river. (see map). We’d put down blankets in their large back yard and eat the picnic dinners we had brought. They supplied kegs of Vernors Ginger Ale. When it got dark sometimes we could see some of the big fireworks display from Detroit about 15 miles up stream - but that didn’t matter so much to the kids because the O’Connors would set off a large fireworks display themselves - shot them out over the river. This went on for several years and there was never any charge. Everybody just came and the O’Connors liked to do it. (I’d like to do that, too!!!) There was no worry about fireworks laws and regulations - city officials would have been attending and “supervising.” It was common during those years for the two churches in town to have bingo parties before Thanksgiving and Christmas for fund-raisers. It didn’t make any difference if it was the Catholic or the Episcopal Church - everyone just went back and forth. Mom was very fond of going to the bingos and quite often won something. The prizes usually were turkeys or chickens. The problem was that when you won a bird you got a large wooden cage containing a LIVE turkey or chicken. You’d have to take it home, kill and dress it yourself and cook it up and eat it soon. There were very few home freezers at that time. Dressing your own bird was quite a normal thing to do. The same for ducks shot during hunting season in the fall. For many years, Mom drove BJ and me up to Detroit to Hudson’s Department Store before Christmas to see Santa, have our pictures taken, see the fancy windows and go shopping. This was equivalent to going to Macy’s in New York at Christmas - THE place to be! We’d have lunch at Hudson’s restaurant - white linens and heavily embossed silverware and fine china - a major event in a child’s life. At that time there were lots of jobs in the auto plants and steel mills. Detroit was a bustling city with lots of shoppers and businesses downtown. Every year after Christmas Mr. Day had a dog party in his back yard. All the neighborhood dogs were invited and were supposed to come with their owners on a leash. In the afternoon, Mr. Day set out pans of “dog stew” that he had been cooking all morning long. He had a tree with hot dogs on it so the dogs could pick off their own treat. There were also hot drinks of various kinds to keep the human guests warm inside. On New Year’s day, a family who had a large Tudor style house brought in a pipe (bagpipe) band. There was a large inside balcony at the second level around 3 sides of one of the rooms and the band played from there. You could hear them quite well from the outside - many people would stop to listen - and their friends would drop in for a little “warm cheer.” Dad and some of his buddies drove around in tux and tails and top hats stopping often at other friends houses, too, to wish them a good New Year and get another - and another - bit of “cheer.” Many times when we had a good snow we could sled down the hill on Lakewood Drive to where it connects to Forest Lane. There was not a lot of traffic, so it was a good place to sled. The roads were not plowed out and the snow was often well packed. You also could tie a rope from your sled or toboggan to the back of a car and be towed around the roads. CLARK LAKE VACATIONS In the summertime during the early 40’s & 50’s our family would sometimes rent a cottage for a few weeks at Clark Lake southeast of the Jackson area where Mother had grown up. Clark Lake is big enough for sail boat races, which was what made it a popular summer resort area. We usually rented the same cottage each year. A house keeper was hired to come along so that Mom could have a real vacation herself. Dad took a week or so off but the rest of us stayed longer. When he was there, Dad was usually on the lake by sunrise and was done fishing by about 8:30am. Then we could use the boat. It seems we just about lived in the lake. The water all around the edges was shallow and great for wading. Clark Lake is in the Irish Hills - a glacial hills area - and fed by deep springs from beneath and from the edges. The incoming water was very clear and cold - 56 F. - and we kept our pop in a box in a spring in the back yard. Mother had a brother and several sisters in the area - we sometimes went to visit. Our Uncle Don had a pond in the backyard with goldfish. We enjoyed chasing the fish around with our hands - Uncle Don didn’t mind but I don’t think the fish were too happy to see us. But most of our time was spent in Clark Lake, so Uncle Don’s fish didn’t have to worry very often. World War II lasted through grades 2 to 5 - 1941-1945. I remember that we had a hard time getting rubber boots and that people couldn’t build houses. In school, we were often given dried fruit and canned juice for morning breaks. With the wartime scarcities, maybe someone thought we didn’t get enough fresh fruit at home. I never did like the dried apricots. Sometime in 1943 there was a scrap metal drive on the island to collect metal for war materials. All the metal was brought to the high school and piled in the back yard. There were old cars, windmills, hot water tanks, kettles, all kinds of good stuff - copper, steel, aluminum, brass - the pile must have been 75 ft. wide and 30 ft. high. It probably got rid of a lot of antiques, which made the ones that were left a lot more valuable, no doubt. The antique market must have profited in later years. SPRING OF ‘43 We moved out of Jewell Colony and rented house (#16) about 500 ft. southeast on Meridian Road and next to -THE CANAL! When the canal was originally dug, the dirt was piled up at the sides, creating dikes along the edges about 5 ft. high and 10 ft. wide. This made the canal seem deeper and wider than it really was. By the time I lived there, the dike was well covered with trees and bushes, some leaning out over the water. Since much of the land around the canal was generally low, water built up between the wall of the dike and the higher ground, where the houses were, 50 to 100 ft. away. This formed nice swamps with marsh grass. In some places, cuts were made through the bank to drain the water into the canal. High water levels in the lake and canal in the spring would reverse the flow of water and fill up the swamps, especially when there was a strong northeast wind. In some areas the land owners filled in the low spots so that their yards could run continuously to the canal. This gave them a nice place to build their fancy boat houses - some with living quarters upstairs. Boat wells were cut back into the bank and many of the boats could be lifted out of the water in the winter time. Most of the boats were small power boats since low clearances under the bridges prevented most of the sail boats from coming in without the hassle of dropping masts, which most people didn’t want to bother with. Our back yard and our neighbor’s were filled in and went down to the water (more grass to cut), but on each side there were several empty lots that had not been filled in and there was about 1,000 ft of swamp, about 75 ft. wide on each side of us. These swamps made a great place for fish to come in and lay eggs. There was a good supply of 10” to 12” bullfrogs - good eating - 4 legs on each - and lots of turtles, mostly the “snapping” type. They would feed on fish, frogs, and sometimes, our ducks. For a few years we had a flock of about 50 mallard ducks. Some left in the fall and came back in the spring. Others wintered over in and around our chicken coop on the edge of the next-door swamp. We kept food and fresh water out for them during the winter. Sometimes one of the ducks would sit in the water dish overnight and got his feathers frozen into the water. This resulted in our taking him into the house, into the basement coal room. We had a room in the basement to store the coal (prepackaged in bricks in a paper wrapper - less mess) for the furnace. The room could be closed off to keep the duck out of the rest of the basement. Of course, while the duck was thawing out from the ice, my sister and I would always give him special treats. Most of the time it was the same duck that did this. Not too dumb!! I’m still very fond of mallards. While we had the ducks, there was a lot of traffic on Meridian road due to the activity on the Navy base. Many of the base personnel (civilians) were let out at 5:00pm. Several times our ducks decided to try out the water in the ditch on the other side of the road. They would cross in a single file line of about 20 ducks, stopping all traffic. This did not go over well with the local authorities, so we had to put a fence up on the street side of their pen area. For a couple of years we also had a pair of Canada Geese who took over the place - chased our car and our dog - and there was no getting near their nest. The chicken coop, housed about 10 chickens. They gave us a supply of eggs and occasionally a chicken dinner. I got the job of cleaning the coop. 10 chickens left a lot a droppings in a day or two. Some years, in the spring, a strong easterly wind would cause the water to rise. The chickens apparently didn’t know enough to look before they jumped out for their morning dirt scratching and sometimes found themselves in water about a foot deep swimming to the high ground about 30 ft. away. There was lots of flying water and wing action. Chickens are not intelligent, friendly or cuddly birds. I still don’t like chickens except to eat. Often we had to move the nesting ducks back to dry ground to save the eggs. This usually meant several bites on the knuckles from the beaks of the mother ducks. We didn’t do this with the geese - they could break a human wrist with one blow from one of their elbows. Since we had lots of grain around for duck and chicken food, the local rodent population moved in. The hill sloping down from the garage to the chicken coop was an ideal place for the rats to burrow. This way they could grab the grain and retreat into their tunnels and not be seen. The tunnels usually had 2 or 3 entrances/exits, some near the top and some near the bottom of the hill. I remember I’d pour a little gasoline into one of the top holes and wait a few minutes, then toss a lighted match into the hole. Kafuff!!! Dirt and rubbish would fly out of the bottom holes. I don’t know if this ever really stopped the rats, but it must have slowed down their housekeeping. We also had a couple of mink that would get into the henhouse. Big egg eaters - and sometimes they enjoyed a chicken dinner. We never did find out where they lived. One year we tried to raise pheasants. We got about 100 eggs and an electric incubator that we put in the basement. They needed to be kept in the incubator for about 25 days. During that time, the thermostat on the incubator failed and we lost heat for several hours. Only about 11 eggs hatched. We transferred the hatchlings to a pen we had built outside. To keep predators out, the pen had fine chicken wire on the top as well as the sides. All went well for several days. Then a couple of garter snakes got into the pen to keep warm too. This scared all the chicks to death - literally. So ended our pheasant business. Our dog was a black cocker spaniel named Bruce. His doghouse was built up into the ceiling of the basement - a box about 3' x 3' x 2' tall. The front door was mounted against the opening where the window had been and covered with a rug flap to allow the dog access but keep the wind and snow out. Inside the basement there was a small, latchable door to reach in and clean out the bedding or put in food. One night Brucie spent the night in the house. When he went back outside next morning he was soon standing outside his door barking and barking, so we went downstairs and looked inside his doghouse and found that one of the ducks had moved in overnight - built a nest and started to lay eggs. Bruce had to sleep elsewhere for several weeks until the eggs all hatched and the ducks moved out. Since we lived across the street from the Westshore golf course, it was a quick run for Bruce to dash across the road and grab a golf ball from the fairway and then run back to our yard to play with it. Usually a very unhappy golfer would follow shortly. (Note for non-golfers - tooth marks ruin a golf ball!) At Christmas when I was 12 I received a BB Gun rifle - good for shooting at cans and targets. I don’t remember shooting any other kids with it and no one has ever said that I did. I set up a board in the basement that I could pin targets to and shoot at - about a 25 foot range. A few years later, I received an air rifle - pump type with lots of power. Later on I got a .22 caliber semi-automatic rifle, which I still have. On our side of the canal, about 1,000 ft down the bank south of us, there was a pumping station to supply water for the golf course. There was a 6" diameter steel pipe that ran across the swamp, suspended about 6" above the water. This gave us kids a bridge across the swamp. There was about 75 ft of it that we could walk on - like a large tight wire - nothing to hang on to. It wiggled some and was a might slippery from the interesting green things growing in the swamp - so, of course, it wasn’t unusual to fall off, which meant you’d be covered with duck weed and other green and brown stuff. The water was usually only about a foot or so deep, but the muck underneath was about 2 ft. deep and quite rotten smelling, with a few big, 4" black leeches to boot. A good wash down with a hose did the job of cleaning up. We spent a lot of our time in the water and mud. The area really was a nature lover’s dream. You could hear bull frogs at night, sounding like cows stuck in the mud - and we had all the bugs and mosquitoes anyone could possibly want. FISH STORY BJ and I were always trying to catch fish, either in the canal or the swamps. One time in the spring, we were wading around chasing the carp, which would come in during the flooding season and lay their eggs. We saw one rather large fish but trying to catch a large fish in two feet of water with your hands is a bit hard to do. Billy Jean was wearing a wool babushka (a square scarf). She gave it to me and I grabbed the fish with it - it stuck to the fish so it couldn’t slide out. We took it up to the house. It was 36" long and weighed 10 lbs. - quite difficult to handle. We thought we had a really big northern pike. It turned out we had a medium size muskie. There was a standing rule in our household - you catch it, you clean it. When Dad saw what we had he volunteered to clean it so we wouldn’t mess it up. He gave half to some good friends of ours and we kept the other half. It tasted VERY good. The mid 40s was before anyone had a TV. We listened to a lot of radio - homemaker type programs in the morning, soap operas in the afternoon, and then, after school, from 4:00pm to 6:00pm, several stations aired children’s adventure programs - Captain Midnight, Tom Mix, Jack Armstrong, Little Orphan Annie, Buck Rogers, Hop Harrigan, etc. These were 15 minutes long, with about half the program being commercials, mostly for cereals and children’s drinks like Ovaltine. There were lots of special offers for kid-appeal prizes - like whistles and decoder rings and patriotic things to make a kid feel like part of the war effort. All you had to do was send in a box top or label along with 10 cents or a quarter. 6:00pm to 7:00pm there were news programs, 7:00pm to 8:00pm was for ½ hour family adventures like The Lone Ranger, I Love a Mystery, The Green Hornet and Sgt. Preston of the Yukon. 8:00pm to 11:00pm had half hour and hour comedy, drama and variety shows. Lux Radio Theater, Bob Hope, Jack Benny, Fred Allen, Fibber McGee and Molly, The Great Gildersleeve, Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy. On Saturday mornings there was Let’s Pretend - dramatized fairy tales - and Land of the Lost about a kingdom under the sea where all the lost articles on earth were collected. BUT, at 10:30pm on Sunday night - past bedtime for me - Olga Coal sponsored The Hermit’s Cave - “ghhoosssttt stories, weeiirrddd stories and murders, too” - really frightening for a kid. I often snuck into BJ’s room and we listened to it on her radio with the sound turned down low and the lights turned out. Not to be listened to alone. Very scary!!!! Harry Bennett, a major Auto Workers Union executive, built a Japanese pagoda style house on West River Road (next to the home of Mickey Cochran, a famous catcher for the Detroit Tigers). The house was situated between the road and the Detroit River, with half the house over the water. Beside the fireplace there was a secret passageway that led into the boat house to a ready-to-go motor launch which could be dropped instantly into the river. The passage from the fireplace also went in the opposite direction, down underneath the road to a garden house about 100 ft. away. Apparently he was very worried about being caught by “somebody!” - the Mafia? The Feds? There were rumors about the Purple Gang! Whoever, Harry could escape by land or by sea. Eventually it became a rite of passage for kids my sister’s age to sneak into the house through the tunnel and back out again without being caught. Years later, I heard that someone bought the house and filled in the tunnel with concrete. Party Pooper!! 4TH GRADE - ‘43-44, 44-45 Upstairs - away from the little kids - a big deal! And more possibilities. From the 4th grade up, it was a common thing for boys to have some sort of pocket knife all the time as long as the blade was less than 3 inches long - used to sharpen pencils, etc. - hopefully not to carve up too many desks. Mrs. Callahan was our teacher. She also taught geography for the 7th graders. She was very active in Michigan geography. She - or her son - or both of them - wrote a book or two on geography for the schools. One of our main projects was to recite how to get an iron ore boat from Duluth, MN, though the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence River and out to sea, naming, in correct order, the rivers, lakes and locks you would go through. Each student had to get up before the class and give the same list - a couple of kids each day. I did OK on that. (I can still remember: Lake Superior, into Whitefish Bay, through the Sault Locks, down the St. Marys River into Lake Huron, into the St. Clair River, into Lake St. Clair, through the Detroit River (passing Grosse Ile) into Lake Erie, into the Welland Canal, (bypassing Niagara Falls), into Lake Ontario, through the St. Lawrence River into the Atlantic Ocean.) And we read the story, “Paddle to the Sea,” by Holling C. Holling, about an Indian boy who made a toy birchbark canoe that made the whole trip from Duluth, MN, to the Atlantic. One of the things I was very good at was to tell how to break down crude oil into different oils, fuels, tars and coke. Mrs. Callahan had a display case with about 20 sample bottles of all of these materials. My readin’, ritin’ and ‘rithmetic, though, were not too good so I stayed in 4th grade for a second year. (They didn’t know anything about dyslexia back then.) Staying behind put me with the class of ‘53 instead of ‘52. Yvonne Haensler was in that class and became my person “of special interest” for the next few years. She was taller than I was at that age. We rode bikes around the island a lot in the summer and went to a movie or two in Trenton. During WWII, the Navy Base on Grosse Ile kept a group of POWs, mostly German or Polish, I think. They did yard work for area residents. I remember that they wore grey uniforms with a big white “POW” on the back. I don’t recall seeing much supervision, so things must have been better here than “Over There.” Another memorable part of the WWII years was RATIONING! Every family was sent a book (or books) of commodity stamps. Some were for food such as meat, sugar, butter and coffee. Some were for gasoline, oil and automotive supplies. Each family received a book each month and when you went to the store you had to turn them in according to what you bought. You were only allowed to buy as much as you had stamps for, so you had to make them last the month. You got more or less stamps according the size of the family. I don’t think you were allowed to accumulate them so you couldn’t hoard something that was in short supply - they wanted to keep the flow moving at predictable rates. The government was also trying to guard against inflation and put on price controls. Another thing that was rationed was liquor - which was sold at Brown’s Drug Store. It was not unusual to see a long line of housewives there. Mother didn’t enjoy being part of the line in order to get Dad’s whiskey. In general though, people didn’t complain much about rationing. They felt it was part of what they could do on the home front to win the war. Since Dad’s work at the refinery was a strategic wartime position and gas was rationed to only a few gallons a week, the refinery was allowed to deliver several 55 gallon drums of gasoline and a hand pump to our garage so that he could fill the tank on his car whenever he needed to. Our garage was a 2 car unit about 50’ from the house. When the house was built the owners didn’t want to lose the huge oak tree in the side yard so they split the driveway to go around it. Over the years, the tree acquired quite a few nicks and bruises about fender high. A loft had been built above the back half of the garage, with a door on the front inside. You needed a stepladder to get into it. It was used to store summer things in the winter and winter things in the summer. It made a great place for a clubhouse. We kids often hung out up there in the afternoon and ate “rations” - Milk Bones and jelly. The problem was that it got hot in the summer (no windows) and cold in the winter and it had no lights - though light leaked through the holes in the boards - but it was still a fun place for a lazy day. We had a large “victory garden” for growing tomatoes, beans, peppers, carrots, eggplants and such. All of this required someone to pull the weeds and pick off the bugs. Guess who??? The vegetables were cooked, “put up” into glass canning jars and stored in our fruit cellar in the basement. Everybody was encouraged to be as self sufficient as possible during WWII. There were few frozen foods yet. Most refrigerators had only a very small freezer compartment with just enough room for two trays of ice cubes, so fruit and vegetables were canned and ice cream was purchased in pints and usually most or all of it was eaten as soon as it was brought in the door. 5TH GRADE ‘45-46 I don’t remember much special from the 5th grade. I think I had some teacher and academic problems. I got along with the kids in the class pretty well, but I still hung out a lot with my original class. That made it difficult when we were having class wars on the playground with sticks and stones and I was on the side of my old classmates, which did not endear me to the future class of ’53. One thing I do remember was that I found a new hiding place. The gymnasium in the elementary school had a balcony at one end with a projection booth in the back wall. The projector had been shut down years before, but I could slip through the projection slot and get into the booth, which was dark - no lights and a lot of dust - but there was a good collection of gears and pulleys and other parts left behind. So I had a good place to scavenge and I could disappear for a while during lunch and no one really noticed. I still have some of the pulleys and gears in my basement. In the winter, the ice on the river was too dangerous to go out onto because of the strong currents that left weak spots in it. Along the shore, the wind piled the ice up in jagged hunks. The slow moving canal water froze thicker with a much smoother surface. Kay and some of the Roderick kids would come over and skate. We had to be careful of soft spots where drain and sewer pipes emptied in. We’d sometimes cut a 6 ft. square hole out of the ice to allow our ducks and a few other wild ducks some swimming time. BACKYARD - TOWARD THE CANAL The slope from our house to the low area by the canal made a great sledding hill. But the best place for winter play was the hills on Westshore Golf Course - longer hills and high enough so a kid could ski a little. This was much safer than using the roads in Jewell Colony - and lots more snow. All I had were old war surplus downhill skies, so I’d loosen up the bindings and use them for cross country to go back and forth across the course in the snow. 6TH GRADE - 1946/47 WE WERE TOP DOGS NOW!!! We had one of the best teachers in grade school - Mrs. Burdeno. She spent about 30 minutes after lunch reading us continuing mystery stories. I think she taught for about 30 years. Because I was a year behind, I was one of the oldest kids in the 6th grade. And I was one of only a few Boy Scouts in the class, so I was frequently assigned flag duty. This entailed putting the flag up on the flagpole in front of the school when classes started and then taking it down in the afternoon when school was over, which meant it was done during the beginning of the 1st class and the end of the last class. Most of the time it just took a few minutes, but in the winter, ice and snow would get the ropes stuck, so the time spent could often be pushed to about 20 minutes - that much more time we got out of class. Since I had to take the school bus home, they had to let me out of class plenty early so I could take care of the flag and not miss the bus. The Boy Scouts met in the study hall of the High School once a month. One of the things I remember best is that they had training movies from the Air Station - including “How to Crash and Survive in the Arctic” and “How to Crash and Survive in the Jungle.” The Arctic movie used a 1 or 2 man plane, the Jungle movie had a 5 or 6 man bomber. The movies were about 30 minutes long and were commercial Hollywood productions using well known actors. The movies somewhat paralleled the woodsman skills being taught by the Boy Scouts. There weren’t any science projects in grades 1 through 6, but I had been acquiring a lot of my own things - chemical sets and electrical stuff. I was already a science nerd, I guess. In the basement I had a 2 ft. x 6 ft. workbench, but I did developing in the kitchen sink. Some of the photos in this write-up are pictures I took, developed and printed back then. All the time we lived on Meridian Road, I went over to Jewell Colony to play with my friends there. When Kay was visiting the Rodericks, I spent lots of time with her - and the other girls were usually there, too. There was a large bedroom over their garage that some of the girls used, especially when Kay was there. By climbing on the edges of the uneven bricks on the back garage wall, I could grab onto the window ledge and climb in the window. I don’t know if their parents ever knew about it. One of the more popular games in the neighborhood was Kick-the-Can. This might be played in an area a quarter of a mile square, with the goal usually in my friend Dave Burchfield’s yard (#6). The field across from Dave’s house was often used for soccer or baseball depending on how the grass was cut. I can’t remember who cut the grass. We played outdoors in the daytime or at night. It wasn’t unusual for us to be outside long after dark. We built a lot of campfires. One time we threw a couple of CO2 cartridges into a fire we had in the woods and then hid behind the trees. Very soon they exploded and shot sharp pieces of metal all over the place, along with sparks and ashes. We were smart enough to realize it wasn’t a good idea to do that again - the trees weren’t really big enough to protect us very well. My friends and I didn’t do a lot of overnight camping. We were out so late we were probably glad to get back in and go to bed. Sometimes I would sleep out on the screened-in front porch, though. And I do remember a couple of campouts. One night 3 or 4 of us decided to camp out in the “Big Hole.” (See Map) It was a partial excavation, maybe 20 ft. in diameter, 8 ft. deep, from a house that was never built in the middle of Jewell Colony. It was about 10 or 11 pm and we were getting hungry, so one of the kids whose house was nearest ventured home to get some goodies. He came back with a brown paper lunch bag with several hot, grilled peanut butter sandwiches. I still cringe at the memory of the smell. Another time, three of us rode our bikes up to the north end of the island, Hennepin Point, about 4 miles. It was the middle of August, so we took very light sleeping bags and no tent. The area had a sand beach and dirt hills alongside the river. When I say river, I mean the wide part of the Detroit River with 3/4 mile of open water to the east. We camped on the flat sand area near the water. The nearest house was about a half a mile away. That night a northeastern wind blew up. The water rose about 2 feet, which covered the beach, so we moved about 10 feet up onto a hill of dirt. There wasn’t any rain, but the wind was very damp and cold from blowing across the water - too windy to keep a fire going. We really didn’t get much sleep, just lying on the ground in our sleeping bags feeling miserable. In the chilly morning we still had to ride 4 miles back home for a hot breakfast and back to bed. In the winters, with the river frozen over, wolves sometimes came across from Canada - and there were rumors of bobcats. The wolves had sometimes been found scavenging in the garbage dump at the Navy Base - and some people claimed they had heard the bobcats crying. We didn’t seem to be concerned that there could easily be some of them living on the island year round that we might run into, especially in remote areas after dark. In 1903, at the south tip of the Gross Ile, next to Round Island (see map), someone drilled a well - hoping for oil. At approximately 2,200 ft. they ran into a pressurized cold mineral spring. The well pipe was about 8" in diameter and the water pushed up about 10 feet in the air above ground. Millions of gallons of water flowing. The owner had a store next to the well to sell this "WONDER WATER." Some of the water was diverted into pipes where he could fill gallon jugs. The rest ran over a water wheel that turned a generator to light the lights in the store. Then the water flowed about 50 ft. in a little creek into the canal that went into Lake Erie. The water was filled with all kinds of minerals, tasted poor and smelled BAD from hydrogen sulfide. The owner, Don Swann, made his own fireworks and sold those, as well as the water, along with various novelties. Several of us often rode our bikes down there (about 5 miles) in the summer to get candy and other goodies - but never to drink the water!!! The Wonder Well went dry in 1994. The Waldeck kids, Bob, Carol and Pete, lived in # 17. The family had a large garden and greenhouse. After the first frost, there were lots of tomatoes and small melons that had been damaged. Sometimes we had vegetable fights. You haven’t been in a vegetable fight until you’ve been hit by an overripe, soft melon. It’s almost like being slimed - plus the seeds. Again, this meant a good wash down with a hose to clean-up. Sometime in the late ‘40s, Dad, Wayne Jewell and Jim Stadler, bought West Shore Golf and Country Club. During WWII, part of the golf course had been leased to the US Navy. They needed the top 3" of sod to cover their ammunition bunkers and other parts of the Naval Base as it expanded. After the war, the Detroit Lions football team leased that section as a summer practice field. You could stand around all summer and watch them. Turning that area back into a golf course meant that all the grass and sand traps had to be redone. The main building on the property was built in 1875 - a large, four story house, facing the Detroit River. The first floor had a large ballroom, a separate dining room, an outdoor dancing porch about 60 ft. square, a grill room and bar, and to the back, the kitchen, scrub rooms and storage rooms. The second floor had two connecting apartments up front (which became Stadler’s place to live in the summertime), a large conference room, and living quarters for 4 staff members. A grand staircase went up from the first floor main entrance to the second floor. There was also a small staircase at the back from the staff rooms down to the kitchen. The third floor was a tall attic over the apartments and conference room. In the center of the attic, was a staircase leading up to the cupola - one room about 10 ft. square, windows on all 4 sides - great view! Under the building was a basement, only about 6 feet deep, with an earthen floor. It contained mostly a large coal fired, hot air furnace to heat the building in the spring and fall. When the building was locked up in the wintertime, I could crawl under the outdoor dance floor, go through a basement window and feel my way over to a large cold air return in the floor just inside the front door. By pushing it aside, I could crawl up into the first floor, then go anyplace in the building, even all the way up to the cupola and look out - and go down and get out again without anyone knowing I had been there. Sally or Lee Roderick went with me sometimes. One time we sneaked into one of the rooms that was used by the kitchen staff and found they had left several girly magazines and pictures, so we got a bit of non-textbook health and hygiene education. When the course was shut down in the winter, Dad and I did a lot of work on the building. Several of the rooms needed to be upgraded. While remodeling, we found that a lot of the roof boards were 16" wide and a full 1" thick. They probably were from locally cut lumber. The nails were square, wrought iron. The 2x4 studs in the walls were a full 2" x 4" inches. These, too, probably were local - the surfaces were quite rough cut. Some of the walls had 10 to 12 layers of wallpaper - some likely had been hand painted in place. Socony Mobil had annual meetings for their high level executives and their wives. They were held in different cities around the country. Mom and Dad attended several of these. I remember that one was in Beaumont, Texas, and another in San Francisco. Dad was involved in the meetings, of course, and Mom often was in charge of planning the social activities for the wives - fashion shows, garden tours, etc. The meetings were usually in September when we were in school. Children were not invited - adults only - very formal. Tuxes and evening dresses for a lot of the events. They’d take the train and be gone for about a week. Back then the train was THE way to travel. They had about 5 or 6 bags each, all in matching sets, of course. Mom had a hat bag, a shoe bag, a cosmetic and jewelry case, and two or three suitcases, one very large to handle formal attire. Billie Jean stayed at a friend’s house. I stayed at the club house at Westshore. Since things were slowing down at that time of year, the only people there were the cook and several of the kitchen staff. I stayed in the 2nd floor conference room, which had 10 to 12 ft. ceilings and windows 8 to 10 ft. high, with a lot of heavy furniture and a very large central table that could be used for meetings or dinners and a large couch or bed of some sort that I slept on. At night the walls creaked with temperature changes or when the wind was blowing. Since I was the only one in the front of the house, it was a bit creepy. There was a little TV available by this time - a few stations around the country on for a few hours in the evening. We didn’t have a TV, but had the one from Westshore during the winter to “keep it safe.” I still listened to the radio a lot and I built a “crystal set.” That’s a diode receiver which doesn’t require any electrical power - just the energy from a long antenna wire. It would pick up a few very powerful stations such as WJR, Detroit, CKLW, Windsor and “WCKY Cincinnati O-HI-O.” You had to use ear phones, so only one person could hear at a time, but that was great for late night listening without parents hearing. 7TH/8TH GRADE - ‘47- ‘48 - MY HALF AND HALF YEAR. I got put back up with my regular class 2nd semester. We were now in the high school building, built in 1929, which was next door to the elementary school about 100 ft. away. The area in front was a lawn, not fenced in. The picture shown is the south side of the building. The center doors were not used - there was a fenced in, wooded piece of property just 8 feet away. The doorway made a good place to eat lunch. Both schools used the same back yard about 200 ft. to 300 ft. wide and 800 ft. deep, with lots of room for playground, baseball field, football field and lots more backwoods area beyond that. The space between the schools was concrete and was used as a play area and for deliveries of supplies to both buildings. A tunnel with heat and power lines was underground connecting the two buildings. I was never able to get into the tunnel - the basements were always locked. In 7th and 8th grade we moved around from room to room for classes, but since we had such a small class, we were always together - history, English, whatever. The classes and lockers were mostly on the 2nd floor. At that time, nobody locked their lockers - just as most people didn’t lock the doors at home. A few years later they made us use locks at school. There were lots of good things to do in Jr. High! I made several model volcanos for geography class projects - the same teacher as the 4th grade. By that time I had a good supply of chemicals at home from several chemistry sets and from the lab at Socony Mobil. I put together some pretty good mixes since I had a better chemical inventory than the school had. The best volcanos used potassium permanganate and glycerin (lots of purple smoke and red fire), or ammonium dichromate (yellow orange flame and large amounts of green ash). With a few match heads sprinkled on top there were lots of sparks. The smoke probably was quite toxic, but at that time nobody much cared - they just opened the windows and let it all blow out. Another neat thing was “torpedoes.” These were made from 2 large bolts 3/8ths to ½” in diameter, screwed into the same nut with match heads in between. You would tighten them down just snugly, but not too tight, then flip them into the air and run like heck before they hit the ground. KA-BANG! Watch out for flying bolts!!! We usually set these off before school when there weren’t too many kids or teachers around. You could use them a few times before the threads were stripped out completely or the bolts were lost in the blue. You don’t see many of these things around nowadays. I also made a couple of zip guns. All that had to be done was to take a 6” long piece of 1/8th“ iron pipe, connect a coupling to one end and thread in a spring driven puncturing tool that was used for CO2 cartridge models, place a 22 caliber short or shotgun shell primer into the end of the pipe and let the spring go to detonate the shell. Made a nice do-it-yourself pistol even though it didn’t shoot very far or make a lot of noise. But I didn’t take these to school.. It was one of those do-at-home-only projects!! Since I was the science guy, I had several requests from other students for tear gas bombs to be used against the kids in Trenton across the river - an American-side village a little larger than Grosse Ile. These didn’t work too well. It was difficult to get the right chemicals and they were pretty nasty stuff. The smoke bombs were much better. You’d take a good mixture of sulphur and aluminum powder, pack it into a cardboard tube with one end sealed off and a match head on top to ignite it. If you really wanted it to stink, you could mix in a few strips of old nitrate movie film and scraps of plastic. This was all made up at home, not at the school - they didn’t have the right chemicals at school anyway. Wood shop was a 2nd semester class, 7th and 8th grade boys together, so we did the usual - made small tables, serving trays, plant holders. I think I still have some of them. But this still allowed time for us to make very nice, polished billy clubs, 18” to 20” long. The shop teacher finally had to make us stop because we were using up all the good maple and hickory hardwood. Once in a while, due to weather or lack of other activities, I did have to stay in study hall - but that got to be boring. Sometimes there wasn’t any homework to do or I just didn’t want to do the work then - but if you didn’t look busy, the teacher would give you a list of 10 words and you had to go the dictionary (large edition) and copy all the definitions for all of the words. So at home I cut out the inside of an old book and built a 2 tube radio in the hollow area (transistors were not developed until 1953), complete with batteries and earphones. It looked just like any other book on the table. That worked OK for a while, but eventually the teacher realized there were too many students collecting around my table, so I had to take the radio back home. Another fun thing was Mini-Rockets. We’d take matches, usually the paper type, place a pin along the cardboard stem, the point toward the match head, then wrap a couple of layers of thin aluminum foil around the head of the match and most of the pin. You’d squeeze the foil tightly around the head, then pull the pin out, leaving a long tunnel along the match stick, up to the head - then balance the match on the edge of a book or table or desk and heat up the aluminum foil head with another match or with sunlight and a magnifying glass. Phfftzoom!!! The head exploded, the gas shot out the small pin hole tunnel and the match made a smelly smoke trail as it shot across the room. The only problem was that the smoke trail led back to where it was launched. A little more dangerous device used a large wooden kitchen match - the type that you strike on any rough surface to light. You’d use your jack-knife to split the end of the matchstick two ways so that you could insert little pieces of paper to make fins like a dart. Then all you had to do was throw it at a wall or something roughish and when it hit, it would ignite and fall to the ground, catching anything around it on fire. Better used outdoors. Or you could just put a match, without the fins, into the barrel of a BB gun and shoot it. It went farther then. Starting in 7th/8th grade I was one of the students who set up and ran the portable movie projector for a lot of the classes. One afternoon the girls gym teacher had me set up a projector and film in the science lecture room, which could be darkened with heavy shades. The girls in our class came in and someone turned off the lights and I started the projector up. About the time the screen was showing “This Picture Presented by Kotex,” the teacher noticed I was still there and said, “OK, Tom - get out.” Later, some of the girls told the guys what the movie was all about. There never were any “special” movies of any sort for the boys. SUMMER OF ‘48 - BETWEEN 8TH AND 9TH GRADES I spent most of the summer riding my bike in the morning with 2 other Grosse Ile kids across the bridge to Wyandotte to take summer school, since GI didn’t offer school in the summer. It was about 5 to 6 miles each way. I had to take English class and math, the things I needed to catch up on to make it legal to stay with my own class again. One good thing about it - we had to ride by a doughnut shop every day - Good Doughnuts! In the afternoons, I raked and cleaned the sand traps on the golf course for 50 cents an hour. The course itself required a great amount of rebuilding work for the grounds keeping staff, which meant there was always plenty of work for me to do in the summers. (I had papers signed by the county for working when under 16.) I still had some time free that summer. Somehow a friend and I got hold of a couple of sticks of dynamite - I can’t remember how we got it. It was just 40% gelatin. We thought it would be a quick way to dig a hole to make a fort. It didn’t work well at all. First we tried to set it off with firecracker, which only spattered some of the dynamite around. We finally got a blasting cap. That did the trick, but the hole was too small for a fort and all torn up around the edges. Every year in the mid-summer Kay and the Rodericks disappeared and I didn’t see them for about a month. Their father was around every so often for a few days and then left again, so I assumed they were going on various vacations. I didn’t find out until 2002 that their mother’s family had a farm in Western New York and all the relatives went there to stay for parts of the summer. Lee and her youngest sister, Connie, still live at Olmsted Camp. It’s a great place - not only a lot of farm acreage with a beautiful old farmhouse and barn, but also several sleeping cottages, another barn where they put on plays (and the top floor is a big bunkhouse for kids), and a summer house in the Roy Croft /Arts and Crafts style. The summer house has several bedrooms, a kitchen that can serve a big group, and wide porches around two sides with swings and chairs overlooking a wonderful view of Cattaraugus Creek, 100 ft. down a wooded bank. It is used for many parties and special events, such as fund raisers for the Western New York Land Conservancy. SPRING CYCLE One of Dad’s partners in Westshore, Jim Stadler of Chrysler Corp. got to keep a project from one of Chrysler’s development labs - a light weight motor bike using 2 pieces of 2 inch wide leaf spring for the frame, powered by a 2 HP single cylinder engine - called a Spring Cycle. The wheels were 16”, spoked, heavy duty bicycle wheels. It would do about 35 to 39 MPH on a flat road, but was very quiet. The Stadlers took it down to their farm in Urbana, Ohio, part of the time and I got to use it the rest of the time. It was great for riding on the golf course in the evening - it didn’t leave any tire marks. I got it licensed so I could drive it around the streets in Grosse Ile. Licenses weren’t too important at that time and there wasn’t any class for that type of vehicle anyway, so I could get a license even though I was only 13 or 14. Cushman Motor Scooters were just coming in about then. A friend of mine had one and it didn’t go any faster and was a lot noisier. 9TH GRADE '48-'49 - HIGH SCHOOL!! I took print shop the first semester of 9th grade. There were about 8 in the class. The print shop class printed all the school tickets, forms and stationery. I think one group of students stayed there for about 3 years. There were a few root beer parties. They didn’t have much supervision, but they got all the printing work done. My schedule worked out so I had Tues. and Thur. afternoons free from lunch until 3:20. Mon, Wed. and Fri I had a 1:00pm to 2:00pm gym class (boys only - the girls had class Tuesday and Thursday - some of them used the boys shower room - bigger and more showers than the girls’ own shower room.) The rest of the time I should have been in study hall, so some friends in the print shop made me up 2 pads of official looking passes with my name on them showing that I would go either to work on the athletic field or to the science lab to work for the biology teacher - who was also the basketball coach. (Remember, this was a school of less than 200 students total.) All I had to do was to drop a pass on the study hall teacher’s desk and I was gone. Before a football or baseball game I helped put the marking lines on the field with lime or chalk. Otherwise, I’d go to the science lab which was empty most of the time, so the lab was usually “mine-all-mine” - or the biology and general science teacher, Mr. Fedoric, and I would get in his car - an old, green Hudson - and drive around the Grosse Ile swamps looking for plant specimens and small aquatic animals. It was his first year of teaching and I think he liked getting away from the school, too. Most of the time I would take care of the biology specimens - I ordered the pickled perch, frogs, worms and grasshoppers and made sure they were ready for the biology class dissecting projects. I had charge of the aquarium and kept it filled with tadpoles, catfish and other things I found in the swamp. Sometimes I got help from Helen Virginia Beyster, who was often in the lab correcting tests for Mr. Fedoric. When we had to clean the aquarium and refill it, it took most of the afternoon. If it took too long, the busses would have left and we walked home - about a mile and a half. We were good friends most of the time, but we did bicker a lot. I had a hard time with Algebra class. Helen Virginia didn’t say much or speak up in class but always turned in homework with very few mistakes - possibly related to the fact that she had a great tutor at home - an older brother who was a real math whiz! I could have used some of that kind of help. The school baseball diamond didn’t have an adequate backstop. Dad sent some of the refinery pipe fitters over to the school. They brought a lot of scrap pipe and welded up a large backstop and covered it with wire mesh - one of Socony Mobil’s community betterment projects. Good will and all that. The 2nd semester was metal shop - same room as the wood shop - just different tools. One of our projects was to make hunting knives with blades over 6" long out of metal-cutting power hacksaw blades. These were very hard, tough metal, 1" x 3/32nds by about 10" long. They would cut just about anything. (Over 50 years later mine is still at use at my company, Luminaud, Inc.). As mentioned earlier, we had a wooden rowboat, which was actually quite heavy, but it was good and rugged and great for the canal. It had two sets of oar locks and one in the rear so you could use an oar rudder. We could row back and forth to the other side - often a help, since there were few bridges across the canal and it could mean a half an hour's bike ride to get to the other side of the island using just the roads. Having four 55 gallon drums left over from Dad’s wartime gasoline supply, Billie Jean and I decided to make a raft to use on the canal. We rolled the drums down the hill and laid them in a rectangle, two barrels long, two barrels wide. We got some wood boards, put them and top of the barrels and tied everything together with rope. Then we got a paddle, climbed on and pushed out toward the middle of the canal. The barrels were totally empty, which meant that even with our weight, they barely sank into the water. With the combination of the boards and our weight, it put the heavy part on the top and the light part on the bottom. Within a few seconds, the problem corrected itself with the light part on the top and the heavy part on the bottom. This rapid reconfiguration not only dropped us into the water, but loosened the rope tying the whole mess together. We recovered two barrels. The rope, wood and the other two barrels were never more to be seen. Sometime in the 40's, Dad bought a boat with an engine and small cabin. We called it the Buccaneer. It had obviously been around for quite sometime. It was about 27 ft. long and 12 ft. wide with only a 6" to 8" draft - looked something like a tugboat. The prop and rudder went down a foot deeper. It was driven with an old Ford, model T engine - 4 cylinder. Cooling water was sucked in from under the boat and pumped out through the exhaust system. There were metal rollers along one side of the boat to launch smaller boats used in duck hunting. It wasn't the fastest thing, but it was good in shallow water and quite stable on the lake and good for fishing around the weed beds near shore. It could carry several hundred pounds of cargo. To get the boat to our house, it had to come up the canal from the south end, which was close to where he bought it - probably Monroe at the western tip of Lake Erie above Toledo. The first two bridges over the canal were arched concrete with 8 to 10 ft. of clearance under them. The 3rd and last before our house was an old metal frame bridge (taken down about 10 years later). Dad and his friends moved the boat at night and when they got to the 3rd bridge, they took large wrenches and unbolted the cross tie rods in order to slip the boat underneath and then replaced them after they got by. After Dad brought the Buccaneer home to fix it up, we found extra space under a false deck. The space was exactly one whiskey case high. It apparently had been used to bootleg whisky from Canada to Detroit during prohibition in the 30s. (In the winter, when the ice was thick enough, they could bring the stuff across the river by truck instead of by boat.) The boat was one of those hobbies that you spend about as much time maintaining as you do using. One time it sank (probably someone poked the drain plugs out) and we had to winch it up and pump it out and rebuild the engine. We took the engine into the basement by the coal bin to work on it. The problem is that was the same room that we brought our “dumb” duck into to thaw out and we soon found that we had to cover it carefully because once he was loose from the ice he’d jump up and use it for a perch - and also do what ducks do when they’re on a perch. Usually in the winter, we’d jack it up on a pipe rack over the water, with just enough room for the rowboat to slide in underneath so that I could scrape and paint the bottom in the spring. Eventually Dad took it to the Round Island Hunting Club. Round Island was a small wooded Island on the Southern tip of Grosse Ile (see Map), right behind the Navy Air Base. It was only about 1/4th a mile across in any direction, but there was a 30 foot wide canal cut between it and Grosse Ile. This meant it was not part of Grosse Ile, which was a game preserve, so the GI “no discharge of firearms” law did not apply. A group of Dad’s friends - one of whom owned the island - set it up as a hunting club - most of the time shooting clay pigeons (skeet), though they did plant buckwheat to hoping to attract the local pheasants and rabbits. By the time I was in my teens I went there with my Dad most Saturday mornings. The skeet shoot faced out over the lake. It was a spring device that could sling the clay pigeons (which look like cheap 4" ashtrays) out at various angels in a random pattern. The marksman would try to break them with a shotgun blast. When it was over, I’d go out into the soft grass of the swamp and pick up the ones that didn’t break to be used again. The Buccaneer was used to transport supplies and people to the island and they took it out into the lake to launch the duck-hunting boats. To make a boat well for docking, one of Dad’s friends, who either owned or was a manager at a limestone quarry, put 4 or 5 sticks of dynamite in a line in the bank and blew most of the dirt out - then they pulled the boat in there and ran the engine full throttle so the prop wash cleared out all the loose silt and dirt. At Round Island, the Buccaneer was sunk twice more (by axe holes created by vandals). Each time we got it back into operation, we had to rebuild the engine. That’s when I learned how to take an automobile engine apart and put it back together, including cleaning out the bugs and water that got inside. The members of The Round Island Hunting Club were the shakers and doers of the down river Detroit area - owners and executives of large companies - but they enjoyed roughing it. They built a cabin with 2 rooms, and a bunkhouse on the back and a screened in porch on the front - no electricity, no telephone, no running water, no central heat - and no women - though they did have Ladies’ Night a couple of times. Heat was from a fireplace and Coleman and kerosene lanterns supplied the light, and the outhouse was out back. The large room contained lots of cast-off chairs and a big table for playing cards, a couch or so, an old wind-up Victrola and a couple of deer heads. The second room was a kitchen with a big wood burning stove, an ice box and a sink that had to be filled with water carried inside in pails. For a few years they also raised Guinea-hens - all dark meat - then turned them loose for hunting. To keep the Guinea-hens there, they built a tractor out of old car parts, made a hitch for a plow and harrow and turned up about a 200” circle in the middle of the Island. They planted it with buckwheat and soybeans. They also used this “tractor” to drive a 36” diameter saw to cut up the wood for the cook stove. I don’t think anyone ever found a Guinea-hen to shoot at - just heard a lot of noise up in the trees. Next they raised exotic pheasants - all kinds of colors. For this they had a caretaker who lived there. We’d spend most of Sat. mornings fixing/repairing/building. Wayne Jewell would usually do the cooking - lots of baked beans and wieners and fresh bread. Then after lunch the men would settle down, usually with a good supply of booze, to play cards and dominos all afternoon. While the guys played, I had Saturday afternoon to roam around the island in the swamps and the woods, doing a lot of bottle and can shooting with my 22 rifle - the same one I have now. Interesting things would float up from the Lake and River. Supposedly you would get $20 for every dead body you turned into the police. I never did find any - just a pig or so. THE SPRING OF 1949 The Tom McGuane family moved into the house (#9) after the Rodericks moved out and went to the larger house with the tennis court on Lakewood (#11). My Dad was named Tom (though almost always called Scotty) and I was Tom and Mr. McGuane was Tom and his older son was Tom. I used to baby sit young Tom McGuane and younger brother, John, and sister, Marian. By that time, television was here. We watched a lot of Howdy Doody!! We also used the bedroom window over the garage to go in and out - the same as when the Rodericks were there. Mr. McGuane liked boats and owned two of them - first a 32 ft. boat with a 100 hp engine for a year or so. Then he sold it and got a good price on the 43’ boat with two 100 hp engines by buying it from its previous owner AS-IS while it was stuck on a sand bar. They usually went over to Amherstburg, ONT to buy gasoline - 100 gallons to fill a tank. Sometimes I’d go with them when they went out into Lake Erie to fish for bass and perch. We tried to get back to Grosse Ile by dark. It gave me a lot of good experience navigating on the lake. Mr. and Mrs. McGuane went to Florida often in the winters, so one year Mr. McGuane had the bigger boat shipped down there. After he saw the bill for that, I don’t think he ever brought it back up north. One Saturday one of the McGuane kids had a birthday party. I was asked to come over and help watch the 10 or so kids and help with taking them to a movie in Trenton. The other sitter was a girl about my age from a farm just outside of Trenton. I sat on one end of the row and she sat on the other end, keeping all the little critters in line. That was OK with me because she was a lot taller than I was, cleaned out horse stalls every day and could fling a full bale of hay around - nobody to mess with. Young Tom McGuane grew up to be the author of several well known books and also a screen writer and Montana rancher. SUMMER OF ‘49 The pro shop on the golf course helped me renovate an old unused outhouse into a pop stand and move it to a location where 3 holes came together out in the middle of the course. They installed an ice chest cooler and stocked it every morning with ice, soda pop, chewing gum and candy bars. I got 50 cents an hour, all the pop and candy I wanted (which soon was of little interest) and a free lunch brought out to me from the clubhouse kitchen. That was the best part of the deal. The cook made GOOD lunches! My favorite was the hot ham on oatmeal bread. She baked her own bread every day and the slices she cut for me were much larger than store-bought slices and about double thickness. My hours started out to be about 9:00am to 4:00pm, but slowly worked into about 8:00am to 5:00pm. The money was probably pretty good, but it was a long time to be out on the golf course by yourself in a 5’ x 7’ box - but it kept me busy all summer long. Not much to get into in the middle of a golf course. In the summers in the 40's and early 50's, the kids in our neighborhood would think nothing of riding our bicycles 5 to 8 miles around various parts of Grosse Ile without even telling anybody where we were going or even that we were going. There were usually 2 or 3 together. We really didn't think of crime or danger, boys or girls. We'd build platform tree forts up in trees, maybe 20 ft. high, in people's back yards - and nobody thought about liability or accident insurance or seemed to be worried about being sued. Tom McGuane found a lineman's telephone out in the field - apparently had fallen off a service truck. I talked him out of it. The dial didn't go around, so as far as he was concerned, it didn't work. I took it apart, cleaned and oiled the spring mechanism, put it back together and it worked perfectly. This was a telephone that was just a rubber handset with a dial on the back and two wires with sharp pins in the clips, so the lineman could get ahold of a telephone wire, pierce the insulation and tap the phone. There was a switch on the side that allowed you to monitor a call without being detected, or you could flip the switch and join in the conversation. Since most of the telephone lines usually ran around the backs of the houses where the trees were, all you had to do was climb up in a tree, grab the telephone lines, click in and start listening. Sally or Lee and I listened to Helen Virginia's line. I never did hear anything exciting, but it was fun to call someone up when you could see through their window what they were doing and make comments about their actions. One thing you did have to be careful of was not to have both hands on both clips when ring signal came down the line - that's about 90 volts. It might cause you to let go of the tree and fall out. I only got hit once, but grabbed on and didn't fall. Over 50 years later, I still have that phone and it and it still works. The Day family had moved into #10 where we had lived. Bill Day, his wife and his daughter Mary. Mr. Day built a motorized Buckboard. It had 4 ft. diameter steel rimmed, wooden spoked wheels, a 5 horse power engine, belt driven to the back wheels and one large headlight run off a battery. A steel cable ran from one end of the front axle to a 6" hub on the steering wheel to the other end of the axle. The axle pivoted in the middle for steering. He drove it around Jewell Colony on weekends and gave the kids rides. After a few years, he took the engine off for other use and gave me the buckboard. I put on a 1½ horse gasoline engine and a little Crosley transmission - top speed - 5 to 10 MPH, really noisy - steel wheels on cement roads. All this work was done in the shed - only CARS in the garage. I can't remember who I gave the buckboard to when I left for college in 1952 - maybe Tom McGuane. Most of that summer I worked at Westshore again. There was always plenty of work for me raking the sand traps. I still got 50 cents an hour and the “older guys,” 19 or so, got 90 cents an hour. In the evening I often raked balls out of two creeks that went across the course and then I could sell them for practice balls. This went well for a while until the greens keeper had the bright idea of laying chicken wire in the stream beds. Then the golfers could just pull up the edge of the wire and the balls would roll right out - so that pretty much killed my used golf ball business. At night the skunks came out onto the golf course to dig up bugs. I would take a 3 “ piece of rope, put a slip knot in one end. You could shine a flash light in a skunk’s eyes, then walk up to him, slip the loop over his neck, reach around and hold his tail down and pick him up. It was a great way to catch skunks. I rarely got sprayed. I’d let them go a few minutes later. I still like skunks. TURTLE STORY. The swamp around our house was an excellent place for turtles - large snapping turtles - 25 to 30 lb. snapping turtles! Billie Jean and I tried to catch the turtles to prevent them from eating our ducks. Dave Burchfield’s father wanted one for turtle soup - a great delicacy - some parts taste like chicken, some like pork, some like beef - so I’ve been told. We gave him a big, 25 lb. turtle and he spent the weekend preparing turtle soup. I was invited over for dinner Sunday night. While his wife and 3 kids and I were in the dining room eagerly awaiting the soup, he came through the door with a huge metal pot, caught his foot on the edge of a rug and the whole pot of soup ended up on the dining room carpet. I still don’t know what turtle soup tastes like. (P.S. Don’t feel too sorry for the turtle - snapping turtles are mean, nasty, smelly critters who eat every duck they can get - and your hand or foot if they get a chance. They can cut a broom stick in half with their jaws.) One time Ann Devendorf, who lived on the river behind Dave Burchfield’s house, had several girls over for a slumber party in their boat house, which was over the water with a dock along each side. About 10 pm that night her mother came out of the house and down one dock to check on the girls. The light she turned on warned Dave and 2 others of us boys who were visiting (entirely innocently) that we’d better leave, which we were able to do unseen by going out a side door and using the other dock. (Dave and Ann and I were good friends all through high school and often went places together. After college, Dave and Ann were married.) 10TH GRADE - ‘49-‘50 No Science classes in 10th Grade - but I still took care of the biology and general science lab for the 8th and 9th grades. There was mandatory 10th grade speech class and our new teacher decided to put on a spring play, which she would direct. Someone was needed to the technical part - not her thing - so I volunteered to do the sets and get the props for the show - “Aaron Slick From Punkin’ Crick” - my first stage show. I really didn’t know much at all about theater technical, but the senior home room teacher, Mrs. Sawitski, was a member of a local amateur theater group that used the school stage. She showed me where their stuff was and gave me permission to use it. I didn’t put enough glue in the scene paint the first time and had to repaint it the set - a gorgeous lemon yellow kitchen with brown wainscoting. Most of it I did at night on my own time with two helpers. It seems that we were able to come and go in that school building as we wanted to - I don’t remember anything special about how I got in and out. One of the kids with a driver’s license, was allowed to borrow the Chrysler “power wagon” - a 4 wheel drive truck with all the attachments from the Kelseys of Kelsey Hayes, a large manufacturing company in the Detroit area. Mr. Kelsey was on the school board. He loaned a lot of things to the school. We used the truck to pick up all the props, furniture and materials for the play. There were always volunteers to drive that truck. From 7th to 12th grades, several of us ate lunch outside - even in bad weather. We could leave the school property as long as we were not late for the 1:00p class. A few friends and I would find a cozy spot where the wind wasn’t blowing - often a spot where there was an unused side door. By 9th grade we had found an old pump house set into the side of the riverbank, about an eight of a mile down river from the school, that had been used to pump the river water into an orchard that had long since gone. The pump house was about 8 feet square and 7 feet high. All the motors and pumping equipment had probably been donated to the scrap metal drives in the early 40’s during the second world war, so the building was empty. It was about 6 ft above the river with two thirds of it buried back into the 20 ft. high riverbank. This made a great spot winter - or spring or fall. It was just a few minutes from school. This eventually became the base of operations for our rocket launchers, hand grenade and pipe bomb experiments and cannon testing. It was missing most of the front wall by the time we were done - which made a large window facing the Canadian shore, about a mile away. Our geometry teacher, Mr. Gingrich, (who was also the chemistry teacher, the physics teacher, the algebra teacher and the football coach - and eventually, after our class was gone, the high school principal), taught navigation to navy pilots during the second world war, so a lot of our geometry material was in the form of navigation. He’d give us air speeds and wind speeds and directions and we would have to plot where we were - often on the Pacific Ocean. It made the class more interesting than Algebra. I did OK in Geometry and was still helping out in the science lab. For Christmas, I got an insecticide kit, complete with powdered DDT, Rotenone, and Pyrethrum - all good poisons. These kits were made and sold for kids - REALLY!!! I worked out the lethal doses for killing different kinds of bugs according to their weight. I also had to figure out the right disbursements that would carry the insecticides and mix with a fogging material. It turned out that benzene (now a No-No) would dissolve lindane. Mr. Waldeck got me some lindane from Wyandotte Chemicals. I added the benzene/lindane mixture to 9 parts of fuel oil, which made lots of smoke when ducted through the exhaust of a lawn mower. One loop around the house once a week sure kept the mosquitos down. It worked better than DDT. At the time, nobody knew the long term effect that DDT had on birds. DDT, Benzene and Lindane (Benzene hexachloride) all are now banned in the United States. At school, I was responsible for the care of a 3 foot long milk snake in a terrarium in the biology lab. Somebody else named it Macduff, not me (we had read Macbeth and Macduff was a “friend of Lennox” in the play). One weekend in the spring, Macduff must have flown the coop. That Monday we all searched the classrooms, but there was no snake to be found. The next fall when school started, I was informed that one of the electricians working in the service tunnel between the two school buildings, ran into a very fat, 5’ long milk snake - lots of mice down there. The electrician was not too happy about it. I was never told what happened to Macduff but I never saw him again, of course, so I don’t have many doubts. After that, no more snakes were allowed in the school building. I still think snakes make good pets - but I don’t keep any because I don’t like to feed them live mice. I think mice are nice, too. Spring of 1950 We were building a house - #15 - between #10 where we had lived earlier, which was now occupied by the Days, and #9 where the McGuanes lived. Contractors did most of the construction, but Dad and I nailed on most of the roof boards and shingles. It was mostly a single story, but Jewell Colony building restrictions called for 2 story houses. My parents came in under the letter of the law by including a tall attic with one finished upstairs room reachable with a set of pull-down stairs. The house was built on a cement slab, with oil fired hot water heating. Coils of 1" iron pipes were laid into the concrete under each room, connected back to the furnace through a master set of valves so each room could be controlled separately - no drafts from air vents, nice warm floors to step on when you got up in the morning. Since the pipes were in 6 inches of concrete, we hoped there would never be any leaks. There was a greenhouse on the south end for my mother to grow orchids. On the north end, attached to the master bedroom, there was a glass block greenhouse, with no direct sunlight but with incandescent and fluorescent lights that could be raised and lowered, for starting plants, both flowers and vegetables. An old guard house from the refinery was set up in the back yard for a tool shed. It had an oil stove for heat and a gas fired, hot water furnace that piped heat to the orchid house. The furnace had to be kept out of the orchid house because the orchids were very sensitive to the exhaust fumes. The shed was wired for electricity with a lot of outlets. The west side of it was expanded to make a small greenhouse for starting plants in direct sunlight and to hold the garden tools. In the east section of the shed I had my electronics equipment and a fairly well stocked chem lab so I could brew up lots of good things. In the middle, next to the greenhouse, was a large workbench with power tools and space for both Dad and me to work on various projects. By now I had a good short wave radio to listen to in the shed. I had set up several long wire antennas and could pick up a lot of foreign stations and amateur radio - and I used one of the antennas with the 2-tube radio transmitter I built. It broadcast out about 1,000 ft. I played 45 rpm records and also sent out some voice and narration - but I doubt that anyone ever listened to it. I spent many hours in the shed - a few sparks, zaps or explosions didn’t bother anyone. Chemicals and electronics were not allowed in my bedroom. My bedroom, according to my Dad’s decree, was for sleeping or doing homework, not for playing or for research and development. I had to beg him for a long time to let me put the radio into my room. My Dad was really a stickler for neatness. One day I came home from school and charged into jeans to work in the shed for a while. Since I knew I would be picked up by friends just an hour later, I laid my school pants across the bed ready to be put on again. Soon my Dad appeared in the shed door - “Let’s get in there and get that room cleaned up!” The pants on the bed were absolutely the only thing not in perfect order. SUMMER OF ‘50 I worked at the pop stand again. A little more pay, but not much. After a few weeks the pro shop decided to make more money by putting beer in the cooler also. That job didn’t last too long for me - it was quite illegal for me to handle the beer when I was still only 15, so the pro-shop manager put his nephew, who was older (18), out there. Because of the sod removal from part of the course during the war, some of the waterlines had been removed or buried and there was no remaining record of where all the pipes and valves were located. I bought a war surplus mine detector and used it to map out the locations of the missing pipes. That paid for the mine detector and gave me a little extra pocket money. It also got me interested in metal detecting... (I still have some of the parts - and two modern metal detectors - one for gold and one for coins.) We still had Bruce, the cocker spaniel. It was common then to let dogs out at night. Eventually we found out that he’d often go over to the McGuane’s kitchen door, push the screen door in and go into the house, then go upstairs to sleep with the kids. (Many people didn’t keep their doors closed in the summer. It was before the time that most people had air conditioning... Everyone let in as much cool evening air as possible and blew it around with electric fans.) The problem at McGuane’s was that the screen door swung only inward, so in the morning Bruce would come down and bark to be let out - probably by the housekeeper who lived downstairs. Grosse Ile at that time - 40’s and 50’s - did not take well to blacks. The steel mills were becoming more mechanized and weren’t hiring many of the unskilled people who had come up from the south, so there was a lot of unemployment, both black and white, and lots of competition for jobs. Some families had household staff who were black. Most of them would come onto the island in the morning and leave before 6:00p at night. A few residents, including the Rodericks and the McGuanes, had live-ins who acted as housekeepers and nannies. The Rodericks employed a nice couple - she did a lot of the housework. He worked elsewhere, but helped part time with the lawn work. The lady at the McGuanes was a little older - a friendly grandmother who brought her grandson to stay in the summers. The kids all played together. About this time, Joe Louis, a champion boxer who was black, wanted to buy a house for his mother on Grosse Ile. Somehow this leaked out and all of a sudden there were NO houses for sale anywhere on the island!!! The Roderick’s house on Lakewood was very memorable - a large grey wood and stone house. One side yard had a full professional grade red clay tennis court, with 3 sides fully fenced in and then surrounded by pine trees about 12 ft. high. No one was allowed to walk on it unless wearing real tennis shoes. The upstairs of the house had several bedrooms, with a recreation room, that also had a couple of beds, at the top of the large staircase. There was a passageway between one of the bedroom closets and the hall linen closet. Downstairs there were the usual rooms plus an apartment for the couple who worked there. In spite of having help, the kids had to do chores. If I came over too soon after dinner I’d be handed a dish towel and expected to help. By now a lot of people were getting TV sets and there were more programs. Some of the stations signed off their regular radio programming at 10:00pm. Then they played background music and generated black and white patterns on the screen for an hour or so. Kay and I - along with some of the Roderick girls - would often sit around and watch the TV with the lights turned low until about 11:00pm - when I would be kicked out. One time I was over there in the upstairs rec room where the girls were staying when we realized that it was quite late - past time for me to leave. I headed quietly down the stairs and met Mr. and Mrs. Roderick coming up. They had turned out the lights and were coming up to bed. They were rather surprised to see me, I think. I can’t remember what we said to each other, but I was glad to get out of there without being questioned. 11th Grade – ‘50-‘51 I was the lab technician for the 8th General Science, 9th Biology and 11th grade Chemistry classes, so I got to spend a lot of my free time in the Chem Lab. I was available for students who had missed an experiment, so I’d get out all the equipment they needed and make sure they knew how to set it up. Meanwhile, while Mr. Gingrich was coaching football or baseball or some other activity, I’d be in charge. Most of the time things would be reasonably quiet in the lab, but sometimes some of the students would start making too much noise. Mr. Smith, the principal, had his office just across the hall. He’d come in and I was the one who always got blamed for the commotion, my fault or not. Helen Beyster, whom some of the teachers thought could do no wrong, was often in there with me grading papers. She never got blamed even though she was sometimes the one who had caused the disturbance - but my day came. I was just going into the storage room one afternoon when Helen stood up on a chair holding several lit matches in the air - and Mr. Smith came in the door and saw her standing there! “You’re the Statue of Liberty, Miss Beyster?” he asked. There were a few less disturbances after that and I didn’t get blamed as much for them. Back in those days no one worried about being in contact with mercury, so during chemistry class we’d sometimes dip our fingers in the mercury because it felt cool. When it got on our gold rings it amalgamated to the rings and made them look silver. Eventually it would wear off. We’d sometimes push the little balls of mercury around on our desks. If this had happened now, the school would be closed for months and we’d all be taken to decontamination centers. None of our brains seem to have been affected by it - at least not that I’ve noticed!!! Thank goodness Mrs. Sawisky, in the room above the chem lab, didn’t know the kinds of things I could be doing. I didn’t broadcast it around when Tom Langley, my lab partner, and I were making gun cotton. Mr. Gingrich was out on the football field, but he knew about it and didn’t make any objection. He knew I would take safety precautions. Gun cotton - cellulose nitrate - a very good explosive. It was used in early depth charges. It involves cotton balls soaked in very concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids, all kept in an ice bath so the mixture got only slightly warm. Too much heat during the reaction and something devastating could have happened - even disastrous. When we were done we washed and dried the cotton balls, and then a simple spark or even the bare touch of a match would make them explode instantly. Nice stuff. I bought some plans to make a small (1 ½:” bore, 2 ½ ft. long) impulse type jet engine at home, but I was having problems with fuel and sustained ignition, so I brought it into the school where I could set it up in the lab during my free time. It used a mixture of alcohol and ether as a primary fuel. Pretty wild stuff!! Since I was having trouble with the combustion I used the natural gas (that was for the Bunsen burners) to sustain the ignition. I clamped it to the lab table with the exhaust pointing out the window since the smell was rather strong. The problem was that Mrs. Sawitski’s history class, in the room directly above, had their windows open too and the air from the lab was blowing up and in. Considering the noise it made as well as the smell, it only took a few minutes for her to get my project shut down. The engine never would run on its own. I found out later that there was a mistake in the drawings I had purchased and the manufacturer had included a mimeographed correction sheet which had gotten lost. This was only a small jet intended for model airplanes. It’s a good thing I hadn’t tried to build the 6 ft long version that would power a motorcycle. Driving class was the 2nd semester. The first days were in the classroom, learning all the laws and regulations. Then we went out in the car, four at a time. The first driver drove us up to the north end of the island where we got stuck in about a foot of snow. (The road crews didn’t clean many of the smaller roads.) Then the teacher said, “Tom - your turn. Get us out of here and back to school,” which I did. Up until shortly before the time I got my driver’s licence, kids on Grosse Ile drove the local police car to take their driver’s tests, but you weren’t allowed to turn on the flashing lights or siren. The cars only had radio-telephones at that time, not their own base station radios, and there were only 2 cars. One of my radios could pick up one side of the conversations. By the time I got my driver’s license, if you’d taken a driver’s training course in school, you only had to pass the written test and didn’t actually have to do a driving test to get your license. Even after we had our licenses, bicycles were still the main method of transportation for most of us, sometimes to school, but mostly on our free time and in the summer. All had 1 3/4" to 2" tires - single speed coasters - no racing bikes then. Even in high school, very few of us had cars. I borrowed my Mom’s Buick Roadmaster a few times for special events such as basketball games and dances. Most of the time we were all just dropped off by parents or older brothers or sisters. That year, the chemistry class, about 20 of us, took a field trip to the Mobil Oil refinery in Trenton. (Dad was the General Manager by then.) We got to climb up the 100+ ft. cracking towers and also went through the testing labs. These labs were not for research and development but were set up to do quality control checks on the various gasolines and fuels that produced at the refinery. Also, testing was done on competitors’ products. The technicians boiled gasoline in glass flasks. Sometimes - not while we were going through - the glass cracked and the gasoline spilled on the heater and put out a nice ball of flame which usually went out in the few seconds. Probably nobody other than employees would be allowed in that area now. All the plant workers knew me and a lot of them said “Hello, Tom” or “Hi, Tom” or worse, “Hello, Tommy” as I passed by, which I found rather embarrassing. Since I had a lot of time in the school chem lab, I was able to use the scales and equipment in the lab to measure out all the gunpowder and metal parts that Tom Langley and I used to make pipe bombs. I had been making my own black powder from a mixture of 75% potassium nitrate, 15% charcoal and 10% sulphur. It was good for lots of smoke and fire. For fireworks - OK - but for pipe bombs we needed faster burning powder. We were able to buy black powder, intended for muzzle loading rifles, without any difficulty, from a friend, Bill Bilk, who had a muzzle loader collection. In the lab we were trying to determine just how much powder you really had to have to make a good pipe bomb and which grades of black powder would give the biggest bang - F, FF or FFF. That’s how our lunch hour experiments removed most of the front wall of the pump house. (Details of bomb design available only upon authorized request.) Of course we kept all the pieces and parts from the blasts in our locker - which was right by the principal’s office - we wanted to study them to see how well they had disintegrated with a given amount of power. Fortunately, no one seemed to notice the smell of burnt powder that drifted out of our locker into the hall. We also got into building rockets since you couldn’t buy Estes rocket engines back then. We made our own rocket fuel - mixtures of zinc dust and sulphur. They were small rockets about an inch or so in diameter and two feet long. We used the base of an old windmill in front of our pump house as a launch platform. We’d light the fuse on the rockets and then jump back into the pump house for protection in case anything blew up - but apparently making rocket fuel was rocket science after all, because we never got any of them to take off. All we got was lots of smoke, flame and melted metal. Maybe a little gunpowder or perchlorate would have helped. SUMMER OF ‘51 I still worked part of the time at Westshore. There was a lot of grass at home to cut, too. Dad had a large garden in the lots behind the house. There were several rows of corn, 12 or 15 tomato plants, green peppers and egg plant. We tried to grow pumpkins, but the first frost got them before they were large enough. We had problems with raccoons coming in at night and eating the corn just before it was ready to be picked. Dad and I set up a battery powered electric fence around the garden with one wire about 6 inches off the ground and the other wire about a foot off the ground so we could tell whether they were crawling under or climbing over. This helped some, but they still were getting part of the corn. Hoping to scare the rest of them away, I hung some fluorescent lamps on the fence wires so they’d flash when the high voltage pulse went through - about once a second. The raccoons must have thought we were advertising a restaurant grand opening. That night they cleaned out all the corn. So much for that bright idea. 12TH GRADE, ‘51-52’ I was the 12th grade Physics lab assistant, 11th grade Chemistry lab assistant, 9th grade Biology lab assistant and 8th grade General Science lab assistant. I kept the inventory of all the chemicals, the physics equipment and the pickled specimens for biology, and everything else that was needed, and I ordered what was necessary for the next year and helped students in the afternoon with experiments they had missed. There were a couple of other science nerd students starting to come up - hopefully they took over eventually. At home, I built an electronic multimeter and used it to build a 5” oscilloscope. These were both kits and had to be completely assembled, tested and calibrated. Both worked for me for years, in college and long after. That year there was a big new gymnasium, built on the east end of the building. It opened just before Christmas. There were bleachers on both sides of the basketball court and large shower rooms on each end of the gym so the visiting team didn’t have to use the girls shower room. A concession stand was built into one wall, complete with electric coolers and a popcorn machine. The cheerleaders operated the stand and I went early and helped them set up. I had no interest in watching the game, so I manned the stand while they were cheering during the game and they came back during the breaks and worked with me. That gave me a chance to hang out with the cheerleaders. Several of them were in our class and all of them were pretty cute. That Christmas, I moved up from Gilbert’s poisons to nuclear radiation. I got a Gilbert Atomic Energy Set. They really made one! (I had to pay for half of it.) The set contained 3 radioactive sources (a Gamma Source, a Beta Source and an Alpha Source), a Geiger Counter (which I still have), an electroscope to measure very small amounts of radiation and an alcohol cloud chamber that allowed you to see trails left by the particles emitted from the radioactive sources. I set up several demonstration experiments for the physics class showing how different materials such as paper, wood, your hand or strips of lead, would stop radiation. I hope none of the students died of radiation poisoning years later. It didn’t seem to bother me! Actually, the samples had fairly short half lives (a few years) and weren’t really all that “hot.” This was the new age of atomic energy and these experiments were a lot more interesting than the school’s outdated books. Today this would have forced evacuation of the entire school and several of us would probably have been quarantined for close observation - to say nothing of being brought up on some sort of juvenile delinquency charges or worse. Later we used some of the lead to make lead weights and poured it in molds to make sinkers and toy cars and little soldiers and never thought anything about it. Just having the lead sheets in school now would probably shut the place down. All during high school I was usually on the decorating committees for all the dances and proms, which were usually held on Friday nights. A lot of the class would work on decorating for a dance - often right up until 5:00 or 6:00pm. Then we’d dash home and clean up and change clothes - suits for the boys, party dresses for the girls. Only a few had floor length formals. I usually went to the dance with one of the girls who was taking tickets or doing some other job, so I got out of dancing most of the time. Every so often, though, a group of the girls would get together and drag me out on the floor for at least one dance or so. Probably $10 took care of the whole night’s expenses and we went home by 10:30 or 11:00pm. For our senior prom, we took a 2 ft. square cardboard box and glued 1" square mirrors all over it. I installed a bar diagonally through the corners and hung it on through a hole in a board with a small bearing. A pulley was attached to the shaft and a belt connected it to a small motor, similar to a rotisserie motor. We hung it across the gym on ropes between two basketball backboards and aimed two spotlights at it. The light reflected off the mirrors and looked like bubbles floating all over the walls of the gym. It was great!!! But that night when we came back for the dance, it would NOT move no matter how I adjusted it. The next morning when we came back to take everything down, it worked perfectly. Our class had a paper drive that year. The whole class got involved. Some of the kids borrowed their parents cars, which let us collect from all over the island quite quickly. We brought in several tons, which filled the stage of the old gymnasium about 5 ft. deep. We had to rent a bailer since the paper company wouldn’t pick it up unless it was bailed. We accomplished the whole thing in one weekend - including spending some time looking at the pictures in the medical journals. The school gave us Monday off and most of us decided to go over to Trenton and see the afternoon movie. When we got there the ticket office wouldn’t sell us tickets and called the Trenton truant officer. He called the Grosse Ile school system and then finally approved our seeing the movie. The money from our paper drive and other projects paid for our class gift to the school, which was rubber mats for the new gym to protect the floor when people walked around the outside edges. We also donated some money to help one of our classmates who had broken his neck in gym class and had a lot of medical bills. The Physics Class went to the Great Lakes Steel plant south of Detroit. They had blast furnaces for producing iron and open hearth furnaces and Bessemer Converters for producing steel. We got to walk along in front of the open hearth furnaces and watch the women workers - most quite large and muscular - shovel, mixtures of various metals into the furnaces. These additives determined the types of steel they poured out. It was extremely hot. The workers had to pick up a shovelfull of material, take it 30 to 40 feet, pitch it into the opening in the furnace and move quickly away. The temperature in the furnace was about 2,000F. There was a metal walkway above the rolling mills where the ingots of red hot steel were rolled into sheets. Even at the distance away we were from the steel - probably about 70' - the air was filled with hot steam and ash particles and we put our hands in front of our faces to protect them from the radiant heat while we moved along quickly to a cooler area of the mill. Second semester I took typing. I hoped that some of my written work would be more readable and I’d be better prepared for college. It was a full class and the teacher didn’t think that anyone who was not going to be a professional female secretary should be wasting her class time. Some of the typewriters were broken, so there was not a usable one for me. I had to bring in my own personal portable typewriter. It was slow and had a smaller keyboard, which made things more difficult. For the whole semester, she never quite got around to having any of the other machines repaired. The rules were that there should be no mistakes or erasures on any of the work handed in. Anything wrong with grammar or spelling or any typos would result in a loss of 5 words per minute from your typing score. I came out typing a negative 20 words a minute. DRESS UP DAY In the spring the senior class had a dress up day. We all came to school in wild costumes. We had some pirates, a naval officer, Little Bo Peep, presidents and other interesting characters. I was “Rocket Man.” I had a helmet with radio tubes sticking out of it, a control box, with lots of switches and knobs, strapped to my chest, a war surplus transmitter on my back - complete with antenna, rubber boots and rubber gloves, and riding breeches. It was a bit difficult to sit during class and was especially a problem during typing class. The teacher wasn’t really in the spirit of the day and didn’t see any reason that we shouldn’t do all our work as usual. A MOTLEY CREW Dad and I looked over several colleges around Michigan - Adrian, Hillsdale, Albion, Houghton School of Mines. We found out that Dr. Potter, who was in charge of the Socony Mobil refinery labs, had gone to Albion and said that Albion’s chemistry department had a very good reputation. Since I was interested in chemistry at the time, I decided to apply to Albion and I was accepted. We had machine shop that year. It was a great place for Tom Langley and me to build a cannon. I think we were supposed to be making metal lamp bases. We used 1" pipe for a barrel, with several larger pipes around it and lead poured in between. An old small snow plow blade we found was used for the base. The whole thing weighed about 60 lbs. The barrel was just large enough that we could drop in CO2 cartridges or 12 gauge lead balls. When the teacher figured out what we were doing, we were asked to take it out of the shop, so we took it down to what was left of our pump house, with the nice open front “window.” Again we got powder from Bill Bilk and during school lunch hour we shot lead balls out over the river towards Canada. Large echoes boomed up and down the area about 10 seconds apart. The Canadian shore was about a mile away - but nothing except the sound ever got beyond a hundred yards or so - the ships in the channel and the Canadians were quite safe. All went well until we noticed that the breech was taking more powder than it should have. We figured we had a cavity opening up someplace between the pipes, so we melted our lead out and dismantled it - which we would have had to do anyway, since my Dad had gotten wind of the activity and had strongly suggested that we cease and desist. As for the school, we didn’t ever hear anything from them directly. I was never told that they caught on to the source of the lunch time booms. We were not called into Mr. Smith’s office or disciplined in any way. Probably Mr. Smith quietly tipped off my Dad and left me for him to deal with. I have always wondered what the teachers told the FBI and security people about me in future years when I got my security clearance while working at Rand Development Corp. I heard they talked to several teachers and I know it took about 6 months to get it, even though I’d had a Secret clearance in the Navy. Talking about the Navy, on May 5th, 1952, I joined the Naval Reserve at Grosse Ile Naval Air Station. The station had started as a small air field in 1927. The navy used it in the ‘30s for blimp development projects and then expanded it during WWII to about 600 acres and 3,000 personnel. In 1969 it was closed, reduced in size and turned into the Grosse Ile Township General Aviation Field - just about what it was when it started. When I joined, only 100 or so planes were kept at the base. It was used to train Naval ground crews and to allow Naval Reserve pilots to keep their flight hours, which gave them a higher pay scale. (George H. W. Bush took some of his pilot training there, as did Bob Barker, the TV game show host) Also it provided a reserve air field to bring in planes from coastal stations during a severe storm. The base allowed local residents to use the theater and swimming pool. Most of the kids went there to see movies for only 6 cents. They had colored florescent light tubes across the proscenium opening and they were connected to the sound system so the music would make them flash in neat patterns - really innovative at that time. The officers club was a social hangout for some of the businessmen in the community - who actually had had it built during the ‘40s. Talk about a low security base! The weekend after some of us had signed up for the Reserve, we went over to the Officer’s Club and watched the running of the Kentucky Derby. After all, we still looked like civilians then. In the Reserve Program we were on duty at the base one weekend each month - usually just daytime - not sleeping there. The first weekend we new recruits went to the base, we spent one day taking tests very similar to SATs - English, Math - also general aptitude for various possible trades. Most of us were not too thrilled to be taking these tests but we were told that as soon as we were done we could go home for the day, so most of us didn’t work too hard on them. In the usual military manner - “Never tell anyone anything up front” - we found out months later that the grades from this test determined what we would be allowed to do the rest of the time we were in the Navy. It’s a good thing I scored high on most of the tests. On Navy weekends after that I went to school on aircraft maintenance and military procedures and worked with the airplanes on the ground. We learned to start up the aircraft and perform checkouts on the engine and controls. We also had to gas, oil and repair them. Of course, there was the end of my senior year to finish, too. Just before the end of school each year there was a Senior Class Skip Day. Our class chose to go to an amusement park south of Detroit - not the one on Boblo Island. It was another park, but I can’t remember the name. It was a nice place with a roller coaster right next to the water. That was my first and last roller coaster ride. Birds fly up and rocks fall fast when they’re dropped - people shouldn’t! That evening, we went to a Chinese diner, all getting different foods and sharing them around. Mrs. Sawitzky was our class adviser and came with us as a chaperone, as she had done for years with every other senior class. To the surprise of some people, I did graduate in June of ‘52, as did 29 others in the class, although all 32 of us went through the graduation ceremony. I don’t know if the other two officially graduated the next year or not, but we were all treated the same on graduation day. About 2/3rds of our class was headed for college that fall. The class of ‘53, coming along, was much larger - 40+ students - and the classes in following years kept getting larger - so where we had been a one classroom class, future classes needed two classrooms. SUMMER OF ‘52 That summer I had a job in the testing labs of the Socony Mobile Refinery. I helped out when one of the 5 chemists was on vacation. This also gave them someone to do all the “odd” jobs. I rode into work with Dad. We were always there a half an hour early and left a half an hour late, but the extra time was not on the books. The first day I was there, Dad came into the lab and told Dr. Potter that he did not want to see me sitting down any time he came by. That meant I was kept pretty busy. Sometimes I had to get the crushed ice that we used to pack the intake manifolds of the anti-knock test engines that ran in the basement. The ice machines were in the cafeteria right next door to the lab. This usually meant that I got some free lemonade or snacks that they were preparing in the morning. The food was great, especially the fresh baked pies. Of course, all the cooks knew Dad and sometimes they would send a pie home with us. At the lab I ran tests to check the age of the gasoline and to be sure that there were no additives that were not supposed to be there. I was also in charge of cleaning a lot of the lab glassware after the tests were completed. And, as low man on the totem pole, I was chosen to mix up the standard test fuel for the anti-knock engines. This was a gallon of N-Heptane with about 3 drops of butylmercaptan. (One drop would chase you out of your house. This is the odor that is put into natural gas so you can smell it if it leaks). The butylmercaptan was kept in a refrigerator in the back of one of the warehouses so nobody could smell it. About once a week I had to take a gallon can of heptane out to the warehouse, get the butylmercaptan container out of the refrigerator, carefully measure 3 drops into the gallon can of heptane, return the butylmercaptan to the refrigerator and take the heptane back to the lab. For a couple of hours afterward I smelled as if I had been sleeping with a skunk. Every time there was a price war at the gas stations in Detroit, we’d get dozens of samples of gasoline to test. We wanted to find out if competitors were diluting the gas or changing the octane rating. This only happened two or three times while I was there, but it did cause a lot of extra work. The rest of the time we just tested daily samples of our own products, such as gasoline and jet fuel, to be sure that they met specifications. Since I had just joined the navy that spring and was only on the base one weekend a month (hence the term: Weekend Warriors), it would take a long time to move up from my rank of Airman recruit (E1 - the lowest rate), so in the summer I went to a mini boot camp and took a training session for advancement in rate. It lasted four weeks and moved me from Airman recruit to Airman apprentice. The first two weeks we had to stay on base 24 hours a day, the next two weeks we could go out for the weekend. We had to get up at 6:00am and go out on the field to do calisthenics. Then we went to chow hall for breakfast. From 8:00am to 10:00am we were in the classrooms. From 10:00am to 12 noon we were in the maintenance shops - the prop shop, the metal shop, the engine shop, the carburetor shop and hydraulic shop. Then to the chow hall for lunch - all marching in as one group and eating together. Afternoon, depending on the weather, there was marching on the parade field or swimming, or water survival - including jumping, wearing no bathing suits, off the ceiling beams which were 25 above the swimming pool. The water was 15 ft. deep but very clear, so it looked as if we were jumping down 40 ft. - not to my liking! Evening chow was 5:00pm to 7:00pm on your own - at the chow hall, the PX or cafeteria. From 7:00pm to lights out at 10:00pm was time for studying for next days classes, watching the one TV in the lounge or washing and ironing uniforms. There were about 80 of us and we lived in the “White Barracks,” the only white building on the base. It was built in 1942 for Waves and in the mid 40’s was converted into the barracks for the British pilots who came over for training. It was right next to the officers club, which was now off-limits to me. At that time, Captain Dahl was the commander of the base and lived just across the street from our barracks. His son, Pete, who had been in our graduating class, sometimes invited me over to their house in the evening to watch TV. Our training officers weren’t sure what to think when they’d see me coming out of the Captain’s house at night and coming back to the barracks. None of THEM were invited to the Captain’s house. After the training program, I returned to the refinery labs to finish out the summer. Almost everyone else in the class had jobs, too, or was beginning to prepare for college, so we didn’t see much of each other. Some of the colleges had their freshman classes come in early in August but I don’t remember going very early or having much to do to get ready - just take some clothes, my radio and tools. I could add other things later since I’d be coming home one weekend a month for the Navy. I don’t believe that Albion College was quite ready for me. I was about 10 years ahead of the times and they were a little conservative. But with a little black powder here and a few wire taps there, I tried to make it through. That turned out to be two years at Albion and two years of Active duty with the Navy. Details in Episode 2. 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World Geography Brian Dufort, Sally Erickson, Matt Hamilton, David Soderquist, Steve Zigray World Geography MICHIGAN OPEN BOOK PROJECT This is version 1.4.4 of this resource, released in August 2018. Information on the latest version and updates are available on the project homepage: http://textbooks.wmisd.org/dashboard.html The text of this book is licensed under a Creative Commons NonCommercial-ShareAlike (CC-BY-NC-SA) license as part of Michigan’s participation in the national #GoOpen movement. You are free to: - Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format - Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms. Under the following terms: - Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. - NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes. - No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits. Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA About the Authors - 6th Grade World Geography Brian Dufort Shepherd Public Schools Odyssey MS/HS Brian is originally from Midland, MI and is a graduate of Northern Michigan University. He has spent his entire teaching career at Odyssey Middle/High School, an alternative education program in the Shepherd Public School system. In 2001, his environmental studies class was one of seven programs from the United States and Canada to be chosen as a winner of the Sea World/Busch Gardens Environmental Excellence Award. Brian is also the Northern Conference director of the Michigan Alternative Ath- Sally Erickson Livonia Public Schools Cooper Upper Elementary Sally has taught grades 3-6, as well as special education. She has served as a district literacy leader for many years and participated in the Galileo Leadership Academy in 2001-03. She is proud to be a teacher. Matt Hamilton East Jordan Public Schools East Jordan Middle School Matt grew up in Cadillac, MI. He holds a bachelor and masters degree from Michigan State University. He currently teaches middle school History and Geography. Matt started and advises a club at his school called the Shoe Club to inspire his students to Dream Big. His wife and two daughters enjoy traveling and spending time in the outdoors. David Soderquist Three Rivers Public Schools Three Rivers Middle School For the Past 11 years David has taught 6-8 grade Social Studies for Three Rivers Middle School. He serves as Department Head, School Improvement Member and Social Studies Rep for his area. Over the past few years he has completed his Masters Degree in Curriculum and Instruction and become a state recognized Instructional Coach. Steve Zigray Concord Community Schools Concord Middle School Steve Zigray is a 6th grade teacher. He holds a Bachelor's Degree from Central Michigan University and a Masters Degree in K-12 Administration from Eastern Michigan University. Honors Steve has been awarded are the 2001 Junior Achievement Educator of the Year and he was nominated for Jackson Magazine’s, Educator of the year in 2014. He has also coached high school and middle school sports, worked on various school improvement committees, wrote the 6th grade Common Assessment tests for Jackson County ISD and is an active member in the community as well as the PTO. He lives in southeast Jackson County with his beautiful wife and three fantastic daughters. Chapter 8 Oceania, Australia and Antarctica QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY 1. How are we, as members of a global society connected? 2. How does where societies develop influence their place in the world? 3. How do people survive when surrounded by oceans? Take a look at the map of Oceania pictured above. What do you first notice when looking at this map? Do your eyes head to the green shaded islands? Do they head to the brown and gray shaded Australia? Do they go to the great blue expanse of the Pacific Ocean? Oceania is an area of the world that has some very unique characteristics. More than one third of the earth’s surface is comprised of the Pacific Ocean and Oceania. In addition to all those islands, Oceania also includes the smallest continent in terms of land size: Australia. You can look anywhere in Oceania and find strong cultural traditions, rich history, and strong geographic features that vary widely depending on where you go. As you study the region you are invited to think about the following questions: How are we as members of a global society connected? For many people living in the United States, particularly those in Michigan, Oceania is a far away place. As you have been learning in each chapter however, we share social, political, economic, and cultural connections with all regions of the world, and Oceania is no different. As you have been doing in other sections, as you study this region look for examples of these connections. How does where societies develop influence their place in the world? You cannot study the history of a place without looking at how geography has influenced a culture’s development. This second question will be one you work cooperatively to answer with other classmates to study a specific piece of Oceania to answer this question. In addition with each section you will also explore some supporting questions. These will help you answer the larger compelling questions: Interactive 8.1 Google Maps - Oceania How do people survive when surrounded by oceans? Before we begin exploring different regions in Oceania, take a moment to look at this Interactive map. Zoom in and out and make note of what landforms you see and what other physical characteristics of place you can observe. What human characteristics can you observe? Take a look at the interactive Google Map linked above (requires internet connection) – What physical characteristics of place can you observe? Five Themes Practice - Location: Describe where Oceania is located using the maps in this section. The Pacific Islands Here is a map of the world with longitude and latitude lines displayed. Part of Oceania has also been labeled inside the green circle on the map. Use the map to answer the following questions: 1. Based on location alone, what characteristics do you believe this region may share with other parts of the world that are located in a similar zone? HINT: Think about what you know about South America, Africa, southern Asia. 2. Based off of location alone, what economic activities do you believe people in this region may undertake? Image Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/World_map_longlat.svg When visualizing this region through another climate map, what observations can you make? Try to answer the following questions using the second Map: Here is a climate map of the world. Review your predictions. Were you right? Where might you have been incorrect? 1. What do central and northern Australia have in common with Northern Africa? What other parts of the world have similar characteristics? 2. What do the islands north of Australia have in common with central Africa and northern South America? 3. What parts of the world are similar to Southern Australia? The Islands in the Pacific can be broken into three distinct regions. Of the three, Melanesia is the most populated. Micronesia is made up of approximately 2,000 small islands and is located north of Melanesia. Polynesia is a collection of many islands just East of Melanesia and Micronesia. What do you notice about the shape of their zone? The climate of this region is mostly tropical. There is heavy rain year round in the region, and two natural disasters routinely affect the region - volcanic activity and typhoons. Resources in the area are vastly different depending on where you go. The islands that were formed due to volcanic activity are considered “high islands.” Due to the makeup of the soil (which is volcanic in nature) the people who live in these zones have fertile farmland where they grow things such as bananas, coffee, and cocoa (necessary for the creation of chocolate). In contrast, the other islands are considered “low islands” which have little vegetation. You’ll learn a little more about the people in the next section, but there are very small populations of people on these islands. To learn a little bit more about the physical features, and prepare for learning about the human features of Oceania, take a look at the National Geographic website here. Oceania is a large region and as such there are a large variety of cultures represented. Overall, however, the entire region (including Australia) is very sparsely populated. Look at the population density map provided. This map from reefbase.org showcases the population density of most of Oceania. If the darker regions indicate areas with a heavier concentration of population than the lighter areas, does the region seem to have a large or small population? What evidence supports your claim? Questions to Guide Inquiry 1. How are we, as members of a global society connected? 2. How does where societies develop influence their place in the world? 3. How do people survive when surrounded by oceans? Movement To The Region There is much scholarly debate on when exactly the region began to be settled. Some claim people began making their way there 35,000 years ago. Others believe it happened later. It is believed the people of Polynesia arrived through one of three migrations: 1. An “express train” out of Taiwan. This is not a literal train, but rather a theory that people left quickly from southern China and made their way to islands such as Melanesia over a long period of time. 2. An “Entangled Bank” - a much slower migration out of areas such as Australia and southern China. 3. A “Slow Boat” - where people came to Melanesia, mixing and mingling with the populations there before moving out over a longer period of time. All of these migrations took place over a long period of time - over several thousands of years. Because these civilizations were isolated from others however, the history and cultures in this region are distinctive and unique. Prior to contact with the Europeans, the people of this island region practiced hundreds of different religions, many with similar roots to one another. Much of this changed with the arrival of the Europeans. Contact with European powers occurred in the 1500s. While not initially easy to get to and from Europe, the first European believed to have entered the region was Ferdinand Magellan who landed near the Philippines where he was eventually killed. Further explorers came after him, including Captain James Cook who made three major voyages to the region and eventually explored the vast majority of it. The records of his journey inspired others back home in Europe to continue to investigate the region, and by the mid 1800s Spain, France, and Great Britain had all taken major stakes in the region. Which theory on movement of people do you believe to be the most likely? Why? Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Oceania_country_codes.png Even the United States has a stake in the area. When the United States went to war with Spain early in its history, the Spanish were eventually defeated. Guam became a United States territory during this period. There are over 9 million people living in the overall region today. That seems like a lot until you compare it to a relatively large city in Mexico - Mexico City. 8.5 Million people live in that city alone! There are many different cultural traditions in this region. While many adopted Christianity as a major religion which spread to the region through European contact and exploration, there are still places where traditional local religions are practiced. The Pacific Islands are one of the most isolated regions in the world, yet places there are heavily visited by tourists. Interactive 8.3 Culture Grams After heading to the main page, select “Kids” and choose Oceania to drill down deeper into the region. “How do people survive when surrounded by oceans?” Looking at the region again again by viewing the map above, what might make up the economy of the region? Visit the Culture Grams website (Only available to students in Michigan!) and look up the region to find more information and answer this inquiry question: (Hint! Once you select your region, look on the left hand side of your screen to dial down into certain options) Section 4 Introduction to Australia QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY 1. How are we, as members of a global society connected? 2. How does where societies develop influence their place in the world? 3. How do people survive when surrounded by oceans? Australia How does where societies develop influence their place in the world? You cannot study the history of a place without looking at how geography has influenced a culture’s development. This second question will be one you work cooperatively to answer with other classmates as you learn more about Australia. Image source: Image source - http://www.deshow.net/d/file/travel/2008-11/sydney-scenery-australia-travel-2.jpg Australia is a continent where you can find geographic extremes. It has both deserts and rainforests, and is home to the Outback and the Great Barrier Reef. This unique continent is surrounded by the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The continent is comprised of the mainland, Tasmania and several smaller islands. Australia is the 6th largest country in the world where over 23 million people live today. In this chapter you will learn about the geography of this continent, along with the population and history of Australia. You will have a chance to explore how the population of this country grew and ways that this has shaped modern day life. As you read these next sections, think about how where Australia developed influenced their place in the world. To get you to start thinking about this, watch this video and answer the questions in the blue box below: 1. How has Australia influenced the countries around it? 2. Why do people move here? 3. What sets Australia apart from other countries in the region? Looking at the map of Australia, what do you notice? The lines dividing Australia mark the six states and two territories: Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory, and the Northern Territory. Where do you see the majority of the cities in Australia? You will notice they are along the coastline. According to the Australian Bureau of... Statistics, more than 85% of the population in 2001 lived within 30 miles of the coast. Why do you think that so many people live near the coast in Australia? The Outback, found inland Australia, is difficult to inhabit due to arid weather and extreme heat. This land is not fertile, making farming nearly impossible for people and thus you will see fewer cities in the Outback. Looking at Australia’s vegetation, notice that more than 70% of Australia is arid or semi-arid. Arid means an area that has little or no rain, where it is difficult for vegetation to grow. In contrast to Australia’s Outback, this continent has rain forests as well as a world famous underwater habitat. The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system. It is larger than the Great Wall of China and is the only living thing that can be seen from space. The reef spans 2300 km - comparatively this would be equal to the distance from Vancouver, Canada to the Mexican border. This reef is home to thousands of species. It is home to over 1,625 types of fish alone! Interactive 8.7 Great Barrier Reef Click on the link to experience what life is like on the Great Barrier Reef. After learning about the geography of Australia, what does this country have in common with where you live? Australia is a top travel destination and the Great Barrier Reef and Ayers Rock attract many tourists. What natural geographic attractions do tourists enjoy visiting in Michigan? Image: Sleeping Bear Dunes. You have learned that Australia is a land of geographic extremes. You probably do not live in a region of such extremes, but what do you notice about where people live in Michigan? Is there a pattern to where people live or where large cities are located? Remember that in Australia most people live near the coast because the large cities are able to sustain population, as opposed to the Outback. Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Sleeping_Bear_Dune_Aerial_View.jpg Australia is home to over 23 million people today. Australia is one of the most ethnically diverse countries, where nearly 25 percent of people living in Australia were not born here. Thinking about this fact for a moment, what do you think brought all these people to Australia? Why do people still migrate, or move there? We will be exploring the history of migration in this section and you will see there were some major events in Australia’s history that pushed or pulled people to migrate there. People native to this continent were known as Indigenous or Aboriginal people by the British when they came to Australia in the 18th century. Aboriginals are believed to have inhabited Australia for over 50,000 years. Aboriginals survived by using the resources in the area. They hunted, fished and gathered for their food. They were limited in their food choices by what the land and sea offered. Therefore, they were nomads and traveled in search of their food. When the British came to Australia, they considered them illiterate and could not understand their nomadic culture. When the British arrived, the people native to Australia were displaced, or forced to surrender their native lands to the British. They were now under British rule. In the years following British settlement, many Aboriginal people died from displacement, disease or violence. Racism towards Aboriginal or Indigenous Australians continued until well into the 20th century. Indigenous Australians were not given the right to vote until 1962. It was not until 1968 that the Australian government passed a law requiring employers to pay Aboriginal Australians minimum wage. The Aboriginal Land Rights Act in 1976 granted traditional land in the Northern territories to the Aboriginal people. Interactive 8.8 Dreamtime story Click on the link to listen to a traditional dreamtime story. Listen for the sounds of the didgeridoo at the beginning of the clip Although Aboriginal Australians make up less than 3 percent of the population, the rich Aboriginal culture is something people hope to preserve. Originally there were between 350 - 750 different Aboriginal groups and languages. Their cultures was centered around nature and the importance of the land. The art created reflected the importance of Dreamtime, which was the period they believed when the world was created. Dreamtime is reflected in both art and stories passed down through generations. Aboriginal art used symbols and drawings to tell a story and was first done in caves and on bark. Interactive 8.9 Aborigines and Native Americans Reading about the people native to Australia, you may have made some connections to people who were native to Michigan. The following article explores the similarities and differences between Australian Aborigines and Native Americans. After reading the article please answer the questions below. 1. How are Australian Aborigines and Native Americans similar? 2. In what ways are their histories different? 3. Do you believe that a valid comparison can be made between these two cultures? 4. Why or why not? Interactive 8.10 A Day in the Life - Australia Is daily life in Australia different than where you live? Take a peek inside a day in the life of a 12 year old boy living in Australia. After you have looked at these slides, compare and contrast a typical day for you and the one you just saw. History Australia is an independent country, yet it is part of the British Commonwealth. This means that Australia shares a monarchy, a government ruled by a king or queen, with Britain. Thus, Queen Elizabeth II is Queen of England and Queen of Australia. As you watch the video in the widget, be thinking about the following questions: - What are some of the reasons people give for wanting or not wanting a republic? - Why do you think some of them do not seem to understand the issue? - What was the result of the referendum? Were there any positive outcomes? To understand why Australia became a monarchy, we need to go back and look at how Australia was founded. This country has a rich history and in this section you will see the role that migration played in shaping Australia’s history. British Claim the Continent: By the mid 1700’s, England had an overcrowded prison system. The country was in need of sending its prisoners somewhere else. Near the end of the 1700’s, British explorer James Cook came to Australia and claimed it for Great Britain. He named this land New South Wales. A few years later ships carrying nearly 1400 people, mostly convicts, from England landed in Australia. They arrived on January 26th, 1788. This day is now known as Australia Day, an official public holiday celebrated throughout Australia. Population Growth: Over the next 100 years, over 150,000 additional men and women were shipped to Australia. Most of these people were convicted criminals. They faced difficult and horrible conditions throughout their long journey on a ship. The removal of these convicts helped Britain with their overcrowding prisons as well as helping them settle Australia much faster. Australia also experienced a population boom during the Gold Rush of the 1850’s. Immigrants from around the world moved to Australia hoping to become rich with the discovery of gold. The population, however, was dominated by convicted criminals who recently had been sent from England. On January 1st the commonwealth of Australia was created as a dominion of the British Empire and Australia was officially a new country. Interactive 8.12 A Land of Milk and Honey Learn more about how migrants adjusted to life in Australia 1. What benefits for migrants did this video highlight? 