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Anthropology
Textbooks and key theoretical works
Textbooks and key theoretical works
Anthropology
External links
External links Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology. (AIO) Category:Behavioural sciences Category:Humans
Anthropology
Table of Content
Short description, Etymology, Origin and development of the term, Through the 19th century, 20th and 21st centuries, Fields, Sociocultural, Biological, Archaeological, Linguistic, Ethnography, Key topics by field: sociocultural, Art, media, music, dance and film, Art, Media, Music, Visual, Economic, political economic,...
Agricultural science
short description
Agricultural science (or agriscience for short) is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agricul...
Agricultural science
History
History In the 18th century, Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate) as a fertilizer.John Armstrong, Jesse Buel. A Treatise on Agriculture, The Present Condition of the Art Abroad and at Home, and the Theory and Practice of Husbandry. To which is Added, a Dissertati...
Agricultural science
Prominent agricultural scientists
Prominent agricultural scientists thumb|200px|Norman Borlaug, father of the Green Revolution. Wilbur Olin Atwater Robert Bakewell Norman Borlaug Luther Burbank George Washington Carver Carl Henry Clerk George C. Clerk René Dumont Sir Albert Howard Kailas Nath Kaul Thomas Lecky Justus von Liebig Jay Laurenc...
Agricultural science
Fields or related disciplines
Fields or related disciplines
Agricultural science
Scope
Scope Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy are closely related. However, they cover different concepts: Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research...
Agricultural science
Research topics
Research topics Agricultural sciences include research and development on: Improving agricultural productivity in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of drought-resistant crops and animals, development of new pesticides, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro cell culture tec...
Agricultural science
See also
See also Agricultural Research Council Agricultural sciences basic topics Agriculture ministry Agroecology American Society of Agronomy Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Crop Science Society of America Genomics of domestication History of agricultural science Indian Council of ...
Agricultural science
References
References
Agricultural science
Further reading
Further reading Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy ReportAgricultural research, livelihoods, and poverty | International Food Policy Research Institute...
Agricultural science
Table of Content
short description, History, Prominent agricultural scientists, Fields or related disciplines, Scope, Research topics, See also, References, Further reading
Alchemy
Short description
thumb|upright=1.3|Depiction of an Ouroboros from the alchemical treatise (15th century), Zentralbibliothek Zürich, Switzerland Alchemy (from the Arabic word , ) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practised in China, India, the Muslim world, ...
Alchemy
Etymology
Etymology The word alchemy comes from old French alquemie, alkimie, used in Medieval Latin as . This name was itself adopted from the Arabic word (). The Arabic in turn was a borrowing of the Late Greek term khēmeía (), also spelled khumeia () and khēmía (), with al- being the Arabic definite article 'the'. Toget...
Alchemy
History
History Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and genetic relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear ...
Alchemy
Hellenistic Egypt
Hellenistic Egypt thumb|Ambix, cucurbit and retort of Zosimos, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888) The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and re...
Alchemy
Mythology
Mythology Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchem...
Alchemy
Technology
Technology The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the Roman emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have surviv...
Alchemy
Philosophy
Philosophy Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were...
Alchemy
Byzantium
Byzantium Greek alchemy was preserved in medieval Byzantine manuscripts after the fall of Egypt, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period.
Alchemy
India
India The 2nd millennium BC text Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third-century AD text called Arthashastra which provides ingredients of explosives (Agniyoga) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains (Yavakshara...
Alchemy
Islamic world
Islamic world thumb|upright|15th-century artistic impression of Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was b...
Alchemy
East Asia
East Asia Researchers have found evidence that Chinese alchemists and philosophers discovered complex mathematical phenomena that were shared with Arab alchemists during the medieval period. Discovered in BC China, the "magic square of three" was propagated to followers of Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān at some point ove...
Alchemy
Medieval Europe
Medieval Europe thumb|"An illuminated page from a book on alchemical processes and receipts", ca. 15th century The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy") from an Arabic work attri...
Alchemy
Renaissance and early modern Europe
Renaissance and early modern Europe During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, Marsilio Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of ...
Alchemy
Later modern period
Later modern period thumb|upright|Robert Boyle thumb|right|An alchemist, pictured in Charles Mackay's Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for...