2. Identify and list the problems for migrants shown in this video clip. The economy was sparked by production for WWII and growth swept across Australia. Australia was in dire need of workers as industry grew rapidly. Migrants from Europe came to fill many of the needed positions. Most of the migrants were young and were very hopeful for a bright and profitable future. They were not disappointed. Watch the following video from 1951 that explained how migrants adjusted to life in Australia. Note that many people who migrated to Australia from Europe did not speak English. Here is a look at the population growth of Australia. Australia’s population boomed between 1948 and 1975 when over 2 million people migrated to this country. Why do you think the population boomed after WWII in Australia? What do you think happened to the population of Michigan and the rest of the U.S. after WWII? Why? Australia has a rich and diverse history. So now that you have explored Australia in greater detail, how are we, as members of a global society, connected to Australia? Open your interactive journal and answer the inquiry questions for this section. Interactive 8.13 Interactive Journal Please note: once you have created your own copy of this document, this widget will only return you to the blank copy. You will need to access yours by opening from your own Google Document. Antarctica is an extremely desolate place. It is the coldest, windiest, and driest place on the earth. Antarctica is Earth’s southernmost continent, containing the geographic South Pole. It sits in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Just speaking the name of this continent brings up images of ice, snow and penguins. Antarctica has a rich history of exploration and continues to be a thriving spot for researchers and scientists from all over the world. In this section we will look at the physical features of this continent, along with the history and how it connects to the rest of the world. You will have an opportunity to look at images from this frozen continent, watch videos taken in Antarctica and play interactive games that test your knowledge of Antarctica. This continent has often been referred to as the last frontier in exploration and is extremely important in the scientific community today. As you read and explore, think about how we, as members of a global society, connected to Antarctica? Also, think about how the history of Antarctica impacts the role it plays in the world today? Interactive 8.14 Google Maps - Antarctica Study the region by exploring on this Google Map. Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Antarctica_major_geographical_features.jpg Section 9 Physical and Human Geography QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY 1. How are we, as members of a global society connected? 2. How does where societies develop influence their place in the world? 3. How do people survive when surrounded by oceans? Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Antarctica_major_geographical_features.jpg Movie 8.1 Visual Loop - Antarctica Video Questions: 1. Describe what Antarctica is like compared to where you live. (weather, land, number of people, activities) 2. Based on what you see, why do the physical features make it difficult for people to live in Antarctica? 3. Why might countries from around the world be interested in Antarctica? Antarctica is the world’s fifth largest continent. It is slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the U.S. and about twice the size of Australia. Antarctica has an area of 14 million squared kilometers. Antarctica’s landscape is made up of approximately 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock. There are numerous ice shelves in Antarctica. An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface (wikipedia). On this continent, glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent. Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 inches) along the coast and far less inland. The temperature in Antarctica has reached $-89^\circ$C ($-129^\circ$F). The South Pole, the southern most point of the Earth, is located in Antarctica. The Transantarctic Mountains go through this continent. Explorers trying to reach the South Pole by way of the Ross Ice Shelf had to cross this mountain range. Wildlife and Vegetation This beautiful, icy ocean environment is also home to nearly 10,000 highly adapted species, many of which can be found nowhere else on the planet. Only cold-adapted organisms survive, including many types of algae, bacteria, fungi, and plants, and certain animals, such as mites, penguins, and seals. Gallery 8.1 Wildlife and Vegetation in Antarctica One of the author’s friends works in Antarctica and provided these still images. Antarctica is one of the most pristine marine environments on the planet. Vegetation where it occurs is tundra. Human Geography Although there are no people native to Antarctica, anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Most residents of Antarctica live there for a few months at a time and it is important to keep in mind that there are no permanent residents or cities or towns in Antarctica. “There are around 66 scientific bases in Antarctica, of which about 37 are occupied year round. There are about 4,000 people through the summer months and about 1,000 over winter each year. Antarctica boasts tens of thousands of tourists each year. In 2013-14 Antarctica had 37,405 tourists.” (IAATO, 2014). Global Connections So who was the first person to see this beautiful and desolate continent? When was Antarctica discovered? In 1820, several groups of explorers claim to have sighted Antarctica. American Captain John Davis claims to be the first to set foot there in 1821. Davis was a sealer, a person who hunts seals. Sealers hunted seals for their pelts and fat, which could be made into lubricants, lamp fuel or cooking oil. In 1911, Norwegian explorer, Roald Amundsens’s expedition was the first to reach the South Pole. Imagine you were a part of an expedition to discover the South Pole. Write a letter home describing what this journey is like. Antarctica Ice Melt 98% of Antarctica is covered in ice. The ice averages a little over a mile thick. Is Antarctica melting? We hear a lot about global warming these days. But is it really happening? Click on the link below to read about what is happening to cause a change in ice mass to this continent. Why are countries interested in Antarctica? Even though Antarctica is an extremely desolate and difficult place to live, there are many natural resources that make it very financially attractive for many countries. Petroleum, coal, ice, copper, and iron are just a few of the many natural resources available in Antarctica. However, the harsh climate, thick ice and short work season make it very difficult to retrieve any resources. Many believe that as resources are depleted worldwide, economic pressure will force mineral and petroleum exploration into more and more remote regions as resources are gradually depleted in other lands. If this happens, it could destroy one of the last untouched areas on our Earth. What is being done to protect it? Who Owns Antarctica? Looking at the claim map, what countries maintain a territorial claim in Antarctica? Which country holds the largest claim? You may be wondering why don’t you see the United States name on this map. The United States does not hold a claim but does reserve the right to make a claim in the future. Territorial claims were claims on the land made by different countries. The Antarctic Treaty was created in 1961 but neither denies nor recognizes these claims. What is the Antarctic Treaty? The Antarctic Treaty was signed December 1, 1959 in Washington, D.C., and was entered into force on June 23, 1961. The objective of this international agreement is "to ensure that Antarctica is used for peaceful purposes, for international cooperation in scientific research, and does not become the scene or object of international discord." The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed in Madrid on October 4, 1991 and entered into force in 1998. It designates Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and science”, establishes the principles pertaining to human activities in Antarctica and prohibits all activities relating to the exploitation of mineral resources, except for scientific research. The current moratorium that bans drilling and mining in Antarctica can be reviewed after the 50-year anniversary of the ratification, which will occur in 2048. What is being done today to insure that this treaty will continue? What is 2041 and Who Is Robert Swan? “The greatest threat to our planet is the belief that someone else will save it.” – Robert Swan 2041 was founded by polar explorer, environmental leader and public speaker Robert Swan. Robert’s goal is to increase awareness now and garner support by the year 2041 (the 50-year anniversary of the signing of the Antarctic Treaty) to ensure the continued protection of the Antarctic Treaty so that the last great wilderness on earth is never exploited. 2041’s mission is to build on Swan’s dedication by informing, engaging and inspiring the next generation of leaders to take responsibility, to be sustainable, and to know that now is the time for action in policy. development, sustainable business generation and future technologies. As the first person in history to walk to both the North and South Poles, Swan has dedicated his life to the preservation of Antarctica by the promotion of recycling, renewable energy and sustainability to combat the effects of climate change. Movie 8.3 Tetrapak in India Courtesy, 2041 Video Questions: 1. What are people doing around the world to help preserve this Earth? 2. What can we do to help preserve Antarctica? Global Connections Why is Antarctica Important? Wendy Gideman is a teacher in England and has been on two trips to Antarctica. She has blogged about her trip and set up a site with information about the beautiful continent. The following activity that she has created on her site contains a lesson about the global impact of humans on Antarctica and the importance of doing our part to preserve it for generations. Please take a few minutes to read her ideas: [https://sites.google.com/site/frozenclassroom/journal-blog/lesson-7--environmental-issues](https://sites.google.com/site/frozenclassroom/journal-blog/lesson-7--environmental-issues) What are some things you can do to help preserve our World? • Recycle and reuse things instead of throwing them in the garbage • Turn off lights when you leave a room • Don’t leave the water running • Keep learning about the environment and as you learn, apply your new knowledge to help the environment and Antarctica! • Tell your friends and continue to pass along accurate and informative information • Reduce the use of paper • Reduce use of bottled water • Compost • Exercise, study, or work outside or in areas that do not need electricity • Eat at restaurants that source local produce • Avoid businesses/products that use harmful tactics or practices • Be active in public sustainability forums and then share acquired knowledge You have taken a tour of Antarctica and learned about the physical and human geography. Now take what you learned and answer the inquiry questions in your journal: How does the history of Antarctica impact its role in the world today? How are we, as members of a global society, connected? More web resources: http://classroom.antarctica.gov.au https://sites.google.com/site/frozenclassroom/ Interactive 8.17 Interactive Journal Please note: once you have created your own copy of this document, this widget will only return you to the blank copy. 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Our report includes up-to-date disease and insect pest reports, as well as color images, for northeastern Illinois. You’ll also find a table of accumulated growing degree days throughout Illinois, precipitation, and plant phenology indicators to help predict pest emergence. Quick View Weekly reminder What to look for in the next week This week’s sightings: Insects - Annual cicada - Red milkweed beetle - Yellow-necked caterpillars - Black vine weevil damage - Imported willow leaf beetle - Milkweed tussock moth - Peach tree borer - Ash flower gall Diseases - Cytospora canker of spruce Sightings elsewhere - Possible phytoplasmas on red maple and red-osier dogwood Woody of the week American Hornbeam, Blue Beech, Ironwood, Musclewood (Carpinus caroliniana) I have run out of Orton’s indicator plants, so for this week I’m sharing an interesting plant that’s flowering right now. Limelight panicle hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata ‘Limelight’) (Figure 1) Accumulated Growing Degree Days (Base 50): 2132.5 Accumulated Growing Degree Days (Base 30): 4994.5 Figure 1 Limelight panicle hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata ‘Limelight’) Degree Days and Weather Information As of August 11, 2010, we are at 2132.5 base-50 growing degree days (GDD), which is approximately 28 calendar days (443 GDD) ahead of 2009 at this time, and ahead of the historical average (1937-2009) by 53 GDD, 2 calendar days. In the past two weeks, it has rained 3.44 inches, 2.46 inches this month, and 27.98 inches for the year. \| Location \| Growing Degree Days through August 11 \| Precipitation (in) Between July 28 – August 11 \| \|---------------------------\|--------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------\| \| Aurora, IL \| 2266.2 \| \| \| Cahokia, IL \| 3039.7 \| \| \| Carbondale, IL \| 3152.3 \| \| \| Champaign, IL \| 2636.2 \| \| \| Chicago Midway \| 2463.1 \| \| \| Chicago O’Hare* \| 2335.5 \| 0.57 \| \| Decatur, IL \| 2787.1 \| \| \| DuPage County Airport (West Chicago, IL) \| 2294.6 \| \| \| Lawrenceville, IL \| 3103.4 \| \| \| Mattoon, IL \| 2742.5 \| \| \| Moline, IL \| 2562.2 \| \| \| The Morton Arboretum (Lisle, IL) \| 2132.5 \| 3.44 \| \| Peoria, IL \| 2660.3 \| \| \| Quincy, IL \| 2721.8 \| \| \| Rockford, IL \| 2268.8 \| \| \| Springfield, IL \| 2855.6 \| \| \| Sterling, IL \| 2382.9 \| \| \| Waukegan, IL \| 1979.0 \| \| \| Wheeling, IL \| 2258.0 \| \| Thank you to Mike Brouillard, Northbrook Park District for supplying us with this information. * We obtain most of our degree day information from the GDD Tracker from Michigan State University web site. For additional locations and daily degree days, go to http://www.gddtracker.net/?zip=60185&model=2&state=IL Weekly Reminder: With the lack of rain and the heat in the past week several plants (woody and herbaceous) are wilting. Be sure to water your plants. Remember, trees need at least one inch of water a week, which is much more than grass. Water your trees until the ground is moist 14 inches below ground level, this way you know the roots are getting adequate water. What to look for in the next week: Butternut canker, smooth patch, fall webworm Annual cicada The songs of the annual dog day cicadas (Tibicen linnei) (Figure 2) are frequently being heard now. These are the insects that make the sound “weeeeeeeeeeeeee”, “weeeeeeeeeeeeee” high in trees during the warm, dog-days of summer. This is the mating call of the male. They are about 1.75 inches long and are green to brown with black markings. The distinguishing factor between the annual and periodic cicada is the eye color. The periodic cicada has red eyes and the annual has black. Like the periodical cicadas, females lay eggs by sawing a slit in the bark of twigs and placing the eggs in the twig. Egg-laying injury can cause some minor twig dieback. After the eggs hatch, the young nymphs drop down into the ground to feed on plant roots. They have large front legs used for digging in the soil. They live on tree roots as nymphs for two to five years with some adults emerging in late summer every year. The feeding on the roots doesn’t cause much damage. As the insects grow larger, they break out of their old exoskeletons or skins. Control: Control is not necessary since annual cicadas cause minimal damage to trees. Suggested reading: [http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/hyg-fact/2000/2137.html](http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/hyg-fact/2000/2137.html) Red milkweed beetle Red milkweed beetles (Tetraopes tetraophthalmus) (Figure 3) were found on common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). They are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long and red with black spots and long black antennae. Adults feed on milkweed leaves, while in the larval stage they bore into and feed on milkweed stems and roots. Control: They usually do not cause enough damage to require control. Yellow-necked caterpillars Yellow-necked caterpillars (Datana ministra) (Figure 4) were found defoliating a swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor). These are larvae that feed in groups. In light infestations, individual branches can be defoliated. Yellow-necked caterpillars have a broad range of hosts including basswood, beech, birch, crabapples, elms, maples and oaks. Young larvae have black heads and yellow bodies with red stripes. Their name is derived from the orange-yellow segments behind their heads. When young, they are in the yellow-red color phase, which means they have red longitudinal stripes on their yellow bodies. As they mature, they go into their black-yellow phase, which means their red stripes turn black. They will eventually grow to two inches in length. They devour entire leaves, leaving only the petioles (leaf stems). When disturbed, they lift their heads and tails above the rest of their bodies, almost like they’re trying to touch their tails with the heads. The ones we saw were black and yellow and nearing two inches in length, meaning they were quite mature. They were also very hungry. Yellow-necked caterpillars overwinter as pupae in the soil, emerging as adults in June to lay eggs. There is one generation annually. Control: A small infestation can be pruned out or ignored since they feed relatively late in the growing season. Control is more critical on a young tree. We would probably handpick them on a small tree using our patented pick’n’squish™ technique. They can also be dropped in a bucket of soapy water as they are not strong swimmers. Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Btk) can also be used to control young larvae. Btk is not as effective on mature larvae. For chemical recommendations, refer to the Commercial Landscape and Turfgrass Pest Management Handbook 2010 (CPM) if you are a commercial applicator or Home, Yard and Garden Pest Guide (HYG) from the University of Illinois if you are a homeowner. Suggested reading: [http://bugs.osu.edu/~bugdoc/Shetlar/factsheet/ornamental/FSyellowneckcat.htm](http://bugs.osu.edu/~bugdoc/Shetlar/factsheet/ornamental/FSyellowneckcat.htm) --- Black vine weevil damage Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) damage (Figure 5) has been seen on the leaves of catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense). Adult black vine weevils are nocturnal creatures that feed along leaf margins producing crescent-shaped notches. Moderate feeding is not damaging to plant health. The more serious damage is done by the larvae which consume tender feeder roots, causing foliage of infested plants to turn yellow or brown. When young roots become scarce or the soil becomes excessively moist, the larvae will move to larger roots at the base of the plant. Severe larval infestations can ultimately kill the host plant. Adult female weevils emerge from the soil in late May through early July and feed for three to four weeks at night before laying eggs in the soil beneath the host plant. Eggs hatch in two to three weeks and the larvae feed on roots until late fall. With the onset of colder temperatures, larvae burrow deeper in the ground to overwinter. Black vine weevils feed on a wide range of herbaceous and woody ornamentals. Preferred hosts are yew, hemlock, and various rhododendrons. Control: If you place boards down in infested areas, the weevils will hide under the boards during the day. You can then pick them up and destroy them. Insecticidal sprays are effective in controlling adult weevils. Insecticides should be applied now before egg laying occurs and repeated twice at 2-week intervals. Parasitic nematodes, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, have been found to be effective in controlling larvae. They should be applied when larvae are present (in about five to seven weeks). Moderate to high soil moisture in July and August will help egg and larva survival. Remove excessive mulch layers to reduce soil moisture levels and do not water plants unless necessary. Excessively damp soils in the fall... also force larvae to move up the base of the plant where girdling can occur. For specific chemical recommendations, refer to the Commercial Landscape and Turfgrass Pest Management Handbook (CPM) for commercial applicators or the Home Yard and Garden Pest Guide (HYG) for homeowners. Suggested reading: [http://ohioline.ag.ohio-state.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2016.html](http://ohioline.ag.ohio-state.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2016.html) [http://www.uwex.edu/ces/wihort/gardenfacts/X1065.pdf](http://www.uwex.edu/ces/wihort/gardenfacts/X1065.pdf) ### Imported willow leaf beetle Imported willow leaf beetle (Plagiodera versicolora) larvae and adults (Figure 6) have been found feeding on the leaves of bluestem willow (Salix irrorata). Young larvae feed in groups and skeletonize leaves. As they mature, larvae consume all leaf tissue except the veins. Adults, who cause minor damage, chew notches and holes in leaves. Larvae are black, and very young larvae can be a cream color but darken with age. Adults are about a $ \frac{3}{8} $ inch long, oval, and metallic black to greenish blue. Adult beetles overwinter under loose bark of willows and poplars or in piles of nearby debris and leaf litter. Adults begin feeding on young foliage in late April to early May and lay eggs shortly thereafter. Young larvae emerge a few days later and begin feeding. There are two to three generations per year in our region. Control: Treatment of imported willow leaf beetle is generally not necessary. However, in severe and repeated infestations, control may be warranted. Insecticides should be applied now to control first generation larvae. Refer to the CPM or HYG for specific chemical control recommendations. Suggested reading: [http://www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/Web/154ImportedWillowLeafBeetle.pdf](http://www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/Web/154ImportedWillowLeafBeetle.pdf) [http://www.entomology.cornell.edu/cals/entomology/extension/idl/upload/Imported-Willow-Leaf-Beetle.pdf](http://www.entomology.cornell.edu/cals/entomology/extension/idl/upload/Imported-Willow-Leaf-Beetle.pdf) ### Milkweed tussock moth Milkweed tussock moth caterpillars (Euchaetes egle) (Figure 7) were found eating the leaves of common milkweed plant (Asclepias syriaca). They have black and white “hair pencils” along their front, back, and sides and six pairs of thick yellow and black tufts of hair along their middle and grow up to an inch long. The caterpillars feed in colonies and roll into balls, dropping to the ground when disturbed. They are late season feeders on all kinds of milkweeds, so check your butterfly weed (Aesclepias tuberosa). They may defoliate patches of milkweed. Adult males sing to attract females by making lovely clicking sounds. Control: Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Btk) will kill young caterpillars, but is not as effective against older larvae. Peachtree borer Greater peachtree borer (Synanthedon exitiosa) adult males (Figure 8) have been caught in our pheromone traps. The adults are wasp-like, clear-winged, day-flying moths that primarily infest plants in the Prunus genus. Male adults are blue-black with narrow yellow bands on their abdomens and have clear wings with edges and veins outlined with blue-black scales. Females are steel blue with an orange band around the abdomen and have dark blue forewings and clear hind wings. The wingspan of the male is about one inch, and the female’s is about one and a half inches. Adult emergence usually begins in June, typically peaks in mid-July to early August, and may extend into September. Soon after emergence, the female lays eggs in bark crevices of host plants. Hatching occurs about seven to ten days later. The brown-headed, creamy-white larvae burrow into the bark and begin to feed on inner bark, eventually reaching an inch and a quarter long. The insect overwinters as a partly grown larva underneath the host’s bark and resumes feeding and growing in spring and early summer. Most larval activity is confined to the trunk area, usually just below the soil line or in the lower 10 inches of the trunk. Young trees can be killed when trunks are girdled by feeding; older trees are weakened and become susceptible to attack by pathogens and bark beetles. When monitoring for larvae, look at the root crown for cracked bark, frass, and resin. The lesser peachtree borer (Synanthedon pictipes), which is more commonly found in orchards, starts to emerge earlier and over a longer time period and lays its eggs higher in the tree than the greater peachtree borer. Control: Since adult females are attracted to open wounds in which to lay their eggs, avoid wounding Prunus species at this time. Keep the trees healthy by watering during dry periods and mulching properly. Refer to the CPM or HYG for homeowners for specific chemical recommendations. If only a few trees are infested, greater peachtree larvae can be mechanically removed. This should be done in the spring at bud break or in late fall. Larvae can be removed through a technique called worming. Remove soil from around the base of infected trees; then use a pocketknife or other pointed instrument to dig the larvae out. Be careful since it is possible to seriously injure the tree if too much bark or wood is removed. Larvae may also be killed by inserting a wire into their holes. Keep trees stress-free by proper watering and fertilization practices. Suggested reading: Greater peachtree borer: [http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/factsheet/greater-peachtree-borers07.pdf](http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/factsheet/greater-peachtree-borers07.pdf) Lesser peachtree Borer: [http://www.canr.msu.edu/vanburen/flptb.htm](http://www.canr.msu.edu/vanburen/flptb.htm) Ash Flower Gall Flower galls (Figure 9) are beginning to turn brown on male (seedless) ash trees. The new galls were formed earlier this summer. Some people have described them as “bunches of grapes” hanging on the trees. These galls are caused by ash flower gall mites, an eriophyid mite (Aceria fraxiniflora). They feed on male flowers before buds are fully expanded. Feeding induces formation of round, greenish galls that become dry and turn brown in late summer and remain on the tree over the winter. Normally male flowers fall off after disseminating pollen, but when infested with ash flower galls mites, the galls may stay on the tree as long as two years. Seedless green ashes are most commonly attacked. Control: Control is not necessary, as damage is just aesthetic. Although unsightly, the ash flower gall does not harm the tree. We think of it as winter interest. Suggested reading: http://www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/Web/065AshFlowerGallMite.pdf http://www.uwex.edu/ces/wihort/gardenfacts/X1048.pdf --- Cytospora canker of spruce Infections caused by Cytospora kunzei (Leucostoma kunzei) were seen on common koyama spruce (Picea koyama) (Figure 10). This is a common fungal disease of stressed Colorado and Norway spruces that can be diagnosed driving past the tree up to 40 miles an hour. It also attacks Douglas fir, hemlocks, larches, and balsam fir. Cytospora canker rarely affects trees that are younger than 15 to 20 years old or that are less than 20 feet tall. The disease usually starts on the lower branches of the tree and progresses upwards. Needles first turn purple (this is what we saw earlier in the season), then brown and finally drop, leaving dry, brittle twigs and branches. The fungus enters the tree through wounds and creates cankers within the bark. A thin coating of white resin is often found on infected twigs and trunks. Another problem that can be confused with Cytospora canker is too much shade. Spruces need full sun, so when the bottom branches get shaded out by other plants, those bottom branches die. But an older spruce in full sun that has the lower branches die is most likely a victim of Cytospora canker. Control: Cytospora canker is a stress-related disease, so, at minimum, trees should be kept mulched and watered well during dry periods. Remove infected branches promptly during dry weather to reduce the spread of the disease. It is imperative to disinfect pruning tools between cuts. Give spruces adequate space when planting as dense planting is another common predisposing stress factor. There is no effective chemical control. Suggested reading: http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/3000/3033.html http://ipm.uiuc.edu/diseases/series600/rpd604/index.html http://plantclinic.cornell.edu/FactSheets/cytospora/cytotwig/cytotwig.htm Possible phytoplasmas on red maple and red-osier dogwood Symptoms of phytoplasma infections were found on red maples and red-osier dogwoods at a DuPage County location recently (see photos below). Phytoplasma infection symptoms include stunted leaves that grow in bunches around the stem, like a witches-broom. The leaves are discolored; in this case, both species’ leaves were paler than healthy plants. Symptoms can either be seen uniformly over the entire canopy, but can also only affect one-half of the plant. Phytoplasmas are prokaryotic organisms (Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and any other membrane-bound organelles, such as bacteria.) that lack cell walls. They are ultramicroscopic (175-250 nanometers in diameter) and consist of cytoplasm, randomly distributed ribosomes, and strands of nuclear material and they’re contained within a “unit” membrane. Plant pathogenic phytoplasmas are vectored by leafhoppers, psyllids, and plant hoppers. The phytoplasma’s life-cycle is closely associated with its vector because it reproduces inside various parts of the vector for several days before it can be spread to new plants. Much of this information was taken from, and more can be found in Sinclair and Lyon’s Diseases of Trees and Shrubs, 2nd ed. Cornell University Press. The Woody of the Week is written to aid in basic botanical identification of the featured plant, while adding to the reader’s knowledge bank of woody plants. Many of the terms used are standard for describing plant morphology and may require definitions for complete understanding. There are several publications on botanical terminology. Two of these publications are Plant Identification Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary by J.G. Harris and M. Woolf Harris and the Plant Morphology section in Michael Dirr’s Manual of Woody Landscape Plants (page xiv) for pictures and descriptions. *American Hornbeam, Blue Beech, Ironwood, Musclewood (Carpinus caroliniana)* Family: Betulaceae Native: Minnesota and Nova Scotia to Florida and Texas. Introduced 1812. Mature Size: 20-30’ tall and wide, possibly larger. Multi- or single stemmed. Hardiness: Zone 3b-9 Foliage: Alternate, ovate-oblong, doubly serrate, up to 5” long and 2” wide, dark green, 10-14 pairs of veins, veins rarely fork at ends, pubescent petiole. Fall color may be yellow, red, orange, or purple; variable levels of showiness. Bud/stem: Small, imbricate (composed of scales), scales in 4-ranks, usually pubescent on tip, ovate and pointed, reddish-brown, no terminal bud. Stem is slender, zig zag, dark red-brown, and has tan lenticels. Flower: Monoecious. Male catkins 1 to 1 ½ inches long, females up to 4” long. Fruit: Nutlet, not showy, green, borne in a bract up to 4” long in fall. Bark: Smooth, light gray to medium gray, becomes furrowed with age. Culture/Usage: American Hornbeam is native to streambanks and can tolerate periodic flooding. Utilized best as an understory tree in a naturalized area with moist, slightly acidic soils. Best transplanted in spring, it can tolerate deep shade or full sun. Although it is generally considered to be problem-free, two-lined chestnut borer can attack and kill stressed trees. Hardiness can be problematic depending on seed source, so choose a tree from a reputable garden center! Get An Up-Close View! Planted just off the aggregate walkway leading from the Visitor Center to the West Side, a single specimen planted in the small area of turf. Grid Location: M-43/94-32. Interesting fact of the week: The name Carpinus is most likely derived from the Latin carpentum, meaning a horse drawn wagon with wooden wheels. Similarly, the wood of the genus was used historically for making ox-yokes, giving birth to the common name Hornbeam. The alternate common name Musclewood hints to the smooth, sinewy bark of the species. The Plant Health Care Report is prepared by Stephanie Adams, M.S., Plant Health Care Technician, and edited by Donna Danielson, M.S., Plant Clinic Assistant; Fredric Miller, Ph.D., research entomologist at The Morton Arboretum and professor at Joliet Junior College; and Doris Taylor, Plant Information Specialist, and Carol Belshaw, an Arboretum Volunteer. The information presented is believed to be accurate, but the authors provide no guarantee and will not be held liable for consequences of actions taken based on the information. Thank you...I would like to thank the volunteers that scouted this past week and found most of the insects and diseases that are in this report. The Scouting Volunteers include: LeeAnn Cosper, Fritz Porter, Mary Carter Beary, Davida Kalina, Kathy Davidson, Kevin Monaco, Laurie Blackmon, Betsy Morton, Ann Klingele, and Loraine Miranda. Your hard work is appreciated. Literature recommendations: David Arora. 1986. Mushrooms Demystified 2nd ed. Ten Speed Press. Berkeley, CA. ISBN-13: 0-89815-169-4. Michael Dirr. 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants. ISBN-10: 0-87563-800-7. Mark L. Gleason, Margery L. Daughtrey, Ann R. Chase, Gary W. Moorman, and Daren S. Mueller. 2009. Diseases of Herbaceous Perennials. ISBN: 978-0-89054-374-0 Harris, J.G. and M. Woolf Harris. 2001. Plant Identification Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary. ISBN-13: 978-0964022164. Donald A. Orton. 2007. Coincide, The Orton System of Pest and Disease Management. Publisher website: http://www.laborofloveconservatory.com/. F.W.M.R. Schwarze. 2008. Diagnosis and Prognosis of the Development of Wood Decay in Urban Trees. ISBN: 978-0-646-49144-8. F.W.M.R. Schwarze, J. Engels, and C. Mattheck. 2000. Fungal Strategies of Wood Decay in Trees. ISBN: 3-540-6705-2. Triplehorn, C.A and N.F. Johnson. 2005. Study of Insects. 7th ed. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. Pp. 606-7. William T. Stearn. 2002. Stearn's Dictionary of Plant Names For Gardeners. ISBN-10: 088192556X. University of Illinois. 2010. The 2010 Commercial Landscape & Turfgrass Pest Management Handbook. https://pubsplus.uiuc.edu/ICLT-10.html. University of Illinois. 2008. Home, Yard & Garden Pest Guide. https://pubsplus.uiuc.edu/C1391-08.html. UIPlants: The Woody Plant site for the University of Illinois http://woodyplants.nres.uiuc.edu. This report is available on-line at The Morton Arboretum website at http://www.mortonarb.org/tree-plant-advice.html For pest and disease questions, please contact the Plant Clinic at (630) 719-2424 between 10:00 and 4:00 Mondays through Saturdays or email email@example.com. Inquiries or comments about the PHC reports should be directed to Stephanie Adams at firstname.lastname@example.org. Copyright © 2010, The Morton Arboretum Not printed on recycled paper, or any paper for that matter.	782207f4-20e2-496a-8c37-7c31e892d630	CC-MAIN-2024-38	http://www.treepathology.com/uploads/2/0/7/0/20707530/8-13-10.pdf	2024-09-11T06:22:40+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-38/segments/1725700651344.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20240911052223-20240911082223-00291.warc.gz	51,074,684	6,110	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.980291	eng_Latn	0.993443	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1170, 4818, 7652, 10601, 13493, 17099, 19204, 20488, 23101, 25952 ]	[ 2.46875, 1.625 ]	1	0
Code of Conduct & values of instruction Head of the institute / Principal 1. Strictly follow the rules & regulation & code of conduct of the mother institute. 2. Always wear a dress code which has been decided by the mother institute. 3. Work as per the norms of Government of Maharashtra, UGC & affiliated university SPPU. 4. Keep college campus & building & clean & decorative. 5. Give preference for the removal of global issues like global warning, man made calamity. 6. Do always plantation every year. 7. Spend his professional career for the welfare of student, teacher staff & society. 8. Pay attention vision, mission & objectives of the his/her college & implement the activates for above achievement. 9. Do not discriminate the staff by gender, work distribution etc. also make them homogenous. 10. Always pay attention on student teacher success. 11. Always keep healthy environment in staff. Staff 1. Strictly follow the rules & regulation & code of conduct of the college. 2. Work as per the norms & institute, Government of Maharashtra, UGC & affiliated University. 3. Keep the in mind of the achievement & vision, mission & objectives of the college. 4. Strictly follow the dress code decided by mother institute. 5. Keep the environment & college pollution free & eco friendly. 6. Also pay attention on cleanliness & college campus & building. 7. Participate in tree plantation program arranged by college. Student Teacher 1. Man is part of Environment so he/she should not pollute the environment i.e. do not pollute air, soil and water. 2. Human being has right on Environmental Resources. So it is our responsibility to protect it and each one get the benefits. 3. We should keep our emotions towards 'Welfare of Animals' so they should get their rights. 4. Our reasonability is that one should take care of soil because soil is energy resources, for small/micro and Ecological system also all types of living being. 5. Do not cut flower, leaves, branches, bushes as well as tree. 6. Spread the message of plantation of protection of trees. 7. Develop your attitude for Sustainable Development of Environment. 8. India has richest country of natural resources. So it is our responsibility to preserve and transfer these natural resources from one generation to other. 9. Human life should enrich by each one should take effort for control the population growth. 10. Every human being takes the efforts for environmental balance by not misbehaving with environment. 11. It is ethical need of social and economical change by establishing environmental balance. 12. Make our surrounding and public area neat and clean do not spread wastage in surrounding and public area. 13. Participate in 'Bharat Swachhata Abhiyan'. It will make our life happy and healthy. 14. Strictly follow the rules & regulation of college. 15. Complete the work in the academic year time to time. 16. Look the notices time to time which are displayed by college on notice board. 17. College does the fine to that student who breaks the rules. 18. Do not move in the college campus while the lectures are going on. 19. It is required 80% presentee in classroom for student teacher otherwise they couldn't fill examination form. 20. Always Keep identity card and wear college uniform when as carries in the college of in. Report: Code of Conduct & Values 1. Code of conduct is displayed on the institutions website. The copy of the code of conduct for students, teachers, administration, and other staff is displayed on the college website. Web link: 2. The values are displayed on the frontiers of the college campus. Values - Honesty & Hardwork - Professional Integrity - Gender Equality - Learner Centric Education - Regularity & Punctuality - Respect to Human Dignity - Contribution for removal of social obstacles - Cleanliness & Protection for Social Health - Humanity & Nonviolence - Inculcate Universal Brotherhood 3. Orientation of student & teachers about the code of conduct. When academic year 2020-21 starting, the college arranges different lectures for orientation of novice teacher, like mother institute information, syllabus, introduce, About college and especially we are focusing on ethics & code of conduct of the college. We are giving two lectures. Dr. V.N. Jadhav senior associate professor has oriented the student, about code of conduct & values. 4. Periodic Programme of Orientation of college of campus: Each day before college hour there is assembly. In assembly the following activities has been taken:- 1- National Anthem 2- Prayer 3- Instructions 4- News Our prayer is "खरा तो एकूची धर्म, जगाला प्रेम अर्पणे" ("True religion is one, give love to the world") by Sane Guruji. The above poem inculcate values of love & morale. Also at the time of assembly the Principal of college gradually giving instructions to the student about discipline & institutions values & code of conduct.	c7a4831d-cea1-4529-beae-bfeb356d8990	CC-MAIN-2025-05	https://mvpcoednsk.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/ilovepdf_merged-26.pdf?x67671	2025-01-25T10:13:47+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-05/segments/1736703698937.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20250125075847-20250125105847-00401.warc.gz	407,365,790	1,053	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.991677	eng_Latn	0.9959	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1427, 3336, 3958, 4957 ]	[ 2.046875 ]	1	0
Net Zero Toolkit CONSERVATIVE ENVIRONMENT NETWORK The Conservative Environment Network (CEN) is an independent forum, Parliamentary caucus, and grassroots organisation for conservatives who support conservation and decarbonisation. CREDITS The Conservative Environment Network (CEN) is an independent forum, Parliamentary Caucus, and grassroots organisation for conservatives who support conservation and decarbonisation. Written by CAITIE GILLETT and JACK RICHARDSON Layout and design: WILF LYTTON Cover illustrations: ELEANOR HYLAND STANBROOK (email@example.com) Photos: inner cover image by ALEX MEAD from Decoy Media DISCLAIMER The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views of each of CEN’s members, MPs, employees, ambassadors, steering committee, or board. CEN is a not-for-profit company limited by guarantee. Company number: 08582661 © 2022 Conservative Environment Network CONTENTS FOREWORD — 5 WHAT IS NET ZERO? — 9 LOCAL NET ZERO PLANS — 13 ENERGY — 19 Community energy — 21 Clean heat — 22 Energy efficiency — 24 TRANSPORT — 27 Active travel — 29 Public transport — 31 Electric vehicles — 33 NATURE — 37 INDEX OF USEFUL DOCUMENTS — 44 Local and regional authorities have an essential role to play in meeting our national net zero ambitions. Mayors and councillors, working alongside our Members of Parliament, are best placed to understand the needs of their areas and know how best to implement net zero policies. We are the bridge between national government and local communities, coordinating our decarbonisation efforts and empowering people to reduce their carbon footprint. The government published a raft of strategies last year that set the direction, created the market frameworks, and established the sources of funding for net zero. The £500 million Green Homes Grant Local Authority Delivery scheme, the £800 million Social Housing Decarbonisation Fund, and the £950 million Home Upgrade Grant have all given local authorities an opportunity to prove their capability to deliver a greener Britain. This is a great start, and mayors and council leaders now have a real appetite to work more closely with Westminster to clean up our housing stock. Local leaders also play a vital role in cutting transport emissions: new hydrogen and electric bus fleets are springing up across the country, and councils are leading the way in reducing air pollution with improved cycling infrastructure and more walkable streets. Local authorities will inevitably be the ones that end up delivering the government’s objective to make public transport and active travel the natural first choice for getting about. Reaching the government’s 2050 net zero target and halting Britain’s contribution to climate change also necessitates a total restoration of our natural environment. Our trees, peatlands, hedgerows, wildflower meadows, and coastal and marine habitats hold the potential to sequester one third of Britain’s emissions. Nature can be a defence from flooding and a provider of skilled jobs, and local authorities are well placed to deliver these nature-friendly projects. Here in the West Midlands, we’ve worked with our councillors to do just this, working with local authorities like Solihull to deliver nature corridors across the borough. Whether it’s retrofitting our housing stock, building a clean public transport network or driving investment in green infrastructure, local leaders can be visible and accountable drivers of change across the country, making the case for the right powers and resources to deliver on behalf of their constituents. We’ve pulled through this pandemic together, but people don’t want things to simply go back to the way they were. Voters want to see change and improvement: they want to build back better and greener, they want to see investment in their communities and a rejuvenated natural environment, and they want their local leaders to support them in playing their part to fight climate change. This Net Zero Toolkit from the Conservative Environment Network isn’t simply an instruction manual on how to start delivering that change, but an invitation to join a rapidly growing network of conservatives – the biggest of its kind in the world – that is leading the way in decarbonisation and conservation. Andy Street was elected as Mayor of the West Midlands in May 2017 and again in May 2021. Prior to being elected, Andy was Managing Director at John Lewis and chair of the Greater Birmingham and Solihull Local Enterprise Partnership. CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS NET ZERO? The consequences of climate change are becoming more tangible every year. A warmer world, caused by greater concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, is making extreme weather events more frequent across the world, with all the socio-economic and security consequences becoming clear to see. Here in the UK, we are seeing more unpredictable weather, with floods devastating property, farms, and transport networks. If we fail to mitigate global temperature rises, the damage to the economy will reach into tens of billions of pounds every year in damage. ‘Net zero’ means net zero greenhouse gas emissions. This does not mean zero emissions, which would be impossible. It means reducing emissions as much as possible and then offsetting (removing emissions from the atmosphere by natural or technological means) the remainder so that, overall, we are not contributing to climate change anymore, and could then begin to reverse global temperature rises. The idea of net zero was established in international law by the Paris Agreement in 2015. The UK is a climate leader on the world stage. In 2019, it was the first major economy to commit to a net zero emissions target and has submitted highly ambitious climate targets for 2030 and 2035. The UK has achieved rapid emissions reductions at the same time as growing its economy, showing that clean growth is possible. The government’s Net Zero Strategy, published in October 2021, just before the UK hosted COP26 in Glasgow, combines a series of government strategies and plans for how we will decarbonise in the most cost-effective and fair way. We were the first country to industrialise, and we can lead the world again in the green industrial revolution. While the UK made this step just three years ago, over four fifths of the global economy has since come under net zero targets. GRAPH 1 UK and G7 economic growth and greenhouse gas emissions reductions since 1990 - UK GDP: +78% - Rest of G7 GDP: +72% - Rest of G7 emissions: -4% - UK emissions: -44% Source: Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, Net Zero Strategy, 2021 p.41 Net zero is not just about cutting carbon. It is about creating new, skilled jobs in the industries of the future, such as manufacturing wind turbines and assembling electric vehicles. The air we breathe can be made cleaner and high streets rejuvenated by shifting from an over-dependence on cars to more walking, cycling, and public transport where feasible. Our communities will become nicer places to live, if local authorities keep net zero in mind when they plan for the coming years - with better quality housing and nature being brought into towns and cities, and restored in the countryside. Though the government does have a role to play in creating policy frameworks and funding early-stage technology development, net zero will ultimately be delivered and financed by the market. Since November 2020, when the Prime Minister’s 10 Point Plan was released, over £26 billion in private finance has been mobilised to support net zero, and it is projected that as much as £90 billion will be by 2030. With such broad coverage of net zero targets, the global race to compete in net zero industries and technology is now on. By keeping the UK at the forefront, the government forecasts that we will deliver 190,000 jobs by 2025 and 440,000 five years later. However, the net zero needs of two communities are rarely the same. A range of technologies will be required, some proving more cost-effective to implement in some places than others. Elected representatives of devolved, regional, and local governments play an essential role in meeting national net zero ambitions by helping their constituents to make the most out of the net zero transition. Local leaders are uniquely placed to engage with all parts of their communities and to understand the local policy, political, social, and economic nuances relevant to climate policy. Climate has steadily risen up the agenda over the past decade to become a priority issue in elections, and it will likely remain so for years to come. As conservatives, we can only maintain support among the public by putting forward cost-efficient policies that do not make those who can least afford it bear the heaviest burdens and balancing decarbonisation with other local priorities. Although there will always be a minority in the conservative movement who do not think we should lead the way in this area, it is perfectly possible to develop climate policy that is fair and affordable. This Net Zero Toolkit provides ideas and case studies for CEN Councillors for common-sense, cost-effective net zero solutions across energy, transport, and nature. As our councillor network grows, we hope CEN Councillors can share their ideas and methods for implementing effective climate and clean growth policies in their local communities. This is how we can show that conservatives can be trusted on the environment, which, in keeping with Edmund Burke’s intergenerational social contract, we have a duty to conserve for generations to come. GRAPH 2 UK greenhouse gas emissions by sector Source: Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, 2019 Final UK greenhouse gas emissions, 2021, p. 13 Note: LULUCF is land use, land use change and forestry CHAPTER 2 LOCAL NET ZERO PLANS THE ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES Local leaders know their communities best. Their understanding of their local area is necessary for managing the complexities of the transition to net zero. It is vital that they set out a transparent plan for how their area will cut emissions, as many of the changes will impact the everyday lives of residents. Local government operations are directly responsible for on average 2-5% of an area’s emissions. However, according to the Climate Change Committee, around one third of the UK’s emissions are directly shaped or influenced by local authority practice, policy and partnerships. HOW TO MAKE A LOCAL NET ZERO PLAN: 1. Scope out what there is to be done – where are the most significant emission reduction contributions coming from? 2. Think about where you can have the most impact: a. What levers does an authority have to effectively tackle emissions? b. What direct emissions can the authorities curb to make the most significant impact? c. Which areas can you take action on immediately, and which others might be further in the future? 3. Begin the process of creating a net zero plan: a. Some emissions in council operations might be easy and cheap to cut right away. Solar panels offer the cheapest form of electricity and could be installed soon, while energy efficiency programmes are easy to set up with the right financing mechanisms. b. Others may have to wait for a while, for example your rubbish truck fleet might still have some years left in it. There’d be no point in retiring them early, as that would be wasting council money for relatively little long-term environmental gain. c. Some emissions can be offset through investment in nature-based solutions (see chapter five). MEASURING YOUR EMISSIONS: → Work out the authority’s current carbon profile: Choose a baseline year to measure progress against. The Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) first reported emissions by local authority area in 2005.$^1$ Having a baseline year will give authorities an indication of a reasonable target. The Treasury and Local Government Association have funded “Local Partnerships” to support local authorities measuring mapping out their carbon baseline.$^2$ → Measure your emissions: Work out what emissions fall into each ‘scope’. – Scope 1: Direct emissions, for example while running the authority’s boilers and petrol vehicles. – Scope 2: Indirect emissions produced on behalf of but not directly by the council, like through buying power for buildings (i.e. where emissions are produced by a power station owned by an energy company). --- 1. UK local authority and regional carbon dioxide emissions, Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, 2020 2. For more information please visit: [localpartnerships.org.uk/our-resources](http://localpartnerships.org.uk/our-resources) Scope 3: Supply chain emissions, either from buying products from suppliers or from consumers using council products. This scope is the most challenging, but products and tools are being developed to make it easier. A net zero plan for the council’s own operations should consider all three scopes. → Set targets and monitor the entire authority’s emissions: Consider climate change and net zero across all council decisions even those which are seemingly unrelated, such as procurement and outsourcing decisions. This will align stakeholders and partners with your climate ambitions in your council decision making. Many authorities have found hiring a Climate Change Officer beneficial to their operations and for making progress in reducing scope 3 emissions. → Transparency: After creating the net zero plan, publish regular update reports to keep residents in the loop. Mapping out the decisions that need to be made step by step can bring residents with the council on decisions. WEST MIDLANDS FIVE YEAR PLAN (FYP): → The West Midlands Combined Authority (WCMA) published its “Five Year Plan” to provide residents with a transparent plan on how the region will reach net zero by 2041. The plan sets out the region’s current emissions profile and the necessary steps in each sector. It maps out the measures that the authority will take and targets for its delivery partners over the next five years to be on course to reach its target. The plan currently runs from 2021-2026 and has set a target of a 33% reduction from the 2016 emissions baseline by 2026. By setting out its decarbonisation plans, the WMCA has opened itself up to funding, financing and investment opportunities from companies interested in supporting project delivery - for instance, the region’s retrofit programme. Climate Emergency UK has rated all councils’ climate plans. Conservative controlled Solihull Borough Council came second for single tier councils and the Conservative led West Midlands Combined Authority scored first. Look at the Council Climate’s scorecards for more information.$^3$ Tyndall Manchester provides free, accessible help for developing climate targets for specific local authorities.$^4$ Enerlytic software provides key insights into energy data, allowing energy users to measure, analyse and reduce consumption, cost and carbon footprint. The tool looks at energy consumption analysis, forecasting reports and carbon emission reporting.$^5$ --- 3. For more information please visit: councilclimatescorecards.uk 4. For more information please visit: carbonbudget.manchester.ac.uk/reports 5. For more information please visit: enerlytic.co.uk The West Midlands Combined Authority’s timeline of actions under the ‘accelerated’ scenario by 2041 \| Year \| Domestic \| Commercial \| Industrial \| Transport \| Land Use \| Systems management \| \|------\|----------\|------------\|------------\|-----------\|----------\|-------------------\| \| 2021 \| Energy efficiency in 100% dwellings (1.1m homes) \| Energy efficiency in 73,400 commercial buildings \| 17% deployment of hydrogen and 40% of CCS for high temperature process \| Avoid: 35% of people tele-commuting 50% of time, 25% less personal and retail trips \| 59 MW Wind and 448 MWp of solar PV \| Upgrade and manage coordination across the energy and associated systems (transport, digital). \| \| 2026 \| 100% low-carbon heating system retrofit in dwellings (1.1m homes) \| Low-carbon heating system retrofit in 100% buildings (73,400 commercial buildings) \| 10% energy efficiency \| Shift: Bike increase to 10% of trips \| Tree coverage in 13% of WMCA area, and 20% of peri-urban area (a total of 19 million trees) \| \| 2031 \| 830 MWp of rooftop solar \| 705 MWp of rooftop solar \| 100% electrification for low temperature processes \| Improve: 100% electric taxis, buses, 50% of HGVs \| 100% of HGVs \| \| 2036 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 2041 \| \| \| \| \| \| Source: West Midlands Combined Authority, Five Year Plan 2021-26, 2021, p. 4 CHAPTER 3 ENERGY Fossil fuels like coal and gas have enabled the stunning social and economic progress made in the UK and the rest of the world since the industrial revolution, but they are also the primary source of greenhouse gases, which are driving climate change. The UK is leading the world in the transition to newer, better energy sources like solar and wind, which as the International Energy Agency has reported are now the cheapest energy available, with new projects supplying energy at half the cost of a new gas power plant. The cost of solar power and onshore wind has fallen by 89% and 70% respectively over the past decade. Solar panels and wind turbines can be plugged directly into buildings and provide local communities with clean, affordable power. A more efficient use of energy through insulation and the rollout of energy-saving appliances will deliver lower bills and cosier buildings, all while cutting carbon emissions. GRAPH 4 UK greenhouse gas emissions since 1990 Source: House of Commons Library UK and global emissions and temperature trends, 2021. This is available at commonslibrary.parliament.uk. Community energy These are schemes that reduce, purchase, manage, or generate electricity, and in the past have included solar on rooftops, wind farms, or geothermal plants. Community energy projects generate renewable power that can be used locally or even directly for a building. For instance, unused flat roofs can be used for community solar projects, helping to cut council emissions and energy bills. Councils can work with the rapidly growing renewable energy industry to bring the renewable revolution into local communities. This will transform the energy system in the coming years from one based on meeting demand from big, inflexible sources of power like coal plants to one which is more dispersed and flexible in nature, with individuals and councils even being able to sell their power back to the grid. CASE STUDIES Kent County Council and Canterbury City Council Canterbury City Council successfully negotiated with a developer, who was proposing to build a solar farm, and agreed to co-finance it as a community energy project. Kent County Council matched the no-obligation grant given by the project’s developer to Canterbury City Council, so solar panels could be installed onto the roofs of two schools and a senior citizens’ club. West Sussex County Council The council built a subsidy-free solar farm on a closed landfill site in 2018, building on its previous park opened in 2015 on an old RAF airfield with a partnership between 12 councils of different tiers. The council estimates that the scheme will pay back in 15 years and generate £7.9 million in net income. It now plans to supply its residents with energy generated locally as well. FURTHER GUIDANCE: → Find opportunities for local renewable energy projects, which for most areas will be in solar power and onshore wind, and identify suitable sites in your Local Plan. → Consult on proposed projects to demonstrate that local communities have been fully involved and that the proposal has local backing. → Champion community energy projects as a cost-effective solution to local residents’ energy concerns, and the economic opportunities they represent. → Engage with industry organisations such as ‘Community Energy England’ (CEE), to see how local authorities can constructively support community energy projects. → Where local authorities are a stakeholder in a project, work with organisations like Energy4All, an energy cooperative. This will widen industry knowledge, increase capacity and potentially offer financial benefits. → Formulate a community engagement plan that sets out the requirements for projects to follow. Clean heat Heating accounts for around 17% of UK emissions. Clean heat options like heat pumps will therefore be a necessary part of reaching net zero. They are three times more efficient than gas boilers and work in temperatures as low as -15°C. Norway, a much colder country than the UK, has the largest heat pump market in the world. A government-commissioned study recently found that heat pumps can work effectively in all types and eras of buildings. Clean heat technologies are on the way but may take a few years to become as cheap as a boiler due to the lack of scale in the market. Local authorities can lead the way by working with the government to procure clean heat options while the market is still maturing, helping to bring down the costs for individuals to begin replacing their boilers in the years to come, and support homeowners to make green improvements by issuing guidance on the most effective clean heat options for their homes. CASE STUDIES 🔗 Wiltshire Council The Conservative Council was given £4.6 million following its bid into the Public Sector Decarbonisation Fund to reduce the energy consumption of the 17 least efficient buildings owned by the council. In addition it has helped the council gain expertise in green technologies ready for future decarbonisation projects to be rolled out across Wiltshire’s homes and buildings. → HEAT PUMPS Gas boilers have been replaced with heat pumps, saving 1,200 tonnes of carbon. → SOLAR PANELS The council has installed solar panels on many of its buildings to generate electricity and reduce costs 🔗 Cambridgeshire County Council In 2020 the Conservative administration launched the Swaffham Prior Heat Network. Over half of the almost 300 homes were burning oil for heat, an incredibly polluting heat source. The council installed a ground source and air source heat pump to supply all the homes with clean heating through a heat distribution network. FURTHER GUIDANCE: → Look to industry specialists such as Daiken, E.ON and Octopus Energy that can provide expertise on how to use existing levers to deliver clean heat projects in your area. → Provide local residents with guidance on clean heat sources that would be most effective in their type of property. Energy efficiency Local authorities are a key delivery partner for improving the energy efficiency of the UK’s building stock. With more intimate knowledge than central government of an area’s current emissions, the types and ages of properties, and fuel poverty levels, local and combined authorities across the country have a huge role to play, and indeed have been responsible for many energy efficiency improvements in the past few years. The government has a target for as many homes as possible to have an Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) rating of C by 2035. Less energy consumption means lower bills. A better insulated building wastes less energy, meaning less money spent. It also means the value of the building goes up and enables the more effective use of heat pumps. CASE STUDY 🔗 Cornwall Council The council bid into the BEIS “Sustainable Warmth Competition” and was awarded £7.8 million to make 400 low-income households more energy efficient. Three hundred and seventy of the homes in the scheme are off the gas grid and so the project will install clean heat in addition to the improvements to energy efficiency. The project will reduce Cornwall’s greenhouse gas emissions (energy use in homes contributes currently one quarter of emissions in the region) and will help to make homes more comfortable, while reducing fuel poverty. FURTHER GUIDANCE: → Keep up to date with national government projects with local delivery mechanisms for energy efficiency and apply for funding where possible. There are currently three main funding pots: 🔗 The Social Housing Decarbonisation Fund 🔗 The Public Sector Decarbonisation Scheme 🔗 The Green Homes Grant Local Delivery Scheme USEFUL ORGANISATIONS TO CONSULT ON ENERGY: - UK100 - Energy Systems Catapult - Daiken - Octopus Energy - Energy4All - Power for People - RenewableUK - Community Energy England - Carbon Trust - Energy Savings Trust - Local Climate Impacts Profile - Centre for Sustainable Energy - Solar Energy UK CHAPTER 4 TRANSPORT Transport is currently the UK’s largest emitting sector, producing 27% of our greenhouse gas emissions. Most of these emissions arise from private car and taxi usage (61%), but HGVs (18%) and vans (17%) are also significant contributors.$^6$ To reach net zero by 2050, the UK will need to shift to an electric fleet and more journeys taken by public transport and by bike or foot where appropriate need to be encouraged. GRAPH 5 UK greenhouse gas emissions by transport mode in 2019 - 55.4% – Cars and taxis - 15.9% – Heavy goods vehicles - 15.7% – Light duty vehicles - 5% – Domestic shipping - 2.5% – Buses and coaches - 1.4% – Rail - 1.2% – Domestic aviation - 0.4% – Motorcycles and mopeds - 0.6% – Other road transport - 1.9% – Other transport Source: Department for Transport, Transport Decarbonisation Plan, 2021, p. 15 --- $^6$ Department for Transport, Transport and environment statistics, Autumn 2021 Active travel Cycling and walking (active travel) can reduce pressure on your local NHS services by getting people moving more and reducing toxic air pollution, which is particularly harmful to children and those with asthma. It also has big economic benefits, including reducing traffic jams and raising footfall for local businesses by improving access to the high street. Councils can play a role by consulting with their local communities to install active travel infrastructure like bike racks in high-demand areas such as high streets. They can also implement schemes to encourage active travel to school or reduce ‘rat-running’ in what should be quiet, safe neighbourhood streets where children can play. CASE STUDIES 🔗 Suffolk County Council The Conservative council used the government’s Active Travel Fund to install new cycling parking stands and plan to produce a map of the cycle routes around the town and the surrounding countryside. The council is delivering a raft of measures to encourage active travel like installing cycle lanes, pedestrianisation and safe road crossing points. 🔗 West Midlands Combined Authority The region has created the ‘Starley Network’, a 500-mile connected network of cycle routes across the West Midlands. Funded through the Active Travel Fund, local authorities worked together to map out a strategic route across the region. A segregated cycle route that runs alongside a new bike hire scheme to serve the region and a series of active travel routes that are complemented by a tram and bus network alongside. FURTHER GUIDANCE → Ensure that cycle paths are segregated from both traffic and pedestrians. → Consider setting up bicycle hire schemes to help constituents access active travel. → Work to ensure active travel infrastructure compliments the public transport network. → Ensure that cycle paths are easy to use (direct, logical, free of obstacles and weatherproof). → Look into introducing traffic calming measures, whether that is flexible schemes like ‘school streets’ or more permanent infrastructure like bollards or plant boxes, where appropriate. → Make the wider environmental, health, and economic case for the public to get cycling and walking, not just ‘men in lycra’. → Regularly communicate and consult with residents about upcoming plans and changes, to avoid pushback against active travel schemes and ensure changes work for everyone. Public transport A better public transport network means fewer journeys need to be completed by car, reducing congestion (which costs the UK economy around £30.8 billion per year).7 7. Local Government Association, A country in a jam: tackling congestion in our towns and cities, August 2017 It can be a lifeline for those without a car to get to work, attend non-emergency health appointments, and get out and about in general. Good public transport links are beneficial to property prices and have a positive effect on employment opportunities for a local area. Local, accessible transport is a priority for any council. Seeking partnerships with companies to provide good services with low-polluting bus fleets can deliver immediate and visible benefits for your constituents, including cleaner air and lower emissions. CASE STUDIES Tees Valley Combined Authority The Tees Valley’s Tees Flex service is operated by Stagecoach on a three year trial to serve the rural parts of the Tees Valley area, costing £3 million. The scheme aims to serve residents living in rural areas who need an affordable and reliable alternative to car travel who are not currently served well by conventional bus routes. West Midlands Combined Authority In March 2021, the West Midlands Combined Authority was awarded £50 million by the Department for Transport to make Coventry the first all electric bus city by 2025 with electric charging infrastructure available to all operators. FURTHER GUIDANCE: → Ensure that local planning policies facilitate and encourage public transport usage. → Encourage bus operators to work more collaboratively with one another by: – Showing the details of all stopping services; – Offering greater consistency with all operator tickets and the same route numbers; – Building partnerships with the neighbouring councils and other tiers of government and transport operators to give riders a more consistent experience. → Look for opportunities to push positive messaging around public transport usage. → Seek government funding for low-carbon public transport projects. Electric vehicles (EVs) Not all journeys can be replaced with a bus or a bike. Personal cars will always be more convenient for the majority of the population, particularly in rural areas. EVs, however, will prove cheaper to run (and soon to buy) and more convenient than today’s petrol and diesel cars. We will be able to charge them overnight at home like our phones or on the go at the shops or work. It is a myth that they release more carbon into the atmosphere overall because they are harder to make: the average “lifetime” emissions from an electric vehicle are up to 70% lower than from a petrol counterpart. Though they do still release some air pollution due to brake wear and tires, they have no tailpipe spewing out noxious fumes and are much, much quieter. GRAPH 6 In the long run, the total cost for an EV is already lower than for a conventional, diesel-powered car Source: Accenture Strategy eMobility Value research, 2019. Countries included as part of the analysis: Belgium, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, UK, US (California + New York) The EV market is on the way up, with upfront costs coming down fast. Councils have a role to play in making sure the charging infrastructure is there for the ‘EV revolution’, which is already well underway but could be held up if people feel they cannot access charge points. CASE STUDIES: Westminster City Council To facilitate the switch to EVs, Westminster City Council collaborated with Siemens to deliver 1,000 lamppost charge points as most residents do not have access to off-street parking. One street has been dubbed ‘Electric Avenue’ after its 24 lampposts have been converted into charging points. Essex County Council To increase EV uptake, the council installed rapid chargers into two of its park and ride sites in Chelmsford and is offering SMEs up to £10,000 to install charging infrastructure for employees to use. The council was awarded £5.3 million by Innovate UK to deliver the UK’s first electric forecourt with 24 charging bays. Public chargepoints per 100,000 people in 2022 \| Region \| Chargepoints per 100,000 \| \|-------------------------------\|--------------------------\| \| United Kingdom \| 42 \| \| Great Britain \| 43 \| \| England \| 43 \| \| North East \| 36 \| \| North West \| 24 \| \| Yorkshire and the Humber \| 26 \| \| East Midlands \| 32 \| \| West Midlands \| 31 \| \| East of England \| 29 \| \| London \| 102 \| \| South East \| 39 \| \| South West \| 35 \| \| Wales \| 33 \| \| Scotland \| 52 \| \| Northern Ireland \| 18 \| Source: Department for Transport, Electric vehicle charging device statistics: January 2022. This is available on the gov.uk website. FURTHER GUIDANCE → Include public electric charge point provision in local plans. → Survey residents on their requirements for transitioning to an EV, and consider what areas will be dependent on off street infrastructure and what type of charger will be needed where. → Track central government funding opportunities to roll out charge points, like On-Street Residential Chargepoint Scheme or the Workplace Charging Scheme. → Highlight other grants to residents and businesses for installing charging infrastructure from the Office of Zero Emission Vehicles (OZEV), which allocate funding in addition to providing guidance. USEFUL ORGANISATIONS TO CONSULT FOR TRANSPORT - Department for Transport (DfT) - Office for Zero Emission Vehicles (OZEV) - Living Streets - CyclingUK - Sustrans - Confederation of Passenger Transport - Zap Map - Urban Transport Group - Transport & Environment - ChargePoint UK CHAPTER 5 NATURE Natural habitats such as forests, wetlands, and saltmarshes capture carbon and bury it, while also delivering other benefits like flood protection and cleaner air. They are vital to mitigating and adapting to climate change and restoring nature. Using nature in the fight against climate change is politically popular and a key part of the Conservative Party’s promise to leave our environment in a better state than we found it in. Nature-based solutions will help to provide the ‘net’ in net zero by offsetting emissions. Trees Britain only has 13% tree coverage, compared to 38% across mainland Europe, a legacy of the industrial revolution and chopping down trees to make Royal Navy ships. Local authorities can work with their communities, government agencies, and charities to increase tree coverage in their local area. Land Registry data suggests that councils collectively own 1.5 million acres of land in England and Wales, making them even larger landowners than the Forestry Commission. A tree planting programme can boost local forestry businesses, improve biodiversity, make an area more pleasant to live in by cleaning up its air, and protect communities from heat waves and floods. Carbon Storage in Earth's Ecosystems Achieving net-zero by 2050 depends on the Earth's natural carbon sinks. The world's forests absorb around 15.6 gigatonnes of CO₂ each year. That's around 3X the annual CO₂ emissions of the United States. However, around 8.1 gigatonnes of CO₂ leaks back into the atmosphere due to deforestation, fires and other disturbances. Carbon Storage Tonnes of Carbon per Hectare* - Boreal forests: 344 - Temperate forests: 96 - Temperate grasslands: 236 - Tropical forests: 123 - Deserts and semideserts: 42 - Tundra: 127 - Wetlands: 643 - Tropical savannas: 117 - Croplands: 80 How well soil stores carbon depends on soil type, vegetation and climate. In general, the wetter and colder, the better. At a ground depth of one meter Sources: IPCC, NASA Carbon Streaming* is protecting the Earth's natural carbon sinks with carbon credit streams across the following REDD+ projects: - Rimba Raya - Borneo, Indonesia - ~64,000 hectares - Cerrado Biome - Brazil - ~11,000 hectares - MarVivo Blue Carbon - Baja California Sur, Mexico - ~22,000 hectares Source: Visual Capitalist Figure 1.1.1. Percentage of woodland cover per 10km high hexagon across the UK a) Broadleaf b) Conifer c) Ancient and long-established Source: National Forest Inventory 2019 (NFI) and the Northern Ireland Woodland Register (NIWR) for conifer and broadleaf, and the Ancient Woodland Inventories Peatland and saltmarshes Peatland covers 12% of the UK’s land area and contains more carbon than the forests of the UK, France and Germany combined, but four-fifths of it is damaged and deteriorating.$^8$ Healthy peatlands capture carbon from the atmosphere, and are sometimes referred to as the ‘rainforests’ of the UK. However, due to poor management, they are now a net source of greenhouse gas emissions. The Net Zero Strategy set a target to restore 250,000 hectares of peat by 2050. Saltmarshes can suck up carbon three times faster than tropical rainforests, but we have lost 15% of them over the past 80 years. Restoring saltmarshes by allowing the flooding of certain coastal areas can deliver significant carbon sequestration, biodiversity gain, and protection from rising sea levels. --- $^8$ Office for National Statistics, UK natural capital: peatlands, July 2019 Not every local authority will have these unique habitats within its boundaries, but those which do have an opportunity to protect and restore them and reap the benefits of greater biodiversity and greater protection against flooding. CASE STUDIES 🔗 Staffordshire Moorlands District Council The Conservative-controlled council introduced a policy that specified that all planting projects in its local parks and open spaces just must use reduced-peat or peat-free compost. This is ahead of the government’s plans to end the sale of peat in the amateur horticulture sector by 2024. 🔗 Adur and Worthing District Council The council has purchased 45 acres of farmland as a part of its plans to tackle climate change and biodiversity. The farmland, which will become a wetland once restored, will store carbon, support biodiversity and protect the surrounding areas from flooding. FURTHER GUIDANCE → Forge a relationship with local conservation NGOs like the Woodland Trust to widen your expertise and capacity on protecting, enhancing and optimising nature in your local area, and for advice on funding opportunities. → Embed opportunities for protecting and enhancing nature into your Local Plan. → Hire a climate change and biodiversity officer and provide climate literacy training to staff. → Include protecting and enhancing nature in your council’s corporate strategy. → Read the Government’s recent English Tree and Peat Action Plans for steers on national policy and targets. → Seek guidance and funding from non-governmental organisations like the Royal Horticultural Society. → Seek funding opportunities from the government, like the new Environmental Land Management schemes. → Produce a Local Nature Recovery Strategy identifying suitable land for tree planting and peat restoration. USEFUL ORGANISATIONS TO CONSULT FOR NATURE - Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) - Natural England - Woodland Trust - Wildlife Trusts - Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) - RSPB - National Trust - The Tree Council - Forestry Commission CHAPTER 6 INDEX OF USEFUL DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES - Net Zero Strategy: This strategy sets out policies and proposals for decarbonising all sectors of the UK economy to meet our net zero target by 2050. - Heat and Buildings Strategy: This strategy sets out how the UK will decarbonise our homes, and our commercial, industrial and public sector buildings, as part of setting a path to net zero. - Gear Change: This document sets out a vision for a travel revolution in England's streets, towns and communities. - Bus Back Better: This is a long-term strategy for buses in England, outside London. - Transport Decarbonisation Plan: This is a plan to decarbonise the entire transport system in the UK. - Transitioning to zero emission cars and vans: 2035 delivery plan: This plan sets out investment and policy initiatives to help meet our phase out dates, including significant milestones and how the government will monitor progress. England Trees Action Plan: This plan sets out the government’s long-term vision for trees, woodlands and forests in England and the actions it will take during this Parliament to achieve our ambition. England Peat Action Plan: This is an integrated plan for the management, protection and restoration of our upland and lowland peatlands, so that they deliver benefits for nature and the climate. 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CHRISTMAS TRUCE AARON SHEPARD • WENDY EDELSON The Christmas Truce of 1914 is one of the most extraordinary incidents not only of World War I but of all history. Providing inspiration for songs, books, plays, and movies, it has endured as an archetypal image of peace. Yet much about the historic event remains shrouded in myth and legend. In this fictional letter—illustrated in authentic detail by Wendy Edelson—award-winning author Aaron Shepard draws from firsthand accounts of soldiers at the front to portray the truce in its true nature and spirit. CHRISTMAS TRUCE Story by Aaron Shepard Pictures by Wendy Edelson Skyhook Press Bellingham, Washington Centennial Edition Text copyright © 2001, 2003, 2014, 2017, 2018 by Aaron Shepard Illustrations copyright © 2014, 2017, 2018 by Wendy Edelson Library of Congress subject headings: Christmas Truce, 1914—Juvenile fiction World War, 1914–1918—Juvenile fiction The text of this book is set in Georgia and Myriad Pro. The illustrations are rendered in watercolor. British–American Equivalents Nowell—Noël football—soccer grey—gray Ages 9 and up Version 1.4 For a reader’s theater script of this story, please visit www.aaronshep.com. CHRISTMAS TRUCE A young girl sits at a table, holding a letter and wearing a polka dot dress. Behind her, a soldier in uniform leans over, looking at the letter with her. To the right, a decorated Christmas tree stands tall. On the table, there is a teapot and a cup of tea. The scene captures a moment of anticipation and connection between the girl and the soldier. Christmas Day, 1914 My dear sister Janet, It is 2:00 in the morning and most of our men are asleep in their dugouts—yet I could not sleep myself before writing to you of the wonderful events of Christmas Eve. In truth, what happened seems almost like a fairy tale, and if I hadn’t been through it myself, I would scarce believe it. Just imagine: While you and the family sang carols before the fire there in London, I did the same with enemy soldiers here on the battlefields of France! As I wrote before, there has been little serious fighting of late. The first battles of the war left so many dead that both sides have held back until replacements could come from home. So, we have mostly stayed in our trenches and waited. But what a terrible waiting it has been! Knowing that any moment an artillery shell might land and explode beside us in the trench, killing or maiming several men. And in daylight not daring to lift our heads above ground, for fear of a sniper’s bullet. And the rain—it has fallen almost daily. Of course, it collects right in our trenches, where we must bail it out with pots and pans. And with the rain has come mud—a good foot or more deep. It splatters and cakes everything, and constantly sucks at our boots. One new recruit got his feet stuck in it, and then his hands too when he tried to get out—just like in that American story of the tar baby! Through all this, we couldn’t help feeling curious about the German soldiers across the way. After all, they faced the same dangers we did, and slogged about in the same muck. What’s more, their first trench was only fifty yards from ours. Between us lay No Man’s Land, bordered on both sides by barbed wire—yet they were close enough we sometimes heard their voices. Of course, we hated them when they killed our friends. But other times, we joked about them and almost felt we had something in common. And now it seems they felt the same. A soldier sits in a dugout, writing in a notebook. He is wearing a green cap and a fur-lined coat. The dugout is lined with sandbags and has various military equipment around him, including a rifle and a canteen. The Battle of the Somme, 1916 Just yesterday morning—Christmas Eve Day—we had our first good freeze. Cold as we were, we welcomed it, because at least the mud froze solid. Everything was tinged white with frost, while a bright sun shone over all. Perfect Christmas weather. During the day, there was little shelling or rifle fire from either side. And as darkness fell on our Christmas Eve, the shooting stopped entirely. Our first complete silence in months! We hoped it might promise a peaceful holiday, but we didn’t count on it. We’d been told the Germans might attack and try to catch us off guard. I went to the dugout to rest, and lying on my cot, I must have drifted asleep. All at once my friend John was shaking me awake, saying, “Come and see! See what the Germans are doing!” I grabbed my rifle, stumbled out into the trench, and stuck my head cautiously above the sandbags. I never hope to see a stranger and more lovely sight. Clusters of tiny lights were shining all along the German line, left and right as far as the eye could see. “What is it?” I asked in bewilderment, and John answered, “Christmas trees!” And so it was. The Germans had placed Christmas trees in front of their trenches, lit by candle or lantern like beacons of good will. And then we heard their voices raised in song. Stille nacht, heilige nacht . . . This carol may not yet be familiar to us in Britain, but John knew it and translated: “Silent night, holy night.” I’ve never heard one lovelier—or more meaningful, in that quiet, clear night, its dark softened by a first-quarter moon. The Battle of the Somme, 1916 When the song finished, the men in our trenches applauded. Yes, British soldiers applauding Germans! Then one of our own men started singing, and we all joined in. The first Nowell, the angel did say . . .* In truth, we sounded not nearly as good as the Germans, with their fine harmonies. But they responded with enthusiastic applause of their own and then began another. O Tannenbaum, o Tannenbaum . . . Then we replied. O come all ye faithful . . . But this time they joined in, singing the words in Latin. Adeste fideles . . . British and German harmonizing across No Man’s Land! I would have thought nothing could be more amazing—but what came next was more so. “English, come over!” we heard one of them shout. “You no shoot, we no shoot.” There in the trenches, we looked at each other in bewilderment. Then one of us shouted jokingly, “You come over here.” To our astonishment, we saw two figures rise from the trench, climb over their barbed wire, and advance unprotected across No Man’s Land. One of them called, “Send officer to talk.” I saw one of our men lift his rifle to the ready, and no doubt others did the same—but our captain called out, “Hold your fire.” Then he climbed out and went to meet the Germans halfway. We heard them talking, and a few minutes later, the captain came back with a German cigar in his mouth! “We’ve agreed there will be no shooting before midnight tomorrow,” he announced. “But sentries are to remain on duty, and the rest of you, stay alert.” Christmas Truce 1914 The Christmas Truce of 1914 was an unofficial ceasefire during World War I that occurred along the Western Front in December 1914, between German and British soldiers. The ceasefire allowed soldiers on both sides to meet each other halfway between their trenches and exchange gifts, sing carols, play football, and even hold a friendly match. This event is often seen as a symbol of the human spirit prevailing over the horrors of war. This illustration captures the essence of the Christmas Truce, showing soldiers from opposing sides coming together in a moment of peace and camaraderie. Christmas Truce 1914 The Christmas Truce of 1914 was an unofficial ceasefire during World War I that occurred along the Western Front in December 1914, between German and British soldiers. The truce allowed soldiers to leave their trenches and approach the no-man's land between them to exchange goods and stories, and in some cases to play football (soccer). The truce came about spontaneously on Christmas Day 1914 when German soldiers sang Christmas carols in their trenches, and British soldiers responded with their own carols. The truce lasted for several days, but was eventually broken by military commanders on both sides who ordered their troops back to their trenches. Across the way, we could make out groups of two or three men starting out of trenches and coming toward us. Then some of us were climbing out too, and in minutes more, there we were in No Man’s Land, over a hundred soldiers and officers of each side, shaking hands with men we’d been trying to kill just hours earlier! Before long a bonfire was built, and around it we mingled—British khaki and German grey. I must say, the Germans were the better dressed, with fresh uniforms for the holiday. Only a couple of our men knew German, but more of the Germans knew English. I asked one of them why that was. “Because many have worked in England!” he said. “Before all this, I was a waiter at the Hotel Cecil. Perhaps I waited on your table!” “Perhaps you did!” I said, laughing. He told me he had a girlfriend in London and that the war had interrupted their plans for marriage. I said, “Don’t worry. We’ll have you beat by Easter, then you can come back and marry the girl.” He laughed at that. Then he asked if I’d send her a postcard he’d give me later, and I promised I would. The soldiers from both sides gathered around the fire, exchanging stories and sharing their experiences. The camaraderie between them was evident, despite the ongoing conflict. CUM MIT UDB Another German had been a porter at Victoria Station. He showed me a picture of his family back in Munich. His eldest sister was so lovely, I told him I should like to meet her someday. He beamed and said he would like that very much and gave me his family’s address. Even those who could not converse could still exchange gifts—our cigarettes for their cigars, our tea for their coffee, our corned beef for their sausage. Badges and buttons from uniforms changed owners, and one of our lads walked off with the infamous spiked helmet! I myself traded a jackknife for a leather equipment belt—a fine souvenir to show when I get home. Newspapers too changed hands, and the Germans howled with laughter at ours. They assured us that France was finished and Russia nearly beaten too. We told them that was nonsense, and one of them said, “Well, you believe your newspapers and we’ll believe ours.” Clearly they are lied to—yet after meeting these men, I wonder how truthful our own newspapers have been. These are not the “savage barbarians” we’ve read so much about. They are men with homes and families, hopes and fears, principles and, yes, love of country. In other words, men like ourselves. Why are we led to believe otherwise? As it grew late, a few more songs were traded around the fire, and then all joined in for—I am not lying to you—“Auld Lang Syne.” Then we parted with promises to meet again tomorrow, and even some talk of a football match. I was just starting back to the trenches when an older German clutched my arm. “My God,” he said, “why cannot we have peace and all go home?” I told him gently, “That you must ask your emperor.” He looked at me then, searchingly. “Perhaps, my friend. But also we must ask our hearts.” 9 Christmas in the Trenches Illustrated by: Marguerite Kirmse A Christmas story from the trenches of World War I. In the midst of the war, soldiers found time to celebrate Christmas with their families and friends. This heartwarming story captures the spirit of the holiday and the camaraderie that emerged during such difficult times. The illustrations by Marguerite Kirmse beautifully depict the festive atmosphere and the bond between soldiers and civilians. The Christmas tree, adorned with colorful ornaments and candles, serves as a symbol of hope and unity amidst the chaos of war. This story reminds us of the importance of finding joy and connection even in the most challenging circumstances. It is a reminder that Christmas is not just about presents and decorations, but also about spreading love, kindness, and peace to those around us. And so, dear sister, tell me, has there ever been such a Christmas Eve in all history? And what does it all mean, this impossible befriending of enemies? For the fighting here, of course, it means regrettably little. Decent fellows those soldiers may be, but they follow orders and we do the same. Besides, we are here to stop their army and send it home, and never could we shirk that duty. Still, one cannot help imagine what would happen if the spirit shown here were caught by the nations of the world. Of course, disputes must always arise. But what if our leaders were to offer well wishes in place of warnings? Songs in place of slurs? Presents in place of reprisals? Would not all war end at once? All nations say they want peace. Yet on this Christmas morning, I wonder if we want it quite enough. Your loving brother, Tom The dove of peace flies over the crowd, symbolizing hope and unity. ABOUT THE CHRISTMAS TRUCE The Christmas Truce of 1914 is one of the most extraordinary incidents not only of World War I but of all military history. Providing inspiration for songs, books, plays, and movies, it has endured as an archetypal image of peace. Starting in some places on Christmas Eve and in others on Christmas Day, the truce covered as much as two-thirds of the British-German front, with French and Belgians involved as well. Thousands of soldiers took part. In most places, it lasted at least through Boxing Day (December 26), and in some, through mid-January. Perhaps most remarkably, it grew out of no single initiative but sprang up in each place spontaneously and independently. Unofficial and spotty as the truce was, there have been those convinced it never happened—that the whole thing was made up. Others have believed it happened but that the news was suppressed. Neither is true. Though little was publicly reported in Germany, the truce made headlines for weeks in British newspapers, with published letters and photos from soldiers at the front. In a single issue, the latest inflammatory rumor of German atrocities might share space with a photo of British and German soldiers crowded together, their caps and helmets exchanged, smiling for the camera. Historians, on the other hand, have not shown much interest in an unofficial outbreak of peace. The first comprehensive look at the event came only with the 1981 BBC documentary Peace in No Man’s Land, by Malcolm Brown and Shirley Seaton, and their 1984 companion book, Christmas Truce (Secker & Warburg, London). The book featured a large number of firsthand accounts from letters and diaries. Nearly everything described in my fictional letter is drawn from these accounts—though I have heightened the drama somewhat by selecting, arranging, and compressing. In my letter, I’ve tried to counteract two popular misconceptions of the truce. One is that only common soldiers took part in it, while officers opposed it. (Actually, few officers opposed it, and many took part.) The other is that neither side wished to return to fighting. (Most soldiers, especially British, French, and Belgian, remained determined to fight and win.) Sadly, I also had to omit the Christmas Day games of football—or soccer, as called in the United States—that are often falsely associated with the truce. The truth is that the terrain of No Man’s Land ruled out formal games—though certainly some soldiers kicked around balls and makeshift substitutes. Another false idea about the truce was held even by most soldiers who were there: that it was unique in history. Though the Christmas Truce is the foremost incident of its kind, informal truces were a long-standing military tradition. During the American Civil War, for instance, Rebels and Yankees traded tobacco, coffee, and newspapers, fished peaceably on opposite sides of a stream, and even gathered blackberries together. Some degree of fellow feeling had always been common among soldiers sent to battle. Of course, all that has changed in modern times. Today, combatants kill at great distances, often with the push of a button and a sighting on a computer screen. Even where soldiers come face to face, their languages and cultures are often so divergent as to make friendly communication unlikely. No, we should not expect to see another Christmas Truce. Yet still what happened on that Christmas of 1914 may inspire the peacemakers of today—for, now as always, the best time to make peace is long before the armies go to war. Aaron Shepard ABOUT THE AUTHOR Aaron Shepard is the award-winning author of The Baker’s Dozen, The Legend of Lightning Larry, The Sea King’s Daughter, and many more children’s books. Once a professional storyteller, Aaron specializes in lively retellings of folktales and other traditional literature, which have won him honors from the American Library Association, the New York Public Library, the Bank Street College of Education, the National Council for the Social Studies, and the American Folklore Society. Visit him at www.aaronshep.com. ABOUT THE ILLUSTRATOR Wendy Edelson is the award-winning illustrator of The Baker’s Dozen, The Mice Before Christmas, Quackling, and many more children’s books. She has applied her talent to a wide range of illustration projects, including picture books, pet portraits, posters, and puzzles. Among her clients have been Seattle’s Woodland Park Zoo, the Seattle Aquarium, Pacific Northwest Ballet, the U.S. Postal Service, Cricket Magazine, McGraw-Hill Education, and the American Library Association. Visit her at www.wendyedelson.com. Also from Skyhook Press . . . 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How is Florida LAKEWATCH data being used? Florida LAKEWATCH data is primarily intended to provide lake-specific information that can be used to predict how individual lakes will react to different circumstances (for example, drought, herbicide use, drawdowns, etc.). I may also be useful in detecting possibly detrimental trends in a lake at an early stage when they may be more easily reversible. In recent years, however, LAKEWATCHers have found their data can be put to good use in many ways. For example, Mr. Eugene Harralson on Broken Arrow Lake in Volusia County has been collecting data since January of 1988. When a sewage treatment plant was proposed which would have put percolation ponds within 500 feet of the lake, percolating 300,000 gallons of wastewater per day, he was able to use his database, along with expert testimony, to convince the Department of Environmental Regulation, the County Zoning Board, and the local Health Department that the ponds would degrade the lake’s water quality. The Kingsley Lake Property Owners Association in Clay County was able to use data collected by Laura Cocks, their LAKEWATCH volunteer since August, 1988. The data showed the lake had exceptionally good water quality and was used as part of an exemplary application for status as an Outstanding Florida Water (OFW). The OFW status was granted and entitles the lake to “the highest level of protection” from environmental protection agencies. If not for the contribution of time and energy from Ms. Cocks, collection of the water quality data would have cost the Association tens of thousands of dollars. Tom and Peggy Prevost, the husband and wife team who collect samples on Melrose Bay in Alachua County, were able to document changes in their water quality when increased boat traffic in the small bay caused severe shoreline erosion. The County Commission put a horsepower limitation on the boats that could be launched in the bay (there is a County ramp nearby outside the bay for the larger boats) and also created a “no wake” zone in the bay. Shortly thereafter, the water quality improved. Thanks to several teams of monitors over the years, Melrose Bay has been monitored since August, 1986, so there was a comprehensive database available. Once a database is established for a lake, often that is when the real detective work begins. The challenge is to figure out what events cause changes in the lake’s water chemistry. For example, on Santa Fe Lake in Alachua County, the phosphorus level quadrupled in one month. The next month it returned to its normal level. What could have caused such a change on this lake which is thousands of acres in size? One possibility, noticed by the residents, is that the change was associated with the presence of tens of thousands of sea gulls that were spending the night on the lake after feeding at a nearby landfill during the day. The sea gulls left, and the high phosphorus level has not recurred. Residents are on the lookout for the gulls and will be able to see if their return coincides with another phosphorus jump. Not only is LAKEWATCH data being used by lake residents, it is also being used by researchers and regulatory agencies. Dr. Daniel Canfield, Professor of Limnology at the University of Florida, is using the data to develop a longterm database on Florida’s lakes. Regulatory agencies and personnel, including Southwest Florida Water Management District, St. Johns River Water Management District, The Department of Environmental Regulation, The City of Orlando Stormwater Utility Bureau, The Orange County Environmental Protec Uses, continued tion Department, The City of Winter Haven Lakes Manager, The City of Maitland Lakes Manager, The City of Lake Mary, and The Lake County Water Authority have been networking with LAKEWATCH in order to make the best possible lake management decisions. All LAKEWATCH data will be put into a computer database (called STORET) that will be accessible to everyone in Florida. In addition, several groups of LAKEWATCH lakes have taken advantage of opportunities to participate in other studies. For example, in one study measurements of pH, alkalinity, conductivity, chloride, iron, silicates, sulfates, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, color, and phaeophytin were made twice on over 120 lakes. In another study, one Hillsborough County lake was treated for hydrilla, saving the lake residents an estimated cost of $300 per acre. A study by University of Florida students resulted in plant surveys being done on 18 LAKEWATCH lakes in which the volume of infestation, percent of acreage covered, and species of plants were documented. So far, thanks to the teamwork between the LAKEWATCHERS, researchers, and regulators, the collection and use of data has been productive and beneficial. Of course this type of long-range scientific data gathering takes time, but thanks to the diligence and dedication of the LAKEWATCH volunteers, it is working. Good for you! Many agencies and organizations around the State have volunteered to help with the Florida LAKEWATCH Program by providing a Collection Center. They maintain a freezer so that volunteer monitors can take their water samples to a location that may be more convenient than bringing them to Gainesville. The following is a list of Centers: Keystone Civic Association Odessa (Marilyn Heyck: 813-961-2715) Lake County Water Authority Tavares (Linda Marino: 904-343-3777) Lake Region Lakes Management District (Canal Commission) Winter Haven (Jessica Sewell; Carolyn Whitehead: 813-293-1441) Lakewood Park Homeowner Association Ft. Pierce (Dwayne Zunner: 407-465-2679) Maclay Garden State Park (DNR District II) Tallahassee (Catherine Florko: 904-488-3648) Orlando, City of Stormwater Utility Bureau (Bruce Fallon: 407-246-2370) Osceola County Cooperative Extension Kissimmee (Eleanor Foerste: 407-846-4181) Sanibel-Captiva Conservation Foundation Sanibel (Dr. Norman Bowles or Kristie Seaman: 813-472-2329) St. Andrew Bay Resource Management Association Panama City (Dr. John Taylor: 904-235-2213) Seminole County Cooperative Extension Sanford (Stephen Crnko [Sin'-ko]: 407-323-2500) U.S. Forest Service, Ocala National Forest Visitor Center on SR 40 at Silver Springs (904-625-7470) Visitor Center on SR 19 at Altoona (Bob Grinstead: 904-669-3153) Volusia County Cooperative Extension Deland (David Griffis: 904-822-5778) Proposed Centers: Clay County Cooperative Extension Green Cove Spgs. (Raymond Zerba) Maitland, City of Maitland (Richard Pirino: 407-539-6203) Orange County Cooperative Extension Orlando (Jay Hebert: 407-836-7570) St. Johns River Water Management District Palatka (904-329-4500) Please call ahead before you go to a Center for the first time, because some of them have limited freezer space. Also, be mindful of the fact that the people who work there are not trained LAKEWATCH personnel, but are taking on these extra duties on a volunteer basis -- it may take them a while to iron out their procedures. You should deliver: 1. properly-labelled water sample bottles enclosed in a plastic bag 2. dessicant bottle (containing the blue crystals and filter papers) 3. data sheets You will be able to pick up supplies as you need them from the Center. If supplies run low, have the Center call the Gainesville Office to request more. Hope this makes sampling easier for you. Hydrilla Alert The Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has authority to regulate the growth of aquatic plants in Florida's lakes. In response to the troublesome proliferation of an aggressive plant called "hydrilla," Mr. Jeffrey Schardt, DNR Environmental Administrator of the Bureau of Aquatic Plant Management, is requesting your help. Please notify him if you see infestations of hydrilla on any lake that has a public boat ramp. He can be phoned at 904/488-5631 or written to at the following address: Mr. Jeffrey Schardt Innovation Park Collins Building 2051 East Dirac Drive Tallahassee, Fl. 32310 It is important to identify these growths of hydrilla while they are small so that they can be controlled with minimal amounts of herbicides. Once the plant fills in a large area, it is often too expensive to eradicate or manage. Relatively small populations of hydrilla were found by DNR on 19 boat ramps areas last year. Because they were spotted early, they were successfully controlled at a cost of less than $1,000 per lake. In contrast, $1.4 million was spent to control a widespread hydrilla population on Lake Istokpoga. If left untreated, hydrilla has the potential of filling in the entire lake from top to bottom, completely preventing recreational uses of the lake. Because hydrilla is so often transported from one lake to another on boats and boat trailers, areas near the public boat ramps are usually the first to become infested. To identify hydrilla (refer to the picture), look at the underside of a leaf and feel the central vein running along the middle of the leaf. If you can feel or see tiny spines poking out from the central vein, the plant is hydrilla. If there are no spines, check other leaves; not all the leaves have obvious spines. You should know that there are about a dozen DNR Regional Biologists to whom you can go for free information and suggestions about plants in your lake. Mr. Schardt can refer you to the one for your county. Helpful Suggestions Bill Jaeger, a lake monitor from Wisconsin, suggests wrapping the free end of your Secchi disc rope around an empty, capped 32-ounce dishwashing detergent bottle. It is neat and, in case of a slip, it may provide enough floatation to enable you to retrieve the Secchi disc easily. A Florida LAKEWATCH volunteer suggests using empty film cannisters for storing the paper clips from your sample kit. Keeps them dry. Jack Bolinger, one of the Florida LAKEWATCH volunteers on Lake Giles in Orlando, suggests a method for pulling cattails without straining your back. To do the "Bolinger Tug," stand side by side with the plant on the outside of your foot. Grasp the stalk at a height about six inches above your own knee. Bend your knees slightly and pull the plant across your thigh. Lean your weight against the plant and hold the tension on it. This will result in the plant slowly being pulled up while your body weight does the work, not your back. Gerre Jaillet, A LAKEWATCHer on Ola/Orange, an expert in parachute rigging suggested a knot for your Secchi discs (see below). If you re-tie your discs, be sure there is exactly one foot between the upper, flat surface of your Secchi disc (not the metal loop) and the first foot mark on your clothesline. Star Lake Forest is located in the southwest corner of Putnam County. This area has been carefully developed through the concern of property owners and guided by Star lake Forest Association governed by a five-member rotating board of directors. The purpose of this association is the upkeep and maintenance of our roads and the viability of our three lakes: Star, Riley, and Blue. Strong leadership has produced positive results in both areas. A covered-dish lunch and meeting is highlighted with speakers each year. At a recent picnic hosted by Dr. Daniel Canfield, Director of Florida LAKEWATCH, we met other volunteers from around the state. A computer displayed graphs of all lakes and it was interesting to compare our lake results. Our three lakes have been monitored since October, 1989. This would be a great annual event to meet and exchange ideas with other LAKEWATCH volunteers. Star Lake Forest Association holds several Saturday work mornings each year. Water hyacinths are hand-gathered, carried on a homemade barge, and deposited on shore for owners to use a fertilizer. A work crew works year around to keep hyacinths in check on Star Lake. Roadside cleanup is also a part of work mornings which ends with a picnic lunch for all workers at the commons area. Much can be accomplished through this type of activity and a strong association. Our lakes are clear, clean, stable and safe. Our roads are posted with speed limits, patrolled and well maintained. We have established a neighborhood watch program; we help and care about our neighbors. We are vitally concerned in presenting Star lake Forest as a very special place whether it is a vacation retreat, retirement haven or homes for young families. Star Lake Forest is indeed a great place to live! Because of present funding levels, the Florida LAKEWATCH Program is having to limit the number of lakes which will be permitted to participate in the Program in 1992. The Program is being "capped" so that the focus can be re-directed towards developing better feedback and information services to the volunteers doing the lake sampling. In the past two years, demand has been so great that the focus has been on including as many lakes as possible. Florida LAKEWATCH is now the largest program of its kind in the United States (and in the world -- probably in the solar system!). The policy in 1992 will have to be one of allowing the addition of a new lake only in the event that one lake drops out of the Program or is purged because of lack of adequate participation. Many of you have been collecting water samples on your lake for a year or longer. Don't be shy about letting us know you have earned your red Florida LAKEWATCH cap! Remember, this cap can't be bought -- you have to get one the old-fashioned way. Welcome! Welcome, to two new groups. The Florida Chapter B.A.S.S Federation has volunteered to adopt LAKEWATCH lakes around the state. Also, a women's bass fishing group that calls itself the Talquin Hookers has been trained to monitor Lake Talquin. Congratulations are due to newly-certified LAKEWATCH trainers: Mr. Bruce Fallon, City of Orlando Stormwater Utility Bureau Mr. Mike Britt, City of Winter Haven Lakes Manager Dr. Joe Branham, retired biologist in Lake County Dr. John Taylor, Environmental Engineer in Bay County continued next page LAKEWATCH News, continued It was a pleasure recently to train David Trzeciak on Lake Tomahawk in Marion County. David takes over LAKEWATCH sampling from his father, Dennis Trzeciak. This is the first time so far that the LAKEWATCH "torch" has passed from one generation to another. We hope many of you are including your sons and daughters in your LAKEWATCHing. The first annual LAKEWATCH picnic at the home of Dr. Dan Canfield, LAKEWATCH Director, was attended by about 80 folks from around Florida. There was BBQ and lots of food and good discussions of lake problems and solutions. A bag of water samples was delivered to the Winter Haven Collection Center that contained, not only bottles of lake water, but also two frozen hamburger patties! We also have to report that prompt attention from the lab chemists was given to the lake water samples that were delivered in Bud cartons. LAKEWATCHers are always creative, and the lab workers never know what to expect next. LAKEWATCHers Tested When the LAKEWATCH Program began, many scientists and agency personnel were skeptical about whether volunteers could accurately take water samples and lake data. The Department of Environmental Regulation (DER) required the Florida LAKEWATCH Program to test its volunteers to see if the data they were getting could be trusted. Twice during 1991 LAKEWATCH volunteers on over 120 lakes were tested. The volunteers were told that a biologist would accompany them on their regular sampling trip and would take samples for extra water chemistry; they were not told that they themselves were being tested. In reality, the biologist was taking samples that would be tested for the same variables that the volunteers were sampling for, in addition to the extra variables. After the sampling, the biologists' data was compared with that of the volunteers. The results showed there was no significant difference in the values obtained. Some of us think the study proved the biologists were taking samples correctly! We always knew our volunteers were hot tickets. You can all be proud of the high quality of work you are doing. By doing a careful and conscientious job, you make it easier to obtain funding for the continuation of the Program and for its expansion in the future to include more lakes across Florida. Keep up the good work! Info Bulletin Board If you have questions that are of interest to a number of volunteers, we will answer them in the newsletter so everyone can learn. We are also interested in knowing of any upcoming meetings that other LAKEWATCH volunteers may want to attend. If you know of these meetings, let us know in advance and we will be glad to include them in this newsletter. What Can We Do About Our Lakes? Dr. Daniel Canfield, Professor of Limnology and Director of Florida LAKEWATCH, will be meeting with groups of active and potential volunteers and other interested folks in the following areas (call for details): St. Andrews Bay, Jan. 7 (Dr. Jack Taylor: 904-235-2213) Orange County, Jan. 15 (Jay Hebert: 407-836-7570) Lake Co. Water Authority, Jan. 22 (Linda Marino: 904-343-3777) City of Orlando, Jan. 29 (Mr. Bruce Fallon: 407-246-2370) Keystone Civic Assn. (Hillsborough), Feb. 5 (replace mtg on 10th) Howie-in-the-Hills, Feb. 12 (Town Hall: 904-324-2290) Winter Haven, Feb. 19 (Mr. Mike Britt: 813-297-4010) Lakewood Park (St. Lucie Co.), Mar 11 (407-464-9377) Aquatic Plants Are Not “Weeds”! The Department of Natural Resources (DNR) is offering an aquatic plant identification seminar in Live Oak, Florida, on April 7th to be taught by Dr. David Hall from the University of Florida. Limited spaces are available, and there is a $10 fee. RSVP to Mr. Jeffrey Schardt at 904-488-5631. To get onto the Bulletin Board, please contact: Sandy Fisher or Dr. Dan Canfield, Jr. Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture 7922 NW 71st Street Gainesville, FL 32606 (904) 392-9613/392-9617 Should I feed the ducks on my lake? Most lakes in Florida have a population of resident, domestic ducks. They naturally feed on insects and plants. When people start feeding the ducks, however, problems can develop. Firstly, bread is the food people most often toss to the ducks. Not part of a duck's natural diet, bread contributes calories and has little nutritional value. Ducks are greedy and will over-consume food if given the chance. Not only will ducks who are fed bread lose their interest in foraging, but they will pretend to be hungry in order to encourage people to feed them more. The result is likely to be a flock of fat, poorly-nourished ducks. Additionally, ducks feeding on plants and insects help keep the lake clean. However, when ducks are fed by man, the nutrients in the food are converted to fecal matter and added to the lake's nutrient load. Unlike the aquatic plants and insects that are already within the lake, the man-provided duck food comes from outside the lake, resulting in an additional source of nutrients to the lake. Because of this additional input of nutrients, small lakes may become "eutrophic" more quickly -- experiencing lowered oxygen levels, unsightly water, and foul odors. City park lakes are particularly vulnerable to accelerated eutrophication due to the large numbers of people who feed the ducks for entertainment, attracting large duck populations on relatively small lakes. Lastly, ducks contribute to the spread of disease. Their fecal matter on land attracts flies and has noxious odors. According to the Lee County Health Department, the unsanitary conditions caused by ducks may lead to the spread of diseases such as Histoplasma (a fungus disease of the lungs that mimics TB; this fungus can survive for a long time in dried droppings and the dust from these droppings can be spread by the wind for some distance), Psittacosis (a pneumonia-type disease), and Saint Louis Encephalitis (a central nervous system disease spread from birds to people by mosquitos). Several children have died from Nagleria fowleri which is an amoeba which infests the bottom sediments of all Florida lakes and may be spread in bird droppings. Feeding them, results in a higher population of ducks which, in turn, increases the chances of their spreading diseases. In summary, it may be better for the health of your lake, your ducks, and your family if you stop feeding the ducks. Consider the enjoyment you can get from watching them forage in their natural habitat. Videos Available The following educational videotape programs are available in the Aquatic Plant Management Series: Florida's Aquatic Plant Story -- describes the benefits of native aquatic plants, recounts problems caused by some exotic "aquatic weeds," and introduces the major methods of aquatic plant management. (24 minutes; IFAS Catalog No. VT-315) Istokpoga -- tells the story of one of Florida's largest lakes, and the hydrilla infestation that made its waters all but unusable; recounts the citizen activism and agency cooperation that resulted in the largest aquatic herbicide application in Florida history, and describes the results of that treatment. (39 minutes; IFAS Catalog No. VT-285) Aquatic Plant Identification of Floating and Floating-leaved Plants -- features descriptions and pictures of 14 of the most common floating and floating-leaved plants in Florida. (26 minutes; IFAS Catalog No. VT-360) Emersed Plants -- Part I -- features descriptions and pictures of 19 of the most common emersed plants in Florida. (IFAS Catalog No. VT-361). All programs cost $15.90, payable to the "University of Florida." They are available on VHS, S-VHS, and PAL video formats. Please specify format and IFAS Catalog number. Order from: IFAS Publications IFAS Building 664 Gainesville, Fl. 32611-0001 Or arrange to borrow them at no charge by calling 904-392-1799.	88bcbc45-a6d1-4131-ba48-92d7e986b405	CC-MAIN-2023-14	https://lakewatch.ifas.ufl.edu/media/lakewatchifasufledu/extension/newsletter/FLWNewsletterVol2Dec1991.pdf	2023-03-27T07:15:28+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296948609.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20230327060940-20230327090940-00710.warc.gz	419,743,369	4,806	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.992768	eng_Latn	0.99772	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 3613, 7440, 10711, 14055, 17980, 21887 ]	[ 2.21875, 1.6953125 ]	1	0
Essentials of River Safety An experienced paddler never takes safety for granted. Every paddler should practice and be competent at self rescue, and be able to help others with simple assisted rescue techniques. Seek out training, and learn quick uncomplicated methods for helping your paddling buddies, as well as how to use a few simple pieces of safety gear. All paddlers should wear a USCG approved, properly fitted life jacket, wear appropriate protective clothing including secure footwear, and have a throw rope, knife, and sounding device. Bright lights should be carried for low visibility conditions. Preparation and Prevention Know before you go! This means reading guide books, checking with outfitters, or talking to other paddlers with experience on the river you intend to paddle. You’ll need to know about hazards, difficulty, water levels, where the put in and takeouts are, and more. Make sure everyone in your group has the skills appropriate for the intended river. Formulate a Float Plan and leave a copy with friends, family, or a responsible party. Learn to recognize potential hazards, and use good judgment to avoid them. Inclement weather, flood waters, and natural or man-made obstructions should all be seen as danger signs. Be conservative! Paddling can be safe, and should be fun. Walk around, or leave a wide margin surrounding hazards. Reschedule trips when conditions are simply too dangerous; for instance during floods or extreme cold. • Wear a USCG approved, properly fitted life jacket (PFD)! • Be properly clothed and equipped. • Prepare for a safe trip. Use good judgment. • File a Float Plan with friends, family, or a responsible party. • Learn and practice Self Rescue skills. Use defensive and aggressive swimming techniques where appropriate. • Learn and practice assisting swimmers, and rescuing boats and gear. • Carry a throw bag, and practice regularly. • Seek out ACA certified Instructors for instruction in paddling, as well as in safety and rescue skills. • Stay Safe, and have fun! Produced under a grant from the Sport Fish Restoration and Boating Trust Fund, administered by the U.S. Coast Guard. American Canoe Association 1340 Central Blvd., Suite 210 Fredericksburg, VA 22401 Phone: 540.907.4460 www.americancanoe.org Self Rescue As soon as you find yourself in the water, assume a defensive position. This means lying on your back, legs pointing downstream. Arch your back to stay as close to the surface as possible and avoid bumping the bottom. Keep your feet on the surface. This helps you avoid one of the most common river hazards; Foot Entrapment. This is caused by standing in swift current and having your foot pushed into a crevice or snarled root, tree limb, etc. Stand only when the water is knee-deep or less. Angle your head toward the closest safe shore and back stroke to safety. If you are being swept rapidly toward a hazard you may need to roll to your side into an aggressive swimming position to more quickly reach safety, but stay flat along the surface until you reach shallow, slow water. Hold your boat and paddle with one hand and swim with the other if it is safe to do so. Otherwise let go of your gear and take care of yourself first. Boat Assisted Rescues Often a Self Rescue is the quickest and safest method for a swimmer to reach safety. However, a paddler can assist a swimmer in several ways. The simplest method is to paddle over to the swimmer and instruct them to hold onto either the bow or stern of the paddler’s boat. Towing and pushing a swimmer both work well, but determining which will work best in a given situation requires practice. If towing is called for, have the swimmer hold onto the grab loop or handle at the stern. Instruct the swimmer to kick and swim to help forward progress, and to stay as close to the surface as possible for safety. Paddle to the closest safe shore. When pushing (bulldozing) a swimmer, have them hold onto the bow and wrap their legs up around the hull. Then paddle to shore. This technique works especially well with panicked or tired swimmers. Bulldozing an empty boat to shore can work well too, although you’ll notice the boat will not follow directions very well. Again, practice is crucial. When rescuing a paddle, simply pick it up and heave it toward shore. Those with large hands may wish to hold both paddles and proceed to shore, but this is awkward for most. Towing a boat requires specialized equipment and advanced training. It can be hazardous, and is not recommended for beginners. Shore Based Rescues Ropes can be a useful tool for assisting swimmers to shore. Throw ropes can be either stored in a Throw Bag designed for quick and easy deployment, or just loosely coiled. In either case, the rope itself should float, and be brightly colored for easy visibility. Because of their simplicity and speed of operation, Throw Bags are recommended. Throw Bags Usually between fifty and seventy feet long, these devices are such important tools that it is recommended that each paddler carry one. Regular practice with the throw bag is necessary if speed and accuracy are to be relied upon. To use a throw bag, first make sure your footing is secure. Open the bag to allow the rope to freely run out, and then grasp the bag in your throwing hand. Hold the free end in your other hand. Shout out to the swimmer. “Rope!” is the accepted call. Then throw the bag either overhand or underhand, whichever works best for you in practice. Aim to cross the swimmer with the rope. Then steady yourself for a significant force when the rope becomes taut. Sitting down or having an associate help hold you steady is a good idea. Pendulum the swimmer into a safe shore, or pull them closer if you must help them avoid a downstream hazard. Warn them to stand up only when they are knee-deep or less. All paddlers should be able to swim with a life jacket on, and be able to assist a swimmer with either a boat-based rescue or a rope toss from shore. These are essential skills. There are more advanced skills that can be helpful, such as wading, either singly or in groups, to rescue entrapped paddlers or pinned boats. Setting up mechanical systems to rescue people and/or equipment, learning how to swim in more difficult conditions or how to safely swim over a strainer can all be vital skills for the paddler to know. These skills (and more) should be learned in a class setting, taught by knowledgeable, experienced, certified Instructors. Paddlers would be well served to seek out such classes and Instructors and learn these skills. Your safety may depend on it!	9eca4892-9f25-476a-a538-4a9a4d98bafc	CC-MAIN-2022-21	https://prairiestatecanoeists.wildapricot.org/resources/Documents/Intro%20files/GuideToRiverRescue.pdf	2022-05-28T17:38:45+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652663016949.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20220528154416-20220528184416-00729.warc.gz	531,179,865	1,415	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995993	eng_Latn	0.998227	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2284, 6631 ]	[ 3.1875 ]	1	0
WORKING THE LAND by john vanderwater A VIEW OF PROGRESS Sometimes we read or hear a statement like: "I am not an ecologist—I believe in progress," since I am as much of an optimist as I know how to be and believe in progress. I have puzzled over such statements, for condition I come to is that anything that is different from the latter or speaks of how society stops burning leaves and starts composting them—I think that's progress. When farmers stop paying twice as much for inferior corned baby food and start growing and making their own—I think that's progress. When the chemical industry some time ago started pushing the sale of a herbicide called 2,4-D, arguing to control weeds with chemicals—that was progress, but now that greater problems have been created because of our dependence on these chemicals, I would say that's not progress, but beginning to turn to natural and biological controls, that's overdue progress. When we install flush toilets which use six gallons of good water, a gallon of water per flush, and then start using the water again, that's not progress. But the development of the Swedish Clivus Multrum waterless toilet, which uses no water at all, that's progress. When we put out the fire department and the firemen, that's progress. When the state and county highway crews are instructed to spray the roadside with weed killers—that was not progress, but should we take some time to stop and pay our unemployed to cut roadside brush and grass—that could not be progress. When our schools in our dairy country harbor soft-drink dispensing machines—the same machines used where small children buy soft drinks to use natural and biological controls, composts, mulches and allow trees, that's progress. When the litter rate in our society has risen to where one every four can not find a place to throw garbage, that is not progress. When the airlines prepare to clean concentration on rules and starts concentrating on operation—that is progress. When agricultural experts declare that soil fertility was made up of 10-10-10 and not 5-10-15, that is progress. We are realizing that there are many more chemical elements necessary to plant growth and that we really know very little about them. When wealthy absentee with the encouragement of the USDA take over huge tracts of land, plow and turn them into one plot to operate with huge mechanized equipment, that is not progress. When we use more energy than our people, that is not progress. And when $8 million annually is spent by the U.S.D.A. to dump 300 million pounds of fertilizer, and still more farm workers are dumped into urban areas—that is not progress. And when 60% of the nation's farmland is being abandoned, and when we have the right shape and the right number, we will pack it in a box and the box will be shipped to the islands—this is not progress. But should the USDA revert to what it was intended to do—then it is progress. And most of all, when our government corporations chose to ignore a free market economy, clean air or pure water, sun and concentrated our billions on developing expensive, finite, dirty, dangerous nuclear power—that was the most insane non-progress of them all. GROWING SOIL The most basic requirement for a good garden is good soil. Even the best gardener may work long and hard and still get poor results. Sometimes visitors at a project garden of long standing ask, "What makes things look so good? Look at your soil." They may not realize that a gardener often needs to do a lot of work before he gets the good plants. In our first year of gardening at Jonselvania, the soil had been peaty clay. Each year it has become darker in color, lighter in texture, and takes more water. By adding organic matter, nutrients, are easily placed and tilled. This is being achieved by annual application of green manure, compost, manure, rotted hay, compost, organic mulches, wood ashes, and whatever other materials we can find. The regular results are now achieved on poor, sandy soil by similarly increasing the humus content. The point is all this is that it is not difficult to find large quantities of organic material to make humus. All it requires is a little time to find it and bring it home. Depending on the source, the material will contain nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, trace elements like zinc and magnesium to the soil. Most gardens so treated will, after a few years, have a soil that contains all the basic elements and the trace elements so that the addition of inorganic fertilizers is unnecessary. The use of fertilizer becomes unnecessary. To you who have made the transition from a chemically fertilized garden to an organic fertilized one, you may want to do it gradually rather than suddenly as the gardeners at Jonselvania did. Slowly and while no doing more than a little extra work, you can add organic matter in the form of green manure, hay, manure, or an organic fertilizer like liquid manure. You may want to add a little more organic matter on your soil nutrients while making the transition. Additional lime and nitrogen normally will be needed at this time. So it may be possible on a maintenance schedule to clean up with the simplest methods. A garden stool is a delightful way both gardener and mother can enjoy. Especially low and remove fertilization is how to make green manure. It is a simple matter to grow several crops, harvest her, smell it, compost, and then add it to the garden. It is also a good idea to add a little mixture of lime and nitrogen to your soil nutrients. We have found that the best way to grow green manure is to plant it in the fall, let it grow through the winter, and then cut it in the spring. Prominently a side planting of chervil, dill, and fennel would bring plants back comparable to their neighbors, but we have found that these plants have decomposed to do the soil building job we intended. One source of organic material available right now is the vegetable garden. We have found that it works as a midsummer mulch around shade trees, tomatoes, and in flower beds. It keeps the soil cool, retains moisture, is moist and cool, and keeps the weeds down, and next spring it will have changed into a layer of crumbly black earth of value to our garden. ANIMAL LIFE IN THE GARDEN A garden should be teeming with both plant and animal life. The larger animals and creatures are beyond our control, but we can become more aware of our own environment and a "live" garden is the way nature intended, so part of my garden activities is to encourage helpful insects and discourage harmful ones. The first insect to control is the mosquito, or dengue mosquito, whose main host is the mosquito, in the stagnant water. The mosquito is a pest in its water stage, eats mosquito larvae. Mosquitoes are found in unorganized gardens. They feed on the blood of man, birds, and even mice, scale, ants, and mealybugs. Dengue mosquitoes are a particular friend to man. They seem to concentrate on man's enemies and leave his allies alone. Caterpillars abound in an organic garden. They aerate and fertilize the soil, eat the green matter, and are the most important crop sent to the lady beetle. Unfortunately it is hard to find a control, that is not harmful to two or three of them. They destroy the leaves of roses, and other soft, tender plant-stemming insects. I may not be inclined to think of insects as friends, but some of them are. I have found the horsefly, horn flies, and stinging flies that pester our lives, are beneficial in killing the knots and aphids. The "nosey" Trichopasma wasp has been introduced into our gardens to control the aphid. Insects, too, are a great value as pollinators. These include butterflies, ants, bees, and of course bees. Butterflies in the garden are the only pollinators in the lawn. Larger insects in the garden that attract include birds, squirrels, chipmunks, chipmunks, and other mammals under control. Hummingbirds and warblers control moths; beetles, earwigs, and other insects control aphids, beetles, flycatchers and swallow control moths. Leafhoppers are relatives of the whitefly family, and so on. Insects are relieved in our gardens by the good bugs, such as wasps, insects, moths, and aphids, and particularly the lady beetle, and other beneficial insects. Those who have good pets, will not love you words, are remarkably interesting, and are a great source of entertainment and sound. Can you say so much for a can of poison spray? Our lawn and flower garden have suffered some damage caused by the Japanese beetle. At least he does not destroy the harmful or, when he has cleaned out an area, he moves on. A case in point is the nearly complete destruction spruce and fir trees in our forests are controlled by moles. The island of Newfoundland could not grow evergreen trees because of the scarcity, and the absence of moles, so severely impacting and destroying the forests above the island. This has permitted the successful introduction of evergreens. Flies are often considered pests. A group of New... ANIMAL LIFE IN THE GARDEN CONT. England sheep raisers once joined a successful crow-extirminating cooperative because they thought crows were eating their corn lambs. It followed that when their pastures dried, they discovered that crows were the natural control for grubs that ate the grass roots, without harming the grass itself. The crows won. One last friend I will mention is the skunk. Naturalist Ernest Seton Thompson wrote the skunk as a replacement for the eagle as our national emblem. Tongue-in-cheek to be sure, but Seton reasoned that the skunk's ability of spraying a foul-smelling fluid at prairie and field mice, further, he has stripes like our flag, is fearless, never fires unless fired upon, and always emerges the victor by a nose. Backyard Livestock: How to Grow Meat for Your Family By Steven Thomas Drawings by Mark Howell "A new book entry...one which is definitely as good in generalities as (Barnaby's) and even superior in certain areas. Excellent general coverage on how to raise and raise poultry, rabbits, sheep, goats, pigs, and veal calves. Also goes into raising their feed to keep costs low, detailed plans building shelters for each, butchering, tanning, and extensive veterinary info." - Earthbooks Reading Library. "Maybe Steven Thomas should have called this excellent book, 'Economical Backyard Livestock,' because his focus is not only on raising some of the animals from which we take our food, but on the methods necessary to raise them -- and that information is necessary unless homestead stock are to be just an expensive hobby." - Organic Gardening and Farming. 288 pp. Paper $5.95; Cloth $8.95. Add 50¢ for shipping. THE COUNTRYMAN PRESS, TAPTVILLE, VERMONT 05073 WATER, WEEDS, WORMS, AND MULCH by doug jones The practice of mulching, or covering the soil, is being increasingly recognized as a valuable tool by vegetable farmers and gardeners alike. Some people use it primarily as a weed control method, others value its ability to retain moisture, but it does both of these things and more. By understanding how mulch works, you can learn to manipulate its functions and learn how to use it right. Mulch is simply a covering of material that keeps most of her soil covered with decaying organic matter from previous years' growth. When soil is bared to the elements, it can easily get too loose too much moisture and organic matter, especially if it is a light (sandy) soil. Sun and oxygen can dry it up the moment it is exposed instead of it being clumped up. A few sandy species of soil organisms then form a stable humus or nutrient bank, for new plant growth. Mulch can also draw water down into the soil, keeping it there longer, even in the case of heavy soils; form a hard crust on the surface. Different types of mulch and different times of year will have differing effects on your garden. The most available mulch in dairy country, is old or spoiled hay - many farmers, especially after last year's bad hay season, have old hay that they would love to have cleared from their fields. This is a good time to use it. They are usually free, and kill weeds. It sometimes even better - the rains will have started it rotting which is what you want. Destructive allelopathic effects of some mulches persist long after the mulch "decomposes" in your soil next spring and not interfere with tillage. The same is true of other mulches - leaves, saw dust, woodchips, pine needles, newspapers. In their fresh state, all are high in carbon, low in nitrogen, and will bind up the nitrogen in the soil, making it unavailable to your vegetables. The microorganisms will take nitrogen from the top soil layer to digest these carbonaceous materials, thus solving to this problem. Either leave the mulch raw, past, or else use more manure or compost in your soil to provide more nitrogen. Some use black plastic sheeting. This is a good idea, but it means plastic a less desirable mulch. Not only is it a pollutant when it is thrown away, but it fails to add organic matter to the soil, which is everything. I won't go into the long list of virtues that black plastic has, but it is a good idea to use it in the fall, or early winter. Some other time, but, plastic has one definite advantage which northern gardeners appreciate - its soil warming properties. It is a good idea to use it under tomatoes, peppers, and other summer crops that are cold-sensitive, eggplants, and peppers. The latter two can be mulched with hay or leaves, but wait until at least late June, and then leave a little bare soil around the plants. Try to keep your tomato plants warm, but not too warm. A disadvantage of hay is weed seeds, another reason to use it in a more rotted form, like straw, which, if you have enough, would be finished compost, which has heated to digest carbon and destroy weeds. All right, now, which vegetables to mulch? When? With what? With cool-soil varieties, you can mulch them almost any time, even enough to cover the entire row. In the case of the mulching tomato - this would include the cabbage family, greens, root crops, onions, strawberries and peas, in short, our "green" roots, and the rest of the cool-season vegetables. You can mulch them last thing in the fall, "working the [mulch] mulch firmly [only in the "valleys" between them], then cover soil with a 1-2 inch layer of mulch." This is a good idea for your sunflowers, beans, and if you want to, corn. Do not bother with corn - it is a good idea since half an inch of mulch "will do too much," corn needs well drained soil. The other vegetables - the "cool" ones - can be mulched anytime in the spring, or shortly after planting. Some people have successfully broadcast-planted a clover mixture (red clover, white clover) after their last corn cultivation, right among the corn rows. This is a good idea for new corn plantings. We also do not mulch our trailing vines: squash and pumpkins - not only do they form a shady covering with their leaves, but their vines are so long that they can be used as a weed barrier, and make mowing easier - without mulch. Mulch is a good idea. The advantages of cosmic smelt in next smelter sections, which fit easily between your rows. On the other hand, lemons, chrysanthemums, or nasturtiums are easier to use around straw-bales than other plants, which are free to spread. Potatoes can be mulched at the time of planting - they will push themselves up through the mulch. If you have a heavy soil, mulch the potatoes underneath, for easy digging of any root crop - especially those planted in raised beds. Probably the earthworms who love the rich, dark, moist soil, are the ones responsible for this loosening effect, one of the major advantages of mulching on heavy soils. After being tilled, potatoes will form a mat of roots, loosening the soil. This is the opposite effect - the humus produced actually binds particles together for better soil texture and structure. With leaves or sawdust, watch out for their tendency to acidify - some ground limestone, wood ash, or phosphate, or extra compost will help to neutralize. If you mulch, mulch early. You can tell all you want - weeds will come through if you don't mulch heavily enough (3-4" after it has settled), some animals in the rows or beds will come through the same spaces as the vegetables. You must deal with these, if you have a problem. In my garden, I have had thousands of weeds come up in June and in July, most in August. Weed thoroughly before mulching, especially in the rows of vegetables, and then keep pulling the escapes. Finally, when those you missed shoot up suddenly, start pulling them. If you pull them when they are small, and as low as possible (pulling big weeds often disturbs vegetable roots) - it's worth the effort.	e4103d1d-6f4f-4632-b895-89064dc11338	CC-MAIN-2023-14	https://digitalcollections.stlawu.edu/sites/default/files/rootdrinker_v2_n6_1977-24-25.pdf	2023-03-28T15:14:41+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296948867.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20230328135732-20230328165732-00536.warc.gz	233,013,102	3,722	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998789	eng_Latn	0.998853	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 9097, 16883 ]	[ 2.625 ]	1	0
Know the Conditions FOR FLATWATER • Remember to watch for water and weather changes - beware of fog • Keep an eye out for other boat traffic • Pay attention to all safety warnings • Be sure you are visible • Have emergency lights • Keep your shoes on • Remain prepared for an unanticipated swim FOR WHITEWATER AND RIVERS • Stay on the inside of bends • Use adequate flotation in your craft • Walk around low-head dams • Watch for hydraulics. Looking downstream, if a hole is “smiling” it is probably friendly. If it’s “frowning”, it is probably unfriendly. • Beware of strainers! Strainers are Fallen trees; bridge pilings, undercut rocks or anything else that allows the current to flow through it while holding you. Strainers are deadly. • If in doubt, get out and scout! • Avoid loose line entanglement FOR COASTAL AREAS • Stay close to shore • As you travel away from shelter, make sure you have the necessary skills to travel back. • Watch conditions for winds and fog • Understand wave height, wind speed (Beaufort Scale), fetch and how it will impact your travel • Stay aware of all boat traffic and traffic patterns • Learn re-entry techniques BEFORE you need them, know how to re-enter your boat and how to assist others back into their craft • Stay apprised of tidal currents and their affects on you and your boat • Watch for landing in surf or passing through the surf zone to shore Vessel Safety Check (VSC) Even if you pay careful attention to safety, problems can crop up on the best-maintained boat. That’s why the U.S. Coast Guard recommends that all recreational boaters take advantage of the free Vessel Safety Check (VSC) program every year. VSCs are offered by experienced members of the U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary and the United States Power Squadrons®, two of the nation’s premier volunteer boating safety organizations. A VSC is your best way of learning about problems that might put you in violation of state or federal laws. For non-powered boats under 16 feet, the requirements are very simple. Here’s a checklist: \| Item (may not be required in all locations) \| yes \| no \| n/a \| \|---------------------------------------------\|-----\|----\|-----\| \| Display of numbers \| \| \| \| \| Registration \| \| \| \| \| Personal Flotation Devices \| \| \| \| \| Visual Distress Signals \| \| \| \| \| Sound Producing Device \| \| \| \| \| State and/or Local Requirements \| \| \| \| \| Navigation Lights \| \| \| \| \| Overall Boat Condition \| \| \| \| Recommended items - Marine Radio - First Aid Kit - Bailer/Dewatering Device - Inland Visual Distress Signals Discussion Items - Accident Reporting - Nautical Charts (offshore) - Survival Tips/First Aid - Float Plan/Weather and Water Conditions - Safe Boating Classes Produced under a grant from the Sport Fish Restoration and Boating Trust Fund, administered by the U.S. Coast Guard. American Canoe Association 1340 Central Blvd., Suite 210 Fredericksburg, VA 22401 Phone: 540.907.4460 www.americancanoe.org ALL PADDLERS NEED TO BE PREPARED FOR: - Low light conditions - Ways to contact help - Minor medical emergencies - Outings which extend past the estimated return time - Weather pattern changes - Other traffic Be a Leader! Pre-Trip Planning - Know the waters to be paddled. River guide booklets and topographic maps are valuable references in trip planning. Plan alternate routes. - Set-up locations for put-ins and take-outs along with possible lunch break stops. Consider time and distance. Arrange for the shuttle. - Equipment - What you take with you on a trip is all that you have to survive and rescue yourself. This includes water, food, maps and charts, rescue equipment and extra clothes. - File a Float Plan with someone who will notify others if you don’t return on time. - Participant Responsibilities - Unless the trip is an instructional or a commercially guided trip, most trips are of a common adventure trip format where each participant takes responsibility for personal participation, the selection of appropriate equipment and the decision to run or scout rapids. More experienced paddlers should assist those with less experience in making proper decisions on the trip. - Paddle within both your, and your group’s, limits. On Water Behavior and Etiquette - Be a competent swimmer with the ability to handle oneself underwater, in moving water, surf or current. - Have a properly fitted lifejacket (Personal Flotation Device - PFD), and WEAR IT! - Keep the craft under control. Do not enter a rapid unless reasonably sure you can navigate it or swim the entire rapid in case you capsize. - Be sure to keep an appropriate distance between craft (a good general rule is to keep the craft behind you in view). Normally, stay behind the lead boat and in front of the sweep boat. Both the lead and sweep boats should be experienced boaters. - Keep a lookout for hazards and avoid them. Watch for fog, especially on coastal waters. - Know your emotional and physical limitations. Group members need to constantly assess the behavior of others in their group. - Respect the rights of anglers and land owners when paddling. Paddler’s Checklist - Be a swimmer: Know the difference between, and when to use, aggressive and defensive swimming. - File a float plan: Write down where you intend to put in, take out and when you expect to return. Give it to someone who WILL call for assistance if you don’t return on time. - Wear a lifejacket (PFD) and keep it snug. - Assess your boat’s flotation needs: For flotation to work effectively it must fit snugly into the craft and be securely tied into place. - Carry a spare paddle. - Always dress for an unexpected flip. - Wear a hat or helmet: A helmet is important where upsets are likely or when sprayskirts or thigh restraints are in use. A hat protects from the sun. - Carry a compass and chart or map of the river: Know where you are and how to get out in an emergency. - Carry a whistle or sound signaling device. - Carry throw bags and other rescue gear. - Carry a river knife: When there are ropes and rigging, a knife is needed. This includes throw bags and throw ropes. - Bilge pump and/or bailer: Important for those in open water, always carry some device that can get water OUT of the boat. - Self-rescue devices such as paddle float, slings, and tow ropes. - Sunscreen. - Drinking water & snacks. - Light/signal (flashlight or light sticks). - Proper footwear. - UV eye protection: Choose a good pair of sunglasses and a strap. - Drybag: Pack dry clothing and emergency gear. Cameras and cell phones also need to stay dry. - Appropriate clothing: Always dress for the weather and know what to expect. Temperature changes can occur rapidly. Layering clothes insulates in cool weather better than a single garment. - First aid kit with matches. - Duct tape/small repair kit. - VHS radio and GPS locator if venturing away from shore in a coastal or wilderness area.	179e43b4-f793-4e97-8e67-1445ce99877d	CC-MAIN-2022-21	https://prairiestatecanoeists.wildapricot.org/resources/Documents/Intro%20files/SafetyChecklist.pdf	2022-05-28T15:51:32+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652663016949.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20220528154416-20220528184416-00235.warc.gz	525,053,228	1,572	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.994785	eng_Latn	0.996407	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 3212, 7152 ]	[ 2.625 ]	1	0
SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP GUIDE “European civic attitude through social entrepreneurship” 2019-1-RO01-KA229-063748 Coordinating teacher, Roman Florina Approaches to social entrepreneurship Social entrepreneurship is an approach by individuals, groups, start-ups or entrepreneurs in which they develop, finance and implement solutions to social, cultural or environmental problems. What are the priorities of social entrepreneurship? Social entrepreneurship typically seeks to achieve broad social, cultural and environmental goals often associated with the voluntary sector in areas such as poverty reduction, health care and community development. An organization that aims to provide housing and employment to the homeless may run a restaurant, both to raise money and to provide employment to the homeless. Social entrepreneurship has been facilitated by the use of the Internet, especially social networks and social networking sites. These websites allow social entrepreneurs to reach many people who are not yet geographically close who share the same goals and encourage them to collaborate online, learn about issues, spread information about group events and activities, and raise funds through specific activities. J. G. Dees states: "Social entrepreneurship is The outcome And creation To an entrepreneur CREATOR AND INNOVATIVE." What is the objective social entrepreneurship enterprises? Social entrepreneurship ventures focus on maximizing gains in social satisfaction rather than maximizing profit gains. Bill Drayton founded an organization that supports local social entrepreneurs. He believes that social entrepreneurs must have the following qualities: 1. Creativity through: - Establishing objectives and solving problems 2. Entrepreneurial quality 3. Social impact of the idea 4. Ethical fiber The main factor that determines the quality of social entrepreneurship is CREATIVITY. Entrepreneurs have the idea they want to implement, they know how to implement it, they bring the team that implements the idea and they have a vision of how society will change after the idea becomes reality. Drayton stated that: "Entrepreneurs have a vision of how society will be different when their idea becomes a reality, and they can't stop until that idea becomes a reality, not just in one place, but throughout society." Entrepreneurs address current market failures, and social entrepreneurs address problems: - hypothetical - overcrowding - Lack of food Unseen or less researched such as: - Unsustainable energy sources The problem faced by social entrepreneurs: Social entrepreneurs and their employees are often paid tiny or non-existent wages, especially at the start of their projects. The existing contradiction at the level of social entrepreneurship: Social entrepreneurs tackle the world's most pressing problems, but they must contend with skepticism and stinginess from the society they seek to serve. The challenge of social entrepreneurship: Social entrepreneurs must find new business models to make their organizations sustainable, models that do not rely on the standard exchange of capital. Self-sustainability is a specific feature of social enterprises. Self-sustainability is what distinguishes social enterprises from charities, which rely almost entirely on donations and external funding. Entrepreneurship, between tradition and modernism Teacher, Roman Florina What is the most important resource? Steps in teaching entrepreneurship 1. Presentation of the motivation to be an entrepreneur 2. Presenting successful business and identifying the characteristics of the entrepreneur 3. Identifying the business idea 4. Presentation of the enterprise as an open system 5. Identifying the activities at the company level 6. Establishing the organizational structure of the company 7. Setting SMART goals 8. Elaboration of the company's strategy 9. Elaboration of the company's marketing plan 10. Identifying customers, suppliers, competitors 11. Establishing the company's catalog 12. Realization of the means of promotion 13. Establishing the financial plan 14. Performing the SWOT analysis 1. Presentation of the motivation to be an entrepreneur 1. Personal imprint 2. On the other side of the interview 3. Work routine? - Excluded! 4. Your impact 5. Freedom of choice - You will set your strategy, you will plan for the future, you will choose the methods of implementation. 6. You can create jobs for your family. 7. You will increase your income. 8. You will work responsibly and be creative. 2. Presenting successful business and identifying the characteristics of the entrepreneur - vision - creativity - Courage - passion - action man - optimism - adaptation - perseverance - leadership - communication 3. Identifying the business idea - from one's own passions; - from studying the market. An enterprise involves a set of inputs and outputs. Entries: Resources: - human, - materials - finance - informal - managerial. These are processed in the production process. You get: - services - finished product - goods - information - new managerial methods and techniques Purpose: To obtain surplus value 5. Identifying the activities at the company level Within the enterprise, the activities specific to the functions of the enterprise are carried out: - of production; - commercial; - financial-accounting; - research-development; - human resources. 6. Establishing the organizational structure of the company 7. Setting SMART objectives - specific; - measurable; - accessible; - relevant; - framed in time Example: Acquiring entrepreneurial skills, for a number of 32 students in 3 years. 9. Elaboration of the company's marketing plan The marketing plan must cover: - product; - product price; - how to place the product; - the means of promoting the product. 10. Identifying customers, suppliers, competitors The entrepreneur must know how to constantly answer the question: Why do I make this product? Who needs him? Why do I provide this service? Who needs him? 11. Establishing the company's catalog The company must make the product presentation catalog 12. Realization of the means of promotion The financial plan must include the evolution of some indicators from which to result the economic state of the company. These indicators can be: - profit; - total receipts; - total costs; - salary costs. CONCLUSION 1. The starting point for starting a business must be the needs of the market. 2. You need to have a forward-looking attitude. 3. You need to easily adapt to the dynamism of the market. What is social entrepreneurship? Social entrepreneurship is the process of doing business with the aim of solving certain social, economic or environmental problems. The social entrepreneur seeks solutions to maximize profits while increasing the positive impact on a particular social problem. What is the main purpose of the social entrepreneur? For a social business to be feasible, it must register favorable results in three directions: social, environmental and economic. Social: The ability of business to create positive change and its impact on social issues. Environment: the impact of business on the environment. Economic: The business needs to make a profit to continue operating and growing. Only through self-financing will it be able to become a sustainable business. What are the steps to social entrepreneurship? Do you have entrepreneurial skills and want to use them to solve a social problem? Here are the first steps: 1. choose the cause you want to support 2. make a business plan 3. test the idea to make sure there is market demand 4. identify own funding sources, external funding opportunities, as well as the way to make a profit 5. establish a legal form 6. implement. How does social entrepreneurship help? - by promoting social inclusion practices, thus transforming disadvantaged people from resource consumers into value generators - by placing people belonging to disadvantaged groups in the labor market - by developing social responsibility - by improving living conditions - by developing social services in the interest of the community - by solving essential problems such as: a) overpopulation b) unsustainable energy sources c) lack of food d) pollution Advantages and benefits of social entrepreneurship - more opportunities to put your creative thinking to good use by identifying new solutions - impacting a community, a disadvantaged group - implementation of a change process at the social level - identification and implementation of innovative solutions - activation in a field that is on the rise - tax facilities. The purpose of the business Social entrepreneurship focuses on social impact, not profit. Profit is necessary to support the cause, but the main objective remains the solution of the social, environmental or economic problem concerned. The challenges of social entrepreneurship - the financial risk caused by reduced financing opportunities - skepticism - lack of qualified human resources - low involvement of the public sector - bureaucracy, which makes it difficult or sometimes blocks the whole activity End of activity In the field of social entrepreneurship, bankruptcy does not entail the liquidation of the entire patrimony, as it happens in the case of other types of companies. Ending the activity of a social enterprise requires that all assets be donated to one or more organizations of the same type, thus ensuring continuity of the aid mission. Distribution of profit If in an ordinary business the entire profit can be distributed in the form of dividends to associates, within a social organization at least 90% of the profit made must be allocated to the social purpose and the statutory reserve. Funding Unlike "classic" entrepreneurship, a social business can receive financing in the form of non-reimbursable funds or external funds from investors as well as donations. "CLASIC" ANTREPRENORIAT SOCIAL The importance of social entrepreneurship: - for citizens; - for students; - for the national / world economy; - for the state. The importance of social entrepreneurship for citizens The European Union has been concerned since March 2004 for defining and creating entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship creates new jobs, eliminates unemployment, increases living standards, develops skills, ensures social integration, unites family members, offers a new chance for employment to the elderly. The importance of entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship for the state - reduces the economic, social and educational gap between the states of the world; - capitalizes on the natural and intellectual resources of each state; - is a way of future development. WHY SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP? WHY SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP? Social entrepreneurship has become a global phenomenon with widespread recognition at the highest level. In 2021, the topic of social entrepreneurship was a priority on the Agenda of the Davos Economic Forum, as an essential sector in the post-pandemic economic restructuring. THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN CRISIS CONDITIONS According to the World Economic Forum, during the last two financial crises, the social economy surpassed other sectors of industry and generated up to 12% of jobs, while also solving pressing social problems. At the end of 2021, the European Union launched the Action Plan for the Social Economy, and member countries had to include in their national plans for post-covid economic recovery, special measures for social entrepreneurship. The firm commitment of European countries to the development of the social economy / social entrepreneurship was also marked by the adoption of the Toledo Declaration on the social and solidarity economy. MANIFESTATIONS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL 1. Large nonprofit organizations and companies alike have understood the role of social entrepreneurship and are allocating significant resources to the development of this sector. COMPANIES INVESTING IN THE FIELD OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP The mission of the Skoll Foundation is to support social entrepreneurs to identify and implement solutions to societal problems. Over time, the foundation has invested over 400 million dollars in the social economy. The organization Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship since 1998 has numerous programs supporting social entrepreneurship, which have a formidable magnitude. According to the 2020 Report, in 20 years of activity, the foundation's programs have operated in 190 countries, 622 million people have directly benefited from the results of projects financed by the foundation, 6.7 billion dollars have been invested in the community. In 2020, Microsoft launched the Global Social Entrepreneurship Program. Through this global program, Microsoft provides technology and support to develop and scale B2B startups. UNIVERSITY CONCERNS IN THE FIELD OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP The largest universities in the US have dedicated programs for social entrepreneurship – Yale, Stanford, Harvard are just a few examples from a long list of prestigious universities. In Europe, the MBA program at Oxford University - Said Business School includes social entrepreneurship courses. THE IMPACT OF ENTERPRISES WITH A SOCIAL MISSION There are approximately 2.8 million social enterprises in Europe. It is estimated that annually, 1 out of 4 enterprises established in the European Union is a social enterprise. In Senegal, 18.1% of the country's population is engaged in social entrepreneurship initiatives. In the US, 89% of all social businesses have been established since 2006, and 22% of social enterprises have revenues of over $2 million. THE ROLE OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURS IN SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP Industrial progress cannot solve all problems, this was seen all the better in the conditions of the pandemic. The solution to social and economic problems can no longer come only from governments, public institutions being overtaken in many situations. Where the state no longer has the resources to intervene to solve problems, the social economy model becomes increasingly attractive and viable. WHAT ARE SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURS? Social entrepreneurs are those "pragmatic dreamers" who have the talent, ability and vision to solve social problems, to make the world a better place for each of us. Social entrepreneurs have a unique approach. On the one hand they operate in a system based on economic capital and profit, on the other hand they must create, equally, social impact. THE QUESTIONS TO WHICH SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURS MUST ANSWER 1. How do I use my skills and resources to create profit? 2. How do they improve people's quality of life? So, for social entrepreneurs, profit is by no means optional, but essential, but only as an instrument of change. Money is the resource needed to achieve the social mission and it becomes very clear that the size of the social impact is directly proportional to the size of the profit. WHAT IS SOCIAL ENTERPRISE? Social enterprises represent a new type of initiative, their role being to solve a social problem using business tools: the production and sale of products and services. In a social business, the investor aims to help other people without taking dividends from the registered profits. Ultimately, a social business is run like a classic business, generating enough profit to cover costs and create the resources needed to achieve the social purpose. Social entrepreneurship in Romania In the Country Report for Romania 2020, the European Commission notes that the potential of social entrepreneurship / social economy for improving social conditions is insufficiently used. The social economy faces major challenges. The economic impact of social enterprises remains marginal. In Romania, there are two categories of factors that influence the decision to carry out businesses with social impact: those with negative influence (lack of necessary funds, fear of failure, lack of experience and involvement in social projects and activities) and those with positive influence (knowledge of the concept of social entrepreneurship and social problems that can be solved through entrepreneurial initiatives). The preference to establish a business in the rural environment is significantly higher than the preference to establish a social business in the urban environment (59.29% rural versus 49.78% urban), which can be explained by greater awareness of the existence of social problems and the fact that they can be solved through social entrepreneurship initiatives. Rural areas have a much greater potential for social business development. These areas are less developed and have a number of problems that are only amplified by the lack of social infrastructure and jobs. Precisely for this reason, capitalizing on the potential offered by social entrepreneurship would mean an extraordinary chance for the economic development of rural areas. May, the month of the social economy in Romania In Romania, the month of May is declared, by law, the month of promoting the social economy. This month is thus dedicated to events and actions to mediate the field, with the aim of a better understanding of the concept, but also to encourage cooperation and social solidarity. Bibliography: https://startco.ro/blog/antreprenoriatul-social/ https://accelerator.alaturidevoi.ro/observator https://alaturidevoi.ro/economie-sociala/?gclid=Cj0KCQjw166aBhDEARIsAMEyZh6htWshK_egmPjo_1MzukTg4n_7_MNrXGbMrIxpyMJw4QYjdmDL0EsaAvn3EALw_wcB https://innovatingsociety.com/despre-antreprenoriat-social-si-inovare-sociala/ https://accelerator.alaturidevoi.ro/blog/ce-este-antreprenoriatul-social-i-de-ce-toata-lumea-vorbe-te-despre-acest-subiect https://www.telework.ro/ro/antreprenoriat-social-definitie-caracteristici-si-provocari/	d0cc65ef-90c1-4dbd-b214-2618bd12e509	CC-MAIN-2024-10	http://ecatse.pgtr-vratza.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Guide-to-social-entrepreneurship.pdf	2024-02-22T11:26:47+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947473738.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20240222093910-20240222123910-00310.warc.gz	13,558,185	3,555	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.966652	eng_Latn	0.995726	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "ron_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 150, 189, 382, 652, 814, 1230, 1348, 1528, 1831, 2129, 2352, 2556, 2728, 2952, 3149, 3355, 3430, 3468, 4158, 4566, 4781, 4871, 5186, 5436, 5497, 5680, 5854, 6061, 6157, 6200, 6407, 6606, 6903, 7088, 7397, 7814, 8131, 8325, 8696, 8934, 9208, 9561, 9818, 9996, 10028, 10158, 10549, 10817, 10847, 11155, 11427, 11861, 12128, 12406, 12845, 13024, 13382, 13845, 14308, 14692, 15144, 15624, 15953, 16381, 16744, 17124, 17452, 18000 ]	[ 2.9375 ]	1	0
Local traditional culture is often usefully viewed in rural areas and small villages, where one can perceive an integrated whole as well as its particular parts. Traditional celebrations are parts of this small world that speak richly and eloquently of the social whole. Cape Verde is comprised of nine populated islands, some separated by wide and windswept stretches of sea, so it should not be surprising that each island shows us a cultural face as beautiful and varied as the geography of the archipelago itself. The Portuguese found Cape Verde uninhabited during the latter half of the 15th century, and they immediately set about populating it and evangelizing the people they brought there by force. Within two years the islands had become laboratories for future Portuguese “discoveries” (that is, colonizations, such as Brazil). In an isolation like that enforced by prisons emerged local ways of thinking and of psychologically resisting the hawk of colonialism, which not only devoured the harvest of local labor but also sought to impose its own spiritual values. Many cultural strata can be seen in the islands, beginning with elements brought from Portugal and West Africa during the very first years of colonization. Some contemporary cultural expressions seem to be of Portuguese origin, while many are clearly blends of gestures and attitudes with an Afro-Cape Verdean flavor. A result of the colonization of the islands, which we must take into account in any analysis of Cape Verdean social phenomena, is the fact that most people are Catholics. Nevertheless, we must not exclude from consideration traditional beliefs in witches, regular visits to traditional healers, and common superstitious beliefs. These reveal, as the example of Nuno Miranda makes clear, a vital heritage of animism. [Editor’s note: Nuno Miranda was a widely respected traditional healer and spiritualist in the 20th century who was consulted by all social classes in Cape Verde.] Traditional festivities are generally religious, and they follow the Catholic liturgical calendar. Catholic saints’ days predominate, and the form their celebration takes is fairly constant; most have church services, processions, drumming, and special foods associated with them. Most take place during the months of May, June, and July, with some in November. Many were adapted by the Church in whole or in part from pagan festivals, and particular communities have further adapted them so that they have become traditional, localized mixtures of sacred and secular elements. Common to all the islands are the feasts of Christmas, Saint John, and Carnival. The oldest continuously celebrated festivities take place on the islands of Santiago and Fogo. In June Santiago celebrates tabanka, a feast of African origin. (The word tabanka means an association of mutual help or a brotherhood. Its original meaning, a small village, can still be found in Guinea-Bissau and other countries on the west coast of Africa, but was lost in Cape Verde because Africans On the occasion of the Feast of São João, a crowd surrounds the mastro, or mast, hoisted on this main street on Brava. The mast is decorated with specially baked breads as well as fruits, tree branches, and flowers. brought here were not allowed to live with members of their own ethnic groups.) Tabanka festivities begin in May, perhaps because this was the time, according to Cape Verdean ethnographer Félix Monteiro, when slave owners would concede certain liberties to their slaves. Today celebrants dress in costumes that envision a royal court society and play drums and the conch-shell horns characteristic of this event. During the period in which tabanka is celebrated, husbands and wives abstain from intimacy. Those who fail to obey any of the local rules of tabanka are punished. People's speech is also full of humor. The imperative of mirth is so strong that if someone dies during tabanka there is a special, strict funeral ritual; once they leave the cemetery, everyone must forget sadness, mourning, and death. Monteiro has observed that this religious ritual mixes Catholic and West African practices and beliefs. Of the many festivities in Cape Verde the batuku (batuque) deserves special mention. Usually composed of solo dancing and call-and-response singing by a women's chorus with a leader, the batuku tradition is today strongest on Santiago Island. But there are hints of its presence on almost every other island. Themes characteristic of the batuku appear in wedding songs, especially those of mockery, and songs of advice to the bride and groom to bid their single days farewell are also common in the islands, especially on S. Nicolau and S. Antão. On S. Nicolau until recently, a traditional wedding included a batuku performance, as we learn from a novelist's account: "Uncle Juca arrived the day before [the wedding] so he could participate in the batuku..." (from the famous Cape Verdean novel Chiquinho published in 1947 by Baltasar Lopes). The batuku from Santiago is the most typically African in style. It is composed essentially of two parts, the txabeta (tchabeta) and the finaçon. During the batuku the lead singer, usually a person of some respect in the group, takes command. First she dances slowly, setting the pace for the strong, rhythmic beat the batukaderas (batucaderas) keep by striking their palms on a bundled-up pano (sash cloth) held between their thighs. A dancer awaits in the middle of the circle formed by the batukaderas and at a certain moment after the beat is fully established and internalized by her, it's time for txabeta: the rhythm suddenly accelerates and the dancer keeps time with her hips. The finaçon consists of the singer's improvising verses about events and ideas of importance to the community: for example, the recent famine in Cape Verde that killed more than 50,000 people out of a population of about 200,000; and the recent labor contracts for work in the equatorial plantations of São Tomé that were the equivalent of slavery; or perhaps individual stories of mothers and daughters raped by slavemasters during bygone times of even greater difficulties. In the singing, the batukaderas answer the leader as a choir, which on S. Antão is called a baxon. In its content and context the batuku evokes initiation and wedding rituals. The elder leader can be understood as a matron, the most experienced woman, who executes the hip movements that suggest the sexual act and provoke the libido. Young girls, the badjudas, dance afterward, and their agile, sensual bodies awaken feelings in the old men around that remind them of their own love and marriage. For the young who watch, the dancer represents the desire for love. As she dances, the young girl closes her eyes and holds her hands in front her face in a gesture of wanting to be seen and appreciated while still intending to preserve her chastity and bashfulness. In the past only women danced this batuku. For many years it was forbidden to men — or if they danced they were considered sexually weak or perverted. In recent times the batuku has been elaborated by some artists into a form of social entertainment in which men perform as partners to the batukaderas (singer, choir, and dancers), not dancing with the hips but appealing to the female dancers with provocative words and gestures, beating a drum covered with fabric, and playing the 10-string guitar recently introduced to the tradition by Antonino Denti D’Oro. The largest festivity on Fogo occurs on May 1st, the saint’s day of Saint Philip (Nho São Filipe), who is the patron saint of that island. To São Filipe, Fogo’s largest city, on that day, the feast — one of the most elaborate in the entire archipelago — draws observers and participants from all over the country and the United States and Europe as well. As Monteiro observes, the cultural dimensions of these religious and secular celebrations, which are called bandeiras or “flags” on Fogo because banners are one of their important ritual symbols, show aspects of how people think about the contact between Europeans and Africans in Cape Verde. In separate sections of the city, celebrants attain equal enthusiasm. Families of higher status watch these celebrations from a balcony, a physical separation that gives material form to the barriers that formerly separated whites and blacks, and today separate the richer from the poorer classes. The Feast of São Filipe includes the ritual pounding of corn in a single large, ceremonial mortar by three pestle-wielding women accompanied by drumming and singing. It also includes the ritual slaughter of a lamb or goat for the supper of the kanizadi (kanizade) troupe of masqueraders as well as the erection of a mastro, a replica of a ship’s mast that is dressed with branches of the wild olive tree or the coconut palm. Imbued with a magical aura, the mastro is placed close by the entrance of a church, to the rhythms of drums, chants, and clapping. Many aspects of the ritual have African origins. The mastro can also be seen in the feasts of Santo António, Santo Andre, São Pedro, and São João on the islands of S. Antão and Brava. The ceremonial banners used in this event are also objects of ritual attention. After they are dipped in the sea and then blessed at a special mass in church, they are carried around the town by riding parties. To a certain extent, the roots of the flag ceremonial can be found in medieval displays of horsemanship. Each year someone assumes responsibility for caring for the flag and therefore for organizing and financing next year’s feast. In the days before independence, only men of the elite class could receive the flag. Today any man born on Fogo can take the flag as soon as he attains the financial means. Carnival is another important festivity in Cape Verde, as are the pilgrimages of São João, Saint Antonio, and Santa Cruz that take place in various islands at about the same time. There is also Nha Santa Catarina in the town of Assomada and Nossa Senhora da Graça, in Praia, both on Santiago. Every island has a patron saint and saint’s-day celebration. Some pilgrimage festivities are also related to the rites of sowing and of harvest. These rural festivities are all from the northern islands and are gradually dying out because rain is so irregular in Cape Verde. But many people still flock to many of these festivals, which are known as pilgrimages because people often walk long distances to attend them. One of these, the Feast of São João on Brava, combines elements from the Feast of São Filipe with those common to the northern or Barlavento (Windward) islands. During the high moments of these festivities, kola (cola) dancing breaks out — with movements and a pace similar to Portuguese folk dance, plus a gentle bump between two dancers’ navel regions. This form of dancing has also been documented in Angola and Brazil and in Portugal as early as the 17th century. These European-derived festivities had pagan influences in their own origins, dating from the first years of Christianity. The origins of these celebrations seem to lie in a combination of cult practices and agricultural rituals mixed with the ritual fulfillment of promises made to a saint. The chants contain traces of these extinct cults, such as orgiastic liturgies, allusions to sexual desire, and homage to the sun god. The festivities of São João are still very much alive in Cape Verde and feature drinking, eating, bathing at the beach, love songs, riddling, and fortune telling with eggs in water or with playing cards. A bonfire is lit on the eve of the feast to drive away bad spirits and prevent their influence on the land, the source of all wealth for the peasant. Young men and young women holding hands leap over these fires for good luck. Fortunes told speak of death, voyage, marriage, happiness, and love. On the eve of the São João feast, exploding rockets announce the start of the event. The drums the Portuguese brought from Europe invite people to dance the kola, and from tents people sell traditional foods like kanja (canja) (thick chicken soup) and strings of popcorn or peanuts, which are very much appreciated by the elderly and children and are taken home as mementos of pilgrimage. In these pilgrimages people offer the first fruits of harvest, which are sold to benefit the church. Such is the practice on S. Antão. On Brava the votive gifts are tied to the ceremonial mast and are eventually left for people to take as they please when the celebration ends. During the São João celebrations model ships carried by hand or worn as a costume voyage symbolically through the streets, stopping to demand gifts. The ship, like the gift-bearing mast, is a complex symbol, a combination of remembered historical periods in the popular mind. Ships are festooned with brightly colored banners; the Portuguese flag that once flew has been replaced by the national flag. Ships’ sails bear the Christian Cross of the Portuguese religious order that financed the expeditions of discovery. The ship’s harassment of bystanders for gifts represents the assault on the islands by pirate ships, carjenas, which regularly stole and carried away their wealth. On S. Antão the Feast of São João Batista is celebrated most notably in the towns of Porto Novo, Pombas, and Paúl and in the villages of Coculi, Garça, and Cha de Pedra. In their color, movement, and rich symbolic meaning Cape Verdean celebrations give material expression to important themes in local life, history, and popular thought. 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Audiation, Improvisation, and Music Learning Theory Christopher Azzara Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester Follow this and additional works at: https://opencommons.uconn.edu/vrme Recommended Citation Azzara, Christopher (2021) "Audiation, Improvisation, and Music Learning Theory," Visions of Research in Music Education: Vol. 16 , Article 14. Available at: https://opencommons.uconn.edu/vrme/vol16/iss2/14 Visions of Research in Music Education is a fully refereed critical journal appearing exclusively on the Internet. Its publication is offered as a public service to the profession by the New Jersey Music Educators Association, the state affiliate of MENC: The National Association for Music Education. The publication of VRME is made possible through the facilities of Westminster Choir College of Rider University Princeton, New Jersey. Frank Abrahams is the senior editor. Jason D. Vodicka is editor of the Quarterly historical reprint series. Chad Keilman is the production coordinator. The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning is reprinted with permission of Richard Colwell, who was senior consulting editor of the original series. Audiation, Improvisation, and Music Learning Theory By Christopher Azzara Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester Edwin Gordon’s music learning theory is an excellent model for understanding learning. While similar in some respects to other theories of music learning, it is not an application of other theories. Rather, it is an attempt to answer the question, “How do individuals learn music?” The answers to this question should provide the foundation for music education. The concept of audiation is at the heart of Gordon’s music learning theory. Audiation is to music what thought is to language.$^1$ In order to master a language, one must be able to think in that language. Likewise, in order to understand music, one must audiate music. Audiation takes place when one comprehends music for which the sound is not physically present. It is important to distinguish between audiation and imitation. To audiate is to think for oneself; imitation is quickly forgotten. Musicianship is fundamentally based on audiation. When we audiate, we give meaning to music that we read, write, create, and improvise. We audiate music we have heard, as well as music we are predicting. Audiation is not dichotomous; it is a matter of degree, not kind. The better one audiates, the more one is able to understand. You are what you hear. One of the essential elements of music learning theory is the audiation of tonal and rhythm patterns. We learn music similarly to how we learn language. Language has syntax. In language, we comprehend by organizing words. Music has syntax. We comprehend music when we audiate tonal and rhythm patterns and are able to combine and sequence them in a larger context. For example, one may internalize a sense of tonality and meter. To audiate is to understand, and the greater one’s understanding, the greater is the potential to appreciate music. We learn to audiate so that we can audiate to learn. With musical understanding, individuals can: 1) listen intelligently to music; 2) develop aesthetic sensitivity and appreciation through listening, improvisation, and performance; 3) develop the ability to communicate ideas, feelings, and emotions through improvisation, 4) listen to and participate in musical performances on varying levels of understanding commensurate with individual aptitude, achievement, and interest. What is Basic to Music Education? When specifying what is basic to music education, it is necessary to distinguish between musical behaviors and music-related behaviors. A musical behavior involves understanding based on audiation. Music-related behaviors can be described by activities such as identifying clefs or key signatures and knowing the time values of notes. Music educators should research, design, and incorporate curricula, methods, and teaching techniques relevant to both behaviors, but emphasis should be placed on teaching the content and audiation skills relevant to musical behaviors. Consider the high school graduate who can recognize a treble clef sign, tell you the names of the lines and spaces on the staff, and the time values of each of the notes. He reads on the title page that the piece was written by J. S. Bach, and he knows that Bach was a prolific Baroque composer. When asked to sing or audiate the music, however, he cannot. This individual cannot give meaning to the notation. Although not unimportant, music-related behaviors are not necessary to engage in a musical behavior; they are only necessary to talk about music. Individual Differences and the Learning Process Gordon’s music learning theory is a paradigm that is the result of creative research and critical thinking, and it provides direction and definition to educators and researchers. Music learning theory is not one method of teaching music. Rather, it is the outline of logical, fundamental principles for understanding music learning. Because of the open-ended nature of the paradigm, it lays the groundwork for a myriad of teaching and learning settings. Music instructors at all levels should have an understanding of the music learning process. Individuals bring their unique perspective to any situation; one’s world view is influenced by one’s specific life history. Understanding teachers and students in these terms is critical when considering any educational or research endeavor. Good teaching is not synonymous with exposure. Sadly, much of what is called teaching is simply exposure, and students are left to learn on their own. The teacher’s role becomes that of a disciplinarian. Yet, with an understanding of method, teachers know what to teach, when to teach it, and why it is taught. Techniques demonstrate how to teach. When teachers apply techniques based on method, they can improve instruction and are able to teach to the differences of individual students. Gordon’s music learning theory is a model for method, and method based on this theory suggests techniques for learning sequence activities and classroom activities. Music learning theory supplies a hierarchy of sequential objectives so that students can acquire a music vocabulary for understanding music. Skill learning sequence and content learning sequence are the fundamental dimensions of music learning theory. The skill learning sequence includes levels of discrimination and inference learning and their respective parts. In music learning theory, both rote and conceptual learning are emphasized. Discrimination learning is rote learning, and the student develops a vocabulary of familiar tonal and rhythmic patterns. During discrimination learning, the teacher gives the answers and teaches students to make comparisons. Perception is not learning; discrimination is learning. We learn what things are by what they are not. When we teach minor, students learn more about the nature of major. When we teach triple, students know more about the nature of duple. If everything is the same, there can be no inferences. Inference learning is conceptual learning, and students give meaning to unfamiliar tonal and rhythm patterns based on the familiar patterns which they learned by rote in discrimination learning. During inference learning, students teach themselves; teachers provide guidance. Just as skill learning moves sequentially, Gordon’s content learning sequence provides an orderly outline for tonal and rhythm content. Music skill and content are not mutually exclusive. Gordon (1989) states: “Skills cannot be learned unless they are taught in conjunction with tonal content or rhythm content, and tonal content and rhythm content cannot be learned unless they are taught in conjunction with a skill” (pp. 33-34). Measurement and Evaluation Identifying musical behaviors defined by audiation and teaching to individual differences with the aid of objective measurement tools are two critical components for exemplary teaching. The primary purpose for measurement and evaluation is to improve instruction and to teach to individual differences (Grunow & Gordon, 1989). Yet measurement and evaluation have been the subjects of much concern and criticism. Controversy exists over the application of and need for measurement and evaluation in music education. A lack of understanding by music educators has been the cause of much confusion and debate when designing curriculum and evaluating teaching effectiveness. Test interpretation should not be used to categorize students or as proof of good or bad teaching. Test scores should, however, be recognized as samples of behavior under certain conditions at certain times. As such, they provide objective scores upon which one can evaluate and help improve instruction and learning. An understanding of musical aptitude and music achievement and their implications is essential to any discussion of teaching to individual differences. Confusion exists concerning the difference between aptitude and achievement. Many vague terms, including “talent” and “ability,” also have been used in attempts to describe musicianship, resulting in more confusion. Aptitude is defined as the measure of one’s potential to learn, while achievement is what has actually been learned. An individual who demonstrates high achievement must display at least equally high aptitude, while an individual who possesses high aptitude will not necessarily demonstrate high achievement (Gordon, 1989). The value of testing is to improve teaching and learning experiences. Music aptitude is one’s potential to audiate: Everyone has music aptitude, and some students have the potential to achieve in music more than in other subjects (Grunow & Gordon, 1989). Just as techniques should be understood in terms of method, music achievement should be understood in terms of music aptitude. Measuring music achievement is the assessment of what a student has accomplished. It includes performance ability, aural skills, aural-visual skills, general musical knowledge, knowledge of music notation, composition skills, and improvisation skills. Creativity and Improvisation Since the mid-fifteenth century when the printing of music began, an ever-increasing emphasis has been placed on notation. Yet it is important to remember that notation is visual documentation for an aural art. Just as it is possible to read and understand the phrases on this page, it is possible to read and audiate notation. When performance includes audiation, meaningful expression takes place: Students give meaning to notation. Knowing how to create and improvise music is not a necessary readiness for reading music with meaning. Nevertheless, when students have the audiation skills necessary to improvise, the relationship between composition and performance is put into its proper perspective. The word “improvisation” has been used as a catch word to describe a variety of activities ranging from aleatoric exploration to unrestricted creativity. While creativity and improvisation are similar, there are important differences. Creativity involves less restrictions than improvisation. While improvisation is a creative activity, it is important to specify precisely what is meant by the word “improvisation.” A refined definition brings focus to activities and allows for a clearer understanding of improvisation’s role in musical education. Improvisation means that an individual has internalized (can audiate) a music vocabulary and is able to express intended musical ideas spontaneously. Students accrue an “audiation dictionary” from which to draw when engaging in improvisatory endeavors. Gordon states that without an ample amount of tonal and rhythm patterns in various tonalities and meters, students will only engage in aleatoric exploration. Audiation of various patterns crystallizes the difference between having to create something and having something to create (Gordon, 1989). Improvisation is not exclusive to jazz; opportunities to improvise in various settings should be provided. Individuals improvise daily in language when engaging in conversation. Yet, with the exception of some experiences in general music classes and various jazz ensembles, many students are never given the opportunity and encouragement necessary to improvise music with syntactical meaning. Developing improvisation skills involving audiation yields improvisation that is as natural and interactive as stimulating conversation. Many of today’s audience members are passive listeners. Many concert-goers attend more to the visual and acoustic aspects of a performance than to the aural/musical aspects. Music in many people’s lives is synonymous with ambience and entertainment. One of our goals as music educators should be to facilitate the development of independent music makers and active listeners. Aural understanding—audiation—and improvisatory experiences are at the root of accomplishing this goal. Future Needs and Implications Just as each culture has its language, each culture also has its music. Music class is the place to learn the understanding of music, just as English class is a place to understand English. If all students have some aptitude for music and many students, indeed, have the capacity to succeed in music more than in any other subject area, then all students should be provided with opportunities to develop the music knowledge and skills necessary to optimize music understanding. While technology and media continually change, audiation and the ability to create and improvise remain fundamental. Future research should involve an examination of the role and definition of improvisation and creativity in music education. An increased awareness of musical behaviors, the learning sequence process, method and related techniques, achievement in terms of aptitude, and the use of measurement and evaluation tools provides the practical foundation for good music instruction. Developing musicianship in terms of audiation provides for more meaningful performances and musically intelligent audiences. Music is a vital part of life; music educators have the opportunity to enhance the experience. Footnote 1. Statements in italics are published and unpublished quotes of Edwin Gordon. References Gordon, E. E. (1989). Learning sequences in music (5th ed.). Chicago: G. I. A. Publications, Inc. Grunow, Richard F. & Gordon, Edwin E. (1989) Jump right in: The instrumental series. Chicago: G. I. A. 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JOSEPHINE COUNTY Safe Routes to School Plan WILLIAMS A Plan to make walking and rolling to school a safe, fun, desirable activity WILLIAMS ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FINAL REPORT / JUNE 2022 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The following key people and their organizations participated in the Safe Routes to School (SRTS) Plan efforts. Their creativity, energy, and commitment were critical to the success of this Plan. CASEY ALDERSON Three Rivers School District ROB BRANDES Josephine County NEIL BURGESS Josephine County WENDY GIORDANO Three Rivers School District AMBER GUIENT Williams Library ERIC HEESACKER Josephine County JENNA MARMON Oregon Department of Transportation ROB SAUNDERS Three Rivers School District DAVID VALENZUELA Three Rivers School District # TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ........................................ ii Table of Contents ....................................... iii ## INTRODUCTION .................................. IV What is Safe Routes to School? .......................... 1 Student Benefits of Safe Routes to School ............ 3 Community Benefits of Safe Routes to School ....... 4 ODOT’s Project Identification Program .................. 5 The Williams SRTS Plan Process ......................... 5 Using this Plan ............................................. 6 ## VISION AND GOALS FOR SRTS .................. 8 Introduction .............................................. 9 Vision ..................................................... 9 Goals, Objectives, and Actions .......................... 10 SAFETY ................................................... 11 EQUITY ................................................... 11 ENVIRONMENT .......................................... 11 HEALTH ................................................... 11 A Community-Driven Planning Process ................. 12 ## EXISTING CONDITIONS .......................... 14 Introduction .............................................. 15 Williams Elementary School Safety Assessment ...... 16 Bike and Pedestrian Facilities Inventory ............... 18 ## NEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............ 24 Introduction .............................................. 25 Construction Project Recommendations ............... 26 Education and Encouragement Program Recommendations ........................................ 30 ## IMPLEMENTATION ................................. 36 Introduction .............................................. 37 Project Prioritization Process ........................... 38 High Priority Construction Projects ..................... 39 Next Steps ............................................... 41 ## APPENDICES ........................................ 42 Appendix A. For More Information ..................... 44 Appendix B. SRTS Talking Points ....................... 45 Appendix C. Planning Process ........................... 47 Appendix D. Existing Conditions ......................... 49 Appendix E. Funding and Implementation ............. 53 INTRODUCTION WHAT IS SAFE ROUTES TO SCHOOL? Safe Routes to School (SRTS) is a comprehensive program to make school communities safer by combining engineering tools and engagement with education about safety and activities to enable and encourage students to walk and roll to school. SRTS programs involve partnerships among municipalities, school districts, transit districts, parks and recreation districts, public health agencies, community members, parent volunteers, and community groups. The benefits of implementing a SRTS Plan include improving safety, increasing access, encouraging physical activity, and reducing traffic congestion and motor vehicle emissions near schools. Implementing SRTS programs and projects benefit adjacent neighborhoods as well as students and their families, by reducing traffic conflicts and enabling walking and rolling trips for all purposes. Learn more at: www.oregonsaferoutes.org_ Why Safe Routes to School? THE PROBLEM Within the span of one generation, the percentage of children walking or bicycling to school has decreased 73%. - 1969: 48% - 2009: 13% Children and adolescents should have 60 minutes (1 hour) or more of physical activity daily. Roads near schools are congested, decreasing safety and air quality for children. This movement away from active transportation is a self-perpetuating cycle. - Fewer students walking & biking to school - More parents driving children to school - Rising concerns about safety of walking & biking - Increased traffic at & around school THE SOLUTION Safe Routes to School programs and activities help overcome obstacles to walking, biking, and skating by improving safety and making it fun and convenient for everyone. SRTS education and encouragement programs can result in a 25% increase in walking and biking over five years. When education and encouragement programs are combined with infrastructure improvements, such as sidewalks and safe crossings, SRTS can result in a 45% increase in walking and biking. 1 mile of walking each way to school equals 2/3 of the daily recommended 60 minutes of physical activity. --- * McDonald, Noreen, Austin Brown, Lauren Marchetti, and Margo Pedroso. 2011. “U.S. School Travel 2009: An Assessment of Trends.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. + Centers for Disease Control. www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/children/index.htm McDonald, N., Steiner, R., Lee, C., Rhoulac Smith, T., Zhu, X., and Y. Yang. (2014). Impact of the Safe Routes to School Program on Walking and Bicycling. Journal of the American Planning Association. Student Benefits of Safe Routes to School Numerous studies have documented that Safe Routes to School projects and programs can lead to increased walking and bicycling activity among students. But why is it important for communities to make it safer and more convenient for students to walk and bike to school? INCREASED SAFETY FOR STUDENTS Even if some caregivers choose to drive their students to and from school, many families don’t have this option. Some families have no access to a vehicle and others have work schedules that don’t allow them to drop their students off or pick them up at school. When we provide critical SRTS improvements and education to our communities, we make it safer for these (and all) students to travel safely. REDUCTION IN ABSENCES AND TARDINESS Especially in historically-disadvantaged communities, lack of transportation can be a considerable barrier to attending school consistently. Programs such as Walking School Buses and Bike Trains provide alternative options for students to get to school on time, and ready to learn¹. HEALTHIER STUDENTS Because SRTS programs make it easier to walk, bike, skate, and scoot to school, they directly support increased physical activity for young people². Walking even one mile to school and one mile home gives a student about 40 minutes of physical activity – two-thirds of the recommended amount! IMPROVED ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Staying healthy and getting regular exercise have been shown to improve students’ academic performance. In one study, researchers found that after walking for 20 minutes, students responded to test questions with greater accuracy and had more brain activity than students who had been sitting. They also learned tasks faster and more accurately following this physical activity³. CLEANER AIR, FEWER ASTHMA COMPLICATIONS Increasing the number of students walking and biking to school means decreasing the number who have to rely on private vehicles. This improves air quality near schools, decreasing students’ exposure to pollution generated by idling vehicles and heavy traffic. GREATER CONFIDENCE When young people are able to navigate their neighborhood on their own, they build self-confidence and independence. They may also learn to read signs, monitor time, keep track of their belongings, and other valuable skills. STRONGER SOCIAL CONNECTIONS Arriving to school via Walking School Bus, Bike Train, or even just with a friend or sibling fosters community and builds social bonds. Especially when so many students face challenges like bullying and isolation, this opportunity to make connections can be extremely beneficial. --- 1 Attendance Works. “Springfield: Walking School Bus - Attendance Works.” Accessed August 22, 2016. http://www.attendanceworks.org/what-works/springfieldwalking-school-bus/. 2 Cooper et al., Commuting to school: Are children who walk more physically active? Amer Journal of Preventative Medicine 2003; 25 (4) 3 Hillman CH, Pontifex MB, Raine LB, Castelli DM, Hall EE, Kramer AF. The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience. 2009;159(3):1044–1054. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.01.057 Community Benefits of Safe Routes to School Students and their families are not the only ones who benefit when we encourage and enable young people to walk or bike to school safely. In many ways, Safe Routes to School benefits the whole community. Communities that prioritize active transportation can see improvements such as: REDUCED TRAFFIC CONGESTION Reducing the number of families commuting to school in private vehicles reduces traffic around the school. This means improved circulation for people driving, as well as safer conditions for pedestrians and bicyclists. As more people feel comfortable walking and bicycling, this can also foster an environment where community members see active transportation as a viable option and priority, leading to additional shift from driving to active modes. STRONGER SENSE OF COMMUNITY Opportunities for social connection and a greater sense of community increase as students and parents participate in collective active transportation (such as Walking School Buses) or get to know neighbors while out walking or biking. Additionally, the common goal of improving conditions for walking and bicycling can bring families, neighbors, school officials and community leaders together. SAFER STREETS** As the use of private vehicles increases, crash rates tend to increase$^1$. Conversely, when higher numbers of people are able to walk and bike safely, communities can see a decrease in crashes. More people engaged in active transportation can also improve personal security and the perception of safety by providing more “eyes on the street.” --- $^1$ Litman, Todd and Fitzroy, Steven (2021), Safe Travels: Evaluating Transportation Demand Management Traffic Safety Impacts, Victoria Transport Policy Institute LOWER COSTS Encouraging and enabling bicycle and pedestrian trips reduces costs for families, communities and school districts. Families save on gas, while communities spend less on building and maintaining roads. Meanwhile, school districts spend less on busing students who live within walking distance of schools. IMPROVED ACCESSIBILITY When communities prioritize infrastructure improvements and make walking and biking to school safer, all community members benefit. Improved facilities make it easier for all people to get around, including parents with strollers, senior citizens, residents without cars, and residents with temporary or permanent mobility impairments. ECONOMIC GAINS Studies show that businesses in neighborhoods that are walking and bicycle friendly see more business and higher sales$^2$. --- $^2$ Rodney Tolley (2011), Good For Busine$$ - The Benefits Of Making Streets More Walking And Cycling Friendly, Heart Foundation South Australia ODOT’s Project Identification Program Josephine County, ODOT Region 3 representatives, and the school community worked with ODOT’s SRTS Technical Assistance Providers – Alta Planning + Design and the Central, Eastern and Southern Regional SRTS Hub – to complete this SRTS Plan. This SRTS Plan supports Oregon’s statewide SRTS construction (infrastructure) and education/engagement (non-infrastructure) efforts. The Project Identification Program (PIP) Process is an Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) technical grant program that connects communities in Oregon with Planning assistance to identify needs and opportunities near one or more schools, focusing on streets within a quarter-mile of the school, as well as critical issues within a mile of the school.* The goals of the PIP process are: • To engage school partners in identifying and prioritizing projects that will improve walking and bicycling routes to schools. • To identify and refine specific projects that are eligible for the ODOT SRTS Infrastructure Grants and prepare jurisdictions to apply for the funding. The Williams SRTS Plan Process - For more information on the program, visit: www.oregon.gov/ODOT/Programs/Pages/SRTS-Project-Identification-Program.aspx - The COVID-19 pandemic impacted the timeline and approach to the planning process. A detailed summary of this process is included in Appendix C. - Final SRTS Plans can be found at www.OregonSafeRoutes.org Using this Plan This Plan lays the foundation for schools, the community, local public agency staff and ODOT to work together on reducing barriers for students walking and biking to school. These recommendations include both long- and short-term construction improvements as well as education and encouragement program recommendations. It should be noted that not all of these projects and programs need to be implemented right away to improve the environment for walking and bicycling to school. Some projects will require more time, support, and funding than others. It is important to achieve shorter-term successes while laying the groundwork for progress toward some of the larger and more complex projects. WHO ARE YOU? Each partner has a key role to play in contributing to this Plan’s success. I AM A STUDENT • Practice and encourage safe walking and rolling to, from, and near school • Participate in a Walking School Bus or another education/encouragement idea identified in Chapter 4 • Promote SRTS activities through artwork or school projects Student submission to Oregon Safe Routes to School Walk + Roll Fall Art Contest, 2021 I AM A CAREGIVER • Understand the conditions at your student’s school in Chapter 2 to plan a walking/rolling route or advocate for improvements. • Help implement many of the educational and encouragement programs suggested in Chapter 4. • Support fundraising for projects and programs (see Appendix E). I WORK FOR THE SCHOOL DISTRICT • Distribute information about walking and rolling safely, and SRTS talking points in Appendix B to caregivers and the school community. • Tackle the SRTS objectives and actions from Chapter 2 that are relevant to the School District and develop Chapter 4 programs that educate and encourage students and caregivers to seek alternatives to single family commutes to school. • Prioritize facility improvements on District property. • Work with multiple schools, sharing information and bringing efficiencies to programs at each school working on SRTS. I AM A TEACHER OR OTHER STAFF MEMBER • Include bicycle and pedestrian safety in lesson plans and school curriculum (see Chapter 4 and Appendix B). • Arrange field trips within walking distance of school and teach lessons about safety along the way. • Be positive and encourage students and families to try walking and rolling! I AM A COMMUNITY MEMBER • Learn about walking and bicycling conditions in your neighborhood and how a SRTS program can improve them (see Chapter 2). • Participate as an advocate to support education and encouragement programs (see Chapter 4). I WORK FOR THE CITY OR COUNTY • Identify citywide issues and opportunities related to walking and bicycling and to prioritize construction improvements provided in Chapter 4. • Pursue funding for improvements, using sources listed in Appendix E. I WORK FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT • Raise awareness of traffic rules, focusing on key SRTS locations that have a history of crashes. • Focus on traffic safety education, rewarding positive behavior, and supporting school walk and bike events. Be mindful of strategies that may disproportionately and negatively affect children and families of color, low wealth, or marginalized populations. I WORK IN PUBLIC HEALTH • Identify specific opportunities to collaborate with schools and local governments to support safety improvements and encourage healthy behaviors (see Chapter 4). VISION AND GOALS FOR SRTS INTRODUCTION This chapter includes an overall vision as well as specific actions that County, City, and school leadership can take to support SRTS. It also includes an overview of the public input process that shaped this Plan. Vision The Williams community envisions a future where students and their families safely, comfortably, and conveniently walk and bicycle as part of the daily school commute and a healthy lifestyle. Goals, Objectives, and Actions The ODOT SRTS PIP team suggested overall goals to support SRTS in the areas of health, safety, equity, or the environment. Participants in the Williams PIP process selected Safety as the main priority for this plan. A summary of community engagement activities is included in the following section. The following are specific recommended objectives and actions based on the community-identified goals, as well as community input from the walk audit and data collected throughout the PIP process. Actions may relate to achieving more than one goal, but each action is only listed once. SAFETY Goal: Increase safety for families traveling to school, including perceptions of safety, since perceived barriers can have a real impact on whether parents allow their students to walk or bike. Objective 1: Students are able to walk and bike to and from campus, between schools, and to homes within a quarter-mile of the school. • Action: Josephine County will apply to the ODOT Competitive SRTS Infrastructure Grant for infrastructure improvements, outlined in Chapter 4. Objective 2: Safe walking or biking access is available to all families within one mile of the schools. • Action: Josephine County will begin implementing recommendations as funds for capital improvements become available. Objective 3: Pedestrian and bicycle safety education is available to students in Williams. • Action: Three Rivers School District will consider applying for ODOT grant funding to hire a SRTS coordinator who could lead education and encouragement events and activities at these and other schools in the district. EQUITY Goal: Increase access and opportunity to walk and bike to school for all residents, with a particular focus on transportation-disadvantaged populations. Objective 1: Engage with families from historically-disadvantaged groups to hear and learn about their barriers to students walking or biking to school. • Action: Williams Elementary will provide SRTS information and educational materials in English and Spanish. • Action: Williams Elementary will consider how to overcome barriers such as parent work schedules and transportation limitations to enable all parents to participate in SRTS programs and activities. Objective 2: Prioritize infrastructure and non-infrastructure improvements that connect underserved or low-income communities to schools and improve access for students walking, biking, and taking transit to school campuses. • Action: If the District implements a SRTS Education and Outreach Program, the program will work to include lower income students, those with mobility challenges, Spanish-speaking students, and students from other historically marginalized groups. ENVIRONMENT Goal: Increase environmental health near schools, including air and water quality Objective 1: Reduce congestion and air pollution near the school campus. • Action: Josephine County will work to provide a safe path to improve travel options for people walking and rolling to school. HEALTH Goal: Increase student access to physical activity and reduce emissions near schools. Objective 1: The school community supports families using active and shared transportation to access school and reach nearby destinations. • Action: Three Rivers School District will consider adopting SRTS-supportive language in school wellness policy. • Action: Williams Elementary will share relevant health statistics and messages in school newsletters, back to school night, or through other communication channels. A Community-Driven Planning Process The vision, goals, objectives and actions provided here, as well as the detailed construction project and programmatic recommendations to follow in Chapter 4, were shaped by community input. Community-group representatives and community members had the opportunity to participate in the SRTS planning process and provide feedback in the following ways: • Participation on the Project Management Team (PMT) • Participation in a school walk audit • Participation in a virtual or in-person community meeting • Virtual feedback using the online Public Input Map and survey Josephine County and Williams Elementary School worked to spread the word about the community meetings, as well as the online Public Input Map and survey. COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT KEY THEMES In general, participants who engaged with the Williams SRTS planning process were most interested in seeing the construction of a path to provide a safe route between the school and the library. This has been a community goal for many years. Other than this path, residents also expressed: • Appreciation for the RRFBs that had been installed along Williams Hwy and Cedar Flat Rd by the County • Concern about the speeds of freight vehicles traveling past the elementary school and some vehicles not stopping at the stop sign at E Fork Rd and Williams Hwy. This page intentionally left blank. 03 EXISTING CONDITIONS INTRODUCTION This chapter summarizes the key challenges and opportunities for families accessing schools by walking or bicycling that this Plan seeks to address. The following pages provide contextual information for each of the schools, as well as key themes documented during the walk audits and through community and partner input. A detailed summary of the planning process and activities that took place to support this Plan is included in Appendix C. Previous planning processes and additional data informed the existing conditions documented in this chapter. Williams Elementary School Safety Assessment Date of Site Visit: February 17th, 2022 SCHOOL LAYOUT Williams Elementary School is a public school located in the unincorporated community of Williams. The school is on the east side of Williams Hwy, which is the major thoroughfare through town. This route connects to Grants Pass to the north. Williams Hwy accommodates freight traffic, which means large trucks are among the vehicles passing through the community regularly. The only public library for about 20 miles is located north of the school property on Tetherow Rd. It is important to facilitate library access for students and other Williams community members. Because Williams is so rural, many Williams Elementary School families do not have access to cell phone service, television or internet services. The library and school provide these families with important educational resources they may not have otherwise, including early childhood development programs for preschool families, free after school enrichment, and a music program. SITE CIRCULATION Vehicles: Vehicles enter the school’s driveway from E Fork Rd Ave, near the intersection of Williams Hwy. They circle north past the school’s main entrance, where vehicle loading and unloading occur, and take a left to exit back onto Williams Hwy. There is also parking directly in front of the main entrance, as well as along the west edge of the parking lot. This parking lot is unpaved. School Buses: Buses enter the school grounds from the south entrance, similar to private vehicles, but at the north end of the parking lot, they take a right at the small circular bus loading area, located at the north end of the building. After loading or unloading, buses complete the circle and exit onto Williams Hwy. SCHOOL CONTEXT: Williams Elementary 20691 WILLIAMS HWY PRINCIPAL: Steve Fuller ENROLLMENT: 81 GRADES SERVED: K-5 95% of students eligible for free or reduced lunch DEMOGRAPHICS* - White, non-Hispanic, 79% - Multiracial, 10% - Hispanic, 9% - American Indian/Alaska Native, 2% TOP 5 LANGUAGES SPOKEN BY STUDENTS IN DISTRICT** - English 5,082 - Spanish 123 - Chinese 5 - Russian 5 - Hebrew 5 Total Languages Spoken: 24 Source: Oregon Department of Education 2019–2020 school year Source: Oregon Department of Education 2018–2019 school year Williams Elementary School Site Plan Pedestrians/Bicycles/Micromobility: At present, few students walk or roll to school, since the major road is a deterrent for families. However, there is an informal path along the east side of Cedar Flat Rd, which allows people walking to avoid the vehicle travel lane. There are improved street crossings on Cedar Flat Rd and Williams Hwy that make students crossing the road more visible, but these crossings do not connect to pedestrian facilities. Transit: No transit currently serves the immediate surrounding area of the school. PREVIOUS SRTS EFFORTS OR WALKING/BIKING ENCOURAGEMENT ACTIVITIES Williams Elementary School has not participated in SRTS events or activities in previous years. The school parking lot is unpaved. Parents and caregivers park either in front of the school or against the west fence. Parents and caregivers drop off and pick up students at the main entrance to the school building. The existing crossing north of the school parking lot exit has up-to-date school crossing signage. There are School Xing pavement markings and School Zone signage with flashing beacons located north and south of the school. Buses use the circular drive at the north end of the parking lot. Residents feel that the existing crossing of Cedar Flat Rd may not be necessary, as it does not connect to any pedestrian facilities. Key Themes - There are no established pedestrian facilities to access Williams Elementary School. - There is a major intersection directly adjacent to the school. The intersection of Cedar Flat Rd/E Fork Rd/Williams Hwy has crosswalks that are faded, poorly lit, and do not provide direct access to the school. - Community residents report that people driving often travel through the intersection of E Fork Rd and Williams Hwy at 45 mph or faster, despite the school zone speed limit of 20 mph. Additionally, drivers do not come to a complete stop at the E Fork Rd slip lane before merging onto Williams Hwy. - There is an opportunity to reconfigure the intersection to be more efficient for drivers and safer for pedestrians. - School staff have expressed concerns over the circulation patterns in the gravel parking lot. Paving the lot and striping to designate drop-off, parking, and travel routes would improve safety and efficiency during student drop-off and pick-up. School staff report vehicles failing to stop at the stop sign at the intersection of E Fork Rd and Williams Hwy. There is a hand-painted School Zone reminder in the center of the intersection of E Fork Rd and Williams Hwy. There is no marked crossing where Bermar Circle and Williams Hwy intersect. At this point there is no pedestrian facility south of Bermar Circle, but if one were to be installed, a crossing may be necessary. At the north end, the road connects to Tetherow Rd, where the library building is located, as well as the post office and other businesses. There is an existing gravel road through two private commercial properties. Property owners allow residents to use this low-speed, low-traffic path, so it provides an off-highway alternative for students and families who walk and bike. At the south end, this road connects to Bermar Circle, where the business’ parking lot is located. This is a County-owned road. The library is located on the north side of Tetherow Rd, so students using the gravel road would have to cross Tetherow to reach the building. There is currently no marked crossing at Tetherow Rd. There is a large drainage ditch along the north side of Tetherow Rd, in front of the library. To cross this ditch, there is a small bridge near the intersection with Williams Hwy. However, additional pedestrian bridges may need to be provided if a new crossing is installed. There is no marked crossing at the intersection of Williams Hwy and Tetherow Rd. There are also no pedestrian facilities along Tetherow Rd. This page intentionally left blank. 04 NEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS INTRODUCTION This chapter outlines recommendations for construction projects as well as education and encouragement programs that address the issues identified in Chapter 3. Changes to the streetscape are essential to making walking and rolling to school safer and more comfortable. Infrastructure improvements make it safer and more comfortable for families to walk and bike to school – and benefit everyone who travels to school and through the school area. In addition, education and encouragement programs are a necessary component of any successful SRTS Plan. Often, programs that get more youth walking and rolling lead to increased public support for infrastructure projects – they can be an important first step towards building out the physical elements that make walking, biking, and rolling safer and more comfortable. Also, relative to many construction projects, most education and encouragement programs are very low cost. The recommendations for construction projects and education and encouragement programs contained in this chapter were informed by existing conditions and input from school and district staff, caregivers, students, community members, and city and county staff, and are tailored to meet the needs and interests of the school community. Construction Project Recommendations Construction project recommendations are shown and described on the following pages. The map on the following page is a guide to the location of recommendations described in detail in Table 1. This Plan does not represent a comprehensive list of every project that could improve conditions for walking and bicycling in the neighborhood. Instead, it calls attention to key conflict points and potential improvements near the schools. Recommendations range from simple striping changes and signing to more significant changes to the streets, intersections, and school infrastructure. All construction projects need to be reviewed and designed by engineers and approved by the local road authority. The recommendations are categorized into implementation timelines based on existing conditions, input from local partners, readiness of the school or community to accomplish the recommendation, resources available and other factors: - Short term: within a year - Medium term: 1–3 years - Long term: 3–5 years Implementation takes place continuously over time, with cooperation amongst partners and often, new sources of funding. Appendix F lists a variety of funding sources that can be used to implement the recommendations outlined in this section. PEDESTRIAN FACILITY OPTIONS Pedestrian facilities offer an alternative solution to create safe space for people walking and rolling. In rural contexts, complete sidewalks with curb and gutter can prove cost prohibitive. Pedestrian facilities include temporary or permanent solutions that are appropriate on roads with low to moderate speeds and volumes. A pedestrian lane, for example, is a designated space on the roadway for exclusive use of pedestrians.$^1$ The lane may be on one or both sides of the roadway and can fill gaps between important destinations in a community. Other types of pedestrian facilities include curb or bollard-protected shoulders, striped buffers, or curb-protected sidewalks. Importantly, these facilities should still include tactile strips and remain ADA-accessible. BENEFITS* - Provide a stable surface off of the roadway for pedestrians to use when sidewalks or side paths are deemed impractical or otherwise undesirable. - Can provide visual indication of prioritized connection to community amenity. - Require minimal roadside infrastructure and no impacts to stormwater management if existing pavement is used. - May reduce “walking along roadway” crashes. - Lack the built curb and gutter infrastructure of a sidewalk. See Appendix E for examples. $^1$ Small Town and Rural Design Guide. Center for Prevention at Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Minnesota. https://ruraldesignguide.com/introduction WILLIAMS ELEMENTARY IMPROVEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS Street Improvement Pedestrian Facility Improvement Crossing Improvement Other Improvement Railroad School Property Parks Water City Boundary \| Rec # \| Recommendation \| Timeline \| Agency Responsible \| \|-------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------\|-----------------------------\| \| 01 \| Pave parking area and paint parking stalls and define pick up and drop off circulation. Optional: Stripe angled parking on the west side of the parking lot (where existing perpendicular parking is located). Remove parking in front of the school building, and install pedestrian facility along the west and north sides of the school. Use pavement markings to delineate a queuing area for parents to pick up students without parking. \| Long term \| Three Rivers School District \| \| 02 \| Install bike parking for students. \| Long term \| Three Rivers School District \| \| 03 \| Improve existing Williams Highway crosswalk north of the school to include high-visibility continental crosswalk markings and ensure ADA compliance. Add illumination. Install RRFB at crosswalk(s). \| Medium term \| Josephine County \| \| 04 \| Add a pedestrian facility on the west side of Williams Hwy from Cedar Flat Rd to Tetherow Rd. (Site of the library.) \| Medium term \| Josephine County \| \| 05 \| Consider adding a traffic circle to slow traffic flow. \| Short term \| Josephine County \| \| 06 \| Improve existing E Fork Rd crosswalk near the school to include high-visibility continental crosswalk markings. Improve illumination. Add RRFB at crosswalk(s). \| Short term \| Josephine County \| \| 07 \| Improve existing Cedar Flat Rd crosswalk near the school to include high-visibility continental crosswalk markings and ensure ADA compliance. Add illumination. Install RRFB at crosswalk(s) if/when sidewalks are present. \| Short term \| Josephine County \| \| 08 \| Add a pedestrian facility on the southeast side of Cedar Flat Rd. \| Long term \| Josephine County \| \| 09 \| Add a pedestrian facility on the north side of Tetherow Rd to provide access to the library and community site to the east. Add a pedestrian facility on the south side of Tetherow Rd between the gravel path (Strictly Medicinal) and Williams Hwy. \| Medium term \| Josephine County \| \| Rec # \| Recommendation \| Timeline \| Agency Responsible \| \|-------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------\|--------------------\| \| 10 \| Install a high-visibility continental crosswalk between the post office on the south side and the library entrance on the north side. \| Medium term\| Josephine County \| \| 11 \| Install a pedestrian crossing to facilitate access over the drainage ditch on the north side of Tetherow Rd and onto the library property. \| Long term \| Josephine County \| Education and Encouragement Program Recommendations The programs outlined in this section are intended to increase awareness, understanding, and excitement for walking and rolling to school. Table 2 includes additional details about each recommended program including a brief description, suggested leads, timeline, and resources. Suggested walking routes were also developed with project partners, based on community input and findings from the bike and pedestrian facility inventory. The Suggested Route Map provided on page 31 illustrates the future network of suggested routes for students and families to consider when planning how to walk and bike to school. It also provides a School Commute network for the City to focus future infrastructure investments along the most important routes to school. The Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) SRTS Program provides technical assistance to support local SRTS efforts. This support includes: 1. Coordination between practitioners through Regional Hubs (see call-out below) https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/contact 2. Trainings and resource guides, which can be found on the Oregon SRTS website https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/resources/ 3. Incentives, activities, and messaging for monthly Walk+Roll events https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/walkroll/ 4. Bicycle and pedestrian safety trainings and a loaner bike fleet – coming in 2022 Learn more and keep in touch by signing up for the ODOT SRTS Newsletter: https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/ CONNECT WITH YOUR ODOT SRTS REGIONAL HUB COORDINATOR The ODOT SRTS Program can provide free resources, materials, and guidance to implement education and encouragement programs. The ODOT SRTS Education team is working in parallel with the Construction team to help communities across the state implement education and encouragement efforts. The team holds Regional Hub meetings to discuss statewide and regional SRTS strategies and efforts. Regional Hub Coordinators are a resource for local SRTS coordinators and regions without a coordinator to help create and sustain successful SRTS programs. SRTS champions or involved staff in or near Cave Junction are a part of the Central, Eastern and Southern Regional SRTS Hub. Register for the meetings and office hours here or fill out the contact form to be connected with your Regional Hub Coordinator. Review Table 2 to identify educational and encouragement priorities and discuss with the Regional Hub Coordinator. The purpose of the Suggested Routes Map is to encourage students and families to consider walking and biking to school and to provide a network for the County to focus future SRTS infrastructure investments along the most important routes to school. The consultant team created the maps with input from walk audit participants and findings from the bike and pedestrian facility inventory. SUGGESTED WALKING AND BIKING ROUTES - Suggested Route - Railroad - School Property - Parks - Water - City Boundary Document: N-Shares PROJECT (180209-06-2020-0223) ODOT SRTS Assistance 3. GIS/WXO/ODOT SRTS PIP Maps/Project/06-2020-0223_ODOT SRTS_PIP_Maps/map_11192021 Data Sources: Oregon Spatial Data Library, Crash Analysis and Reporting Unit, ODOT \| Activity \| Responsible Party \| Description (Additional details provided on following page) \| Timeline \| Resources Needed \| Inclusion Considerations \| Measures of Success \| \|-----------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Parent Education and Outreach \| Williams Elementary School \| Travel safety tips for parents aimed at people walking, biking, driving, or riding the bus. \| Short term \| Seasonal travel tips for school communications, flyer \| Provide materials in Spanish, or other languages as needed. \| Feedback from families; observations from school leadership \| \| Safe Routes to School Coordinator Position \| Three Rivers School District \| Consider applying for funding for a Safe Routes to School Coordinator for Josephine County through the ODOT Competitive Education Grant. \| Short term \| Example job description and application materials \| Include in the scope of this grant funds for translation of materials and programs where necessary \| Receipt of funding from ODOT, and hiring of a SRTS Coordinator \| \| Pedestrian and Bike Safety Education \| SRTS Coordinator (if applicable), Williams Elementary School \| Work through after-school programs or within existing education curriculum (where possible) to provide pedestrian and bicycle safety education to students. Place a particular emphasis on safe crossing behavior and route planning. \| Medium term \| Travel Safety Hand-out, messaging, curriculum \| Focus on walking and biking safely in students’ neighborhoods or on field trips, even if not near the school. \| Number of students participating; feedback from families \| \| Community School Safety Campaign \| Williams Elementary School \| A school zone safety campaign can be used to share simple safety messages and increase the visibility of the school zone. \| Medium term \| Outreach materials \| Provide materials in Spanish, or other languages as needed. \| Feedback from families; observations from school leadership \| PARENT EDUCATION AND OUTREACH Parents are the primary decision-makers about how their students get to school. Informing parents about their options for walking and bicycling, as well as communicating the benefits of active transportation, can encourage more families to walk and bike. This can occur through school e-news or announcements, and other informational resources. After high-priority construction recommendations are implemented, suggested route maps can show parents the best walking or biking route to the school and help overcome concerns about barriers. Resources include: - The Oregon SRTS website has a host of safety tips for parents who are interested in their student walking and biking to school. Also, sign up for the newsletter to get current materials and seasonal safety tips. - The National Center for SRTS offers tools and training to provide communities the technical support they need to make community-enhancing decisions. SAFE ROUTES TO SCHOOL COORDINATOR POSITION A designated individual who is tasked with coordinating and championing Safe Routes to School can greatly increase the likelihood of program success. A SRTS coordinator is usually charged with scheduling, publicizing, and administering SRTS programming, including encouragement events, educational activities, safety campaigns, Walking School Buses and Bike Trains for students and their families. This person is also responsible for coordinating between various involved jurisdictions, community groups, and community stakeholders to promote SRTS as a priority. Funding for SRTS Coordinators is available through ODOT’s competitive Education Grant process, as well as some regional and local governments. Safety Tips for Walking and Biking Use the Crosswalk Always cross at corners or at marked crosswalks. This is where drivers expect to see you. Look and Listen before You Cross Look left, right, and left again before crossing a street or driveway. Look over your shoulder for turning cars. Listen for traffic. A car may be behind a parked car, tree, or other obstacle. Make Eye Contact Don’t wear headphones while walking or biking. Make eye contact with people driving before leaving the curb or edge of the road. Be Visible Wear bright colored clothing or reflective gear. Bright colors are more visible during the day and light colors are more visible at night. Use a headlamp or a flashlight to be sure you’re seen. Be aware of seasonal time changes. Use Sidewalks when Available Walk facing oncoming traffic if there is no sidewalk so you can see cars coming toward you. Follow the Rules Follow directions from crossing guards and pay attention to traffic signs and signals. Be Predictable Obey all stop signs, traffic signals, and instructions from crossing guards. Never cut off on traffic. Use hand signals when crossing a road to let others know where you’re going. Decide as a family or group whether to ride on the street or sidewalk. Be Alert Watch for vehicles turning left or right or coming out of driveways. Avoid car doors opening in front of you and yield to pedestrians. Don’t wear headphones or talk on a cell phone while biking. Wear Your Helmet Make sure that it fits properly, snug and level on your head, yet above your eyebrows. Be Visible Wear bright colored clothing or reflective gear. Bright colors are more visible during the day and light colors are more visible at night and night. Use a front bike light and rear reflector to be sure you’re seen. Make Eye Contact Make sure drivers see you, especially at intersections and driveways. Lock Your Bicycle When you get to school, lock your bike to a bike rack on campus. If there isn’t one, lock your front wheel and the bike frame to the rack. TRAFFIC SAFETY CAMPAIGN A school traffic safety campaign can share simple safety messages and increase the visibility of the school zone and families traveling in the area. Focus outreach during back to school time, as the weather turns and time changes in the late fall, and during the early spring months, to address seasonal visibility issues. Resources include: - The Oregon SRTS website has a host of [banners, brochures, and other materials](#) that schools can use to raise drivers’ awareness of students traveling in a school area. Order materials from the ODOT [Storeroom](#) and check the [www.oregonsaferoutes.org](#) website for current incentives and outreach materials available. - The [Drive Like It](#) campaign offers yard signs, safety kits, and other materials with a simple, clear message. PEDESTRIAN AND BIKE SAFETY EDUCATION Pedestrian and bike safety education teaches students basic traffic laws and safety rules. Lessons are usually during PE classes or after school and may be one-time Bike Rodeos or multi-day courses. Resources include: - The ODOT SRTS [Neighborhood Navigators 2.0 Curriculum](#) includes a flexible in-class and on-bike Walk and Roll Safety Education lesson Plans and workbooks. The ODOT SRTS technical assistance team are piloting bike fleets and new Train-the-Trainer materials in 2022. Sign up for the Oregon SRTS newsletter or join the Regional Hub meetings to learn when these will launch. - Oregon SRTS provides [curriculum for activities and lessons](#) that teach the knowledge and skills necessary to be safe road users, including bike and pedestrian [education videos](#). - The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration offers a [child pedestrian safety curriculum](#) and [Cycling Skills Clinic Guide](#) to help organizations plan bike safety skills events. WALKING SCHOOL BUS/BIKE TRAIN In a walking school bus, a group of students walks together to school, accompanied by one or two adults (usually parents or guardians of the students on the “bus”). As the walking school bus continues on the route to school, they pick up students at designated meeting locations. Similar to walking school buses, bike trains involve a group of students biking together with adults. Bike trains and walking school buses for elementary school students are typically led by a parent, however, middle school students can become leaders, act as role models, and practice and teach safe bicycling behaviors. Bike trains may be more appropriate for middle school students, as they enable students to feel independent in their mobility, while also providing the safety and comfort of riding in a group. ODOT’s SRTS Website has resources and tips to get started, including a 2021 webinar on the topic. WALK + ROLL TO SCHOOL DAYS Walk+Roll events encourage and celebrate students walking and rolling to school. Keep the momentum going year-round with ODOT SRTS’ monthly themes: September: Back to School October: International Walk to School Day November: Ruby Bridges Walk to School February and March: Winter Walk+Roll April: Earth Month May: Bike Month Parents can set up a table on the event day to provide refreshments and small rewards for families who participate, as well as maps, lights, and safety information to encourage more students and families to join in the fun. Even families who live too far from school to walk and bike can participate by driving to a designated central location and walking together from there. Coffee and breakfast can be provided, and students can dress up or hold posters to make a fun, parent-supervised parade to school. Walks could also take place as a part of another health-related event or to benefit a cause. Resources include: - Schools in Oregon can order incentives to support and promote Walk + Roll to School Day. - King County Metro in the Seattle area has a Tool Kit with resources to plan a Walk + Roll to School Day event. - Walk and Bike to School suggests event ideas and Planning resources for encouraging active transportation at schools. - The National Center for SRTS maintains a national database of walk and bike to school day events, as well as event ideas and Planning resources. 05 IMPLEMENTATION INTRODUCTION This chapter identifies high priority projects and provides guidance for implementation, including information about the ODOT SRTS Competitive Grants. One of the goals of the PIP Process is to identify and refine specific projects that are eligible for the ODOT SRTS Infrastructure Grant and prepare jurisdictions to apply for the funding. This chapter describes the community-driven process to prioritize recommendations for the Competitive ODOT SRTS Infrastructure Grant Application, as well as additional project-related details that will be needed to complete the application. Project Prioritization Process Walk audit and community meeting participants provided feedback on how actions and recommendations should be prioritized in their community on a sliding scale of “Not Important” to “Very Important”. This exercise requires thinking about trade-offs between different goals and actions. Participants generally felt that most of the prioritization measures were quite important to consider for SRTS projects in the community. Participants found safety to be the most important factor, while also recognizing that equity, student density, and proximity to school was essential when considering projects. Participants discussed the trade-offs between feasibility and safety, deciding that they would be interested in looking at both short-term highly-feasible improvements but also considering a long-term approach that maximized safety. Prioritization Criteria How should we prioritize projects in your community? SAFETY Projects should be prioritized based on how unsafe a road is, looking at factors such as speed, traffic volumes, number of lanes, crossing distance or history of crashes. PROXIMITY TO SCHOOL Projects should be prioritized based on their distance from a school. EQUITY Projects should be prioritized based on their ability to support walking and biking for all students regardless of age, ability, race, or income. COMMUNITY-IDENTIFIED NEED Projects should be prioritized because they were identified through school or community engagement, parent/caregiver feedback, or during another Planning process. STUDENT DENSITY Projects should be prioritized based on their proximity to current and future students and families. FEASIBILITY Projects should be prioritized based on their location on or along a street that is already planned for improvements, their cost, or other feasibility measures that make them most achievable in the short term. Prioritization criteria identified as the most important to the community High Priority Construction Projects The following are top priority improvements recommended for the Competitive ODOT SRTS Infrastructure Grant Application. These projects were chosen due to their emphasis on safety, proximity to school, and ability to serve a large number of students walking and biking both to and from and between schools, as well as the County’s ability to influence their improvement. Josephine County will be the relevant party to prepare the Competitive ODOT SRTS IN Grant and ODOT Community Path Applications for these projects. Table 3 (page 39) provides a planning-level cost estimate for each recommendation to the City. Table 4 (page 40) provides additional project-specific information needed for ODOT grant applications. \| PROJECT DESCRIPTION \| PLANNING-LEVEL COST ESTIMATE \| \|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------\| \| Analysis of Williams Hwy / E Fork Rd / Cedar Flat Rd Intersection Revisions \| \| \| Traffic Analysis \| $20,000 \| \| Pedestrian Crossing Location Feasibility Analysis \| $15,000 \| \| Analysis Total (including Contingency) \| $45,500 \| \| Installation of Existing Pedestrian Crossing Enhancements \| \| \| Install Marked Crosswalk \| $6,600 \| \| Construction Total (including Mobilization, Traffic Control, Construction Engineering, Contingency, and Soft Costs) \| $13,100 \| \| PROJECT DESCRIPTION \| RESPONSE FOR JOSEPHINE COUNTY \| \|--------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------\| \| Relevant Right of Way ownership \| Josephine County \| \| Utility implications and opportunities to mitigate \| No \| \| Environmental resource implications \| No \| \| Stormwater management implications \| Yes \| \| Near a railroad? Or bridge, tunnel, retaining wall affected? \| No \| \| AADT \| Unknown \| \| Priority Safety Corridor \| No \| Next Steps With an SRTS Plan in place, it’s time to shift attention to implementation. The strategies identified in this Plan may seem overwhelming at first. Just remember that anything you can do to make walking, biking, and rolling to school safer, easier, and more fun for students is a step in the right direction. Here are some things to remember: START SMALL Small actions can have a big impact, especially when it comes to building support, interest, and momentum for bigger initiatives. FOCUS ON EQUITY Not everyone has equal opportunities to walk and bike to school. Identify and prioritize strategies to address and overcome barriers that disproportionately impact the most vulnerable students. BUILD PARTNERSHIPS Look for opportunities to strengthen existing partnerships and build new ones. Reach out to caregivers, community members, local agencies and community organizations, and other partners to expand capacity and support for SRTS initiatives. EMPOWER STUDENTS AS LEADERS Student-led initiatives can generate enthusiasm and improve social conditions for SRTS. Empower students to take ownership of programs to raise awareness, build excitement, and expand opportunities for their peers to walk and bike to school. TRACK PROGRESS Continue to track trips and survey caregivers and students about their experiences walking, biking, and rolling to school. Conducting regular evaluation will help your team understand what works and what doesn’t work and allocate resources accordingly. Consider reporting annually on progress. CELEBRATE SUCCESS Take time to recognize efforts and celebrate progress. Whether it’s changing travel habits, achieving a major milestone, implementing an infrastructure improvement, launching a new program, or hosting a successful event, recognize and celebrate success. 