Alchemy
Women
Women Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names four women who were able to make the philosophers' stone: Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia.Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. p. 78. Zosimos's sister Theosebia (later known a...
Alchemy
Modern historical research
Modern historical research The history of alchemy has become a recognized subject of academic study.Lawrence Principe. The Secrets of Alchemy. University of Chicago Press, 2015. As the language of the alchemists is analysed, historians are becoming more aware of the connections between that discipline and other facet...
Alchemy
Core concepts
Core concepts thumb|Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From Spiegel der Kunst und Natur. Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the classical ele...
Alchemy
Magnum opus
Magnum opus The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colours. nigredo, a blackening or melanosis albedo, a whitening or leucosis citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosisJoseph Needham. Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and...
Alchemy
Modernity
Modernity Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century diffusion of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy in the 19th and 20th centuries was influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those...
Alchemy
Esoteric interpretations of historical texts
Esoteric interpretations of historical texts In the eyes of a variety of modern esoteric and Neo-Hermetic practitioners, alchemy is primarily spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.Antoine Faivre, Wouter J....
Alchemy
Psychology
Psychology Alchemical symbolism has been important in analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Jung was initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images but after being given a copy of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chinese ...
Alchemy
Literature
Literature Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling, and also the popular Japanese manga Fullmetal Alchemist. Here, characters or plot s...
Alchemy
Science
Science One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by means of traditional chemistry, but possible by other physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, gold was synthesized in particle accelerators as early as 1941.
Alchemy
See also
See also Alchemical symbol Chemistry Corentin Louis Kervran § Biological transmutation Cupellation Historicism History of chemistry List of alchemical substances List of alchemists List of obsolete occupations Nuclear transmutation Outline of alchemy Porta Alchemica Renaissance magic Spagyric Supersed...
Alchemy
Notes
Notes
Alchemy
References
References
Alchemy
Citations
Citations
Alchemy
Sources used
Sources used
Alchemy
Bibliography
Bibliography
Alchemy
Introductions and textbooks
Introductions and textbooks (focus on technical aspects) (focus on technical aspects) (general overview) (Greek and Byzantine alchemy) (focus on technical aspects) (Greek and Byzantine alchemy) (the second part of volume 1 was never published; the other volumes deal with the modern period and are no...
Alchemy
Greco-Egyptian alchemy
Greco-Egyptian alchemy
Alchemy
Texts
Texts Marcellin Berthelot and Charles-Émile Ruelle (eds.), Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (CAAG), 3 vols., 1887–1888, Vol 1: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96492923, Vol 2: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9680734p, Vol. 3: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9634942s. André-Jean Festugiè...
Alchemy
Studies
Studies Dylan M. Burns, " μίξεώς τινι τέχνῃ κρείττονι : Alchemical Metaphor in the Paraphrase of Shem (NHC VII,1) ", Aries 15 (2015), p. 79–106. Alberto Camplani, " Procedimenti magico-alchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico " in Giuliana Lanata (ed.), Il Tardoantico alle soglie del Duemila, ETS, 2000, p. 73–98. ...
Alchemy
Early modern
Early modern Principe, Lawrence and William Newman. Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry. University of Chicago Press, 2002.
Alchemy
External links
External links SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism Association for the Study of Esotericism Category:Eastern esotericism Category:Western esotericism Category:Natural philosophy Category:History of science
Alchemy
Table of Content
Short description, Etymology, History, Hellenistic Egypt, Mythology, Technology, Philosophy, Byzantium, India, Islamic world, East Asia, Medieval Europe, Renaissance and early modern Europe, Later modern period, Women, Modern historical research, Core concepts, Magnum opus, Modernity, Esoteric interpretations of histor...
Alien
pp-vandalism
Alien primarily refers to: Alien (law), a person in a country who is not a national of that country Enemy alien, the above in times of war Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth Specifically, a lifeform with extraterrestrial intelligence For fictional extraterrestrial life, see Extraterres...
Alien
Science and technology
Science and technology AliEn (ALICE Environment), a grid framework Alien (file converter), a Linux program Alien Technology, a manufacturer of RFID technology
Alien
Arts and entertainment
Arts and entertainment Alien (franchise), a media franchise Xenomorph, the titular alien in the franchise
Alien
Films
Films Alien (film), a 1979 film by Ridley Scott Aliens (film), second film in the franchise from 1986 by James Cameron Alien 3, third film in the franchise from 1992 by David Fincher Alien Resurrection, fourth film in the franchise from 1997 by Jean-Pierre Jeunet Alien vs. Predator (film), fifth film in the franch...