06 APPENDICES APPENDICES Appendix A. For More Information ............ 66 Appendix B. SRTS Talking Points ............. 67 Appendix C. Planning Process .................. 69 Appendix D. Existing Conditions .............. 71 Appendix E. Funding and Implementation .... 77 APPENDIX A. FOR MORE INFORMATION This appendix provides contact information for state and national SRTS program resources as well as school partners. NATIONAL RESOURCES Safe Routes to School Data Collection System http://www.saferoutesdata.org/ Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center http://www.pedbikeinfo.com/ National Center for Safe Routes to School http://www.saferoutesinfo.org/ Safe Routes to School Policy Guide http://www.saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/Local_Policy_Guide_2011.pdf School District Policy Workbook Tool https://www.changelabsolutions.org/product/safe-routes-school-district-policy-workbook Safe Routes to School National Partnership State Network Project http://www.saferoutespartnership.org/state/network Bike Train Planning Guide http://guide.saferoutesinfo.org/walking_school_bus/bicycle_trains.cfm 10 Tips for SRTS Programs and Liability http://apps.saferoutesinfo.org/training/walking_school_bus/liabilitytipsheet.pdf Tactical Urbanism and Safe Routes to School http://www.saferoutespartnership.org/resources/fact-sheet/tactical-urbanism-and-safe-routes-school STATE RESOURCES The Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) SRTS Program provides technical assistance to support local SRTS efforts. This support includes: 1. Coordination between practitioners through Regional Hubs that meet monthly https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/contact 2. Trainings and resource guides, which can be found on the Oregon SRTS website https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/resources/ 3. Incentives, activities, and messaging for monthly Walk+Roll events https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/walkroll/ 4. Bicycle and pedestrian safety trainings and a loaner bike fleet – coming in 2022 Learn more and keep in touch by signing up for the ODOT SRTS Newsletter: https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/ To ensure a successful SRTS program, it is crucial to get school principals and other school administration leaders the communications resources they need to share the importance of SRTS with caregivers. To get these leaders involved initially, in-person meetings are a great start and opportunity to share SRTS goals and potential activities for the year. This gives school leaders a chance to learn more about the program, but also share thoughts and ideas unique to their school. Share with them the academic benefits: students that walk or bike to school arrive awake, alert, and ready to learn, and physical activity before school increases academic performance and reduces student absences. The following list of facts and statistics can be used by principals and other SRTS advocates in communications materials to share the benefits of a SRTS program. These points have been collected from national sources, and apply to all schools and school districts: big or small, urban or rural, etc.. They are intended to be used in communication materials such as school newsletters, emails, school websites, social media posts, signs, videos, and direct communications with caregivers (including handouts, emails, texts, automated calls, etc.). Except where otherwise noted, the following are based on research summarized by the National Center for Safe Routes to School. More information, including primary sources, can be found at http://guide.saferoutesinfo.org. Traffic: Costs, Congestion, and Safety - In 1969, half of all US students walked or biked to school; by 2009, that number had dropped to just 13 percent. - In the United States, 31 percent of students in grades K–8 live within one mile of school; 38 percent of these students walk or bike to school. You can travel one mile in about 20 minutes by foot or six minutes by bicycle. - Personal vehicles taking students to school accounted for 10 to 14 percent of all personal vehicle trips made during the morning peak commute times. Walking, bicycling, and carpooling to school reduces the numbers of cars dropping students off, reducing traffic safety conflicts with other students and creates a positive cycle—as the community sees more people walking, biking, and rolling, more people feel comfortable walking and bicycling. - Reducing the miles caregivers drive to school by just one percent would reduce 300 million miles of vehicle travel and save an estimated $50 million in fuel costs each year. - Did you know that as more people bicycle and walk, biking and walking crash rates decrease? This is also known as the ‘safety in numbers’ principle. As more families walk and bike to school, streets and school zones become safer for everyone. Health: Physical Activity and Obesity • The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services recommends that children do one hour or more of physical activity each day. Walking just one mile each way to and from school would meet two-thirds of this goal. • Studies have found that students who get regular physical activity benefit from healthy hearts, lungs, bones, and muscles; reduced risk of developing obesity and chronic diseases; and reduced feelings of depression and anxiety. Teachers also report that students who walk or bike to school arrive at school alert and “ready to learn.” • Researchers have found that people who start to include walking, biking, and rolling at part of everyday life (such as the school commute trip) are more successful at sticking with their increased physical activity in the long term than people who join a gym. • One recent study showed that students who joined a “walking school bus” ended up getting more physical activity than their peers. In fact, 65 percent of obese students who participated in the walking program were no longer obese at the end of the school year. • Childhood obesity rates have more than tripled in the past 30 years, while the number of students walking, biking, and rolling to school has declined. According to the 2009 National Household Travel Survey, 13 percent of students between the ages of five and 14 walked or biked to or from school, compared to 48 percent in 1969. Environment: Air Quality, Climate Change and Resource Use • Did you know? When you walk, bike, or carpool, you’re reducing auto emissions near schools. Students and adults with asthma are particularly sensitive to poor air quality. Approximately 5 million students in the U.S. suffer from asthma, and nearly 13 million school days per year are lost due to asthma-related illnesses. • Did you know that modern cars don’t need to idle? In fact, idling near schools exposes students and vehicle occupants to air pollution (including particulates and noxious emissions), wastes fuel and money, and increases unnecessary wear and tear on car engines. If you are waiting in your car for your student, please don’t idle – you’ll be doing your part to keep young lungs healthy! • Families that walk two miles a day instead of driving will, in one year, prevent 730 pounds of carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere. • Short motor-vehicle trips contribute significant amounts of air pollution because they typically occur while an engine’s pollution control system is cold and ineffective. Thus, shifting 1 percent of short automobile trips to walking or biking decreases emissions by 2 to 4 percent. • Eight bicycles can be parked in the space required for just one car. APPENDIX C. PLANNING PROCESS The Williams SRTS Plan Process Project Initiation Background data collection and existing conditions School Safety Assessment Community outreach, walk audit, facility inventory Review Process PMT approval of recommendations; Public Review Draft Plan circulated Final SRTS Plan WINTER 2020-21 WINTER 2020-21 SPRING 2022 SPRING-SUMMER 2022 Project Initiation The first step in the Planning process was to collect data and information to support evaluation of existing conditions. This included two meetings with the Project Management Team (PMT) to identify issues and opportunities related to SRTS. Existing Conditions information is included in Chapter 3 and Appendix D. School Safety Assessment The School Safety Assessment included the walk audit observations, virtual community meetings, and a bike and pedestrian facility inventory. WALK AUDIT During the walk audit, the PMT observed traffic conditions, travel patterns, and behaviors for all modes of travel during arrival or dismissal at each school. Before each walk audit, the team gathered to identify key routes and locations for observation. COMMUNITY MEETING The School Safety Assessment community meeting was an opportunity for school leadership, roadway jurisdiction staff, teachers, and parents to discuss barriers to walking and biking to school, and brainstorm ideas for how to overcome them. The meetings were held directly after each walk audit. Meeting participants discussed the typical routes that students who walk and bike take to and from school, points of conflict between people driving and walking/biking, ongoing SRTS programming and some additional ideas for education and engagement events at the school. BIKE AND PEDESTRIAN FACILITY INVENTORY The bike and pedestrian facility inventory documented existing infrastructure, focusing on all streets within a quarter mile of all schools. The inventory collected the following information about general infrastructure deficiencies and needs: - Sidewalk deficiencies – lack of continuity, insufficient width, poor surface condition, non-compliant cross-slopes and driveways, lack of separation from the travel lane, and obstacles (utility/light poles, signs, and vegetation) - School area signs and pavement markings – presence, placement, and condition - Paths – formal or informal, surface material - Bike lanes – lack of continuity, insufficient width or markings, presence of on-street parking, speed and volume of traffic, poor pavement condition - Bicycle, scooter, and/or skateboard parking – presence, location, visibility, degree of security, and utilization - Drop-off/pick-up areas – designated areas, curb paint, and signs - Visibility – insufficient pedestrian lighting, line of sight obstacles (parked cars, vegetation, signs, and poles) The bike and pedestrian facility inventory collected the following information about street crossings: - Traffic signals – pedestrian signals, push-button location and reach distance, signing, countdown feature, accessible pedestrian signal feature, and sufficient crossing time - Marked crosswalks – condition, type, signs, visibility, and whether ramp is contained within crosswalk markings - Curb ramps – presence at corners, ADA-compliant design (tactile domes, ramp and flare slope, level landing) - Connections with neighborhood trails or paths – signage, bike parking, ease of connection to transit hubs, parks, or schools Deficiencies and needs identified in the bike and pedestrian facility inventory inform the infrastructure recommendations described in Chapter 4. Review Process Following the School Safety Assessments, initial recommendations were prepared and shared with the PMT for review. The PMT met to discuss the recommendations, and to identify priority projects for the Competitive ODOT SRTS Infrastructure Grant. Once this was complete, a Draft SRTS Plan was prepared and underwent both PMT review as well as Public Review in the form of an online interactive PDF document. Plan Review 2018 ODOT SRTS GRANT APPLICATION FOR WILLIAMS HWY (2018) In 2018, Josephine County applied for an ODOT competitive Construction Grant to build a pathway alongside Williams Hwy, the main route for school-age children traveling to and from Williams Elementary School. The application explains that the community has a high poverty rate, and many students have two working parents. Bussing is also limited, meaning that many children walk alone along this road, which has extremely narrow shoulders and heavy vehicular traffic. This hazardous route creates an additional barrier to educational opportunity for families who are often already overburdened. The application proposes installing a 4ft-wide ADA compliant asphalt pathway on Williams Hwy (2,900 linear ft). This pathway would be located along the west side of the road, where there is less residential development. The existing ditch and shoulder would act as buffers between the path and the vehicle travel lanes. For the large number of parents who felt strongly about the need for a safer route to school, a critical issue was getting children off the road and away from traffic. Several routes were discussed, but this discussion resulted in the selection of a high-visibility route (Williams Hwy) with the requirement that the path must be adequately buffered from vehicular traffic. Because Williams is not a city or legal unincorporated area, concerns were raised by community members about how a trail would be installed and maintained. As a result of this discussion, Josephine County agreed to oversee this installation and maintenance. JOSEPHINE COUNTY TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM PLAN UPDATE DRAFT (2020) The Draft Josephine County Rural Transportation System Plan (TSP) establishes the County’s goals, policies, and action strategies for developing the transportation system outside of the Grants Pass and Cave Junction urban areas. The TSP discusses the County’s on-going roadway maintenance needs, and identifies improvements to enhance roadway safety, non-motorized travel (bicycles and pedestrians), and public transit service, and to accommodate future land development activity. Goals and objectives identified in the 2020 Draft TSP that relate to SRTS initiatives include Goal 4: Connectivity. Objective 4.5 under Connectivity reads as follows: Ensure access to schools, parks, and other activity centers for all members of the community, including children, disabled, low-income, and elderly people. Josephine County’s Draft 2020 TSP update details improvements for non-motorized transportation on County roads, including those traveling through Williams (Figure 1). The 2020 TSP calls for improvements on Williams Hwy from OR 238 to Cedar Flat Rd. Specifically, 5-foot shoulders would be installed on both sides of the roadway according to County Collector standards (where feasible). This is considered a Tier 2 Long Term priority for the County and the costs for the two segments are detailed below: - Williams Highway from OR 238 to Water Gap Road ($4,130) - Williams Highway from Water Gap Road to Cedar Flat Road ($1,675) Williams Hwy is designated as a county freight route in the TSP. Aside from Williams Hwy, shoulders are also recommended on several other roadway segments near Williams, all of which also connect to Williams Hwy: - Cedar Flat Road from Williams Highway to Kincaid Road; - E Fork Road from Williams Highway to Browns Road; and - Water Gap Road from OR 238 to Williams Highway Finally, the 2020 TSP Update discusses general recommendations for non-motorized improvements in unincorporated areas of the County. Recommendations include: BICYCLE IMPROVEMENTS: - Install shoulders on both sides of the roadway consistent with County or ODOT standards where feasible – utilize single-sided shoulders where topography presents significant challenges. - Install shared lane pavement markings (sharrows) and signs where speeds are 25 mph or below and average daily traffic is 2,500 vehicles or below. - Install 6-foot bike lanes on both sides of the roadway where speeds are 30 mph or below. - Install 7-foot separated bike lanes on both sides of the roadway where speeds are 35 mph and above. - Install side paths on one or two sides of the roadway where speeds are 40 mph and above. - Install enhanced crossings at major intersection with appropriate crossing treatments. PEDESTRIAN IMPROVEMENTS: - Install shoulders on both sides of the roadway consistent with County or ODOT standards where feasible – utilize single-sided shoulders where topography presents significant challenges. - Install pedestrian facilities on one or two sides of the roadway where speeds are 40 mph and above. - Install enhanced crossings at major intersections with appropriate crossing treatments. Previous SRTS Efforts or Walking/Biking Encouragement Activities EDUCATION AND ENGAGEMENT ACTIVITIES Because very few students currently walk and bike to school, and because the infrastructure is not currently safe for active transportation, Williams Elementary has not participated in SRTS events of activities to date. CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES Recently, Josephine County installed improved crossings on Williams Hwy, East Fork Rd, and Cedar Flat Rd. The Williams community, school district, and local Citizens Advisory Committee (CAC) have worked together for several years to address childhood safety concerns. Members of the community worked with the CAC to plan a trail route and surveyed parents regarding transportation safety concerns. During the summer of 2018, more than 60 percent of parents of children who attend either Williams Elementary School, or nearby Sugarloaf Learning Center, responded to a parent survey about walking and biking to school. Every survey cited the need for a pathway/sidewalk to help mitigate the dangers posed by the volume and speed of traffic along this stretch of Williams Highway. A group of community members has been active in working with the County to design, fund, and install a path on the west side of Williams Hwy. This path has not yet been funded but remains a priority for Williams residents. Crash History Between 2014 and 2018, there were no recorded vehicle collisions with people walking and biking within one mile of Williams Elementary School. Three vehicle-only collisions were reported during this time period (Figure 2), all of which occurred along Williams Hwy. The vehicle-only collision on Williams Highway near Tetherow Road occurred in July 2017 between 4 and 5 pm. The collision was caused by a vehicle turning out of a driveway onto Williams Highway. The vehicle-only incident on Williams Highway just north of Williams Elementary School occurred in June 2014 between 1 and 2 am. According to the report, the incident involved only one vehicle, which veered off the roadway into the ditch embankment due to improper driving. Finally, the vehicle-only incident on Fork Road occurred in January 2015 between 5 and 6 pm. The incident involved only one vehicle, which struck a deer or elk. ODOT provided the following information on Williams Hwy – all three incidents are located 1/10th of a mile north of the school: - Injury—one person/ 4pm / Monday / 5-1-2000 – improper signaling - Injury—one person / 8am / Monday/ 10-11-2004 – speeding; rear-end collision - Property damage only / 9am / Monday / 10-1-2012 – ran stop sign; entered ditch Figure 2: Crashes Near Williams Elementary School VEHICLE-ONLY COLLISIONS 2014-18 - Vehicle-Only Collision - Railroad - School Property - Parks - Water - City Boundary APPENDIX E. FUNDING AND IMPLEMENTATION This section lists a variety of funding sources that can be used to implement the recommendations outlined in Chapter 4. These funding sources are accurate as of July 2021, but may change over time. Please refer to ODOT or other funding jurisdictions website for the most up to date information. This section also includes detailed Planning-level cost estimates for the High Priority Projects identified in Chapter 5. Statewide Funding Opportunities ODOT SRTS GRANTS ODOT currently offers Safe Routes to School specific funding pools for local jurisdictions interested in improving walking and biking conditions near schools, including a competitive infrastructure grant program, a rapid response infrastructure grant, and an education (non-infrastructure) grant. COMPETITIVE INFRASTRUCTURE GRANT ODOT’s SRTS Competitive Infrastructure Grant program funds roadway safety projects located within a one-mile radius of an educational facility that improves walking and biking conditions for students on their way to school. Funding requests may range between $60,000 and $2 million, with a 40% local match (special circumstances may allow a 20% reduction in match requirements). These funds are awarded on a competitive application basis to cities, counties, transit districts, ODOT, any other roadway authority, and tribes are in compliance with existing jurisdictional Plans and receive school or school district support. Learn more about the 2021-2022 grant cycle at https://www.oregon.gov/odot/Programs/Pages/SRTS-Competitive-Infrastructure-Grant.aspx. RAPID RESPONSE INFRASTRUCTURE GRANT Up to 10% of state SRTS funding will be reserved for projects that can demonstrate serious and immediate need for safety improvements within a one-mile radius of schools. This funding would be awarded outside of the Competitive Infrastructure Grant cycle as a Rapid Response Infrastructure Grant. Eligibility requirements for Rapid Response Infrastructure grants can be found at https://www.oregon.gov/odot/Programs/Pages/SRTS-Rapid-Response-Grant-Program.aspx. EDUCATION GRANT In addition to funding construction improvements for Safe Routes to School programs, ODOT reserves approximately $300,000 annually for funding of SRTS Education programs and projects that encourage students in grades K–8 to walk and roll to school. This competitive grant program distributes funding to a project over the course of two to three years with a 12% match requirement. Grant funds are traditionally used for capacity building and innovation. For more information, visit https://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/Programs/Pages/SRTS.aspx. SMALL CITY ALLOTMENT PROGRAM (SCA) The Small City Allotment Program is available to communities with less than 5,000 residents. One application may be submitted per city per year, and successful projects may receive up to $100,000. Successful applicants may request an advance of up to 50% of their award and will receive the remainder of their award upon submission of project invoices. An awardee may not have more than two active SCA projects at any given time; if the awardee has two active projects, another application cannot be submitted until one is completed. SCA funds can be used as a match for SRTS grant funding, but the SRTS grant has to have already been awarded prior to the request for SCA funds as match. SCA projects must be completed within two years from the agreement execution date. For example, if a community receives a SRTS grant award and an SCA grant for matching funds, chances are they may need to extend the SCA grant to coordinate with the SRTS project work. This is permitted, but the SCA award would be considered an open project until the SRTS project was closed out. Also important to note, the SCA program does not require any matching funds. The state cannot reimburse for any right of way or utility costs, and all work must be performed within the public road right of way. For more information, visit https://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/LocalGov/Documents/SCA-Guidelines.pdf OREGON COMMUNITY PATHS PROGRAM The Oregon Community Paths Program (OCP) is funding 21 off-road Active Transportation projects totaling $15 million in 2021. Through the OCPP, ODOT strives to fund projects for pedestrian and bicycle transportation projects including the development, construction, reconstruction, resurfacing, or other capital improvement of multi-use paths, bicycle paths, and footpaths that improve access and safety for people walking and bicycling. The program is funded through FHWA Transportation Alternatives funds, and state Multi-modal Active Transportation funds. For more information visit https://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/Programs/Pages/OCP.aspx TRANSPORTATION AND GROWTH MANAGEMENT (TGM) FUNDS TGM supports community efforts to expand transportation choices by linking land use and transportation Planning. TGM services include an annual competitive grant program for Planning work leading to local policy decisions for transportation facilities and services or for land uses with supportive transportation changes. The grant application period opens in the Spring and closes in the Summer. In addition to grants, TGM provides several other non-competitive services to help resolve land use and transportation Planning issues: Quick Response to bridge the gap between long range Planning and development of specific properties, Code Assistance to identify and remove barriers to smart growth, Transportation System Plan (TSP) Assessments to evaluate local TSPs, and Education and Outreach projects to move community conversations forward. For more information visit https://www.oregon.gov/lcd/TGM STATE TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENT FUND (STIF) Walking and biking connections to transit are eligible under ODOT’s STIF Discretionary and Statewide Network Program, a new fund for transit started in 2018. STIF formula and discretionary funds may be used to support projects that connect pedestrians and bikers to public transit. This fund program was created in response to HB 2017 and funds are dispersed every two years. For more information visit https://www.oregon.gov/odot/RPTD/Pages/Funding-Opportunities.aspx CONGESTION MITIGATION AND AIR QUALITY (CMAQ) PROGRAM The CMAQ program is jointly administered by the FHWA and FTA, with projects selected by local jurisdictions designated as high pollution areas. Bike/pedestrian projects make up a significant portion of the funded projects, which must focus on air quality improvement. For more information visit www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/air_quality/cmaq/ Federal Funds Some federal funding sources may be available to certain communities and can be used for Safe Routes to School projects. Such as: • Community Development Block Grant Program, https://www.orinfrastructure.org/Infrastructure-Programs/CDBG/ • Rural Development Grant Assistance Program, https://www.usda.gov/topics/farming/grants-and-loans Local Funding Opportunities POTENTIAL SCHOOL BOND OPPORTUNITIES Localities can leverage school bonds to collect funding for transportation educational programming and school-zone pedestrian/bicycle infrastructure improvements. School bonds may be sufficient to cover the cost of low to mid cost projects or could be utilized to collect local match dollars for state awarded grants. SRTS PROJECTS AND THE TSP Cities and counties undergoing transportation system Plan updates should consider including a section on their Plans and priorities for Safe Routes to School infrastructure upgrades and programming to identify project expenses well in advance and allow ample time to gather project funding. QUICK BUILDS Quick Builds are temporary roadway improvement installments that utilize temporary barriers (such as traffic cones, planters, hay barrels, etc.) to test and demonstrate how a street would operate with bicycle and/or pedestrian infrastructure improvements. These low-cost Quick Build projects can serve as an immediate term temporary solution to traffic issues while local jurisdictions build support and funding for permanent infrastructure improvements. Depending on specific site conditions and the nature of materials used, Quick Builds can last for several hours to several months. Priority Project Cost Estimates The following pages include planning-level cost estimates for the recommended projects. These projects are priorities for the school communities, as well as Josephine County, and are candidates for ODOT SRTS Competitive Infrastructure Grant funding. \| ITEM DESCRIPTION \| MEASUREMENT \| COST/UNIT \| UNITS \| ESTIMATE \| \|------------------------------------------------------\|-------------\|------------\|-------\|----------\| \| Williams Hwy / E Fork Rd / Cedar Flat Rd Intersection Revisions \| \| \| \| \| \| Traffic Analysis \| EA \| $20,000 \| 1 \| $20,000 \| \| Pedestrian crossing location feasibility analysis \| EA \| $15,000 \| 1 \| $15,000 \| \| \| \| \| \| Subtotal $35,000 \| \| Additional Costs \| \| \| \| \| \| Contingency \| \| $10,500 \| \| \| \| Total Analysis Cost: \| \| \| \| $45,500 \| \| \| \| \| \| Subtotal \| \| Total Costs \| \| \| \| \| \| Contingency \| \| $10,500 \| \| \| \| Total Project Cost: \| \| \| \| $45,500 \| \| ITEM DESCRIPTION \| MEASUREMENT \| COST/UNIT \| UNITS \| ESTIMATE \| \|----------------------------------------\|-------------\|-----------\|-------\|-----------\| \| Construction Items \| \| \| \| \| \| Mobilization \| 10% \| $700 \| 1 \| $700 \| \| Traffic Control \| 15% \| $1,000 \| 1 \| $1,000 \| \| Existing Pedestrian Crossing Enhancements \| \| \| \| \| \| Install marked crosswalk \| SF \| $15 \| 440 \| $6,600 \| \| Subtotal \| \| \| \| $8,300 \| \| Additional Costs \| \| \| \| \| \| Construction Engineering \| 15% of subtotal \| $1,300 \| 1 \| $1,300 \| \| Contingency \| 10% of subtotal & Construction Engineering \| $1,000 \| 1 \| $1,000 \| \| Total Construction Costs \| \| \| \| $10,600 \| \| Soft Costs (Design Engineering) \| 30% of subtotal \| $2,500 \| 1 \| $2,500 \| \| Right-of-Way Costs \| – \| $– \| 0 \| $– \| \| Total Project Cost: \| \| \| \| $13,100 \|	eccfba9a-c415-4777-a17f-372adc8afe53	CC-MAIN-2023-14	https://www.oregonsaferoutes.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Williams-SRTS-Plan_Final.pdf	2023-03-23T08:57:10+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296945030.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20230323065609-20230323095609-00189.warc.gz	1,029,977,396	17,050	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.931132	eng_Latn	0.99629	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "por_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "ekk_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 183, 752, 2998, 3012, 3926, 5607, 8834, 11608, 13062, 14214, 16511, 16538, 16969, 17588, 20532, 21889, 21926, 21950, 22520, 24854, 25592, 26038, 27217, 27792, 28451, 28775, 28812, 28842, 30118, 32869, 33061, 36216, 36832, 39319, 40072, 43795, 47541, 49373, 51759, 51779, 52376, 54352, 56215, 57037, 58860, 58876, 59135, 60982, 63706, 66428, 68156, 70506, 74010, 75315, 77936, 78107, 82167, 85059, 86645, 88023, 89402 ]	[ 2.921875, 1.015625 ]	1	0
1. Why get vaccinated? Influenza vaccine can prevent influenza (flu). Flu is a contagious disease that spreads around the United States every year, usually between October and May. Anyone can get the flu, but it is more dangerous for some people. Infants and young children, people 65 years and older, pregnant people, and people with certain health conditions or a weakened immune system are at greatest risk of flu complications. Pneumonia, bronchitis, sinus infections, and ear infections are examples of flu-related complications. If you have a medical condition, such as heart disease, cancer, or diabetes, flu can make it worse. Flu can cause fever and chills, sore throat, muscle aches, fatigue, cough, headache, and runny or stuffy nose. Some people may have vomiting and diarrhea, though this is more common in children than adults. In an average year, thousands of people in the United States die from flu, and many more are hospitalized. Flu vaccine prevents millions of illnesses and flu-related visits to the doctor each year. 2. Influenza vaccines CDC recommends everyone 6 months and older get vaccinated every flu season. Children 6 months through 8 years of age may need 2 doses during a single flu season. Everyone else needs only 1 dose each flu season. It takes about 2 weeks for protection to develop after vaccination. There are many flu viruses, and they are always changing. Each year a new flu vaccine is made to protect against the influenza viruses believed to be likely to cause disease in the upcoming flu season. Even when the vaccine doesn’t exactly match these viruses, it may still provide some protection. Influenza vaccine does not cause flu. Influenza vaccine may be given at the same time as other vaccines. 3. Talk with your health care provider Tell your vaccination provider if the person getting the vaccine: - Has had an allergic reaction after a previous dose of influenza vaccine, or has any severe, life-threatening allergies - Has ever had Guillain-Barré Syndrome (also called “GBS”) In some cases, your health care provider may decide to postpone influenza vaccination until a future visit. Influenza vaccine can be administered at any time during pregnancy. People who are or will be pregnant during influenza season should receive inactivated influenza vaccine. People with minor illnesses, such as a cold, may be vaccinated. People who are moderately or severely ill should usually wait until they recover before getting influenza vaccine. Your health care provider can give you more information. 4. Risks of a vaccine reaction - Soreness, redness, and swelling where the shot is given, fever, muscle aches, and headache can happen after influenza vaccination. - There may be a very small increased risk of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) after inactivated influenza vaccine (the flu shot). Young children who get the flu shot along with pneumococcal vaccine (PCV13) and/or DTaP vaccine at the same time might be slightly more likely to have a seizure caused by fever. Tell your health care provider if a child who is getting flu vaccine has ever had a seizure. People sometimes faint after medical procedures, including vaccination. Tell your provider if you feel dizzy or have vision changes or ringing in the ears. As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death. 5. What if there is a serious problem? An allergic reaction could occur after the vaccinated person leaves the clinic. If you see signs of a severe allergic reaction (hives, swelling of the face and throat, difficulty breathing, a fast heartbeat, dizziness, or weakness), call 9-1-1 and get the person to the nearest hospital. For other signs that concern you, call your health care provider. Adverse reactions should be reported to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). Your health care provider will usually file this report, or you can do it yourself. Visit the VAERS website at www.vaers.hhs.gov or call 1-800-822-7967. VAERS is only for reporting reactions, and VAERS staff members do not give medical advice. 6. The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) is a federal program that was created to compensate people who may have been injured by certain vaccines. Claims regarding alleged injury or death due to vaccination have a time limit for filing, which may be as short as two years. Visit the VICP website at www.hrsa.gov/vaccinecompensation or call 1-800-338-2382 to learn about the program and about filing a claim. 7. How can I learn more? - Ask your health care provider. - Call your local or state health department. - Visit the website of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for vaccine package inserts and additional information at www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/vaccines. - Contact the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): - Call 1-800-232-4636 (1-800-CDC-INFO) or - Visit CDC’s website at www.cdc.gov/flu. 1 Why get vaccinated? Tdap vaccine can prevent tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis. Diphtheria and pertussis spread from person to person. Tetanus enters the body through cuts or wounds. - TETANUS (T) causes painful stiffening of the muscles. Tetanus can lead to serious health problems, including being unable to open the mouth, having trouble swallowing and breathing, or death. - DIPHTHERIA (D) can lead to difficulty breathing, heart failure, paralysis, or death. - PERTUSSIS (aP), also known as “whooping cough,” can cause uncontrollable, violent coughing which makes it hard to breathe, eat, or drink. Pertussis can be extremely serious in babies and young children, causing pneumonia, convulsions, brain damage, or death. In teens and adults, it can cause weight loss, loss of bladder control, passing out, and rib fractures from severe coughing. 2 Tdap vaccine Tdap is only for children 7 years and older, adolescents, and adults. Adolescents should receive a single dose of Tdap, preferably at age 11 or 12 years. Pregnant women should get a dose of Tdap during every pregnancy, to protect the newborn from pertussis. Infants are most at risk for severe, life-threatening complications from pertussis. Adults who have never received Tdap should get a dose of Tdap. Also, adults should receive a booster dose every 10 years, or earlier in the case of a severe and dirty wound or burn. Booster doses can be either Tdap or Td (a different vaccine that protects against tetanus and diphtheria but not pertussis). Tdap may be given at the same time as other vaccines. 3 Talk with your health care provider Tell your vaccine provider if the person getting the vaccine: - Has had an allergic reaction after a previous dose of any vaccine that protects against tetanus, diphtheria, or pertussis, or has any severe, life-threatening allergies. - Has had a coma, decreased level of consciousness, or prolonged seizures within 7 days after a previous dose of any pertussis vaccine (DTP, DTaP, or Tdap). - Has seizures or another nervous system problem. - Has ever had Guillain-Barré Syndrome (also called GBS). - Has had severe pain or swelling after a previous dose of any vaccine that protects against tetanus or diphtheria. In some cases, your health care provider may decide to postpone Tdap vaccination to a future visit. People with minor illnesses, such as a cold, may be vaccinated. People who are moderately or severely ill should usually wait until they recover before getting Tdap vaccine. Your health care provider can give you more information. 4 Risks of a vaccine reaction - Pain, redness, or swelling where the shot was given, mild fever, headache, feeling tired, and nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or stomachache sometimes happen after Tdap vaccine. People sometimes faint after medical procedures, including vaccination. Tell your provider if you feel dizzy or have vision changes or ringing in the ears. As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death. 5 What if there is a serious problem? An allergic reaction could occur after the vaccinated person leaves the clinic. If you see signs of a severe allergic reaction (hives, swelling of the face and throat, difficulty breathing, a fast heartbeat, dizziness, or weakness), call 9-1-1 and get the person to the nearest hospital. For other signs that concern you, call your health care provider. Adverse reactions should be reported to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). Your health care provider will usually file this report, or you can do it yourself. Visit the VAERS website at www.vaers.hhs.gov or call 1-800-822-7967. VAERS is only for reporting reactions, and VAERS staff do not give medical advice. 6 The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) is a federal program that was created to compensate people who may have been injured by certain vaccines. Visit the VICP website at www.hrsa.gov/vaccinecompensation or call 1-800-338-2382 to learn about the program and about filing a claim. There is a time limit to file a claim for compensation. 7 How can I learn more? - Ask your health care provider. - Call your local or state health department. - Contact the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): - Call 1-800-232-4636 (1-800-CDC-INFO) or - Visit CDC’s website at www.cdc.gov/vaccines Vitamin B12 Shots If you often feel tired, run-down, and lacking in energy, you are not alone! Your body needs Vitamin B12 to: - Help maintain normal physical, emotional, & mental energy levels - Help breakdown fats and carbohydrates properly - Help ease occasional stress - Promote normal immune function - Promote memory, mental clarity and concentration - Maintain normal cell growth and repair - Assist your nerves to function and communicate properly - Assist in the production of Melatonin, to help sleep better - Help folic acid regulate the production of red blood cells - Help your body to use iron - Support female reproduction health and pregnancy Vitamin B12 shots are known to effectively treat anemia, fatigue, some skin diseases, and obesity. Other reported benefits include: clearer skin, improved stamina, weight loss, and improved sleep patterns. Most people over the age of 50 have limited ability to absorb Vitamin B12. The older you get the more your digestive system breaks down, losing the ability to release Vitamin B12 from the food you eat. B12 shots provide a more dramatic result than other forms of vitamin B12 since they are injected directly into the muscle to arrive in the bloodstream in a much shorter time. What are Lipotropic B+ Injections? Lipotropics are fat-burning amino acids, substances that are naturally produced by the body. These chemicals help to remove toxins and waste from the liver, prevent cholesterol buildup, and help metabolize fats. Our formulation combines three lipotropics: methionine, inositol, and choline; with energizing B vitamins & other ingredients specifically formulated for weight loss. Our Lipotropic Injection Protocol does not require starvation diets, surgery or dangerous drugs. Our program is designed to address fat loss at a nutritional level, to boost your energy while enhancing the function of your organs and increasing the flow of fats and bile from the liver and gallbladder. Therefore your body is processing fat versus storing it! Our Weight Loss Formula Includes: Vitamin C: A powerful antioxidant, which helps neutralize cell-damaging free radicals. Used in treating a wide range of infectious diseases, burns, and boosting the immune system. Methionine: A protein-based amino acid that neutralizes free radicals and is essential for muscle growth and energy. It aids in breaking down fat, removing heavy metals from the body, and helps with digestion. This antioxidant increases energy and lean muscle mass. Inositol: A vitamin that is vital for metabolism of fat and cholesterol, prevents hardening of the arteries; and helps in the treatment of depression and anxiety. Inositol may also be used to improve circulation, prevent hair loss, nourish the brain, and facilitate the conversion of nutrients to energy. Choline: Plays a major role in cardiovascular health, in addition to minimizing excess fat in the liver through its fat and cholesterol metabolic properties. It also aids in hormone production, along with helping to remove toxins. Adequate intake reduces the chances of developing problems with the liver. Thiamine: (Vitamin B1) - Helps fuel your body by converting blood sugar into energy. Essential for nervous system, cardiovascular and muscular function. Riboflavin-5-Phosphate Sodium: (Vitamin B2) - Supports energy production by aiding in the metabolizing of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Niacinamide: (Vitamin B3) - Promotes general blood vessel and circulatory health. Dexpantenol: (Vitamin B5) - Essential for our bodies to properly use carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids and for healthy skin. Pyridoxine HCl: (Vitamin B6) - Essential in numerous biochemical pathways involving red blood cells, the immune system, central nervous system function, protein metabolism, homocysteine metabolism, and also the production of energy. It is necessary for proper absorption of Vitamin B12. Methylcobalamin: (Vitamin B12) - Regulates the formation of red blood cells and helps in the utilization of iron, preventing anemia. It is an important component of the body system because it is required for proper digestion, absorption and synthesis of foods, protein synthesis, and the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. Vitamin B12 is also necessary for a healthy nervous system. Also known to boosts energy. L-Carnitine The primary function of L-Carnitine is to convert lipids, or fats, into fuel for energy. Specifically, its role is to move fatty acids into the cells that reside within the protective membranes that surround cells, essential to provide energy for every cell in the body. Chromium: Shown to aid in balancing blood sugar levels and reduce sugar cravings. Lidocaine: Anesthetic used to reduce burning and stinging. Promoting Seasonal Flu Vaccination A Checklist for Businesses and Employers Be a partner in good health. Consider offering onsite flu vaccination (flu shot, nasal spray, or both) at your business location(s) and encourage employees to seek flu vaccination in the community. Review flu vaccination prevention and rationale with senior managers, employees, and labor representatives. IF YOU CHOOSE TO HOST A FLU VACCINATION CLINIC Planning - Get senior management buy-in to support a flu vaccination clinic at the workplace. - Frame getting employees vaccinated against flu as a business priority and create a goal aligned with this effort. - Identify a flu vaccination coordinator and/or team with defined roles and responsibilities. Occupational health personnel or workplace safety staff may lead these efforts for employers. Determine if you will need to contract with an experienced outside provider of flu vaccination services (such as a pharmacy or community immunizer). The planning process should also include input from employees, and labor representatives, if needed. - Schedule the flu vaccination clinic to maximize employee participation. Flu season usually begins in the Fall each year. - Gauge need and demand among employees for flu vaccination. Provide sufficient and accessible flu vaccination in as many business locations as possible. - Ask managers and supervisors to allow employees to attend onsite flu vaccination clinic as part of their work day and without having to “go off of the clock.” - Consider offering flu vaccination to employees’ families. - Set a goal and help show employees how their participation matters. Each year, try to improve upon the percentage of employees vaccinated. Hosting and Promotion - Use incentives for flu vaccination to increase participation, such as offering vaccine at no or low cost, providing refreshments at the clinic, or holding a contest for the department with the highest percentage of vaccinated employees. - Promote the flu vaccination clinic with the following: - Posters about the importance of flu vaccination can be posted in break rooms, cafeterias, and other high traffic areas. - An article in company communications (i.e., newsletters, intranet, emails, portals, etc.) about the clinic and flu prevention. - Promotional posters/flyers to advertise the date and time of the clinic should be posted in high traffic areas. - Communication from business leadership directly to employees promoting vaccination. - Use Social Media channels for promotion! - Provide a comfortable and convenient location for flu vaccination clinics. Consider the demands of space and need for privacy. - Set an example by encouraging managers and business leaders to get vaccinated first. Logistics IF YOU CHOOSE TO PROMOTE FLU VACCINATION IN THE COMMUNITY - Be flexible in your HR policies. Establish policies that allow for employees to take an hour or two to seek flu vaccinations in the community. - Partner with nearby pharmacies or clinics to arrange for employees to get vaccinated. If the business shares a building, shopping center, or office park with other employers, see if the property manager will host a flu vaccination clinic for all of the tenants’ employees. - Use promotional posters/flyers to advertise locations in the community that offer seasonal flu vaccinations. Display posters about the flu vaccination in break rooms, cafeterias, and other high traffic areas. - Post articles in company communications (i.e., newsletters, intranet, emails, portals, etc.) about the importance of flu vaccination and where to get the vaccine in the community. - Encourage flu vaccination for employees’ families by distributing information for employees to take home. NO MORE EXCUSES THERE ARE MANY PLACES TO GET YOUR FLU VACCINE. Anyone can get the flu, and it can be serious. Every year, protect yourself and those around you by getting a flu vaccine. FLU SHOTS AVAILABLE HERE: WHEN: __________________________ WHERE: __________________________ PLEASE BRING YOUR INSURANCE CARD OTHER SHOTS ALSO AVAILABLE For more information, visit http://www.cdc.gov/flu MYTH “The flu isn’t a serious disease.” FACTS Influenza (flu) is a serious disease of the nose, throat, and lungs, and it can lead to pneumonia. Each year about 200,000 people in the U.S. are hospitalized and about 36,000 people die because of the flu. Most who die are 65 years and older. But small children less than 2 years old are as likely as those over 65 to have to go to the hospital because of the flu. MYTH “The flu shot can cause the flu.” FACTS The flu shot cannot cause the flu. Some people get a little soreness or redness where they get the shot. It goes away in a day or two. Serious problems from the flu shot are very rare. MYTH “The flu shot does not work.” FACTS Most of the time the flu shot will prevent the flu. In scientific studies, the effectiveness of the flu shot has ranged from 70% to 90% when there is a good match between circulating viruses and those in the vaccine. Getting the vaccine is your best protection against this disease. MYTH “The side effects are worse than the flu.” FACTS The worst side effect you’re likely to get from a shot is a sore arm. The nasal mist flu vaccine might cause nasal congestion, runny nose, sore throat and cough. The risk of a severe allergic reaction is less than 1 in 4 million. MYTH “Only older people need a flu vaccine.” FACTS Adults and children with conditions like asthma, diabetes, heart disease, and kidney disease need to get a flu shot. Doctors also recommend children 6 months and older get a flu shot every year until their 5th birthday. MYTH “You must get the flu vaccine before December.” FACTS Flu vaccine can be given before or during the flu season. The best time to get vaccinated is October or November. But you can get vaccinated in December or later. For more information, ask your healthcare provider or call 800-CDC-INFO (800-232-4636) Website www.cdc.gov/flu ON-SITE FLU SHOTS! Where: When: Date Time get your Flu Shot here! Flu $48 (FREE with most major insurance plans) TDAP $80 (FREE with most major insurance plans) Vitamin B12 $25 (Helps with fatigue, cognitive function & depression) Lipotropic Shot $35 (Energy, weight loss, hunger suppression, & metabolic boost) Most major insurance plans accepted. Cash, Check, or Credit: Services Provided by: STAR WELLNESS™ USA 817-571-6425	7d9e6afb-21c3-4b07-aa48-8db620bffb60	CC-MAIN-2023-14	https://txwes.edu/media/human-resources/benefits/Flu-Shot-Clinic-Packet.pdf	2023-03-28T18:51:41+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296948868.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20230328170730-20230328200730-00420.warc.gz	675,282,466	4,460	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.992648	eng_Latn	0.997397	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2565, 5057, 7667, 9557, 10862, 14425, 18178, 18575, 20442, 20880 ]	[ 2.640625, 2.109375 ]	1	1
\| NAME OF CHILD \| Age \| DATE OF BIRTH \| NAME OF PARENT OR LEGAL GUARDIAN \| ADDRESS \| \|---------------\|-----\|---------------\|---------------------------------\|---------\| \| Helena Settel \| 13 \| June 20, 1894 \| John C. Settel \| Sebewaing \| \| Bernhard Schumacher \| 14 \| May 8, 1895 \| Wm. Schumacher \| \| \| May \| 16 \| July 17, 1895 \| " \| \| \| Wilhelm \| 15 \| June 13, 1895 \| " \| \| \| Herbert \| 12 \| June 20, 1890 \| " \| \| \| Marla \| 10 \| June 12, 1894 \| " \| \| \| Maria \| 8 \| March 19, 1895\| " \| \| \| Edward \| 6 \| March 22, 1901\| " \| \| \| Gertrude Brown \| 12 \| June 30, 1893\| Jacob Brown \| \| \| Mary Lintner \| 14 \| Sept. 10, 1895\| John Lintner \| \| \| John \| 9 \| Oct. 19, 1893 \| " \| \| \| Julius \| 9 \| Oct. 17, 1895 \| " \| \| \| Vera Sontag \| 15 \| Apr. 8, 1894 \| John Sontag \| \| \| Leonhard \| 11 \| July 26, 1891 \| " \| \| \| Emma Wisnewski \| 19 \| Dec. 18, 1894 \| Ludwig Wisnewski \| \| \| Ernest \| 15 \| Aug. 10, 1891 \| " \| \| \| Martha \| 7 \| May 1, 1899 \| " \| \| \| Hermann Schanz \| 6 \| August 1894 \| Hatt Schanz \| Owendale \| \| Arthur \| 6 \| March 1895 \| " \| \| \| Lena Schumacher \| 12 \| Oct. 10, 1891 \| Guardian \| \| \| Richard \| 15 \| Dec. 1897 \| " \| \| \| Emma Demosella \| 10 \| Oct. 1894 \| John Demosella \| Sebewaing \| \| Eva \| 13 \| Aug. 1899 \| " \| \| \| Anna \| 12 \| April 7, 1894 \| " \| \| \| John \| 10 \| Feb. 1892 \| " \| \| \| Paul Schanz \| 15 \| Aug. 18, 1897 \| Herman Schanz \| \| \| Walter \| 11 \| July 21, 1902 \| " \| \| \| Otto Schmidt \| 19 \| Dec. 12, 1892 \| L. J. Schmidt \| \| \| Edna \| 17 \| Nov. 1898 \| " \| \| \| Walter \| 15 \| May 16, 1898 \| " \| \| \| Emil Schmidt \| 16 \| Sept. 15, 1896\| George Schmidt \| \| \| Emilie \| 13 \| Aug. 1897 \| " \| \| \| Alma Settel \| 19 \| June 1901 \| August Settel \| \| \| Lydia \| 16 \| April 1896 \| " \| \| \| Clara \| 10 \| Oct. 1892 \| " \| \| \| Walter \| 7 \| April 30, 1896\| " \| \| \| John Engelhard \| 18 \| May 5, 1892 \| Fried Engelhard \| \| \| Carl \| 13 \| July 28, 1891 \| " \| \| \| Albert Janke \| 15 \| July 27, 1876 \| Carl Janke \| \| \| Betty \| 9 \| May 1897 \| " \| \| \| Reinhard \| 6 \| Dec. 28, 1894 \| " \| \| \| Henry Blase \| 18 \| April 1896 \| George Blase \| \| \| Amanda \| 8 \| April 1895 \| " \| \| \| Ruth Schaner \| 16 \| April 1897 \| Christ Schaner \| \| \| Peter Schaner \| 5 \| May 2, 1895 \| Peter Schaner \| \| \| John Schneider \| 12 \| Aug. 1891 \| Otto Schneider \| \| \| Maria \| 6 \| Aug. 1896 \| " \| \| \| Alex Spomer \| 11 \| January 1892 \| Alex Schneider \| \| \| Alma \| 4 \| May 2, 1896 \| " \| \| \| Ruth Kern \| 17 \| Aug. 1895 \| H. Kern \| \| \| Amalia Ewanach \| 10 \| Aug. 1893 \| George Ewanach \| Owendale \| \| Nenule \| 4 \| July 1, 1897 \| " \| \| READ THESE NOTES 1. If the district is fractional, write the names of the children in each township separately under the name of the township, beginning with that township in which the schoolhouse or site is situated. A separate statement must be made for the parts of the several townships in which the district is in part situated, giving the names and ages of all children between five years of age and under twenty years residing at that part of the district lying within their respective townships. 2. If there is not space on this page sufficient to contain the names of all the children in the district, write the remainder upon ordinary foolscap paper properly ruled, and attach it to this sheet. Do not use additional blanks. 3. The ages of the children must be given as they are on June 1, 1913. If a child removed from the district during the fifteen days preceding June 1, he should be reported as in the district in which he is resident June 1. 4. Write opposite the names of pupils enrolled in 7th or 8th grade in the column provided, the number of grade in which they are enrolled. The total must agree with items 2a and 2b, front of blank.	1034241e-d230-4dcc-a240-217ed20a4649	CC-MAIN-2025-05	https://content.myconnectsuite.com/api/documents/93483a7832134430bc8e736c7c8e5f83.pdf	2025-01-25T09:09:25+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-05/segments/1736703698937.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20250125075847-20250125105847-00148.warc.gz	161,155,626	1,489	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999574	eng_Latn	0.999574	[ "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 5716 ]	[ 2.09375 ]	1	0
Spool Racer Race your friends with kinetic and potential energy! Materials - Large thread spool - Paper clip - Tape - Two toothpicks - Thin rubber band - Two thick rubber bands - Small metal washer, about 1/2” in diameter 1. Straighten a paperclip, leaving a hooked end small enough to fit through the spool. Place the thin rubber band on the hook. 2. Push the paper clip’s straight end through the hole in the spool. Pull the rubber band through until both ends of the band are sticking out. 3. Break one toothpick in half and thread it through the loop in the rubber band. 4. Pull the other end of the band so that the toothpick is held in place against the spool. Tape it. 5. Add tires by stretching the thick rubber bands over the raised outer edges of the spool. 6. Thread the rubber band through a washer. Thread another toothpick through the loop in the band. 7. Wind up the rubber band using the toothpick. 8. Holding the toothpick so that the rubber band doesn’t unwind, put the racer on a flat surface, then let it go! The most important part of any car is the engine, which turns the energy stored in a source such as gasoline, electricity, or a spring, into the energy of motion. The engine of your spool racer is a rubber band, which, when stretched and twisted, becomes a combination torsion/extension spring. Let’s explore the science behind your spool racer! Anatomy of a Spool Racer - The larger toothpick is a crank for winding the rubber band. When you release the spool racer, the toothpick drags on the surface, preventing the rubber band from untwisting rapidly in the air. This forces the potential energy in the rubber band to be expended by rolling the spool. - The half toothpick anchors the other end of the rubber band permanently, which also prevents the rubber band from untwisting in the air when you release your racer. - The thin rubber band is a combination torsion/extension spring that powers your racer. It stretches and twists as it acquires energy when you wind it up. - The thick rubber bands are tires that create equal friction between each side of the spool racer and the surface so that the spool rolls in a straight path. - The washer minimizes friction between the toothpick and the spool so that the spool can turn easily as the rubber band unwinds. --- Potential and Kinetic Energy Energy is the ability for things to change and move. It can be the energy of an object’s motion, called kinetic energy, or it can be the energy stored in an object because of its position or state, called potential energy. Think of potential energy as kinetic energy waiting to happen! Imagine a roller coaster: when it is at the top of the hill, the car has a lot of potential energy due to its height and its ability to move downward, but it has no kinetic energy (motion). As the car zooms down the hill, its potential energy is released and converted into kinetic energy. As the potential energy decreases, the kinetic energy increases. At the bottom of the hill there is no more potential energy. It has all been used up to move the car! --- Elastic Potential Energy: Springs Elastic potential energy is potential energy stored in things that can change their shape when force is applied. When you stretch and twist a rubber band in your spool racer, you are using kinetic energy from your hand to store elastic potential energy in the rubber band. When you release the rubber band, its elastic potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy to power your spool racer. Any object that can store elastic energy can be called a spring. The most common types of human-made springs are compression springs, extension springs, and torsion springs, often in the shape of coils. Compression Springs - Compression springs acquire energy when they’re compressed to make them smaller. They release their energy by getting bigger in order to return to their original shape. Extension Springs - Extension springs acquire energy when they’re pulled to make them bigger. They release their energy by getting smaller in order to return to their original shape. Torsion Springs - Torsion springs acquire energy by being twisted. They release their energy by untwisting in order to return to their original shape.	9ceac650-20d2-4822-b606-2b74177d6f49	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://ligerbots.org/docs/activities/spool_racer.pdf	2021-10-18T23:38:44+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585215.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20211018221501-20211019011501-00513.warc.gz	484,669,799	926	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.996884	eng_Latn	0.997795	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1038, 4311 ]	[ 3.734375 ]	1	0
the Trend APRIL 2002 Music and Costumes I love to dance, and since I live in a small town, my mom drives me to Weatherford, Texas, every Thursday to take jazz and tap lessons, and on Friday for ballet. I have moved up to Level 2, which means I have a different teacher on Thursday. We’ve been working on a dance for a competition. We compete for a trophy. We had learned half the dance, when the teacher put it to music. The music wasn’t the best choice, and one girl dropped out because her mom didn’t like it. Then we learned some more steps. One day at an extra practice, the teacher asked me, “Have you seen the costume yet?” When I saw the picture of it, I knew that I wasn’t going to wear it. When my mom (who hadn’t seen the costume) and I were home, we talked about it. We decided that it was too immodest. She called the studio the next day to tell them that I would not be participating in the dance. I hope that my decision helped the other dancers choose the right. Christy Abraham, age 9 Azle, Texas Temple Report When my class was studying architecture this year in school, each student was assigned to prepare both a report and a three-dimensional model of a famous building or other structure. Since my parents were married in the Salt Lake Temple, it is very special to my family. My dad had the great idea of using sugar cubes to make my model of it. We thought that sugar cubes were perfect because their white color symbolized the purity of the temple. I realized that the shape of the cubes was also appropriate because the Salt Lake Temple was built using huge granite boulders that were cut by hand into blocks. My five-year-old brother, Rollins, decided to make a temple, too. We thought his turned out to look a lot like the Manti Utah Temple. Presenting the report let me tell my class a little about the Church and the importance of temples. My model was even put on display in the school media center for a few weeks! Everyone who saw it could read the label we made for it: The Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. I look forward to my next chance to tell others about the Church. Niles Wimber, age 8 McDonough, Georgia The Friend welcomes your letters sharing a spiritual experience, your testimony, or your feelings about the Friend magazine. Send them to Childviews, Friend, 24th Floor, 50 East North Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah 84150–3226. Please include a picture of yourself and your name, age, and address. Submissions may be edited for length and clarity. Stories and Features IFC Childviews 2 Come Listen to a Prophet’s Voice: From a Log Farmhouse / President Gordon B. Hinckley 4 Holy Place: A Story About the Laie Hawai‘i Temple 7 Special Witness: Joseph, the Seer / Elder Neal A. Maxwell 8 Friend to Friend: Important People / Elder Val Rigby Christensen 10 Hats Off to Herb 14 New Testament Stories: The Lost Son 19 Sharing Time: The Greatest Gift 26 Friends in the News 28 A Prophet’s Example 32 Our Creative Friends 34 Trying to Be Like Jesus Christ 36 Exploring: First Latter-day Temple 42 Blessings of Heaven on Earth (poster article) 44 From the Life of Harold B. Lee: His Mother Saves His Life 46 Making Friends: Alicia-anne Attridge of Wilmot, Nova Scotia, Canada IBC Guide to the Friend For Little Friends 38 Who Is in Daddy’s Bed? 40 Small Beginnings 41 The City of Enoch Verse 27 With the Savior Things to Make and Do 13 Journal Page 23 Funstuf 24 Listen to Our Leaders 31 Temple Cards Hidden Word Dedicate, dedicated: When a temple is completed, it is dedicated, or given to the Lord as His house, in a special prayer. This term appears in Exploring, “Holy Place,” Making Friends, “Blessings of Heaven on Earth,” and Temple Cards in this issue. See if you can find it. Cover by David Deitrick I have tried to picture in imagination that April 6 of 1830, the day the Church was organized. The few who believed in Joseph's mission gathered on that day, which was designated by divine revelation as "being one thousand eight hundred and thirty years since the coming of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ in the flesh" (Doctrine & Covenants 20:1). One wonders whether any of that group, other than Joseph Smith, who saw the prophetic vision, had any idea of the greatness of the thing they were beginning. From a rural area in Fayette, New York, from the simple Whitmer log farmhouse, there was to grow an organization worldwide in its scope and numbering millions in its membership. As we think of the growth of the Church, our minds are drawn to the epic and painful movement from the farmlands of rural New York to the valley of the Great Salt Lake, and [from there] to the nations of the earth. Following the organization of the Church, persecution soon raised its ugly head. A decision was made to move to Kirtland, Ohio. There the early members built their beautiful temple, and in its prayer of dedication the young prophet invoked [called on] the powers of heaven that the Church "may come forth out of the wilderness of darkness, and shine forth fair as the moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners" (Doctrine and Covenants 109:73). But the fulfillment of that prayer would not come quickly. The peace of Kirtland was shattered by insults, financial distress, the tarring and feathering of their leader. In Missouri they built another center. This was to have been Zion. That dream was blasted with rifle fire, the burning of homes, the wolf cries of the night-riding mobs, the illegal expulsion order, followed by the painful march across the bottomlands of the Mississippi and the crossing of the river to the temporary asylum (place of safety) in Illinois. Their prophet did not make that journey with the fleeing exiles. During the bitter winter of 1838–1839, he was imprisoned in the cold, miserable basement cell of a Missouri jail, the victim of a false arrest. [Feeling abandoned, helpless, and] lonely, he cried out, "O God, where art thou?" (Doctrine and Covenants 121:1). In the [Lord's answer] to that prayer came these remarkable words of prophecy: "The ends of the earth shall inquire after thy name, and fools shall have thee in derision, and hell shall rage against thee; "While the pure in heart, and the wise, and the noble, and the virtuous, shall seek counsel, and authority, and blessings constantly from under thy hand" (Doctrine and Covenants 122:1-2). My [young friends], all of us who are part of this great kingdom established among the nations of the earth are the fulfillment of that prophecy, as is the Church itself. Joseph never saw the day of which we are a part, except through the vision of a seer. He died that sultry June 27, 1844, at Carthage, Illinois. I give you my testimony of him. He was the ordained servant of God, raised up to be the mighty prophet of this dispensation. The Church organized [172] years ago stands today a tower of strength, an anchor of certainty in an unsettled world. Its future is secure as the church and kingdom of God. May we live its teachings and work to fulfill the Lord's purposes as we individually seek to model our lives after its true and living head, the Lord Jesus Christ. (See Ensign, January 1997, pages 2–3.) Holy Place: A Story About the Laie Hawaii Temple By Shauna Gibby (A true story) In 1919, Abigail Kailimai was four years old. She lived with her mother and father and all her older brothers and sisters in the town of Hilo on the big island of Hawaii. From her house, she could see the beautiful ocean where seals, turtles, whales, and many colorful fish swam. Towering over her town was the large mountain called Mauna Kea. Thick rain forests and green pastures grew between her house and the mountain. Abigail could sometimes see puffs of smoke in the sky from volcanoes on the other side of the mountain. Her father often told her wonderful stories. Her favorite story was about the temple then being built almost two hundred miles away on the island of Oahu. Father told her how, long ago, Joseph F. Smith had come to Hawaii as a missionary. The year Abigail was born, he had returned as President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and had dedicated a sugarcane field where the Church would build a temple. Father told her the ground there was now holy because the prophet had blessed it. Father told Abigail how much the Hawaiian people loved President Smith. They called him Iosepa, the Hawaiian name for Joseph. Father's eyes sparkled when he told Abigail what a wonderful place the temple would be. He promised to take her and her family to the temple when it was built so that they could be sealed together forever. On Sundays, Abigail's family went to church. Some people walked to church, and some rode horses. Father had an automobile. The whole family climbed inside it and rode to church. She loved learning about Jesus there. Her teacher often talked about the holy temple that was being built. One day, Abigail's mother told her the temple was almost finished! Their family needed to get ready to make the long journey there. Mother sewed new white dresses for Abigail and her sisters. They had been saving their money for a long time so that they could sail to Oahu. Father told them that they needed to get ready to go to the holy temple in other ways, too. They needed to try to act as Jesus would, so that they would be worthy to go inside His house. Mother wrote down the names of her grandparents and great-grandparents and other relatives who had died so that they could be sealed to the family, too. Finally the day came for them to leave. Abigail wore her prettiest dress and carried a small bag with her new white dress in it. Their friends came to give them flower leis to wear around their necks and to wish them a good journey. Abigail and her family climbed into the boat and were soon far out on the ocean. Father showed Abigail how smoke and steam came out of the boat’s smokestack. The steam made the boat go. Abigail liked to watch the boat slice through the waves and to see the dolphins swimming alongside. After a very long day, they finally arrived in Oahu. Abigail and her family went to the town of Laie, where the new temple had been built. One of the families living there invited them to stay in their home. Abigail shared a room where all the girls slept. In the morning, the children went outside and played in the sand dunes near the beach. The next day, November 27, 1919, President Heber J. Grant came to dedicate the temple. Abigail could feel that the temple was a wonderful, holy place. After the dedication, the Saints held a luau, or big feast, to celebrate. They ate pork, chicken, fish, bananas, rice, and coconuts. They sang beautiful songs. One week after the temple was dedicated, Abigail and her family went inside it to be sealed together. She wore her new white dress. Father told her that now their family could be together even after they went to heaven. Abigail felt so happy! Fifteen years later, Abigail fell in love with David, a fine young man. They wanted theirs to be a “forever family,” too, so they went to the temple in Laie to be married. She loved being there; it was a holy place. She dreamed that one day she would be a temple worker and help other people who came to the temple. Sixty-five years later, another temple was dedicated in Hawaii. This one was on Abigail’s island, in a town called Kona. President Gordon B. Hinckley came to dedicate it. Abigail was there, leading the choir. After the dedication, she went to the temple each week to help those who came to that beautiful, holy place. Joseph, the Seer By Elder Neal A. Maxwell Of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles Did you know that Elder Neal A. Maxwell likes to play tennis and to read? He also loves the Prophet Joseph Smith and bears testimony of him: Young Joseph was told that his name would be “both good and evil spoken of” throughout the world (Joseph Smith—History 1:33). . . . Yet his contemporary religious leaders, then much better known than Joseph, have faded into the footnotes of history, while the work of Joseph Smith grows constantly. . . . In a prophetic father’s blessing given in December 1834 to Joseph Smith, Jr., Father Smith confirmed . . . upon young Joseph: “Thy God has called thee by name out of the heavens . . . to do a work in this generation which no other man would do as Thyself.” The ancient Joseph [in Old Testament times] “looked after his posterity in the last days . . . And sought diligently to know . . . who would bring the word of the Lord [to them] and his eyes beheld thee, my son: [Joseph Smith, Jr.] his heart rejoiced and his soul was satisfied.” Young Joseph also heard his father promise, “Thou shalt like to do the work which the Lord shall command Thee.” (See 2 Nephi 3:8.) . . . Was Joseph imperfect like other prophets? Of course! Surely, Joseph could identify with these words of an ancient prophet, which he translated: “Condemn me not because of mine imperfection, neither my father, because of his imperfection, . . . but rather give thanks unto God that he hath made manifest unto you our imperfections, that ye may learn to be more wise than we have been” (Mormon 9:31; see also Doctrine and Covenants 67:5). . . . Did Joseph experience the same anxieties in carrying out his mission as did other prophets? Indeed! Joseph could understand with what feelings a weary and beset Paul wrote: “For, when we were come into Macedonia, our flesh had no rest, but we were troubled on every side; without were fightings, within were fears” (2 Corinthians 7:5; see also 2 Corinthians 4:8). Was Joseph unjustly accused as were other prophets? Yes! Even unto this very day fragments of fact are flung at his memory. Paul was accused of being mad [crazy]. (See Acts 26:24.) Even Jesus himself was accused of being a winebibber [drunkard], of being possessed of a devil, and of being mad. (See Matthew 11:19; John 10:20.) Yet, in the midst of all these things, as promised, Joseph loved the work to which he had been called. . . . As was promised Joseph in an 1834 father’s blessing: “Thousands and tens of thousands shall come to a knowledge of the truth, through thy ministry, and thou shalt rejoice with Them in the Celestial Kingdom; [and] thou shalt stand on Mount Zion when the tribes of Jacob come shouting from the north, and with thy brethren, the Sons of Ephraim, crown them in the name of Jesus Christ.” . . . Therefore, [my young] brothers and sisters, I have no hesitancy—only gladness—in declaring my everlasting admiration for Joseph, the Seer! I thank the Father for providing such a seer! I thank my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, for calling, directing, and tutoring Joseph! (Ensign, November 1983, pages 54–56.) I’m a strong believer that the Lord places important people in our lives. These people deeply influence us, teach us, and provide us with the resources we need to develop strong testimonies and learn correct principles. These people can be our parents, other family members, Church teachers, friends, or neighbors. They are often prompted by the Spirit to do and say things that are exactly what we need at certain times in our lives. In my life, there have been many of these people. Most important, of course, was my mother. My father died when I was about six years old, and my mother raised my three brothers and sisters and me by herself. She raised us under the guidance of the Spirit and taught us the importance of kindness, obedience, and righteousness. I learned early in my life to listen closely to my mother. One time when I was heading to a nearby swimming hole with my friends, my mother advised me to not go. “I just don’t feel good about you going,” she said. Despite her warning, I chose to go anyway. I nearly drowned that day. Thankfully, a friend pulled me out and saved my life. That experience taught me to pay close attention to my mother’s feelings, and it also taught me the importance of living worthy of the Spirit and its promptings. In addition to my mother, more than one Primary teacher influenced my upbringing. One day in Primary, a teacher shared with us the story of the Restoration. She explained that there were many different religions in the world. I was surprised to hear that. I lived in a small Utah town where practically everyone was a member of the Church, so I assumed that everyone believed the same things I did. My teacher continued by telling us the story of fourteen-year-old Joseph Smith and his deep desire to find the truth. She told us how he read the scriptures that talked about asking the Lord for guidance. Then she talked about... the special day when he went into a beautiful grove of trees near his home and knelt to ask Heavenly Father for help. I had actually heard the Joseph Smith story several times before, but for some reason this time was different. I was only about seven years old, but I began to understand some of the great importance of having the restored gospel in my life. Through the years, I grew to love and appreciate my Primary teachers and other Church leaders. They played an important role in teaching me the gospel and helping me develop my testimony and learn how to live like Heavenly Father wanted me to live. Over and over, I have been reminded that people play important roles in our lives. One cold January day when I was in high school, I stayed after school for wrestling practice. My home was ten miles from the high school, so I usually caught a ride home after practice. On this particular night, I didn’t feel very well. The only ride I could get was in the back of a pickup, and when the driver dropped me off, I was still at least a mile from home. I felt frozen, and I remember not being able to think straight. There were no cars in sight as I stumbled down the road toward home. Before long, a car appeared in the distance. As it grew closer, I weakly waved my arm, hoping the driver would stop. He did. It was my brother-in-law, who had felt a strong prompting to come looking for me. The next day, I was diagnosed with pneumonia. I was very sick for several weeks. I’m not sure what would have happened to me if my brother-in-law hadn’t showed up, but I’m certain that he was following the Spirit when he went out looking for me that night. Because I grew up in a single-parent home, I’ve always felt a great closeness to young children who have only one parent. Certainly there can be difficulties, but one parent who is led by the Spirit can do a great job of raising a family. My childhood memories are happy, fun ones. I gained a strong testimony of the gospel, and I grew up to be responsible and obedient. The Lord loves every one of His children. He does all He can to help us be happy and return to live with Him. One of the greatest things He does is provide each of us with people in our lives who love us, teach us, and help us become the people we need to be. We should pay special attention to those people. We need to listen to them, follow them, and respect them. As we try to live like these righteous and inspired people, we will be blessed. On a bright Sunday morning in 1910, I hurried through the streets of Bristol, England, with my family. “Dad,” I asked, with a tug on his coattails, “will there be many people?” “More than usual, Hetty,” Dad answered. “We don’t often have an Apostle come to our district conference.” “But remember,” my big brother, Herb, said, “this is a church meeting, not a social gathering.” He tried to look stern, but I could tell that he was teasing. “There will be plenty of time for both,” Dad said. “After all, it’s hard enough to make friends nowadays.” He’d said that last bit quietly, almost to himself. I knew life hadn’t been easy for Dad since he’d been baptized. His coworkers teased him about giving up his pipe. And the daily papers often wrote mean things about the Church. But Dad stayed strong. Sometimes I wondered how I would do if I were faced with persecution. I looked up at Herb and wondered what he would do. We soon reached Wolseley Hall. It wasn’t really a proper church building, but that day it looked like one. Members in their best Sunday clothes milled outside the doors, shaking hands and greeting old friends. Then everyone gathered in the hall. When we were seated, some men filed into the seats in the front. I recognized the district president, President Little. He was followed by a man in a long-tailed black coat and a tall silk hat. I tapped my dad’s arm. “Is that Elder Clawson?” I whispered. Dad nodded. I knew that Elder Rudger Clawson was an Apostle. I looked closely at him, but except for the way he was dressed, he looked the same as the men sitting next to him. But later, when he spoke, I knew that there was something special about him. The feeling in my heart reminded me of our first visit with the missionaries. When they had taught us about Joseph Smith, a warm feeling had filled the room. I felt that same warmth as I listened to Elder Clawson speak. We had three meetings that day, with a break in between each for a bite to eat. I thought I’d be tired of meetings, but I was a little sad when Elder Clawson stood up to give the last talk. I’d felt so good inside all day, I almost wished the day would never end. I tried hard to listen to Elder Clawson’s speech so that I could go home and write it in my journal. But as he was speaking, I heard shouts outside the hall. Suddenly a big splotch of mud hit the window above my head. More mud and rocks struck other windows around the hall, and the shouting grew louder. “What’s happening?” Herb whispered to Dad. “It sounds like a mob,” Dad answered grimly. Elder Clawson finished his talk as if nothing were happening, then announced that he would give the closing prayer. “We ask thee, Father, to watch over and protect us,” he prayed, and as he did, the fear left my heart. After Elder Clawson finished his prayer, he told us to stay in the hall until it was safe to leave. “What are we waiting for?” I whispered to Dad, after we’d been sitting for half an hour, listening to the shouting outside. “I don’t know,” my dad answered, “but the Lord will provide.” A few minutes later, a knock sounded boldly on the door. President Little opened the door a crack and peered out. There stood a friend of his, a police officer. He had his uniform on, and he had brought along another police officer. “Follow me,” the officer said. “I have a tram car waiting in the street.” The two officers turned and swung their clubs to make a path for us through the mob. “Stay close,” Dad whispered as we stepped out the door. I took a deep breath and threw my shoulders back, surprised to find that I wasn’t a bit scared. Elder Clawson followed behind us. As he walked through the door, shouts rang out. “There he is!” “The Mormon Apostle!” “Get him!” The crowd surged in around us, and Herb left my side. “Herb,” I called. I turned to see him pluck the hat from Elder Clawson’s head, cram it on his own and dash off. “There he goes!” someone shouted, pointing at the top hat bobbing through the crowd. “After him!” I stood, stunned, watching the crowd break up and chase my brother. Then I felt Dad tugging my hand. “Come, Hetty. He’ll be fine. Elder Clawson asked Heavenly Father to protect us.” “And He will,” said a voice behind us. It was Elder Clawson. He watched his hat for a moment as it disappeared into the dimming light. “You have a brave son,” he said, turning to shake my dad’s hand. “May I come over early tomorrow and thank him?” Early the next morning, President Little and Elder Clawson came to our house. Herb, shy for once, placed the hat into Elder Clawson’s hand without a word. “How did you get away?” President Little asked Herb. “I hid in the bushes for a while, till they tired of looking.” “Well done, son,” Elder Clawson said. “What made you think of putting my hat on?” Herb looked bewildered for a second. “I don’t know.” Elder Clawson smiled. “I do. You were prompted by the Holy Spirit.” He shook Herb’s hand. I smiled proudly at my brother. He had done the right thing. I knew in my heart that I had, too. When we stepped into that mob, I hadn’t bowed my head and tried to hide. I’d held it high to show that I was glad to belong to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. I promised myself then that I would always hold my head high and never be ashamed of the gospel of Jesus Christ. “We need not apologize for our beliefs nor back down from that which we know to be true. But we can share it in a spirit of loving understanding—boldly and confidently, with an eye single to the glory of God.” Elder M. Russell Ballard Of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (Ensign, May 2000, page 33.) My Heroes People Who Have Made Good Choices and Set a Good Example for Me After I am baptized, Heavenly Father and Jesus Christ will give me the gift of the Holy Ghost. What I’d Like to Be Like When I Grow Up How the Holy Ghost Has Helped/Will Help Me A man had two sons. Each son would get some money when the father died. The younger son did not want to wait until his father’s death. He asked for his part of the money at once. The father gave it to him. Luke 15:11–12 The son took the money and left home. He went to another land, where he spent all of it. And he sinned again and again. Luke 15:13 Finally he had no money to buy food. Very hungry, he asked a man for help. The man sent him to feed pigs. Luke 15:14–15 The son was so hungry that he wanted to eat the pigs’ food. Even the servants at home had better food to eat than he did. He wanted to go home, but he thought that he was not good enough to be a son to his father. Luke 15:16–19 He decided to repent and ask to be a servant in his father’s house. When he went home, his father saw him coming. Luke 15:19–20 The father ran to meet his son and put his arms around him and kissed him. Luke 15:20 The son told his father that he had sinned. Luke 15:21 The father told a servant to bring the best clothes and put them on the son. The servant put shoes on the son's feet and a ring on his finger. Luke 15:22 Then the father told the servant to make a feast for the son. He wanted everyone to celebrate because the son who had gone away was now home. The son who had sinned had now repented. Luke 15:23–24 The older son had been working in the field. When he came home, he heard music and dancing and asked a servant what was happening. The servant told him that the younger son had come home and their father wanted all to celebrate. Luke 15:25–27 Angry, the older son would not go into the house. His father came out to talk with him. Luke 15:28 The father said that the older son had always stayed with him and enjoyed all that was there. And everything the father now had would belong to the older son. But his younger son had gone away. And because he had come home, it was right to celebrate. His younger son had sinned, but he had repented. Luke 15:31–32 Jesus ended the story. He had now told the Pharisees three parables to show them why He talked to sinners. The Savior wanted the Pharisees to know how much Heavenly Father loves everyone. He loves people who obey Him. He also loves sinners, but He cannot bless them until they repent. He wants sinners to repent so that they can come back to Him. John 3:16–17 The Greatest Gift By Vicki F. Matsumori Isaac and Rebekah were to be married. Their families were joyful that these young people had found someone faithful to marry. They knew how important it was to be married in the covenant. (When you are married “in the covenant,” you are sealed by the holy priesthood to be married to each other for eternity. That is Heavenly Father’s promise to you; you promise Him to live to be worthy of this blessing.) They knew that if Isaac and Rebekah married in the covenant, they would receive many wonderful blessings. Everyone was happy. Does this sound like other young men and women you know who marry in the covenant by being sealed in the temple? It is. The difference is that Isaac and Rebekah lived thousands of years ago, during Old Testament times, and they didn’t know each other before becoming engaged. Isaac’s father, Abraham, knew how important it was for Isaac to marry a faithful woman who believed in God as he did. Abraham knew that doing so was the only way that Isaac could be married in the covenant and receive all the blessings that Heavenly Father had promised. Abraham was so concerned about this that he sent his servant miles and miles away to search for the woman with the same religious beliefs as Isaac and who was chosen by God for him to marry. The Lord helped Abraham’s servant find Rebekah. She agreed to marry Isaac, even though she had never met him. You can read more about Isaac and Rebekah’s marriage in Genesis 24. Why was it so important for Isaac and Rebekah to marry someone in the covenant? Why is it important for you to marry a righteous member of the Church in the temple? When you are married in the temple, you are promised the blessings of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (see Genesis 22:17–18). One of these blessings is that you and your family, through priesthood power, can be sealed together forever. This is a wonderful gift from Heavenly Father. The Lord promised this and other blessings to Abraham’s righteous descendants. They were promised the priesthood and were given the responsibility to teach the gospel to others so that all families everywhere might have “the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal” (Abraham 2:11). When you grow up and go to the temple, you will learn more about the blessings of salvation and the great plan of happiness. You will make covenants. If you keep your covenants, Heavenly Father will bless you with “the greatest of all the gifts of God,” which is eternal life (see Doctrine and Covenants 14:7). By choosing to marry in the covenant, as Isaac and Rebekah did, you can have the great blessings the Lord wants to give you and your family. Temple Blessings Remove page 21; cut the puzzle apart along the broken lines. This is a two-sided puzzle. After you mix up the pieces, you can look at the pictures at the top of this page to see how to put the puzzle together. Going to the temple is like looking at the box-top picture of a jigsaw puzzle. In the temple, we see better how we need to fit the many parts of the gospel together to obtain exaltation. Sharing Time Ideas (Note: All songs are from Children’s Songbook (CS) unless otherwise indicated. GAK = Gospel Art Kit; TNGC = Teaching, No Greater Call) 1. Invite four adults to tell about prophets who have received revelation in the temple. Have them explain what was revealed and how it was revealed in the following instances: (1) Samuel—1 Sam. 3:1–20; (2) Joseph Smith—D&C 110, 137; (3) President Spencer W. Kimball—OD 2; (4) Lorenzo Snow—Primary 1 manual, p. 85 or Friend, Aug. 1993, pp. 14–15. Have the storytellers emphasize that the temple is the house of God. Explain that when we go to the temple, we can also feel Heavenly Father’s Spirit and receive personal revelation. Help the children memorize the ninth article of faith by cutting several copies of it into separate words and putting each copy into an envelope. Divide the Primary into groups of about five children. Give each group one of the envelopes. Have them put the words in order as the music leader sings “The Ninth Article of Faith” (p. 128) or a member of the presidency repeats the article of faith to help the children. Continue singing or repeating it until all of the groups have put the words in order. As a group completes the activity, have them sing or say the article of faith with the music leader or presidency member until they have it memorized. 2. Read John 14:26. Explain some of the ways that the Holy Ghost can reveal or help us remember things: dreams; visions; ideas; peaceful feelings; still, small voice. Sing “The Still Small Voice” (pp. 106–107). We can receive personal revelation in the temple (see Sharing Time Idea #1) and other places as well. Help the children understand that personal revelation may be received as a result of asking in prayer, reading the scriptures, and keeping the commandments. Find or draw simple drawings of the outdoors, a jail, a mountain, and a room in a house. Hang them in the four corners of the Primary room. Tell the children that they will learn about people who received revelation in each of those places. Divide the children into four groups and, using stations (see TNGC p. 179), have the children learn about revelations that were given in each of these locations: outdoors—Enos (Enos 1:1–5), Joseph Smith (JS—H 1:14–19), or Mary Fielding Smith (Primary 5 manual, pp. 246–248); jail—Joseph Smith (D&C 122 or Primary 5 manual, pp. 180–183); mountain—Moses (Ex. 3:1–6; 24:12–25:8); room—Joseph F. Smith (D&C 138: heading, 1, 11), Lehi (1 Ne. 1:5–8), or Mary (Luke 1:26–38). Sing songs from the “Prayer” and “Scriptures” section of the CS as the children move from station to station. Have the children write about or draw a picture of a time when they received inspiration or felt joy at home, at church, at school, or at a special occasion. They might also draw a picture or write a description of a place where they pray, read the scriptures, or where they might receive personal revelation. Have them add the page to their temple booklets or place them in their journals. 3. Help the children learn about the Savior and temple ordinances by showing parts of the video Special Witnesses of Christ (item #53584). Explain to the children that one role of the prophet and the Apostles is to testify of the Savior. To help the children focus on the message of each video segment, write the following song titles from the CS on the chalkboard in random order. Show a video segment, have the children choose a song that they feel goes with that segment, then sing it while you are locating the next segment. If the video is not available, ask someone to read the text from the Ensign, Apr. 2001, pp. 2–21. You may wish to preview the video to help you locate the needed segments more easily. Suggested video segments and songs could include: • Elder Russell M. Nelson, “I Lived in Heaven,” p. 4; • Elder Richard G. Scott, “When Jesus Christ Was Baptized,” p. 102; • Elder Henry B. Eyring, “I Love to See the Temple,” p. 95; • President Gordon B. Hinckley, “Jesus Has Risen,” p. 70; • President Boyd K. Packer, “The Hearts of the Children,” pp. 92–93; • President Gordon B. Hinckley, “The Sacred Grove,” p. 87. If time permits, show the rest of the video. Bear testimony of the blessings of having living prophets today and of the blessings that the temple brings to us. 4. Display pictures of some of the children’s parents when they were younger. Have the children guess whose parents they are. How did they know? Frequently we look like our parents. List on the chalkboard physical traits we inherit from our parents: eye color, hair color, height, etc. We are also sons and daughters of Heavenly Father. How do we know this? Display a picture of the First Vision (GAK 403). We learn from the scriptures that we were created in Heavenly Father’s image (see Gen. 1:26–27) and that He has a body of flesh and bones (see D&C 130:22). Sing “I Am a Child of God” (pp. 2–3). On the chalkboard draw a ladder with seven rungs leading from a circle labeled “Earth” to an area labeled “Heaven.” Heavenly Father promises that we can have an inheritance in His kingdom and return to live with Him if we do certain things. Make the following seven wordstrips with the scripture references written on the front and the song titles written on the back: Hebrews 11:6—“Faith” (pp. 96–97); 3 Nephi 11:38—“When I Am Baptized” (p. 103); Doctrine and Covenants 10:55—“The Church of Jesus Christ” (p. 77); Mosiah 15:11—“We Listen to a Prophet’s Voice” (Hymns, no. 22); Doctrine and Covenants 6:37—“Keep the Commandments” (pp. 146–147); John 13:15—“I’m Trying to Be Like Jesus” (pp. 78–79); and Matthew 7:21—“I Will Follow God’s Plan” (pp. 164–165). Place a wordstrip below each ladder rung. Have the children take turns choosing a wordstrip. As the Primary sings the song, the child’s class tries to find the scripture before the song is finished. Have the child read the scripture and write on the ladder rung what we need to do to receive our eternal inheritance. For younger children: Teach the following finger play. “A tiny seed can grow to be” (Thumb and index finger together) / “A shady, leafy apple tree.” (Arms held up as branches) / “A bunny has a funny habit” (Wiggle nose) / “Of growing up to be a rabbit.” (Two fingers [ears] up; stroke with the other hand) / “Have you seen a pollywog?” (Hands swimming) / “It will grow up to be a frog.” (Left palm up for lily pad; right hand [frog] jumps onto pad) / “What of children in a row?” (Both hands, all fingers up) / “Do you think that they will grow?” (Arms extended up) / “Of course they will, and there is One” (Pointer finger up) / “In whose image they become.” (Right arm up) / “Children of God may grow to be” (Nod head yes) / “Like Him by living faithfully.” (Fold arms). Have the children draw pictures to illustrate the finger play, including a picture of themselves now and what they hope to become. 5. Song presentation: Have a Primary presidency member teach the plan of salvation, using and displaying the following pictures: diagram of the plan of salvation (see Primary 6 manual, p. 2); picture of pre-earth life (Primary 3 manual, picture 3:3); the world (GAK 600); helping others (Primary 3 manual, picture 3:27); and a happy family (GAK 616). Refer to the visual aids as you teach the song “I Will Follow God’s Plan” (pp. 164–165). Divide the Primary into five groups. Assign the first three groups to each listen for either the first, second, or third phrase that begins with “My life.” Have the fourth group listen for the words following “My choice,” and the fifth group for what we seek. Sing the song up to “direct me from birth.” Sing that much of the song again, singing the first two words, then pointing to the group assigned that phrase and having them sing the rest of the phrase with you. Now have the entire Primary sing the completion of each phrase. Point to the appropriate pictures hanging on the wall to help the children remember these phrases: “my life has a plan” (plan of salvation), “in heav’n it began” (pre-earth life), “to this lovely home on earth” (the world). For the second half of the song, ask the same five groups to listen for the first, second, third, fourth, or fifth “I will” as you sing it through once. Sing the second half again, this time pointing to each group in turn. Have them stand as they sing their phrase to show their commitment to what they will do (follow, work, pray, walk in his way, be happy). Sing the second half a third time, asking the children to stand up when they hear their phrase. Sing the second half of the song once more, pointing to the appropriate picture: “always walk in his way” (helping others) and “I will be happy” (happy family). Have the children sing the entire song. Bear your testimony about the blessings that come from following God’s plan. 6. Additional Friend resources: “Emily’s Heritage,” Aug. 1999, pp. 8–10; “Ina,” Oct. 1999, pp. 10–12; “Thirst!,” June 2000, pp. 20–22; “Lost in the Jungle,” June 2000, pp. 40–42; and “Joseph Smith Said He Saw Two Personages,” Oct. 2000, pp. 40–41. Additional Sharing Times in the Friend: “The Plan of Salvation Offers Me Peace,” Mar. 1994, pp. 14–15; “Ponder, Pray, and Listen,” Apr. 1996, pp. 4–5, 26; “One of God’s Greatest Gifts,” June 2000, pp. 43–45. 1. A bride and groom holding hands, symbolizing marriage. 2. A temple with bulls on top, representing the temple in Jerusalem. 3. The earth, symbolizing the world. 4. Jesus Christ standing on clouds, representing his ascension. 5. Planets and stars, representing the universe. 6. A woman holding a baby, symbolizing motherhood. 7. A family with two children, representing a family. 8. Two men talking to each other, representing friendship. 9. Jesus Christ praying, representing prayer. 10. A man and woman standing next to each other, representing companionship. The Salt Lake Temple is the largest temple in the world. It was built by the people who followed Joseph Smith, the prophet who founded The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The temple is a symbol of the faith and devotion of those who built it. Special Seeds By Marilyn Senterfitt Spring is here! It’s time to start planting seeds. To discover a wonderful place, unscramble the letters on the seeds in each row and write the word on the blank above it. The _______________ is the ________________ of the ________________. Who Is This Prophet? By Donna Lugg Pape He was a very faithful man And took his only son To Mount Moriah to offer him So God’s word would be done. To check your answer and to learn more about this incident, read Genesis 22:1-12, including footnote 1a. Funstuf Answers Special seeds: The temple is the house of the Lord. An important event will take place on April 6–7, 2002. A prophet of the Lord, President Gordon B. Hinckley, will preside over the 172nd Annual General Conference of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. During the sessions, President Hinckley and other General Authorities and leaders will teach us what the Lord wants us to know and do. Illustrated by Elise Black Instructions 1. Carefully remove pages 24–25 from the magazine, cut out the two word sheets, and make additional copies as needed. 2. Before conference begins, study the list of words and/or look at each word’s picture on the word sheets. As you listen to each session of conference, make a tally mark in the box for that session next to each word/picture for each time you hear the word. (Note: You may also mark words you hear that are similar to the word on the word sheet, such as child for children or praying for prayer.) 3. At the end of each session, have each participant count how many tally marks they have for each word/picture. \| CONFERENCE WORD SHEET \| SATURDAY A.M. \| SATURDAY P.M. \| SUNDAY A.M. \| SUNDAY P.M. \| \|-----------------------\|---------------\|---------------\|-------------\|-------------\| \| Baptism \| \| \| \| \| \| Book of Mormon \| \| \| \| \| \| Children \| \| \| \| \| \| Faith \| \| \| \| \| \| Family \| \| \| \| \| \| Forgiveness \| \| \| \| \| \| Heavenly Father \| \| \| \| \| \| Holy Ghost \| \| \| \| \| \| Jesus Christ \| \| \| \| \| \| Love \| \| \| \| \| \| Missionaries \| \| \| \| \| \| Music \| \| \| \| \| \| Parents \| \| \| \| \| \| Prayer \| \| \| \| \| \| President Gordon B. Hinckley \| \| \| \| \| \| Prophet \| \| \| \| \| \| Repentance \| \| \| \| \| \| Sabbath Day \| \| \| \| \| \| Scriptures \| \| \| \| \| \| Temple \| \| \| \| \| \| Testimony \| \| \| \| \| \| CONFERENCE WORD SHEET \| SATURDAY A.M. \| SATURDAY P.M. \| SUNDAY A.M. \| SUNDAY P.M. \| \|-----------------------\|---------------\|---------------\|-------------\|-------------\| \| Baptism \| \| \| \| \| \| Book of Mormon \| \| \| \| \| \| Children \| \| \| \| \| \| Faith \| \| \| \| \| \| Family \| \| \| \| \| \| Forgiveness \| \| \| \| \| \| Heavenly Father \| \| \| \| \| \| Holy Ghost \| \| \| \| \| \| Jesus Christ \| \| \| \| \| \| Love \| \| \| \| \| \| Missionaries \| \| \| \| \| \| Music \| \| \| \| \| \| Parents \| \| \| \| \| \| Prayer \| \| \| \| \| \| President Gordon B. Hinckley \| \| \| \| \| \| Prophet \| \| \| \| \| \| Repentance \| \| \| \| \| \| Sabbath Day \| \| \| \| \| \| Scriptures \| \| \| \| \| \| Temple \| \| \| \| \| \| Testimony \| \| \| \| \| Alysa Hoskin, 9, Fort Wayne, Indiana, is helpful and kind. She likes to read books and the Friend, play with her friends, and attend church. Clayton Adam Young, 7, Coalinga, California, likes to read the scriptures. It has made him a better reader at school. He plays many sports, and with eight in his family, they just about have their own team! Ladybeth Cisneros Jimenez, 8, Oaxaca, Mexico, recalls her baptism with great joy and obeys Heavenly Father. She likes to break the piñata on her birthday, say the family prayer, and read the scriptures. Daniel Arthur Vigil, 11, Denver, Colorado, enjoys playing soccer, dancing Mexican folk dances, and playing the piano. He prays for his brother who is on a mission in Chile. Daniel has his dad’s middle name. Bethany Jones, 5, Lindenhurst, Illinois, enjoys being the only daughter in her family; she has three brothers. Bethany likes to play computer games and pretend with her younger brother. Jordan Daniel Malan, 10, Morgan, Utah, likes baseball, soccer, basketball, and Scouts. He plays the piano, and he mows his grandpa’s lawn. His favorite things are family home evening and shooting rockets with his dad. Jasmine A. Reed, 6, Orlando, Florida, is great at telling scripture stories. She is very thoughtful and likes to make others happy. She is learning how to play the piano and is quite an artist. Amric Zane Sobczak, 7, Elma, Washington, looks forward to attending Primary each week. His family calls him their “stern warrior” because he is ready at all times to stand for what is right. Spencer Tuia, 2, Broken Arrow, Oklahoma, enjoys playing with her friends in the ward nursery. “I Am a Child of God” is her favorite song. She loves her family and always gives them hugs and kisses. Erik Christoffersen, 8, has a twin sister, Sara Diai. He likes school, especially math. He enjoys fossils, playing sports, and riding his bike. Rachel Scroggins, 11, Las Vegas, Nevada, loves her sister and three brothers. She helps her mom a lot by baby-sitting her baby brother, Adam. Her hobbies are soccer, cooking, and playing the piano. Chase Hanson, 10, Shelley, Idaho, has earned his Gospel in Action award. He has played the prelude music for Primary. He likes to play football, soccer, basketball, and golf. He loves the Book of Mormon. Shelby Anne Worley, 9, Creedmoor, North Carolina, likes the drums, piano, and trumpet. She enjoys many sports, especially football, basketball, and soccer. Brendon Shaine Belluomini, 3, Fairfield, California, has memorized all the latter-day prophets for Primary and is saving his money for a mission. He enjoys riding his scooter, swimming, and sports. Ashlee Nicoll, 10, Mesa, Arizona, likes to ride bikes with her dad, help her grandpa on his cattle ranch, and talk to her grandma on the phone. She has earned her Gospel in Action Award and is a good student. Kegan Black, 5, Crofton, Maryland, is not the youngest in his family anymore. He is happy to be a big brother to his baby sister. He likes to color, take friends to Primary activities, and play with puppies. Hannah Martin, 10, Nelson, New Zealand, enjoys reading, baking cakes, and playing with her baby brother. She is the second youngest of eight children. Taylor Smith, 11, Layton, Utah, is eager to receive the priesthood and to go on a mission. He enjoys bearing his testimony. Roller hockey, drama, piano, Scouts, and eating out are things he likes. Natalie Baird, 9, Woodbridge, Virginia, is learning the articles of faith for her Gospel in Action Award. She has two dogs, Cody and Maggie. Yellow is her favorite color, and gymnastics is her favorite sport. A good speller, Thomas Elkington, 11, Bone, Idaho, earned his first merit badge in genealogy and knows all of the articles of faith. He enjoys fishing and riding motorcycles. Whitney Benson, 6, Forest Grove, Oregon, is a very good artist. She enjoys bearing her testimony on fast Sunday. Playing with her brothers and helping around the house are enjoyable, too. Joshua LaMar Orton, 2, Catarina, Italy, likes to sing, dance, attend preschool, play with friends, help his mom cook and sweep, and hug his baby brother, Nathan. With the Savior By Douglas M. Brown When I read the scriptures, It almost seems to me That I am with the Savior While He teaches by the sea. His words mean so very much. They show me that He cares. The scriptures bring me close to Him And make me feel I’m there. So every night I read them Before I go to bed. It fills my heart with gladness To read what the Savior said. Nina watched as Sister Kelly struggled to pick up the toys her baby had scattered during sacrament meeting. Sister Kelly was going to have a new baby soon, and Nina figured it must be hard for her to move around. She wondered how Sister Kelly managed to take care of Emily, especially since Brother Kelly had to travel a lot for his job. The Kellys had moved into a house down the street from Nina a few months ago. Sister Kelly waved to her each afternoon as she walked home. from middle school. Sometimes she stopped and played with two-year-old Emily for a few minutes. Nina stooped now and began to gather up the toys and put them into the diaper bag. “Thank you, Nina,” Sister Kelly said, standing with a sigh. “It’s getting harder and harder to bend over.” She smiled as she patted her rounded stomach, but her smile looked tired rather than happy. How does Sister Kelly take care of Emily? Nina wondered. But what can I do? I’m only eleven years old. I have school all day and homework after that. Nina thought about it all during Primary. When a girl in her Valiant class told a story about President Spencer W. Kimball.* Nina listened intently. When the prophet had been waiting in an airport, he noticed a young, pregnant mother struggling to urge her child along in the line. She nudged the toddler along with her foot but didn’t pick her up. Other passengers whispered and pointed at her, but no one offered to help. President Kimball picked up the crying child and comforted her. The woman told him that because of orders from her doctor, she could not lift her child. Only President Kimball had recognized that the young mother needed help. Only he had offered that help. Never once did he judge her, as the other passengers had. A wave of pure knowledge swept through Nina, and she knew exactly what to do and how to do it. She spent a lot of time talking on the phone with her friends and watching TV at night. If she gave up those things, she’d have plenty of time to help Sister Kelly for a few hours each day. She could do her homework after the supper dishes were done. She found her mother after church and explained her plan. “I think that’s a wonderful idea.” Mom gave Nina a quick hug. “I’ll fix a casserole and send it over. If I double the recipe, they can freeze half of it and have it another night, as well.” Nina found Sister Kelly after church. Her eyes looked tired, and faint lines creased the corners of her mouth. “Sister Kelly, may I come over and play with Emily after school for a couple of hours? Oh, and Mom wants to bring a casserole.” A single tear tracked down Sister Kelly’s cheek. Then another. Nina didn’t know what to do. Then she remembered that when Mom was expecting her little brother, Jared, she had cried really easily. Nina reached out to touch Sister Kelly’s shoulder. “Is something wrong?” “No. Something is right!” Sister Kelly dug in her purse for a tissue, then wiped away her tears. She hugged Nina. “I’m crying because I’ve been praying for someone just like you.” The tears fell faster. “You’re an answer to my prayers.” Nina felt tears well up in her own eyes. “Does Emily like to play with puzzles? My little brother has some wooden ones that he’s outgrown. Maybe I could bring them with me.” “Emily loves to do puzzles.” Sister Kelly found another tissue and handed it to Nina. “Would you like to come to the nursery with me and tell her the news?” “I sure would!” Nina could hardly wait until the next afternoon. See Friend, September 1999, page 37. “Like faith, Christlike love is a gift of the Spirit. . . . Like faith, love must be exercised to grow. . . . As we . . . reach out to serve others, the Spirit will refine us and teach us. . . . President Kimball taught that ‘God does notice us, and he watches over us. But it is usually through another mortal that he meets our needs. Therefore, it is vital that we serve each other.’” Elder Robert J. Whetten of the Seventy (Ensign, May 1999, page 30.) Each month in 2002, you will find a Temple Cards page in the Friend. Remove the page from the magazine, glue it to heavy paper, and cut out the cards. If you collect all 108 cards this year, you will have a picture-history of Latter-day Saint temples around the world. \| Mexico City Mexico Temple \| Dedicated: December 2, 1983 \| \|---------------------------\|----------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY JED CLARK \| \| Boise Idaho Temple \| Dedicated: May 25, 1984 \| \|---------------------------\|----------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY JED CLARK \| \| Sydney Australia Temple \| Dedicated: September 20, 1984 \| \|---------------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY WM. FLOYD HOLDMAN \| \| Manila Philippines Temple \| Dedicated: September 25, 1984 \| \|---------------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY WM. FLOYD HOLDMAN \| \| Dallas Texas Temple \| Dedicated: October 19, 1984 \| \|---------------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY JED CLARK \| \| Taipei Taiwan Temple \| Dedicated: November 17, 1984 \| \|---------------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY WM. FLOYD HOLDMAN \| \| Guatemala City Guatemala \| Dedicated: December 14, 1984 \| \|---------------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY KENITZEDER \| \| Freiberg Germany Temple \| Dedicated: June 29, 1985 \| \|---------------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY KENITZEDER \| \| Stockholm Sweden Temple \| Dedicated: July 2, 1985 \| \|---------------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| \| PHOTO BY KENITZEDER \| Joseph Smith Joseph Smith’s not a myth. He got tarred and feathered. Wow! I don’t know how he did it all And didn’t even fall. He was visited by an angel Who gave him a message four times And didn’t get it in a tangle. He served the Lord. He did his job well. Nickolas D. Hujtyn, age 9 Marshfield, Missouri The Savior The stars in heaven above Make me full of joy and love. They make me think of Jesus Christ— The joy, the love, the star of light. He’s the Savior, Heavenly Father’s Son. He lives with the stars in heaven above. He’ll live together with us someday, Together, forever, day by day. This is a promise to everyone in sight, If we follow in His footsteps, His love, and His light. Kylie Allredge, age 11 Monmouth, Oregon Laura’s Cheer If you don’t want to be shivery scared, just obey the commandments— commandments! Read your scriptures every day! Three pages in the Book of Mormon— every day! Don’t murmur— every day! Just do it! Just do it! Pa pa pa pa pa—yay! Laura Farmer, age 7 Mexicali, Mexico The Book of Mormon The Book of Mormon is a book of plates. It was published in the early dates. Joseph Smith was the translator. And don’t forget Martin and Grandin did a big favor. Five thousand copies were published of the book. Some people bought it, and others just shook. So read the Book of Mormon; don’t just admire all your things. Because if you read the Book of Mormon, you’re doing the right thing. Clinton Goodman, age 9 Orem, Utah Spring! Birds are flying in the sky. Clouds are floating way up high. Flowers are blooming. Horses are grooming. Trees are stiff. Hikers are climbing a cliff. You can see the sun lie upon the creek. The little children are playing hide-and-seek. Chipmunks play all around. Bushes are growing from the ground. Squirrels ask each other to play. Upon the grass hills is where I lay. All these things I love, And I know they come from above. What is this thing? It is spring! Kirstin Caroline Fullmer, age 10 Gilbert, Arizona Baptism When you are eight, you will be baptized, you see. Write about what happened to you at your baptism today. You will have a blessing today. Your sins will be washed away. I love Jesus; you do, too. Charlotte Widdison, age 8 Pocatello, Idaho The Sea I love the sea. Its cool waves splash against me. If I look under the sea, Sometimes I can see a fishy. I love the sea. Amelia McBee, age 5 Oviedo, Florida Life Life is beautiful and true. I also know it’s precious, too. Filled with joy and happiness, My life is a gift, and yours is, too. Filled with great family and friends, My fun never ends. I love my life, And you should love yours, too. Kali A. Wall, age 10 West Valley City, Utah Jesus Christ I hope to see Christ. I hope I see Him when He comes again. I want to be there. I want to see Him hold me and all the children in the world. I want to see His bright face and the lion and the lamb lie down together. Paige Ramsey, age 9 Los Alamos, New Mexico DRAWINGS \| \| Name \| Age \| Location \| \|---\|-----------------------------\|-----\|---------------------------\| \| 1 \| Kendra Whitmore \| 10 \| Bergholz, Ohio \| \| 2 \| Lucas Cathey \| 8 \| Beaumont, California \| \| 3 \| Allyson Olinger \| 6 \| Panama City, Florida \| \| 4 \| Nickolas Nielsen \| 7 \| Hendersen, Nevada \| \| 5 \| Ashley Madsen \| 9 \| Federal Way, Washington \| \| 6 \| Erik Lynn Beard \| 8 \| Irving, Texas \| \| 7 \| Erin Sproule \| 11 \| Wilmot, Nova Scotia, Canada \| \| 8 \| T. J. Guild \| 6 \| Evanston, Wyoming \| \| 9 \| Molly Maw \| 7 \| Sandy, Utah \| \|10 \| Jason Barclay \| 9 \| Kennett, Washington \| \|11 \| Brenna Tompkins \| 8 \| Tarboro, North Carolina \| \|12 \| Micah Norris Wood \| 6 \| Pendleton, Oregon \| \|13 \| Hayley Hansen \| 5 \| Morris, Minnesota \| \|14 \| Austin Miller \| 9 \| Rigby, Idaho \| \|15 \| Laura Thomson \| 7 \| Wellington, New Zealand \| \|16 \| Cyrus C. Powers \| 8 \| Anchorage, Alaska \| \|17 \| Mackenzie Wagner \| 5 \| Cedar Hills, Utah \| \|18 \| Bryce \| 7 \| Mesa, Arizona \| \|19 \| Hannah McGowan \| 8 \| Nundah, Australia \| \|20 \| Callan Snow \| 11 \| Weatherford, Oklahoma \| In second grade, I lived in Orlando, Florida. I had this wonderful teacher, Miss Kaskey. She loved books and kept track of our reading success on charts. One day, she noticed that I had the Book of Mormon written on mine. She asked me what it was about. I told her it was about Jesus visiting the Americas and that it was kind of like the Bible. She said, “That sounds interesting, Nathan. Does this book have chapters? I love chapter books.” I told her it had tons of chapters. I was given a Book of Mormon by the bishop (my dad) when I was baptized. He challenged me, like he challenged all newly baptized members, to write in it and give it away to someone. I knew right away that I needed to give this to Miss Kaskey, but that was a very scary thing to do. Her birthday was a couple of weeks away, and I decided my Book of Mormon would make the perfect present. Mom and I tied a pretty bow around it. I wrote this message inside: “Miss Kaskey, this is my favorite book, and I hope you will love it as much as I do. It is true. Love, Nate.” I wondered if Miss Kaskey would like it and what she would say. It was very scary. When I got to school, I hurried and gave it to her. She thanked me for such a wonderful gift and said she will definitely have to read it. I hope she will—it will be the best chapter book she has ever read! Nathan Garlick, age 9 Centerville, Utah One day when I was in fifth grade, my best friend and I went downtown. Afterward, we stopped at a convenience store. A man came to a window of the van and asked my friend’s mom for money to catch the bus that was leaving soon. She handed him the money and smiled. While this was happening, I spotted a poor, lonely man watching us. He came up after the first man had left and asked for money because he was hungry. My friend’s mom turned around, looked at both of us girls, and took some food from our snack boxes. She handed it to the man. He looked at her, puzzled and amused. She said, “Have a nice day,” to him, and we started back home. We asked her why she hadn’t just given him money, too. She said, “I think he just would have gone and bought beer or cigarettes, and I know he’s better off eating carrots and juice.” This experience made me realize how much love she had for these two men. My friend’s mom has passed away and is with Heavenly Father now, but this story lives in my heart and mind forever. I want to be just like her and Jesus Christ and love other people and serve Heavenly Father. In my fifth-grade class, we started studying Russia. We planned a "Russian Party." There was mostly Russian food, and we had a quiz. When the Russian party was about to begin, I put the potatoes and vinegar I’d brought on the table. We all went to our seats. When our teacher called our names, we went up and got a little bit of everything from our teacher, who was standing behind the table. Before we started eating, she asked everyone who had made something to tell the class what it was. It turned out that the drink was a Russian tea. When I ate everything on my plate except the tea, my friends who aren't members of the Church asked me why I didn't drink it. When I told them about the Word of Wisdom, they understood. So, when our teacher came around to see that we all tasted everything, my friends and I told her that I didn't want to drink the tea. I didn't have to drink it. I'm glad that I can try to set an example to be like Jesus Christ. The Friend would like to hear from you about an experience you, or another child you know, have had in “Trying to Be Like Jesus Christ.” The article should be about two to three paragraphs typed and double spaced; a parent or other adult may help you write it. Please include at least one photograph or slide of whomever the article is about, if possible, and his/her and your own (if different) name, age, address, and telephone number. Send your article to: “Trying to Be Like Jesus Christ,” Friend, 24th floor, 50 East North Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah 84150-3226. Unused submissions will be returned if a stamped, addressed envelope is enclosed. Today there are more than a hundred temples all over the world. But when Joseph Smith was commanded to build a temple in Kirtland, Ohio, he had never even seen one! The Kirtland Temple was the first temple built in the latter days. Since Joseph Smith did not yet know what a temple ought to look like or exactly how it was to be used, Heavenly Father revealed to him a plan for the temple. He and his counselors saw a vision of the completed building. In the vision, Joseph Smith, Sidney Rigdon, and Frederick G. Williams saw the pattern of the temple both inside and out. When an architect suggested that the seats in the building be rearranged, the Prophet Joseph would not allow it. He had seen them in the vision. According to his mother, Lucy Mack Smith, when the Saints wanted the temple to be built as a frame or log house, he said, “‘Shall we, brethren, build a house for our God, of logs? No, I have a better plan than that. I have a plan of the house of the Lord, given by himself.’”* The temple walls, two feet thick and over sixty feet tall, were to be built of stone. Constructing the temple seemed nearly impossible. The Saints were so poor that they could barely afford to care for their own families. The magnificent temple cost about $40,000–$60,000 to build, a great sum of money in the 1830s! There were very few experienced builders among them, * Doctrine and Covenants 97:15–16. and none of them had ever built something as enormous as a temple. Also, enemies outside of the Church vowed that they would stop construction on the temple. But the Saints knew that they had been commanded by God to build it and that He would help them: “Verily I say unto you, it is my will that you should build a house. If you keep my commandments you shall have power to build it.” (Doctrine and Covenants 95:11.) The Saints set to work. Men spent one day each week in the stone quarry or on the temple site, and some of them guarded the unfinished temple at night to protect it from mobs. Women spun cloth to make clothing for the workers, and they made carpets and curtains for the temple. Glass and fine china were crushed and mixed with the plaster so that when the sun struck the temple’s outside walls, they glittered. Everyone labored and sacrificed for two and a half years until the temple was finished. When the temple was dedicated on March 27, 1836, the Lord rewarded the Saints for their obedience. Spiritual blessings were poured out upon them—people spoke in tongues, heavenly choirs sang, some people had visions, and others saw angels. A pillar of light rested on the temple, and angels were seen on the roof. One week later, on April 3, Jesus Christ appeared in the temple to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery. The Savior accepted the Kirtland Temple as His house. Moses, Elias, and Elijah also appeared to restore priesthood keys. Although the Saints suffered many trials to build the Kirtland Temple, the eternal blessings given to them were well worth all of their sacrifices. Through their faith, diligence, and obedience, they led the way for Church members throughout the world to receive temple blessings today. History of Joseph Smith, page 230. Who Is in Daddy’s Bed? My daddy is my favorite pal (Children’s Songbook, page 211). By Toulla Palazeti (A true story) Maria & Nicholas sneak into Mommy & Daddy’s room while Daddy is taking a shower. They hide under the blanket on Mommy’s bed. Maria & Nicholas giggle and giggle. In a little while, Daddy opens the bathroom door. He comes in to the bedroom. “Shhh!” he whispers to each other. He says, “I hear somebody in Daddy’s room. Who is it?” Maria & Nicholas lie as still as a can of tuna. “R-U-Z from the zoo?” Daddy asks. “No,” Maria & Nicholas whisper. “R-U-Z from the circus?” asks. “No,” softly answer. sees the wiggle just a little. “ must from the slithering in my ,” decides. “No,” say. “ know!” exclaims. UR2 from the hopping in my . “No!” giggle. The wiggles a lot now. “ must 2 , jump so high!” laughs. shout, “No! No!” “Could leaping in the ?” asks. “R-R-Ribbit,” says. “No!” says. “Hmmm. monsters from a story ?” “No!” “ from the sky?” “No!” “ from the jungle?” “No!” “ from a ?” “No!” “ from the ?” “No!” “ from the ?” “No!” “ from a ?” “No!” “ s from the ?” “No! No! No!” “ have it!” shouts. “It must .” “ right!” throw off the & jump in 2 ’s . “We fooled !” they roar, hugging tightly. “ sure did,” chuckles as he & & dance & twirl around & around the room. Small Beginnings The Church was organized on April 6, 1830, with six members, as required by law. Today there are about eleven-and-a-half million members—almost two million for each member on that day 172 years ago. In the empty picture frame, draw a picture of yourself. If you live faithfully and share the gospel, how much good can your life do in the next 172 years? The City of Enoch By Joyce Grisham Enoch and all who lived in Zion, his city, were so righteous that Heavenly Father took the whole city up into heaven.* In the last days, the city and its people will return to earth and be part of the New Jerusalem.† To help you remember that these great events are coming, you will need: heavy paper, glue, scissors, a sharpened pencil, and string. 1. Remove this page and glue it to heavy paper. When the glue is dry, trim the page along the heavy solid lines. Cut out the city on the broken lines. 2. Using a pencil point, punch small holes through the circles at A, B, C, and D. Thread one end of the string into B, down the back of the city, and out C. Then thread one end of the string through A, the other end through D, and tie the two ends together behind the page. Each time you tell the story of the city of Enoch, slide the city up the string to heaven and then back down the string to Earth again. See Genesis 5:24; Moses 7:19, 69; Doctrine and Covenants 38:4. †See Revelation 21:2, 10; Moses 7:62-65; Ether 13:2-3; Genesis 14:34, Joseph Smith Translation (following Bible Dictionary); Doctrine and Covenants 45:11-14. And, if you keep my commandments and endure to the end you shall have eternal life, which gift is the greatest of all the gifts of God (Doctrine and Covenants 14:7). The temple brings heavenly blessings because it is a special place where we get answers to our prayers. Prophets often receive revelations there so that they can teach us how to gain eternal life. Hannah lived in ancient Israel. She had sorrowed for many years because she had no children, so she decided to pray at the tabernacle, which served as a temple then. She vowed that if God gave her a son, she would dedicate his life to the Lord. The priest, Eli, saw her weeping as she prayed. He said, “Go in peace: and the God of Israel grant thee thy petition that thou hast asked of him” (1 Samuel 1:17). Soon Hannah gave birth to Samuel. When Samuel was a young boy, Hannah kept her promise and took him to the temple. He lived with Eli and learned how to become a priest. One night, Samuel was sleeping in the temple when a voice called his name. “Here am I,” Samuel answered. He ran to Eli, but Eli had not called him. Samuel tried to go back to sleep. Then he heard the voice again. He ran to Eli, and again, Eli said that he had not called him. The third time Samuel appeared at Eli’s bedside, the priest realized that the Lord was calling Samuel. Eli said, “Go, lie down: and it shall be, if he call thee, that thou shalt say, Speak, Lord; for thy servant heareth.” The voice did call Samuel’s name once more, and he did as Eli had told him to. The Lord then told Samuel of things to come. (See 1 Samuel 3:1–11, 19–20.) Like Hannah, we can have comfort and answers to our prayers. We can also receive blessings by listening to the prophets. They speak with Jesus Christ in the temple, and they teach us what we must do to have the blessings of heaven on earth. Samuel the Prophet As a Boy Step One: Remove page 43 from the magazine and glue it on a piece of thin cardboard. Step Two: Cut along the solid lines, then fold along the broken lines (use a ruler to fold against to get a straight fold). Step Three: Carefully cut out the word balloon on page 42 and glue it to a piece of thin cardboard; trim. Step Four: With a 2” (5 cm) piece of tape, form a tube, sticky-side-out. Put it on the back of the cutout word balloon. Attach the word balloon over the dotted word balloon on this page. One night, Harold B. Lee became dangerously ill with pneumonia. Harold’s mother sliced juicy onions into a flour sack, put the wet sack on his chest, and prayed for a miracle. Mother, I can hardly breathe. I’ll be right back. You’re going to be OK. The next morning he could breathe again. Soon he recovered completely. You always know what to do. You saved my life! The Lord saved your life. He just expected me to do everything I could to help. Another time, Harold was standing in the open doorway, watching a thunderstorm outside. Suddenly his mother shoved him away from the door. Move, Harold! Ouch! Seconds later, a bolt of lightning came down the chimney of the kitchen stove. It shot out the front door and split a tree trunk outside! He was thankful his mother listened to the promptings of the Holy Ghost. Several times she protected the life of the boy who would become the eleventh President of the Church. (See The Lord Needed a Prophet, by Susan Arrington Madsen, pages 173-174.) Eight-year-old Alicia-anne and her parents have had some very special spiritual experiences. In 1997, when she was five, three sister missionaries knocked on their door. The missionaries taught them the discussions, and the family immediately knew that the gospel was true. On August 10, 1997, Alicia-anne saw her father, Gordon, and mother, Myrna, baptized members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Alicia-anne, who often goes by the nickname Ali, looked forward to her own baptism in three years. On November 20, 1999, another important event happened. The Attridges were the first family sealed together in the newly dedicated Halifax Nova Scotia Temple. “I felt very happy and warm inside after I was sealed to my parents,” Ali said. “Now I know I can be with my mom and dad forever.” “Looking in the mirrors in the sealing room, we saw our family going on forever,” Mother added. “Since Ali is adopted, this was the most wonderful day in our lives because we will be a family forever.” When Ali’s eighth birthday drew near, she asked her parents if she could be baptized on her birthday—she was too excited to wait a day longer! They were able to schedule it, so on July 11, 2000, she was baptized a member of the Church. She was delighted to have her Grandma and Grandpa Balsor in attendance. “My grandparents were so touched by the Spirit that they cried,” she said. After the baptism, her mother felt inspired to give them a copy of the Book of Mormon. Ali is a CTR in the Greenwood Branch Primary of the Dartmouth Nova Scotia Stake. A good missionary, she often invites her friends to Primary and its activity days so that they can learn about the Church. She also tries to set a good example at school by being kind, generous, and honest. Some of her best missionary tools are her cats, Lehi, Nephi, and Fluffy. When she tells someone their names, she is often asked to explain where the names Lehi and Nephi come from. A discussion about the Book of Mormon and the Church soon follows. Whether at church or at home, Ali enjoys singing. Her lovely voice often accompanies whatever activity she is doing at home. She likes to sing songs from Primary, movies, and operas. Someday she would like to be a professional singer or dancer. She is very active and likes to get her work done quickly in school so that she has plenty of time at recess. Swinging very high on the swings and playing on the monkey bars are what she likes best. “I can hang upside down, skip one or two bars, or do an ‘apple-turnover’ flip on the monkey bars.” Once my hands were too slick, though, and I fell flat on my face and scratched it!” Ali also enjoys doing activities with her family. “I like to go swimming at anytime, in any weather, in shallow or deep water—but if I see a fish, I scream. I don’t like fish; they scare me!” Beachcombing is another enjoyable family activity. The Attridges like to collect ropes, buoys, driftwood, shells, and rocks. At home, Ali and her mom wash the rocks and then paint them. Ali is proud of the Noah’s Ark rock she designed and painted. “The rainbow I painted on it represents God’s promise to Noah.” At family home evening, she is happy to read or listen to scripture stories. She has read the Book of Mormon Reader* twice and also likes to read from a book of children’s Bible stories. The great faith shown by the brother of Jared is her favorite scripture story. She also enjoys learning about the Jaredites traveling to the promised land. For a family home evening activity, she is always eager to go to the Kingston Family Fitness Trail. Walking along the trail, the family enjoys the beautiful forested scenery. Ali likes them to stop and participate in each of the fitness activities along the way. She enjoys climbing the fishnet, jumping like a frog over the short poles, balancing on the beam, running through the tire maze, and finally stopping at the end to watch the ducks in the pond. Prayer is an important part of Ali’s life. She remembers to say her personal prayers, and she suggested that the family pray together both morning and night. A prayer before each meal is important, too. She reminds them if they forget. Ali loves her family very much. She is grateful that they are members of the Church and have been able to enjoy the many blessings of the gospel. The Guide to the Friend can help you find stories or articles for preparing lessons or talks for church or for family home evening. Look for the FHE symbol on the pages mentioned in the Family Home Evening Ideas. The Primary theme for April is “The temple brings the blessings of heaven to earth.” Family Home Evening Ideas 1. Celebrate the anniversary of the founding of the Church (April 6, 1830) by reading “Joseph, the Seer” (page 7) by Elder Neal A. Maxwell and then telling the story “From a Log Farmhouse” (pages 2–3) by President Gordon B. Hinckley. Invite each family member to share how he/she is helping or plans to help build the kingdom of God on earth. You may wish to make the poster “Small Beginnings” (page 40). 2. Invite a parent to tell about some of the “Important People” (pages 8–9) in Elder Val Rigby Christensen’s life. Who are the people who have helped you? Make a copy of Journal Page (page 13) for each family member; fill them out together. 3. Ask a younger family member to learn and present the poem “With the Savior” (page 27). Then, while looking at the pictures, read together “The Lost Son” (pages 14–18). Talk about the lessons we can learn from this teaching of the Savior. 4. Tell the story “A Prophet’s Example” (pages 28–30). Read Elder Robert J. Whetten’s quote at the end of the story and then decide on one way each of you can help someone else during the coming week. 5. Learn about the Kirtland Temple by studying “First Latter-day Temple” (pages 36–37). Tell your family about it. Ask an older family member to learn about the temple closest to where you live and tell about it. How should you live your lives so you can be worthy of temple blessings? --- *Topical Index to this Issue of the Friend* (f) = Funstuff (FLF) = For Little Friends (v) = verse Manuscript Submissions** The Friend welcomes unsolicited manuscripts but is not responsible for them. Rejected manuscripts will not be returned unless a stamped, addressed envelope is enclosed. Send manuscripts to Friend, 24th Floor, 50 East North Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah 84150-3226. Send e-mail to firstname.lastname@example.org. Send children’s submissions to Friend, 24th Floor, 50 East North Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah 84150-3226, in care of the appropriate department—Our Creative Friends, Friends in the News, Childviews, Trying to Be Like Jesus Christ. Baptism 46 Book of Mormon 34 Choose the Right IFC, 19 Church History 2, 10, 36, 40 (FLF) Family 4, 8, 38 (FLF), 44, 46 Family History 10, 13 General Conference 24 Jesus Christ 14, 34, 27 (v) Joseph Smith 2, 7, 8, 36 Love and Service 14, 28, 35 Missionary Work IFC, 34 New Testament 14 Old Testament 19, 23 (f), 42 Pearl of Great Price 41 (FLF) Prayer 10, 42, 44 Primary 8 Prophets 2, 4, 23 (f), 24, 28, 42, 44 Quorum of the Seventy 8, 30 Quorum of the Twelve Apostles 7, 10, 12 Repentance 14 Temples IFC, 4, 19, 23 (f), 31, 36, 42, 46 Word of Wisdom 35 Under the direction of the Prophet Joseph Smith, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was organized on April 6, 1830, in a log farmhouse. Today the Church is a worldwide organization of about eleven-and-a-half million members. 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1 Parents and children enjoy a happy, mutually helpful, family life. The One Rule Plan For Family Happiness Tom Gnagey The ONE RULE PLAN For FAMILY HAPPINESS: A STEP BY STEP MANUAL FOR PARENTS 3rd edition By Tom Gnagey Clinical Psychologist Family of Man Press © 2013 A simple plan, based on the parent’s own values, which allows parents and children to live together happily and helpfully. INTRODUCTION SECTION ONE: Let’s talk about rules SECTION TWO: Let’s talk about getting along SECTION THREE: Let’s talk about the One Rule Plan SECTION FOUR: Let’s talk about making your own One Rule Plan SECTION FIVE: Let’s talk about making your plan work SECTION SIX: Let’s talk about what we have talked about SOME FINAL THOUGHTS THE FAMILY VALUE INVENTORY THE PARENTING INVENTORY GLOSSARY INTRODUCTION In the Introduction we will address these eleven questions: Why an Introduction? Why are you reading this material? Why should you listen to me? Why did I write this material? What is a Family? What is family happiness? What about privileges and responsibilities? What are some important trends in parent-child relations? How may religion play a part in this One Rule Plan? How is the rest of this book organized? Where are you now as a parent and person? As a required activity, you are asked to plan, and then go have, a great, self-centered time away from your family! WHY AN INTRODUCTION? Have you ever wondered why some books begin with Chapter One and others with an Introduction? In this case, it is because I want us to make certain that we share a common foundation of basic information about ourselves as people, as family members and as knowledgeable parents. To accomplish this I have assembled, here in the Introduction, those topics, ideas and tasks, which I feel are necessary for us to discuss and accomplish in order to assure a solid and similar starting point prior to developing your individualized One Rule Plan for Family Happiness. WHY ARE YOU READING THIS MATERIAL? Some years ago in my practice as a Family Life Consultant, a lad slipped into my office just ahead of his family's regular session to deliver a warning to me. With genuine concern in his voice, he said, "Watch out Doc! Mamma bought another new how-to-raise-up-kids book." Perhaps you have found yourself in that same cycle; read a book, try it out, read another, try it out, and so on. It wears you out. It wears the kids out. Even though each book probably had some suggestions you were able to apply, somehow none of the plans seemed to correctly fit you or your special needs. That is understandable, I believe, because most child rearing or family-life books are written to spread the author's own point of view on how to do whatever it is that he or she is telling you to do. Now, if that author's background, experiences, values, problems, neighborhood, religion, family structure and income level were exactly like yours, the advice offered might fit your situation pretty well. Usually, that is not the case. Is it? So, you keep looking for ideas that really will fit you, your beliefs and your circumstances. More than likely, that is why you have invested in, and are now reading this book. It seems very important, therefore, that before we go much further you should hear exactly what I propose to do, and also, learn some things about me so you can clearly understand my biases. WHY SHOULD YOU LISTEN TO ME? Please notice I did not ask, "Why should you do what I tell you to do?" I only request that you listen to me, form your own impressions and then proceed according to your own best judgment. (There will be a lot more, about how you may choose to do this later on.) Let's take a short side trip here. (I believe strongly in the use of side trips. Later I will show you how you may find that you can use them effectively with your family.) Undoubtedly you would like to know some things about me. I have been a son, a brother, a grandson, a father, a foster father, an uncle, a husband, a widower, and an adopted grandfather. I guess you could say I have led a triple professional life. I have written extensively in the areas of self-help, psychology and fiction. For years, I have ghost written and edited books for others because I enjoy learning about other people and writing about them. While those things were going on I also maintained a professional life as a clinical psychologist/Family Life Consultant, a fancy name for someone who sits down with parents and families to help them improve things within their own homes. I like to think of what I do as helping families learn how to grow together. To me this means two things. Families that come to me have often grown apart and as a result, they are experiencing tension, anxiety, or even open conflict. In this sense, I help them learn how to grow back together. In the second sense, all family members are bound to change over the years. Unless they keep up with one another, that is, grow-up together, the resulting problems and misunderstandings can lead to terrible distress. So, I try to help families grow-up together as well as grow-back together. I see my basic role, in this kind of relationship, as first, to find out where a family wants to be headed and then carefully help them get there. This, I think, is the important difference between my approach and many of those you may have experienced before in other material, books, programs and perhaps from other counselors or therapists. Where they tell you where to go (you know what I mean!), I help you find ways to get yourselves to where you want to go. If you are not sure just where that may be I help you find out, according to your own values and beliefs (not mine or some other author's, or that of some religion). When I state my own beliefs or opinions in this book I try to indicate them clearly as just that so as not to present them to you as facts. Over the years, I have had my ups and downs like most people. But through it all I have learned to love life and living and have come to value the family unit as the most significant contributor to a person's later happiness, success, contentment and productivity. I was one of the fortunate ones who happened into a loving, thoughtful, caring family. It helped me build a solid, mentally healthy basis with which to meet life's challenges and wonders. The family, which my wife, son and I built together, was, you will understand, the highlight of my life. Although they are both gone from my life, the memories of my years with them, continue to be a source of great strength, happiness, contentment, and more than a few smiles and chuckles each and every day. Through the years, my wife and I had several dozen foster children in and out of our home - some for only several months and others for many years. This One Rule Plan began to emerge as a way of helping those kids adjust quickly to our home and as a way of helping to reorganize their natural homes so they could one day return there and benefit from life with their own parent or parents. As a result of these several facets in my own life I began to see that to be a well-adjusted person was not an appropriate goal. Adjusted suggests a static, stable condition that would not change - once adjusted that would be it! But, like you, I suppose, I have found that life is an ever changing process. So rather than seeking to be well adjusted I seek to be well adjusting. This simply means being able to give a bit here, and grow a bit there, and learn a whole lot about successful living from every experience that comes down the pike - to change and grow as life requires. This means the rules I set for myself must be flexible enough to meet and include inevitable changes. I therefore seek to become a well adjusting person and wish the same for you. Early in life, I learned about responsibility, privileges, work, and the value of education. All in all, as I look back on my life, it's obvious that the good and wonder-filled times have far outweighed the bad. That has been due, partly, to the kind of world, which I was fortunate enough to experience, as I was growing up. It was also partly due to my own determination to build a good, happy, productive and useful life. I believe one must decide to take charge of whatever aspects of his or her life that he or she can come to control. For some, that is most things; for others only a few things. But we all need to feel that we are in charge of our own destiny in at least some small way. Children need to feel this just as do adults. Families most certainly need to feel this. Along the way I have picked up four academic degrees in psychology and communications which, I suppose, afford some credibility to my scientific knowledge about human behavior. I credit life, itself, however, as having been my most profitable teacher. At any rate, please don't hold my academic degrees against me! (At least, not this early in the book!). I hope this brief peek into my life and some of the forces that have helped shape it will be helpful to you as you approach the remainder of the book. You should also know several of my basic biases. If I believe one set of things about life and living it would be this: Change is inevitable so we must plan for it and use it to our best advantage as we grow as a person, as a parent and as a family. Since change is a fact of life, the rules we make must allow for change. Our children must be taught how to modify the rules and preferences that we hand down to them, so they can find appropriate ways to survive, grow and prosper in their own World of the future (the nature of which is totally unknown to us as we now try to prepare them for it). No two people’s needs, values or goals are the same so the rules we make must be allow for all those differences within our families. I believe that you can learn to make my One Rule Plan do all of these things. WHY DID I WRITE THIS BOOK? The answer is probably obvious from what has already been said. The family living experience should be, I think, the greatest and most helpful experience one can ever have. When it is not, it must be fixed as soon as possible. This book - a manual, really - is written to help parents fix family life situations that are not the best that they can be. I hope it can also be used by young families to get them started on their right track and keep them there as they grow and change and learn about life and one another. Being a parent is a full time job and yet, today, most parents find that they must divide themselves between family and employment. We therefore have to find ways that help us become more efficient as parents. I believe the simplicity of this One Rule Plan can help accomplish that. Having said all this, I present this manual to you with love and best wishes. So many folks have helped me along the way, I hope that through this book I can, in some way, fulfill their confidence and begin to repay their kindness and unselfish generosity. WHAT IS A FAMILY? In the purest, most traditional sense of the term, a family unit is a mother, a father, and their children. The extended family includes close relatives, usually those seen often enough to influence and to be influenced by the smaller family unit. Over the years, the traditional definition has required changing. Even back in the days of the Old Woman Who Lived in the Shoe, the traditional family unit didn't exist for many people. It is becoming more and more common these days that children do not live with both natural parents. Often, there is either just one parent (usually the mother) in the family unit, or there is one of the child's natural parents plus a stepparent. In the latter case, there may also be stepbrothers and or sisters. One alternative family structure, which is becoming more common these days, includes a single teenage mother and her baby living in the girl's mother's home - grandmother, mother, and child; or grandmother, grandfather, mother, mother's brothers and sisters and the teen mother's child. (Can't you just imagine all the bosses that little one might have! It could be a scary world with all those big people around, or it could become a very safe, secure and loving place, depending on the temperament, values and organization of the family.) A child may find that he or she is actually a part of two separate families, spending some time in one parent's home and some time with the other parent. There can even be more than two homes involved. A child may be a part of a foster home when things are not working out in his own home. I know of one case where a child (Matt) lived among three homes and was loved and well cared for in each. (You may need a pencil and paper to keep this all straight!) His parents, Jim and Mary, divorced. Jim married Alice. Mary married Bill. Then after five years, those couples divorced (on friendly terms) and Alice married Bill. Since Alice and Bill (though neither natural parents of Matt) had both grown to love Matt and to be important to him as step parents, they continued to play a positive part in his life, so he spent time with them as well as with each original parent. (Life can get complicated, can’t it? Even so, it is still quite possible for it to provide positive experiences for all of the family members.) More and more families have two, same-sex, parent figures – two mothers or two fathers. In many quarters such arrangements are the focus of scorn and derision which often makes life unnecessarily difficult for the fully innocent children involved. So, we see that the term family has many descriptions and definitions today. For the purposes of this book, we will assume that a family includes at least one adult and one child. From there on it can mean a whole variety of other things. You know best what you mean by the term family so just think of your own situation each time the word is used. WHAT IS FAMILY HAPPINESS? When all is said and done, you will be defining family happiness in whatever way seems appropriate to you. In the meantime, let me offer a few ideas and dispel a few fantasies. A young mother came to me once and said, "I'm a total failure as a mother! No matter how hard I try it seems that my kids and I still have problems." This mother had a pretty warped idea of what being part of a family was all about. Since I have heard that same story so many times through the years, I think it may be helpful to begin by suggesting what I believe family happiness is not. It is not a utopian state in which problems never occur, where people do not get upset with one another and where Mom's and Dad's plans always work. Problems have to occur. It is part of growing and learning. The helpful family focuses on teaching children how to find acceptable solutions to the problems rather than focusing on the problems themselves. More about that later. I believe that family happiness is a state in which all parties understand that all family members are helping them experience a happy, growth producing, family life. They come to see that everyone else in the family is on their side. It is a state in which everyone makes honest efforts to help everyone else get the best from life and to develop ways to work up to their personal potential. It is a state in which parents and children work together as a team, learn together about themselves and one another, and discover together how to tailor-make their own family experiences to meet the important needs of every family member. These were the goals my wife and I had when, over a period of twenty-plus years, we used this One Rule Plan for Family Happiness in our home. I believe that a happy family life means all family members hear at least fifty good things about themselves to every one not-so-good thing, and that smiles, cooperation and laughter outweigh - 100 to 1 - frowns, arguing and tears. If these seem to be goals you wish to seek within your family, let's work toward them together as we proceed through the rest of this book. WHAT ABOUT PRIVILEGES AND RESPONSIBILITIES? This may seem like a strange place to bring up privileges and responsibilities. I can understand that, but these topics are so important that I want to introduce them early. Discussing them here will help build our common base. As you are probably aware, much of what is written about families and parenting deals primarily with just these two concepts. How one thinks about privileges and responsibilities, so colors how one thinks about family life, that I want to make sure you understand my thoughts before we proceed. A very bright, eleven year old boy, who kept his family in constant turmoil, once defined privileges and responsibilities to me in this way: "Privileges are what I con Mom into letting me have, and responsibilities are what I con my little brother into doing for me." I said he was bright, and in the context of his family setting, he was entirely correct! Let me talk about privileges first. I see two basic kinds of privileges - those that come to us free of charge with no strings attached, and those which must be earned or deserved. I call the first type free-bees. Sometimes these are referred to as rights rather than privileges. They include things for children such as shelter, clothing, food, sanitary conditions, health and medical care, education, love and affection, freedom, minimal allowances (when possible), truth, beauty, justice, and so on. All of these, I believe, we are due just because we are a child. Parents may not always be in a position to provide some of them. I understand that. But if they can, they must be provided free - no strings attached. "I love you" – period! Never, "I love you when you . . ." The second type of privileges I call earnables. They do not come just because the child deserves them. They must be earned. These types of privileges might include things such as: ten dollars a week, rather than the usual two dollar allowance; the angora sweater, rather than the less expensive and more serviceable cotton sweater; an extra two hours out after the usual curfew; the right to drive the family car; the right to purchase a car, bike or toy; the right to get a part-time job; to watch TV; and on and on down a long list. With privileges usually come responsibilities. Even the free-bees I mentioned require some responsibilities. For example, the privilege of having clothing requires the responsibility of taking reasonable care of them (A parent's concept of what is reasonable, of course, varies from age to age and child to child.). Having food requires that the child be responsible enough not to waste it. Being provided the opportunity for an education requires the responsibility of serious study. I like to think of two types of responsibilities. The first, are those required responsibilities many of which were suggested just above. Those responsibilities that just come with life's territory are required responsibilities. We keep ourselves clean, we do our homework, we carry out our assigned family-help tasks, we are considerate of family members, we get enough sleep at night, we eat properly, and so on. We have little or no say in obtaining these responsibilities. They are just built into our lives - they are simply required! The second are the optional responsibilities. These are responsibilities that may be taken on voluntarily and may or may not produce some special reward. Being a band member can be seen as an earned privilege but can also be seen as an optional responsibility. One is responsible to practice to attain a certain level of competence, to attend rehearsals and functions, and so on but only because one chose to take on this responsibility himself. These are responsibilities no one has to take on (they are optional) but they are necessary if one wants to learn to play the instrument, go on band trips, have friendships with other band members, and attain the personal satisfaction that comes with musical achievement. When one takes on a non-required privilege one immediately has assumed the associated optional responsibilities as well. Let's say this in another way. Some privileges come free. We don't have to earn them (free-bees), but even so, some required responsibility may be attached (parents get you the needed medicine, but you must take it wisely). Some privileges must be earned (like first demonstrating you are careful and dependable before you get the privilege of using the family car). In addition to required responsibilities (taking care of a younger sibling when the parent must step out for a while, or mowing the lawn on Saturday), there are some optional responsibilities, which one may take on, but only if he or she wishes to do so (join a team, get a job, take on honors classes, run for student council office, etc.). So: Privileges may be Free-bees (rights) or Earnables. Responsibilities may be Required or Optional. When optional responsibilities interfere with one's ability to perform the required responsibilities, life is out of balance and things must be reorganized. This often means giving up or cutting back some of the optional activities. This situation may arise for both children and parents. The young teen, is particularly prone to over-extend himself in the area of optional responsibilities. Some optional responsibilities may be considered important enough to the family that some required things are cut back for a while and other family members may pitch in to take up the slack. Examples of such circumstances might be taking a part in a play at school, a month in Spain to practice one's Spanish, summer camp, being on an athletic team for four months, or some short-term special job. On the other side of the coin, when optional activities are not being appropriately tended to (doesn't practice the trumpet though wants to remain in the band) the privilege may well need to be put on hold or removed. [A mini-side trip here. To make this manuscript easier to read and less wordy, I will often be old fashioned and use the words he, him, or his when, you will understand, I really mean he or she, him or her, his or hers.] Within family settings, the area of responsibilities and privileges can become quite complex and confusing. Some members demand privileges which they, mistakenly, think are free-bees when, in fact, the parents see them as earnables. Having these several categories available can help one quickly sort things out and nip such misunderstandings in the bud. (By the way, I believe that, "Just because everybody else has one," does not automatically make a request for that item a free-bee! Neither does it automatically mean that it may not be obtainable in some way.) Some responsibilities have to be required just because one is a family member (occasional babysitting, lawn mowing, taking out the trash, doing the dishes, bed making, room cleaning, table setting, etc.). I believe all children need to have some of these. This is the way they contribute freely to the family. It helps them feel important and needed within the family. Even though they may protest, it provides them with the identity of a needed and contributing member of this ("My") family. In the old days, the boys had to chop wood and do the gardening. The girls had to help can the food and wash the clothes. The sexist aspect of that plan aside, the children were needed as a part of the family team and they each knew it. This built a sense of belonging and being needed that is often lacking in these days of modern conveniences. Some might go so far as to say that those kinds of interdependencies are necessary to build a feeling of family. I tend to agree. There should (I believe) also be some optional responsibilities available that earn special rewards (payment for housework done above and beyond that normally expected) or special privileges (wash the car and you may use it Saturday night). These optional responsibilities help children learn the value of taking initiative and of working to obtain their own goals. They help them see the World is full of grand possibilities if they will but work for them. They come to see the connection between taking responsibilities seriously and obtaining the privileges or rewards that will follow. When rewards and privileges come without work or responsibilities it is most difficult for children to make the all-important connection. (Spoiled rotten, I think, is one term used to describe kids who have not been asked to learn about making this connection between privileges and responsibilities!). We will talk about ways of "enforcing" required responsibilities in Section Five. WHAT ARE SOME IMPORTANT TRENDS IN PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS? A good understanding of developmental trends is absolutely necessary if a parent is to be successful. I believe most of the friction between parents and their children occurs because, as parents, we may not know, or at least momentarily forget, about some of these normal trends. I will discuss several of the important trends here, but if you have never studied them in detail, you will want to read a good child development book. In general these trends can be described according to how much the children have to be (or need to be) dependent upon the parents. Said another way they stem from how much control over the child the parent needs to have (not wants to have). Or, it can be described in terms of how much or how little parental help and influence is best for the child at any given age (freedom or self-direction). Let's trace the trends that should occur as gradual changes in several types of relationships between parents and children. The most obvious, perhaps, is physical care. The newborn infant must depend entirely upon his parents for physical care. The need continues to be high through about age four. By this point, the child can help with bathroom processes, baths, feeding, dressing, and even some basic safety skills. Soon after this, the child's need for parental involvement in physical care drops steadily and rapidly. Unless one of your goals is to keep children dependent on you, a good rule to consider is this: Once a child can do something for himself, he should be expected to do it for himself. This builds self-confidence and a healthy self-image. Parents soon learn to ignore the protests when they feel their demands on the child will be best for him or her in the long run (when they are realistic!). Being a parent should never be thought of as a popularity contest. We do what children need and not what will make them like us. When we do it well enough, they are almost bound to like us in the long run. Financial support, as a parental responsibility, lasts longer - well into the late teens, usually. We gradually introduce youngsters to the world of money earning and money management, as they seem ready. Experiences such as managing (and failing at managing) allowances, letting them do odd jobs at home (and later elsewhere) for extra money, and obtaining regular part-time work in the middle teen years, all help prepare children to eventually become able to support themselves. Some homes provide older children with a clothing allowance and help them learn to live within it. Basic financial support from the parent, however, remains high until the child is a young adult. Participation in family life is another relationship that shows interesting trends. When small, a child participates in virtually everything. Generally speaking, this remains true through the fifth or sixth grade years - Where the parents go, so go the kids. (One of the exceptions may be the nine or ten year old boy, who often sees no use at all for home and family, except as a place to eat and sleep at those times when his friends are not available to him.) By Jr. high years, a child's own social life, with his friends, blossoms and becomes very important. His or her social loyalties begin to be divided between friends and family. Normally, this rapidly tilts toward peers and away from family participation during the high school years. I personally believe it is important to maintain some regular points of contact with high school age children - breakfast and dinner as family times and, if at all possible, some other regular time spent together as a family (one evening each week or half a weekend day). These must, of course, be positive, child-centered times if they are to be useful and helpful. In this way the parent keeps up with the child's plans, dreams, ideas, and needs, just by being there and listening - never needing to pry. Decision making, is a fourth area in which relationships change drastically over the years. As with physical care, parents make all the decisions for the very young child. I believe children need to begin practicing personal decision making early but always in age appropriate areas and within acceptable limits set by the parents. Even the two year old, who would automatically say "No" when asked if he wanted to hold your hand while crossing the street, can be asked to make this decision: "Would you rather hold this hand or this hand, today?" It is necessary that children be allowed and encouraged to practice making decisions that are within their realm of competence and understanding. The One Rule Plan, which we are leading up to, consistently teaches this. As the parent, we have to make certain that we are not asking too much of the child, while at the same time being sure we are asking enough. Some children just seem to be able to make better decisions than others, and so do something at twelve may in no way predicts Todd's readiness at that same age. (One reason the time-honored adage of 'same rules for all kids' is not only misguided but can be quite harmful.) Often, children go through periods in which the quality of their decisions deteriorates a bit for a time. Ups and downs are to be expected but the trend is away from direct parental influence and toward independent decision making. This can't happen in quality ways unless parents plan appropriate, individualized ways for the child to practice. It is better, I believe, to let our children practice making their own decisions, while Mom and Dad are still around to lend support when things go wrong. I have known many youngsters who had never been allowed to practice and fail while still at home. When they got to college or out on their own in the world of work, they made a disaster of things. They tended to make one poor decision after another and fell apart at even small failures. I believe that if we do our parenting job right, once a child leaves our home (at 18 or so) he will never, really, need us again. We hope he will want us, but we should have prepared him well enough, through carefully planned practice, that he can make it on his own. I will never forget the seventeen year old who, when contemplating his upcoming move into his own quarters said to me: "I'll be so glad to be on my own so I won't have to do all the stuff Mom makes me do around the house." A month after he made his move (he was living with two friends) he reported it to me this way: "I am so lucky my Mom taught me how to run a household. My friends are total washouts. Most days I feel like their mother." Perspectives do have a way of changing, thank goodness! The child's right to privacy is another important area that changes with age. Small children really have no privacy, either physical or mental. As they mature, they need more and more of both. We often forget about the need for mental privacy. By this, I refer to the right to keep private one's own thoughts, ideas, fantasies and dreams. We can understand that when parents pry too much into their children's minds they tend to force and encourage fibs and dishonesty. Patient observation and listening are the best ways to know what youngsters are thinking. Help them to continue to feel free to talk with you about things, but don't press it. Parents who lecture and argue with children soon find communication is cut off. Those parents who listen and ask for their children's opinions, generally keep communication flowing. Physical privacy (modesty) is more a matter of each family's personal preference. I would only add that children who have learned to be extremely modest at home have a difficult time later on in locker rooms, in the service, at physician's offices, and even in marriage. Each person's body is his own private concern, however, and each should have the right to decide (within reason) how much privacy is right for him. The general trend in physical modesty is that little children feel no need for it whatsoever and it gradually develops until around age eleven or so, by which time most children keep their private areas covered when in the presence of family members of the opposite sex. Girls tend to be more modest than boys. Children define their own needs for modesty in unique ways. A five-year-old boy, with whom I was acquainted, had been dared by older boys on the school bus to drop his jeans to the floor. In an attempt to win their favor he complied, dropping everything and standing there Jay-bird naked from the waist down. When later asked by his mother why he had dropped everything when the dare only concerned his jeans, he replied, "Well, Mom, I didn't want them to see my underwear." Sometimes, the lack of physical modesty on one family member's part may be embarrassing to another. These conflicts of needs have to be worked out. This usually means that the immodest one must come to understand that he or she really needs to cover up when in the presence of the one who is bothered by it. To some degree, at least, we only have the right to do our own thing up to that point where it inflicts discomfort or imposition on someone else. Home responsibility refers to helping maintain the household. Small children can do less than older children just because of skill differences. The typical trend, however, does not necessarily follow skill levels. I believe all family members need to contribute to the care of the home. If we live here, we help here, is not an inappropriate expectation. The trend usually is that younger children are eager helpers and with proper nurturing this continues to grow until somewhere around third or fourth grade. At that point reminder lists of tasks needing to be completed may be (usually are!) needed. (More later.) In relation to this, I would like to recall for your consideration, Grandpa’s rule: We work before we play. It is simply, though forcefully stated! This really is not so much a rule as it is a value statement. Grandpa valued being a responsible worker. He also valued play or he would not have mentioned it in his statement. He did, however, have a definite priority, which his statement makes clear - we work before we play. I think you will find that following this sequence will simplify life in most homes. It provides an approach to living that works effectively almost anywhere and at almost any time. (In case you’re wondering, that is not the One Rule Plan. We really will get to that later, I promise!) Let's take a short side trip about those reminder lists I spoke of above. We will talk more about this kind of thing later on, but, here, just let me mention that all reminder lists need to be designed in two parts - the task and the time. For example: Make bed - before breakfast each morning Take out trash - immediately after supper each evening Practice horn for a period not less than thirty-minutes each day, always beginning prior to 6:30 P.M. each day. Some examples of Grandpa's Rule might be: Make bed before morning TV viewing. Take out trash before evening play time. Practice horn thirty minutes before evening TV viewing. Usually, those who are to be responsible for each task should be consulted during the list making. Better yet, they make their own suggested list to be approved by, or revised with, the parent (remember, it is the parent's responsibility to be in charge). [End of side trip!] The trend in home responsibility taking usually is that it peaks around age twelve or thirteen and then drops down a bit and levels off until the child leaves home. Obviously older children will be given those tasks, which need better judgment and more skill. Finally, the trend in rule-setting. In a typical rule-bound home, parent-made rules just pile up higher and higher as a child gets older. He may have all those he had when younger plus all those that get added on later. As each successive child comes along, those same rules may be forced on them also, whether they meet their individual needs and skill levels or not. Although this trend is often thought of as fair, it more frequently spells disaster. As we will see presently, with the One Rule approach, the number of rules never (well, seldom) varies from age to age - it is always just one. However, our expectations for a youngster's appropriate application of that rule, does indeed increase with age and maturity. HOW MAY RELIGION PLAY A PART IN THE ONE RULE PLAN? The One Rule Plan For Family Happiness is based on the parent's own value system and is a direct outgrowth of it. For families who profess a specific religion, I think you will find it quite easy to utilize the One Rule Plan. As a church member, you probably already adhere to a set of beliefs and values established by that church. (I know, exceptions, do apply here.) Some of those beliefs may be the ones you want to select as the basic values upon which you will base your plan. (We will go into this in great detail later.) If formal religion does not play such a major role in your family, I think you will find that the ideas and activities suggested here, will be helpful in recognizing and organizing your own ideas and beliefs into your own personal value system. This is a necessary first step in this plan, as you will see, shortly. During the 1950's, there were a series of merger discussions among the several very small Protestant churches in the little community where I lived. These inevitably involved debates of beliefs and rites and other practices. At one meeting a member of the Baptist church stood up and said with some consternation, "I don't see what all the fuss is about. I think it would be just great if everyone in town came to one big Baptist church." Unlike that spokesperson who just assumed everyone should be happy believing as she did, this approach is far less interested in what you believe, than it is in helping you develop a plan that incorporates your beliefs into the plan. HOW IS THE REST OF THIS BOOK ORGANIZED? It has been suggested that a successful public speaker first tells his audience what he is going to say, then he says it, and finally, he tells them what it was he just said. This book – let’s call it a manual - is organized in that same manner. We know that reviewing is the most important step in learning. Therefore, I will build in a review of the material at the end of each section. I will introduce each section with a list of the questions that will be addressed there. Within the body of each section, I may stop and ask you to think about what we have covered up to that point. I may review it with you briefly before proceeding, or say the same thing in several different ways when my experience has shown me that it seems to be a difficult concept to grasp the first time thorough. When I think we may need certain basic information before proceeding, I will take you on a short side trip in order to provide it. In general, most concepts will be introduced in one section and then developed further in future sections. More specifically, we are going to begin by having you complete two Inventories to help you get a better idea of what you now believe about a number of important, related topics. This will be vital information for you to use in building your individualized One Rule Plan for Family Happiness. Then we will talk about rules - rules that work and rules that won’t work, and why. We will learn how to formulate and write workable rules and how to know if your rules are helping or hurting your family. We will analyze your present rules. We will translate your own values into your very own One Rule Plan For Family Happiness. We will then talk about the principles of getting along with others, especially other family members. This will be followed by a presentation of many real life examples, which illustrate how the One Rule Plan works. Throughout all of this you will come face to face with your own personal values and major beliefs and you will learn how to pass these on to your children . . . if you decide that is what you want to do. We will talk about many specific topics such as individual differences, discipline, side trips, rule enforcement, problem solving techniques, good social skills, time-saving automatic routines and schedules, and teenage rebellion (and why you will come to appreciate it!). WHERE ARE YOU NOW AS A PERSON AND PARENT? In this section, you will complete two Inventories - The Parent Inventory and The Value Inventory. In both cases, the results are strictly private. No one else ever need see the results unless you decide to reveal them. Be as completely honest with yourself as possible when completing these. Otherwise, you won't have realistic information to use later on in this manual. One nice thing about these inventories is that there really are no right or wrong answers, just responses that describe you as of this moment. If you are honest with your responses, you get a grade of 100% regardless of what those answers are. If yours is a two-parent home, I hope that both of you will be engaged in using this manual. It isn't necessary, of course, but it certainly makes it easier to implement changes. If both adults are involved you will want to make four extra copies of each inventory for your own use (even though you will see that they are both copyrighted). This will allow you to complete them a second time after reading this manual, providing a before and after look at yourself. The Value Inventory: An inventory such as this one is an informal way of helping you weigh certain personal traits as being more or less important to you than are other traits. From each of the fifty-five pairings of traits, you are asked to select the one, which you want most for your children during their lifetime. Sometimes it may be difficult to choose one over the other because they both seem either very important or very unimportant to you. In each case, though, do your best and choose just one. Circle the letter in front of the trait or phrase, which you decide is more important to you. Do not try to decide which choice may make you look better to someone else. Just circle the one you honestly feel you now desire for your children. Later on in the manual, we will return to analyze your responses. For now, just complete the choices and set it aside. Below, I will briefly describe what I mean by some of the words and phrases used in the Inventory. Keep these meanings in mind as you make your choices. For those phrases not described here, assume they mean just what common sense tells you they mean. Moral and ethical = That which is right and fair in human conduct. Famous = Widely known and easily recognized. Success in job = Be known as one of the best there is at doing what you do. Power = Have and use great power or authority over others to obtain what one wants. Knowledge and Understanding = Has learned a lot of things and understands how those things fit and work together. Social acceptance = In general, the people of the community really like to have this person around them. Altruism = Being almost totally unselfish toward others - being able to put others' needs or comfort on a par with or even sometimes before your own. Now, please complete the Value Inventory before you read any further. Once you have that inventory finished, then please go right ahead and complete the Parent Inventory (which follows). The instructions for filling them out, are on the inventories. When both inventories have been completed, you are ready to do the activity below and then to read Chapter One. [Inventories will be found right below the SUMMARY OF THE INTRODUCTION] ACTIVITY: Planning for yourself Plan a time for yourself (no spouse - a friend is OK, however) to be away from your home and family responsibilities for at least four hours (all at once!). Really be self-centered about this and do something you really want to do. If you can't think of anything (fat chance!) look around at what others your age do for fun and pick something to try. (If it doesn't turn out to be great you just may have to keep trying other things until something does!) Perhaps you will need to trade baby-sitting with a friend. This way you can take off one day and your friend can do the same another day. This activity may or may not cost any money. It could be a movie, an athletic event or an afternoon in the park or sharing a cup of Cafe Italiano at a good friend's house as the spring rain gently falls outside. The important thing is to relax and have a great time. Then try to repeat this at least once each week. I hope you and your spouse (if applicable) can also get away together at least once every other week. SUMMARY OF THE INTRODUCTION We spoke of the importance of having a common basis of knowledge before proceeding to the body of this book (manual). To accomplish that we talked about the changing make-up of families, about privileges and responsibilities, some trends in parent-child relationships, the role religion may or may not play in your One Rule Plan, and I asked you to complete two inventories, the results from which we will use later on. In this section, as in all of those that follow, I suggest you turn back to the first page of the Introduction and answer each of the questions posed there. When you are not certain of an answer refer to the text and clarify that topic before going any further. Believe me, we have a grand adventure ahead of us! PURPOSE: The Family Value Inventory is designed to help parents determine which aspects of life they value enough to want to pass on to their children. This inventory is composed of eleven of the values most frequently encountered by the author during his thirty years as a Family Life Consultant. Most of them tend to help build a positive family life and mentally healthy children. Several, generally less helpful values, have been included, because of the frequency with which they seem to be held by parents who are experiencing parenting problems. DEFINITIONS: These are the definitions of each value as intended in this e. Self Confidence/self esteem: To believe in the genuine positive worth and capability of oneself. Altruism. Being almost totally unselfish toward others. Integrity. Moral and ethical beliefs supporting what is right and fair in human conduct. Happiness/contentment. Enjoying, and being satisfied with one's life and with the relationships and other common aspects that make it up. Knowledge/understanding. To learn a lot of things and being able to see how those things fit and work together. Love/friendship. Feeling liked and loved by people who are important to you, and feeling you are actually a lovable, likeable person. Success in job. Being known as one of the very best there is at doing what you do. Social acceptance. In general, having the people of your community really like to have you around them, so they include you in their plans and activities. Power over others. Having and wielding great power or authority over others in order to obtain what you want. Fame. Being widely known and easily recognized most everywhere one goes. Wealth. Having accumulated great sums of money or other symbols of wealth. INSTRUCTIONS: Below you will find fifty-five pairs of values (those defined above). In each case you are to circle the letter in front of the one of those two, which you believe is most important for you to see develop in your children as they grow up. There are no right or wrong choices in an inventory like this one. The only goal is to help you discover which things you value more and which things you may value less. PREPARATION OF THE SCORES FOR INTERPRETATION: Directions are provided at the end of the inventory. It is best to complete the inventory before reading these directions. INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS: See the discussion in the text of the book, The One Rule Plan for Family Happiness, by Garrison Hutchison. The Family Value Inventory (Select and circle one from each pair.) 1. A. Self-confidence B. Altruism 2. C. Integrity D. Happiness 3. B. Altruism E. Knowledge 4. F. Love/friendship G. Success in job 5. A. Self-confidence C. Integrity 6. D. Happiness F. Knowledge 7. B. Altruism F. Love/friendship 8. E. Knowledge K. Wealth 9. F. Love/friendship H. Social acceptance 10. A. Self-confidence D. Happiness 11. C. Integrity E. Knowledge 12. B. Altruism G. Success 13. D. Happiness F. Love/friendship 14. G. Success in job H. Social acceptance 15. A. Self-confidence E. Knowledge 16. F. Love/friendship I. Power 17. B. Altruism H. Social acceptance 18. D. Happiness K. Wealth 19. G. Success in job J. Fame 20. A. Self-confidence F. Love/friendship 21. H. Social acceptance K. Wealth 22. B. Altruism I. Fame 23. C. Integrity F. Love/friendship 24. H. Social acceptance I. Power 25. A. Self-confidence G. Success in job 26. E. Knowledge F. Love/friendship 27. B. Altruism J. Fame 28. C. Integrity G. Success in job 29. I. Power K. Wealth 30. A. Self-confidence H. Social acceptance 31. E. Knowledge G. Success in job 32. B. Altruism K. Wealth 33. C. Integrity H. Social acceptance 34. J. Fame K. Wealth 35. A. Self-confidence I. Power 36. G. Success in job K. Wealth 37. D. Happiness H. Social acceptance 38. I. Power J. Fame 39. E. Knowledge H. Social acceptance 40. A. Self-confidence J. Fame 41. C. Integrity I. Power 42. H. Social acceptance J. Fame 43. E. Knowledge I. Power 44. D. Happiness G. Success in job 45. A. Self-confidence K. Wealth 46. C. Integrity K. Fame 47. D. Happiness I. Power 48. E. Knowledge J. Fame 49. F. Love/friendship K. Wealth 50. B. Altruism C. Integrity 51. D. Happiness J. Fame 52. G. Success in job I. Power 53. C. Integrity K. Wealth 54. F. Love/friendship J. Fame 55. B. Altruism D. Happiness If you are completing this inventory as a part of the One Rule Plan For Family Happiness book, return now to your reading in that book. You will be told when to return here and summarize the results. SUMMARIZING THE RESULTS: The Values: Each pair of phrases above is numbered 1 through 55. Each phrase is lettered - A through K. To score the Inventory you count the number of times each letter is circled. Make a list down a page - letters ‘A’ through ‘K’ and enter a hash mark next to each letter as you find them circled. Count the marks and enter a total to the right of each letter. You may want to write the name of the trait beside it for later reference. [OR, make a copy of the form below.] The interpretation will be provided later on. The Family Value Inventory Score Summary Section \| The Values \| Total Scores \| \|---------------------\|--------------\| \| \| 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 \| \| A- Self Confidence \| \| \| B- Altruism \| \| \| C- Integrity \| \| \| D- Happiness \| \| \| E- Knowledge \| \| \| F- Love/friendship \| \| \| G- Success on job \| \| \| H- Social Acceptance\| \| \| I- Power over others\| \| \| J- Fame \| \| \| K- Wealth \| \| The Value Importance List: The Value Importance List is a way of arranging the values by name from those you chose most often as really important to you, to those you chose as less important to you. (See text for interpretation of what this means.) When several have the same total score, you decide in which order to enter those. Example: Assume here that Fame receives the highest number of choices giving it the highest score of 9. Write Fame on line number 1. If wealth is the next highest with a score of 7, write in Wealth on the line beside number 2. If Power and Success both receive a score of 4, you decide which you feel is more important to you and write that on line number 3 and the other on line number 4. Enter all values in order of score so your final list contains all eleven values. Value Importance List HIGHEST SCORE 1. ____________________________ 2. ____________________________ 3. ____________________________ 4. ____________________________ 5. ____________________________ 6. ____________________________ 7. ____________________________ 8. ____________________________ 9. ____________________________ 10. ____________________________ LOWEST SCORE 11. ____________________________ SECTION ONE INSTRUCTIONS: The descriptions of parenting procedures found within each of the following five sets of statements are arranged from the least appropriate or comfortable at the top of each list, to the most comfortable or appropriate at the bottom. Decide in each set which one phrase describes your present situation best, and enter that number in the, I'm At, space to the right. Then go right on to the next section. When you have finished all five sets, start over back at set A and decide which phrase best describes where you eventually want to be. Put the number of that phrase, in the, I want, space to the right. Later you will receive instructions on how to complete the rest of the section at the right side of the page, and how to determine what it has to tell you. [Some E-book formats will let you copy the form. On others you will just need to innovate.] Why are you a parent? I'm at _____ I want _____ Difference = _____ 1. It just sort of happened. 2. I wanted marriage, and children just came along. 3. My spouse wanted children so I just went along. 4. My parents (or in laws) expected children so I went along. 5. Although I did not expect to like being a parent, I am happy to say it is mostly OK. 6. I have long wanted to be a parent, so I have worked toward becoming one, and I am happy about it. B. How do you feel about being a parent? I'm at _____ I want _____ Difference = _____ 1. I hate it most of the time. 2. Right now I don't like it much. 3. I'm sure it's too difficult for me. 4. It's worse than I thought it would be. 5. It may be too difficult a job for me. 6. It's better that I thought it would be. 7. Most of the time I like it. 8. It is wonderful! I love it! C. How do you feel about children? I'm at _____ I want _____ Difference = _____ 1. I seldom like them much. 2. Having children was a big mistake. 3. I love them, but often do not like them much. 4. I love them and usually like them. 5. Having a child is great for me! D. How good do think you are as a parent? I'm at ___ I want ___ Difference = _____ 1. I am sure I am really inadequate (bad) 2. I have no idea. 3. At best, I am only adequate (average or below) 4. I am usually pretty good. 5. I am a great parent and proud of it. E. (If there is another parent in the home) I'm at _____ I want _____ Difference = _____ 1. We usually disagree. 2. We often disagree. 3. We agree far more than we disagree. 4. Basically, we always pretty much agree. SECTION TWO INSTRUCTIONS: Within this section you will find a list of some parenting practices which have been found to be associated with happy, well adjusting, helpful family life. Circle the + sign in front of each phrase that usually applies to you. + 1. Tell children you love them. + 2. Hug and or kiss the children at least daily. + 3. Take time to stop and listen when children have something to say or ask. 4. Have clearly stated, easily understood rules and expectations for the children. 5. Sometimes tailor-make some rules just for one specific child. 6. Revise rules as called for by the changing circumstances, ages, etc. 7. Enforce the rules immediately the first time they are broken. 8. Notify the children ahead of time if a rule is to be changed. 9. Spend at least a few minutes alone with each child each day. 10. Attend the child's special events (at school, scouts, church, etc.). 11. Visit each child's school and meet each teacher. 12. See that homework is completed regularly. 13. Limit TV viewing time and monitor program content. 14. Answer child's questions about life, sex, and drugs as those questions arise. 15. Conduct your life as you want and expect your child to conduct and live his. 16. Usually have at least two sit-down meals each day with your child(ren). 17. Sit down regularly and review your rules and expectations with your children. 18. Discuss parenting concerns calmly with your spouse. 19. See that each child has some free time each day. 20. Meet and get to know your child's regular friends. 21. Expect and allow each child to act his or her actual age. 22. I am not afraid to correct my child(ren). 23. I expect and encourage my child to be honest. + 24. I expect and encourage my child to be polite and considerate of others. + 25. I expect and encourage my child to be friendly toward others. + 26. I expect and encourage my child to be cooperative. + 27. I expect and encourage my child to read books. + 28. I have regular jobs for my children to complete at home. + 29. I see that those jobs are done on time. + 30. I see that those jobs are completed to the best of each child's level of ability. + 31. I expect the child(ren) to help out at home without expecting to always be paid. + 32. I provide payment or reward for extra jobs as I can. + 33. I regularly say things to my child to make him feel good about himself. + 34. I provide adequate food, clothing and shelter for my child. + 35. I see to it that I regularly have long periods of time to spend with my child(ren). + 36. My spouse and I (if together) arrange to have time together away from the children. + 37. I spend time learning about what is normal and less normal behavior in children, by reading books and articles, watching related TV programs, attending lectures or seminars, etc. SECTION THREE INSTRUCTIONS: Within the following list you will find another set of possible parenting characteristics. Circle the - sign in front of each phrase that frequently describes you: - 1. I yell at my child quite often. - 2. I hit my child when I am angry. - 3. Once I start hitting a child I have difficulty stopping. - 4. I belittle my child, indicating to him that he is no good. - 5. I embarrass my child in front of others. - 6. I tell my child I don't like him or her. - 7. I tell my child he or she is too much of a burden to me. - 8. I let my child suck me into arguments. - 9. I give-in to my child when I know I shouldn't. - 10. I place too much responsibility on my child. - 11. I allow (or at least do not prevent) another adult to abuse my child. - 12. Spanking or hitting or slapping is my usual method of correction. - 13. I overlook my child's illegal activities. - 14. I regularly let my child sleep in my bed with me at night. - 15. I'm afraid my child won't like me if I discipline him. - 16. I'm afraid my spouse (or my parents or in-laws) won't like me if I discipline the child. - 17. I am afraid of my child. - 18. I engage in sexual activity with my child. - 19. I feel depressed when I think about being a parent. - 20. I seldom cook meals for my child. - 21. I seldom have us sit down and eat meals together as a family. - 22. I allow the TV to be on during meal times. - 23. I use the TV like a baby-sitter. (As you realize, this last list is made up of parenting behaviors that are frequently associated with unhappy families that are experiencing serious problems. Refer to the book, The One Rule Plan for Family Happiness, for help in understanding what your responses may mean, and for ideas which may be helpful if you decide you want to modify any of the feelings or behaviors reflected in your responses. In the book the longer dashes in front of the numbers are referred to as ‘bolder’.) SECTION ONE Let's talk about rules In Section One, we will address these seven questions: What is a rule? Who makes rules? In a general way, how can rules be enforced? What makes a rule either easy or difficult to enforce? What kinds of rules do families have? How can rules help families? How can rules hurt families? For the activity in Section One, you will be asked to list and then examine your family’s present set of rules. SECTION ONE: LET’S TALK ABOUT RULES WHAT IS A RULE? Before answering that question, let me answer another one that may have occurred to you. If this book is about guiding family life by just one rule, then why spend an entire section on rules? If we are going to devise just one rule for your family it had better be the very best one anybody ever created, right? To do that, we need to know as much as possible about what goes into making appropriate and inappropriate, helpful and non-helpful rules. This section is intended to help you understand all the in’s and out’s of rule construction. Now, back to the original question. What is a rule? Quite simply, a rule is just a statement that something shall or shall not take place. For example: “You shall complete your homework each day as soon as you get home from school.” Or, “You shall not hit girls.” The first rule is stated positively, that is, it states what will be done. A good positive rule does not leave room for various interpretations. Here is another positive rule that tries to accomplish the same thing but it has a built-in problem of interpretation: “You shall complete your homework after school each day before you can go out to play.” What happens in case the child decides to stay inside and play? He may think this means the whole rule no longer applies. Maybe he is going to mow someone’s lawn. That is certainly not going out to play. Again, he thinks he can legally slide by the rule and not do his homework immediately after school. I believe that, in general, positive rules - that is those that say what shall or may be done, are better for families than negative rules - those that say what cannot be done (like the hit girls rule, above). Sometimes (as we will see later) short-term negative rules may be needed for some children to help them change an unacceptable behavior. In general, positive rules will be found to be of more help. Why? Well, children need to know what kinds of behaviors we do expect of them. If all our rules are don’t rules, children are only learning what we won’t accept, not what we will accept. (“Ok, so I’m not supposed to hit girls. How am I supposed to react to girls when they make me mad or I disagree with them?”) The “don’t hit girls rule” does not offer a single clue about what should or could be done instead. Perhaps the best rule in this case, and the one which socially successful adults use, is this: “Use one of the proven problem solving techniques when you have a dispute with a girl.” Now, (you observe keenly!) that rule is every bit as bad for a youngster as the original one if he has not been taught those proven problem solving techniques (which we will talk about later on). In other words, rules must not require a skill, which the child does not yet possess. I will always remember the day I said to my own son, “Stop acting so childish!” He looked up at me with his big blue eyes and disheveled hair and said, “But Daddy, I’m only five. How else am I supposed to behave?” (My we can learn a lot from listening to our children, can’t we!) By the way, when I said, “Stop acting childish,” I was using what I call a mini-rule. A mini-rule is not a written down rule. It is one made up for the moment (and made up rather poorly in that case?! I could have said, “Act more grown up,” but he could have legitimately returned the very same response to me, couldn’t he?) Let’s think of another example of a mini-rule. Perhaps we are on a picnic at a spot that is close to a beautiful, inviting, rapidly running, stream and we say, “Please, stay on this side of the big tree.” (That will keep them a safe distance from the water, yet close enough so they can throw stones in it and have other fun.) Now, one of these two mini-rules ("childish" or "stream") is negative and one is positive. Which is which? "Don't act childish," is negative, because it says what not to do. "Stay on this side of the big tree," is positive because it suggests what the children may do. But, you may be thinking, negative or positive, they both really mean the same thing. We could just as well say, "Don't get near the stream." They do mean the same thing in a way. But there is an important difference. My experience suggests, that a child who grows up in a negative rule home, learns that the World is just full of things he can't do, while in the positive rule home he learns that the World is just full of things that he can do. In the first home, the child grows to see life as limiting, and in the second, he comes to see life as full of possibilities. Children from negative rule homes often learn to be pessimistic to an extreme and to believe that nothing, which is fun, new, or intriguing, is ever going to be allowed. They also often feel that they must be a bad person inside, because so much of what they really want or need to do is prohibited, and therefore must be bad. (Don't hit, don't get so angry, don't yell, don't stay out so late, don't act childish, don't ruin your appetite, don't run indoors, don't make Mom feel bad, and so on. It would seem there are enough bad things to fill a volume.) It has been my experience that children from positive rule homes generally feel good about themselves, their future, and the World around them. At the same time, they really are learning what not to do by learning what they should be doing. ("If I should be focusing on and solving the problems when I have disputes with others, then obviously fighting them is not appropriate.") If you only have time to read and contemplate one paragraph in this book, please make it this one. And if you only have time to implement one concept from this book, please make it this one. Help your children develop a sense for what is precious. I will explain. My experience with families and children has proved to me, time and time again, that children who have no sense that certain things in this World are to be considered precious, are hundreds of times more likely to inflict pain on others, steal from others, and treat others with disrespect. A sense of precious means having experienced for oneself how important, valuable, and irreplaceable something or some relationship can be. It means to have valued something at an emotional level, not just at a material level. Usually, it also means having experienced, or at least thought about, the genuine feelings of grief that come with the loss of such a personally valued possession or relationship. Having had these kinds of personal, emotional level, experiences, can then translate into a sense of empathy for the needs, desires and feelings of others. Without this sense of precious, I sincerely doubt if empathy and altruistic (selfless) caring about others can ever develop. Only when one appreciates, at an emotional level, how precious certain things and people can be to oneself, can one exhibit the strength of character to refrain from taking from, hurting, or demeaning others. Only then can one feel the hurt being felt by another and be guided by that knowledge. Only then can one set out to see that others have the opportunity to experience for themselves those wonderfully positive feelings about others, which only occur when one has a sense for what is precious. Only then, does the wellbeing of all people become the most precious element of living. Positive rule homes have a good chance of producing and cultivating children who possess a sense of precious. Negative rule homes have virtually no chance. (End of sermon.) So, there are long-term rules, which we expect children to follow for years, and there are short-term rules (I have called these Mini-rules) that are just for special occasions. Rules may be stated positively or negatively. Positive rules tend to help children build more of the characteristics most parents want for their children. Helping children to value things themselves, helps them develop empathy and altruism. WHO MAKES RULES? To be accurate, we all make rules, but the only ones that count are the ones made by those who have the power to enforce them. In a family, parents should be the ones with that power. As children grow older and more mature they get to practice trying to live by their own rules (a bit at a time), but the parents remain the ones who should almost always reserve the power to make (or approve) and enforce the rules. One of the major tasks of childrearing is, I believe, helping children learn about rules - finding out which kinds are helpful and which aren't, and why. A parent might, for example, allow a sixteen year old to set his or her own bed time, providing his is up on time, pleasant to the other family members in the morning, and functions well throughout the day. We would not, of course, give a six year old that same privilege (a privilege and a responsibility, really.) We might, however, allow a six-year-old to make up the rules for a card game to be played just for fun, or we might let him decide whether he will take his bath at 7:00 or 7:30 (when either is really all right with the parent). In these ways, the younger child begins practicing the all-important rule making process and learns how his attempts turn out. Many families have trouble with rules because it is not made clear on a daily basis that the parents are, in the end, in charge of all rules. When a child talks us out of enforcing a rule, the child is then in charge of making the rule. Sometimes that may be acceptable, but when it occurs, it must be understood, that it is just a one-time deal, made because of special circumstances, and that it is back to Mom's and Dad's way the very next time. My wife and I often recognized that when we once let a rule slip without enforcing it many of our foster children would assume that rule no longer existed. This even happened when we would specifically state that this is a special occasion so we won't worry about such and such. We thought we were doing something nice for them, but in reality, we were confusing them. Children who have lived with non-enforced rules find it very easy to believe all rules are only temporary, and that once turned off, the child then has the right to make up his own rule to cover that situation. One of the nice things that happens as children mature, is that, more and more, they can share in the rule-making process. When they have good reasons for rule changes, and when they can be counted on to use good judgment in abiding by those changes, then they get to help set some of their own rules. But it is still understood that the rules are the parent's rules. Children are always lobbying for rule changes. (What? That's not news to you?) It is just to be expected, isn't it? We do not change them unless, as the parent, we come to see how a change will benefit the family (or the child) in the long run. By benefit, we mean truly help him in the growing-up-into-a-fine-person sense of the word. We never change a rule merely so a child will like us better. I remind us again that being a parent must never be seen as a _______ _______ (what, what)? Right, a popularity contest. As parents, we always try to do what is best and not what is necessarily best liked. Then there are all of the outside-of-the-home-advice-givers - relatives, friends, columnists, talk show guests, authors and me. All these folks have ideas about rules - how many, which ones, and so on. You, as the parent, have to sort through it all and decide by using your own best judgment, which to consider and which to dismiss. (We will talk more about this as we go on. A little later, I am going to suggest to you the One Rule Plan. This will be one more piece of advice for you to consider.) IN A GENERAL WAY, HOW CAN RULES BE ENFORCED In Section Five, I will suggest a number of more specific techniques, which I believe you will find helpful in enforcing rules. Here, I just want us to think about some general, basic approaches that may be found to be helpful. Power, of course, is the mainstay of rule enforcement. Power within a family can flow from several different sources. In the eyes of most children, parents have power just because they are parents. The position of parent or adult is enough to encourage most children to abide by an adult's rules and requests. Not all children buy into this position-equals-power scheme, however. My wife and I found that many foster children, especially the ones who came from homes having weak or depressed parents, felt no responsibility whatsoever to comply with our wishes merely because we occupied the parental seat. Making youngsters fear you is another kind of power. It is not one I recommend, however, because it is so hard for a child to do his best when he has to be constantly afraid (ever have stage fright?). We also know that kids who behave just because they are afraid they will be punished if caught doing something wrong, tend to become very sneaky and quite skillful in finding ways to avoid being caught. So, when they behave themselves, it is only because they are afraid to behave badly, rather than because they have learned that to behave well pays off for them in positive ways. They see themselves as bad guys who have to disguise themselves as good guys in order to avoid pain. Also, they spend a good deal of time plotting how to get out from under the parent's thumb. so they can go and try out all those forbidden things away from home. A study on a related subject was done in a Jr. High School. It was found that students leaving a classroom controlled through fear techniques, tended to "go wild" once released into the halls between classes, while those from positively controlled rooms, went about their business in the halls in an orderly manner. Be assured that the very same findings apply when children leave a fear-based home, compared with a positive-based home. I often call the fear approach the lazy approach to parenting. ("I'll just be scary enough and my kids will behave. Then I can just sit back. No need to concern myself with all of this fancy help-your-kids-to-learn-how-to-control-themselves baloney.") This lazy approach does not require that the parent ever even attempt to help their children learn how to select and use values or make appropriate social judgments. The parent who controls through fear sees no need to learn about the developmental stages of childhood or positive mental health principles or the teaching of social skills. It really is a lazy man's approach. Basically, the child from a fear-based home tends to learn, first of all, that he who is successful at being sneaky gets the breaks, and second of all, that he who can inflict the most pain, wins. A sizeable portion of our society today appears to believe in child rearing methods that produce those two outcomes. That really scares me! Those are not the kinds of things I want as the basis of our society during the reign of the next generation. How about you? This becomes one of your first and very biggest decisions here in this One Rule Program! Respect is another form of power, very different from fear, though some parents (many, perhaps) confuse the two. Respect, as used here, means that the child thinks you are a great model and wants to become like you. He thinks you are wise and feels affection for you. He asks to hear your opinions and usually believes that if you made these rules they must be pretty good (although he will most likely not tell you so until he's twenty-five!). Generally, children try to avoid a feared parent and seek to be with a respected one. Fear demands compliance. Respect inspires compliance. Some parents fall into the trap of bribing children to behave or to follow the rules. Let's take a minute here to talk about the major (and frequently overlooked) difference between a bribe and a reward. A bribe is given before the desired act is performed. ("Here's a candy bar, now go clean your room.") The smart youngster eats the candy bar and stays put. After all, a parent who's into bribery may well give him two or even three candy bars in order to get the job done. In other words, a bribe never guarantees a job gets done because the payoff is delivered before the fact rather than after the fact. (It is akin to Grandpa's Rule.) A reward is given after the job is completed satisfactorily. Note the three key ingredients in a reward - after, completed, satisfactorily. A reward is often agreed upon ahead of time ("I'll pay you $5.00 to clean out the fireplace. This is how it is to be done and this will tell me it has been completed correctly.") That is an anticipated reward, much like the salary you may earn at work. Rewards may also be unanticipated. The child does an extra amount of work or shows extreme patience with little sister while on a family shopping trip that became far too long, so Mom provides an unexpected treat as a reward. Homes, which provide occasional, unanticipated rewards, are consistently rated as pleasant places by the children who live there. These parents see their children as more helpful than do parents from homes that do not utilize this practice. Rewards can take several forms. They may be tangible, such as toys, extended bedtime hour, a special privilege, money, etc. They may also be intangibles, such as praise, a hug, or Mom bragging to Dad about young Billy (within earshot of Billy.). My best advice is not to get caught up in the bribing syndrome because the parent always loses and the child always wins (wins in the short run, only, of course). We will talk a lot more about appropriate uses of rewards later on. Trades are another way to enforce rules or to get things accomplished. They are really a special case of either a bribe or a reward. ("I'll tell you what, Jenny," Mom says, "If you'll fold the clean clothes right now, I'll do the dishes for you tonight, because I know you would like to leave early for the game.") Trades, as part of a reward system, are healthy and helpful procedures, I think, if used within reason and when both parties concerned really agree to the trade. The occasional trading of jobs or responsibilities between children is also all right, I believe. It teaches children important lessons about give and take relationships and being thoughtful and helpful to our loved ones. Just be certain that the parent approves these trades ahead of time. Some people have the capacity to charm or con others into doing things. (Sometimes this is termed charisma.) When the parent's power depends on charm or the con, the children may go along with them, but they really haven't accepted the rules as good, in and of themselves. They just follow them because of the "spell" the parent weaves. When children mimic such processes, it only teaches them to try and get by on personality rather than by pulling their own weight. The final enforcement method, which we will talk about here, is enforcement by designation. Sometimes the parents cannot be present so they designate an older sibling or baby-sitter to act in their place and enforce their rules. This must always be understood to be a temporary measure. It must only apply during the parent's absence. Sometimes older brothers and sisters get the idea that they always have the right to be the boss over younger siblings. Older siblings usually aren't consistently wise enough or knowledgeable enough to be adequate bosses without specific instructions from their parents. Regardless, parents must watch to see that this independent bossing does not take place. A child needs to know that he or she has just one boss (or one set of two bosses when Mom and Dad are both present in the home). Letting one child become the artificial boss over another on a regular basis confuses the relationships and often causes unnecessary deep resentment between siblings. The younger one resents the power of the older and the older may resent the fact that the younger one will not listen or behave. WHAT MAKES A RULE EITHER EASY OR HARD TO ENFORCE? A rule that states who, does what, when, and to what degree of perfection, is the easiest kind of rule to enforce. ("Jill washes the dishes clean, immediately after dinner every Monday.") This is a well-stated rule. It tells us who (Jill), does what (washes the dishes), when (immediately after dinner on Mondays) and to what degree of perfection (clean). In most homes, Mom or Dad gives the inspection and passes or fails the job. Once children are patiently taught how a job is to be done, there is usually little problem understanding just what the parent's expectation is. A clear rule, however, is a good news - bad news situation. The clearest rule handles just one specific event (like dish washing by Jill). Typically, it cannot handle a variety of situations. So, in order to be perfectly clear about all possible situations you would have to have a specific (clear) rule about each possible situation, job, task, or expectation that might ever come up within the home (and for each child), forever. I met a family like this once. They had very clear rules all written down for each family member and yet the family was in big trouble. I stopped counting after discovering their first three hundred fifty specific rules. Mother and Dad were exhausted just enforcing them all. The kids were "ga ga" trying to remember them all. I was struck by the fact that all this family ever had time to do was, "Do the rules," as their five-year-old put it. There are dozens of things (maybe even three hundred fifty!) that do need to be controlled in families. The good news is that if you write a specific, clear rule for each thing there will never need to be any disagreements over what is, or is not, to be done in each situation. The bad news is that you would have to hire a bookkeeper and a private eye to manage such a system. Therefore, families need to find a way to know what should be done in each case without needing a lot of specific rules. We will talk about how just such a plan works, in Section Three. First, though, we need to be certain we all understand some other basic information about rules and people and families. WHAT KINDS OF RULES DO FAMILIES HAVE? The rules we have been talking about are what I call, formal rules. These are rules we state clearly and may even write down and post. These are, indeed, needed from time to time and can be a big help when kept to a minimum (much more about this in Section Three). The other kind, are informal rules and I want to talk a bit about these here. One type of informal rule is what we might call the common sense rule. We do not write it down or even state it often (if ever). We just expect that family members will use good common sense in dealing with one another. For example, "You will always stop fighting with your brother before you kill him." This is a good common sense rule, which we can reasonably expect to be followed by most children over the age of five or so. (Perhaps not, it is sad to say, in some neighborhoods these days.) SideTrip: We need to understand that recent research suggests that common sense appears to be a fairly specific function of the brain, and in a small percent of people, that brain function just does not work real well. What I am suggesting is that although we can count on most people to have adequate common sense there really are some otherwise nice and normal folks, who, through no fault of their own, do not possess it (or at least cannot utilize it very well). In those cases, closer, outside controls on them are needed. Also, common sense develops and matures, as the child grows older. Most four-year-olds have almost none; by ten most have some; and by twelve or thirteen most have quite a bit. By the time one reaches forty, it may have even grown into wisdom! Individuals vary a great deal in the rate at which their own common sense matures so as parents we must watch for and allow for these developmental differences. There is some evidence that common sense develops somewhat earlier in girls than in boys. Also, common sense about the long term effect of one’s present behavior, typically does not become a reliable and effective trait until the mid-twenties. Don’t count on teens to make dependably good judgments about future consequences, especially in males! [End of Side Trip] Another kind of informal rule I call family expectations. These are the things we do just because we are or Pryors or Tarasenkos. The family automatically expects certain behavior from its own members. For example, some families just expect that the children will behave themselves in public, or will be nice people, or will be good athletes, or will be socially skilled, or will be the toughest kids on the block, or will work for acceptable grades, etc. When these family expectations are reasonable and regularly enforced, they represent the easiest way to influence behavior and mold character. By ageseven or eight, most children can describe their family's expectations pretty well. Just ask any seven-year-old: "What are the most important things to do in order to get along in your home?" Sometimes parents are surprised by what the children relate but the children are never wrong. Would you be surprised? Why not ask them and find out! (Remember this is an information seeking expedition, and not a reason to for confrontation, defensiveness, or even discussion.) Expectations are not written down. In some homes they are, however, stated regularly. I often ask children what their parents say to them as the children leave the house. This often gives a very good idea of family expectations. Here is a sample of what I have heard through the years. "Have fun but remember who you are." "Don't do anything to embarrass your father." "Go kick butt, Son!" In others, they are seldom stated but are obvious just through the model presented by the parent(s). Honest acting parents evoke honesty expectations and behaviors. Reading parents evoke expectations about reading and education. Physically active parents evoke physical care expectations and behaviors. Yelling parents evoke yelling behaviors in the children. Hitting parents evoke ... well, you get the picture. Children believe more fully what they see and feel than they do the words they hear. This makes it imperative that we let our youngsters actually see us doing what we tell them we believe. Openly and regularly modeling what we believe is right and best, is the absolute best teaching device for passing on our values and beliefs. Few things irk ME more than hearing that simply horrible adage, "Do as I say, not as I do." (SHUDDER!) This doesn't mean that we don't let children have their own ideas. They will whether we let them or not, so it is best they know we encourage them to think for themselves. However, this does not mean that they should not know what we believe about important matters. It does mean, I believe, that we do not demand that they have exactly the same belief system that we do. Demanding a belief is the surest way to ensure an uprising against that belief. Passing on one's own beliefs to his or her children is actually not all that difficult - it may even be thought of as easy. Here is the formula: Demonstrate daily to the child how, in the long run, the parent’s beliefs provide a good life for all concerned, and eventually the children will most likely follow suit. I'll say just one other thing about beliefs and expectations here, and will come back to them again in Section Four. Although you do not force a child to have your beliefs, you do expect him or her to behave according to those family rules which you have built upon your beliefs. Values and beliefs often become the ground for a totally normal struggle between parents and adolescents as the youngster tries to determine for himself what is right and to figure out how to be his own person. Most teenagers need to try out some other values, beliefs, and expectations in order to see (prove, really) how well yours (his own family's) actually stand up to the test of real life. When we recognize that "teen rebellion" is actually a normal and extremely necessary value testing procedure (comparison-shopping, if you will), we can come to appreciate what is happening rather than being threatened by it. When parents can relax about the normality of this stage, life with an adolescent becomes much easier. (Notice I did not say easy!) We make this normal testing and comparing easier for adolescents when we have made our beliefs quite obvious right from the start. This way the youngsters don't have to guess what we value (that is, they don't have to guess what they need to take out into the World and test). We also help them when they see that we really do stick to our beliefs (provided they are reasonable) no matter how much the teen may attack them. I am not suggesting you need to defend your beliefs to the teen. Don't ever argue about them, just stick with them. When we are steadfast, the teen learns we really do believe certain things are best. This requires, of course, that we really know what we do believe. You have already taken the Value Inventory. I will help you use that information to sort out some of your beliefs a bit later on (Section Four) and show you how to make them the basis for your own Family Life Plan. Another kind of informal rule can be called a momentary rule or a mini-rule. (We mentioned it earlier.) These are little, short-lived rules we use in special, often one-time, situations. ("Today, on this trip, in this car, only radios with earphones will be used.") Mini-rules are often needed, especially with younger children, and those showing poor judgment or common sense. I will mention just one more type of informal rule - one I hope you will never ever use. I call it the after-the-fact rule. This occurs when the parent makes up a rule and enforces it after the child has broken it. This means the child did not even know about the rule until after he or she broke it (but may still be punished). It is amazing how often this occurs. After-the-fact rules are often accompanied by a parental comment such as, "Well, you should have known better anyway." The key word here is, "should". As a parent, you have to ask yourself, "How should the child have known?" When you honestly cannot find a simple, obvious answer such as, "It has always been our clearly stated rule." or "We just talked about it this morning," then it is probably an after-the-fact rule and should not be enforced this time. If you see the need to make it into a stated rule or expectation to be followed from that moment on, it can then be enforced in the future, but only after that has been made clear to the child. Later, when we work on making your One Rule Plan work, we will see that this after-the-fact situation doesn't have to cause a problem. In fact, it can be a great opportunity to help children think through their behavior and prepare a better response for the next time that situation arises. HOW CAN RULES HELP FAMILIES? Without rules, social order would fall apart and so it is in families. Without some understanding about which behaviors will be allowed and which will not be permitted, family life is bound to be chaotic. Obviously, then, rules can be helpful. Family rules are often thought of merely as a means for maintaining order, much as are the city, state and federal laws. Keeping life orderly is certainly one important way that rules help a family. I believe it is important for rules to do much more than this, however. The rules a parent sets must reflect the parent's own beliefs about life. If they don't they become very difficult for a parent to enforce and for a child to understand and accept. Just think how hard it is for you to enforce someone else's rule (say, the school's), when you really think it is a dumb or hurtful rule. This is why parents find it is uncomfortable, if not impossible, to just take someone else's set of rules and use them with their family (regardless of how many degrees that authority may have after his or her name!). You will be basing your One Rule Plan on your own beliefs and values - not on mine! Sometimes, without even being aware of it, we get into the bind of trying to enforce someone else's rules - like when we try to use for our own family, the same rules our parents used with us. They may have been good rules back then but most of us grow and change and mature and come to believe at least somewhat differently from our own parents. When there are two parents guiding a family, it is unlikely that both came from homes with identical rules. So, which set would be followed? Certainly times and styles change and we must carefully consider all these things as we build our own set of rules (or our One Rule - singular - as I will suggest, later). So, our rule or rules can help our family by reflecting the parents' values and beliefs to their children. As an example, let's look at the "honesty" rule as stated in two families I have known. In the Anderson family the rule was, "We don't steal," (or stated more positively, "We only keep or use those things which are ours or which we have permission to use.") The Baker family's rule seemed to be, "Don't ever get caught stealing!" These two rules tell us very different things about what the Anderson parents and the Baker parents believed. The Andersons believed stealing was wrong. The Bakers believed that it was not the stealing, but the getting caught, that was wrong. In addition to maintaining order and reflecting the parents' values, there are other ways rules can help families. Rules can be used to keep things running on schedule. I have found that busy households often have a large percentage of their rules related to scheduling. Who uses the bathroom, when, and for how long, are important issues in most homes. So are topics such as, who makes the lunches, who does the dishes, laundry, etc. Rather than cluttering up the family rules with these kinds of items, I prefer that we simply use schedules. A family can formulate a good schedule by sitting down and working it out together. This process helps all family members come to understand and appreciate each other's needs, personal preferences and skill levels. The "whys" of the schedule all come to light as it is being constructed. Therefore the question, "Why?" never has to be asked (or whined, usually, I suppose!). Planning a schedule together helps children learn about rights and responsibilities and being willing to give and take for the family's over-all benefit. When a schedule is just that - a schedule - and not a set of rules, it is not so likely to be seen in a negative light by the children. When they get to help work it out, they have to leave their selfRules are often also used to prevent trespassing. ("Always knock and be invited into some else's room before entering." "Always ask before borrowing.") In many families, the line between "mine" and "ours" is a thin one and rules can help by defining this line more clearly. Later, we will see how the One Rule Plan handles this. I personally believe that preventing trespassing is a totally legitimate role for rules (for the rule). Sometimes rules are used to spell out responsibilities and privileges. ("After you get your jobs finished, you may watch TV." "When you become totally responsible and reach age 35, you may begin dating!" "When Dad gets home from work, everyone must be quiet so he can sleep.") We certainly need some way of defining privileges and responsibilities within a home. Again, as with schedules, I think we are better off in the long run if we can find ways to accomplish this by some means other than an endless chain of rules. Suggesting that you have a list of responsibilities and privileges may sound, at this point, as if I am using a different set of words which really means the same thing as rules. Bear with me on this one and I will develop my point more clearly after we have examined the One Rule approach, itself. Rules have also been used to help families by keeping certain disputes from being repeated. ("If John hits Bill again, John will be grounded for one week." "If Bill does not cooperate with Jim when those two are doing dishes together, Bill will finish them all by himself.") As you can see, if a family has to establish a rule for every possible dispute that may arise, the list becomes endless. Even so, the idea of setting up a procedure for handling disputes is a good and necessary one. If rules are the only way that works, then they can be helpful to the family. The One Rule Plan should handle most of these situations for you. HOW CAN RULES HURT FAMILIES? I always prefer to talk in positive terms but hurt is an important and, therefore, legitimate topic, so let's spend a few pages on it, here. Just as we have seen that some rules can be quite helpful for families, others can be hurtful. Rules that are unclear often hurt families because no one is sure just what is expected. If a child does not know what is expected, he can't follow the rule. (Example: "Come home after school." This rule does not state how soon after school. It does not state if he has to check in with someone or just touch the lawn before leaving again is permitted. It is unclear.) Rules that children feel are unfair are the ones parents hear about the most. If a rule really is unfair, perhaps it can be modified. The problem here is that children often cannot understand the big picture or the long term consequences, which form the basis for the rule. They often over- or under-estimate their own skill or self-protection competence. In response to the rule, "Do not talk to strangers," (stated positively would become, "Only talk to people you know."), a five-year-old once told me in all sincerity, "If a stranger tried to hurt me I'd just knock him out and call the cops." Since, from his five-year-old perspective, he was truly sure that he really could do this, he felt the family's "No talking to strangers" rule was unfair. Sometimes these rules can be satisfactorily explained and sometimes not. They are not to be the source of argument, however. On some occasions the parent's response must be, "It is the rule, so follow it. When you are able to understand my reasons, I promise you I will explain it more fully." Some parents are better at explaining things than others. Practice helps but it is certainly a special skill. We will talk at length about communication skills presently. Never keep a rule that is obviously unfair or outdated just to save face. You lose a great deal more than face - you lose the respect of your children. There are times when rules and expectations cannot be totally 'fair'. If an older child is needed to baby-sit one night each week so a parent can work and earn money needed to support the family, and the parent really cannot afford to pay an outside baby-sitter, it may be unfair (in this case, to the older sibling). The older child may have a chance for a date or a party or need the time to study. Even though some expectations may have to be unfair in the short run, there may just be no alternative. If that is the way it has to be, then the parent must acknowledge the unfairness to the child with genuine sympathy and understanding, even though insisting on the help. (We all hope that these kinds of situations can be kept to a minimum or replaced with, more positive alternatives.) Even the best set of rules ever devised will end up hurting the family if they are not consistently enforced. We will discuss this more fully in Section Five. For now, just let me say that unenforced rules are worse than no rules at all. Why? Because with unenforced rules the child learns that he or she really doesn't have to pay attention to rules (laws), and that child is, therefore, most certainly headed for major trouble out in the big, law-filled, World! Equally as hurtful to a family as unenforced rules, are unenforceable rules. Here is an example: "You are never to swear, even when you are away from home." Perhaps the idea is all right if you believe swearing is always bad, but there is no way to enforce such a rule. A parent cannot know how a child talks when away from home. So, if the child chooses to swear outside of the home, the rule then becomes one of the unenforced rules we spoke about above. Rather than trying to convey a parent's belief about swearing with a rule, it would be more fruitful in the long run, I believe, for the parent to suggest his hope and desire that the child will choose to find ways of expressing himself without resorting to swearing. The absolutely best approach, I believe, would be for the parent to be a perfect example of a non-swearer, himself. That way the child knows that you do prefer he not swear. He soon gets the idea: "We Smiths do not swear." Prohibiting any behavior that cannot be closely monitored, will, in the end, hurt the family and the child. A rule, prohibiting the use of swearwords at home is, of course, much more enforceable and can be totally appropriate if it fits your desires as a parent. Some rules are unrealistic in other ways, and setting unrealistic rules ends up hurting, rather than helping. To make the rule: "If (average little) Johnny does not bring home all A's on his report card, such and such punishing thing will happen to him," is an unrealistic rule. Telling a five year old, "If you spill your milk you will have to eat alone on the back porch," is unrealistic because most five-year-olds will spill their drinks occasionally. (I spilled my coffee this very morning!) Parents must realize that there will be times when most rules will, quite legitimately, not be able to be followed. In other words, no rule can always apply every single time. The important thing is that parents understand this and make appropriate allowances. To do this, parents must first listen to the child's analysis of the incident in question. Then, after hearing all the particulars and obtaining any necessary additional information, the parent can make a wise, informed judgment. (Rule: "Mary is to come home and go directly into the house after school." Event: After school a friend fell and was hurt, so Mary assisted her friend to get help before coming home herself, making her an hour late. Analysis: If the parents had not listened to the explanation but, instead, had just enforced the rule, an injustice would have perhaps occurred. Next time: It is agreed that Mary will call home next time anything similar transpires.) Some rules become unrealistic because a child is either too young or too old or because the parent is out of touch with how things actually are out there in the youngster's real World. This does not mean the parent caves in just because fads or styles change. It does mean, as parents, we have the responsibility to keep up with these things and take them into serious consideration as we weigh needs, rules, and long term consequences. There is no better way to keep up than by talking with and listening to your children and their friends in your home. When your children invite their friends to gather at your home, you know where they are, who they are with, and what they are doing, without having to ask. Rules that do not expect a child to live up to his or her ability, skill, or commitments, are also hurtful. (At least this is what I believe! Some professionals seem to disagree with me on this one.) My experience suggests that the overly lenient parent is rarely doing the child a favor. It takes a thorough understanding of who and what the child is to find the delicate balance between being too lenient and too strict. In both cases, the child sees the parent as unfair, although he usually only complains on the too strict side of ledger. It seems to be 'human nature' to let others spoil us when given the chance, even though we may realize it is not best for us. Most of us will, however, try to resist what we perceive as the overly strict application of authority. Families are also hurt when there are too few rules. No, let me rephrase that - Families are also hurt when the rules do not completely cover the necessary areas in appropriate ways. I'm going to suggest (eventually I really am!) that one rule can be enough when that rule covers all the bases. In some families, however, certain members really do not understand what is expected of them because the rules are not complete enough. This hurts family relationships as well as those individuals within the family. When I was very young, I had a friend whose mother had only one rule for him: "Don't come home before dark unless you are bleeding!" [Really! That was it!] Somehow, that one rule just wasn't enough to handle life for this boy (although at age seven, I thought it would be great to just have that one rule!). Finally, as we have implied before, too many rules are always hurtful to families. In general, the more rules parents feel they need to have the more they are worried that their family life is getting out of control. For every rule that is established the parent has to spend time enforcing it. Let's say an average rule may need to be enforced just three times a day for each child. If there are three children, that is $3 \times 3 = 9$ times a day. Now let's say you have only twenty rules (an average is more like four dozen!). That is still $180 (20 \times 9)$ times a day you find yourself enforcing rules. If you are with your children the typical eight at-home-and-awake hours each day (during the school year) you will be enforcing a rule every three minutes. Ever wonder where all your time goes? One other aspect of having too many rules is that when there are lots of rules there are all the more chances some of them will not be enforced. As we have said, unenforced and unenforceable rules are among the leading causes of big problems for children as they grow older and begin spending more time outside of the home. That should be more than enough about the possible, negative aspects of rules. From here on, we will be stressing the positive sides of things. In the activity that follows you will be asked to take a very close look at your present family rules. You may find that you have a set you really like and that will be great! More likely, you will find you have some you really like and others you do not like so well. It may be that you will be hard put to find many that you really like at all. Sometimes parents tell me they don't even know what the "official" rules are themselves. Regardless of your findings, take heart! We are here to help you find a way to build a healthful, happy, helpful family life, and we will begin from wherever you may find yourself right now. Don't become upset if you are unhappy with what you find during this activity. [If you believed everything was hunky-dory, you wouldn't be reading this book in the first place, right?] It only confirms that you did do the right thing in searching through this manual for some assistance. Instead of feeling down, feel proud of yourself for coming this far and for jumping into this material and making a personal commitment to work things out. Believe me, even if it feels overwhelming at first, it is not going to be. Give this activity your best, most honest effort so we (you) can find your own realistic starting point. ACTIVITY: Looking at your present rules Books, typically, just present ideas, stories, or factual material. The reader is left to his or her own devices to make use of it. Manuals, on the other hand, take it a step further and help the reader organize and use those ideas and facts. The activity suggestions at the end of each section further define this volume as a manual. I hope you will find the necessary time to take full advantage of the opportunities provided here. If there are two parents using this material, each should complete this particular activity separately. On the left half of a sheet of paper (probably several sheets before you are finished) list the rules you think you have for the family. Take a day or so, if needed, and jot them down as they come up or as you think of them. Do this before reading further. Take your time and do a complete job. Next, after each rule, put the initials of those children who you are sure understand that each one really is a rule. If there is only one child, you may want to write "yes" or "no" or "not sure" after each rule. Then, divide these rules into three categories: - In front of each of those you consider really necessary, put the letter "A". - In front of those you are not pleased with for some reason (too hard to understand, doesn't seem to work, too outrageous, etc.) put an "X". - In front of all others put a "C". Now, go through the list again and circle the letters (those, which you just wrote) in front of any rules that you find are consistently difficult to enforce. Here are several questions for you to think about and then answer. You may find it helpful to write out your answer to each so you can refer to it later if you wish, or compare it with your spouse's thoughts (if there are two of you doing this exercise). 1. How many rules do you have? 2. How many are you certain all the family members understand? 3. How many may not be understood? What problems does this tend to cause? 4. How many rules have you listed as absolutely necessary (category "A")? 5. With how many are you not pleased (category "X")? 6. How many are difficult to enforce (circled letters)? 7. How many of the absolutely necessary rules ("A") are also hard to enforce? 8. (If two parents are doing this exercise) How do the lists of the two parents differ? How are they similar? What can each parent learn from the other's list? How can you account for the differences in perspectives? 