Alien
Literature
Literature Alien novels, an extension of the Alien franchise Aliens: Colonial Marines Technical Manual, a 1995 book by Lee Brimmicombe-Wood, a guide to the fictional United States Colonial Marines Aliens (Tappan Wright novel), a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright Aliens! (anthology) a 1980 anthology of science fict...
Alien
Music
Music
Alien
Performers
Performers Alien (band), a 1980s Swedish rock group The Aliens (Australian band), a 1970s new wave group The Aliens (Scottish band), a 2005–2008 rock group The Aliens, the backing band for the American musician Jared Louche on his 1999 solo debut album Covergirl
Alien
Albums
Albums Alien (soundtrack), 1979 Alien (Alien album), 1988 Alien (Beam album), 2022 Alien (Northlane album), 2019 Alien (Strapping Young Lad album), 2005 Alien, a 1989 EP by Tankard Aliens (soundtrack), 1987
Alien
Songs
Songs "Alien" (Britney Spears song), 2013 "Alien" (Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song), 2018 "Alien", a song by Atlanta Rhythm from the album Quinella, 1981 "Alien", a song by Bush from the album Sixteen Stone, 1994 "Alien", a song by Dead Letter Circus from the EP Dead Letter Circus, 2007 "Alien", a song by...
Alien
Video games
Video games
Alien
Based on the 1979 and 1986 films
Based on the 1979 and 1986 films Alien (1982 video game), a 1982 maze game based on the 1979 film Alien (1984 video game), based on the 1979 film Aliens: The Computer Game (US Version), a 1986 game by Activision based on the 1986 film of the same name Aliens: The Computer Game (UK Version), a 1986 game by Electric ...
Alien
Other video games
Other video games Aliens (1982 video game), a text-only clone of Space Invaders written for the CP/M operating system on the Kaypro computer
Alien
Other media
Other media Alien (Armenian TV series), a 2017 melodrama series Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series, web series in the Alien franchise from 2019 by Fabien Dubois Alien: Earth, an upcoming science fiction horror television series in the franchise by Noah Hawley Alien (sculpture), a 2012 work by David Breuer-Weil...
Alien
Other uses
Other uses Alien (shipping company), a Russian company Alien Sun (born 1974), Singaporean actress Alien, a perfume by Thierry Mugler Alian District (Alien), in Taiwan
Alien
See also
See also Alians, an Islamic order Alien Project (disambiguation) Alien 4 (disambiguation) Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation) Astrobiology, the study of hypothetical alien life ATLiens, a 1996 album by OutKast Predator (disambiguation) UFO (disambiguation) Unidentified flying object (disambiguation) Outside...
Alien
Table of Content
pp-vandalism, Science and technology, Arts and entertainment, Films, Literature, Music, Performers, Albums, Songs, Video games, Based on the 1979 and 1986 films, Other video games, Other media, Other uses, See also
Astronomer
short description
thumb|upright=1.5|A voting session is conducted in 2006 International Astronomical Union's general assembly for determining a new definition of a planet An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. Astronomers observe astronomical object...
Astronomer
Types
Types Astronomers typically fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to...
Astronomer
Academic
Academic
Astronomer
History
History left|thumb|upright|Galileo is often referred to as the father of modern astronomy. Portrait by Justus Sustermans. right|thumb|upright|Johannes Kepler, one of the fathers of modern astronomy Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astroph...
Astronomer
Activities and graduate degree training
Activities and graduate degree training Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs, including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums, as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who bec...
Astronomer
Amateur astronomers
Amateur astronomers While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among amateurs. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the wo...
Astronomer
See also
See also List of astronomers List of women astronomers List of Muslim astronomers List of French astronomers List of Hungarian astronomers List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists List of Slovenian astronomers
Astronomer
References
References
Astronomer
Sources
Sources
Astronomer
External links
External links American Astronomical Society European Astronomical Society International Astronomical Union Astronomical Society of the Pacific Space's astronomy news Category:Astronomy Category:Science occupations
Astronomer
Table of Content
short description, Types, Academic, History, Activities and graduate degree training, Amateur astronomers, See also, References, Sources, External links
ASCII
Short description
ASCII ( ), an acronym for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for representing a particular set of 95 (English language focused) printable and 33 control characters a total of 128 code points. The set of available punctuation had significant impact on the syntax of comp...