9. If any message about your rules pops out at you at this point, jot it down. You will want to return to this material later to compare new thoughts with old. If your children are cooperating in this family fix-it undertaking, you might ask them to list the rules they think the family has and have them rate each as helpful, sometimes helpful or not really helpful. You can talk this over later on. SUMMARY: Section One In Section One, we discussed the roles that rules play within families. We suggested that rules are made by the more powerful (hopefully, more knowledgeable) to control or influence the less powerful. Power arises out of fear, respect or position (just being the parent). The easiest rules to enforce are those which are stated positively and which specify exactly what will be done, by whom, when, and to what degree of perfection. There are a variety of kinds of rules that families use: formal, informal, general family expectations, routines, and schedules, to name a few. Rules can help families when they make the expectations very clear. They can hurt families when they are not enforced, are unenforceable, over-done, unclear, incomplete, or when they either expect too much or too little from any of the family members. Review the questions posed at the beginning of this section and recall to yourself what answers were suggested. You may also want to jot down some unanswered questions that have occurred to you. Keep them in mind as you read on and as you do the remaining activities. SECTION TWO Let's talk about getting along In Section Two, we will address these three questions: 1 - What kinds of people are the hardest to live with? 2 - What kinds of people are the easiest to live with? 3 - What kinds of parents probably fashion the best rules? In the activity, you will be taking a second look at your own list of rules. WHAT KINDS OF PEOPLE ARE THE HARDEST TO LIVE WITH? Depending on our own personalities, we each have fairly deep feelings about what kinds of people we like and what kinds we do not like. One goal many parents have in their child-rearing plan is to produce young people who will be fairly easy to get along with both while still at home and later on in life. Toward this end, it is appropriate, I think, to begin by describing some of the types of people who are hard to live with. This demonstrates to us what we want to avoid doing to our children and perhaps indicates some of the traits within ourselves, which we may want to begin changing. The first of these difficult personalities is the uncooperative person. This is one who wants things his or her way only. If it can't be approached their way, they want no part of it. They may not have any objection to how you do something by yourself if they do not have to help or be a part of it. They may even agree at first to help in some way, but when it comes right down to it, you either get no help or else they have to remodel your plans and do it their way. They often enjoy arguing, even if the point being considered does not really matter much to them. Uncooperative people are often that way because they have to believe they always win. This is their way of feeling important. Not only are they convinced that their way is best, they then go on to use that belief as justification for not having to assist with things when being done according to someone else's approach. ("If I know my way will work, why risk failure by doing it your way?") Uncooperative people are often the result of homes in which constant power struggles took place between parent and child, and the child won just often enough to make him believe lack of cooperation equaled power. The uncooperative person is similar in many respects to the selfish person who will always take care of his own needs first. He will cooperate only if it meets his own needs. Since cooperative efforts often involve compromises of a sort, the selfish or self-centered person often cannot cooperate because he feels that means his needs are no longer the most important. The selfish person often cannot compromise - it is their way or no way. The self-centered person fails to even try to see the legitimate needs of those with whom he lives and associates. The selfish personality in an adult is frequently the result of a home in which his every need was met and every wish granted, regardless of the sacrifices that were required on the part of others. As a child the selfish personality, was not typically required to consider the needs or rights of others. He grows to learn that he is a privileged being whose calling in life is to be first, to obtain the best for himself and to expect others to do his bidding. He has not been taught the rewards of saving or working toward goals. (In some instances it can be the result of just the opposite – his need to feel important was never met so he has over reacted at the opposite extreme.) The unreliable person, may really be harder to live with, than the two already discussed, because you cannot count on them to do what they agree to do. They are not home on time, they are not ready on time, they do not carry out their jobs and responsibilities, and so on down a long, familiar list. They may not always be unreliable, however. Sometimes they do come through. This only adds to the difficulty of living with them because if you knew they would never be dependable, at least you could always depend on that! Unreliable personalities tend to develop when parents do not hold the child accountable for his responsibilities, or when they cover for him by shouldering his responsibilities themselves. The hurtful person puts more than a little strain on a family. These people may be emotionally hurtful or physically hurtful. Sometimes they may just threaten hurtful consequences if others do not comply with their wishes. Other times they inflict actual physical pain. Some hurtful people are only that way when they drink too much or when they find themselves under more pressure than they can tolerate. Usually, the hurtful personality develops in a home, which has its own hurtful personality. Pain inflictors come from pain inflicting homes just as loving people tend to come from loving homes. At any rate, the hurtful person is more than just difficult to live with; he is dangerous to have under the same roof. The know-it-all is also a difficult person with whom to live. He believes, or at least implies, that anyone who doesn't realize his way is the best, is just plain dumb - even unworthy. His way is the only way. Since he knows he is right, he doesn't worry about the possible negative consequences of his acts or ideas, and doesn't seek to learn about new possibilities. There is only one way to get along with the know-it-all and that is to do things his way. They live for the moment others fail so they can say, "I told you so, dummy!" The know-it-all personality often develops in homes that encourage intolerance of other points of view. Sometimes the know-it-all approach is merely a smoke screen which, when fiercely set, discourages other points of view from being presented. In this way, one's own beliefs are not challenged. Cult and radical religious leaders often fall into this category – well, even some not so radical religious positions. The blamer is not content until blame can be saddled on someone every time there is a problem. Blamers are seldom able to take the blame for their own errors. Once they can say, "It's his fault," the blamer seems to relax and feel fulfilled. Blamers typically have very low self-esteem and rush in to establish the fact that whatever bad thing happened, it was not their fault. Blamers make harmful parents, partly because they are content to stop once blame is established and punishment is meted out. Either they seldom really think about helping their children learn how to improve, or they actually believe that punishment, by itself, somehow magically teaches the child the skills needed to do better the next time. Blamers are almost always children of blamers and or revengers (below). The revenger is often found in the same personality as the blamer. Once the blame is established, they feel compelled to see that some revenge is taken or punishment is delivered. Revengers take some delight in seeing the bad guy get hurt. They believe that is the only fair consequence - to inflict pain on the guilty. The revenger carries a grudge forever. He never ceases trying to get back at those who he feels did him wrong. Revengers become filled with hate (though often hide it well) and usually spend their lives being extremely unhappy people, at least on the inside (and where else does it count?). Revengers often develop into hurtful people. When a punishment doesn't change someone else's behavior, all the revenger knows to do is to punish even harder the next time. The self-hider is one who never lets others know what he is thinking or feeling. He expects you to just know. If you guess wrong, he gets upset. This personality keeps a household in constant turmoil with his forced guessing game. The self-hider will often commit himself to do something he really does not want to do or is not even capable of doing, just because he can't let others know how he feels about it. With the self-hider it is hard to cooperatively plan even simple things, let alone such major items like establishing family rules and consequences. You never know for sure how to help this kind of person, because they can't let their own needs, be seen. When we try to help, and guess wrong, it often makes things worse since self-hiders are easily upset. The self-hiders become terribly unhappy because they commit themselves to do things they really do not enjoy or, even worse, do not believe in. Deep down inside, most self-hiders are in a constant state of panic. They develop in homes where feelings are to be hidden rather than expressed. The people-user is a con man of sorts. If he does anything nice for you he maintains a repayment schedule of some sort in the back of his head, which he expects to receive and eventually extracts. He keeps a set of mental books on who owes him how much and for what. He is often overly ambitious and uses people to climb toward the top. He is, of course, a selfish person also, only thinking of himself. To paraphrase John Kennedy, the people user, "thinks only of what others can do for him and not what he can do for others." The people user cannot develop serious, deep, positive feelings for others. He tosses people aside as soon as he has finished using them. His life plan is to advance to the top. Once he arrives there, the unexpected emptiness of life often overwhelms him. People users typically develop in homes where positive moral and ethical values are not appropriately emphasized. Some neurological disorders may also prevent a conscience from developing, but either way, the people user does not seem to be guided by a conscience. The puter-downer person is a mild form of the hurtful person. In life there are two main ways to make oneself feel important: The positive way is to work hard and accomplish something fine (like being a great parent, a good friend, or a reliable worker). The negative way is to put others down so you can feel superior to them. This negative approach is the hallmark of the puter-downer. By belittling the accomplishments of others, their own lack of accomplishment seems less obvious (or so they think). They are not easy people to live beside. Children who are frequently belittled have a difficult time developing a positive image of themselves. Again, putter-downers have typically grown up in homes where that was the 'success method' of choice. Homes characterized by teasing and practical jokes also tend to promote this personality. The pessimistic person always expects that the worst will happen. He feels there is no use in really trying this or that because it won't work out anyway. He is often prone to depression, inactivity, and forgetfulness (why remember if it's not going to work out or happen or help anyway?). The pessimist is the ultimate wet blanket and tends to spread his gloom to all those he touches. Pessimism often hides a lack of self-confidence. It becomes an excuse for not getting in there and giving it the old college try. (No need to risk failing if you have convinced yourself that nothing would work anyway.) Pessimism breeds pessimism in homes. Finally, let's look at the Pollyanna. A Pollyanna is overly and unrealistically optimistic. He believes everything will turn out peachy keen even without raising a hand himself to influence the outcome. Why go to any trouble to forestall or solve a problem if you know it is really going to turn out fine? We could say that these folks are hurtful by omission. By not doing what is needed, unpleasant consequences often follow. In a home setting, the Pollyanna tends to make promises and get hopes up about things that can never really happen. Feeling helpless themselves, they try to wish things into existence. Life just pushes them around because they don't dig in their heels and take a stand. Many Pollyannas come from extremely unhappy homes, in which the child could find no way of controlling or even predicting, how things would go. Pollyannas often feel quite helpless deep down inside. They seek strong, indulgent companions. There are other difficult personalities of course - the criminal, the unfaithful, the habitual liar, the alcoholic, the sex addict - the list goes on and on. But these twelve represent the majority of difficult personalities found in ordinary family situations. Your library will have helpful books and other information about other types. WHAT KINDS OF PEOPLE ARE THE EASIEST TO LIVE WITH? In this question, the word "easiest" may not be the best choice, because the easiest kind of person may not really be the most appropriate or helpful for us to live with. Some might think, for example, that the easiest type of person to get along with is the one who says, "Whatever you want is fine with me. Let's just do it your way." An easy family member? Perhaps, but what does this person contribute? He has no ideas. He has no needs to be met. He takes no initiative. He doesn't get involved in the necessary give-and-take conversations. He up life to avoid all personal responsibility. This type of person just can't help others grow. So, let's change the word "easiest" to "beneficial" so the heading of this section will now read: WHAT KINDS OF PEOPLE ARE THE MOST BENEFICIAL TO LIVE WITH? In general, we can just list the opposites of the difficult types mentioned above: Uncooperative, becomes, cooperative Selfish, becomes, altruistic (puts others first) Unreliable, becomes, reliable Hurtful, becomes, caring Know-it-all, becomes, open-minded Revenger, becomes, teacher Blamer, becomes, problem solver Self-hider, becomes, open/non-defensive People user, becomes, helper Putter-downer, becomes, builder-upper Pessimist, becomes, optimist Pollyanna, becomes, realistic Let me back track for a moment. Most of the traits, which we have listed under the "hard to live with" category, are traits those people probably acquired in their own homes as they were growing up. In other words, they learned from their own particular set of circumstances to become those kinds of people. That is sad, of course, but there is good news. Look at the other list - the one on the right above. All of the people who have those beneficial traits, most likely learned to be those positive ways, from their own family life experiences, also. Our task as parents, then, is not to spend time fretting about the fact that we see some of those negative traits in ourselves, or that in the past we may have been unintentionally nudging our children toward some of those same less desirable traits. Instead, let's say, "Well, this is the place I find myself and my family today, and from here on out, I'm going to make my best effort to provide the kind of family life experiences that will produce youngsters having the more beneficial personality traits. [Sometimes, a child picks a personality style just to be different, unique from everybody else at home so he stands out. Parents will work to nip the negative styles in the bud by helping children find positive ways of asserting their self-worth.] Another piece of good news is that it is really not as hard to accomplish this as you might expect it to be. Just relax about it now, and read on. I will walk you through it, step by step, later on. Now, back to the task at hand. Look down that list of beneficial personalities again. They may be thought of not only as beneficial personalities but also the most beneficial personality traits. In a general way, they define the mentally healthy person. I imagine you will agree that life will be more beneficial to us when we are surrounded by people who are happy, mentally healthy, and well adjusting, than if we are surrounded by the other kinds. Therefore, one of the goals I propose for you to consider for your family is that each member does his part to assist all of the other members to stay, or become, happy and well adjusting people. If this makes sense to you, we're ready to move on and add a few other traits to our positive list. I need to take one more short Side Trip with you and explain in more detail a concept I introduced earlier. As I indicated in the Introduction, the word "adjusted" has always bothered me because it implies that once adjusted, no further changes or growth needs to take place. That is just not true! Every day we seem to run across new problems or challenges that need adjusting to. So, I think a better way of thinking about the mentally healthy person is to say that he is well adjusting. This suggests that he is capable of handling new obstacles that occur, and that he can even find new ways of doing so when needed. We are all constantly adjusting to new situations. Some are adjusting poorly while others are adjusting well. Therefore, I will be using the term well adjusting, to remind us that 'good adjustment' is a constantly changing process, which requires no small amount of flexibility. From that perspective I suppose the 'well adjusted' – static – person is maladjusted. Hmm. [End] Thank you for following along with me on these several, side trips. Well-planned side trips are an important feature of a successful family life plan. In Section Five, I will show you how you can use them effectively. WHAT KINDS OF PARENTS PROBABLY FASHION THE BEST RULES? You already know a major part of my answer to this question. Of course, happy, well adjusting people are best able to fashion good rules. Why happy? Well, in many of the families that I have seen, the opposite of happy often is actually angry rather than sad and angry people are seldom able to keep the long-term welfare of others in mind. I recognize that many parents have lots of things to be sad or angry about (so do our children). The secret is to keep our focus on all those things we have to be happy and pleased about. Don’t deny that the unpleasant side of life exists. Just don’t forget the positive side is also there. If you have difficulty focusing on happy, keep a slip of paper and a pencil with you throughout the day. As something happens or occurs to you that could be considered happy, jot it down. Review it after several days have passed. I imagine that you will have a sizeable list if you have really looked for things like smiles, kind words, sunshine, family, friends, laughter, pleasant memories, health, goals, and the like. I usually ask parents who come to me for consultation to keep a daily log whenever they get to feeling down about things. In this log, they are to only enter positive things about themselves and their families. These may include the things one feels they have done better as a parent today than yesterday, some kindness shown between family members, smiles seen, kind words and laughter heard, helpfulness, those moments where growth has been seen, those times when they have been able to teach that little step, the growth of patience and tolerance, children really living the values you prize, and so on. If you find yourself feeling down about being a parent or about family-life in general, I suggest that you keep A Good Stuff Diary, also. Find a time each day (bedtime is often best) to make your positive entries. Date each entry. Remember, just the good stuff - some about you and some about your family. Each day before you make your new entries review a few of the entries you made earlier. This helps us focus on progress and proves to ourselves that things are truly improving - something that is easy to lose sight of in the busy hustle and bustle of everyday family life. (Do you have five minutes a day to help yourself feel better?) So, we agree (I hope) that happy, well adjusting people have the best chance to be good rule makers. What are some of the other traits good rule makers possess? One very important trait, I think, is that good family rule makers take time to learn as much as they can about normal child growth and development. If we know, for example, that nine year old boys often find their homes utterly useless (except to provide food and allowances), it makes it easier to construct and enforce rules and expectations which are appropriate for nine year old boys. If we know that two year olds should never be asked a question that can be answered "yes" or "no", because they will always answer "NO!", then again, good rule making becomes easier. (By good I mean beneficial - rules that will help children grow in the desired direction without adding to their normal problems). Today there are many, excellent, child development books available. Any bookstore has a shelf full. I strongly encourage you to carefully read and study one of them. Neither you nor I would trust our cars to a mechanic who had never studied car care, now would we! If our child had any say in the matter, do you suppose he would want to trust his own upbringing to a parent who had not studied children? [I am referring her to books about normal developmental trends in physical, mental, emotional, and philosophical growth. They may sport names such as, 'Child Development' or 'Adolescent Development'.] It is essential for all parents to understand what is normal and what is not generally normal at each age level (even though that tends to vary widely). Without having this knowledge, the parent really can't know what kinds of things should and should not be reasonably expected of children at each age level. For example, until a child reaches the age of two or two and a half, he cannot consistently transfer what he learns is prohibited in one situation to other similar situations (No No's). You may teach him not to touch the pretty vase on the coffee table at Grandma's, but that does not also teach him about not touching the pretty vase on the piano at Grandma's. Also, if he learns to leave it alone today, he probably won't know he is also expected to do that on the next visit or even later that same day. The two-year-old's brain can't make that big leap. Yet, how many little hands have been uselessly slapped over just this type of thing because parents hadn't taken time to learn about normal child development? Enough severe punishment will, of course, stifle all initiative in a child so he may seem to 'know how to behave' because he offers no inquisitiveness. My point is that in addition to being happy and well adjusting people, the best rule makers (and parents) make it a point to become knowledgeable about the basic child development characteristics. So much is already known that there is no need for each parent to reinvent the wheel. Good rule makers are also good communicators. A good communicator uses words and examples he knows for a fact the other person will easily understand. If he is not sure, he finds out. He says what he has to say in a direct, non-threatening, composed manner. A good communicator is a good observer. It is not until you see how someone else reacts to what you have said that you really know they have received the same message you intended to send. A good communicator never assumes other people mean exactly the same thing as he means by any given word. A good communicator is a great listener. He gathers all the opinions and explanations (and excuses!) first, before reacting himself. He listens between the lines. What is not being said is often as important as what is being said. The good communicator matches the inflection and tone of his voice to the meaning of his message. If we want to be believed when we say, "I love you," we have to use a very different tone and inflection than when we say, "I hate you." Try it. Say, "I hate you!" out loud as if you really mean it. Now, using that very same tone and inflection say it again, substituting the word "love" for the word "hate". Which do kids believe: the words or the tone? You're right! Kids almost always believe the tone, especially when the tone doesn't reflect the usual meaning of the words. A good communicator does not have to probe by asking direct questions when exploring touchy subjects. He just gets the other person talking about that subject and then listens for the answers as they appear. For example, instead of asking, "How do you like your new teacher?" (to which some children will feel obliged to say, "She's a witch!"), you just open up the topic. "Tell me about your teacher?" or, "What kind of a family does your new teacher have?" Use open ended questions that can't be answered yes or no or with one word. Once the topic is open listen to the words. Feel the real tone. Watch the expression. Understand that I am not saying direct questions aren't often just fine. I'm only saying the good communicator knows when they are appropriate and when they are probably not appropriate. At certain ages, all direct questions from Mother (even, "How was your day?") are construed as being "grilled" or put on the spot, or having one's privacy invaded. These are the stages when just listening gives you many more answers than you will ever receive from direct questions. Side Trip: Teenagers become experts at getting a parent's opinion or other information without ever asking a question themselves. Adolescents often feel that adults and others assume that teenagers are supposed to know all the answers. Therefore, to have to ask certain questions would be to reveal a personal flaw - something many teens would die before doing. So, what do they do instead of asking? They make a bold statement to their parents ("I don't think there is anything wrong with smoking pot"). Then they just sit back and listen to the response such a statement is bound to extract! In their response, parents usually provide more than enough information or opinions so the teen can get the answer to his "real question" (which in this case may be, "Do you think it is Ok to smoke pot?" or "What are the real effects of smoking pot?"). [End] Good communicators also find ways of letting others know how they are feeling without letting that feeling take over and run things. To be able to say, "That really makes me angry," (and sound sincerely angry) may be appropriate, but to yell it out while flailing one's arms about and stomping around the room is usually inappropriate. The emotion has taken over. It does not lead to solving the problem. Instead, it implants fear and tension in others. Emotion tends to stifle clear thinking in both the person being emotional and in the person toward whom the wayward emotion is directed. One final characteristic of the good communicator, which I will suggest here, is known as the Agreement Frame of Reference. It may be the most important skill needed when dealing with problems and disputes between family members or when trying to influence the way another person thinks. It simply means that after listening to another's viewpoint we try to find something about it that we can accept before stating our own point of view. Some professional arbitrators call this, The 'and', not, 'but' rule. Rather than saying, "I've heard you say that before but I think it is such and such instead," or "I hear what you are saying but I believe it's more reasonable to believe such and such," try something like, "That's an interesting point of view and I think this idea may also be of interest to you." Or try, "I respect your right to think that way and I'd like you to just hear this viewpoint." "I agree that may sometimes seem to be the case and I also think it is often this way." "I respect your right to believe that way and I believe there is also another way to look at it that may interest you." In accepting some aspect of what the other person has said, you tend to make him comfortable rather than defensive. The word, "but," puts up a barrier to comfort and is like waving a red flag at the defensive and argumentative parts of our minds. The word "and" continues a flow of ideas based on what the other has already said, thereby not initiating a defensive, argumentative, or hostile reaction. In other words, "and" encourages a person to listen to your message (since it is based on what he has just said), while "but" immediately turns off the intent to listen and, instead, encourages the other person to spend the time while you are speaking, mentally mustering arguments to rescue and support his own position. There are at least three separate levels at which you can accept something from the other person's comment. The Content Level: Here there is some part of the message itself with which you can agree. This situation is probably the easiest in which to use the Agreement Frame of Reference. "I agree with what you say about the chip on your little brother's shoulder and I think I may be able to help you understand it a bit better." "I like your general idea and I think this information may help you improve it." The Method Level: Here you let the speaker know that you appreciate the way in which the message was delivered - straight forward, honestly, well organized, clearly, in a friendly way, in a positive way, etc. "I appreciate the clear way in which you stated your viewpoint and I will try to do as well now as you listen to mine." "I admire your honesty in that statement, and I want to make this suggestion." Although we can't agree with the content or the meaning of the message, we can support the method in which it was delivered. In so doing, and by incorporating our "and" approach, we still maintain the flow of mental openness rather than cutting it off. The Rights Level: Here the other person's right to hold and state his viewpoint is acknowledged even though you find absolutely nothing acceptable to you in its content and perhaps not even in his method of delivery. "You certainly have every right to express that viewpoint and I am sure that you will now extend me that same privilege." "You have the right to hold your own beliefs, and I think you will be interested in hearing those I hold on the subject." Using this Agreement Frame of Reference approach takes practice and demands that one shed any tendency to need to put the other person down or to brow beat him. Our goal becomes a fair exchange of ideas, which cannot occur if both parties do not listen with an open mind. A mind cannot be open if it is closed ahead of time by the conjunction "but," which tends to signal the idea, "I most certainly think you are dead wrong, Buster!" (Hmm! 'Butting heads!) After you hear yourself making a "but" statement, I encourage you to privately practice restating it in the form suggested by the Agreement Frame of Reference. Think about where an "and" statement may have allowed your conversation to go, and how that was prohibited by the use of the "but" statement. Using the Agreement Frame of Reference is similar to using the Positive Outlook Approach on those with whom you deal. Both take practice and a positive conception of relationships. When one approaches life from the basic premise that he wishes to improve the way others feel about themselves and their World (The Positive Outlook Approach), and when one truly wants to understand what others believe and give them access to your feelings (Agreement Frame of Reference), then both of these practices become second nature. A good rule maker doesn't forget how it was to be a child - what seemed fair and unfair (the biggie in most family disputes!), what was scary or funny, what was hard or easy to do, what one dreamed of doing or being, etc. Even though no child will have exactly the same picture of things that you had or develop the same feelings about things that you did at the same age, I know you'll find it helpful to pause from time to time and try to remember the way it was. The most effective parents are the ones who can and do remember how it really was – who never lose the child within them. We must also remember that the brain is not fully developed until a person reaches age 20 or even 25, and the final areas to develop have to do with making good, safe, logical judgments and decisions for the long run. A good rule maker likes children and wants to help guide them toward their own happy, well adjusting life style. Another way of saying this is that good rule makers see themselves as teachers or facilitators rather than controllers or punishers. People who really like children try to help children come to like themselves. This means we build them up (realistically) and refrain from unnecessarily putting them down. Realistic criticism is delivered with kindness and is phrased in ways that will help it be constructive not destructive. The best rule makers are problem solvers rather than blamers. Rules must help guide children around possible pitfalls rather than just being there to catch the child when he falls in and misbehaves. When a problem arises the good problem solver automatically asks himself, "What can I (we) do to help this child see to it that this doesn't have to happen again?" Even better, "What additional information does this child need to gain so this same problem does not have to occur again?" (And then, of course, the parent helps provide it!) The blamer's first thought is to ask, "Whose fault is it?" The concept, "Whose fault is it?" most often is followed immediately by, "Since it is your fault, you will get punished." Seeking fault, leads to punishment, which leads to hurt and fear and probably little change in attitude (except perhaps to dislike or fear the punisher even more). One thing is for sure, punishment seldom produces the needed change in skill for handling similar situations in the future. Searching for the cause of the problem leads to fixing what's wrong, which in turn, leads to helping the child practice his new, needed skill. This, in turn, produces a positive attitude toward both the adult and the child himself. A bit of personal opinion here! Some "experts" will tell you that the intention or the cause of misbehavior is irrelevant, or that the only important thing is to keep it from happening again. It appears to me that this is a whole lot like bringing a temperature down with aspirin and cold compresses while letting the underlying infection go uninvestigated. Stop the treatment and the temperature recurs. Understanding the child's perception of what he was trying to accomplish is essential if we are to help him discover ways that will reduce the likelihood of his finding himself in that same difficulty over and over again. A system of rewards and punishments will certainly control behavior when the child is within view of the dispenser of the rewards and punishments, but does nothing to help the child learn how to make wise decisions and apply his personal values when on his own. (Well, I feel better now! Thanks for listening.) Being the model problem solver is not always an easy task, even for those who are most practiced and talented at it. On some days the parent may be upset for some totally unrelated reason. On some days the child seems to be defying your authority for sport. Sometimes a parent's own problems have to take precedence over the child's problems. Some days, parents do not feel well, and so on. Even though all of that may be true, in such situations, problem solvers are still better rule makers and rule enforcers than are the blamers. I hope that over the long haul you strive to become more and more like problem solvers, and less and less like blamers. Although Section Five is really the place where we will get specific about how to make all these ideas work for you, let's take time here to illustrate the typical difference between the results from a blamer and a problem solver. Let's say we have two six-year-old boys playing with a ball and bat in the back yard. One tosses it up and whammo! - he really connects. It sails right through (and breaks) the garage window. At the sound of shattering glass, the blamer-dad comes running out of the house, sees the broken window and asks what? Right! "Who broke the window?" Johnny says, "Billy did it," and Billy hangs his head in an act of admission. "Billy, go to your room. You're grounded until you're thirty-seven!" (Well, you know what I mean!) Or, "I'm going to spank you." Had Billy intended to break the window? Of course, not. Therefore, it was an accident, wasn't it? (Careless, perhaps, but an accident.) What does Billy learn from the blamer? He learns you get punished for having unintentional accidents. (That'll teach him not to try new things!) He also learns he is sometimes the cause of making Dad very mad (as well as turning Johnny into a snitch!). Does Billy learn anything about how to prevent this same event another time? Does he learn why it probably happened? Does he learn anything about responsibility? I have a feeling Billy learns very little that is helpful and much that is distressing from this scenario. Now enter the problem-solver parent. (I know, he's already wearing a big white hat, but bear with me, anyway!) He also hears the crash. He also hurries out to see what has happened. Seeing the boys with the bat and finding the broken window, he immediately understands the situation. "Looks like we had an accident!" he says. (The boys are already feeling some relief, just from Dad's calm tone of voice.) "You must have really whacked it a good one, didn't you?" (The boy's profuse sweating even stops!) The boys begin explaining what happened. "Why do you suppose your ball playing plan didn't work out so well back here today?" Dad asks. In about thirty seconds the boys think it through and suggest they should have been further from the garage and house and that next time, they should play somewhere else, such as the lot next door or down at the park. (They have constructed a mini-rule for themselves.) "Good thinking, guys," says Dad. "Now, who do you suppose should help me repair that window?" The boys readily agree that they both should help. In so doing they demonstrate that they are accepting the natural consequences of their misjudgment, even though it had been an accident. This whole series of events ends with the boys respecting the Dad, the window getting fixed (and the boys experiencing just what a difficult and time consuming job that is!), and, of course, the boys have learned good lessons in judging distances, thinking ahead, and being careful the next time. The blamer may still say, "If Billy did something wrong he should be punished - plain and simple." I ask the blamer, "How does punishment help anything?" The problem solver goes back inside feeling great about helping the boys grow up a bit today. The blamer goes back inside, mad at his child and at the inconvenience he has been caused. Is the problem solver happy the window was broken and he had to use an hour of his time to fix it? Of course, not. But, knowing children as well as he does, he expects times like this and he understands it is all an important part of his job as a father. Some parents, I'm afraid, come home from work and forget they have arrived at their other and most important job of all - parenting. This job also has its regular responsibilities and payoffs, doesn't it? Finally, good rule makers (and enforcers) think first about what the offender's intention was and only secondly about what happened. I was visiting a home once in which there was a very smart four-year-old. I was in the living room talking with his mother. The boy listened and watched while playing on the floor with a truck. As I was having trouble getting my pen to write, the child suddenly climbed up on the piano bench, lost his balance, grabbed the cloth, which covered the piano top, and everything came crashing down. At first take, it might appear that the child undoubtedly knew he should not have climbed onto the furniture, and that if he hadn't, the problem would not have occurred. In other words, he had disobeyed a rule and that caused the problem. In talking with him, however, this very wise mother learned he had seen the problem I was having with my pen and, knowing his mother kept extra pencils in a glass on top of the piano, had taken it upon himself to go get one for me. His intention, then, was to be helpful and regardless of any other action the mother was going to take, she first praised him for wanting to be helpful. If she hadn't searched first for his intentions, ("Why were you climbing on the piano?") the boy might have learned that it is just not worth trying to be helpful when all it does is get you into trouble. So, the good rule makers and rule enforcers take into account what the child thinks he or she is doing or trying to do, rather than merely looking at the end result. ACTIVITY Taking a second look at your present rules Look back at your list of rules from Section One: (Some may fit into more than one category so enter them multiple places.) How many relate to selfishness? ______ How many relate to arguing? ______ How many relate to hurting one another? ______ How many relate to uncooperative behavior? ______ How many relate to controlling others? ______ How many relate to negative ("bad") behaviors? ______ How many are stated in the negative ("You won't," "You must not," "Never," "Don't," etc.)? ______ How many are stated in the positive ("Always try to be helpful," "Always hang up your coat," "Always wash your hands before dinner," etc.)? ______ To what, do the rest of your rules apply? (Write it out.) Looking over your answers to these questions, would you say the reasons for your rules seem to be more for controlling "bad" behavior or for teaching "good" behaviors? Try to restate the negative rules in a positive form by stating what is allowed or expected. It's amazing how doing just this one thing can change one's basic concept as to what parenting is really all about. SUMMARY OF SECTION TWO We discussed several of the most common types of personalities that would be considered hard to live with. (Can you remember them?) We then described their opposites - personalities that are almost always easier to live with. (Can you remember them?) We talked about some of the characteristics possessed by parents who are best suited to create beneficial rules for families. I suggested they would be happy, well adjusting people, knowledgeable about child development and have excellent communication skills. (What were some of the characteristics of good communicators? What were some of the other traits found in the best rule makers and rule enforcers?) We also discussed the Positive Frame of Reference, in which a person always accepts something from the other person's message before going ahead and stating his own. It might be a helpful exercise for you to go through the list of hard to live with people and write down any of their traits, which you feel too often apply to yourself. (We all slip into some of them occasionally!) Then, next to each of these, list an opposite trait you would like to see in yourself, instead. Go through the list of easier to live with people and list those positive traits, which you feel you already possess. Each day, pick one of the positive traits from these lists and make it your mission to demonstrate it in your behavior, both to yourself and toward others that day. In other words, practice them! Each week refer back to this "mini-plan" to see how you are doing and to find out which traits remain to be practiced. You will soon begin feeling comfortable about using (or expanding) those positive traits and they will eventually just come to be there when you need them. (Perhaps you can interest other family members in doing the same activity themselves - privately, of course.) In the next section, we finally really do get down to stating the ONE RULE PLAN FOR FAMILY HAPPINESS. SECTION THREE Let's talk about the One Rule Plan In Section Three, we will address these seven questions: At last! What is this One Rule? What do all these words really mean? How about some illustrative examples? Is this really different from multi-rule plans? Whose responsibility is it to make the One Rule Plan work? How does this One Rule Plan compare with the Golden Rule? May I clarify one important point? In the Activity, you are asked to analyze your responses to the Parent Inventory. FINALLY! WHAT IS THIS ONE RULE? So far, we have been leading up to the One Rule, which I suggested could change your family's life. In this section, we will state that rule and talk about it – arranging it and rearranging it to make it most meaningful and useful. Then, the remaining sections of the manual will be devoted to showing you how to write your own One Rule Plan, making it consistent with your own personal values, and learning how to go about making it work within your family. [At this point take a moment to realize how much you have learned on our way to defining and establishing this One Rule concept.] At first, this rule often appears far too simple to work. It seems like it could not possibly handle the many different situations that come up in the typical home. Then, upon further examination, it begins to seem so complicated and complex, that you will wonder if it really can be used by you and your family. Those are just words of warning - words of preparation - really, so you will not dismiss it at first glance as being either too simple or too complicated. You have come this far with me. Hang in there just a bit longer. It will change your life! Here is one simple way of stating the One Rule (Later on, we will modify it a bit). "We only do to or for each family member, those things that will be helpful to him or her in the long-run." See, I said it was both simple and complex. To really understand what it means and all that it involves, we need to examine the exact meaning of the words contained in it. WHAT DO ALL THOSE WORDS REALLY MEAN? Let's examine the key words one at a time, so we all will understand them in the same way. WE - We refers to every family member who is regularly involved in the family's life - Mom, Dad, Children, and anyone else living as a family member. The word we, implies that this is going to be a cooperative effort to which everyone is expected to contribute. We implies a team effort - a championship team effort! ONLY - Only limits what can and cannot be done. Only means that nothing else is allowed other than the message to follow. It provides a focus by saying that out of all the things that could take place, we are just going to focus on this or these few things (the things stated later on in the rule). DO TO - Do to, is the action part of this rule and it directs that WE are going to exert some influence (do to) on the family members. Since there is no way people can live together without influencing one another, I am sure this idea makes sense. The word TO, suggests something will be delivered to or imposed upon them. (We talk to them, we give food to them, we deliver praise to them, etc.) DO FOR - Here again, it is part of the action, but do for implies more than just doing something to someone. For implies a helpful act of some kind. Tying a four-year-old's shoe is doing for and not to. Disciplining a child, in order to help him or her grow and learn more acceptable ways of behaving, is really doing for rather than to. If discipline stops at doing to the child, how can it be beneficial (for)? EACH FAMILY MEMBER - This means all family members including one's self. "I'll do something to or for him or her or me." This defines the limits of responsibility. We all have to be thinking of the ways in which our own behavior influences everybody in the family, including our self. It means we often have to find the necessary balance between "their" needs and "my" needs. THINGS - This word covers both processes (such as talk, play, emotions, ideas, etc.) and concrete items (such as toys, books, food, clothes, etc.). HELPFUL - Helpful is a positive term and is being used here as the opposite of two separate ideas. Of course, it is the opposite of hurtful. That is an important element here - we do not hurt others if we are pledged to help them. Help, however, is a long-term effect (we will talk about the long run in a moment), so what may be most helpful in the long run, may sometimes seem a bit hurtful at the moment (in the short run). The other term I want us to include as an opposite of helpful is, indifferent. Indifference is often stated as, "I could care less." It means unconcerned or neutral. There is no lack of concern and no neutrality when we use this One Rule! Helpful demands concern and involvement, and implies that we freely help, repair, comfort or assist one another. In Section Four, we are going to help you define, for yourself, what you believe will be helpful to your family (what you value). You see, what I think will be helpful and what Aunt Mary thinks will be helpful, may not be at all like what you think will be helpful. What you will and will not consider as helpful, really depends on what you value as good, right and wonderful. If something assists the family members toward one of the ends that you value, then you will feel it is helpful. As I said, Section Four is devoted to expanding on this concept and individualizing the One Rule just for YOU. IN THE LONG RUN - In the long run, really means later on for the rest of one's life! That is a big order isn't it - to be sure that what you are doing today will really be beneficial to this person two, ten, twenty, or even eighty years from now? Whether we like to think about it or not, we can't escape the fact that what we do to and for others does have long term effects on them. Even when we don't do certain things it can have long term effects (don't praise, don't love, don't have time for, don't correct, etc.). So, since one way or another we WILL influence the future of our family members, doesn't it make sense to PLAN our daily interactions in a way that seems to have the best possible chance of being truly helpful down the line? I think it does. I imagine you do also. This brings into sharp focus the tremendous responsibility each of us has as we interact with our family members and with other people in general. More specifically however, it demonstrates the vital and undeniable role we play as parents of youngsters who are still being molded and influenced by ALL that goes on around them. The other side of this responsibility is the joyous reward a parent receives each time he or she sees that his or her influence is really working to produce a happy, healthy, productive, cooperative, successful youngster. And, Oh, the satisfaction that fills a parent's entire being when you see that your little ones have grown into wonderful adult human beings! There is nothing that can compare with that! Now, let's not forget that kids do have some options in all of this. They may choose not to accept your best efforts at helpfulness or your carefully studied guidance. When a child makes that choice, the parents who know they have done the best they could at the time (knowing what they knew at that time), need not feel responsible for a child's ultimate condition or predicament. I feel it necessary to add one of my personal biases here. I believe, that the parent who does not make an honest effort to understand the well-established principles of child development or to find out what is known about raising mentally healthy, well adjusting children, probably does have to bear a large portion of the responsibility for such unhappy outcomes, since they did not make the necessary effort to learn how to become an adequate parent. That doesn't automatically appear inside us when a child is born or given into our custody. We all know the old saying, "You can lead a horse to water but you can't make him drink." Old sayings are not necessarily always true. In Section Five, I will present a wide variety of ways to influence children's values and behaviors. A good knowledge of these methods will go a long way toward preventing those down-the-road heartaches. Now that we have spent this time defining and discussing the words used in the One Rule Plan, let's look at it again: We only do to or for each family member those things that will be helpful to him or her in the long run. I imagine it is much clearer this time through, isn't it! If you are still unclear about the meaning of any of the word, re-read its description. It is vitally important that you understand it, because if you decide to use the One Rule Plan, you will be referring to it time and time again each and every day, and will eventually be explaining it to your family. (I'll show you how. No need to panic!) HOW ABOUT SOME ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES? Let's begin by seeing how we might replace four rules that are commonly found in many homes with just this One Rule. FIRST RULE: "Don't tease." Children tease for a wide variety of reasons. They may be jealous of a sibling so they tease to get back. They may dislike a sibling, so they tease to hurt him. They may simply delight in seeing the older teenage brother revert to the four-year-old stage when he explodes while being teased. Sometimes teasing is a way to get someone's attention when other, more positive ways have not worked. I am sure there are many other reasons for teasing, but this should be enough to illustrate the point here. Why have I even taken the time to list this many? As I have emphasized earlier, it is often quite important to understand the intention behind the act. How is the teasing getting the desired result for the teaser? What's the payoff (what was the intention)? Let's move on to the illustration. Older brother John is observed by mother teasing younger sister, Beth. Since we no longer have the specific "no teasing" rule, Mother might ask John, "How is teasing Beth helping her?" Now John may come up with some smart answer ("She needs to get tougher."), but that is overlooked, and Mom presses John until she sees he understands that he is not helping her. Later, Mother should sit down with John and ask, "So, John, you must have thought that teasing Beth was actually helping you in some way?" If John gives this question some honest thought, he may realize something like this: The coach got on his back at practice and he was just letting off steam (inappropriately) by getting on Beth's case. Or Mom might hear, "Mom, the only time you pay any attention to me anymore is when I'm in trouble." Or, "It's fun to see Beth get mad." This, of course, requires further attention: "So, making Beth mad provides you with entertainment. I can see, then, that Beth's being mad is helping YOU, but how is that also helping Beth? Since we only do things that are helpful for all, Beth as well as you, teasing her was inappropriate, wasn't it? What else could you and Beth do that could be entertaining for both of you? What other things can you do to entertain yourself that are not done at the expense of someone else?" And finally, the most important growth producing question: "The next time you feel the urge to tease Beth, what will you do instead?" SECOND RULE: "Always close the outside door." As children hurry through life from one personally important event to the next, they often do not have time to think about the routine tasks that need doing in between. Their thoughts are on themselves and their own activities. Usually, when they fail to carry out some routine expectation like closing the door or hanging up their coat, it is not intentional rule breaking so much as it is just not tuning in at the moment to what is important to all concerned. John comes into the house after his paper route and leaves the outside door slightly ajar in fifteen degree January weather. He proceeds to his room to do the next important item on his agenda - something he has been planning all the while he has been out of the house on the paper route. Now, since we no longer have a "close the outside door" rule, how does Dad approach this situation? "John, I'd like to hear your version of how leaving the door open just now, helps us become a happy, healthy, wealthy family?" John comes back and closes the door. He may apologize (Apologies seldom indicate a real change in feelings or attitude. By merely encouraging the child to say he is sorry when he isn't forces him to lie). During the discussion, John eventually says something like. "I know you can't be happy and healthy when the cold air blows in on you and it wastes fuel that costs money." John has had to think about how what he did had affected the family (health, comfort, finances, etc.). He understands Dad is not mad at him, but that he does expect John to act responsibly. The whole discussion was focused on change and not punishment. It may even have been done in such way as to give them both a good chuckle. However, the point is made, the door gets closed, and John knows he has not been called on the carpet merely because he broke a rule, but because of how he negatively affected the family as a whole. It would have been much easier, time-wise and mentally, to just enforce a "close the door" rule. "John, come back here and close the door and then stay in your room till supper!" (All too likely delivered in an angry voice.) John does not have to think about how what he did (or didn't do, in this case) affected anything, and he gets to go to his room which is where he wanted to be in the first place. John did learn, in this second case, that he had angered Dad (again?!). This also adds one more, "John made me angry," entry on Dad's list of encounters with his son. All in all, it was not a very "helpful" experience for anyone. THIRD RULE: "Be home on time." The concept of being home on time is essential, but we do not need that specific rule anymore. In cases like this, either there can be a set schedule of times to be home (like curfew) or it is a specific instance when the child was asked to be home at a specific time. (Schedules are different from rules and we will go into this in helpful detail later on.) Sixteen-year-old John is expected to be home on Friday nights by midnight. He arrives at 12:45 AM instead, to find his mother and father waiting up for him. Under the old rule (be in by midnight or suffer the consequences), John might have been forbidden to go out for the next four Friday nights (to teach him a lesson!). Without reference to a "Be home on time" rule, John immediately realized several things. He has kept his parents up too late and knows Dad has to go to work on Saturday morning. His Dad says, "Talk to me about this, John. What has happened here?" John has to explore how he has worried his folks, inconvenienced them, made them miss needed sleep, and made himself appear less than responsible. John has to think through and recognize how he has affected his family and his own reputation. Now, if there is a good reason for the late return without a phone call to his parents, he has been given an opportunity to explain, up front (Dad said, "Talk to me about this."). No one just assumed from the start that the boy was misbehaving or was being irresponsible. All the facts were gathered first. The next step is not really important in terms of our illustration here, but several things might take place. Perhaps the matter is closed after this discussion, since the car had a flat miles from a phone, or, since it was the first time John had ever been late and they felt the point had been made. Perhaps the parents did set some consequence to help John remember next time. ("Since you were forty-five minutes late tonight, next Friday night we expect you to get in forty-five minutes early - 11:15." This would be my least favorite response because it tends to teach the child if you're willing to pay the consequence you can pretty much do whatever you want to do. More later.) FOURTH RULE: "You shall not smoke." This is an instance when an informational side trip can help. Whether you are a smoker or non-smoker, I am sure you are informed enough, as an intelligent adult, to understand that smoking physically harms the smoker. We also know that smoke blown out into the air to be inhaled by non-smokers, also physically harms them, especially children. Add to this the tremendous cost of the habit, and we have several good ways of applying our One Rule. Smoking is not helpful, in the long-run, to anyone (the smoker himself or those around him who must breathe the smoke). So why do our children know they are not to smoke? Not because of a rule that prohibits it (and therefore, almost certainly makes it seem desirable to many children), but because smoking does not follow our One Rule to be helpful (that is, not harmful) to all family members. As a result, we are a healthier family and have more money available for other things (books, trips, clothes, games, treats, etc.). Another, short, Side Trip. When rules are set up in a form such as, "If you do X, then unpleasant thing Y will happen to you," ("If you are late you get grounded for a week"), the child has really been given a choice whether or not to abide by the rule. If it is worth being grounded for a week in order to stay out late and go to that party, then it is seen by the youngster as a legitimate trade off. When children begin seeing rules as tradeoffs (being allowed to break them if they are willing to take the punishment or consequence), then, the focus is no longer on learning to do the right thing. The focus is on whether "being bad" is worth the price the child has to pay in that specific instance. I believe that this is a built-in weakness of most rule enforcement and behavior management programs. Kids come to believe it is all right to break the rule if you are willing to take the punishment. Isn't that a scary idea? It may be inevitable with certain children, but I believe you will come to see how it is minimized with the One Rule Plan. [End] IS THIS REALLY DIFFERENT FROM MULTI-RULE PLANS? You may be patiently wondering, "How is all this really different from having a list of specific rules?" Let me just as patiently give you my answer. For one thing, a parent cannot possibly have a rule on the list for every single problem or situation that might arise. The One Rule, however, applies to all cases. (Well, almost all cases, as we will see a bit later.) Secondly, the One Rule approach greatly changes the focus of "behaving oneself." Instead of behaving oneself so they don't get caught and then punished, children come to "behave" because it is best for all concerned (themselves included). Third, with the One Rule approach, the child learns a different, broader way of thinking. He learns to take other's needs and feelings into consideration in addition to just his own. Instead of, "I don't tease Beth because I'll get into trouble," it becomes, "I don't do things to Beth that aren't helpful to her in the long run and, by the way, having a reputation as a teaser won't really help me in the long run either." This leads to number four which is, perhaps, the most important of all. The child living by this One Rule has to begin thinking about and deciding which things he personally believes are helpful and right, and which things are not. In other words, he has to begin exploring and establishing his own set of portable values. (Portable = he always has them with him, even when out of sight of rule enforcers.) With the One Rule Plan, no one (children or parents) ever has to learn and remember a lot of rules. This means that, no one can claim they forgot the rule. At best, they may claim, in a healthy and reasonable way, that they need help learning how to apply the rule appropriately in certain situations. (And don't we all!) You ask, "How am I, as a busy parent, ever going to find the time to do all of this?" In the long run (sound like a familiar phrase yet?), the parent may find it takes less time than it previously did to enforce dozens of separate rules (and certainly less 'book keeping' time). Since you are freed from keeping accounts on who broke which rule and what disciplinary measure you meted out and for how long, you have more time to help your children learn how to apply The Rule for themselves. You find that you have more time to help them learn how to think through (ahead of time) the consequences of their behavior, and more time to teach and model the positive and useful sides of really important things such as values, relationships, responsibility, privileges, self-esteem and the "family feeling." Like most things that are worthwhile in life, this too takes practice, and as in acquiring any new skill, some trial and error learning will take place on everyone's part. Patience and consistency are probably the key words, especially during the first month - patience with everyone's errors (including your own) and consistency, day in, day out, just keep plugging away at following this new system. Give no indication to the family you will back off from this new approach once it begins. "This WILL be the way we do things now, so everyone SHALL give it their best shot. (Why? Because it will best for all concerned in the long run.)" WHOSE RESPONSIBILITY IS IT TO MAKE THE ONE RULE PLAN WORK? By now, you have probably already answered this question yourself. It is everyone's responsibility to make it work. Obviously, the parents have the ultimate responsibility to set the basic family values and goals toward which the One Rule Plan is aimed. The parents must be the best possible models of all aspects of the plan. They must explain it and be ready to help the others master it and use it themselves. This often means providing information (such as the effects of tobacco, as in an example above), and formulating meaningful leading questions ("How is this helping our family in the long run?"). The parents need to monitor progress and encourage and support other family members. From time to time parents might need to make minor adjustments to keep the plan humming along - adjusting expectations for maturation levels, ages, problems, skills, unforeseen circumstances such as illness, and so forth. The children have the responsibility to apply this knowledge about values and relationships, and use and practice the helpful and necessary procedures they are taught. They must understand that learning to work as a family unit toward the goals of their One Rule Plan doesn't happen all at once. This is one of the greatest functions of healthy families - to give us a place to practice such skills with people who understand that all this growing up stuff happens gradually and not without errors and problems. We each learn more about growing up every single day. The home must be a place where we are loved regardless of our errors. Many places in our world are just NOT that way! A final comment before leaving this topic. I have often been asked: "What's in all this for the kids? Why should they buy into it? Why shouldn't they just refuse to go along with it?" Excellent questions and I'll ask you to think about it this way: How often does a child find himself in a loving, caring, situation, where he knows that if he helps those around him get what they need, he too will be guaranteed (virtually) the things he needs? That is an offer it is just impossible not to try on for size! HOW DOES THIS ONE RULE PLAN COMPARE WITH THE GOLDEN RULES? I say rules, because most religions and great philosophies of the World have their own version of the Christian's Golden Rule. They are stated in various ways, but basically they all say something like this: "Treat other people the way you would like them to treat you." Now, if by, "the way you would like them to treat you," one really means, "Do to me and for me, that which, in the long-run, will be most helpful to me," and if the term "helpful" is defined as we defined it earlier (doing what we need and not necessarily what we want), THEN there is not much difference between the One Rule and the various Golden Rules. Unfortunately, the second halves of the Golden Rules are often interpreted as meaning, "I'd have you do to me just exactly what I WANT, whether it's best for me in the long run or not." A second important difference, I think, is that if we apply the Golden Rules at face value, we have to assume the other person's needs are identical to our own and ours to his. That is often – usually, in fact - not actually true. One person may really need a very strict schedule because he is prone to waste away his time. Another person may really need a more flexible schedule so he can develop his creative talents or meet his relaxation needs. Now, please, don't take me wrong here. I am not knocking anybody's Golden Rule. I am just suggesting that if one does not carefully consider it from several viewpoints, even a Golden Rule can be misapplied and cause long term, hurt and pain to others. I have included this section as an afterthought, primarily, because when I hold workshops, and speak to groups about the One Rule Plan, this "Golden Rule" question inevitably arises. I hope this explanation and discussion helps answer the questions you may have had. As with most rules, it is not the words themselves, but the interpretation of those words that tend to cause disagreements. I have given you my best interpretations, and now you must find those interpretations that make sense to you. LET ME CLARIFY ONE IMPORTANT POINT The One Rule says we only do those things to and for others, which are helpful for them. By this I do not mean to imply that everything one does in life has to be planned so it has an effect on one's family. Much of what we do may not affect the family at all. It is just that when something one does, will indeed affect the family, it should be helpful in nature. John can join a bowling team, for example, and bowl his heart out if it is not placing an inappropriate imposition on his family. The bowling itself, though, need not be specifically helpful to the family. Also, please notice that I said "inappropriate" imposition on the family. Sometimes certain family members must be willing to accept a bit of an imposition when it is for the good of another. If John needs to get out and bowl for the exercise or to meet other kids or to find a sport in which he can excel or just to have something in life that he can enjoy, then others in the family may need to take up the slack a bit around the house on Thursday evenings so he can go bowling. Perhaps Beth does "John's" dishes on bowling night or Mom takes time to drive him to the bowling alley. Perhaps, Sarah baby-sits, Beth, while Mom is doing the transporting of John. A family team pitches in and helps one another. People can't be expected to live with one another and not cause some impositions. John will get his chance to repay the kindness (eagerly and appreciatively, we hope). Let me try this one more way. We all need and deserve a life away from the family (yes, Mom, you too!). Kids need this to practice being independent from Mom and Dad and to experience other sets of values and beliefs. Parents need it to keep their sanity and a sense of perspective, to enjoy grown-up activities, and to associate with their adult friends. So long as our being away from home, doing our own thing (legal and value-appropriate), doesn't impose unreasonable hardship on the family, we have every right to it, even if it isn't specifically helpful in any way to the rest of the family. ACTIVITY: Looking over the Parenting Inventory The Parenting Inventory is in three sections. In the first you were asked to fill in the "I'm at" space, with the number of the phrase that fits you best right now. Next, within each set of traits (sets A through E) find the phrase you wish were true about you, and put that number in the "I want" space. After each of the five sets of phrases have been completed, you need to subtract, in each set, the smaller number from the larger number. Example: I'm at 4 I want 6 Diff. = 2 (6 - 4 = 2) Each Difference Score (the 2 in this example) suggests how far you have to go to reach your goal. For each goal (A through E) write yourself a short list of behaviors, which, when you see them happening in yourself, will show you that you are progressing toward the goal. For example, in Set "B", let's say a parent is at step 5 and wants to get to step 8. (The Difference score = 8 - 5 =3) Goal: To think that being a parent is wonderful and to love it! Behaviors: 1- Every night I will be able to list some things I enjoyed about being a parent that day. 2- I will find myself stopping during the day and feeling good about how some parenting task is going. 3- I will stop almost all of my complaining to friends about being a parent. This process will take some time and a lot of thought. If you have difficulty getting started, list the things you do that make you think you are really at such and such a step. Example: "Today I told my friend Jane I never should have become a parent. It's just too hard!" Then, write down the opposite of that: "I will hear myself telling Jane that I like being a parent at least a bit more these days." This, then, becomes one of your goals. Review these goals no more than once each week or two. Do so too often, and you will not give yourself time for growth to take place. In the second section of the Parenting Inventory, there is a long list of statements. These are characteristics, which the most effective parents can say are true about them. Look over the list to see which ones you felt were true about yourself. Read each one aloud and pat yourself on the back each time. Nice job!!!! Now, not forgetting those great responses, look over the list again. Find those you did not feel were true about yourself. Pick one or two a week (no more) and work on them specifically. You may be surprised that with just a week's work, they will have become a part of your parenting style. Then move on to another one or two and so on down the list. Be patient with yourself. The third section contains things many parents do occasionally, but not on a regular basis. You were asked to circle the minus (-) sign in front of any statement you think is frequently true of you. Now, first of all, don't get down on yourself if many items were circled. Give yourself credit for being brave enough to mark them honestly in the first place. How else can you know where to start! Again, pick one or two to work on, this time for two weeks each. It often takes longer to break old habits than to form new ones. Don't be in a big hurry to fix everything at once. Just take it one sure step at a time. You will notice that eight of the minus signs are in bold print. If you have circled any of those, you may want to consider talking with a professional counselor. Those responses usually indicate that the parent is carrying a burden far greater than anyone should have to carry all by oneself. There is help available from private practice social workers, psychologists, counselors, clergymen or psychiatrists, and from inexpensive or even free local or county mental health clinics. These people really care and want to help you. They are not there to blame or embarrass you. Everybody needs someone to talk to sometimes. A bold minus sign may indicate that this may be your time. SUMMARY: Section Three In Section Three, we finally stated the One Rule. (Can you repeat it now?) We defined the important words in the Rule and illustrated how to use the rule in replacing four typical family rules. We talked about how all the family members must work together to make the One Rule work. We showed how, through mutually helpful activities, each person grows in his ability to be considerate of others, and in his own decision making skills. We talked about how one’s values are basic to the One Rule Plan and that this manual will expand on that topic in the next section. SECTION FOUR Let's talk about making your own One Rule Plan In Section Four, we will address these eleven questions: What are the first big decisions for the parents? How is the Value Inventory Scored? What do your Value Inventory results show you? Are there changes you want to make in your own values? How does one change a value? How does one get from values to goals? Should parents really force their own values onto their children? Should parents protect their children from exposure to differing values? How does one know if their values are the right values? How do you write your own One Rule? What are some other frequently valued aspects of life? In the Activity, you will write your own complete One Rule Plan. WHAT ARE THE FIRST BIG DECISIONS FOR THE PARENTS? First, as the parent, you must decide exactly what you mean by the word "helpful". Toward what, do you want to help your children strive? What are you trying to help your children learn about being a successful person? When other people describe your child's personality, what do you want to hear them say? Once you know what product you want to produce, you provide those experiences that will guide the children in that direction. First, however, you have to set your goals based on what you value most. For example (as a most negative possibility!): If a parent decides he or she wants the child to become a scared, uncertain, self-doubting person, the prescription is simple. Beat him and / or put him down for apparently no particular reason, and do so at unpredictable intervals, which he has no way of influencing or preventing. I'll guarantee a mentally ill child as the result! How about a positive example! Let's aim to produce a self-confident, outgoing, loving person. In this case we let him try out his own ideas, we praise him and support him through both his successes and failures, and surround him with accepting, open people who listen to his ideas and questions with genuine interest and seek out his opinions and ideas. Now, granted, it is a lot easier to produce an unhappy misfit than a well adjusting person. In fact, misfits usually happen with absolutely no planning at all. Having a well adjusting family takes continuous planning, and then re-planning as people and situations change. So, the question remains. Toward what goals do you want to help your children move? Basically, it comes down to the question: what in life do you really value? Perhaps, wealth? Fame? Success? Often, I find, many parents aren't really sure what they value most - what they really do want for their children in the long run. Since this is so common, I developed the Value Inventory. It is an informal way to help sort through several of the values that are most often found to be important to parents. Once you have completed the Inventory (you probably did that earlier), we will discuss how to use what you found. If you have not yet done so, complete the inventory before you read further. When completing it, be as honest with yourself as possible. After all, you are the only one who needs to see it, but to write your own One Rule Plan, you do need to see it. HOW IS THE VALUE INVENTORY SCORED? Score may be the wrong word, because that term often implies one can receive either a good score or a poor score. Good and bad results are not the point of this inventory. It just attempts to help show you understand how you feel about certain things - in this case, values. You may decide that you "like" or "dislike" what the results show, but that will be your interpretation and not that of the Inventory itself. Tabulate the scores according the previous instructions. WHAT DOES YOUR VALUE INVENTORY SHOW YOU? In the Value Inventory, every value was matched one time with every other value and you chose the one that seemed more important. Sometimes (perhaps even often) the choice was hard to make because both seemed about equally important or unimportant. Even so, since so many choices were made, in the end you very likely have a good sample of your feelings. Keep the Value Inventory Importance List handy as we discuss the results. You now have a list of eleven values generally considered to be of importance in family life. There are, of course, many other things that may be valued and pursued in life besides those included in this Inventory. I will list some of them toward the end of this section. You may find that some of them seem to be even more important to you than certain ones that were included in the Inventory, and you may therefore decide to use them in your plan. Those values toward the top of your Importance List (ranks from 1 down to 5 or 6) are those which the Inventory suggests you value the most. Those toward the bottom of the list are those, which you seem to value the least. Now, just because a value is at or near the bottom of this list does not mean it may not be important to you. All eleven of them may be very important to you. Being toward the bottom only means it is of less value in relation to those at or near the top. Similarly, if this inventory did not include descriptions of any of those things that you truly value, then even a high scoring value here, may not really be of much importance to you. For example, let us suppose the thing you personally value most - that is want the most for your children - is for them to be free from any and all addictions (not addicted to drugs, food, alcohol, tobacco, etc.). Since "Addiction Free" was not an item in this inventory, it cannot show up on your Value Importance List. This is why I suggested that you might find some of those values (listed later) that are more important to you. You'll have to decide where to slot them in your own personal Value Importance List. Over the years, however, I have found that the eleven values included in this inventory are those, which are valued most by 90% or more of the families with whom I have worked. You will notice that many of the additional values listed later in this section could be considered sub-types of one or another of the eleven we have used. For example, a person valuing (and achieving) self-confidence, integrity and love, will almost always be addiction-free. Let's examine what the spread of scores may mean. By spread, I refer to the pattern of the total score size received by these eleven values. A large spread pattern, for example, would have some high scores (8, 9, 10), some lower scores (0, 1, 2, 3) and some middle scores (4, 5, 6, 7). A pattern of small spread might have all the values clumped around 4, 5 and 6, for example. Clumped scores suggest that no one or two values appear to really be more important than the others. When this pattern exists, it is hard to describe a family in terms of what is really most important to them. It is also often difficult for the children in that family to get a clear idea of what being a "Smith" is all about. On the other hand, when one or two values stand out above the rest, it is pretty easy to describe a family's approach to life, and the children also soon catch on that being a "Smith" means we do or believe such and such. For example: If happiness and success are both 9's and the other nine values rank 6 and below, it is probably easy for a youngster to know that being a Smith means we have a lot of fun but still work hard at our jobs. Overly careful or less secure parents often develop an equally careful, middle of the road (clumped) set of values so they won't stand out from the pack. This way they don't ever have to defend their beliefs. They also don't fit into any obvious category from which others might either require them to get involved, or decide to shun them. For example, a family whose actions clearly demonstrate to the community that they are high in the love/friendship value might be asked to volunteer for an MD telethon or to become a foster family. One obviously high in social acceptance might be asked to help raise funds for a community project. Clumped values are one way of hiding in the pack and not standing out to be noticed (or admired, either, I suppose!). What is your first reaction to your Value Importance List? Does it seem to fit the picture you have of yourself? If not, you need to take some time and think about why that may be. Are you pleased with the results? Are your high-ranking values, the ones you want to see rank high? Are you troubled by the results? Does the inventory suggest you value things you don't really want to value? Are there changes you want to make in your own values? Honest choices while completing the inventory, and honest soul searching about its results, often lead parents to try making some changes in what they seem to value. I remember one mother who achieved a strong rating (10) on the "fame" value, and was bothered that it seemed so important to her. At first, she thought the Inventory was dead wrong. However, after watching herself in action with her children over a period of several weeks, she began to see how she really did emphasize those things which were aimed at urging her daughter to be more than merely just popular - to practice the violin so she could one day become a famous concert violinist revered by thousands. She then had to decide if having that value at the top of her list was acceptable to her. In this case, she came to see that, although quite talented, her daughter was really not gifted enough to become one of the very best violinists in the World. Once fame moved down a few notches, happiness seemed to move up a few. Family life improved remarkably. Tension was reduced, and there was more time for mutually enjoyable mother-daughter activities. So, sometimes parents do find that knowing how to change or play down one of the values that seems to be getting in the way, can increase family happiness. HOW DOES ONE CHANGE A VALUE? Often, just realizing that you may have been over emphasizing one value, is enough to make you change what you stress within your family setting. Other times, however, it takes a bit more work than that. I often suggest that parents, who find themselves in this spot, write out a Personal Value and Behavior Change Plan. The first step is simple. Just fill in the blanks in the following Value Change Formula. Instead of stressing ________________ I would like to start stressing ____________________. The mother in my violin example just above wrote "Fame" in the first blank and "Happiness/contentment" in the second. Once parents have written out their Value Change Formula in this way, they are ready for step two: Pulling in the reins. In this step you write down as many answers as you can find to this question: What things do I do that tend to emphasize this over-stressed value to my family? As you go about the normal processes of interacting with your family on a regular day-to-day basis, you may begin noticing other things you also do, and you will want to add those to this list as well. Often, just becoming aware of the ways you have been encouraging the over-stressed value, is enough to help you stop doing it (or cut back on it to a more reasonable level). One great way to find out what you do is to ask the kids. Believe me, they will know! Step three asks you to formulate and write down some ideas that answer this question: What things can I now begin doing that will stress the replacement value (the new one that you want to develop)? Spend a few minutes each night remembering and listing the times you kept from pushing the old, over-stressed value, and also those times you were able to emphasize or model the new, replacement value. Think about times that may be coming up in which you will have the opportunity to stress the new one, or times in which you may have to be extra careful not to emphasize the old one. Some values are harder to change than others. It is especially hard to change those that were well learned when we were very young. The violinist's mother, for example, was the daughter of a "stage Mother" - a mother who dragged her daughter (this mother) from one audition to another from the time she was three years old, trying to get her into show business. This made her into one who valued fame at a very young age and then later, as a mother herself, she was unconsciously stressing the very same value to her own daughter. The general rule is: The earlier a value is learned the harder it is to change. This will hold for our children as well. The older children in a family may have more difficulty handling a family value change than the younger ones. Why? It is simply because, the older ones learned it when they were young, and have therefore practiced and accepted it longer. Another reason that very early learning is so difficult to change, is that the earliest beliefs are often learned at a feeling or emotional level rather than through words. When a baby is left wet and cold or hungry, it learns the World is an uncomfortable, hurtful place - not with words, of course, because it can't use or understand words yet. It learns through feelings. Later on in life, it is difficult to talk oneself out of early impressions about the World because they were not acquired through talk, but through feelings. Counseling for such problems often involves non-verbal, feeling level approaches, rather than just talking about it. On the other hand, if the infant is kept warm and dry, is fed, held and talked to, it learns (again at a feeling level) that this World is one that meets his needs, is comfortable, and filled with pleasant, caring people. Parents who have been trying to change a family value often find that teenagers have the hardest times. This puzzles parents, since it seems that teens are often found to automatically rebel against family values. I would point out one big difference here. An adolescent normally tests (rebels against, if you like) the parent's value system to see if, indeed, it is actually going to handle life better for him than the alternative value systems he encounters elsewhere. This is not giving up a value learned at home. It is more like putting it on hold while trying out some new ways. Keeping a value on hold means the teen still has the security of falling back on it if he sees that it is needed or best. And you know what? He almost always does return to it eventually. Dozens of studies and thousands of dissertations show it to be true. Now, when the parents come right out and suggest the family start playing down a long held value or belief in favor of a new (perhaps foreign) one, this tends to become quite threatening to the teen. They wonder, "Well if that particular old value was not good, then what about all the rest of the family's values?" If that value or impression about the World was learned at a non-verbal level, the parents must work overtime to demonstrate the new value at a feeling level rather than merely using words. Hugging and touching and tucking-in and pampering are physical activities that might be used to counteract early feeling-based learning that the World is hurtful or cannot be trusted to meet your needs. This problem of resistance to value changes frequently surfaces in the case of changing churches. Mom and Dad have grown out of one set of beliefs and into another set all more or less comfortably. The teen may not have done this at all. In this case, the teen's value system is not only threatened by the new religion, but he begins to question the long-term value of everything his parents have taught him. With that illustration, am I suggesting families shouldn't change values (or religion)? NO! Most certainly not! I am just warning that it will require careful planning and specific inclusion of, and preparation of, the children (especially the older ones) if it is to be successful. HOW DOES ONE GET FROM VALUES TO GOALS? Goals are behaviors you want to see on a regular basis in the child. Example: If you value wealth, some goals you could state might be these: Goal one: Jerome will fill his piggy bank at least once each month. (This would be a short-term goal. It would let you see him taking steps in the desired direction.) Goal two: Jerome will be worth a million dollars by the time he is twenty-five. (This is a long-term goal. Many intermediate goals will be needed to help Jerome reach this long-term goal.) Let's slow down a bit right here. Remember, we are trying to get that One Rule to work in your family. In the long run, one rule rather than many will simplify life. Even more than that, this particular One Rule trains your youngsters how to think things through, from their first awareness of a situation, to planning the best possible outcome for all concerned. This is a skill which most unhappy adults have not learned (and therefore, of course, neither have their children)! We have said that in order to use this One Rule Plan you need to have a very good idea about what you want your family life to be like, and what kind of people you want your children to become. This is based on what you value, isn't it? It sounds like a tall order, and it is. But just follow along and soon you'll know exactly where you are headed and how you are going to get there. From the results of the inventory, which you completed, and from the thought you have given to the topic of values, you already have a good understanding of what things you value. You also now have an idea of which values you want to pursue within your family. Those values are the ones you will want to use as your guide here. (Integrity, love, fame, or power - whatever you decide). Once you have listed these, (let's just take them one value at a time at first), you are ready to state a few major goals. Remember a goal is the behavior you want to see in the children. When you see this behavior, you have a pretty good idea that they are learning the value. For example, let's say self-confidence is something you value and want your children to develop. For a four-year-old child you might state this as your goal: "Jenny will teeter-totter at the park with a friend while I sit a long way away." When she accomplishes this, it suggests to you that Jenny is self-assured enough that the parent doesn't have to be right there beside her. For a ten-year-old you might state this goal: "Tony will run errands in the neighborhood (assuming it is a safe neighborhood) without my help." For a sixteen-year-old it might be: "Doug will try out for the team or the play (have enough self-confidence to risk the try-out). These examples suggest several things. First, your goals are set according to the child's current level of skill. Age often plays a major part in this, but at any age, you have to set your goal just one little step beyond where the child is at the moment. If Jenny (the four-year-old) still clings to Mom in all new situations, you might need to start with a goal such as: "Jenny will teeter-totter at the park with Mom on one end and Jenny on the other." Then gradually state some small step separation goals before you can state the original one used in the example above. ("She will teeter with a friend while Mom stands beside her." "She will teeter with a friend while Mom sits over on the bench," etc.) In general, self-confidence is learned from several kinds of experiences: It is learned from being allowed to (encouraged to) try things by oneself, and learning that failing isn't bad. It is just a sign you need a new approach or more practice or additional information (provided the goal is realistic for that particular child). Success breeds self-confidence, so setting a child up with tasks at which he can succeed, becomes an important part of the plan. Don't ask for too much too soon. Don't ask for too little, ever. "If my parents don't think I'm capable then I'm probably not!" Ok, having said all this, let us get back to our One Rule. Again, that rule says: "We only do to or for each family member those things that will be helpful (build self-confidence, in this Jenny example) to him or her in the long run." First, children learn from you, through discussions and especially from your example, that helping one another to become more self-confident is something this family truly values. Therefore family members work to help build it in one another. Then, they come to realize that they are expected to make their behaviors reflect this value. And, wonder of all wonders, they see that they actually can! Does older brother, Jim, make fun of younger sister, Jill, when she spills her milk? No! Why? Not because there is a specific rule about not putting down others for spilling things or making mistakes, but because of the One Rule that guides us toward our values - in this instance, building self-confidence (or self-esteem). We now understand that what the original form of our One Rule meant by the term "helpful," was to move the family toward its over-all values. In light of this, we can now restate our One Rule in this way: We only do to or for each family member those things, which are in accordance Putting down Jill is not in accordance with our values. Putting her boots on for her once she is able to do it for herself, is also not in accordance with our values, since doing it herself will help build her self-confidence. There is no need for a specific rule ("Don't put Jill's boots on for her") once we have our well understood One Rule built upon our equally well understood value system. Let's say Tony gets impatient waiting for Jill to get her boots on. Now being impatient is quite normal for a sixteen-year-old like Tony. Taking a long time with the boots is also quite normal for a four or five year old like Jill. Being impatient, Tony starts to force his help on Jenny to hurry things up. Mom sees all this and faces a dilemma. How can she deal with both Jenny and Tony without damaging the self-confidence in either one? (Jill wanting to get her boots on all by herself and feel good about it, and Tony feeling he is doing the right thing by helping, in order to speed up the process so the family can leave sooner.) Mom might say, "Tony, it would help me if you'd back the car out of the garage for us," or "Tony, would you please take Johnny out to the car and belt him" (put on his seat belt, that is!). "We'll be right along." In either of these ways, Tony's impatience and need to help are handled, and so is Jenney's need to be left alone to work on those boots. "Wow! This is not going to be easy," you say. Not at first, but give yourself some credit. It is not nearly as difficult as learning to talk, or walk, or read, and you probably mastered most of those skills. Right? We're going to take things one step at a time. I haven't asked you to try any of this with the family yet. We're still just thinking it all through together and making it clear in our own minds first. Relax and just imagine how wonderful it will be to get family living strategies straightened out, once and for all. Also, credit yourself with sticking to the process this far. The best is still to come! One reason it will not be as difficult as it may seem, is that once you know your goals for each child, then all you do is respond according to those each time. You never have to wonder if you are doing the "right" thing: You are, if you are moving the child toward one of your goals (based on one of your values). Let us take a moment here and review all that we have learned so far: As a parent, you value several things that can guide you in raising your family. The clearer these values are to you, the easier it is to direct the children's development. By using those values, you can set short term and long term goals for each of your children. A goal is a behavior you will see happening regularly enough to show you the child is achieving what you value. The One Rule Plan helps children become aware of your values and learn how to use them in thinking through and reacting appropriately to everyday situations without needing a lot of specific rules. Children can, in fact, face totally new problems that Mom and Dad never anticipated, and using their One Rule, go ahead and handle them in fine fashion. The children "behave", if you will, because they know what is expected of them in the larger sense, and in general why it is expected of them (because of the values you are sharing with them). The task of translating values into specific goals may at first seem to be a baffling undertaking, so I will list some starter suggestions for each value on the inventory. You may feel comfortable using some of these directly, or you may want to use them only to get an idea of how to go about writing goals, and then prepare your own. For each value, I will list some goals for three developmental levels. Remember goals are the behaviors you want to see. Behaviors may be physical activities (teeter-tottering, grooming, dancing, closing doors, fist fights), verbal activities (bad vs good language, listening to what others have to say, using words that can be understood by the one being spoken to, the kinds of things one says about himself or about others, pessimistic or optimistic phrases, good conversation habits), emotional activities (speaking calmly vs yelling, crying, laughing, staying down in the dumps, being cheerful, being positive, showing love and affection, anger, deceitfulness) or spatial activities (drawn to things he can see and touch, likes gifts, likes the opportunity to use things and gadgets, may like math). Some might add spiritual or philosophical activities as a fifth type of behavior, though these are usually composed of the others. You will want to tailor-make your goals in terms that fit the personality style of each child (physical, verbal, emotional, spatial), matching your goal to what style motivates and communicates best to him or her. Since this is such an important concept, let me illustrate it further by suggesting some of the ways each of these types of children might prefer to be involved with music. The physical child really gets into the movement suggested by the rhythm. He may even walk differently when music is playing. He sees music as something one moves to and dances to, and drums on the table to, rather than merely listening, or fiddling with the equipment or tuning into the feelings it may produce. He may prefer to make music by playing an instrument rather than merely listening to it or writing it. The Verbal child knows the words to all the songs and gets into singing them (regardless of his vocal talent!). He may write song lyrics - often very creative ones that use the play on words technique or that make use of an interesting rhyme scheme. He may like to read or write about music related topics. When a new stereo arrives, he will read the manual first, rather than just trying to figure out how it works. The spatial child might design album covers and easily visualize just how it would look when finished. He may design music videos complete with staging, performers and exploding guitars. He is less into the feelings produced by the music, or the equipment itself, or his own personal movement to music. He will always twist the knobs before giving in and reading the manual that accompanied that new stereo. The emotional child focuses on the feelings the music brings to him. Sad music makes him sad. Happy music makes him happy. Violent music makes him violent. He tends to put on certain music, to put himself into the mood he wants to be feeling. (Many teens tend to become at least a bit this way, perhaps due to some hormone-emotion relationships.) He is less into the words, or the movement or the equipment. If the stereo looks or sounds great, he'll "flip" over it. Physical children are doers, athletes, and musicians, and tend to protect their own things. Coupled with a spatial bent, they may become fine athletes. Coupled with an emotional bent, they may become fine musicians (or street fighters!). Coupled with a verbal bent, may become Mohammed Ali or Richard Sanders. Physical children tend to act and react first and talk later. Spatial children are organizers and inventors or mathematicians, and have a strong need to protect their own "territory". They would rather show you how something is done than have to tell you. They are pilers contrasted with verbal children who tend to be filers. Spatial children have a pile for everything and everything is in its pile. Out of sight, out of mind is their trademark (therefore, a file system or drawers are actually of little value to them). Quite often engineers or dress designers are spatial people. Coupled with an emotional bent, they may display fine artistic talent. Coupled with a physical bent, they could be topnotch ice skaters. (Couple those last two tendencies with an emotional bent, and you just might build a hockey or football player.) Verbal children tend to file things away out of sight, but can find anything on a moment's notice. They enjoy describing things and relating stories or events. Verbal children are given to word-based creativity; public speaking, writing, and when coupled with the emotional, acting. They tend to logically protect their ideas in discussions and disputes. Couple verbal with strong spatial skills and you may have a play by play announcer for basketball or boxing. Emotional children have intense relationships with others, are cause-joiners, devoted friends (or mortal enemies), and may protect their own rights through the most illogical kinds of arguments or outbursts. Coupled with a verbal bent, they may become fine writers, speakers, singers or actors. Coupled with a spatial bent, they may become outstanding artists. Many emotional children have no idea whatsoever where their things are! They may seem forgetful. Coupled with a verbal bent, they may also become worrywarts or incessant chatterboxes. Coupled with the spatial, they may become successful drivers in the demolition derby. (I know, that's every Mother's dream come true!) In the illustrations below, I will use the term child to indicate ages up to about eight; the term youth to indicate those from about nine through twelve; and the term teen, to indicate adolescents from age thirteen and older. Please recognize that these are arbitrary boundaries and some children may need planning done in either a higher or lower level, depending on their particular stage of maturity, intellectual capacity, and other necessary related skills. Sample Goals (for the Value in each heading) Self confidence: Child: Will try new games, toys, foods. Will go and stay in new places (with parent's approval). Youth: Will volunteer to take on new projects. Will freely show parents his school work (good or poor). Will join clubs and activities. Will put himself on the line for things he believes are right and just. Teen: Will begin to date. Will make positive statements about the future. Will make realistic plans for now and for the future. Will work to become very good at some skill. Will run for class officer. Will find a part time job on his own. Altruism: Child: Will share his things. Will cooperate. Will help take care of other family members. Youth: Will be freely helpful within the family setting Will be helpful to neighbors and older people. Will speak about the good feeling he gets from helping others. Will show concern for the less fortunate. Teen: Will participate in "causes" for the oppressed or ill or under-dog. Will contribute money and time to charities. Will talk with compassion about those in need or the less fortunate. Will volunteer at hospitals, children's homes, nursing homes. Will coach little league or assist a brownie or scout leader. Integrity: Child: Will tell the truth. Will learn to not hurt others. Will ask before borrowing. Youth: Will refrain from stealing or copying things from others. Will do his homework with minimal reminding. Will demonstrate he knows right from wrong. Will stress fairness over personal gain or prestige. Teen: Will act on the side of justice. Will state and strive to live up to a set of personal values. Will treat others with fairness and concern for their wellbeing. Will seek the truth in all matters. Will do what he thinks is right even in the face of peer pressure. (Remember, when it comes to boy/girl things, teen boys are prone to tell magnificent whoppers. In its usual form it’s not a big concern.) Happiness / Contentment: Child: Will laugh and smile and hug. Will enjoy the simple pleasures available to him. Youth: Will treat family members positively, pleasantly. Will joke and focus on what is right and fun and feels good. Will seek out friends and entertaining group activities. Teen: Will generally present a sunny disposition. Will talk positively about his relations with others. Will have good peer and family relations. Will state and demonstrate that he or she enjoys life. Knowledge / Understanding: Child: Will want to be read to and read for himself when old enough. Will want to try to figure things out himself first. Will ask questions and listen to the answers when given. Youth: Will invent things, write stories, look things up in the encyclopedia and the internet. Will find topics on which he wants to become expert. Will seek out programs on TV that provide information. Teen: Will talk about ideas and plans rather than just "who did what with and to whom". Will seek advice, opinions and sources of knowledge. Will work to resolve contradictions and controversies. Will attend seminars, institutes, and other extra learning activities. Will make plans about his own further education. Will engage in discussions just for the fun of it. Love / Friendship: Child: Will seek out peers and interact cooperatively. Will hug and kiss family members. Will tell others he loves them. Will allow himself to be physically hugged and touched in friendship. Youth: Will tell you he is lovable, and tell others he loves them. Will act pleased to hear that others like and love him. Will spend happy times with his peers and family. Will have best friends of both genders (depends on age). Teen: Will seek a circle of comfortable friends with interests similar to his. Will date and enjoy romantic and affectionate relationships. Will accept non-public displays of affection from family members. Will treat others as he wishes to be treated. Will discover and fit comfortably into his sexual role. Job Success: Child: Will clean up toys and his own messes. Will carry out appropriately simple tasks within the home. Will engage in self-care appropriate to his age. Youth: Will do extra jobs well for extra compensation. Will demonstrate pride in his work at school and elsewhere. Will investigate and speculate about various lines of work. Will demonstrate a cooperative attitude with supervisors. Teen: Will successfully complete home, school, and extra responsibilities. Will successfully try out various types of employment. Will seriously investigate self-appropriate, long-term, vocational opportunities. Social Acceptance: Child: Will have age appropriate, cooperative peer relationships. Will have other children seek him out for play relationships. Youth: Will get along well with peers and family members. Will be invited to be a part of formal and informal social groups. Will be described by others as a "good kid". Teen: Will be sought out as a friend by same and opposite sex peers. Will possess valued social skills (manners, dancing, driving, etc.). Will be described as "fun and level headed" in social situations. Will be able to have fun safely and 'sensibly'. Power Over Others: Child: Will be the leader within his play group. Will learn ways to get what he wants from his parents. Youth: Will form clubs and definitely be the leader. Will develop ways of convincing others to his way of thinking. Will form useful coalitions with others whose power he needs to use. Teen: Will seek and be elected only to the highest student and other offices. Will be undisputed leader of his social group or won't be a part of it. Will see to it that he is selected as foreman, etc. at his job. Will be in charge whether others like it or not. Fame: Child: Will seek the spotlight and center of attention (most do, to some extent) Will perform at the drop of an opening Youth: Will practice skills needed to be famous (music, sports, studies, etc.). Will be an outgoing person. Will be intrigued by famous people. Will model himself after a famous person - do as he did. Teen: Will know how to make contacts to benefit his own success. Will be steadfastly persistent in his attempts to be recognized. Will gain some degree of recognition in some area of endeavor. Will work relentlessly toward his goal to be recognized. These sample goals will give you a place to begin. They demonstrate the kinds of possible behaviors you may want to encourage along the way, as your youngster moves toward one or more of the values you hope he will incorporate as his own. We have already covered many of the essential basic ideas, and you understand them pretty well, now, don't you! Don't expect to understand them fully yet. Like any other worthwhile goal, having a great family life takes work, practice and persistence. Let's make certain we know where we are going and how we are going to get there before we become concerned about putting all of this into practice. Speaking of practice, it helps to remember that as we learn any new skill (say bike riding or bed making) we all make many errors before we finally gain mastery of the skill. So, it is with parents learning a new approach to family life. Something may not work the first time (or the second, or the ...!). That only tells you to think through what went wrong and look for a new approach to try next time. You will find it if you don't give up too soon. The children won't pick up all the skills right away either, but then, gradually (patiently) helping them learn to do all of this is really what defines being a parent. We usually have between seventeen and nineteen years to work at it for each child. In that many years, both the parents and kids have time to become pretty skillful! A wise man once told me that when we make a mistake we should respond to it by saying, "Ah, Wonderful," because we have just learned something that is truly helpful - how not to proceed on the next attempt. I use that system every day of my life and it certainly tends to make learning a positive – even humorous – experience! You may want to keep it in mind for yourself or your children. I urge you to give it a try. Tomorrow, instead of responding with "Drat it," or "@#$&%#", just try saying, "Ah, Wonderful!" It really does change one's perspective on errors or mistakes in a hurry! It calls for no instant shot of adrenalin like getting upset does – just the calming feeling you've learned to associate with the idea, "Ah, wonderful. (And the looks you get from those within earshot make it worth the effort!) Helping children make quality decisions about their behavior and understanding how it affects others will occur as a gradual shift. Some will make it more easily and quickly than others. When kids are trying, but still fall short, try to first find something that was appropriate about what they did (and let them know you recognize it), and then help them discover how to do it better next time. (What did we call this approach, earlier? Oh, yes, The Agreement Frame of Reference.) Example: "I can see you were really trying to be helpful, Tony, and I appreciate that. Why do you suppose it didn't work real well? What could you try next time that might have a better chance of working?" Asking gentle, non-threatening, leading questions is superior to telling someone how something should be done. What we discover on our own we tend to accept and remember. What is forced upon us we tend to shed at the first opportunity! SHOULD PARENTS REALLY FORCE THEIR OWN VALUES ONTO THEIR CHILDREN? This question takes careful consideration. Some parents answer with a resounding "No!" because they believe everyone should be free to make up their own minds about which values they will have. Others state a definite "Yes!" because they believe that as parents they do possess the one right set of values that will continue to be right many years down the line, even when their children have grown into adulthood. Most parents, I believe, would answer partly "yes" and partly "no." Most parents (especially successful parents) would say something like this: "I'd like to think my kids will value what I believe, so I'm going to make sure they see how well my values work for me and those whose lives I affect. But in the end, they should make up their own minds and be free to change, since I can't possibly know now, just what will be required in their future." I, personally, believe that at all ages, youngsters must believe in something. That "something" may change from time to time, but at any given moment, we all need to believe in some values. Belief in a value and its related goals is what makes life purposeful rather than meaningless. Children will come to believe in something. Will you agree that it is better for your children to believe in your values, than in those they may pick up from Slick Sam down the street? SHOULD PARENTS PROTECT THEIR CHILDREN FROM EXPOSURE TO DIFFERING VALUES? Again, some parents will say, "Yes. Kids are too young and overly impressionable. We must protect them from ways of thinking that are contrary to ours." Others will say, "No, or not entirely. The more values they encounter, the better chance they will have to find the ones just right for themselves and will have important chances to compare ours with others." My experience makes me tilt toward the second view. I suppose, though, that you must make up your own mind. (What else could a person who tilts toward this second view say?) If my values don't obviously stand up well when compared with others, then perhaps I need to reevaluate them. I have known some children who were so protected, that when they left home to go to college or vocational school, they were blown away by the fact that everyone did not think like they did. A more gradual exposure to differences would have eased the shock and saved a multitude of major problems. It also promotes both tolerance and acceptance of others – a plus in the minds of some parents and a negative in the minds of others. In a culture that is rapidly becoming so diverse, it appears to me tolerance and acceptance is a basically imperative for all of us to possess – otherwise we'll end up killing each other off. Healthy teenagers always try out other ways in order to compare their relative soundness and usefulness. If they don't already know the alternatives while still at home, they will go looking for them later, and this can be terribly dangerous during the late teen years when Mom and Dad are no longer around to provide guidance and support. Practicing failing and learning how to recover, is an important developmental task of middle adolescence. It may be one of the most difficult aspects of child rearing a parent has to face. It would be so easy to tell the kid what he should do and spare him the pain. But learning about pain and one's own competence can't be learned except through personal experiences. In a book that I wrote when I was sixteen, I wondered why it was that every generation of teenagers feels they must invent the "adolescence-wheel" all over again. It seemed to me, back then, that adolescence was the one period in a person's life when no one ever seemed able to learn from the lessons of history. Each teen just had to go out and prove everything all over again for himself. Prove may be exactly the correct term, since once the older adolescent has put himself through all of this agony, he typically, and without fanfare, quietly accepts the values of his upbringing. [I'm not sure if that was a side trip or not. You may decide!] There are all too many neighborhoods in which the families are surrounded by people who pose a constant threat to their values and to their preferred way of life – to their very lives, even. In these difficult situations, the parents must go out of their way to demonstrate to their children that their own values can absolutely overwhelm those seen in the streets. Not an easy task, I know. There may well be times and places where younger children should be shielded from dissimilar values and beliefs, because they are not yet capable of understanding them or of making adequate judgments about them. The exposure might merely upset the child or make him more difficult to handle. These are such difficult and important decisions, aren't they! HOW DOES ONE KNOW IF THEIR VALUES ARE THE RIGHT VALUES? For some folks this probably seems like a silly question, because they are absolutely sure their values are the right ones. That certainly makes writing a plan like this easier, doesn't it? Many, if not most of us, are not quite so sure. I am hard put to answer the question I have posed above, because I am personally not sure there is just one right set of values. In my own case I ask, "Would the World become and remain a better place for others and myself if we all shared this same value?" When, after due deliberation and investigation, I can answer with a fair amount of comfort, "Yes, probably so," I feel Ok about that value. Another test question I often ask is this: "Is anyone, including myself, likely to be hurt if people in general would be guided by this value?" In this case, a "No, probably not," answer, tends to encourage me. The answer to this big question has to rest in each of our hearts. I don't know how to provide a "correct" answer. Once we have taken the necessary steps to gather the best and most reliable information available about our task (establishing values, being a parent, being a spouse, being a mechanic, a counselor, or whatever), and then, we do the best job we can possibly do, based on that information, I think we have done all that we can rightfully ask of ourselves. As I mentioned earlier, I do have problems about folks who just "do their best" without making a legitimate attempt to first seek out important, reliable, proven information. Obviously, you are one who searches for necessary information or you wouldn't be reading this page in this book, would you? With this little side trip under our belt, let us proceed to find out how to write your One Rule Plan. HOW DO YOU WRITE YOUR OWN ONE RULE? More accurately, I suppose, what we will do here is to help you define your One Rule, since I am only suggesting one way to actually write the rule itself. The uniqueness for you comes not in the rule statement, but in the values, which you choose to use in defining the "helpfulness" element in the rule statement. (1) First, you will need to select the three or four values, which are most important to you. These may or may not be the same as the ones you found ranking highest on your Value Inventory results. One way or another, select three or four values on which you feel comfortable building your family's life. Write them each at the top of a separate page. (There are examples at the end of this section.) Example of a value statement: "I value moral and ethical behavior and want to instill this value in the members of my family." (2) Under that statement, describe what that value means to you. Example of a definition: "I deal with people in ways that are right, just and fair." (3) Then state your general family goal that is based on that value. Example of my general family goal: "Each member will behave in ways that are right, just and fair to all concerned - including himself." (4) Next, list some things you can do to model this value, yourself. Example: My own modeling behavior: "I can listen to another's side of any controversy or request with an open and impartial mind." "I can let the family see that I am attempting to learn more about child development so I will be able to be more realistic and fair in my expectations of each child." (5) List each child (or family member) and leave space to jot down: (A) Specific things each person does that shows he or she is already demonstrating some aspects of this value, and (B) Specific things that demonstrate he or she is having trouble with it. The Value: ___________________________ Positive behaviors now seen: _______________________ Behavior needing replacement: _______________________ (6) Below this, write from one to three goals for each child based on the areas needing work. The model form for writing these goals might look like this: (Child's name) WILL (New behavior you want to see) EXAMPLES: John WILL hug family members more often Jill WILL show Mom even poor school papers Tony WILL talk to Mom more about daily activities and plans Mary WILL tell the truth more often Keep these goal statements positive whenever possible. All of this may take several pages per value. You may want to do the same step on all three or four values at once. That is, state each value on its own page; then define each one on its own page; then how you'll model it, etc. (A ring binder works well, allowing the addition of pages where needed.) Once all this is complete, let it just sit for a day or so. Read Section Five and then later in the week come back and re-read what you wrote. You will probably be pretty impressed with most of it. At that point you can change anything you feel needs modifying. Make sure that the first goal for a youngster begins close enough to the level of his behavior at that moment. Remember, setting and then achieving several small steps is the surest way to reach the ultimate goal. Don't ask for too large a change (too big a step) all at once. This results in resistance to change, to arguments, and sets the child up for failure. WHAT ARE SOME OTHER FREQUENTLY VALUED ASPECTS OF LIFE? I imagine one could list many thousands of things that people value. Here are some that I have found to be important to the parents with whom I have worked. Feel free to add your own values to this list if you find that what you value most has been omitted. financial success happiness love (ability to love) togetherness independence self sufficiency creativity law abider friendship power romance knowledge education health beauty wisdom emotional stability social acceptance at ease with people honesty integrity addiction free helpful positive pastimes vocational success nice person protector of nature protector of what is right liberal conservative gentle tough strong of body strong of character sensitive brave pessimistic optimistic dependable be own person responsible good worker forgiving revenge taker accepting understanding selfless self-centered organized free spirit predictable unpredictable open to new ideas appreciates beauty appreciates nature appreciates the arts athletic teaser yeller fighter self confident Here are some things that I can do daily to be a good model of this value to my family: 1. ____________________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________________ 4. ____________________________________________________________ Current behaviors related to this value now seen in each family member: Name: _________________ Positive Behaviors now seen. Behavior needing replacement Specific goals for individual family members: (Child’s name) WILL (New behavior you want to see) __________________ WILL ________________________________ __________________ WILL ________________________________ __________________ WILL ________________________________ __________________ WILL ________________________________ SUMMARY OF SECTION FOUR Making your own One Rule requires only that you know what you value and that you know how to pass that value along to the family members. We rewrote The One Rule to read: We only do to or for each family member those things, which are in accordance with our values? So, when a child has to confront the question, "What should I do in this situation?" he merely refers to the values his parents have made plain to him and acts accordingly. Not every answer is so obvious as to make these decisions easy. This is one reason parents have their children around for eighteen years or so - to help them practice and to refine and improve these skills. I suggest you review the questions at the beginning of this Section and make sure you understand the answers to each before proceeding to Section Five. SECTION FIVE Let's talk about making your plan work In Section Five, we will address these six questions: Will it work like magic? How can parents encourage and promote their goals? How can side trips be used? Are specific rules ever needed? What should parents know about problem solving skills? How do parents enforce their One Rule? In the Activity, you will actually practice applying all of this to real life situations in your family. WILL IT WORK LIKE MAGIC? I wish I could promise that once you lay out this new plan for your family, that life will, from that point on, be great and wonderful for ever and ever more. It won't happen that way, but then, you knew that all along. Life with children is not intended to happen that way. Remember no plan can keep normal problems from occurring. But a useful and effective plan will help provide a framework through which families can learn to skillfully and humanely solve life's problems as they arise. The One Rule Plan is one in which every member of the family shares the responsibility for making things go well for themselves as well as the others. As with most new procedures, you may expect certain children to test this one to its limits until they believe you are ready to stick by it and that you mean what you say. This will be particularly true in families where a wide variety of parenting plans have been tried and discarded in the past. This is an easy plan for you to believe in. After all, it is yours - based on your values and directed toward your personal goals. It is easy to stick with because it is so simple. Children usually come to like it because your new plan gives them credit for being intelligent and able to learn how to make good, thoughtful decisions, and not just follow rules like a trained seal. HOW CAN PARENTS ENCOURAGE AND PROMOTE THEIR GOALS? Remember how we defined a goal - a behavior that you want to see happening in certain situations. In order to obtain these behaviors you may need to do several things. The first thing, you have already done: you have written some goals for yourself and for the children - goals that grew directly out of the several values you decided would form the basis of your family plan. Next you must make it obvious to the family just exactly what the goals are. There are several ways to go about this. With your older or more mature children, you can sit down and talk with them about it quite directly. In the example that follows, the parent has selected self-confidence / self-esteem and happiness / contentment as the two beginning goals for her family. "Amber, I think you realize things haven't been going as well in our family recently as we'd all like. We just aren't a happy family anymore. I have decided this is partly because we are not all working together to help each other feel good about ourselves." "I've been doing a lot of thinking and planning and have come up with a plan which I know will help. There are several goals I really want our family to work toward, and I feel that I must not have made those clear enough to you in the past. First, I think we all could use a big dose of self-confidence, so I want us to begin helping one another become more that way. How do you suppose that you could help Jill gain more self-confidence?" (As you talk about this, help Amber begin to understand what self-confidence is all about - what kinds of experiences bring it about.) "Those are great ideas, Amber. I know you are going to be a big help. Now, what are some things the rest of us might do to help you build your self-confidence?" (Encourage her to explore her current level of self-confidence and examine ways to improve it if that seems appropriate.) "Another area we need to work on is helping this home be a happy place. What could I do to help start things in that direction for you?" (Listen, perhaps even take notes. Underscore the best suggestions by asking Amber more questions about them, and perhaps making some plans together for a happy outing, event, or activity. It is not the time to allow her to try to take advantage of your apparent positive frame of mind.) "For right now these two goals are the really big ones I think - building self confidence in all of us and producing consistently happy times together as a family. On next Sunday, we will have a family meeting (gathering, get together, whatever) and I'll talk with everyone together. I'm going to erase all the old rules we've had around here, and replace them with just one. I've written it down for you. I'd like you to think about it between now and Sunday, and at that time, I'll answer any questions that you have about it. Feel free to talk with your brother and sister about this if you like. I'll have this same kind of one-on-one talks with each of them later today. Any questions right now?" (If so, either respond to them right then or tell her you will deal with that one at the meeting. Let her see you write it down! This could buy you some time to think through the really tough ones teenagers seem to be able to ask at this point!) This general type of conversation helps get things started. More follow-up conversations with Amber will be needed to see how she feels about the family's progress and for you to hear any suggestions, questions, or complaints she may have. These chats also give the parent the chance to let Amber know that it seems obvious she is trying to help, and how much that is appreciated. Weekly private talks with each child about the new plan are appropriate until things get well on their way. Then perhaps less frequently, just touching base, if only for five minutes a week, seems like an excellent idea to me. (I don't mean that private, one on one talks about general, routine things of life should not continue to be a daily occurrence, understand.) For your younger children, in addition to the first, sit-down explanatory conversation and the follow-up family meeting, you may need to provide more subtle guidance. The two general 'rules' here are: 1- Catch the child while he is doing what you want to see him doing, and let him know how great you think that is. (Talk to the verbal child. Hug the emotional or physical child, etc.) 2- Catch the child exhibiting a positive behavior, which is incompatible with a behavior that you want to get rid of, and praise him for that. Let me explain. By incompatible, I mean a behavior, which when being done, won't allow the unwanted behavior to take place. Let us use a truly elegant example. Say you want your six year old child to stop picking his nose in public. You can, of course, just tell him to stop when you see him doing it. Actually, that doesn't change a behavior as well as a lot of folks seem to think. Calling attention to it sometimes actually increases the frequency of a behavior such as this. An alternate approach would be to find those times when the child is not picking his nose and let him know how much more pleasant he looks that way. A little hug or a gentle squeeze on the shoulder adds some physical reinforcement to those children who seem to appreciate that kind of thing. "Johnny, I've noticed you haven't picked your nose all evening and that sure makes it more pleasant to be around you. Nice going for remembering about that." To make Rule 2 work, you must first decide what behavior is "the opposite" from the unwanted behavior. Then reward the opposite, acceptable behavior (in this case, not picking the nose behavior is the opposite). Let's talk a little more about ways to create appropriate behavior through the reward procedures we touched on in earlier sections. When we gently guide a behavior change through a series of several small steps, we usually obtain a more permanent change and many fewer objections, than when we try to change it all in one huge jump. For example, a mother I once knew became upset when she realized her three children had developed poor (I mean pig sty, vultures after road-kill poor!) table manners. She was afraid to let them eat at their friends' homes because of it. Here is what we did. We established and posted, "Our Eight Week Plan, For Table Manner Improvement." The evening meal on each Wednesday was set aside as "Proper Manners Night." During the meal on the first Wednesday, the mother and father discussed the reasons behind the training program. "Up to this point in this family we haven't stressed the kind of table manners most families stress. Therefore, through no fault of yours, you often go about eating a meal in ways that many folks would find improper and, quite honestly, downright disgusting. (Every-one laughed, which seemed both normal and appropriate.) Since we don't want you to have to be embarrassed in public by not knowing what proper table manners are we are going to practice them one night each week. At this meal each Wednesday we will all practice one or two new things together. So, tonight we are going to talk about how the table should be set and the use of each utensil. Next week we will expect you each to set your own place properly and we'll add two more skills to practice. The following week we expect you to set your place properly and use the two skills you learned during the second week. Then, we will also practice two more, new skills. We will continue this for eight Wednesday evenings, after which time you will know just about all you need to know about good table manners. We would like you to practice them during the days in between, but we won't make a big deal about it. This way you will know what is considered proper if and when you decide you want to do it that way." See how the big task was cut up into eight sets of just a few changes at a time. See how no blame was ever placed on the children for having lousy table manners. Here is another example. Jill, a five-year-old, got into the habit of having to sleep with Mom and Dad every night. She became terrified when forced to sleep in her own room alone. So, for several nights Mom or Dad slept with her in her own room. Then for a week, one of them would lay down on top of the covers (after she was all tucked in) and remain there until she was asleep. During the next week, one of the parents sat in a chair, just inside the door to her room, until she fell asleep. Finally they would tuck her in, sit beside her on the bed and talk for a few minutes and then leave the room (door open), coming to check on her at five minute intervals until she was found to be asleep. No amount of requests from her asking the parents to come in sooner, were acknowledged. In this way, it didn't take long to wean her totally away from Mom and Dad's bed, and happily back into her own. If, instead, the parents had insisted that, as of some arbitrary night, she was going to have to begin sleeping alone in her own room (the big one step!), not only would she have probably grown even more terrified of being alone, but the problem would have turned into a terribly unpleasant, ongoing battle of wills. (From the outset letting the child choose some music to be playing during going to sleep time often helps.) Still, another example: Jimmy is nine years old and forgets (or refuses, without constant supervision and threatening) to make his bed each morning. Mom says, "Jimmy, the dust in the air, even in a clean house like ours, tends to get sheets extra dirty if the bed isn't made up. Since that makes more washing for me and it isn't healthful for you to sleep on dusty sheets, making the bed each morning is something you need to do." (Note the use of the one rule plan. The rule isn't, "You shall make your bed or else ...," but instead, referring to the One Rule, "Making your bed helps the family and keeps you well in the long run.") Mom continues: "I'll come up before breakfast every morning for a few days and we will make it together until you get the hang of doing it." For several days, Mom helped her son, demonstrating exactly how it was to be done, while actually talking about something else entirely (the game, after school plans, supper menu, etc.). This kept the bed making from becoming the center of a possible daily hassle. He liked the conversation. After a few days of this, Mom helped him get started and then left to make his breakfast. He called her when he was finished. She accepted anything close to an average job and complimented him on the aspects of the job that were truly well done. She also picked out just one easy thing to improve on (smoothing the bedspread or positioning the pillow, etc.) and as she complimented him or talked about other things, she quickly fixed that one thing herself (without comment). This way he got an idea of how to improve the bed making without being put down for his weakness. During the next few days Mom looked for any improvements she could find and specifically mentioned them to him ("I like the way you fixed the pillow today!"). Within two weeks Jimmy was doing the bed all by himself and Mom only occasionally dropped in to see how it was being done but Johnny did know that she would drop in sometimes - just not when. Beauty was not the goal here. Getting the bedding all arranged in an orderly manner that covered the bed, was the goal. If you would have a more involved goal than this, then you might continue to suggest small step improvements until that goal has been reached. In these ways, Mom taught the skill in gradual steps, noticed the improvements, and kept the progress alive by occasionally dropping back to check. An added incentive could have been supplied by having Mom offer to take Johnny shopping for a new Spiderman bedspread he would like - this offer being made only after he was on the right (cooperative) track. Why was the bedspread a reward and not a bribe? Because it came after the progress. Was it an anticipated or unanticipated reward? Unanticipated, because no promise was made about it ahead of time. It could have been set up ahead of time to be an anticipated reward that Johnny was working toward by learning to improve his bed making skill. Nothing is wrong with that if it was needed to get the job done. In this case, it was not. In busy households, both Mom and Johnny may need to get up ten minutes early to work this undertaking into their schedule, but then that is part of being a parent. Isn't it? (And, anyway, what is 140 minutes – 10 minutes X 14 days – in the life span of a parent?) So, let's summarize a few things here. We have shown two ways to make your goals (values) obvious to the family. One, tell them directly, and two, positively point out to the child when he or she is found to be acting in accordance with your goal for the family. Throughout all of this, reward gradual steps of improvement, especially when the expected behavior is a really big change from previous expectations. Now for the third, and I believe the very best (though not always the easiest) way of making your values obvious to the family - use yourself as the model of appropriate behavior. Children take their cues from what they see their parents doing. Modeling is the most powerful method available to the parent. Often it works pretty well in the short run (today, next week, or next month), but it almost always works very, very well in the long run (next year, ten years from now). The long-term carry-over is great even when its effect isn't always noticeable in the short run. When you set yourself up as a model (and really, just being the parent, automatically sets one up as the model), little eyes are on you at all times. They are watching to see if there are ever times when a certain value or rule doesn't apply for you or isn't used by you. (They don't think of it in exactly those terms, of course.) Parents really have to be on their toes at all times. Am I asking you to be superhuman? I'll answer that with a question. Do you think you are asking your kids to be superhuman when you request that they always abide by a rule or value you have set for them? We all slip sometimes. It is important to remember just how tough it is for you to always be a perfect model. Then, you can be more understanding when other family members occasionally fall short. Fortunately, you can spread this modeling responsibility around. If there is a second parent in the household, you should have some automatic built-in help there (I hope!). But there are other resources also. Organized activities are available that have leaders you can respect and count on to be good (if not exact) models - Scouts, Little League, 4-H, youth church groups, YMCA, YWCA, boys and girls clubs, coaches, band directors, library programs, and of course the school teachers. I know that in certain circumstances, it seems that the models who are available in your real-World are mostly not what you want. Then you have to shield the younger children a bit. Encourage interests that keep them somewhat isolated. This is a lot like Rule 2 above; find an interest, which, when followed, keeps the child away from unacceptable models and influences. An interest in family activities is a great one to kindle first - board games, reading together, picture puzzles, cooking together, outings and, of course, the best ones, conversation and reading together. So often over the years parents have said to me, "I just don't know how to talk with my child." Admittedly, this may seem to become harder as the child grows older, but the basic formula is easy. Avoid the go-nowhere question, ("What did you do today?") and instead ask for opinions and ideas that require more than one word answers; ("What do you think about such and such?" or "How you do suppose I could do or fix such and such?") Kids usually hate relating what they've already done - that is behind them (unless they can relate something that makes themselves look pretty good!). Anyway, most of it is just the same as what took place yesterday and the day before that. Requesting their opinions and expert advice, on the other hand, almost always gets a conversation flowing freely within seconds, unless the child fears he will be put down for his ideas or thinks the parent will argue with him or try to show him he is wrong. But, when parents just listen, that makes the child feel important and valued. In general, unless you're asked for an opinion or judgment, don't offer one! If you hear things that bother you, plan to subtly deal with them later, and do so in ways not obviously tied directly to that conversation. Conversing with your kids is a precious time. Don't risk killing it with negative comments or unfulfilling topics. A relatively recent (2009) study found that most children spend five hours a day watching TV and only seven minutes a day talking with their father (four minutes of which is disciplinary in nature). I truly doubt if that is because most children would not welcome good comfortable conversation with that parent. Of course, some children enjoy talking more than others, and some are better at it. Such things must be taken into consideration. Many years after a quiet, uncommunicative, teenage foster son had left our home, he reported to me how much he always treasured the talks we used to have by the fireplace after the little kids had gone to bed. Now, if memory serves me, we often didn't say ten sentences to one another in a half-hour period. Obviously for him, that was a great and comforting conversation. I am glad I was smart enough not to insist on a continuous flow of words! (Well, at least we'll say it was because I was so smart, OK!) We are each different! I guess we just took a short side trip about conversations. Back to talking about the development of those interests which tend to move a child away from inappropriate influences. Hobbies and crafts are great examples and need not be expensive. These interests may change with the wind or may last for years. It really does not matter so long as at any given time the child has some all-consuming active interest. Active meaning he does something, compared with passive, in which he watches others doing things - TV watching, sports watching. When I was growing up I lived in a most loving, but relatively money-poor home. Mom taught me that since we didn’t have lots of money, I had been given a tremendous advantage over the rich kids who lived in the big houses up on the hill. I got to make my own things and have all the fun and enjoyment of planning, designing and building them. (Bikes, wagons, bunk beds, etc.) On the other hand, the ‘poor rich kids’ just had to go out and buy them. Bless her heart! To this day I would rather tinker around and make something myself than have to give in and go buy it! A Side Trip about wealth (or the lack thereof!). Growing up poor was, for me, a stimulating, wonder-filled, growth producing experience, because the parents who raised me did so with such love and understanding and good common sense. In a book that I wrote back when I was sixteen, I named that kind of poor, posipoor (from positive and poor). Butchy lived across town in a home that was almost as poor, but a home without love, laughter, understanding, or positive growth producing values. They were bitter, hopeless, miserable people. I termed that kind of poor, negapoor (from negative and poor). Wealth need not have anything to do with what I am talking about in this manual. Values are values - rich or poor. Beliefs are beliefs - rich or poor. Planning for, and providing positive family life experiences and positive child-training procedures, are not related to being rich or poor, or to having lots of stuff or only minimal possessions. One just does not need to have bunches of stuff in order to be a happy, nice, well adjusting, productive person! What I had not understood at sixteen, was that there are also two kinds of rich, and I suppose we could term them posirich and nagarich. What we are speaking about transcends one's financial situation. Why even bring it up? Too often I have had money-poor parents tell me they can't afford to try this One Rule Plan because they can't provide for their children, the things which they value. Values are free. Passing on values is free. Its only cost is time. I know if the parent is working two jobs time becomes precious. But, even so, one's children have to have top priority for whatever time there is. [End of side trip - sermon - whatever!] Looking back on my own life, at any given moment I always had a goal to work toward. Many were never achieved, but often that was not even the point. I always knew what was important to me at the moment even though that changed from time to time. I guess without realizing it, I had learned that we all need a goal to pull us along and that without it, we stop growing and may even find that life becomes meaningless. I guess I believe that to give a child the gift of the search (always wanting to seek after something), is one of the most important gifts of all. To kindle a spark of interest in the first place, we may have to present a number of options - try out several different things. Let the child sample various activities until something catches his or her interest. It often helps to work (play) alongside our child at the outset until he finds a special topic, idea, pursuit or skill that appeals to him. We are talking about ways to make your plan work and especially ways to sell the family on the values and subsequent goals you have set up. There is a formal approach to helping children learn certain behaviors and to avoid doing other behaviors. I would like to mention just a few of the methods, which I have found to be most helpful. (You will recognize many of them from examples I have already used.) The first I call the POSITIVE PAYOFF. Most everything we do has some sort of pay off. When we work at a paying job, the major payoff is probably our check at the end of the week. When we work hard training for the big game and we win, the payoff is the win (or in doing well). When we do our homework well, we receive both a good grade and increased knowledge as the payoffs. These are all examples of positive payoffs and they are the best way to keep a behavior going. (How many of us would go to work every day if we were not at all certain that we were going to get paid?) In families, praise and appreciation are typical positive payoffs for jobs well done. I urge you to train yourself until you just automatically dispense positive payoffs for the behaviors that show your values are being followed. Verbal praise, a pat on the back, bragging to Dad, a celebration, even a special smile. These are all positive payoffs. Since each child reacts differently, it is important that you try to match the payoff to the child. Some, especially the younger ones, enjoy public praise where others can hear. Others, especially older ones, usually prefer it privately, since public praise is often embarrassing. Some children need physical rewards because they are physical beings. Some children need verbal praise, because words mean the most to them. Some need an emotionally thrilling reward, because they have emotionally-based personalities. We need to know what motivates each child so we can dispense the praise or rewards in ways they see as meaningful. To pat a kid on the back when he needs to hear the words won't work very well. To make a big emotional deal over it, to the youngster who just needs a hug, can't be expected to work very well. So, the positive payoff, matched to the child's particular personal style, is a major tool at our disposal for changing old behaviors and building and maintaining new ones. A second tool is NO PAYOFF. This works especially well when a child seems to be acting inappropriately just to annoy you or possibly just to get your attention. focused back on him. Ignore those unwanted behaviors and usually they will stop (not always, but usually). "Ignore" means to ignore the behavior totally, always, and under all possible circumstances. Just one slip can actually strengthen that behavior and undo the influence of all the good ignoring you have done. When you suspect the child may be annoying you just to get your attention, it means he feels he needs more than he is receiving. Try providing some extra one-on-one time, making sure it does not appear to come as a direct result of the annoying behavior (or else the child learns, "When I annoy people enough, they pay attention to me!). Another example of using the NO PAYOFF method is merely to separate children who aren't getting along. The message here is, "You wanted to be together, but you can't be when you act this way." The payoff they were originally seeking was to be together. Separation turns it into a no payoff situation. Third is the PRACTICE PAYOFF. When we ask or require that a child stop doing something in an unacceptable way and actually have him practice doing it in an acceptable way, we are using the practice payoff. John always slams the door, so we require that John practice closing the door quietly twenty-five or one hundred times. We find Amber has not been doing her algebra homework so, every night for a week, she sits at the kitchen table (where you can observe from a distance, and occasionally at close range) and she completes the algebra homework. Joey, a five-year-old, begins spouting "bad language" he has picked up at play. We explain there are certain words we don't say. Either tell him what the words mean, or tell him you'll explain them to him when he is older. Help him think up words he can use instead (darn, shoot, bippityboppityboo, etc.) and have him practice saying them when he slips, or makes a mistake, or gets riled up. One of our formerly foul mouthed foster sons reports that to this day (some fifty four years later) he still says "Humperdinkle" in place of the string of four letter words he spewed prior to "our discussions" about profanity. The forth is what we can call a NEGATIVE PAYOFF. This means something unpleasant happens as a consequence of the child's inappropriate behavior. Although beating a child falls into this general category, I am thinking of strictly non-violent and far more effective measures than that. The more naturally (closely) these consequences can be tied to the inappropriate act, the better the result will usually be. John comes in two hours after curfew Saturday night, so next Saturday night he must come in two (or four) hours before curfew. If that fails to help him, the next Saturday night he doesn't get to go out at all (and if that doesn't help, he is grounded for a week, etc.). This demonstrates one of the major weaknesses of the negative payoff approach. It often develops into a battle of wills and makes situations worse in a very short time. Negative sanctions of any kind tend to automatically produce anger and resentment aimed at the enforcer (the parent, in this case). Now we all know that being a parent is never to be thought of as a popularity contest. Even so, we want our corrective procedures to help improve family life and not disrupt it further. Sometimes a negative payoff seems to be the only alternative at the moment. Remember these two things when administering a negative payoff: 1- Negative payoffs work better with children between the ages of five and thirteen than with children older or younger than that. 2- Use the least amount of negative payoff possible to achieve your goal. If children are so out of control by adolescence that they can't be handled by positive means, the parents have a major problem. Therefore, work very hard with your younger children to help them accept your expectations and live by your values early in life. Then, when adolescence arrives at your house, it should not be so openly defiant. We will talk more about this adolescent period in other examples. I am going to add, here, a third thing to remember when using negative payoffs. 3- Never use them alone. Always combine them with some other ways of reaching the child. If he is grounded (the negative payoff) this gives you more than the usual amount of time to be with him. Use praise (for what is really praiseworthy), use modeling, and use no payoff (when he tries to talk you out of the grounding). Attempt to build, extend or rekindle your relationship with him. If you can find a way to help him feel positive about even some small aspect of his relationship with you, you're on your way. Some may say that grounding should be punishment and that therefore we should not make it any fun. In general that may be the policy of choice, but in instances where you need to rebuild a relationship, is it really so bad to help the child come to enjoy being with you, talking with you, and coming to realize that it can be a positive experience? I tend to think it is a good thing! A short Side Trip about lecturing. DON'T! After (I said, AFTER) you listen to his side of the story, you can briefly (I said BRIEFLY) explain what was inappropriate and what you expect instead. Then drop it. He knows how you feel. He knows you think what he did was dumb or wrong or whatever. He knows everything you could possibly be upset about. Lecturing him, only serves to further "put him down" and make him defensive and give him reason to get angrier, while not doing a thing to help solve or correct the problem. Lecture? No! Never! Please! [End] The most effective Negative Payoffs are withdrawal of privileges (TV, having friends over, going out, air to breathe, etc.). Take care not to put the child in the position of having to shirk responsibilities to which he is committed outside of the home. If he has made a commitment to the band or the team, they are counting on him. If you bar him from those things, you are really hurting the band or the team, and they should not be punished for your child's misbehavior. If you want your children to become responsible citizens, you will see to it that they carry out those kinds of commitments. Let me say just a word about physical punishment. You must, of course, be the one who decides. But please listen to these real life responses I have heard from many dozens of children over the years. Think about what they were really learning from the physical punishment they received. "The principal spanked me to teach me not to hit kids on the playground." "The only time I can get Dad to touch me is when I can get him mad enough to beat me." "I can hardly wait till I am grown up so I can get away with beating up guys I don't like." (That, from a frail, little, physically abused, seven year old boy.) "You'd better believe that when I'm big enough, I'll beat the @#%&* out of my old man." (And I understand that he did.) "Dad thinks he's helping me when he beats me, but he's just proving how ignorant he is." "What have I learned from all my beatings? I've learned that the only thing that's really important is to be big and mean!" When asked to describe what kinds of things his mother liked, a six-year-old boy, after due deliberation, once told me: "I think most of all she really likes to hurt little kids." There is one more kind of payoff I suggest you consider avoiding altogether. It could be called the WITHDRAWAL PAYOFF. It involves making the child think you are withdrawing your love and affection from him, because you don't like what he did, or, even more devastating, because you don't like him. Few things impose deeper emotional scars, I think, than indicating to a youngster that he or she is no longer loved. Kids immediately translate this into "I am not lovable," which some equate with, "I am bad," and for still others, "I am worthless." And they know it is true because the most important person in their World told them so - their parent. Another Side Trip: Children spend the first three or four years of their lives listening to what people say and think about them. This is how a child first learns who and what he or she is. If he hears, "You're a lovable guy with a lot of great ideas," he forms one picture of himself. If he hears, "You're a bother and a trouble maker," he forms a very different picture of himself. So, the first three or four years build a child's basic self-image. He then spends the rest of his life trying to live up to it. This concept is both wonderful and terrifying for parents. It is wonderful, if upon a child's fifth birthday, you can say, "Look there, we've built a kid here who is happy and eager and kind and loves himself and us." (Depending on your goals, of course.) It is terrifying if instead we find ourselves asking, "How did this unhappy, unpleasant, obnoxious youngster ever come to be?" Even in the latter case, all is not lost, because with careful guidance people can change. Kids remain fairly malleable (moldable) and can be helped to change in many great ways when they see their parents really trying to help them. It is upon this possibility for change that this book is based. Parents can change. Kids can change. Even spouses can change! Change for the better seldom takes place by itself, however. There needs to be a plan, some guidance, some goals and some appropriate payoffs. All the things you are preparing yourself to provide! [End] HOW CAN SIDE TRIPS BE USED? This seems like a good spot to talk about side trips. By now, you have figured out all by yourself that side trips are designed to provide information that is helpful or necessary in order to understand something else which you are leading up to. So far, you have been on numerous side trips with me. One was about conversations and another about how children gain their personality style, and many others. When I use these side trips, I have to guess about what you may or may not already know because I am not personally acquainted with you. For many of you, my side trips may have been merely a review of things you already knew. For others, they may have presented brand new ideas. In either case, they were presented to help build a common base from which I could then present some other topic or idea. You, however, as the child's parent, probably have a pretty good idea about what he does and does not know. When you find it being difficult to make a point, step back and think, "Is there some basic information that would help him understand this better? Is there a foundation of information that needs to be built first?" If there is, take him on a side trip. One caution, side trips aren't permitted to be used as, pity-poor-Mama-trips, nor can they be, Dad's lecture-number-248-trips. Side trips, which are kept strictly informal, are often the best. Let's examine some examples. Earlier we spoke about the five-year-old who came home spouting a string of bad words which you find offensive. A side trip here could take several paths. One would be to get the child engaged in a conversation about those kinds of words. Have him tell you where he hears them and where he doesn't hear them. If they are words, he doesn't hear at home, then it is easy to show him that, "those just aren't words our family uses." Another path could be to ask him what he thinks those words mean. What are you feeling when you use these words? What other words do Mom and Dad use instead when they feel that way? If appropriate, explain the real meaning of the words. That is usually enough to stop their use among the younger child since what they thought they were saying is nothing like what the words actually mean. Expect some eye-popping reactions! (Never, of course, move beyond information that is age appropriate – sexual based phrases, for example.) Here is another example. Twelve-year-old Beth says, "I don't know why you're always on my case and treat my little brother so much nicer. He's the pain! Why don't you ever get on his case?" This is a good opening for a side trip about ways younger siblings have of getting attention from older siblings who are important to them. How an investment of a little one-on-one time with her younger brother might be all it takes to keep him off her back in general. How younger family members look up to, and learn from older ones. How yelling back at the little brother when he is being a pain, is probably giving him exactly what he wants (attention), and how playing into his hands that way is helping him learn very inappropriate ways of getting recognition, attention, etc. You see, side trips are like stepping back a pace or two from the actual problem to provide information that can help a child see the situation from a new and more useful perspective - information that can help turn the situation into a learning or growing experience. When problems or disruptions arise, ask yourself, "If one or both parties to this problem knew something they don't seem to know now, would that help them handle it better themselves?" The answer may be, "Yes, Beth needs to understand some reasons little brothers may make themselves into pests," or "Yes, little brother needs to learn some more appropriate ways of getting attention." One more example about the use of side trips. Remember the five-year-old lad I mentioned earlier who told me that if a stranger ever tried to take him or hurt him he'd just knock him out and call the cops? A side trip, of sorts, occurred for him when I asked him to show me exactly how he would stop me from picking him up and leaving the room with him. Of course, he couldn't. (I was younger, then!) This exercise provided new information for him. Even if unspoken it helped him realize, "Gee, I really can't stop a big guy, can I?" Although informal side trips are often the most successful because they don't tend to make it into a "hairy big deal" (as one of our foster kids used to say), sometimes more formal approaches can be useful. Providing a good book for the child on a related topic may prove helpful, especially if it is a topic that might produce either tension or embarrassment for either the child or the parent if it were to be initially handled face to face. Even books and articles, though, should be followed up with an informal chat to provide time for discussion or questions. I have found this approach helpful in areas such as sexual topics, growing-up body change topics, and helping older siblings understand younger siblings (a book on the pre-adolescent boy may help an older teenage sister better understand and therefore interact more appropriately with her eleven year old brother). There are other times, of course, when new information, whether delivered formally or informally, may be of no help at all. As the parent, you have to make your best call in each case. When outside of the head information doesn't seem to have a chance of helping, sometimes inside of the head information will. Role playing is an example of helping a child gain inside of the head information. Role playing is a special kind of side trip. The process is to have those who are experiencing problems with one another (brother/sister, teen/dad, etc.) trade places (roles) and play out a similar pretend situation. "Ok, John. I'll be the teenage son who came home late. You be the Dad. You show me how you'd handle it, remembering that as the father it is your job to make things work smoothly and fairly for all family members. I will act the way it seems to me that you act and I will try to feel the same way you must feel." In role playing you don't put down another's performance. You just listen and watch. Then, when all is calm again, you sit down and talk about it. Did anything you said when you were the other person surprise you? How were you feeling? What did you want to hear from the other person playing your part? Did a light bulb go on over your head as you understood something about the other person for the first time? There are many good books on role playing available. You will find some at your library. It is a very useful procedure. Perhaps you could have a psychologist or social worker give a program on role playing at P T A or a parent group at church. Side trips, well used, can short circuit many problems by providing needed background information or even insights from the inside out. Sometimes when a parent is experiencing difficulty understanding a youngster's explanation or point of view, it may be helpful to ask the youngster, "What am I missing here? Fill me in on something I need to know. Why is such and such so important to you?" This gives the child an opportunity to conduct you on a side trip so (open minded) you can gain new and important information. These are fantastic times to put the Agreement Frame of Reference to work for you. Finally, there is the self-assigned side trip. Let me illustrate this with a personal example. Some time ago a ten year old boy moved into my neighborhood. He is an avid stamp collector; in fact, his stamps seem to be his only friends. Stamps are all he seems to be able to talk about - a very shallow, one-sided personality (even for a ten year old boy!). I was pleased he felt comfortable visiting with me with me on the steps out back, but sensed he was soon getting bored because I knew so little about stamps. I assigned myself a side trip to learn more about stamps and stamp collecting. I obtained several books and soon could converse more intelligently. (Incidentally, I also got him a book on the life of Teddy Roosevelt. He had a prized Teddy Roosevelt stamp but didn't know a thing about the person it represented. He found the book enjoyable and is now an avid biography reader as well as stamp collector. We each had a useful and enjoyable side trip.) Self-assigned side trips can be used by parents to read books or articles that improve their own understanding about things such as developmental stages or specific problems like arguing, stealing, lying, fighting, popular music of the day. When you feel more information on some topic will be helpful, head for the library, internet, or the bookstore. (I hope everyone in your family has a library card.) ARE SPECIFIC RULES EVER NEEDED? Remember back in the Introduction we were talking about trends in parent-child relations. I suggested there that younger children could not be expected to fully implement the One Rule Plan because their thinking processes were still immature. For these very young children there will have to be some rules or understandings. As an example, safety rules may be needed such as, "Don't leave the yard alone," "Don't touch the knives or scissors," "Don't turn on the stove," etc. (By the way, just for practice, can you restate these in positive terms?) These basic rules need to be explained in terms of your One Rule just as soon as the child can begin to understand how that One Rule applies to the relevant area of life. By the time the child is four or five, he or she should be hearing you begin to explain the rules in terms of the values upon which you base each rule. By the time the child is five or six, he or she can begin understanding the most basic aspects of your One Rule. From there, you begin abandoning the temporary specific rules according to the child's level of understanding and skill at decision making. It is important to give specific explanations about what you are doing and what you will be expecting when changes are made. Another appropriate use of temporary specific rules (I prefer to call these prompts) is when a child is having difficulty applying the One Rule in some important area. Then we set up a prompt that tells him specifically what he should or should not do. For example; six year old Jimmy is as immodest as they come, perfectly content to roam the house stark naked after his bath. This frequently embarrasses his twelve year old sister, especially when she has girl friends at the house. So a prompt is stated for Jimmy on those occasions. Unless you are in your room with the door closed or in the bathroom, you are to wear pants. That is short, simple and to the point! In discussions with him, help him make the connection that since his nudity bothers (that is, doesn't help) his sister, he needs to consider her feelings in this case and cover up. This specific prompt can be dropped once the pants aren't! Setting schedules in place of rules is a useful and often necessary procedure. Set a schedule for regular events: Breakfast at 7:00 AM, Dinner at 5:30 PM, Leave for Church Sunday at 9:30 AM Leave for music lesson at 4:15 PM, W, F Mom and Dad like to go to sleep at 11:00 PM Jimmy in bed by 8:00 PM Jenny in bed by 9:00 PM. Why, you may ask, would Mom's and Dad's bed time be on this schedule? Not to force them to stick to it, of course (and the kids need to understand that). But, since that is the preferred bed time of the parents, and seventeen year old Bill knows his parents can't sleep well before he is home at night, this schedule suggests something Bill needs to consider in order to "be helpful" - get in before eleven PM. Setting up written routines also helps. A routine merely states the steps to be used when something specific is done. Grocery shopping is a good example of a simple Routine: Saturday, 8AM to 9 AM Beth baby-sits Jenny Bill drives and helps Mother shop Bill helps put groceries away Getting off to school may be so complex that instead of a routine, you set up a Schedules state specific times specific things are to occur. 6:30 Beth has use of the bathroom 6:50 Bill has use of the bathroom 7:10 Jimmy has use of the bathroom 7:20 all beds made/rooms picked up/book bags packed 7:25 Breakfast together as a family 7:45 Everyone helps clean up the breakfast dishes 7:50 Beth and Bill leave for school / Jimmy studies spelling with Mom 8:20 Jimmy leaves for school (remember book bag! Leave toads and turtles at home.) A setting-the-table routine might include a list, in order, of everything to be done to set the table for dinner. A going-to-bed routine, lists, in order, everything to be done to get ready for and into bed. Eventually these routines just become habit. They are followed because in the long run they are helpful to family life. Other areas in which routines are often found to be helpful include; house cleaning, doing dishes, meal or sack lunch preparation, after school routine (change clothes, homework, play, etc.). While I encourage the regular and frequent use of Routines and Schedules, I would caution not to over-use the Prompt. Prompts can be helpful, but can easily lead back to a system of rules and regulations that require no thinking, no decision making practice, and no personal growth on anyone's part other than Mom and Dad. WHAT SHOULD YOU KNOW ABOUT PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS? Good problem solving skills are quite important for at least two reasons. You, as the parent, need to use them effectively to handle the problems that normally arise in a household. Also, you want to be able to teach your children how to appreciate and use these same skills to meet and deal with their own problems. (Your good modeling their use will be of inestimable value, won't it?) Eventually, most of the disputes which arise at home can be solved by the children without parent intervention, once the children are well practiced in applying good problem solving techniques. So, let's review some of the important steps and see if we can organize them into a workable system for you and your family. The first important skill we have already discussed - having a problem solving personality-set, rather than a blamer-punisher personality-set. You will remember that we described these two approaches as opposites. The blamer's first response to a problem, mistake or dispute is to determine whose fault it was. His second, and usually final, step is to then punish the "guilty" party. By making the punishment severe enough, the blamer-punisher believes that children will learn not to misbehave again. This is leadership through fear - fear of being caught, which leads children into dishonesty, sneakiness and a desire to stay away from home so they won't be seen doing things that are prohibited in the home. The blaming-punishing approach does nothing to help a youngster learn what he should do instead of what he did. Nor does it help him learn how to meet whatever personal need he was trying to fulfill by the misbehavior. In fact, since children learn to fear and distance themselves from blaming-punishing parents, they are further separated from the very person who should be the one the child can reach out to for help in such situations. Since most children have strong needs for a relationship with an adult (or, at least someone older than themselves), they will seek that influential person elsewhere. Who knows what kind of person that may be! The problem solvers, on the other hand, build respect for themselves and forge a closer bond with their children. This comes about as the parent is seen (in the long run) as a wise and helpful person. By merely emphasizing the problem solving life style over the blaming-punishing lifestyle, the children will tend to approach problems and disputes from an entirely different standpoint. Since pointing an accusing finger at the other party will never get you anywhere (their "fault" or not), they soon figure they might as well skip that and speed up the whole process by beginning to work toward a solution right away. Believe me folks, the children's attitude surrounding these aspects of life does an immediate, about face. The good problem solver works through the following seven steps, each time a problem (dispute) arises. (They will make more sense a bit later when they are explained in detail.) A- Determine what, if any, immediate safety/housekeeping steps need to be taken and by whom. (Cleanup step) B- Determine what happened. (Event clarification step) C- Determine what the individual or individuals involved were trying to do (Discovery of intention step) D- Determine what needs to be done differently next time so this problem won't reoccur? (Planning for change step) E- Determine what training procedures, other changes or alternative approaches need to be initiated to implement step "D" above. (Intervention step) F- Determine what auxiliary plans might help - Prompts, routines, schedules, consequences, etc. (Add-on step) Let us follow through with an example. (Mother appears in the living room after hearing a crash - Jimmy is bleeding.) A- Clean up step: 1. Clean and bandage Jimmy's cut hand (Mom) 2. Vacuum up broken light bulb (Older kids) 3. Obtain and install a new bulb (Kids) B- Determine What Happened: Living room lamp light bulb got broken during a scuffle between Jimmy and Beth. C- Intention Step: Jimmy says he wanted to continue looking at the pictures in Beth's history book which he had earlier found in Beth's room. Beth says she needed the book herself and tried to take it away from him and he resisted. In the scuffle, the lamp was knocked over and the bulb broken. D- Change needed: "Jimmy, what can you do differently next time so this kind of thing won't have to happen again?" Mother asks. "I can ask Beth first before I borrow her things." "Beth, what can you do differently next time so this kind of result won't have to happen?" "I can ask nicely to get my things back instead of grabbing for them, or I can ask for help from a parent." E- Intervention step: 1. Jimmy is helped to find another source of history information (encyclopedia, internet, library books, etc.). 2. Beth agrees that if he asks, Jimmy may look at her book for one hour at a time, when she does not need it. F- Add On Step: A prompt is set up for Jimmy in the form of a sign, temporarily placed on Beth's bedroom door - "Jimmy - no trespassing!" Let's briefly contrast this problem solving approach with what might have happened using the blame-punishment approach. (Mom appears on the scene just after the crash and finds Jimmy bleeding.) Beth: "Jimmy took my book without asking." Jimmy: "Beth hit me and broke the lamp with my head!" Mother: "Jimmy, it was obviously your fault. If you hadn't taken Beth's book none of this would have happened." Jimmy then gets punished and must clean up the mess by himself. He is then sent to his room and told to stay there until Mom says he can come out. (Of course, the wound is tended to at some point.) Who learns anything that is helpful? Do they each now know what to do the next time such a dispute arises in order to avoid a repeat of this problem? Have they learned how to avoid such a dispute in the future? Are any of the real underlying concerns and needs dealt with (Beth's need for privacy; Beth's need to know she will have her book when needs it, Jimmy's interest in history books, learning a cooperative method of dealing with one another)? Let's run through another kind of problem situation using our 6 step (A to F) plan. Bobby (age six) is late for supper again (third time that week). Previous encouragement to get home on time hasn't worked. A- Cleanup: Wash up for supper. B- Determine What Happened: Late for supper again (Obvious) C- Intention Step: Bob explains: "I wanted to stay at the park and play ball until I got up to bat. I like to bat, but the big guys won't let me until our team is five runs ahead." D- Change needed: Dad helps Bobby understand that the big guys (the ten year olds) are just using him to field the balls for them and have no intention of letting him bat. If he wants to bat, some new arrangement will need to be worked out so he won't have to continue trying to play with them and end up being late for supper. E- Intervention Step: The family part of this problem is having Bobby get home on time for supper, so Dad provides an anticipated reward: "If you still want to play with the big kids you may, but you must get yourself home on time for supper. When you do, you and I will have time to go out in the back yard later on and you can hit me lots of balls." F- Add on step: Dad decides he will call some other Dads of children Bobby's age and see if they would like to play some Saturday afternoon games at the park without the big guys around. The Dads will supervise. This solves the family problem and begins to deal with Bobby's real problem - wanting to really play ball. Let's try one more. Jimmy (age six) and Billy (age sixteen) seem to be arguing lately whenever they get within ten feet of one another. This is a brand new behavior and has become a constant source of irritation to all other family members. A- Cleanup: (none required) B- Determine what happened: (In this case, Mom hears all.) Billy comes home from school. Jimmy calls, "Hi, Billy!" Billy ignores him and goes to the stairs. Jimmy yells, "Hey, Billy, you been smoking at the water tower again?" Billy yells back, "Shut up you little fart. Shut up or I'll kill you!" C- Intention step: Billy, who had just taken on an after school job, had begun feeling pressed for time - school, homework, job, social life, etc. He didn't think he had time for small talk with little brother. All of a sudden, Jimmy felt left out now that Billy wasn't around home much. He missed doing all the little things he used to do with his big brother, so he was searching for ways to get Billy to pay attention to him. He had been pretty successful - at least in not letting himself be ignored by big brother, but not so successful at regaining a good relationship. (Dad and Mom determined all this by sitting down separately with each boy and listening to what was going on inside their heads.) D- Change needed: The parents and the two boys then sat down together to talk over what was happening. "Do you guys really hate each other?" "No, of course we don't." The group discussion brought out all the things listed above (in C) and helped Bill and Jimmy understand where the other one was coming from. E- Intervention: Jimmy said he didn't really want to keep making Bill mad. He just wanted them to talk like they had always done before. He felt Bill had stopped liking him. Bill said he had been so tied up in all his own responsibilities and activities that he had just overlooked Jimmy. He assured Jimmy that he did still like him. They devised this plan. When Bill came home from school, he needed to hurry and get changed into his fast food uniform for work. Jimmy would help him get ready and they could talk together during that time. F. Add on step: It soon got to the place that by the time Bill got home from school, Jimmy (his own idea) had Bill's uniform all laid out for him on the bed and often had his shoes polished for him. Jimmy felt good he was helping (and Bill made him feel appreciated for it). Bill began to feel close to and comfortable again with Jimmy. On his days off from work, Bill often (well, sometimes, at least) took Jimmy out for a burger and fries. The whole family benefited and grew from this solution. Now, these may seem like ideal situations and solutions that don't come up in your family. I know, and even though these three examples were taken from real life happenings (as are all of the examples in this manual), they may be different - in fact probably are different from yours. The very same principles apply, however, and these principles have worked thousands of times already. Remember, we said it takes practice, and that every attempt may not work out just the way you want. But if we don't try, we don't stand any chance at all of improving things. When one of your attempts to solve a family problem doesn't seem to be working, go through the A through F steps again, focusing on how you went about trying to arrive at a solution: A- Cleanup: (often doesn't apply, but must be handled first when it does.) B- What happened: What happened inappropriately instead of what you wished had happened? Describe it in terms that just talk about the behavior or the activity itself. C- Intention: Do you think you really understand what all the parties involved need or are trying to accomplish here? Think it through again. Talk with them each again and LISTEN to what they need, not to what they say. Remember, often the kids themselves don't really know what they may need, so you have to help them discover it. D and E- Change needed and intervention: If the changes you first proposed didn't work, go back to the drawing board. Find some new changes and try them out (as ideas) on the principal players in this situation. Let them make suggestions. You, of course, make the final decisions! When both seem to need the exact same thing at the exact same time, work out a plan of alternation (like in the history book example). If they cannot do two-man jobs cooperatively, one does the entire job on one day and the other does the entire job the next day. If one cannot refrain from tormenting the other one during cooperative undertakings, the tormentor may be asked to do the job all by himself with no help at all for a period of time. F- Add on: Perhaps a temporary prompt or more permanent schedules or routines could be set up. Temporarily separate the warring parties while they are in the house so they break the fighting habit. Plan appropriate side trips to provide missing information or skills. Throughout the several problem-solving processes, you must keep your family goals and values, in focus. When your proposed solutions don't seem to be representing your values and goals, then immediately search for alternatives. Remember you will find that for most problems, steps B, C, D, and E will be all you really need. (You would surely do A anyway, and F is really just an afterthought implementation of D.) When formulating the alternatives in step D, you may want to present several possible plans to the parties involved and see if they can cooperatively agree on which one to try. (Any of these alternatives must be acceptable to you, otherwise you wouldn't offer them as possible choices.) (Also, Mom, becoming a nun is an unacceptable add on solution at this time!) A fine help step, however, could be to get together with a small group of other parents once or twice a month to share ideas and successes and to gain new perspectives. Many parents find such support groups to be a great help. (You might even start one to teach this One Rule Plan, now that you are becoming such an expert!) You seldom learn something as well as when you teach it! HOW DO YOU ENFORCE YOUR ONE RULE? The dictionary informs us that the word enforce is, "a verb meaning to compel or to put into effect, as a law." This definition doesn't say who does it, and that leads me to a point I want to be sure to make. The most successful rules (or laws), are those which are self-imposed. In the case of a family, we would say enforced by each family member upon himself and not solely by the parents. Let's put this same idea into an entirely different set of words. Once I am convinced that a law or a rule is a good one that will make life better for all concerned, then I will do my best to follow it. When you arrive at the place where your family members are saying that about your One Rule, then you have it made! Self-enforcement also takes place in so called honor systems, like those used at the military academies or in some religious organizations. One big difference here, however, is that in the honor system, one may give his or her word that the rule will be followed, but this doesn't mean that person necessarily agrees with it's worth as a rule. ("I'll do it even though I don't like it.") What we are striving for is a rule that makes so much sense that every family member wants to follow it (or at least sees the legitimacy and necessity of it). This is the highest form of self-enforcement. Realistically, however, there will be times when the rule isn't followed. You may find certain family members have more difficulty following it (perhaps accepting it) than others. In these instances, the parents need some enforcement measures at their disposal. Here are some guidelines for successful rule enforcement: 1. Use the least amount of encouragement (force) possible to attain the goal. 2. Enforce a rule infringement immediately, not later on. 3. Keep the consequences tied as closely as possible to the offense (natural consequences). 4. Keep your consequences in harmony with your family values. 5. Don't enter into prolonged discussions with the child about what is fair and what is not fair. (Stated positively, talk only about things other than the fairness of the consequence or the rule, itself.) 6. NEVER try to discover who really started the problem between two or more family members. (Stated positively, emphasize steps that will work toward a solution and that will be more helpful than trying to determine who started the problem.) Examining these guidelines one at a time, we will begin considering the amount of force needed. (Number one, above). Just as a landscape engineer would never use a bulldozer to spade a small flower garden, a parent must also use his or her tools according to the requirements of the job. If you use your heavy equipment first, you have nothing to fall back on if needed later. When a frown from Mom will get the job done, there is no need to ground the child for a week. When a problem is solved by having a child spend ten minutes, practicing the proper way to close a door, there is no need to disrupt the entire household by requiring him to knock and then be let in each time he needs to enter (although the latter can be used as a very effective fall back measure if the easier, practice approach, fails to work). It is important to keep the connection between infringement and consequence as close as possible in time. This gives the consequence its full impact (there is a useful exception I will discuss below.) I feel we probably need another short Side Trip here. In our culture, many of us are used to the automatically assumed connection between crime and punishment. (It has been called the blamer-punisher mentality.) I have been using the term consequence instead of punishment or discipline. I think there is good reason for having done this. In the One Rule system of correcting children's behavior, we don't punish, as such, but we do see that the child experiences certain consequences that are a direct and obvious result of his "crime" or rule breaking behavior. Punishment, in its hurtful sense, doesn't fit this approach (unless to hurt kids, happens to one of the values you have decided to have your family work toward.). For example; what is the natural consequence of not putting our money in a safe place and it gets lost? The natural consequence is to go without the money if it were ours, or having to work to repay it, if it belonged to someone else. How would the use of punishment, instead, achieve these ends? I don't think it would! Back in Section Three we gave a few examples of using the One Rule Plan and demonstrated there how consequences can be applied to help the children abide by the family values. We will also provide additional examples later. [End of side trip] Now, back from that side trip to the idea of keeping the consequence close in time to the rule infringement. The following is a real (though admittedly very sick) example. In one family who came to me, it was the practice of the mother to keep track of the number of times each child misbehaved during the day. Then, when the father came home from work at night, she gave him the totals and, for each misbehavior, he administered one lick with a belt to the bare behind of the child. I told you it was sick. But it illustrates, quite well, the exact opposite of the point I am trying to make. In the first place, the children didn't know what they had done wrong. Mom just quietly added another hatch mark to the pad by the phone as they misbehaved, never commenting about it to them. (She was afraid they would throw a fit.) In the second place, the interval between the misbehavior and the consequence (in this case physical punishment) was often many hours long. When I talked with them, all the poor kids seemed to know was that some days (more licks) they must have been worse people than on other days (fewer licks). They had no idea what they needed to do differently. The four-year-old girl in the family did solve the problem. She withdrew and sat motionless in a corner all day long so she couldn't misbehave. It was her "sudden backwardness," as the parents put it that caused them to seek out my services. Understand that these parents truly believed they were doing things by the right method. In their own ways, they loved their children. They were trying to raise good kids. They were totally unaware that there even existed such a thing as a body of proven information about how to raise emotionally healthy children. (I hear this so frequently it frightens me. How can schools have our children for thirteen years and still fail to convey this vital piece of information?) I hope that example made my point about tying the misdeed and the consequences close together. I also hope it helps make you feel like an absolutely super parent by comparison. I am sure you are! I said there was one exception to this general rule. There are times when a child needs to have some time to think about what he or she did, while waiting for the decision about consequences. A lot of good thinking can take place in such an interval if it is set up properly. "James, we both know that what you just did is not to be done in this family. How can we make certain it won't happen again? Go to your room and stay there until you come up with a plan you think I will buy; one that will help you keep from ever doing this same thing again. If I don't think yours will work, we will use mine." See how this still ties the time of the act and the consequence together, even though much time may elapse. It does several interesting things. The child sets the length of time he will spend in his room. It depends on how long it takes him to think things through and formulate a plan (which should be written down if the child is skilled enough to do that). It also encourages the child to be realistic in the plan (and not just try to get by). If he is not realistic, Mom's or Dad's plan, which could be much "worse" (I even shudder to think about it!), will be used. Let's also contrast this to the situation where Mom might just send Johnny to his room until she decides what to do. In this second case, Johnny is not required to use his time constructively. He is to go to his room, where all his favorite things are kept, so he can play with them. Mom has all the responsibility and power for decision making (And she probably does not really need the practice as much as Johnny. Does she?). Johnny isn't helped to grow. He may sweat it out a bit (straightforward punishment), but he is given a feeling of helplessness rather than of control or responsibility. Guideline three talks about using natural consequences - consequences truly connected in some way to the offense. If Jimmy can't close the door quietly, it would be a natural consequence to practice closing it quietly. It would not be a naturally connected consequence to be sent to his room or to get a spanking. If Bill comes in after curfew on Saturday night, a consequence, which resets curfew back to 9:00 from 11:00 for a while, is natural. Grounding would not be as natural a relationship, though closer by far, than doing dishes for a week or making him quit the basketball team (both straightforward and unrelated punishments). Jenny fights with her friends when she has them over (and she always seems to want them over). A natural consequence is not to allow them over for a while or having them leave when Jenny gets out of hand. Sending her to her room or making her make all the beds for a week wouldn't make the naturally helpful connection. Why am I pushing natural consequences? A natural consequence emphasizes, retrains, or restricts in some way the very thing the child was involved with in the problem. If curfew is abused then curfew is used in the consequence (but no more than needed). If closing doors is involved then that is a part of the consequence. A consequence tied to the misdeed is far easier to remember. It will make the point far longer than one that is not so closely tied. If Jim always gets sent to his room no matter what his offense, he has no easy way of remembering what he is supposed to do differently next time. There is no obvious connection. If he has to practice closing that door for ten minutes, you better believe he will remember which behavior he needs to change. Sometimes the natural consequence grows out of the intention rather than from the misdeed. The little brother, who wants sister's history book, must learn to ask permission to obtain it. Asking permission is a natural consequence of his original misdeed. The fourth guideline says to keep the consequence and enforcement method in harmony with your own family values. Parental rule enforcement becomes a major, and very visible, value-modeling occasion for the children. The most obvious example, though arguably not the best, is this one: if a family values non-violent solutions to problems, then the parent does not yell at or hit the children when disciplining them (setting consequences for them). Time for another Side Trip: You may have noticed I have, up until now, refrained from using the word, discipline, very often. This is not because it is not a fine term, but because its meaning is often thought to be synonymous with punishment; most usually, physical punishment. Again, our friend the dictionary defines discipline as "training that strengthens; a method for maintaining order; a system of rules for conduct." If these are the things one means when using the term discipline, I certainly have no problem with its use. To some extent, that definition describes a large part of the content of this manual. Training that strengthens; a System of rule for conduct. Frequently, I find that the term is redefined so the concept of training is replaced by the concept of punishment, which often includes the idea of breaking a bad habit. In other words, it is transformed into a negative, rather than remaining the positive concept it is intended to be. As long as you and I understand what I mean when I say discipline, I can use the term here as I just did before this side trip. [End] Back to being true to ones values. Children detect inconsistencies quite readily. When young, they may ask things such as, "Why can Daddy swear but I can't." As they grow older and wiser, they learn not to stir up such parental, hornet's nests, by calling attention to them. The older child, though quiet about it, doesn't stop wondering about the inconsistencies he sees. He usually assumes they mean the parent really isn't sure himself about those things, or that the parent is just keeping the good stuff for himself. This can be really scary to a child because, "If Dad and Mom don't know what's what, how can I possibly know?" And if something is so good that Dad keeps it for himself, "I certainly do want to try it, and the sooner the better!" Guideline number five speaks of fairness. Children are really into what is fair and what is not. Fair to them often means that everyone should be treated exactly the same. "It's not fair to ground me for coming in late. All you did to Beth was change her curfew for one night a week." In the view of this One Rule Approach, fair means, "Doing that which, in the long run, will probably be most helpful for this particular individual and the family as a whole." It wouldn't be fair to do less than what one believes is best for each individual. That last sentence, in fact, often helps children finally understand this idea of what "fair" now means. The thing that is, fair, is to make our point so clearly, that the problem doesn't have to ever arise again for that particular child. What would be unfair, would be to use the same consequence as was used with another child, but which we feel certain would not bring about the change that is needed. What action may make the point clear for Jimmy may not come close to making it clear for Beth. So, when the kids call, "Foul, that's not fair," smile to yourself. Don't feel that you need to defend yourself (so long as you feel confident that it is fair according to our new definition). To help the children understand you are in fact being fair (new definition), you are probably obliged to explain to them your reasoning, based upon your past experiences with the children involved, but not to discuss it further. In this approach the focus of fair is on the change and not on the punishment, as it so often is in other approaches. The final guideline relates to successful rule enforcement (discipline, as a positive concept, if you prefer). Never try to discover who started it! In the first place, according to our One Rule Plan, who started it is almost never important anyway. Our focus becomes what we are going to do to make certain that it does not happen again – so things get back to being good for all concerned. In the second place, and this is really the point I want to make, you will never ever in any way shape or form really find out, who started it! Each party really does believe it was the other one's fault. I mean they really do believe this, and neither you nor I nor the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles will ever change that. So, why waste time trying, when it's not essential in the first place? Let me give an illustration I am sure will sound all too familiar: Jim: "Bob hit me." Bob: "But Jim took my sweater." Jim: "But this morning Bob used my towel." Bob: "But last night Jim messed up my bed." Jim: "But Sunday Bob wrinkled my good shirt." Bob: "But when you were three years old, Jim, you ............!" If not stopped, this discussion would continue until they got back in time to the point where Bob says, "But you've made me miserable ever since they day you were born." Take it from someone who has raised twenty plus foster children over the years. Never try to establish who started it! Once each child has convinced himself that it was indeed the other's fault, any consequence will be seen as unfair and unjustified, and you'll be a witch for initiating it! Just don't set yourself up to lose. After all, it wasn't your fault (or did we just hear Bob say, "But Mom always liked you best, even before you were born!""). This doesn't mean that if you suspect one child is picking on or doing harm to another that you shouldn't keep an eye on things and initiate a plan for change. Most certainly, you should. In a general way, here is what you say and do when applying the One Rule Plan to handle a dispute or a problem behavior: Ask those involved if what they just did is going to help their brother / sister / parent in the long run? If so how? Listen and see if the explanation tells you something important. If there is a glimmer of sense in it, use it somehow to make the transgressor feel capable. Then ask that transgressor how he / she could have gone about handling the situation in a better way that would have met everyone’s needs more fully and appropriately (both his and the one he transgressed against.)? If the original exploration doesn’t make a whole lot of sense, skip the “feel capable” part and get right to the main idea - "What can and will you do differently next time?" The parent always has to listen between the lines and see if the child is demonstrating that he really needs something which he is not receiving. If so, how can you try to begin providing it (or having it provided)? ACTIVITY Practice using the One Rule I think you will find this exercise most helpful in two ways. First, practice makes perfect (Well, at least approaches perfect more nearly than without practice). Second, you will find you can already do it! At the top of a page, jot down a problem with which you have had to deal recently. Using all that you have learned here, write out how you would apply and use the One Rule Plan to handle that same problem. Keep your values, beliefs and goals in the forefront of your mind. Use the following routine as a guide, if you like. Cues: A- Cleanup? B- What happened? C- Intentions? D- Changes needed? E. Intervention? F. Add-on? Include exactly what the parent does and what each child does. Then, if rule enforcement is required: 1. What "force" level is probably just enough? 2. How do you deliver an immediate consequence? 3. What is the natural consequence of the misdeed? Can it be used? 4. What parental action will be in harmony with your values and beliefs? 5. Is it fair in terms of the long term gains for the particular child(ren) involved? 6. Refrain from the temptation of trying to find out who started it! The first practice run-through of the process is the hardest. Recall a second and third and fourth incident and do the same complete exercise (dry runs) with each. Continue until you feel fairly comfortable. Refer back to the text and re-read those sections about which you feel less confident. Practice, practice, practice! If you really want to master this approach, teach it to a friend (or a group of parents). We never learn anything as well as when we are put on the spot to teach it. Make sure they have their own materials – book, notebook, and so on. SUMMARY: Section Five In Section Five, we have covered six major areas, which will assist you in making your One Rule Plan work smoothly with your family. Do not expect magical results. This approach takes planning, work, practice and re-planning. Once you have designed a plan, and have practiced how to use it (in your mind and on paper or in discussions with your spouse or a friend), you present it to the family; individually, in a family meeting, more subtly by behavior shaping methods, by modeling it yourself, by exposing the child(ren) to appropriate outside models, and by fostering value-related interests and activities. (Remember, pre-teen boys love blood and guts. They should grow out of it without a parent prohibiting the interest.) We discussed four more specific and appropriate ways of influencing family behavior; positive payoff, no payoff, practice payoff, and negative pay off. I warned us to steer clear of payoff withdrawal (withdrawal of love, affection, etc.). I also suggested that our grand goal is to learn how to fix things without having to resort to negative consequences whenever possible. I suggested how side trips, can be important ways of providing missing or basic information that will help a child, spouse, or yourself, make a better decision next time. Role-playing was suggested as a specific type of side trip. It is especially good to provide an appreciation for the other party's feelings and point of view. The uses of temporary specific rules (which I called Prompts) and Schedules and Routines were presented. (A schedule usually includes specific times. A routine just lists the steps to be used and the order in which they are to be performed.) We spent considerable time discussing and illustrating the use of problem solving techniques and methods of rule enforcement for families. Can you remember the steps in each? If not, you may want to turn back and re-study them. It is important to have this available at all times right at the forefront of your thoughts. I wish you and your loved ones much success and happiness as you continue traveling your particular road to family happiness. SECTION SIX Let's talk about what we have talked about? In Section Six, we will address these topics: What have we said here? Some final thoughts, hopes and wishes. WHAT HAVE WE SAID HERE? In this manual I have tried to provide a proven, simple plan, which, when followed and practiced, works to help family life become an exciting, congenial, cooperative, growth producing experience for all concerned. The One Rule Plan, as it is called, is simply an extension of the parent's own individual basic values and beliefs. This plan differs from most others in that it assists you in formulating your very own individualized Family Living Plan. Along the way, we have taken numerous side trips, which have provided background information generally agreed to be basic to the task of parenting. Let me provide a handy summary for you of the five main components of this plan. COMPONENT I. The One Rule We only do to and for each family member those things that will be helpful to him or her in the long run. The Rule [The Definition] - We [all of us in the family and immediate extended family] - only do to and for [includes all of our activities or interactions, that cause an effect on any family member] - each family member [this includes oneself] - those things that will be helpful [be in accordance with this family’s unique set of basic family values and the goals based on them] to him or her in the long run. [will make a positive difference for the rest of our lives] COMPONENT II: Clarification of Parental Values While all of one's values are important and must eventually influence family life and children's attitudes and beliefs, begin by selecting three to five values that rank high on your list of importance. They may be found on the following list, from the Parent Value Inventory, or they may focus on other areas. The essential element is that they are values you truly believe to be of utmost importance. A. Self-confidence / self esteem [To believe in the genuine positive worth and capability of oneself.] B. Altruism [Being almost totally unselfish toward others.] C. Integrity [Moral and ethical beliefs supporting what is right and fair in human conduct.] D. Happiness / Contentment [Enjoying and being satisfied with one's life and with the relationships and other common aspects that make it up.] E. Knowledge / understanding [To learn a lot of things and being able to see how those things fit and work together.] F. Love / Friendship [Feeling liked and loved by people who are important to you, and feeling you are actually a lovable, likeable person.] G. Success in job [Being known as one of the very best there is at doing what you do.] H. Social acceptance [In general, having the people of your community really like to have you around them, so they include you in their plans and activities.] I. Power over others [Having and wielding great power or authority over others in order to obtain what you want.] J. Fame [Being widely known and easily recognizable most everywhere one goes.] K. Wealth [Having accumulated great sums of money or other symbols of wealth.] As the parent, I select these four values as our beginning point: 1. ________________________________ 2. ________________________________ 3. ________________________________ 4. ________________________________ COMPONENT III: Defining helpful Defining the concept, "helpful," in the One Rule is the step that makes it truly Your One Rule. For my family helpful means those things that guide us toward cherishing, developing and demonstrating behaviors that are in harmony with the four values listed in Component II above. COMPONENT IV: Establishing family goals Supporting these values requires a set of family goals. These goals are specific behaviors which, when seen, demonstrate progress toward these values. Specific goals related to each family value are written for each family member. Why do I suggest separate goals for each family member? It is because, typically, each person is at a different spot on the road toward living each value. For each value, set up a Growth Plan Outline as follows: Value: I value ______________________ and want to instill this value in my family. Definition of the value: (What does this value mean to you?) __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ The General Goal (which flows from this value) for my family as a whole is: Each family member will behave in ways that display _________________. (Whatever general behavior related to this value that you want to see.) Here are some things I can do each day to be a good model of this value to my family: 1. _______________________________________________________ 2. _______________________________________________________ 3. _______________________________________________________ 4. _______________________________________________________ Each family member currently displays behavior related in some way to this value. For each family member list those behaviors that: (1) now represent this value and, (2) those that tend to represent the opposite of this value. Make a separate chart (like the one below) for each family member.) Name:________________________________________ Positively related behaviors now seen. Inappropriate behaviors now seen. __________________________________________ _______________________________________ __________________________________________ _______________________________________ __________________________________________ _______________________________________ Specific goals (behaviors you want to see) for this person related to this value: Value: ______________________________________ Name: ______________________________________ This family member will demonstrate: 1. ________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________ 4. ________________________________________ COMPONENT IV: Encouraging and enforcing the values through the One Rule Plan. 1. Basic questions to ask in case of apparent value (rule) infringement: "How does what you just did, help our family, including you, in the long run?" 2. Useful variations on the basic question: A. "Help me understand how ___________________ (what was just done) is going to help _________________(name of person who was infringed upon) or our family as a whole?" B. "What you just did does not appear to be helpful to our family life. What were really trying to accomplish?" (assuming he probably knows.) C. "It is obvious that what you just did cannot be helpful to our family life. What do you suppose you were really trying to accomplish by it?" (This is intended to explore his intention and find possible unmet needs.) 3. Ways of influencing behavior: A. Direct discussion (one-on-one, family meeting, informal chats, daily give and take conversations) B. Modeling (parent, outside adults, older siblings, close friends, other peers) C. Fostering value-related interests and activities. D. Formal behavior change procedures: (I) Positive payoff (reward given for appropriate behavior, after it occurs.) (2) No payoff (Consistently ignoring unwanted behavior) (3) Practice payoff (massed practice in replacing the unacceptable behavior with an appropriate one) (4) Negative payoff (withdrawal of privilege, but never withdrawal of love or affection) (5) Gradual shaping (recognize and reward small steps in the desired direction rather than waiting until the whole big change has been accomplished) (6) Prompts (temporary specific rules used as reminders) (7) Routines (lists of exact steps to be used in doing some task) (8) Schedules (lists by time and day, showing who does what and when.) E. Guidelines to follow when enforcement is required: (1) Use just enough "force" to accomplish the desired result. (2) Enforce immediately (3) Use natural consequence (those closely related to the topic of infringement) (4) Only use methods which are in harmony with your own family values. (5) Refrain from discussions about fairness? (To listen to a short statement from the child is acceptable, but no discussion.) (6) Never try to determine who started it! (It truly always is the other guy!) 4. A problem solving routine for families: A. Clean up step. (What, if any, immediate safety/housekeeping steps need to be taken and by whom?) B. What happened step. (State objectively what took place. For example, Bob and Jim had a fight in the living room about something that was said.) C. Discovery of intentions step. (Let each party briefly explain what he or she was trying to accomplish, and why.) D. Planning for change step. (What needs to be done differently next time to avoid a similar problem? This is the parent's decision, although cooperatively agreed upon suggestions from the party or parties involved in the problem are encouraged and considered.) E. Intervention step. (What training procedures, alternative approaches or other changes need to be initiated to implement step "D" above?) F. Add on step. (What auxiliary plans need to be made to see that the needed changes do take place? Usually this step is only used after steps D and E have been shown to be less than fully successful. Often involves prompts, schedules, routines or other enforcement measures.) These five components summarize the essence of The One Rule Plan for Family Happiness and its use. In addition, I encourage each parent to develop a positive outlook so you can always find yourself assuming the best, rather than assuming the worst. Remain willing, in fact eager, to hear what each child's intentions are. A child's intentions define that child's needs. When you discover a need that may not be being met you can formulate a way to help. (Remember, ‘Ah, Wonderful’. Problems provide a parent with a wonderful chance to teach helpful things to their children.) Using the following formula may solve 99% of all interpersonal problems within the family. First, discover Intentions, which Second, demonstrate those needs, which Third, when met more fully at home, or Fourth, are appropriately handled by these methods, Fifth, tend to prevent similar problem behavior from having to occur in the future. SOME FINAL THOUGHTS, HOPES AND WISHES No book or manual can do everything for everyone. This one has provided a broad outline of one method that a great many families are finding works well for them. I sincerely hope that some or all of what has been said here will be helpful to you. It takes commitment and patience along with much trial and error learning on everyone's part. Once established, it should last forever. Perhaps you already have a system that is working well for you, and you read this book more out of curiosity than need. If what you are doing now is being successful, don't mess with it. Perhaps you will want to consider a new angle here or there, but don't remodel that which does not need remodeling. All parents must find a system for raising their family that fits their own personality style and that feels comfortable for them (so long as it accommodates what is known about raising mentally healthy children). The One Rule Plan is designed to adapt easily to meet these essential requirements. Beyond that, however, I believe it is every parent's responsibility to keep learning about children and families, and about all kinds of related things that will help you be able to do a better job of parenting. I encourage you to read widely, to use the wonderful resources available on TV, to seek out people you respect and learn from and share with them, and please, never ever get so comfortable with your system that you stop trying to grow. Through the years I have met many dozens of parents who have said to me, "Doctor, we've tried everything, and nothing seems to work!" I imagine their basic problem was just that. They tried everything but nothing long enough and consistently enough to mold it into a comfortable way of life for their family. Children don't have an easy time if they are frequently required to adjust to new procedures, expectations or regulations. A semi-good system, consistently utilized, is undoubtedly better than a half dozen great programs tried and tossed away time after time. Consistency, unconditional love, honest cooperative effort, and basic knowledge about child development are, I think, the keys to parenting success. (Go ahead. Memorize that last sentence!) It also helps immensely if the parenting plan fits the parent's own style. And finally, the more simple the plan, the better chance it has of being successful. (Basically one rule just has to be better than fifty!) The One Rule Plan is based on the premise that when a family's values are clearly defined and made obvious to all, each family member can then make good judgments about what his or her own behavior should be. We can then ask, "Is this what my values tell me I should do?" The answer, though often not totally clear, is certainly clearer when the youngster knows what he and his family believe. The key to the simplicity of this One Rule Plan is just that. All the little specific, often picky and outdated, rules are collapsed into one: We only do to or for each family member, those things that will be helpful to him or her in the long run (that is, those things that are in accord with our family values.) It is, of course, every parent's hope that the good things children learn at home are taken with them when they leave. As young people mature they come to understand that "family," in its broader sense, means the "Family of Man." Once this enlightenment occurs, all these home taught lessons automatically follow your child into every relationship and circumstance for the rest of his or her life. We hear so often that the World has left behind the "Father knows best" and the "Leave it to Beaver," type of family life. Perhaps, but let's not use that as an excuse to stop trying to re-focus family life and all interpersonal relations back onto the cooperative, caring, responsible, value-based family model. It still works. I do hope you find it so. ACTIVITY Have a rewarding and fruitful family life experience. (Joyfully, practice this exercise every day, for the rest of your life!) GLOSSARY The terms included in this glossary are those which are used in the body of the manual. Since, once defined or explained, they are then used again frequently, it may be helpful to have this quick reference section to refresh your memory as needed. They are presented in alphabetical order. It has been found that reading through them from time to time offers a fine ‘refresher course’ on what has been presented here. ADJUSTING: A term used to signify that becoming a mentally healthy person is actually an ongoing process rather than a state than is actually ever reached. AFTER THE FACT. Rules made up and enforced after a misbehavior occurs, rather than before. Never recommended! AGREEMENT FRAME OF REFERENCE. A communication skill in which you always find something acceptable in what the other person has just said, before suggesting your own position or information. ALTRUISM. Being virtually unselfish toward others. BEHAVIOR SHAPING. Changing an unwanted behavior, or establishing a new behavior through the rewarding of very small steps rather than trying to make a large change all at once in one step. BLAMER. A personality that is never content until the blame for some problem has been saddled on the guilty party. BUILDER-UPPER PERSONALITY. Opposite of the putter-downer. A personality that freely makes others feel good about themselves, and points out their good or strong points. CARING PERSONALITY. Opposite of hurtful personality. Genuinely wants things to go well for others and takes what steps he can to assist. COMMON SENSE RULES. Things people just do out of common sense rather needing any set rules to suggest them. (Stop fighting in the living room before blood is drawn.) COOPERATIVE PERSON. Opposite of uncooperative personality. Goes out of his way to get along and to assist someone else with the completion of that other person's plans or projects. DISCIPLINE. Training that strengthens someone. Maintaining order. A system of positive rules for conduct. (It is a positive term and does not herein refer to punishment.) EARNABLES. A privilege one may earn, contrasted with free-bees which are privileges automatically given to one just because he is a child. EMOTIONAL CHILD STYLE. The child who is motivated by the emotional elements and feeling aspects of situations or things. EMPATHY. Being able to feel the way another feels. To put yourself in his emotional shoes, so to speak. (Contrast with sympathy.) ENFORCEMENT BY DESIGNATION. Temporarily handing over authority to some parental substitute such as an older sibling or a baby-sitter. FAMILY. Most basically, at least one parent and one child (for the purposes of this book). More generally, all those relatives living together in a way where they interact as an interdependent collection of people. FAMILY EXPECTATIONS. General ways of behaving that all family members know are just expected because you are a member of that particular family. FAMILY FEELING. That set of feelings that gives one a definite sense of belonging and importance to a given family. FAMOUS. Wildly known in a good way and easily recognized. (The opposite is infamous, known for unsavory reasons.) FORMAL RULES. Long-term rules that are stated clearly and usually written down and posted. FREE-BEES. A privilege or right that comes without having to earn it. (Right to shelter, food, clothing, etc.) GOOD STUFF DIARY. A journal kept by someone containing only the good, happy and positive things that occur in their own life. GRANDPA’S RULE: You work before you play! HELPFUL PERSONALITY. A personality type that is the opposite of indifferent and hurtful. It demands concern and involvement and implies that we freely help, repair, comfort or assist one another. HELPER PERSONALITY. Opposite of the people-user personality. Does what he reasonably can to benefit those he encounters each day. HURTFUL PERSONALITY. Opposite of helpful personality. Inflicts physical and/or emotional pain on others - even those he supposedly loves. INCOMPATIBLE BEHAVIOR. A behavior, which, when being done, will not allow an unwanted behavior to occur. (Standing is incompatible with sitting.) INFORMAL RULES. Rules that are not formally stated. Common sense rules and family expectations would be examples. INTANGIBLE REWARD. Things one cannot hold, touch, or do in the typical sense, but which are still important. Smiles, praise, respect, and being appreciated are examples. INTEGRITY. Moral and ethical behaviors based on doing that which one believes is right and fair in the conduct of human relationships. Living up to one's highest, positive, values. INTENTIONS. The real result one is seeking by initiating some action. (To be given attention as a result of intentionally breaking Mother's vase.) INTERVENTION. Stepping in and taking charge. Making some change to help control or modify [a child's] behavior. INVENTORY. A document, usually having questions which one answers to provide information about some trait or belief. Compared with tests (which usually have right and wrong answers) the inventory usually has no right or wrong answers. KNOW-IT-ALL PERSONALITY. Opposite of the open/non-defensive personality. Believes his ways and ideas are the only correct ones. Often found in politicians and religious leaders. KNOWING AND UNDERSTANDING. Means that one values learning a large number of things, and knowing how those things fit and work together. LOVE/FRIENDSHIP. A value. Feeling liked and loved by the people who are important to you and feeling you are actually a lovable, likeable person. MODELING. Demonstrating, through one's own behavior, just exactly how something is to be done, or what one believes. (Being honest, kind, etc.) MOMENTARY RULE. See mini-rule. MINI-RULE. A temporary, short term rule that only covers one specific small situation. NATURAL CONSEQUENCES. A learning act or behavior changing act that is closely related to the misdeed. (Changing curfew from 11:00 PM to 8:00 PM after son comes in late.) NEGAPOOR. Allowing the negative aspects of being financially poor to influence or dissuade one from being a good, upstanding person. (see posipoor) NEGATIVE PAYOFF. A behavior control method. Something unwanted or punishing is made to occur as a consequence of one's misbehavior. (grounding, spanking) NEGATIVE RULE. A rule stated in such a way as to say what shall not be done (contrast with Positive Rule). NO PAYOFF. Behavior control by ignoring a behavior one does not want to see in someone else. OPEN-MINDED PERSONALITY. Opposite of the know-it-all personality. Willing to examine all points of view and new information without undue bias. OPEN / NON-DEFENSIVE PERSONALITY. Opposite of self-hider personality. Willing to tell things like they are and express his own honest opinions without fear of how they will be received by others. ONE RULE. As the basis of this book, it states: We only do to or for each family member those things which are helpful, that is, which are in accordance with our values. OPTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY. A non-required responsibility, taken on voluntarily. OPTIMIST. Opposite of pessimist. Sees and focuses on the positive aspects of life. More realistic than the Pollyanna, (see) though less willing to acknowledge the possible negative side than the realist (see). PARENT INVENTORY. An inventory (see) of traits so parents may compare their own characteristics and beliefs with those of parents rated excellent and others rated poor. PEOPLE USER PERSONALITY. Opposite of helper personality. A con man who sees people only as a way to get what he wants. PESSIMIST. Opposite of optimist. Always looks on the dark or down sides of life. PHYSICAL CHILD STYLE: Motivated by doing things with his body. Activity and physical skill development are experienced as being rewarding. POSIPOOR. Not letting the state of being poor financially, stand in the way of becoming a great person in all possible ways. (Compare with negapoor.) POSITIVE PAY OFF. A reward method in which getting something one really wants happens as a direct result of properly performing some task. POLLYANNA PERSONALITY. Opposite personality type from realist. Unrealistically believes everything will turn out fine all by itself. POWER. A value. To have and use great power and authority over others to obtain what one wants for himself. PRACTICE PAYOFF: Practicing something the correct way over and over again so it will be done that way in the future. A behavior correcting measure. PRIVILEGE. A special advantage or right. PROBLEM SOLVER PERSONALITY. Opposite of the blamer personality. Focuses on determining what needs to be done the next time so the same problem that occurred this time need not be repeated. PROMPTS. Mini-rules (see) set up for the short run, to help emphasize a behavior that is needed or prohibited. Prompts are withdrawn once the appropriate or acceptable behavior is seen to be occurring regularly (naturally). POSITIVE RULES. Rules stated in such a way as to indicate what shall be done (contrast with negative rules). PUTTER-DOWNER PERSONALITY. Opposite of the builder-upper. Makes himself feel superior to others by belittling them and their achievements, rather than working to actually improve himself. REMINDER LISTS. Posted lists of things established for the purpose of reminding someone what he needs to do or take along. RESPECT. As used herein, a child thinks you are a great model and wants to be like you. He thinks you are wise and feels affection for you. Frequently confused with making a child fear you, which actually produces the opposite effects. RESPONSIBILITY. A task one must complete. REVENGER PERSONALITY. Opposite of teacher and facilitator personalitys. Believes that all misdeeds must be punished. REWARD. Something coming after a deed is completed, that tends to increase the likelihood that deed will be repeated in the future. (pay check for a week’s work.) ROUTINE. A list of an ordered group of tasks or steps to be performed. RULE. A statement that something shall or shall not take place. REQUIRED RESPONSIBILITY. An act that must be done just because one has a certain right or privilege. SCHEDULE. A list of things to be done which states the day and the time they are to be accomplished. SELF CONFIDENCE / SELF ESTEEM. A value meaning to believe in the genuine positive worth and capability of oneself. SELF-HIDER PERSONALITY. Opposite of the open/non-defensive personality. Seldom lets others know how he feels or what he really thinks or believes. SHAPING. See Behavior Shaping SIDE TRIP. Providing needed basic or background information before pursuing the next step in some activity or learning sequence. SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE. A value. In general, the people of one's community really like to have this person around them. SPATIAL CHILD STYLE. Motivated by, and interested in how things work out in the real world, and how objects relate to, and affect one another. SUCCESS IN JOB. A value. To be known as one of the very best there is at doing what you do. SYMPATHY. Feeling sorry for someone else, though not really feeling their hurt yourself. (contrast with empathy) TANGIBLE REWARD. Things one can see, hold, touch or do (toys, trips, watch TV). TEACHER PERSONALITY. Opposite of the revenger personality. Focuses on helping the child learn an appropriate new set of responses or behaviors to replace those less appropriate ones that cause the child difficulties. TRADES. The shifting of responsibilities between two parties with the approval of both of those parties and of the parents. TRIAL AND ERROR LEARNING. When faced with a new learning task, one tries a variety of responses until he finds those that succeed. Many errors are made along the way, but each error is positive in that it helps the learner know what not to do on the next trial. UNCOOPERATIVE PERSONALITY. Opposite of the cooperative personality (Big surprise, Huh!) Wants things to be his way only, and will not willingly do things any other way, even for friends or loved ones. UNRELIABLE PERSONALITY. Opposite of the reliable personality. (Bet you had that figured out!) Cannot be counted on to do his fair share, even when he has agreed to do so. VALUE CHANGE FORMULA. Instead of stressing ______(unwanted old value), I would like to start stressing _______(desired new value). VALUE INVENTORY. A document providing a means for a parent to determine which of the eleven values included, are of most and least importance to him or her. VALUE SYSTEM. All the beliefs one holds about what is really important in life, and their order of importance from least to most. VERBAL CHILD STYLE. Is motivated by words, and enjoys word-based activities and rewards. WEALTH. A value. The accumulation of great sums of money or other symbols of wealth. WITHDRAWL PAYOFF. A behavior control method in which the parent withdraws love in order to punish (or straighten out) a child for his misdeed. 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Excellence through Ethics™ Session 5 The Ethics of Saving for a Rainy Day Elementary School Junior Achievement® Excellence through Ethics Elementary School Session 5 The Ethics of Saving for a Rainy Day Content: Ethical Spending and Saving Methods: Discussion and Activity JA Foundational Pillars: Ethics and Financial Literacy Sponsorship JA Worldwide® (Junior Achievement) gratefully acknowledges Deloitte & Touche USA LLP for its commitment to the development and implementation of the supplementary program Excellence through Ethics. JA Worldwide appreciates its relationship with Deloitte & Touche USA LLP to develop and implement vital and innovative programs designed to foster ethical decision-making skills. The Ethics of Saving for a Rainy Day Overview Students explore wants, needs, and savings as they practice three goals of ethical spending and saving through a scenario exercise. Objectives Students will be able to: • Define and apply the following Key Terms and concepts: ethics, goods, services, wants, needs, and savings. • Describe the difference between a need and a want. • Express the Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving. Preparation Review the activity. Prepare the necessary copies and session materials. Print and post the Tally Sheets around the classroom. Group work is incorporated into this session. You may consult with the teacher to determine how best to form the groups. Post Key Terms and definitions in a visible place. • Ethics: The standards that help determine what is good, right, and proper. • Ethical: Acting in a way that is good, right, and proper. • Ethical spending and saving: Spending and saving money in a way that is good or wise. • Goods: Tangible products that can be sold, such as food, video games, DVDs, and cars. • Services: Actions people provide, such as serving food, cutting hair, grooming pets, or tutoring. • Needs: Items or services that you must have in order to live. • Wants: Items or services that you would like to purchase, but can live without, if necessary. Recommended Time This session typically takes 45 minutes to complete. Ask the teacher to help you keep track of time. Materials • Chalkboard, whiteboard, or flip chart • Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving Worksheet (1 per student) • 24 Hours and $100 Worksheet (1 per student) • Tally Sheets (12 sheets total, each with a different title) • Paper (1 sheet per group) • Pens or Pencils (1 per student) • Tape Presentation Introduction (5 minutes) Greet the students. Tell them that during today’s session they will learn about ethics and examine three goals for ethical spending and saving. Distribute a Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving Worksheet to each student. Introduce the main ideas by asking student volunteers to read the sentences on the Worksheet. When a student reader comes to a blank on the Worksheet, provide the missing word or phrase indicated in boldface type in the following text. Once all the blanks have been filled, ask the students to set aside the Worksheet. Tell them that they will come back to these concepts later as they learn more about the terms. Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving 1. Ethics are standards that help determine what is good, right, and proper. 2. Ethical means acting in a way that is good, right, and proper. 3. Ethical spending and saving is spending and saving money in a way that is good or wise. 4. Here are three simple goals to remember to be an ethical spender and saver: - Before spending money on any item, ask yourself if the item is a need or a want. - Spend money on items you need before spending money on items you want. - When you earn money or receive money as a gift, try to save some of it for unforeseen costs, even if it requires passing on something that you want but don’t need. Activity One Think, Pair, Share (15 minutes) Ask students to raise their hands if they would like to be given $100. Ask several volunteers to explain why they want $100. Instruct students to work with a partner for two minutes to brainstorm and write down various ways they could use $100. Ask for student volunteers to read aloud items from their lists. Designate the teacher or a student volunteer to act as a class recorder and write the responses on the chalkboard, whiteboard, or flip chart. Once 15-20 responses are listed, ask the students whether they see any patterns. Take a few suggestions, and, if no one mentions it, explain that some items are goods and others are services. Define goods, and services, and then ask students to categorize the items accordingly. Instruct the class recorder to write “good” or “service” next to each item as the class decides the correct category. - Goods are tangible products that can be sold, such as food, video games, DVDs, and cars. Other examples are toys, soap, and clothes. - Services are actions people provide, such as serving food, cutting hair, grooming pets, tutoring, coaching, or teaching. Some examples of service professionals are librarians, sports officials, and clerks. Explain to students that there are other ways to use the money. Tell them they can save some of the $100 or give it to a person or charity in need. Refer to the class list and explain that another way to categorize the items is by wants and needs. Define wants and needs, and ask the students to categorize the listed items accordingly. Have the class recorder write “want” or “need” next to each item as the class decides the correct category. - Needs are items or services that you must have in order to live. Examples of needs are food, clothes, shelter, water, and medical care. - Wants are items or services that you would like to purchase, but can live without, if necessary. Examples of wants are entertainment, sporting equipment, decorations, and jewelry. Write the word “need” on one side of the board and the word “want” on the other. Ask the students to work with their partners to brainstorm goods and services that are considered needs, and then goods and services that are considered wants. Ask for volunteers from each set of partners to report items from their lists. Ask the class recorder to record the ideas under the corresponding term on the board. Explain to the students that most people do not have an endless supply of money, so they have to be smart about their spending. They must decide whether the goods or services they consider buying are things they need or things they want. Guide them toward the understanding that needs must be met first, and, if money is available, wants can be fulfilled afterward. Refer back to the option of saving some or all of the $100. Define savings as money set aside to be used later. Ask students if saving money is a want or a need. Both answers can be correct. Explore each answer through class discussion. Ask students to brainstorm examples of why someone would want to save money. Possible responses include saving for a major purchase, saving for college or education, saving to earn interest, or saving because there is no immediate want or need. Emphasize that people who save their money are giving up goods and services they could have now for goods and services they might purchase in the future. Ask students to brainstorm examples of why someone would need to save money. Possible responses include saving for emergencies or unforeseen costs, such as medical bills, car or appliance repair, or an unexpected trip. Again, stress that people who save their money are giving up goods and services they could have now in case other goods and services are needed in the future. Ask students to work with a partner to brainstorm possible events or emergencies that could result in unforeseen costs. Ask student volunteers to share their responses. Request the class recorder to write the responses in a new section of the chalkboard, whiteboard, or flip chart. Examples of unforeseen costs include veterinary bills for a sick pet, payments for a hospital or dentist visit, or replacing a stolen item like a bicycle. Emphasize the importance of having savings set aside for these types of events. Review ethics and ethical savings from the Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving Worksheet. Tell students that they will practice ethical spending and saving in the next exercise. Activity Two 24 Hours and $100 Worksheet (20 minutes) Distribute a 24 Hours and $100 Worksheet to each student. Read aloud the following scenario from the worksheet. You enter a contest and win the $100 first prize. You and other winners are taken by schoolbus to a nearby city to claim your prize at an award ceremony. On the way home, the bus stops for gas, and you get out to explore the area. It begins to rain, and you run for cover. When you return to the gas station, the bus is gone. By the time you reach your parents by phone, you find out that no one can pick you up until tomorrow. You have 24 hours and $100. Note to Volunteer: Some students may recommend a practical approach like calling 911 or some similar solution. Before continuing with the activity, explain a few practical steps to take in such a situation. For example, recommend that 911 can be called for emergency help, while 211 can be called to reach community service organizations. Explain that they should wait for help in a public place, like a business. After a review of practical steps, remind students that this activity is about spending and saving money, and encourage them to focus on that. Refer students to the worksheet. Ask them to work with their partners to fill out the time chart, listing how they will spend time while waiting to be picked up. Allow 5 minutes to complete the activity. Let students know when 1 minute remains. Ask students to continue working with partners, and to read and complete the rest of the worksheet by following the instructions provided: The following list provides options of items and services you can purchase. Remember, you are responsible for yourself and how you will spend your $100. Mark the goods and services you decide to purchase while you are waiting to be picked up. Remember, each time you make a purchase, you must subtract the cost from the amount of money you have, using the Your Money ledger provided below. Allow 5 minutes to complete the activity. Let students know when 1 minute remains. Instruct students to move around the room to the various Tally Sheets and place a check mark on any sheet that represents the good, service, or savings they selected (one check mark per student). Allow 3 minutes for students to complete the task. Let students know when 30 seconds remain. Move from Tally Sheet to Tally Sheet, tabulating the results. Ask the following questions for each item: - Under which category should this item be listed—goods or services? - Under the circumstances, is this item a want or a need? Explain. Review the tabulated results with the students. Discuss the choices that had the most tallies. Why did most students decide to spend money on these items? Focus the discussion on the hotel and food options. Point out that most people agree that money should be spent on basic needs first. If hotel and food did not receive the most tallies, review the importance of spending financial resources first on needs, such as food and shelter. Analyze the remaining choices. Discuss the wants that were selected. Point out that people often want different things, based on their individual interests. - Ask students if anyone considered an item he or she wanted, but could not afford. - Ask students in this situation if they bought something else in place of the item they really wanted. Ask them to explain why they made that choice. Discuss the sheet that represents the choice to save some of the money. Ask the students who selected this item to explain their decision. Emphasize that saving money, especially when you are out of town and do not know anyone, is a wise precaution. Now, tell the students that something does indeed go wrong while they are waiting for their parents. Read the following addition to the scenario: At about 11:00 a.m., you trip, fall, and end up with a cut that requires minor medical attention. You are taken to a local doctor, who determines that stitches are needed immediately. The doctor gives you a special rate of $25 for her services. Ask the students to raise their hands if they have at least $25 left to pay for this unforeseen expense. For those who do not, explain that, luckily, a local store accepts returns on any items purchased. Ask students to reevaluate their expenses and decide which item(s) must be returned to pay the doctor. Ask them to write their choice(s) at the bottom of the page, below the box. Ask students to discuss why it is ethical to save for unforeseen expenses: - What if they had not been able to return purchased items? How would they have paid the doctor? - Who should pay for unforeseen expenses when someone has spent all of his or her own money? - Is it ethical to expect others to pay for your emergency costs? - Are you willing to pay expenses for other people who might have spent their money on wants and have no savings? Debrief the activity by reviewing Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving: - Before spending money on any item, ask yourself if it is a need or a want. - Spend money on items you need before spending money on items you want. - When you earn money or receive money as a gift, try to save some for unforeseen costs, even if it requires not purchasing something what you really want. Summary and Review (5 minutes) Review the Key Terms: goods, services, wants, needs, and savings. Review the definition of ethics and Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Savings. Thank the students for their participation. Session Outline Introduction • Greet the students. • Tell them that during today’s session, they will learn the definition of ethics and the Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving. Activity • Separate the class into pairs. • Conduct the Think, Pair, Share activity. • Introduce the idea of ethical saving. • Distribute the 24 Hours and $100 Worksheet. • Have student partners complete the Worksheet. • Ask students to complete the Tally Sheets, based on their worksheet answers. • Tabulate the tallies, and discuss the results. • Introduce the unforeseen event. • Discuss why it is ethical to save for unforeseen expenses. Summary and Review • Review the Key Terms: goods, services, wants, needs, and savings. • Review the definition of ethics and the Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving. • Thank the students for their participation. Three Goals for Ethical Spending and Saving 1. Ethics are __________________________ that help determine what is ________________, right, and proper. 2. ______________________ means ______________________ in a way that is good, right, and proper. 3. Ethical spending and saving is ______________________ and ______________________ ________________________ in a way that is ______________________ or ______________________. 4. Here are three simple _______________ to remember to be an ethical spender and saver: • Before spending money on any item, ask yourself if the item is a ______________________ or a ______________________. • Spend money on items you need _________________ spending money on items you want. • When you _________________ money or receive money as a ______________________, try to _________________ some of it for unforeseen costs, even if it requires passing on something that you _________________ but don’t _________________. 