ASCII
History
History ASCII was developed in part from telegraph code. Its first commercial use was in the Teletype Model 33 and the Teletype Model 35 as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began in May 1961, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) (now...
ASCII
Revisions
Revisions ASA X3.4-1963 ASA X3.4-1965 (approved, but not published, nevertheless used by IBM 2260 & 2265 Display Stations and IBM 2848 Display Control) USAS X3.4-1967 USAS X3.4-1968 ANSI X3.4-1977 ANSI X3.4-1986 ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1992) ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1997) ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2002) ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R200...
ASCII
Design considerations
Design considerations
ASCII
Bit width
Bit width The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to...
ASCII
Internal organization
Internal organization The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so-called ASCII sticks (32 positions) were reserved for control characters. The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier...
ASCII
<span class="anchor" id="Order"></span>Character order
Character order ASCII-code order is also called ASCIIbetical order. Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order (collating sequence). The main deviations in ASCII order are: All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, "Z" precedes "a" Digits and many punct...
ASCII
<span class="anchor" id="Code chart"></span><span class="anchor" id="ASCII printable code chart"></span><span class="anchor" id="ASCII printable characters"></span>Character set
Character set thumb
ASCII
Character groups
Character groups
ASCII
<span class="anchor" id="ASCII control characters"></span>Control characters
Control characters thumb|right|Early symbols assigned to the 32 control characters, space and delete characters. (ISO 2047, MIL-STD-188-100, 1972) ASCII reserves the first 32 code points (numbers 0–31 decimal) and the last one (number 127 decimal) for control characters. These are codes intended to control periphera...
ASCII
Delete vs backspace
Delete vs backspace The Teletype could not move its typehead backwards, so it did not have a key on its keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead, there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a manually-input paper tape: the operator had to push a button on the tap...
ASCII
Escape
Escape Many more of the control characters have been assigned meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending of other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning, an "escape sequence". This is the same ...
ASCII
End of line
End of line The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both...
ASCII
End of file/stream
End of file/stream The PDP-6 monitor, and its PDP-10 successor TOPS-10, used control-Z (SUB) as an end-of-file indication for input from a terminal. Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked file length only in units of disk blocks, and used control-Z to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For these reasons...
ASCII
Table of codes
Table of codes
ASCII
Control code table<span class="anchor" id="ASCII control code chart"></span>
Control code table Binary Oct Dec Hex Abbreviation Unicode Control Pictures Caret notation C escape sequence Name (1967) 1963 1965 1967 000 0000 000 0 00NULLNUL ␀ Null 000 0001 001 1 01SOMSOH ␁ Start of Heading 000 0010 002 2 02EOASTX ␂ Start of Text 000 0011 003 3 03EOMETX ␃ End...
ASCII
<span class="anchor" id="ASCII-printable-characters"></span><span class="anchor" id="Printable_characters"></span>Printable character table
Printable character table At the time of adoption, the codes 20hex to 7Ehex would cause the printing of a visible character (a glyph), and thus were designated "printable characters". These codes represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total. ...
ASCII
Usage
Usage ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape s...
ASCII
<span class="anchor" id="Variants"></span>Variants and derivations
Variants and derivations As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII extensions", although some...
ASCII
<span class="anchor" id="7-bit"></span>7-bit codes
7-bit codes From early in its development,"Specific Criteria", attachment to memo from R. W. Reach, "X3-2 Meeting – September 14 and 15", September 18, 1961 ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard. Other international standards bodies have ratified ch...
ASCII
<span class="anchor" id="8-bit"></span>8-bit codes
8-bit codes Eventually, as 8-, 16-, and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 12-, 18-, and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extens...
ASCII
Unicode
Unicode Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the ...
ASCII
See also
See also 3568 ASCII – an asteroid named after the character encoding Basic Latin (Unicode block) – ASCII as a subset of Unicode HTML decimal character rendering Jargon File – a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters List of computer charact...
ASCII
Notes
Notes