24 Hours and $100 Worksheet You enter a contest and win the $100 first prize. You and other winners are taken by school bus to a nearby city to claim your prize at an award ceremony. On the way home, the bus stops for gas, and you get out to explore the area. It begins to rain, and you run for cover. When you return to the gas station, the bus is gone. By the time you reach your parents by phone, you find out that no one can pick you up until tomorrow. You have 24 hours and $100. Fill in the following time chart with how you will spend your time while you are waiting: \| Time \| Activity \| \|------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| 3:00 p.m. \| Your bus leaves without you. \| \| 4:00 p.m. \| \| \| 5:00 p.m. \| \| \| 6:00 p.m. \| \| \| 7:00 p.m. \| \| \| 8:00 p.m. \| \| \| 9:00 p.m. \| \| \| 10:00 p.m. \| \| \| 11:00 p.m. \| \| \| 12:00 a.m. \| \| \| 1:00 a.m. \| \| \| 2:00 a.m. \| \| \| 3:00 a.m. \| \| \| 4:00 a.m. \| \| \| 5:00 a.m. \| \| \| 6:00 a.m. \| \| \| 7:00 a.m. \| \| \| 8:00 a.m. \| \| \| 9:00 a.m. \| \| \| 10:00 a.m. \| \| \| 11:00 a.m. \| \| \| 2:00 p.m. \| \| \| 1:00 p.m. \| \| \| 2:00 p.m. \| \| \| 3:00 p.m. \| Your parents arrive. \| The following list provides items and services you can purchase. You are responsible for yourself and how you will spend your $100. Mark the goods and services you decide to purchase while you are waiting. Remember, each time you choose to buy something, you must subtract the cost from the amount of money you have, using the Your Money ledger below. - Hand-held video game, $40 - CD player and one CD, $20 - Cell phone (yours was left on the bus), $40 - Lunch, dinner, and breakfast at a restaurant, $20 - Go to a movie, $10 - Hotel room, $30 - Assortment of your favorite snacks, $10 - Book/magazines, $10 - Skateboard, $30 - Haircut, $15 - Play paintball, $20 - Save money, (Amount saved? ________ ) Your Money: $100 - $ __________ (new total) $ __________ - $ __________ (new total) $ __________ - $ __________ (new total) $ __________ - $ __________ (new total) $ __________ - $ __________ (new total) $ __________ Hand-Held Video Game CD Player and One CD Cell Phone Lunch, Dinner, and Breakfast at a Restaurant Go to a Movie Hotel Room Assortment of Your Favorite Snacks Book / Magazines Skateboard Haircut Play Paintball Save Money Welcome to Junior Achievement’s Excellence through Ethics As a Junior Achievement (JA) volunteer or teacher, you are joining other teachers and volunteers from across the United States in providing students with a unique educational experience. Junior Achievement’s Excellence through Ethics offers students learning opportunities to share knowledge and information regarding ethics in business. JA strives to show students how business works, and to better evaluate organizations that conduct their operations in the right way. Excellence through Ethics is designed to equip volunteers and teachers with supplemental, ethics-based activities for use with JA in-class programs for grades four through twelve. All these activities provide students with current and essential information about business ethics. These activities are designed to reinforce students’ knowledge and skills, teach them how to make ethical decisions, assist them in learning to think critically, and help them to be better problem-solvers. All the activities are hands-on, interactive, and group-focused to present the material to students with the best instructional methods. Within these supplements, you will find sections to help you effectively implement the activities in your volunteer experience. Materials include: (a) an introductory discussion of business ethics, marketplace integrity, and the growing capacity of students for ethical decision-making; (b) activities and student materials that connect to and expand current classroom-based Junior Achievement programs; and (c) a functional glossary of terms relating to a wide spectrum of ethics, quality, service, and social responsibility considerations in business. JA greatly appreciates your support of these important and exciting activities. If you have comments about the Excellence through Ethics program content, curriculum, and/or instruction, please access http://studentcenter.ja.org/aspx/LearnEthics/ and choose the “Excellence through Ethics Survey” link located in the middle of the page. Appendix Introduction and Overview • How do I do the right thing in this situation? • Should I be completely honest, even if it puts others in jeopardy? • What kind of community do we want to be? • How do we do what’s best for the long term? • Who should cover the cost of “doing the right thing”? These are all questions having to do with business ethics. They are valid and necessary questions, and good business people have asked them for generations. They form the backdrop of vital discussions as business, community, and political leaders grapple with significant issues. Many students would ask these questions, even if Junior Achievement hadn’t developed this ethics curriculum. Business Ethics Discussions Are Here To Stay Business ethics has been in the spotlight for much of the past decade, especially as examples of wrongdoing come to light in the media. New technologies and international competitive pressures cause a steady focus on the question, “Is it possible to be competitively successful in business today and still operate in an honest and ethical manner?” The past decade has seen individuals search for deeper personal meaning in the workplace, which has contributed to lively ethics discussions in the business realm. For these reasons, the discussion of business ethics is not a passing fad; it’s here to stay. Many graduate schools of business have either required ethics coursework or integrated ethics principles throughout all areas of study. That is commendable. We believe this vital area of exposure and instruction also should happen at earlier ages and continue throughout the students’ educational journey. Many of today’s students haven’t had access to a well-rounded education in economics and free enterprise or have come to see these in a very negative light. They have limited awareness of the extent to which good business leaders engage in the challenging exercises of ethical decision-making amid heavy competitive pressures. As students learn the general principles of economics and business, it’s critical that these be underpinned with a strong foundation in ethics. This will accentuate the best in American business traditions, while laying the groundwork for students’ continued evolution into future generations of leaders. Integrity in the Marketplace? Many adults and young people choose to believe that the marketplace is driven only by greed. They view it as bringing out only the worst in human behavior, demoralizing the human spirit, and driving out any sense of idealism. While elements of greed and extreme self-interest among some individuals cannot be denied, solid research has shown time and again that companies with a long-term focus on ethics and a broad consideration of stakeholders’ interests are much more profitable than those lacking such a focus. James A. Autry, in his book Love and Profit: The Art of Caring Leadership, said it well: “I do not doubt the presence of greed in the marketplace because I do not doubt the presence of greed in people. But, I also do not doubt the ennobling aspects of work, of the workplace, of the community, of endeavor, of Appendix the marketplace. So I choose to believe that most of the marketplace is driven by people who want to do good work for others and for themselves.” Excellence through Ethics accepts the challenge of educating youth in the basics of economics and business while establishing a positive balance on the side of well-informed, ethical business practice. This may appear to place a heavy burden on Junior Achievement volunteers, who are not trained ethics experts. The following informational pages will not turn you into an ethics expert. That’s not what we’re striving for here. What students need most is meaningful interaction with people who are willing to engage in a discussion of these vital issues. Lively Practitioners Rather Than Dry Theorists This program is more about day-to-day ethics practice than the nuances of ethics theory. Some believe that working in business requires a disconnect from one’s personal ethics. We do not believe this is the case. Students need to know that what they learn about fairness and honesty in general also applies to business. While business ethics may address some specific areas of business practice, it’s not a separate and distinct specialty to be set apart from the general ethical principles that apply in other areas of life. Young people need to encounter the wisdom of age and experience that volunteers bring to the classroom. Students’ Growing Capacity for Ethical Decision-Making Excellence through Ethics is designed to foster discussions at the appropriate level for each age group. The curriculum developers have designed the ethics activities with sensitivity to student’s mental maturity. At the late elementary and middle-grades levels, students’ capacities for ethical reasoning tend toward good personal behavior as determined by adult rules and authority. In relationships, personal trust, loyalty, and respect are of paramount importance. For these students, corporate ethical behavior is viewed in much the same light as their own personal behavior: it’s governed by rules. As students advance into high school, their ethical decision-making moves into the larger arena of social contracts and systems that guide and govern societal and group behavior. Here the rationality and utility of laws are scrutinized, as students become more capable of higher-ordered, principled thinking. Students are increasingly aware of the diversity of values among different cultures and communities. At this level, students’ capacities for processing the complex, ethical dilemmas that may be encountered in business are greatly enhanced. You will gain confidence as you come to realize that conducting a robust, provocative discussion with students is more important than “having the right answer.” The activities have been designed to leave room for lively discussion and multiple points of view. Having the courage to share your own experiences is very valuable to students. Appendix You don’t have to apologize for the excesses students may see in business. Don’t assume responsibility for actions that are not your own, and do not try to defend the indefensible. While accentuating the fact that most businesses operate ethically, it’s okay to scrutinize the unethical players in the marketplace who give business in general a bad name. Continuing Education Teaching this material to students will no doubt strengthen and enhance your own ethics awareness and continuing education. Some students will challenge your best reasoning capacities. Having your own support network of professional colleagues with whom you can share and discuss some of these issues is very valuable. It’s also helpful to seek out colleagues with philosophical views that differ from your own. This serves as a valuable “cross-pollination” function because you will be able to understand and discuss a variety of views with students, as well as share students’ perspectives with your colleagues. In this way, everyone learns. Finally, please be assured that your contributions here have tremendous value to students and will serve to upgrade business ethics in the future. We’re dealing with the future generation of leaders in their formative years. We can take pride in the fact that we’ve had a hand in shaping the very people who will be responsible for business ethics and social responsibility in the future. Appendix Acknowledgements Many educators, economists, businesspeople, and consultants have contributed to the development of Excellence through Ethics. We would like to acknowledge the following individuals and groups for their efforts, creative talents, and support in creating these materials: Deloitte & Touche USA LLP Junior Achievement Blue Ribbon Panel on Ethics Charles E. Abbott, Director, Ethics and Compliance, Textron Inc. James D. Berg, Director, Ethics and Business Practice, International Paper Arthur P. Brief, Ph.D., Lawrence Martin Chair in Business, Director of Burkenroad Institute, A.B. Freeman School of Business, Tulane University Frank Daly, Corporate Director of Ethics and Business Conduct, Northrop Grumman Corporation Gary L. Davis, Executive Vice President, Chief Human Resources and Administration Officer, J.C. Penney Company, Inc. Jacquelyn Gates, President and CEO, SOARing LLC Patrick J. Gnazzo, Vice President Business Practices, United Technologies Corporation Frances Hesselbein, Chairman, Leader to Leader Institute (formerly the Peter F. Drucker Foundation) Evelyn Howell, Executive Director, Business Practices & Compliance, Sara Lee Corporation William A. McCollough, Ph.D., Director, Business Ethics Foundation and Research Center Administration, Warrington College of Business, University of Florida John H. O’Byrne, Vice President, New York Life Insurance Company John Pepper, Chairman, Executive Committee of the Board, The Procter & Gamble Company Eric Pressler, Director of Legal Compliance and Business Ethics, PG&E Corporation Jack Robertson, Ph.D., Charles T. Zlatkovich Centennial Professor in Accounting, Department of Accounting, University of Texas–Austin (retired) Harold Tinkler, Chief Ethics Officer, Deloitte & Touche LLP Appendix Excellence through Ethics Writers and Consultants Ron Ausmus, Integrity Associates Susan Dilloway Karen D. Harvey, Ed.D., Educational Writer and Diversity Curriculum Consultant Insight Education Group Motion Picture Association of America Public Relations Council Dave Somers, Owner of Brevity; Adjunct Professor, DeVry University Excellence through Ethics Junior Achievement Pilot Offices JA of Arizona, Inc. JA of Central Carolinas, Inc. JA of Central Michigan, Inc. JA of Central Ohio, Inc. JA of Central Texas, Inc. JA of Chicago JA of Columbia Empire, Inc. JA of Dallas, Inc. JA of Georgia, Inc. JA of Greater Baton Rouge & Acadiana JA of Middle America, Inc. JA of Middle Tennessee, Inc. JA of Mississippi Valley, Inc. JA of New York, Inc. JA of Northern New England, Inc. JA of Owensboro, Inc. JA of Rhode Island, Inc. JA of Rocky Mountain, Inc. JA of Southeast Texas, Inc. JA of Southeastern Michigan, Inc. JA of Southern California, Inc. JA of The Bay Area, Inc. JA of The Heartland, Inc. JA of The National Capital Area, Inc. JA of The Upper Midwest, Inc. JA of West Texas, Inc. JA of Wisconsin, Inc. Appendix Excellence through Ethics Evaluation Junior Achievement has discontinued all paper versions of program surveys. However, we greatly appreciate your comments and feedback about Excellence through Ethics. Please help us improve the quality of Excellence through Ethics by sharing your comments through our new online survey process. The online survey should take less than 10 minutes to complete. If you have comments about the Excellence through Ethics program content, curriculum, and/or instruction, please access http://studentcenter.ja.org/aspx/LearnEthics/ and choose the Excellence through Ethics Survey link located in the middle of the page. Thank you for participating in JA! Excellence through Ethics Volunteer Survey 1. Including this session, how many individual sessions of Excellence through Ethics have you presented? ________________________________ 2. Do you feel that the students were engaged through this session? A. Not at all B. Somewhat engaged C. Engaged D. Very Engaged E. Unsure 3. Do you feel the session was relevant to students? A. Not relevant B. Somewhat relevant C. Relevant D. Very relevant E. Unsure 4. Do you feel students are more prepared to make ethical decisions after participating in this session? A. Significantly more prepared B. Somewhat more prepared C. Somewhat less prepared D. Significantly less prepared E. Unsure 5. On a scale of 1 to 10 (10 being excellent), how would you rate the overall quality of the Excellence through Ethics session? _______ 6. After this JA experience, how likely are you to volunteer for JA again? A. More likely to volunteer B. Less likely to volunteer C. No more or less likely to volunteer D. Unsure 7. What comments or suggestions do you have regarding the overall session (including format, content, etc.)? Optional: City _______________________________________________________ State ___________________________ Country ______________________ Email _________________________________________________________ Excellence through Ethics Student Survey 1. What grade are you in? ________________ 2. Please fill in the circle that best describes how you feel about the following statements. There is no right or wrong answer. \| Statement \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Neither agree or disagree \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\|----------\|---------------------------\|-------\|----------------\| \| This topic is very important. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| I am able to apply what I learned in this session to the real world. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| The activities were interesting. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| I learned something about ethics from this session. \| \| \| \| \| \| 3. Do you feel more prepared to make ethical decisions after participating in this session? A. Significantly more prepared B. Somewhat more prepared C. Somewhat less prepared D. Significantly less prepared E. Unsure 4. I saw someone at my job taking money from the cash register, I would: A. Ask someone I trust what I should B. Tell a supervisor C. Talk to the person taking the money D. Do nothing E. Not sure 5. 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Pampans Ready To Mark Christ's Birth; Christians Will Pause For Reflection By Fr. R. W. RAMSON, CM St. Vincent's Catholic Church Love changes everything, and the world is full of it at this time of the year. The magi were just beginning to see the simplicity of it all. It is, as if, a long time ago, God said to Himself: "They'll never be able to understand me, if things go like this, no matter how many prophets I send them, no matter how many miracles I perform. So I'll send them someone so simple that they cannot fail to understand. I'll send them a Baby." "And so God did. "And when the fulness of time came, God sent His Son, the man of a woman, born under the Law, in order to redeem those who were under the Law that we might receive the adoption of sons" (Galatians 4:4-5). Christmas is the season of love. This is true not only for our family, for our beloved ones, but also for our hearts by our exchange of gifts. When we love another, it is natural that we should manifest that internal love externally, and that we do by our gift-giving. What the gift is, or what its value is, of little consequence. The fact that we have given something as an expression of our affection is the only thing that matters. God, for us, is incomprehensible in the human intellect. He loves us so much that He created us in His own image. But, after man fell from grace, He gave us another chance: He promised a redeemer. "When the fullness of time came, He sent His Son, to save His flesh and soul. Son died on the cross out of love that we might get to heaven, the object of our existence." The Christ born on Christmas Day is both God and man. How powerful is the God-man! How worth of our reverence and our love! His virtues like the sun, even in their excrescence and their manifestation, become recompensed with divine light. He is the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity Who directs them to their perfection through suffering, according to their psychological context. Most of it was written, as you would expect, after the event. But two of the greatest poems ever written in the vast library of Christian literature were composed before Christ was born. They were prophecies of His coming. The mind-set of our modern culture is not congenial to the idea of prophecy. Vision. It seems rather fanciful. The gift of God to man is to devote ourselves to a preview of His purpose before Him. And yet the fact remains. The Bible is the only book that has never been more vividly expressed than in the prophecies of two holy men who were looking forward to the coming of the Messiah. One of these was Isaiah, who lived in Jerusalem 300 years before the herald angels proclaimed the glad tidings of great joy to the shepherds at Bethlehem. His poem appears in the Bible in the 5th Chapter of the Book of Isaiah. It is one of the most beautiful passages in the whole of Scripture. The second great poem of prophecy was uttered by Zacharias, father of John the Baptist, after he had experienced a vision of the role his son was to play as herald of the Messiah. It is found in the First Chapter of the Book of Luke, and is known to us today as the Magnificat. It is a song of thanksgiving, arranged in verse form by Dr. Robert W. Rogers, professor of ancient Oriental literature at Princeton University. The people that were walking in darkness saw a great light. Know, Live Christ — Love — Jesus' Birth A Never Ending Subject By WOODROW ADCOCK Pastor, First Methodist Church Millions of words have been written about the meaning and significance of the birth of the child Jesus in the manger at Bethlehem. Many sermons have been preached on the subject, and the subject is never exhausted and new meanings seem to be continually coming to light. When God took upon Himself the form of a man, the gift of His Son, in the birth of Jesus, man knows that God has identified Himself with all His creation. "And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth;" St. John 1:14. 2. God has openly expressed His love for man. "For God so loved the world that He gave His Only Begotten Son that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish but have eternal life." St. John 3:16. 3. Christians know that God revealed His true nature to mankind in a way that man can understand. We now know that God is Love. And that He gives us His love for His love for us in the most wonderful way that He could devise. We also know that God is pure in His thoughts and objects of His love, care, concern, and redemption. God is like Jesus. God was in Jesus as much as it is possible for God to put Himself in human flesh. Jesus Christ was God. 4. Christians know that we should follow the example of God in expressing our love. "We should give expression to our love for God and we should express our love for our fellow human beings. Christmas is the great time of the year when we are reminded of God's love for us, for mankind, and that we should respond to His love by loving each other and by loving God. God gave the greatest gift of all, His Son. Let us give Him our service in response to His love and let us love one another and give expression to that love which He gave. This is the meaning of Christmas. May God bless all of us as we remember the true significance of the birth of Jesus. Pampa Daily News Will Not Publish Sunday Edition The Pampa Daily News will be closed Friday, December 23, for our annual vacation and earlier issues of the newspaper is spend Christmas with their families and friends. The Daily News will reopen at 8 a.m. Monday and the regular schedule of publication will be resumed that day. 4 Daring Seamen Join Lone Man Aboard Stern Of Broken Tanker WASHINGTON (UPI) — Investigators have evidence that the United Air Lines, DC-8 in the New York City air disaster was nearly 13 miles away from where its instruments showed it was just before it crashed. United Press International learned this today from a study of the transcript of radio communications between traffic controllers and the jetliner before it collided with a TWA Constellation last Friday in history's worst air tragedy. At the very moment the United plane reported he was approaching Preston, unknown to him, the DCA actually must have been west of the accident site and already running through a severe storm into the LaGuardia Airport approach area on a collision course with the Constellation. The jetliner captain apparently still was waiting for the Princeton radio signal to show up on his instruments when he hit the storm, killing all 128 persons on the two planes and seven persons on the ground. Why was the United pilot apparently so far off course? The investigation indicates one of the plane's two navigation indicators was not operating properly. A veteran safety expert suggested this might be caused by interference from stray signals from a transistor radio operated by a passenger. A second suspicion is why didn't Iridelwood approach control radar spot the airliner and warn that it was off course and heading toward the airport. The Federal Aviation Agency is supposed to begin until the plane had arrived at its holding point over Preston. The conclusion was confirmed reached the Preston radio check point in New Jersey where it was supposed to enter a holding pattern communications record. They then left cleared to land at Idlewild Airport. Pilgrims Entering Bethlehem JERUSALEM, Jordan (UPI) — Tears of joy mingled with those of sadness today as the first 2,500 Christian pilgrims moved through the Mandlebaum Gate from Israel to celebrate Christmas in Bethlehem, the birthplace of Christ. Those who made it were the joyful ones. Those who were turned back by Israeli and Jordanian security guards were most sad. Not everyone was turned away, but there were several who were halted after being searched on both sides of the border by guards looking for smugglers. The pilgrims began spilling out the night in tents near the gate that marks the dividing line between the Israeli and Jordanian sectors of the ancient city. Ordinary pilgrims are permitted to cross only on Christmas Eve. This year they gained a day as the gates are closed on Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath. Ike-Created Post Retained By Kennedy WASHINGTON (UPI) — President-elect John F. Kennedy has decided to retain the Eisenhower-created post of secretary to the cabinet and soon will name a young California political whiz-to-be, job informants said today. They said the post would be given to 37-year-old Frederick G. Dutton, a member of the Kennedy campaign staff. Dutton was executive secretary in California Gov. Edmund G. Brown until he resigned last summer to come to Washington to work with the Citizens-for-Kennedy Committee. Dutton managed Brown's successful campaign for governor in 1958. In 1956 he was Southern California chairman for Stevenson in the presidential campaign. The post so far has been held by only two men, Maxwell M. Rabin and the present secretary, Robert K. Gray. Dallas Man Is A Real Santa Claus DALLAS (UPI) — Christmas means many things to many people, to Kenneth Richards of Dallas, Christmas means the light that shines on a child's face when he finds that Santa Claus didn't forget him this year. Kenny, 44, is a Santa Claus. Not a store Santa Claus, who talks to children to find out what they want for Christmas this year and have they been good and such. He tours the outlying areas of Dallas, seeing needy youngsters and personally buying gifts for them at his own expense. Meaning Of Brotherhood Defined By Religious Group's President NEW YORK (UPI) — Brother treat other people well" dignity," Jones said in an interview. The moral position is common to all mankind at Christmas. "If it isn't a soft idea. It is hard, hard, revolutionary thing," according to Dr. Lewis Webster Jones, president of the National Council of Christians and Jews (NCCJ), to whom brotherhood is a daily, a lifelong process of education. "We feel quite strongly that the brotherhood of man is a moral imperative which compels us to underprivileged and minority" said. Yule Decoration Contest Winners Are Announced The fourth annual Christmas decoration contest, sponsored jointly by the Pampa Chamber of Commerce and the Pampa Garden Club, was held last night at Pampa Rose Society and the Top O' Texas Garden Club, judged the contestants. The winners and honorable mentions in each district were: District One—Leslie McJunkins, 839 S. Gray, first place; Miles Moore, 506 Maple, honorable mention. District Two — Jack E. Hilton, 1181 Prairie Drive, honorable mention. District Three — Leon Holmes, 90 Osborne, first place; George Taylor, 1061 Murphy, honorable mention. District Four — Charles Bruchle, 1206 N. Russell, first place; Roy Shank, 408 N. Russell, honorable mention. District Six — Lt. Col. W. J. Vickers, 101 Faulkner, first place; Harold Douganey, 2223 Dwight, honorable mention. District Seven — Lyle Gage, 22 (See YULE, Page 10) Here's A Winner — "Twas the Night Before Christmas," won first place in District Seven for Mr. and Mrs. Lyle Gage, 2241 Mary Ellen, during the judging of Christmas home decorations last night by members of the Pampa Garden Club and the Top O' Texas Rose Club. This was one of the eight winners selected in the contest that was jointly sponsored by the Pampa Chamber of Commerce and the Pampa Garden Club. City Stores Open Until 8 Tonight Some Open Mon. Late-minute Christmas shoppers in Pampa will have until 8 p.m. today and until 8:30 p.m. tomorrow to do their belated buying. Most of the stores in the city will be closed on Monday as will the county and municipal offices. However, on Tuesday, a new holiday jury will be installed and all district offices will remain open, according to Helen Sprinkle, district clerk. Bear equipment means satisfactory work, came see us, Pampa Safety Lane, 411 S. Cuyler. 501-3771. Soon we will be celebrating The Nativity of Our Lord, commonly called Christmas Day. There is meaning behind this festival which is greater than all the good-will which we attach to it. It is not merely an emphasis on kindly feelings and generous deeds. It is more than the remembrance of the birth of a babe in Bethlehem who lived a noble life and died a martyr’s death. Christmas celebrates a supernatural event; the coming of the Son of God into human life, into our very nature. This fact offers the greatest hope for mankind. There are many and great implications for us in the fact of God becoming man. If Christmas means anything it means that God is not indifferent to what happens on earth. It means that from the first He saw the sorrows that oppressed humanity and He made plans for their removal. As He noticed the pain and suffering in humanity He cared and in the “fulness of time”, in a unique manner, He sent His Son to be the Saviour of the world. We see that God loves, that He suffers with us, that He cares for us, and that He will rescue us if we will allow Him to do so. If we realize these truths, and if we act upon them, we shall be able to look ahead unafraid. The lesson of Christmas and the truths of the Incarnation assure us that the Father is actively meeting our human needs. The fact of the Birth of His Son, the Saviour of the World, shows us what is God’s purpose of love, and that His love knows no limit to its self-giving for our final salvation. Here is love beyond all human understanding, that goes to the very limit of our lot, and a power that will finally prevail over everything that opposes it. Christmas is the Love of God in action for you and for me, His children. Art's Gallery By Art Mayhew 'Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the city, Every person was hurrying to their respective duty; The goals were hung in the gym with care, In hopes that the balls would soon go there. The Harvesters were nestled all snug in their beds, While visions of victory danced in their heads; And, Culley in his 'knot' sat up in his cap, Had just settled down for a long scouting recap. When out in the gym there arose such a clatter, Culley sprang from his chair to see what's the matter. Away to the door he flew in a tizzy, Wishing the boys would hurry and hurry! The light on the floor of the basketball court; Gave light to a scene that made Culley snort! When, what to his wondering gaze should appear, But an eight-foot boy, a cager so dear. With a big grin and a laugh and a quick, Culley thought, "This must be a trick." More rapid than rabbits his shots they came, Culley whistled and stomped and called them by name: "Now, Pivot! Now, Jump! now, Free Throw and Set! "On, Drive! on Layup, on goalward to the net!" To the top of the circle, to the edge of the baseline! "Now score, now score, score all the time!" As games before the wild fans break fly, When the sun is full and high mount to the sky; So over to the boy Culley, he flew. With a hand extended and an arm around him too, He led him, then in a flash, hurry slipped on a banana, Placed them of course by Borger Tex Harma. As Culley reared by Hanna and turned about, The boy was leaving with Hanna, the lout. Hanna was covered with smiles, from his head to his toe, But the cager looked down at Culley below; A Harvest, he had always desired to be, A Nite Owl, a Jester, a Jester, a Jester! His eyes how they misted! His hands, how big! When Culley grabbed him, they both danced a jig! The pair turned to Hanna, and with a slight grin, The district title would be a cinch win. The stump of a cigar Culley clenched in his teeth, And he gave a long sigh of contentment; Hanna stalled on conversation with long face, While Culley contemplated the 3-4A race. Wins over Borger, Amarillo and the rest, Pampa would be the winner tomorrow; Thirty straight wins on the slate, The Harvesters, on top, they'd always rate. With Carter and Matson and Balch and Wise, And New and Chan and Kipp, the prize; Christmas would come very late this year, In March, in Austin with the eight-foot dear. (With humble apologies to Clement C. Moore, author of The Night Before Christmas.) Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year from the Sports staff of the Pampa Daily News. Bruins Move With Victory By United Press International The Boston Bruins wouldn't be scrambling with the New York Rangers to stay out of the National Hockey League camp this winter, play Chicago Black Hawks early next spring. The Bruins have won only seven games this season, but they beat the Hawks for the third time on Boston ice, 4-2, Thursday night to move into a fifth-place tie with the idle Rangers. SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. — (UPI) — Saratoga race track is the oldest functioning track in the United States. The inaugural meeting opened Aug. 2, 1864. In NFL Pro Circles Shaw, Van Brocklin Named 'Men of Year' By NORMAN MILLER United Press International NEW YORK (UPI) — Coach Buck Shaw and quarterback Norm Van Brocklin will lead the Philadelphia Eagles Monday in quest of pro football's biggest prize, today were named the NFL's football's man-of-the-year for 1960 by United Press International. The white-haired, 57-year-old Shaw was voted the NFL Coach-of-the-Year and Van Brocklin was chosen Player-of-the-Year in a UPI poll of 32 sports writers covering the 1960 campaign. The panel was made up of three writers from each league city. Coincidentally, both Shaw and Van Brocklin have announced they intend to wind up their respective coaching and playing careers with Monday's NFL championship game against the Green Bay Packers in Philadelphia. Shaw and Van Brocklin joined the Eagles together in 1958 when the club was one of five dominant teams in the NFL. During those years they guided the Eagles to the Eastern Division championship. In the play-offs last year, Shaw, Van Brocklin was a one-sided choice. He received 37 of the 38 votes. Paul Hornung of the Packers had none. Shaw, Van Brocklin and Ray Berry of Baltimore, Jimmy Brown of Cleveland and John Crow of St. Louis each got one vote. Shaw beat out Vince Lombardi of Green Bay, his rival in next Monday's title game, for coach-of-the-year honors, 23 votes to 14. They did a great deal with what they had to work with," George Wilson of the Lions received two votes. Tricky Middies May Unveil Secret Weapon By MALCOLM ALLEN United Press International ANNAPOLIS, Md. (UPI) — Navy Coach Wayne Hardin admitted to day he may have an ace or two up his sleeve when his club takes on Michigan in the Orange Bowl at Miami Jan. 2. "We're not planning anything too new," Hardin said, "but we've got some tricks up our sleeves here and there. After all, we're expecting a tough ball game. Missouri looks very rough. It's a well-coached ball club and a good one." Hardin, who led Navy to a 8-1 record this season that included a win over Army, said the Midshipmen will be relying on the cause they have relied on the past four years — the T formation. "We're going to run the T all year. They throw the ball sparingly. This means we're going to adjust our defense to a degree." Hardin was asked whether he felt the long pass was a big gun, of course, being halfback Joe Bellino, everybody's choice for All-America and the No. 1 of a host of other national honors. Hal Spooner, the signal caller who was out much of the season with an ankle injury, can catch better than anybody near the field. Is Hardin's choice to start at quarterback? "What I don't know frankly," he said, "is how both teams had a layoff, so if should be about even." Navy works off the T-formation with halfbacks as well as the fullback, throwing the ball and play offering an option. On the defense, the Tars utilize a relatively stationary line with a call, called "slugging" secondary. What about the automatic game? All Hardin would say was: "We're going down there determined to win." He'd make no prediction, but he sounded confident. Floyd Favored Over Ingo In Miami Match By JACK CUDDY United Press International Ohio State and St. John's seemed headed for a showdown in the Holiday Festival Basketball Tournament where the title may be decided by how Jerry Lucas and Tony Jackovich fare in their own private skirmish. The top-ranked Buckeyes and the No. 2-ranked Redmen earned their final test Tuesday night before next week's tournament meet. All-America Lucas scored 30 points in leading Ohio State to an 84-72 victory over DePaul, while No. 6 and 15 points led unbeaten St. John's over Gonzaga, 74-67. Lucas was crowned winner of the Kentucky Invitational Tournament when it pulled out a 74-72 overtime triumph over the host Kentucky Wildcats. Ohio State, which was given a scare early in the game when the Titans jumped to an eight-point lead midway in the first half, but the Buckeyes reeled off 12 straight points to take a lead they never gave up. The 6-4 Lucas, a member of the U.S. Olympic team this summer, hit 8 of 11 from the free throw line in heading the Ohio State attack. He also collected 22 rebounds. Mel Siegler chipped in 18 and Mel Siegler 16 for the winners. Charlie North topped Detroit with 21 points while Titan Ace Dave DeBuchere was hampered by personal fouls and scored only 14 points. Jackovich, performing on the woeful ice of New York Knickerbocker coach Carl Braun, responded with another fine shooting effort, 11 field goals and 4 free from the foul line, as the Redmen added their sixth victory. Pampa Takes Aim On Quanah As Knockouts Rain Optimists Trim Clovis Fighters By ARTHUR MAYHEW Daily News Sports Editor Custer's Last Stand, complete with Indians, may be re-enacted at 8 tonight when Quanah returns to Harvester gym to try to scalp Pampa's two-game winning streak. The Harvesters, led by "Colonels" Pat Carter, Allen Wiese and Bill Neff, and the Optimists Gordon Ball and Randy MacKay will be working in ambush with the necessary weapons to gain revenge for the 60-57 loss to the Indians three weeks ago in PHS' first game. Pampa coach Terry Culley has brought his team to the state squad a long way since the Dec. 2 game with Quanah, to what extent will be known tonight. Quanah has run hot and cold against the district of Pampa, splitting a pair with Vernon in highlight games. The Indians are sparked by Dannebrog's Noel Brooks and two 5-11 hot shots who scored 26 and 23 points, respectively, in Quanah's first win over the home cagers. Coach T. J. Baily probably will start Darrell Barnes, 6-3, and Jim Saltfeld, 5-11, and Gary Swindell, 6-1, to round out the Quanah first unit. Pampa, after losing six of their first seven, has caught fire in the last week, downing Fort Worth Worthamville, 37-46, last Saturday and Scurry, 40-39, in a Tuesday night tilt. Carter has been one of the leading scorers for Pampa on the road, scoring 18 points in their 10-point win over the district outburst in his last three games, a 24.3 average. Overall in the season, the 5-10 senior has scored more than double that of Pampa's number two scorer, Wiese, who has 77. The Harvesters removed enough rust from their team's first two games to give them the confidence to take advantage of the unseasoned help of four sophomores — Balch, Matson, Ronnie Chase and Wayne Arrix. The Optimists (3-1) are led by Pelters of Barger as six Citizens scored in double figures. Pampa's Shockers (8-3) will be shooting for their fourth straight win in their next game, a 7:30 p.m. tilt with Quanah at Pampa. In its first meeting with Quanah, Coach Dan Evans' squad ran up its biggest margin of young season, a 30-23 verdict in a game that saw 73 fouls called. The Harvesters next game will be with Childress here Tuesday. MINORS LEAGUE \| Team \| W \| L \| WL \| \|---------------\|---\|---\|----\| \| Wildcats \| 3 \| 1 \| 27 13\| \| Pampa \| 3 \| 1 \| 23 17\| \| Plow Splitters\| 4 \| 0 \| 29 21\| \| Harvesters \| 4 \| 0 \| 17 23\| \| Jets \| 1 \| 3 \| 17 23\| \| Rebel \| 1 \| 3 \| 17 23\| \| Jesters \| 1 \| 3 \| 17 23\| High Team Games: Scorpions (344); High Team Series: Scoreings (1,302); High Individual Games: (130); High Individual Series: Runnings (13). HARVESTER WOMEN'S LG. \| Team \| W \| L \| WL \| \|---------------\|---\|---\|----\| \| Stan. Amus. \| 4 \| 9 \| 41 23\| \| Pampa \| 4 \| 9 \| 41 23\| \| United Mod. \| 1 \| 3 \| 27 24%\| \| Fleetwoods \| 1 \| 3 \| 28 28\| \| Pan. Saf. \| 2 \| 3 \| 28 28\| \| Pampa \| 2 \| 3 \| 33 28\| \| Vaughn & Roth \| 1 \| 3 \| 30 28\| \| Kissie Ford \| 4 \| 34\| 34 28\| \| Pan. Tent. \| 4 \| 34\| 34 28\| \| Pampa \| 4 \| 34\| 34 28\| \| Morton's Food \| 1 \| 30\| 34 28\| \| Mor. Foods \| 1 \| 30\| 34 28\| \| Jiff. Auto. \| 4 \| 27\| 35 28\| \| Pan. Auto. \| 3 \| 3 \| 38 28\| \| B&B Phar. \| 3 \| 3 \| 38 28\| \| Synonym \| 0 \| 4 \| 24 48\| \| Rickard Kelly \| 1 \| 3 \| 21 48\| \| High Team Game: Standard Amusement (86); High Team series: Standard Amusement (2,448); High Individual Game: Grace Gibson (138); High Individual Series: Barbara Moore (342). LONE STAR LEAGUE \| Team \| W \| L \| WL \| \|---------------\|---\|---\|----\| \| Harv. Bowl Col \| 1 \| 3 \| 17 18%\| \| Tex Evans \| 1 \| 3 \| 33 23\| \| Hawkins TV \| 1 \| 3 \| 21 28\| \| Famers Supp. \| 1 \| 3 \| 30 28\| \| Pan. Saf. \| 1 \| 3 \| 26% 28%\| \| Cockrell Hms. \| 4 \| 0 \| 29 27\| \| Lewis Shm. \| 4 \| 0 \| 29 27\| \| Geo. King. Inc.\| 1 \| 28\| 28\| \| V. P. System \| 1 \| 28\| 28\| \| Util. Oil Co. \| 0 \| 4 \| 28 28\| \| Borden's \| 1 \| 3 \| 26% 28%\| \| Grum. & King \| 1 \| 3 \| 25% 30%\| \| Crew Drill. \| 2 \| 3 \| 31 31\| \| Schultz \| 4 \| 0 \| 32 31\| \| Harv. Bowl 1 \| 2 \| 33\| 33\| \| Cooks \| 1 \| 3 \| 33 33\| \| High Team Game: Gruninger & King, Inc. (844); High Team Series: Gruninger&King, Inc. (2,644); High Individual Game: Quilt; High Individual Series: Eudell Burnett (350); Quilt Hurst (350). HIGH SCHOOL STARS LEAGUE \| Team \| W \| L \| WL \| \|---------------\|---\|---\|----\| \| Edd Burton Tire \| 4 \| 4 \| 48 18%\| \| Davo Toyland \| 4 \| 3 \| 39% 24%\| \| Fuller Brush \| 1 \| 3 \| 37% 24%\| \| Pan. Saf. \| 1 \| 3 \| 37% 24%\| \| Sullins Ptg. \| 4 \| 0 \| 36 33%\| \| Texas A&M \| 0 \| 4 \| 26% 33%\| \| Huyler Gulf \| 3 \| 1 \| 27% 36%\| \| Huyler Student \| 1 \| 3 \| 30 36\| \| Mini Mart \| 1 \| 2 \| 25 36\| \| Spudnut Shop \| 1 \| 2 \| 23 40%\| \| High Team Game: D. V. Burrows Tire (49); High Team Series: D. V. Burton Tires (1,438); High Individual Game: Jim Westberry (182); High Individual Series: Mike Schatz (82). MAJORS LEAGUE \| Team \| W \| L \| WL \| \|---------------\|---\|---\|----\| \| Pampers \| 3 \| 1 \| 27 13\| \| Raboons \| 1 \| 3 \| 20% 23%\| \| Ten Pins \| 1 \| 3 \| 28 24\| \| Gromosse 4 \| 1 \| 3 \| 26% 25%\| \| Pan. Pa. Pa. \| 1 \| 3 \| 28 25%\| \| Pan. Pa. Pa. \| 4 \| 1 \| 17 33\| \| High Team Game: Babakosh (748); High Team Series: Hi-Bombers (2,143); High Individual Game: Bobby Call (162); High Individual Series: Bobby Call (162). All In A Lifetime OH, OH! AN OFFICE CHRISTMAS PARTY—WELL THAT'S ANOTHER OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD ON THIS JOB, FENNY. Freckles EKK! I'M FALLING! ELL, CATCH YOU, BABY! WHERE'S ALL THAT RUMOR IN THE LIVING ROOM? Our Boarding House BY MY NOTES! A CERTAIN RESEMBLANCE TO A CERTAIN PERSONAGE—SPECIAL NEEDS—STAGED THAT SHOW, SHOW ME! Out Our Way WHAT'S TO GIVE BLONDIE? KINCAID FOR ALL THIS BUNGLED UP IN THE SAME WISE AS HE IS? "THAT'S ONE WORD OF THE DAY," SAYS HE. WHAT'S HE SUPPOSED TO DO? WHAT'S HE SUPPOSED TO DO? Blondie OH, DAGWOOD, YOU'RE A RICH MAN IF I RUN INTO ANYTHING LIKE THIS! I SAVED YOU $5 ON MY DRESS, $3 ON MY SHOES—SO ON STOCKINGS. BUT THINK OF ALL THE MONEY YOU SPENT. IT'S WHAT YOU SAVE THAT MAKES YOU RICH. Alley Oop SCUSE ME! WHY THE AWFUL FACE? JUST A MINUTE, YOU TWO! DO YOU MIND SLOWING DOWN JUST A LITTLE? Bonnie THEY'RE WRAPPING GIFTS, AND DAD SAID HE'LL KNOW IF I LEAVE MY BED... BUT I'VE JUST GOT TO PEAK—BESIDES, HOW COULD HE— Martha Wayne THE FIRST TIME I SAW YOU I FELL FOR YOU! BUT YOU DID ME A HARD TIME, ANYWAY. WHEN I KNEW I HAD SCRATCHED OUT WITH YOU, I WAS ATTRACTED TO YOUR TASTE BECAUSE IT'S SO DIFFERENT FROM MY OWN... BUT IT'S BEEN YOU ALL THE TIME. Mickey Finn HE PROBABLY GOT ON THE WRONG PLANE AND WENT RIGHT TO SLEEP! THAT'S WHAT I THINK; HE'S JUST DUMB ENOUGH TO DO IT! WOULDN'T IT BE SOMETHING—if he had to walk back! I BET HE MET A RICH WIDOW FROM NEW YORK ON THAT PLANE! YEAH! ONE THAT WAS JUST HIS TYPE—A RICH, DIZZY LOOKIN' BLONDE! Short Ribs CLANG! EXCUSE ME! THOSE TINY FOREIGN OBJECTS ARE SURE HARD TO SEE. Jackson Twins MISS GEORGIA, WHY ARE YOU SITTING THERE? (IS THAT A PRESSING ROOM?) I SAW A GIRL GO INTO THE PRESSING ROOM. SHE HAS WRECKED MY NEIGHBOR'S SUIT UP! Wash Tubbs DR. NOVAK'S DOOR IS LOCKED. HE HAS TO BE READY FOR US BY 9:00. I'LL GET A PASS KEY! ARE YOU N' LOCKED TOO? AND RE-THREW AT ONE THE ONLY KEYS I HAVE. I'LL FORCE IT OPEN! Marty Meekle WELL, I'M STILL STUCK IN IT. DOESN'T LOOK AS IF ANYBODY'S GOING TO COME FOR ME. LOOKS LIKE I'LL HAVE TO DIG MYSELF OUT... Dixie Dugan I'LL KNOW IN A MINUTE IF THIS THING WORKS/WEIRD THINGS AFTER ALL. YOU SAID YOU WERE STUCK FOR MORALS FOR NEW MEMBERS, SLOW! WOULDN'T THAT BE TWINS AS A STRIP? THEY MIGHT BE STRIP! Priscilla's Pop I KNOW SHE LOVES YOU, OLIVER. BUT CAN I REALLY BE SURE? SURE, I'M SURE! WHY ELSE WOULD DO A THING LIKE THAT? Joe Palooka SO YOU REALIZE THAT'S SO DELICATE A PENDULUM THAT YOU CAN'T REGULATE IT! YUP! BIG BEN IS A WHOLE SECOND ON ACCOUNTA YER JOINT! THERE! IT'S SET! NOW I'LL BETTA TAKE HOUSE AWAY SO HE WON'T JIGGLE IT PENDULUM ASK! LAND AMERICA! DON'T TWO HOURS TILL CHRISTMAS! I'LL HAFTA HURRY!! TIME FOR VIOLENCE By Noel M. Loomis THE STORY: Bart Yager has received a message from his old friend, the Panhandle. The country is overrun by bandits. One of them is named Jesus. XI Again he rose before dawn but not ahead of Catherine. "I fixed a lunch for you," she said. "The pan's ready as she took it." "I'll be back before dark," he said. He went up to the spring with hammer and staples and wrenches. He ran a line what wire he wanted but where it had been cut he had to put new wire between the ends. He was wrapping an end of that stiff wire around a post when a voice behind him said: "All right, Wagner!" He whirled and drew both six-shooters. His eyes were wild with speed. But the man behind him was smiling sardonically, his head in his hands away from his sides. He was a good-sized man, with a big black beard, hat, and light brown whiskers that covered his chin. Bart said still holding his .44s, "You took an awful chance with your life just then." The man laughed shortly. "I would never shoot a man whose hands were in the clear." "You might have been wrong about who I was." "About my name? You're right. I figured it was you. My psychology told me how you beat him to the draw in Pascoba." Bart said coldly, "We've seen all I want of Murphy. The next time I draw on him, I'm going to shoot." "You're a hero, and a killer always in trouble." The man grinned unpleasantly. "I suppose you're Xenophon Jones," and Bart, dropping his pistols back into their holsters, said, "I'm Bart Yager, and cold, like his eyes. 'In Moebetie they call me the Killer Kid.' I don't want you to call me that if you want to impress me, start drawing." "Then what?" said Jones. "I know there's a price on your head in New Mexico." "I'm not wanted." "Sixteen hundred dollars," Bart said. "It was twelve when I left." Jones studied him. "The Yagers raised some money to aid us in the war." Bart picked up his hammer and stapler. "You're trespassing on Lews land," he said. "Listen, Wagner," Jones said. "I need help. This court session has got to be scared. Are you afraid of courts?" Jones shrugged. "The longer we make this go on, the better the Panhandle, the better will be the pickin's." Bart said, "You can't keep them out forever." "I'm going to throw the fear of God into anybody who might be qualified as a juror so they won't come here. They've got two of my men down there, and I don't aim for them." Bart said, "I've got a lot to do." "Old Joe Lewis and the girl have made an issue of it," Jones said, "and I've got to make sure of them both. Otherwise all the Panhandle will start acting smart and give me hell." "You killed Ben. Why don't you kill me?" Jones moistened his lips. "I don't like to kill a woman. May that's the Virginia gentleBest Wishes for CHRISTMAS Glad Christmas greetings and good wishes, friends and neighbors! It is our sincere hope that the joyous spirit of this happiest of all holidays will light up your home and your heart with peace and good will. May you ever be blessed by the rich rewards of having friends and loved ones around you. As you observe Christmas with those near and dear to you, may you rejoice anew at the true meaning and eternal glory of this holy time. CABOT Austrians Fattening Up Carp For Their Biggest Feast Of Year By THOMAS WEYR United Press Staff Correspondent VIENNA — UP — Big carp from the Danube River is fattening in tanks, ponds and riverside pens all over Austria for the Christmas eve feast — the biggest eating treat of the year. The Austrian counterpart of the traditional Christmas turkey in America is a plump carp — fried to a sizing golden brown. Mrs. Liesl Fuchs, a typical Vienna housewife, has bought a four-and-one-half pound carp for her husband, two children and herself on Christmas Eve. On her budget plan, she works in a bank's office to supplement her husband's slim civil service income. But she says there will be nothing on the holiday. She expects to spend between 200 and 300 schillings — $8 to $12 — for the dinner. And the children have opened their presents beneath a tinselled tree laced with candy, the grownups will drink a holiday toast of plum wine. Then the family will sit down to dinner. Liesl says the first course will be "fischbruchschoppe," old-fashioned Austrian fish soup which includes roe and liver. Then comes the carp. Austrian wives are not big cooks, but Mrs. Fuchs' recipe is typical: Cut the fish into medium-thick slices, dust lightly with flour, dip each slice in beaten eggs, then with fine bread crumbs and fry in butter to golden tenderness. Serve smoking hot with lemon wedges. As a side dish Liesl will serve potatoes fried. The grown-ups will drink a light dry white wine from Burgenland province, near the Hungarian border, where husband Tom has friends among the wine growers. For dessert the family will have poppyseed cookies with moonshine cream. This Viennese specialty, a sort of super-doughnut, is made by rolling fat curls of sweet dough, (resembling) then adding the poppyseeds and honey. And with the dessert, there'll be another wine — a heavier, more alcoholic one from the Krems district of the Danube Valley. To finish the meal, the children will have candy and the parents will have Turkish coffee and — a special luxury — American cigarettes. Exchange Of Yule Cards Explained The exchange of cheerful Christmas cards between friends is one of our most delightful Yuletide customs — and like all other social relations, it is governed by simple, common-sense rules of etiquette. You may properly send your holiday greetings to almost everyone — business and professional associates, if you wish, as well as social acquaintances and relatives. Be sure to choose appropriate cards, however. If Alvin Jennie is a garden enthusiast, she'll probably appreciate a beautiful flower arrangement more than a dozen Santa Claus designs. Cards with special titles, such as Merry Christmas Mother, are suitable for mothers, aunts, sweethearts and practically all relatives, including the in-laws, and are a mark of individual thoughtfulness. If you can spare a moment or two, pen a brief holiday note on each card. It adds a warm sincerity and a touch of personal individual personality to your Yuletide greetings. Christmas time is a sentimental and nostalgic season for many, and many a friendship has been rekindled through the years by the annual exchange of holiday greetings. Signatures need not be formal on the exchanged Christmas cards. You may have your name neatly printed if you wish, or take your pen in hand and sign your message yourself with a holiday flourish. Married couples may omit the "Mr. and Mrs." if they prefer and sign their cards simply as "Paul and Mary" or "Elsie." A husband's name or the wife's may appear first. Children in the family rate a place in the signature. Use three-cent stamps deeded Christmas cards, following the rule of good taste which says that only close friends deserve First-class mail. It is entirely proper to write your return address on the envelope, to help friends keep up on changes of address. Senders attach Christmas cards for each of your friends is delightful activity. Don't treat it as a burdensome responsibility. Plunge in with a smile and the gay holiday scenes on the cards will soon fill your heart with Yuletide cheer and sentiment. Scientific Facts Establish Story Of Jesus Christ The authenticity of the story of Christ has been further established over a period of years through archaeological 'findings' in the Jerusalem area. A group of scientists recently discovered the name of Jesus carved below 19 A.D. on the inscriptions on 11 early-Christian burial urns found in a cave on the Bethlehem-Jerusalem road. This finding may prove to be one of the oldest archaeological records of Christianity, to give fact and substance to the Biblical stories of the trial and crucifixion of Christ. It is believed that these writings were left by a sect of Hebrews who were followers of Christ and who had denounced Pontius Pilate. There were Hebrew and Arabic inscriptions and symbols with references to Christianity. Other archaeological expeditions have disclosed the presence of the Greek letter "X" — symbol used to represent Christ, found on the walls of early-Christian period catacombs. Merry Christmas To Our Friends! 141 XG Form 39 Bob Clements Dry Cleaning 1437 N. Hobart MO 5-5121 Hobby Supplies Make Real Gifts For All Family Make it a real family Christmas this year by having Santa pack a few hobby supplies or games into his sack that the whole family can enjoy together. This suggestion comes from E. H. Regnier, a recreation specialist at the University of Illinois. There are many hobbies that can help build companionship between parents and children. Mothers and daughters like jewelry making; fathers and sons enjoy construction and tapestry weaving. Dad and Junior go in for model-making, airplanes, boats, trains and other forms of special interest to the male population. Everyone enjoys a operating a pinball machine. Smart houses turn out newspapers that have a real professional look. Shellcraft and woodburning are hobbies that produce many useful articles. For family fun, tabletop darts, indoor plastic horsehoes and marble games are excellent. "Children love the feeling of 'togetherness,'" says Regnier. "Let's capitalize on the situation by starting a game or hobby that will encourage the same type of companionship the year around." Smaller Towns Were First To Light Up Trees Although the White House and Rockefeller Center outdoor tree decorations have become famous in recent years, the practice of lighting outdoor trees began in smaller towns and cities long before these two displays became an annual affair. Frequently separated communities lighted up as early as 1813. Two of them, McDonald and Germantown, were in Pennsylvania. Salem, Ore., decorated a large Sitka spruce. Riverside, Calif., illuminated a large evergreen, an American fir. The first National Christmas tree was in 1924 and was sponsored by the American Forestry Association. For the past two years the lighting of the White House has been televised. Greetings What a melody it would make, if we could put our good wishes to you into song! Every happiness of the Yuletide season...plenty of mirth and merriment...all the joys of exchanging gifts and greetings...all of the pleasures of discovering anew what a heart-warming time of the year this is...these are our wishes for you! Best Wishes For The Holiday Season With sincere gratitude for the warm friendships which we have enjoyed, we extend greetings of the season to all of you, whose good will and loyalty we count among our most cherished possessions. May the holidays find you in hearty good health, surrounded by devoted family and friends. Citizens Bank & Trust Co. CORNER KINGSMILL AND RUSSELL A FRIENDLY BANK WITH FRIENDLY SERVICE Santa Claus, Indians! Although many towns have names directly or indirectly associated with Christmas, there is but one town named Santa Claus, in Indiana. Except for a lucky break, the town would have had another name and hence would not have enjoyed the annual fame that it gathers around the Yuletide season. The original intention to name the town Santa Claus came through when the officials at Washington suggested that the town be named something else, since there was already a Santa Fe in New Mexico. Yule Greens Used By Ancients The greens which are used for Christmas decorations found their place in people of this town where they were used to decorate homes of certain virtues attributed to them by the ancients, and many of which admired pagan seasonal rites. The Druids, who first used the word "Yule," were the ones who gave it its name for it. The plant was supposed to have curative values, and gradually came to be used to all manner of magic powers. Their priests, each year around the time when we now celebrate Christmas, would have high oak fir trees or yew trees, planted oak trees which, in a manner of speaking, were "hosts" to the mistletoe. Robert Graves says that the priests, in white, they ascended these platforms, and with golden sickles especially made for the solemn occasion they cut away the mistletoe. The Saxons also prized it and it was they who gave to it the name of mistletoe. Even today the green came to be regarded as a symbol of peace. Opposing warriors who met near it would cease a truce, and it was customary to hang it over the entrance doors so that they who entered might be assured of friendship. Midnight Mass Marks Climax For Nazareth Folk NAZARETH — (UP) — The feverish activity that has been griping at Nazareth Christian once more will be able to make the pilgrimage to Bethlehem without any embarrassment. The road Jesus must have followed from His home in Galilee. At the entrances to Nazareth, the checkpoints have been re-established to keep non-citizens from overflowing the town. Restaurants and cafes — even those catering to the favored — have taken pride in gaily decorated Christmas tree prominently displayed. Promptly at midnight, Dec. 24, Father Van Jansen, O.F.M., superior of the Franciscan monastery, will begin the Mass in the Church of the Annunciation built on the foundations of a 12th century Crusader church as well as black gowns embroidered with gold taps three times on the floor. On one of these hills, Jesus addressed the multitudes following Him far and wide (Matthew 5:16). It interests them to know that the name of the hill is Mount Tabor, which means a spur. There is a spring there, what is known as Mary's Well. The people of Nazareth are sure this is where the Virgin came to draw water. At 10:30 p.m. Dec. 24 Father Samman, head of the Greek Catholic Community, will celebrate Mass in his church. Near the church is a cave said to be the site of the first synagogue Jesus preached. Not far off is a domed chapel containing the Tabernacle, a huge stone around which Jesus used to sit to tradition, sat with His disciples. The Anglican and Baptist Churches also will conduct services which they close with card singing. Christmas Prayer Almighty God, Who hast given us Thy only-begotten Son to take our nature upon Him, and as at this time to be born of a pure virgin; Grant that we being regenerate, and made Thy Children by adoption and grace, may daily be renewed by Thy Holy Spirit; through the same our Lord Jesus Christ, Who liveth and reigneth with Thee and the same Spirit ever, one God, world without end. Amen. —The Book of Common Prayer St. Nickolas Life Marked By Gift-Giving The life of St. Nicholas is almost entirely associated with secret gift-giving; night to leave his presents, is one of the most important in the history of his life. Once upon a time there was a man with three daughters, all of them wishing to marry, but with no dowry forthcoming. Sorry indeed, was their plight. Their father had been down to sell them as slaves, but the good St. Nicholas heard of it, and filling a purse with gold, went quietly into the house. Seeing a window open, he threw in the bag of gold and stole away in the night. The money enabled the eldest daughter to marry. A second and a third time St. Nicholas made the trip and finally all three daughters were married. After the saint's third trip, the girls' father, who had seen the gifts, ran after St. Nicholas and thanked him for his kindness. St. Nicholas made no promise and after that he always deposited his gifts in the house, but none ever saw him. Yet people knew, somehow, that it was he who brought gifts during the night and so the presents were delivered instantly, exclaiming: "St. Nicholas has brought it!" Nearly All Nations Mark Christmas Christmas is celebrated in the civilized world December 25 as a real holiday day. Peoples of all nationalities and religions celebrate the birth of Christ. The customs of the many nations are as varied as the peoples and their faiths are different. In the Scandinavian countries, a Christmas tree, made of wood or wheat bound to a pole, is raised for the winter birds. In Norway, rice pudding is always an important item on the table for the Christmas dinner. One almond is baked in the pudding and the person who finds the almond in his porridge is always the first to get married. Chinese children make odd stockings by sewing three pieces of muslin together and then hang them up on Christmas Eve to hold the gifts brought by Lan Khoong-Khoong, which means "Grace of Mother" to them, Santa Claus to us. The "old-fashioned" American Christmas, while reflecting the traditions of many countries, more closely resembles the traditional English Christmas, complete with plum pudding, mistletoe, carolers. The world's first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, the USS Enterprise, is the second aircraft carrier to be named Enterprise. The first was the flagship of the late Fleet Admiral W. F. "Bull" Halsey in the Pacific during World War II. COME LET US ADORE HIM... let us reserve a part of our joyous holiday for thoughts of Him Who is The Christmas Spirit. 181 KG Form 30 CLAYTON Floral Co. GLAD TIDINGS May your Christmas Ring with Laughter and Joy! PAMPA WAREHOUSE & TRANSFER 317 E. Tyng (L. H. MUSGRAVE, OWNER) MO 4-4221 GREETINGS This is the time of year when we take account of our assets. Among them all, we find none nearly so valuable as the confidence and good will of our patrons. To them go our hearty thanks and warmest holiday wishes. Heard-Jones DRUG 110 N. Cuyler MO 4-7478 3 Wise Men's Names Noted The Three Wise Men of the East brought gifts to the infant Jesus, and their cathedral there, claims their relics have been identified in the centuries as Melchior, Gaspar and Baltazar. Melchior means "king of light," Caspar is "the white one," and Baltazar "the lord of treasures." The first of the magi offered gold, the symbol of royalty; the second offered frankincense, a token of divinity, and the third myrrh — the prophetic allusion to the persecution unto death which awaited the "Man of Sorrows." Medieval legend calls them the "Three Kings." Americans Did A Lot To Boost Old Saint Nick It's little wonder that Saint Nick is especially generous to the American people. History proves that Americans have done a lot for Saint Nicholas. According to Mahr Johnson, research expert with the World Book Encyclopedia, the Americans have given Saint Nick a new name, a new face and figure, and a new method of transportation. The original European version of Saint Nick pictured him as a tall, angular man, wearing a long, pointed beard. Both the horse and Saint Nick looked like they hadn't had a good meal, in some time. The Saint had deep sunken eyes, and wore a flowing red and bare cloak, and a black skullcap. The early English settlers in this country started giving Saint Nicholas his new name. The English children had trouble pronouncing Saint Nicholas. Somehow the name changed to "Santa Kalouf" and finally was corrupted to "Santa Claus." However, this was only the beginning. In 1809 Washington Irving, in "A Christmas-Tale," wrote of the Saint as the guardian of New York City. Irving described Saint Nick as a jolly fellow with a broad-brimmed hat and huge breeches. He taught Saint Nick to smoke a long pipe, and, in the story, replaced the horse with a sleigh, pulled by a trim wagon that floated over New York house-tops. A short time later, Saint Nicholas' transformation was aided by Clement Moore in his famous poem, "The Visit From Saint Nicholas," written in 1822. Moore, a professor at a "family-in" at New York Theological Seminary, gave Saint Nick a sleigh, twinkling eyes, cheeks like roses, nose like a cherry, and a round, jolly belly. Today, Santa Claus is by no means stream-lined, but he is a far cry from the lean, ascetic somberly-dressed fellow who, for centuries on Christmas Eve, guided his mare through the streets of Europe. How To Preserve Yule's Greenery BURLINGTON, Vt. — (UPI) — Christmas decorations are available almost for the asking in many sections of Vermont. The raw materials—evergreens, cones and orange berries from certain plants—are easily obtained. Housewives planning to take advantage of the abundance of evergreen twigs are reminded to keep them in a cool place away from wind and sun. A wide choice of suitable material such as hemlock, fir, pine, pine, spruce, Arborvitae and other evergreens also are found in the Green Mountain State. Hemlocks tend to use indoors because the needles drop off very short time when exposed to dry air. All greens last longer if water is supplied to the cut ends of the branches. The frames for wreaths or other decorations may be wrapped with a layer of moist sphagnum moss. Tie a piece of oil paper around the base of the wreath. The greens are then pushed through the paper and into the moist moss. If Santa Misses Some, Maybe He Has A Reason If Santa Claus misses some youngsters this year, it could be offered plausibly that he was not able to round up enough reindeer for his yearly trip around the globe. The reindeer shortage has become, in recent years, much too acute. It has been estimated that wolves have destroyed more of Santa's helpers within the last decade or so, leaving an approximate 50,000. The difficulty of keeping the animals alive in a temperate climate makes it unlikely that any of the few remaining will be transported from the North Pole to other lands for the holiday season, as has been done in the past. American boys and girls will have to be satisfied with stand-ins. The few reindeer left are feeding Santa's complete staff. This year will be using native deer as substitute for Dasher, Prancer, and company. Cowboy Party Yule Tradition One of the most typical of our American holiday celebrations is the Cowboy Christmas Ball, which has been held almost every year since 1864 in the small town of Anson, Texas. The celebration started as a wedding party in the old Anson Hotel with hundreds pouring in from the widely scattered ranges to honor one Cross P. Charley and his bride. It was such a success that it was repeated each year. Christmas Eve brought the spirit of the old West to Anson. Cowboys donned their colorful dress, their gay shirts and fringed leather boots. Cowgirls outfitted themselves in gingham dresses "like mother used to wear." A cowboy band swung out and the dancers performed the waltz and toe polka, the Varsovienne, and other old folk dances. Merry Christmas With cheery wishes for a happy holiday season, we greet all our good friends and customers and extend our heartfelt thanks for the opportunity of serving such wonderful people. A very Merry Christmas to one and all! OPEN EVERY DAY 7 A.M. - 11! MINIT MARTS YOUR LOCAL DRIVE-IN MARKETS Greetings To you — the merriment that comes with the hanging of the wreaths and the trimming of the tree. To you — the cheer of friends and relatives gathered together in glad spirits. To you — a holiday season bright as the sparkle of happiness in children's eyes. And to you, our warmest wishes for a happy holiday season. PAMPA CHAMBER OF COMMERCE AND BOARD OF CITY DEVELOPMENT Early Christians Didn't Celebrate Christ's Birth Early Christians did not celebrate the birthday of Christ, and was not until the fourth century that December 25 came to be accepted as the presumed anniversary of the great event. In that year the Roman emperor made it official. His intention was partly to absorb the old pagan festival of the returning sun (the winter solstice) into his new Christian feast. A number of pagan celebrations were overlapped in this way during the first centuries of Christianity. In Great Britain, for instance, the "Lord of Misrule" led the frolicking, pagan revels each year. This practice of pranks and general foolishness is supposed to have descended from the Saturnalia of pagan Rome. Only a few Britons now follow this jolly old custom. The Santa Claus tradition represents the combination of a number of widely differing religious, old superstitions and beliefs. The northern Europeans in pre-Christian times believed in a spirit of "Dame Bertha." The custom of hanging up stockings comes from Italy. Switzerland has developed the custom of parading from house to house and singing carols in a picturesque way. Costumes are remarkable. Young men and women wear headdresses representing houses, ships, mountains, and forth. Huge sleigh bells tinkle on their waist and shoulders. These Swiss carolers also play a peculiar dance used only on Christmas Eve. In Switzerland and in southern European countries, the gifts are brought to good children, not by Santa Claus, but by the Christ Child, who comes from heaven in a fairy sleigh. In many German homes an old man with a small drum marches about the house after the Christmas dinner, beating a processionals drum in to frighten away any witches who might have come into the house during the year. He finally reaches the last room where the Christmas stollen hides with presents. In Mexico, Christmas Eve is a popular combination of the religious and the festive observance. There is a dance in every village until midnight. At the stroke of twelve the church bells play a special, sacred melody, and everyone converges in front of the "maccinonito," or crib representation. Then the priest comes out, carrying the image of the Christ Child and marches slowly to the church for the midnight mass. When this is over, the dancing and revelry, accompanied with fireworks, recommences and lasts until dawn. Members of the Orthodox Greek churches, who cling to the old style calendar, celebrate Christ's birthday on January 6. Many people in Greece, Serbia, Romania and other Balkan countries, as well as many Russians, belong to the Orthodox church. Their Christmas feast traditionally begins with a bowl of "koufeta," which is a combination of wheat, honey, ground poppy seed and pecans. Mushrooms, fruit, fish and nuts are also served. A small amount of hay is spread under the table cloth to show humility for Christ's birth in a stable. Polish people also celebrate last afternoon. So every country and every district often has its own special ways of keeping Christmas. The United States being composed of people and has adopted those it liked, and altered them to fit the American style. So it has been with Santa Claus. The Christmas trees and carols, the luscious menus — everything has been gladly taken over with thanks to the many nations and peoples that have bestowed them on us. It Took A Long Time To Get Old Santa Fattened Up Want to make it a real old-fashioned Christmas when you play Santa for junior this year? All you have to do is go on diet — or leave the pillows out when you put the tree up. You'll look like S. Claus, 100 pounds lighter. That was when Santa was an ancient Greek god named Christ. His cards of the era, instead of the healthy, round fellow you see today on greeting cards, in newspapers, and on Christmas store windows, were a combination of artistic progress and public demand put the weight on Santa, according to Jeannette Lee, professor of creative art at Hall Branch, Kansas City, greeting card publishers. Miss Lee, whose artists are turning out many different paintings of Santa for this year's Christmas cards, is an authority on the artistic and corpulent growth of that jolly fellow. When Santa made his bow as a magazine cover-boy in the 1840's, he was a tiny, thin, little figure. He had spindly legs, no shoulders and most important, no "little round belly that shook when he laughed like a bowl full of jelly." Artists of the middle 19th Century must have been rugged individuals, Miss Lee points out, because they painted pictures that showed descriptions of Santa Claus in Clement Moore's Yuletide classic "The Night Before Christmas." Moore's poem, originally titled "A Visit From St. Nicholas," and published in 1823, described the Santa Claus as "chubby and plump," with merry dimples, twinkling eyes, cheeks like roses, a nose like a cherry, and a beard white as snow. America's artists didn't get the idea for years. As late as 1881 they were still painting a version of old St. Nick that looked more like an advance man for a campaign. "Possibly," Miss Lee explains, "the first painters of Santa Claus thought they had to make him literally thin enough to get down the chimney in order to preserve childhood innocence." At any rate, her research shows, Santa Claus didn't begin to gain weight until the decade of rounded silhouettes until the 1900's. Nowadays, to picture Santa Claus as anything but huge, pink and jolly would be considered an affront, Miss Lee says. And when you tell junior how St. Nick grew from an anemated three-foot elf to the present homely size man who brings all the presents, it may even help persuade junior to eat his cereal. Each of the gifts received by the Infant Jesus from the Three Wise Men had a symbolic meaning that expressed the royalty of the Babe: frankincense for his priesthood; myrrh for Christ's entombment. Regulations For Mailing Gifts Listed If you're sending your gift through the mail... Protect the fancy wrappings, bows and frills with corrugated cardboard or a swath of tissue paper. Protect the gifts with a strong cardboard box, or wrap in heavy brown cardboard. Pack the contents tightly. If the items in the box shift around, the post office can refuse to accept your package. Packages going to foreign countries MUST be sealed. Domestic mail packages MAY be sealed, provided they bear a label which says "May be opened for postal inspection." Use strong, plain, new wrapping paper. Tie large, heavy packages with tough string. Recycle package both ways at least twice. Use two printed mailing labels one on each side of package. Be sure to include the person's COMPLETE address if the package is going to. Don't forget your own name and address. Take your time and write printing names and addresses. Don't make things difficult for the mail man and the people in the post office. Above all, don't let your Christmas gifts wind up in the dead letter office! Just How Old Is Santa? Just how old is Santa Claus? Where does he come from? Why does he enter by way of the chimney? Why does he drive a sleigh? Even the best reference sources do not quite agree about the ancestry of the jolly, big-hearted fellow we know. But, after all, is it so important whether the name Santa Claus means its origin in the Dutch "Sinterklaas," or in the German "Christkindl" or "Krisis Kringle"? It is generally agreed that the idea for our Santa Claus came from a boy called Nicholas over 1600 years ago. During his early years, growing up in the Asia Minor portion of present-day Turkey, he was generous and kind. These qualities grew within him until at a man he became the bishop of Myra. His most famous deed of generosity was directed toward three beautiful daughters of a poor, blind man. He wanted to find for his children so they could be married. So, Nicholas on three different nights threw gold through a window of their home, and each daughter could be married and well cared for. Down through the centuries the story of Saint Nicholas was carried to other countries and when unexpected gifts appeared they were attributed to him. Dutch children still wait for "Kris Kringle," is a Dutch messenger of Saint Nicholas or "Sinterklaas" as they call him. He is pictured as a kindly, white-bearded bishop riding a white horse over the house-tops when he lowers his gifts down the chimney. It is to this "Sinterklaas," brought to us by the early Dutch settlers, that we give thanks for Santa's custom of meeting of giving, for the white beard, riding the house-tops and, partially, for his name. Santa Claus had many other forerunners, some who still bring gifts in his place to children in other countries. Another "ancestor" of Santa Claus, bringing together all the many legends he has, emerged from Nast's drawing board in 1863, cartoonist Thomas Nast was commissioned to illustrate "A Visit from St. Nicholas" ("The Night Before Christmas") for his children. He vividly described Santa Claus, bringing together all the many legends he has. First Christmas Trees Believed From Germany The Christmas tree, now almost a universal symbol, probably came to America from Germany, although tradition has it that Christianity originated in Egypt. The palm tree is supposed to put forth a branch every month, and spray of this tree, with 12 shoots cut was used in England. German writers mention the tree as early as 1605. The German prince Albert, consort of Queen Elizabeth I, introduced the Christmas tree in England when he had a tree for his daughter. Years ago in New York City. Since then, this red and white garbed fellow known as Santa Claus, with the big smile, the rosy face and abundant good-will is here to stay and is now quite, quite real for every child! A Holiday Wish Lots of excitement on your calendar? Christmastime is a happy time in many families. It's a time to give to those we love. It's a time to sit back and give thanks, too, for all the good things this year. We sincerely hope that this is a happy Christmas, and a safe holiday. Careful driving will grant everybody's rights to enjoy this wonderful season. Merry Christmas! Harry V. Gorden $100% Alcoch MD 6-3881 STATE FARM MUTUAL AUTOMOBILE INSURANCE COMPANY Home Office: Bloomington, Illinois O come all ye faithful... Reverently, joyfully, the glory of Christmas is sung and celebrated. As we lift our voices in those beloved Christmas carols, may our hearts be filled anew with the wondrous spirit that came to earth on the Holy Night when He was born and the angels sang. May we find fresh inspiration in the message of "Peace on Earth, Good Will toward Men," to guide us at the Christmas season, and always. FIRST NATIONAL BANK in Pampa MEMBER FDIC Evergreen Tree Adopted At Christmas As God's Symbol Of Everlasting Life For centuries man has regarded the evergreen tree as a symbol of life eternal. When the dense leaves of hardwoods fall in the icy winter, and autumn's colors stand still, fully dressed, in living green, a mute promise that life has not fled but only lies dormant for the season. So also has the evergreen tree been gradually accepted as a symbol of Christmas, of God's gifts to man, and of the hope of eternal life. The custom was adopted in Europe as early as the 15th Century and allegedly reached America during the Revolutionary War, when the Hessian soldiers erected Christmas trees to soothe their homesickness. The Revolution of a tradition as widely accepted as the Christmas Tree could not help but have many versions. It seems reasonable to accept the fact that the first ornaments used to decorate the trees were replicas of food-stuffs and small gifts. Later, candles were adopted to represent the stars of Bethlehem, which are said to have interwoven into the story of the Christ Child. However, regardless of the origins of the custom it is so firmly imbedded in our holiday celebrations that few persons consider Christmas complete unless an evergreen tree stands proud and dressed up splendid over the children's gifts and sends its pungent odor through the house. The commercial production of Christmas trees is big business, with excess of 21,000,000 trees each year. Nationally, Balsam-fir, Douglas-fir and Hemlock make up about 80 per cent of the total, while Black Spruce and Red Cedar split the next 10 or 20 cents. The list includes almost every species of evergreen trees, fills out the total. The states bordering Canada furnish most of our commercial Christmas trees, although about 3 million are imported annually from Canada. Large operators usually begin work in October cutting and loading their trees, keeping them moist and cool on cold storage preparatory to shipment. National forest service figures show about 12 per cent of all annual cut. The rest comes from privately owned timberlands, generally from natural stands of conifers which nature has planted. However, some 100,000 acres of land are devoted to growing Christmas tree crops, and farmers are finding that plantation being good returns in a short period and can be harvested during a season when farm work is slack. The growing of Christmas trees contributes a high rate of return from timbered lands and, when properly done, is not a threat to future forests. The farmer is concerned with wise use as well as perpetuation of woodlands. Trees can be raised either as a commercial crop from seedlings by replanting after each harvest or they can be selected from a stand ultimately reserved sawlog size. Commercially, this practice can be quite beneficial to the forest. This Christmas Eve, when the youngsters have gone in excited haste to bed, the fire burns low on the hearth and you think of other years, remember that the Christmas Tree is a symbol of many things to many people. It is also a raiser in your home, a delegate of the forests, bringing to you a breath of the out-of-doors, of living things which serve both the physical and spiritual needs of mankind. Trees Are Safer This year Christmas trees are whiter and safer, thanks to chemicals and experiments. The chemicals treat trees to fire-retarding properties. Some trees put on the market this year look like Jack Frost had made his winter visit, with white plastic and rayon fiber. Tree coating has long been a backyard procedure with hours wasted and then greenery peered through. Next year Christmas trees will stop needle shedding, wilting and will all have a snowy look, companies promise. Yule Log Origin Is Unknown No one really knows exactly the origin, or even the meaning, of the Yule log. We know, however, that it is of pre-Christian origin. Ancient Druids burned it with great ceremony to celebrate the beginning of the winter season. In some lands even today, the Yule log is decorated with flowers and wreaths, adorned with wicks then put in the fireplace and set ablaze. To bring good luck they tall young trees should not be allowed to burn out during the Christmas season. Besides, a part of it has to be kept to start the fire next year. It is believed that the ashes of the Yule log have the power to increase the fertility of the land. In ancient times the farmers scatter the ashes over their land on New Year's Day. Another tale that came to us from pre-Christian times has to do with the mistletoe. Once the mistletoe was used as a weapon of death. According to Norse mythology, the god of light, named Loke, planned to destroy the god of life-giving warmth Balder. Balder's mother who was the most beautiful of all the goddesses, obtained a promise from all living things that they would not harm Balder. All agreed, except the mistletoe which had been asked. So, it was with a mistletoe arrow that Laki induced a blind giant to kill the god. However, night came and intervened, and Balder was restored to life. The mistletoe was placed under Frigga's care and she, the mother of Balder, says to this day it was never to be used as an instrument of evil. Many Versions On Custom Of Gift Giving Advanced There are many interesting versions as to why the custom of gift giving at Christmas time started. Some believe that it all came from ancient England, where it was once the custom to exchange rings in the form of great balls. These rings were decorated with mistletoe and were the key for a pleasant holiday pastime. It is said that the ladies of the household would come to the kissing rings with Christmas roses for their secret sweetheart. This started it all. Now gift giving is traditional. Christmas Seals First Appeared In Denmark Ask the "man on the street" who invented Christmas Seals and his answer will probably be, "The National Tuberculosis Association." It's true that the first seals sold by the association for the purpose of raising money to help stamp out tuberculosis — however this occurred four years and thousands of miles away from the point of origin. The idea of seals for use in charity fund raising was conceived by a postal clerk in Denmark in 1893. Einar Holboell mentioned his plan to his fellow workers who began to help him with enthusiasm. The idea reached King Christian, who approved, and the image of the Danish Queen Louise appeared on the first seals in 1894. Jacobs Ring, Danish-born American, saw these charity letters and packages arriving to this country from Denmark. In 1907, a magazine article, which he wrote about seals, attracted the attention of a Red Cross worker, Miss Emily Bissell. She was concerned about the fate of a small sanatorium and decided to use the idea in its behalf. The first seal in America, designed by Miss Bissell, was a wreath of holly encircling the name "Merry Christmas." She promptly had 60,000 of them printed, but had no way of selling them. The aid of a columnist on a Philadelphia newspaper was enlisted. Within a few weeks $3,000 was collected. The following year, a nationwide sale was held. It was supported by the Red Cross and groups all over the country — and sponsored by the American Red Cross and the National Tuberculosis Association. Season's greetings May your name be right up at the top of Santa's list to receive a bountiful measure of all of the good things that make this joyous holiday season so richly rewarding... love and laughter; good fellowship and good cheer; friendships strengthened; cherished memories rekindled; and this above all: a sense of deep contentment. Yes, may your Christmas be a truly merry one! Greetings of the Season May your holiday be aglow with good cheer! Clayton & Imogene York HI-FASHION BEAUTY SALON 912 Alcock MO 4-1171 WISHES SO GAY—WE SEND YOU TODAY! MONARCH Hardware Co. W. E. Bill Ballard 600 W. Brown MO 4-4886 Greetings of the Season We're old-fashioned enough to get sentimental about Christmas...to conjure up visions of happy reunions, stockings hung by the hearth, tinsel hung on the tree. In this hearty spirit, we wish you the season's best! Optimist Clubs OF PAMPA "FRIEND OF THE BOY" GREETINGS We hope your holidays will be as full of warmth and friendliness, as merry and bright as the glad young voices of carol singers. A joyous Christmas to all. Celanese CHEMICAL COMPANY Harassed Expressions Fade When Christmas Carols Ring Our member of the staff as a woman stood in the foyer of a large department store, she was impressed by the troubled and harassed expressions on the faces of many shoppers. It was evident that the observance of a Christmas abounding in material gifts and festivities was not making them happy. Those who were smiling, quiet, and poised were in the minority. Suddenly the human organ of music poured forth its melody of a well-loved carol, and a chorus of voices took up the refrain: "Joy to the world, the Lord is come. Let earth receive her King: Let every heart prepare him room." And heaven and nature sang "Glorying in kindness, gentleness, humility, and strength." Thus it will be evident that the Christ-idea is transforming and reconstructing our lives. The world is speedily if not frantically rearing in fear of universal violence and destruction. What can we do about it? To maintain the peace of the kingdom of heaven in thought and conduct. All who love God are citizens of that kingdom; there is no contradiction between government by God's law and government by God's law where there is only one language, the language of Love, which contains no word that can provoke ill feeling or cause dissension. There peace, progress, justice, and right prevail. Then God is the only ruler, the supreme judge. All who love God are citizens of that kingdom; there is no contradiction between government by God's law and government by God's law where there is only one language, the language of Love, which contains no word that can provoke ill feeling or cause dissension. There peace, progress, justice, and right prevail. Then God is the only ruler, the supreme judge. True Meaning Oft Forgotten Of Christmas "Merry Christmas"—these words ring out clearly during this season! Smiles are warmer, handclaps tighter, laughter—gayer. Christmas is the time for merriment. Though everyone knows the religious significance of Christmas, the popular meaning is lost in the round of gift buying, gift wrapping and gift exchanging. Often the holiday is a trail of anticipating gifts for all potential "givers." It becomes a bit of a "swap" time with the masses getting something for last year, and/or all she did give me that embroidered cloth...or other! But more important of all, more than 600 million people celebrate the natal day of He who is considered the greatest religious leader in history. Although in the 1550 years following His birth, the Christmas celebration has come to be a potpourri of ancient pagan ceremonies as old Christmas legends point out, the essence of the day is "it is more blessed of give than receive." And this simple statement gives credence to the jolly aid Santa who represents the spirit of Christmas. As the Christmas bells ring out the message of peace and goodwill, brotherhood and tolerance, giving and receiving come to the fore in His name. Indulgent adults say "Christmas is for the children," but it is the older generation who molds and patterns of the observance. Make this a real Christmas! Unite the family in tree trimming festivities and sing the carols and listen well to the words...and join friends and neighbors at the church of your choice. Plan to make His day a family day—the Christmas Story begins with "once upon a time there was a Father, a Mother and a CHILD..." Two Christmas Song Composers Born In 1685 It's strange but true: Two of the most famous composers of Christmas music were both born in the same year, 1685, lived for many years within thirty miles of each other—and yet they never met! The composers were Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel. Handel's "Messiah" will be heard, at least in part, in numerous churches and schools throughout the country. "Joy to the World" is taken from the "Messiah." The musical theme of "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks" also comes from this masterpiece. From Bach's "Christmas Oratorio" come the themes of several of his most popular choruses. He is the beneficent Father of all, who is understood by all, worshipped by other well known choruses. He is all, and known by all... Nut Bowl Holds Popular Place During Holidays Nuts from around the world go into your holiday nut bowl. Like Christmas traditions, the nuts so popular at this time of year are a mixture of many varieties from different histories. The English walnut, for instance, is not English at all. It originated in Asia, centuries ago, and was grown on American soil and experts are constantly searching for more kinds of nuts to transplant to this century. Read the News Classified Ads Greetings of the Season Merrit holiday wishes to you, friends and neighbors, and a full measure of the best things in life for now and always. BAILEY'S Package Store 830 E. Frederic Ph. MO 9-9178 Carols Date Far Back Into Ages The giving of gifts has been an important part of the holiday season ever since the Wise Men and shepherds brought gifts to the Holy Child in Bethlehem. Gifts expressing goodwill have given men all over the world at this time, but the bearer of these differs from country to country. After the Christmas Eve feast in Poland, Mother Bar, who is dressed like an angel in a white robe, rides on a donkey to bring the gifts after Father Bar, who is a bit to be feared, listens to the children's prayers and catechism. In Norway, they remember the birds and animals with seed and choice sheaves of grain tied to trees and roof tops; extra fodder in provision for the cattle. Candles shine from every window in Bavaria to light the Kriskind on her way home from the forest, is the patron saint of the Infant Jesus and Bavarian children believe that she brings them their gifts. She wears a white robe much like Saint Nicholas. In Holland, Dutch children wait anxiously for the arrival of St. Nicholas. Dressed in a traditional Bishop's robe, he carries a crozier and wears a mitre. He brings gifts for the children which he places in their shoes standing in the chimney corner. Gifts are given to the Swiss children by a radiant angel who rides in a sleigh drawn by six deer. English children look for Father Christmas who puts gifts in their stockings. They also find gifts tied to Christmas trees. In Spain, the Three Wise Men deliver gifts as they continue their way to Bethlehem. "La Befana," the mystical wanderer, in search of the Christ Child, delivers the gifts to the children in Italy. She is represented carrying a broom and goes from house to house. U.S. Leading Yule Tree Buyer The United States is the world's market leader in the Christmas tree industry — a better than $50,000,000 business. The majority of our Christmas trees come from New England, New York and Pennsylvania, the cut trees early in the new year, north Midwest, and the North and South with preservatives west Pacific regions. In recent years, solutions for storage years, New Jersey has annually been chilled warehouses. Magis Were Priests Of Old Most of the trees for Christmas sales are cut early in the fall and the trees are kept green with plenty of water until shipped to the stores. The Magi were priests of an ancient Persian religion called Zoroastrianism. The Greek historian Herodotus gives considerable information about their influence in a society which existed four hundred years before Christ's birth. According to Herodotus, the Magi were powerful in public and private affairs. They conducted the education of the young princes, and were in constant attendance upon the king as counselors. This description of a Magi appears in the story of the coming of Zoroaster: "Then shouldst thou be priest, who sith the whole night thru and veerans for holy wisdom that enables man to stand upon double beams, and to find his happy heart, the wisdom where by he attains the holy and glorious world of paradise." The three Magi, or Wise Men, who followed the Star of Bethlehem and brought gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh, were the first to recognize the importance of the birth of the Christ child. Christmas Posers Given How much do you and your family really know about Christmas? Try this one on them when they least expect it. Children and adults will enjoy matching wits and everybody will learn something more about Christmas. 1. The Christmas custom of kissing under the mistletoe started in (a) Norway, (b) Russia, (c) Holland, (d) England. 2. The story of the birth of Jesus is described in which two books of the New Testament? (a) John, (b) St. Matthew, (c) St. Luke, (d) St. Mark? 3. The national Christmas tree of America is located in (a) Indianapolis, (b) New York, (c) Washington, D.C., (d) California? 4. Who wrote "The Night Before Christmas?" (a) Longfellow, (b) Frost, (c) Moore? 5. There is only one town in the world named Santa Claus. It is located in (a) Holland, (b) England, (c) Finland. 6. Tuberculosis Christmas seals originated in (a) America, (b) England, (c) Denmark. 7. The custom of hanging bally in the window on Christmas was originally started in (a) Spain, (b) France, (c) Italy. 8. The word "Noel" means (a) new, (b) holiday, (c) born. Christmas Poser Answer: 1. a; 2. b; c; 3. d; 4. c; 5. c; 6. c; 7. n; 8. b; 9. d; 10. c. Games Make Yule Joyful Christmas is the time for family get-togethers. One of the best ways to make these gatherings memorable for all concerned is to engage in games which the whole group can play. A nice one to start off with would be a Sugar Plum Hunt. Have one member of the family hide the plum, causing them to hide in various nooks and crannies around the house. At a given signal everyone starts hunting and gathering the plum. The one who gathers the greatest number would be given a prize. The Christmas puzzle is another good way to get things going. Look through some magazines, which are filled with pictures of Santa Claus at this time of year. Cut out enough of these pictures and paste them on stiff cardboard, and cut them into pieces. Then put each group of pieces in a separate paper bag. At the signal, everyone opens a bag and starts putting the puzzle together. The Christmas Scrabble Contest is a good one for both adults and children in it. This is simply a contest to see who can unscramble a group of words the fastest. Just for fun, use if you can work out the following: (a) pridin, ehgill, dynca, gosinkt, erte, trepam, hupne, alsorc and nibhor. Merry Christmas Wasn't Always So In America About this time of the year there's a lot written, said and sung about the Magi. Just who were the Magi, anyway? The Magi were priests of an ancient Persian religion called Zoroastrianism. The Greek historian Herodotus gives considerable information about their influence in a society which existed four hundred years before Christ's birth. According to Herodotus, the Magi were powerful in public and private affairs. They conducted the education of the young princes, and were in constant attendance upon the king as counselors. Christmas Posers Given How much do you and your family really know about Christmas? Try this one on them when they least expect it. Children and adults will enjoy matching wits and everybody will learn something more about Christmas. 1. The Christmas custom of kissing under the mistletoe started in (a) Norway, (b) Russia, (c) Holland, (d) England. 2. The story of the birth of Jesus is described in which two books of the New Testament? (a) John, (b) St. Matthew, (c) St. Luke, (d) St. Mark? 3. The national Christmas tree of America is located in (a) Indianapolis, (b) New York, (c) Washington, D.C., (d) California? 4. Who wrote "The Night Before Christmas?" (a) Longfellow, (b) Frost, (c) Moore? 5. There is only one town in the world named Santa Claus. It is located in (a) Holland, (b) England, (c) Finland. 6. Tuberculosis Christmas seals originated in (a) America, (b) England, (c) Denmark. 7. The custom of hanging bally in the window on Christmas was originally started in (a) Spain, (b) France, (c) Italy. 8. The word "Noel" means (a) new, (b) holiday, (c) born. Christmas Poser Answer: 1. a; 2. b; c; 3. d; 4. c; 5. c; 6. c; 7. n; 8. b; 9. d; 10. c. Games Make Yule Joyful Christmas is the time for family get-togethers. One of the best ways to make these gatherings memorable for all concerned is to engage in games which the whole group can play. A nice one to start off with would be a Sugar Plum Hunt. Have one member of the family hide the plum, causing them to hide in various nooks and crannies around the house. At a given signal everyone starts hunting and gathering the plum. The one who gathers the greatest number would be given a prize. The Christmas puzzle is another good way to get things going. Look through some magazines, which are filled with pictures of Santa Claus at this time of year. Cut out enough of these pictures and paste them on stiff cardboard, and cut them into pieces. Then put each group of pieces in a separate paper bag. At the signal, everyone opens a bag and starts putting the puzzle together. The Christmas Scrabble Contest is a good one for both adults and children in it. This is simply a contest to see who can unscramble a group of words the fastest. Just for fun, use if you can work out the following: (a) pridin, ehgill, dynca, gosinkt, erte, trepam, hupne, alsorc and nibhor. Carols Date Back For Centuries Christmas season is near crisp nights, with its sparkling lights... and Christmas Carols ringing across the scene! Many of the carols we hear during Christmas have been handed down generation to generation, century by century. Chances have been made in sound and music according to the changing times, but most of the Christmas songs will be just as you might have heard them hundreds of years ago. According to the Bible story of Christmas, the first carol was sung by a chorus of angels — the "Glory in Excelsis Deo," "Glory to God in the Highest." The early settlers in America brought many of the old European carols to our country, thus giving us a heritage of music no other country in the world enjoys. "Auld Lang Syne," which we also sing with the words "Come All Ye Faithful," long a traditional hymn, has an unknown origin. "Aw ay in a Manager," Lithuanian, came originally from Germany. "God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen" from England and the lovely "O Holy Night" from France, are among the famous "Silent Night, Holy Night." Americans, too, have contributed to our rich heritage of Christmas music. The Unitarian minister Edmund H. Sears composed "It Came Upon a Midnight Clear." Perhaps the best known and most beloved of all American carols, "O Little Town of Bethlehem," was written in 1888 by Phillips Brooks, a young Episcopalian minister. The gay holiday song, "Jingle Bells," has been popular for almost a century and was composed by another American, churchman, John Pierpont. Our big selection of Christmas carols, with their connotations of the friendly, joyful spirit of the season... and are loved by all! Greetings We extend glad greetings to all our friends and neighbors. May you find happiness with your near and dear ones, and may heart's content be among your holiday gifts. 3 Isles Are Named For Christmas Although Santa Claus doesn't live on any of them, there are three islands in the world named Christmas. One is the largest atoll in the Pacific Ocean. It was discovered in 1777 by Cook, and annexed by Great Britain in 1888. The island is about 100 miles round and less than 100 people live on it. They earn their livelihood by cultivating the island's coconut groves. Another Christmas island is located in the Indian ocean, 200 miles south of Madagascar. It is 13 miles long by nine miles wide. Surrounded by ocean depths of 14,000 feet, 1905. HUNDRED SOUSA'S VISIT Austria, in 1935, gave a special medal in honor of the 80th anniversary of the visit of John Philip Sousa and his band to Vienna in 1905. RUSK SON ENGAGED SCARSDALE, N.Y. (UPI) — David P. Rusk, 20, oldest son of Secretary of State-designate Dean Rusk, will be married next summer to an Argentine girl. Young bride is Miss Maria Delcie Bence Spinosa, also 20, when she came here as a foreign exchange student in 1957. Both currently are students at the University of California at Berkeley. Read the News Classified Ads Heath's Men Wear PAMPA'S OWN QUALITY MEN'S STORE COMBS-WORLEY BLDG. - PH. MO 4-2141-PAMPA, TEXAS Pampa Coca-Cola Bottling Company 1515 N. Hobart Dominican Yule Parties Are Titled 'Aguinaldos' CIUDAD TRUJILLO — (UP) — Gay Christmas parties called "aguinaldos" characterize the holiday season in the tropical Dominican Republic where there are palm trees instead of snow. U.S. officials say the Caribbean country at this season of the year will witness a blend of traditional Spanish observance of Christmas and Yuletide holidays, as well as Dominican celebrations which are unduplicated anywhere else in the Spanish-speaking world. The week before Christmas Eve, every Dominican club and social center organizes its own Christmas party. Groups of young men and women perform grand marches and parade dances for the holiday season. Participants and guests sing traditional folk songs known as aguinaldos, a term applied to the parties in general. These songs, sparkling with humor and gaiety may, perhaps, be compared with "Good Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen," or "Jingle Bells." On the evening of Dec. 23, small groups of "yungeros" take to the streets in party clothes for midnight calls at friends' houses. One of the favorite songs for this occasion is "Sobre la Puerta" (Open the Door), stanzas, of course, from the Biblical story of the search by Mary and Joseph for shelter on the eve of the birth of Jesus. Dominican youth, however, saving its religious observance for Christmas or Christmas Eve religious observance, uses the night of Dec. 23 for merrymaking. Dance music is usually provided by a trio of accordions, drums and tambourine, dried, notched gourd scratched with a piece of wire). Everyone dances the intricate merengue, the lilting Dominican dance that rivals the mamba in the West Indies. At the aguinaldos there is always plenty of exotic Spanish and Dominican food, including fruits, but dishes, and Dominican coffee and rum. A week before Christmas Eve, religious observances begin in Dominican churches, which are headed by the oldest cathedral of the New World, the Cathedral of Santa Domingo in the capital. In it are the remains of Christopher Columbus. Daily masses offer Dominican expressions of thanks for the birth of the Savior before magnificent decorations, altars, and special masses are embellished further with massed choral singing and playing of musical instruments such as small bells, tambourines and the blowing of whistles. Working up to a climax on Christmas night with the traditional Spanish mina de gallo, or Midnight Mass. Unlike the customary non-Latin Christmas observance, Dominican priests wait for Jan. 6 to give their Christmas gifts. This holiday, Epiphany, or the Day of the Wise Men, comes when the three kings, which altar, Gaspar and Melchior arrived at the Manger in Bethlehem with their rich gifts from the East. First Yule Card Sent In 1843 One hundred and twenty years ago, the English educator and art patron Henry Cole, asked his friend J. C. Horsley, an artist to design a card for him. On it he wrote the now classic greeting, "Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year to You." He produced a thousand lithographed copies, which were then hand tinted by a process called "colored." That December, early in the month, Cole posted some of the cards to his friends, and offered the remainder for sale in a London stationers shop. There was all probability, were the very first Christmas cards ever printed! Christmas cards appeared in America only shortly thereafter. Their early origin is uncertain, but one story gives credit for the first Yule greetings to a New York State dry goods merchant, Robert Pears of Albany. Cole designed, printed and mailed out the first examples of American Christmas Cards as an advertisement for his firm. The "famous" of the American Christmas card is Louis Prang. He created exquisite, beautiful cards in his lithograph shop in Boston in 1859. Soon he was selling his cards all over the United States for several dollars each. Many as many as a few of Prang's card appeared in as many as 20 colors. Very few of them used Christmas scenes, instead were pictures of flower designs of spring flowers, harvest scenes and pictures of children playing. From that small beginning in Boston grew a demand for cards that is so great today, that many large companies work year 'round to turn out billions of cards of every description. Dickens' 'Christmas Carol' Still Classic "Once upon a time — of all the good days in the year, on Christmas Eve — old Scrooge sat busy in his counting-house. It was cold business, and a foggy winter; and he could hear the people in the court outside, go wheezing up and down, beating their hands against the pavement stones, and their feet upon the pavement stones to warm them. The city clock had only just struck three, and it was quite dark already; it had not been light all day — and candles were flaring in the windows of the neighboring offices, like ruddy ambers upon palpable brown air. Thus is the scene set for one of the greatest classics of the English language, "A Christmas Carol." And Dickens proceeds in his inimitable prose to create a realistic and all too believable story of Christmas. From his matchless pen steps the immortal Scrooge, Bob Cratchit and Tiny Tim. This was the first of a series of Christmas stories which include "The Chimes," "The Cricket on the Hearth," "The Battle of Life" and "The Haunted Men." But it had the instant popularity and continuing appeal of the "Christmas Carol." Here, Dickens embodied the festivity, the good will, the true spirit of Christmas that other writers have been able to capture. Dickens himself knew very little of the comfort and happiness in the early 1800s. He was born in a sordid slum area in Portsmouth, England. His father was in a debtors prison most of Dickens childhood. Dickens was acquainted with poverty and distress, but in his works is no mark of bitterness or spite. Much criticism, however, has been directed at his note of reform through melodrama and social sentimentality. Actually this does not affect his art, for his crusading motive are overshadowed by the enduring qualities of his characters. Every character that Dickens touched became alive from his genius. He asked nothing for a donation for the poor, to his little sister, Fran. His sense of words is exquisite, and his ability to coin the uncoined, is supreme. There is "Mr. and Mrs. Fezziwig," for that matter, a "Tiny Tim." In an instant the character is drawn and colored. But perhaps the most miraculous quality Dickens possessed was that of envyless and clear-eyed vision. His plate with a cloak of fantasy, so that while you are reading about the kind of people who live next door, or even down your groceries, you can find yourself in an aura of spiritual poesy. So, as you read and hear again this ageless Christmas carol, and sit in front of the fire at the peaceful Christmas dinner, you may pause to wonder about the magnificent Englishman who wrote it. Who was Charles Dickens? And a biographical dictionary was but a banner in the sun, the man, his genius, his novels, the dancing shadows." So, for long years to come, as long indeed as any of us reads this book, we find shelter in his books in time of our tribulation and times of our joy. And there in this deep shelter, waits for us the power that possessed Charles Dickens — his love, his indignation, his genius, his unshakable faith in human freedom, his impassioned conviction that in the end good must conquer evil." Liquor Plays Fatal Role On Holidays Last year almost 800 people lost their lives over the Christmas Holiday, more than half of them because of alcohol. This Christmas season has become a season of mourning. All over the nation, grim headlines will follow in the wake of Santa's sleigh with the drunken driver, too much cheese and too little caution on the road afterward. There are more auto accidents on Christmas Eve than any other day. The principal reason: drivers who have been drinking. No driver should ever forget that having more than one ounce of alcohol in one hour, makes you a "dangerous" driver! Traffic accidents on Christmas Eve have reached a staggering total in recent years. New Year's Eve is a close second. In 1987, 700 people on Christmas vacation resulted in 706 fatalities! Last year there were "only" 580 people killed. Between forty-eight and fifty percent of these deaths were caused by drunken drivers, or by drivers who had something to drink, according to the National Highway Council. Police and traffic authorities everywhere agree that the drunken driver, even the mildly intoxicated, is more dangerous on the highway than the speedster, reckless driver, thrill seeker or thoughtless driver. Merry Christmas All aboard for the merriest Yuletide ever... bright with good cheer, light with laughter and filled with the warmth of close friendships and family reunions. And to our host of friends and neighbors we send good wishes for the Holiday Season and offer our deep appreciation for their continued loyalty and good will. Dorothy Freeman Jewell Howell Fannie Oliver Marilyn Myatt John Wright Christine Baker Lucile Husted Nancy Cleveland Margie Smith Elmo Wright Fine Feminine Fashions 222 N. Cuyler MO 4-5633 The Fashion Corner of Pampa Merry Christmas Christmas comes But Once a Year—and with it, Our Sincere Christmas Wish for Lots of Good Cheer! The Pampa Daily News	8b35069e-2eee-491b-a106-0bc4d1fa33ea	CC-MAIN-2023-14	http://newspapers.swco.ttu.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.12255/160547/Pampa_Daily_News_1960_12_23.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y	2023-03-23T04:41:53+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296944996.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20230323034459-20230323064459-00705.warc.gz	35,560,092	22,802	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99034	eng_Latn	0.998888	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 5642, 11937, 13655, 26814, 29571, 32355, 32821, 40552, 47192, 52835, 59829, 63616, 71334, 78603, 88555, 97779, 97915 ]	[ 1.234375, 2.09375 ]	1	0
Their Way of Life Archeologists cannot write the same kind of history for prehistoric times that professional historians write for historic periods because their sources of information are of such a different kind. Archeologists literally have to "dig" for their data. Then they have to interpret critically the facts they learn from the actual excavated areas and from the specimens found there. Frequently workers in other specialized fields are asked for help in the interpretation: in analyzing geological strata, in identifying animal bones or plant remains, in analyzing metal fragments. Ascertaining the sequence of cultures, that is, working out the relative chronology, is another important and sometimes intricate problem that has to be solved in order to reconstruct the past. So it comes about that the kind of history the archeologist ultimately produces is basically a history of past societies as revealed by archeological cultures. He is able to show which culture preceded another, define the geographical extent of certain cultures, reveal which contemporaneous ones were related and which developed from another, and finally, describe the way of life of the various cultural groups. There is no discussion of personalities, of reigns or administrations. There are very few dates. Absolute dates for the use of the archeologist result from dendrochronology (tree ring studies) or radiocarbon calculations. They are highly valuable, but as yet, for many areas, they are few and far between. A middlewestern archivist-historian recently characterized the contribution of archeology to the history of the American Indian as only "remote and conjectural." It is true, of course, that archeological interpretation involves setting up working hypotheses to explain facts and their significance. But as the accumulation of factual data has increased by leaps and bounds in the past twenty years, the hypotheses have come to rest upon firmer and firmer foundations, well beyond the bounds of mere conjecture. Particularly is this so when a culture extends into the historic period and can be linked to a known Indian tribe. Such is the situation with the Orr focus Oneota materials described hereafter. These cultural remains are found in village and cemetery sites from the mouth of the Upper Iowa River upstream for over fifty miles where they dwindle out beyond Decorah, Iowa. However, they seem to be concentrated along the lower river, in the area where Dr. Keyes and Mr. Orr conducted their excavations. They are found also along some of the lower tributaries, as Bear and Waterloo creeks. Almost identical remains have also been located in southeastern Minnesota, notably along Riceford Creek, a tributary of the Root River in Houston County. How long did these Indians (the Ioways and possibly the Otos) live here, just west of the Mississippi River in the northeastern Iowa and southeastern Minnesota region? They were here in the 1680's, very likely in the middle of the 17th century when visited by the Ottawas and Hurons, and possibly for many years before that. Absence of white contact material at some of these terrace villages, and its presence at others, suggests a sequence of occupation in the area; whereas several villages with, and several without, trade objects would imply occupation of more than one village at a time. In the middle 18th century, the Ioways were said to number 200 to 250 warriors. This would mean a total population of 600 to 1000, depending upon the computing ratio used. Such a population figure was probably applicable to the late 17th century also, and could account for several contemporaneous villages. So could the added presence of the related Otos—a smaller group than the Ioways. Another interesting consideration is that the people may not have lived together as a tightly coherent "tribe" under a powerful tribal "chief" in the familiar modern concept of Indian life. There is pertinent evidence that, instead, these Indians may have lived in several extended family groups. The groups would have consisted of a single clan (a gens), with everyone related through the male line of descent, or several such clans may have lived together. Each group would have been self-governed with the head of the clan an important authoritative leader. All together the several units would have formed a loose confederation. Such a pattern of autonomous kin-grouped villages seems to have been the early village plan of the Oto and Winnebago Indians — relatives of the Ioways. A confederation like this has been called a "small nationality" by the well-known anthropologist, Dr. A. L. Kroeber. Although functioning separately in the routine of daily life, the combined villages would have been recognized as a unit since all the people spoke exactly the same language, had the same customs, and had a strong "likemindedness." Moreover, in certain circumstances, when it was advantageous for the villages to function together as a larger unit, as on the summer buffalo hunt or in connection with certain ceremonies, they would join in concerted action. In historic times, under the pressure of coping with the white man's demands, such confederacies were apparently forced into the more tightly-knit units identified as tribes today. It would seem that existence for these Indian groups on the Upper Iowa River must have been fairly peaceful from an Indian viewpoint. At least there are no fortifications of any sort, nor remains of any weapons except arrowpoints. Certain circular earthworks have been ascribed to the Oneota culture, but it is likely that they were built at an earlier time by Woodland peoples. The terrace villages were probably occupied by someone most of the year around, although during the period of the village buffalo hunt in mid-summer months only a few would be there, and during the winter, there may have been some exodus by small family groups to more protected wooded river-bank locations nearby. But they were permanent villages in the sense that here gardens were planted year after year, and to these villages the hunting parties returned. If asked where their villages were, the Ioways would undoubtedly have described this general location. It was home. No evidence of Indian houses was found by Dr. Keyes and Mr. Orr on the village terraces. This suggests that they were rectangular or elliptical structures built with a pole framework and covered with bark slabs or reed matting, and with a central fireplace, like the dwellings used by Indians living in the woodland areas to the east. Frequent plowing would soon have destroyed the only certain vestiges of their existence — the fireplaces and post-holes. Many pits dug into the ground to serve as small storage cellars were found; in fact, more than fifty were dug out at the Lane site. Some may have been within houses, serving as closets do nowadays for stowing away personal possessions and provisions, but most were probably outside and used only for food storage. The ultimate use of many of them for trash containers — where broken tools, pottery and food remains were thrown — often makes them a rich source of information for the archeologist. The year long pattern of village life undoubtedly accommodated itself to the essential economic pattern. Although gardening was important, as noted earlier, hunting was equally or more so. The excavations yielded large amounts of bones of deer, elk, and smaller mammals, as well as of wild turkey and other birds. Hunting for small game would have gone on all the time close at hand. Hunting buffalo was a different matter. The animals moved in large herds in seasonal migrations north and south, and for several reasons they were not suitable game for a few hunters on foot to kill, or to carry home. They required an organized village hunt. The reward was great, however, for buffalo furnished an abundance of tasty meat, large hides for clothing, blankets, tipi covers, and other purposes, as well as bones for hoes, perforators, and other tools. The hunting and corn-growing Indians who lived westward on the edge of the short-grass Plains in early contact times were accustomed to go on summer and winter village hunts that lasted several months and involved very elaborate ceremonialism. Some of the Indians who lived in the woodlands east of the Upper Iowa River also had summer village hunts, but they were usually shorter, simpler affairs. We do not know which hunting pattern the Orr focus Oneota people followed more closely, but that they did go on a hunt of this nature at least in the summer is most likely. Father André wrote in 1676 from Green Bay "their [the Ioways] greatest Wealth consists of ox-hides [buffalo hides] and Red Calumets [catalinite pipes]." The hunt would have taken place after the corn was hoed twice and could be left untended to grow to maturity. It was truly a village proposition in that everyone would go who was able, carrying tipis and other necessary equipment. At this period the Ioways probably had no horses — there is no such evidence in the excavations or early documents — so the hunt entailed a march of many miles. A special staff of officers would have been appointed to guide and control the movement. A certain amount of ritualism that attended the whole procedure would have added further discipline. These Oneota culture people probably searched for the buffalo to the west and southwest of their villages. Even as late as the early 19th century, in mid-July, Lt. Stephen W. Kearny noted a herd of 5000 buffalo on the upper Raccoon River. The buffalo herds were approached by stealth, surrounded, and the animals killed by bow and arrow. When each herd kill was made, the women would butcher immediately. A hearty feast, probably spiced by pleasure of success and noisy conviviality, would follow. Then the women would begin to dry and prepare the meat for transportation back to the village and to clean and cure the hides. It would be a heavily loaded caravan that plodded eastward on the return trip even though most of the bones had been left at the butchering sites. But succulent sweet corn would be ready for eating when they got home. Wild berries and fruits, nuts and roots supplemented the meat, corn and bean diet, and the occurrence of fish bones in the refuse pits reveals that these Indians were also fishermen. The profusion of clam shells suggests that mussels too were eaten. There must have been much activity in these Indian villages. All their ornaments of dress, their pipes, and the tools they used in preparation of food, or in skin working, pottery making and other activities, had to be made from stone, bone or shell. The men did the stone chipping, using for the most part local cherts, flints, and jasper. In addition, some use was made of catlinite which is found in Pipestone County, Minnesota, and of Knife River chalcedony and Bijou Hills quartzite from the Dakotas. Whether these foreign materials were procured on special excursions or chiefly through inter-tribal trade is not known. Although many of the tools were quickly made for utility purposes, some of the arrow points and leaf-shaped blades are beautifully shaped and chipped. Their creators were highly skilled craftsmen. Besides chipped stone projectile points and knives, the excavations revealed scrapers for skin working, drills, gravers, and various unspecialized tools. Stone objects shaped by grinding and abrading rather than chipping included hammerstones, chisels, celts, hand grinding stones and mortars, rubbing stones, abraders and pipes. One of the limestone pipes had a little effigy animal head at the end of the bowl stem. From bone were made perforators, needles, chisels, and hoes; and from antler — arrowpoints, flakers, and handles for stone tools. Spoons fashioned from mussel shells had notched and scalloped decorative edges, and handles or hafting tangs made by notching. It was women’s work to make the pottery vessels used for cooking. Perhaps some wooden or birchbark dishes were used, but if so there was no evidence of them remaining in the excavations. The buff-colored pots are basically uniform in shape and decoration, generally varying from quart-sized containers to much larger ones that would hold several gallons. They were made from native clay combined with flaked shell for temper and were fired in open or banked fires, a crude process that resulted in frequent mottled color. The shape is usually that of a round or elliptical globular jar, somewhat flattened in its vertical dimension, with a rim that inclines outward at the opening, and with two opposing strap-handles. Decoration was simple both in technique and in design motifs. The edges of the rim were scalloped or notched, somewhat as a pie crust edge is crinkled. The trailed or incised lines and punch marks on the jar body, usually forming rectilinear designs, were frequently imprecise as if done quickly or inattentively. Obviously pottery making procedures were strongly traditional, passed from mother to daughter as a routine matter. Most of the personal ornaments found in the course of digging were bone or shell beads. There was also a shell pendant, and some copper beads, ear coils, and serpent shapes. Some of the metal objects have offered a puzzling problem in interpretation. Although brass indicates white contact, copper ornaments may be made either from trade copper kettles, or from native Lake Superior copper. It is important to distinguish between the two because of their time implications, especially if no glass beads or other articles of European manufacture are present to verify a post-white contact dating. The surest way to distinguish is by qualitative and quantitative spectrochemical tests of the metal, along with metallographic ones. Recent spectrochemical tests on the Upper Iowa River specimens suggest that some of the objects were of native manufacture made from either Lake Superior float copper (chunks carried southward by glacial action) or from copper procured at surface outcroppings near Lake Superior, either directly or in inter-tribal trade. The copper would be pounded cold or hammered when hot into thin sheets. From these sheets, rolled tubes or large cones were made which served for beads, ear dangles, or for other decorative purposes. The interesting serpent shape was made by folding in half lengthwise a strip of the thin metal originally c. 2½" long and ¼" wide. That was then hammered flat and bent into three arcs with a tiny loop for a head. Delicate ear coils that would "clip" onto the edge of the ear were made by folding a strip of copper in upon itself from two sides, making a 3-ply strip only 1/16" wide. This was then wound around a stick or little finger making a coil 5/16" in diameter. There are four or five rounds in each of the preserved coils. Rings were made in a similar way. The excavations revealed little of the ceremonial life of these Indians who lived on the Upper Iowa River, although that surely was a highly important phase of their existence. Certain traditional burial practices were noted when the cemeteries were investigated. It was customary to place the body on its back in a grave in full attire. With the body were usually placed objects that may have represented the person's special abilities or rank in the social group. It is a matter of record that among the Ioways there were three classes of society in early times: "chiefs," "braves," and "commoners." Although some burials did not have any objects specially placed with them, and some had definitely more than others, it is unsatisfactory upon present evidence to try to correlate them with any class distinctions. It is known that in 1676 curious Ioways visited the French at Green Bay. Perhaps it was on this visit that they got some of the blue glass beads, the iron knives, or the brass coils found with burials at several sites. Or perhaps they got some of them through Nicholas Perrot who was in their area in the early 1680's and who actually visited an Ioway village in 1685. Certainly the scantiness of trade materials at the sites excavated — the absence of substitution of metal pots for clay ones and metal tools for stone and bone ones — and the lack of gun parts, all suggest that these were the first trade articles these Indians had received. That they cherished them is illustrated by their placing such objects with the dead. That they wanted more after Perrot's visit is illustrated in La Potherie's comment, "Their eagerness to obtain French merchandise induced them to go away to hunt beaver . . . and for this purpose they penetrated far inland." In 1688 in Montreal, Perrot engaged a Frenchman, Mousseaux "dit Laviolette," to make an expedition just to the Ioways to trade European-made goods for beaver skins. But before trade goods in any abundance had reached the Ioways, they had moved westward, perhaps into the region of the Blue Earth River or farther west into what is now Clay County, where Dr. Keyes reported sites with cultural remains similar to those on the Upper Iowa River. Whether the Ioways left in order to live nearer untrapped beaver streams or whether attacks from other tribes were the underlying cause is not known. It is certain beyond question, however, that this move signalled the beginning of the disintegration of their native culture and of their cherished independence. 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